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__label__wiki	0.802518	0.802518	Home » World » Tesla Breaks Ground On Factory In Shanghai Tesla Breaks Ground On Factory In Shanghai Posted by Editorial Team \| Jan 7, 2019 \| Wire Feed, World Tesla Inc. broke ground Monday for a factory in Shanghai, its first outside the United States. CEO Elon Musk said Monday on Twitter that the company will start production in China of its Model 3 and a planned crossover by the end of the year. Tesla announced plans in July to build the Gigafactory 3 facility in China, the biggest electric vehicle market, despite trade tension between Beijing and Washington. That followed Beijing’s announcement it would end restrictions this year on foreign ownership of electric vehicle producers in an effort to spur industry development. “Looking forward to breaking ground on the @Tesla Shanghai Gigafactory today!” said Musk on Twitter. “Aiming to finish initial construction this summer, start Model 3 production end of year & reach high volume production next year.” China’s state broadcaster CCTV showed Musk and other Tesla and local officials attending a chilly ceremony in the rain Monday in Shanghai’s outskirts. The Shanghai factory will produce “affordable versions of 3/Y for greater China,” Musk said. The company refers to a planned crossover that has yet to receive a formal name as the Y. Higher-priced models will be built in the United States for export to China, Musk said. Tesla, based on Palo Alto, California, global automakers including General Motors Co., Volkswagen AG and Nissan Motor Corp. that are pouring billions of dollars into manufacturing electric vehicles in China. Local production would eliminate risks from tariffs and other import controls. It would help Tesla develop parts suppliers to support service and make its vehicles more appealing to mainstream Chinese buyers. Tesla said in October it had signed an agreement for a 210-acre (84-hectare) site in the Lingang district in southeastern Shanghai. Shanghai is a center of China’s auto industry and home to state-owned Shanghai Automotive Industries Corp., the main local manufacturer for GM and VW. Tesla has yet to give a price tag but the Shanghai government said it would be the biggest foreign investment there to date. The company faces competition from Chinese brands including BYD Auto and BAIC Group that already sell tens of thousands of hybrid and pure-electric sedans and SUVs annually. Until now, foreign automakers that wanted to manufacture in China were required to work through state-owned partners. Foreign brands balked at bringing electric vehicle technology into China to avoid having to share it with potential competitors. The first of the new electric models being developed by global automakers to hit the market, Nissan’s Sylphy Zero Emission, began rolling off a production line in southern China in August. Lower-priced electric models from GM, Volkswagen and other global brands are due to hit the market starting this year, well before Tesla is up and running in Shanghai. « Previous Games And AI Dominate CES 2019 Next»Home Items Are Getting Smarter and Creepier Trump Ready To Use Executive Authority To Build Wall	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1255
__label__cc	0.604535	0.395465	Services: IMDb Poll Live Poll: Casting for Batgirl It looks as though Barbara Gordon a.k.a Batgirl, Oracle, Babs will be getting her own stand alone movie in Batgirl (tt6718412). Which actress do you think can pull off the great crime-fighting/tech genius? http://www.imdb.com/poll/ejkD954c8to/ NDbportmanfan 1 rocky-o are there no really tough chicks left...most of these ladies look like they would blow over from a feather...(and don't even get me started on amy adams playing lois lane...what horrible casting...) when i first heard about the 'batgirl' movie, my first thought went to angelina jolie...and despite her maybe being a bit too 'mature' for the role, i can't think of anybody else that has the stuff to bring to the table that a 'batgirl' would need... maybe somebody would have a decent suggestion...would love to hear it... Well Barbara has never looked like a physically imposing chick. She is more mentally tough than physically tough. She out thinks the opponent rather than beats the crap out of them. Karsten Søndergaard yeah like Brie Larson WHO's gonna play captain marvel is a tough chick? oh wait she's not is she But i'll give you one tough chick WHO could pull it off. Tatiana Maslani Dibyayan Chakravorty, Champion Thanks for the vote. Joe Sycamore Shailene Woodley? I couldn't see her winning a game of tiddley winks. let alone a knife fight EfraGarcia59 May I suggest Sarah Bolger? Added, would be an interesting pick. urbanemovies Haley Bennett would be win-win talented rising star who could use a big breakthrough role. What happen to Jena Malone? Jena Malone ended up being Jenet Klyburn (a scientist) in a cameo role for the director's cut. I don't see why they would waste her in such a small role. Jenet is affiliated with STAR labs so she might have a larger role in either the Flash or Cyborg movie. how about ellen page... I think it could work. I'll add her thanks. Stephen Atwood Nah nah naaaa naaaa Batgirl! http://www.imdb.com/poll/ejkD954c8to Grant Garland Aubrey Plaza, though she'd be a better Catwoman than Batgirl. Plaza has a different kind of weird charm. I would have more of a choice for Raven than Catwoman or Batgirl. Jennifer Lawrence, the only choice Congratulations NDbportmanfan on your 54th live poll! As of 7-Apr-2017 12:19 AM Pacific your polls have 82,858 or more votes, for an average of 1,534 votes per poll. 5189th Live Poll: http://www.imdb.com/poll/ejkD954c8to/ This is the 674th People poll. Such polls have a total of 1,322,827 votes for an average of 1,963 votes per poll. Total Number of Votes 12,523,362 Projected Date of 15 Million Votes 27-Nov-2017 Days Until 15 Million Votes 232 This is the list of NDbportmanfan's polls as of 20-Feb-2017: http://mypollwatch.blogspot.com/2014/05/imdb-polls-alphabetical-by-author.html#NDbportmanfan In Decreasing Order of Votes http://mypollwatch.blogspot.com/2015/03/imdb-polls-descending-order-of-votes-by.html#NDbportmanfan Alphabetical List of Polls http://mypollwatch.blogspot.com/2014/03/imdb-polls-alphabetical.html Top IMDb Polls http://mypollwatch.blogspot.com/2015/07/top-imdb-polls.html IMDb Polls - Descending Order of Votes http://mypollwatch.blogspot.com/2013/12/imdb-polls-descending-order-of-votes.html http://mypollwatch.blogspot.com/2016/05/summary-statistics.html Key Threads - IMDb Poll FAQs Index https://getsatisfaction.com/imdb/topics/faq-key-threads-imdb-poll-faqs-index How to Improve the Chance of Having your Poll on the Home Page https://getsatisfaction.com/imdb/topics/faq-how-to-improve-the-chance-of-having-your-poll-on-the-hom... Per Pertianen Vrethem What about Eliza Taylor? She would do a kickass Barb aka Batgirl The poll is pretty far along vote wise, but I might add your suggestions when more details on the Batgirl movie are revealed. I haven't seen Eliza in anything but going by the pictures she has the right demeanor...i guess that is what you would call it. Reminds me of Ali Larter. Ingvild Delia, who played a young Princess Leia in "Star Wars: Rogue One" also comes to mind as a golden choice GeekOut I would just like to see an actress who, if she as Batgirl, is going to be in hand to hand fight scenes, looks at least a little bit as if she could take a punch and dish it out. But, if she is going to use smarts and tech to take down her opponents then cast an age appropriate actress who has the best acting chops. I don't care much who is cast as long as she looks and acts the part well. They revealed the short list a couple months ago. I am hoping the actress they pick can do what you described as well. Jane Levy, Haley Lu Richardson, Naomi Scott would be the best choices. Tanvir Ahammed Scarlet Johanneson Thanks for the pick but the director already gave a short list of who he is considering. Scarlet doesn't fit the age range he is hinting for Batgirl. IMDb Poll	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1264
__label__cc	0.516025	0.483975	Portable & Mobile Tech Samsung, the masochistic tech company? By SquallStrife, October 18, 2012 in Portable & Mobile Tech SquallStrife 531 Really knows where his towel is http://www.engadget.com/2012/10/18/google-...ebook-hands-on/ Apparently the laptop department didn't get the memo from the phone department, that listening to orders to blatantly copy Apple's products will get you sued. NukeJockey 4 I've never used a Crapple laptop, what is it with this that Samsung have copied? twinair 141 Haha! Apart from the fact it says "SAMSUNG" on it...it's looks almost identical to a mac book. PointZeroOne 52 Location:Victoria Oh wow, it totally does. Having not used nor seen a macbook, I was unaware of the Aesthetics, thats crazy. Pretty sure though there isn't the same kind stupid patents in the laptop space as there is in the phone space. ilyria109 0 Location:ACT i see some very big differences, but still, i think they just made a miniature version of their S-Series Laptops. and made more of an "Ultrabook" reference with the colour. Although most small, slim laptop do look similar, I guess it leave much for innovation at that size. Perhaps, but this is Apple V Samsung we are talking about here....anything goes! Akamatsu 0 i see some very big differences... Wait, what? Besides the hinge mechanism, what other big differences are there? Besides the hinge? the lid bevel, the shape on the front under the touchpad, i'm pretty sure the air is a bit more "bubbly" more "rounder" maybe, as opposed to the samsungs more sharper look. To be honest, i think the macbook looks a lot better, even the shaping underneath, giving it more of an aerodynamic look (for throwing maybe? =\ ) gives it that bit more class, to be honest, the samsung (in this instance anyway) is aesthetically boring, especially in comparison with that white macbook seen above. I agree with what you've mentioned, but would consider those elements 'subtle' as opposed to 'very big'. You have to admit, the similarities are striking. Very big would have been this: Which was the original Samsung Chrome book. It looked better than the new version in my opinion. But you have to admit, all netbooks look very similar, and have very striking similarities. For example : Everything is quite similar on the model i linked, shape wise, not thinkness, they've refined that, the only major difference besides size refinement is the crome edge, which is patented by apple im pretty sure? (btw that's a hp) A Hitman 0 Oh shit, they made a laptop that looks like a, GASP, laptop! If Apple was so worried about people copying them they would stop making nondescript designs that consist of a single colour and rounded edges. dishd 0 Location:Penguin, Tasmania Well once round 2 of the court case get under Apple are in trouble, the ruling of the first case, is thought to be incorrect and illegal, so SamSung will have the last laugh... Apple are shite,expensive and a fad, even as we speek Android has a much larger share of the mobile market, compared to iphones/iOS and that share is growing everyday. "you have an Apple product......Wadup Granpa!" Ah, that old gem. Do yourself a favour, find sales figures broken down by market segment. There are more Android phones in the wild than iPhones, correct. Most of those Android phones are shitty $89 burner phones running Froyo. To put it in terms you might get: There are more Toyota Camrys sold than BMW sedans, yes, but how many $30,000 sedans do BMW offer? "Overpriced expensive shit" is what poors say because they can't afford nice things. kthxbai. Edited October 19, 2012 by SquallStrife To be honest, you're confusing me a little bit. I don't quite understand what similarities you're seeing in the image posted above, compared to what Samsung has just released. All Ultrabooks and netbooks have similar physical features, but it's the details that give away that this design was influenced by Apple's offerings. Lets take the colour scheme as an initial example. Apple laptops are silver as a result of the material they're made out of. This doesn't imply that Apple owns the colour silver, there were plenty of other silver laptops around before the original iBook came out, but they were the first to match it with a black chiclet style keyboard when they released the unibody Macbook. This isn't necessarily a logical colour combination, there's nothing objectively better about having a silver body with black keys, it's a style that Apple came up with. Given the plastic body, Samsung could have just as easily used any other colour combination. Second, let's look at the finer details of the keyboard. Apple wasn't the first to do a chiclet style keyboard, it was Sony for laptops, but the concept comes from a 1980s Sinclair PC. However, since their introduction in the 2005 Macbook, they've had a very particular style that hasn't changed much with respect to key sizes and arrangement. Take for example the arrow keys: Notice that there's blank space either side of the up arrow, also notice the rounded edge between the up and down arrows. Now, there's have a look at the same area on the new Samsung: Same blank space, same filleted edge. There are some differences in the radius of the fillet between the up and down arrows, and with the rounded edges of the keys. The font and symbol detail are also different, but it's hard to believe that Samsung arrived at these same design decisions without any influence from Apple's products. Finally, let's look at the trackpad and the groove used to open the screen: It's not really the trackpad that gives it away, although the lack of markings for left and right buttons is a deviation from their Series 9 design, it's the shape of the groove. It's slightly longer than what appears on the MacBooks, but the ends are unmistakable. This is not an objective design decision. It's not a case where this shape works best, and is therefore the logical conclusion. On the Macbook, the rounded corner matches the radius of the round trackpad edges. It's a design decision that maintains symmetry, but results in a sharp edges that many have complained about. In my quick search, I couldn't find any other ultrabooks that used a similar shape. It's difficult to explain how this could happen without the idea that Samsung has copied. So why has Samsung copied, and is it really a big deal? I'd argue they've copied because Apple has set the current fashion trend in laptops. Consumers like the style of Apple's laptops, some of them may even have chosen Apple's products on style alone, and this is a market that Samsung would like to tap into. It's actually very difficult to set a fashion trend, be it with clothes or technology, so it's a safer strategy to copy than to come up with something new. I personally don't think it's a big deal, but I do think it reflects poorly on Samsung. By copying, they're not innovating, and it implies a certain level of subservience to Apple. Edited October 19, 2012 by Akamatsu What a pointless statement As an operating system, Android has a larger market share than iOS. It is that simple. It doesn't matter how much the handset costs. I guess this should make people who only buy an Apple for the larger trackpad happy <.> ninjacatfish 0 Location:South West WA Jesus Christ, that thing is a freaking MacBook Air with a Samsung logo :\| Wooooooooooooow. It does. Here's why. Apple's market for iPhones isn't the entire smartphone market. They're only interested in the high-end, alongside the likes of HTC One X and Galaxy S3. And in that segment of the market, iPhone consistently outsells its competitors. It was only in the months leading up to the iPhone 5 announcement that Galaxy S3 sales really overtook iPhone 4S sales by a decent amount. Apple doesn't make a $89 burner handset, so a Samsung/Huawei/LG phone sold at that price isn't necessarily a lost/missed iPhone sale. Make sense? So, while the statement "There are more Android handsets than iOS handsets" is itself true, it's only half of the picture. mudg3 0 Location:Brisbane QLD Will the track pad be any good though? "There are more Android handsets than iOS handsets" is itself true. I don't know if you are arguing for the sake of arguing, but whatevs... I don't know if you are being deliberately dense, but whatevs... The Tick 56 Probably not. Who cares about that though. Apple bad/ marketing/ sheep/ baaaaah/ grrrr/ Android/ rounded corners. That's where the argument is at. Fuck having something nice to work on or having an opinion based on actual daily use and consumption of a device. Ok - seriously. It's an interesting point about the trackpad. New contract I am involved with - one of the owners was provided an ASUS zenbook about a month before I started. Weight, size and the fact that she was coming off a Windows notebook was the decision for it. It's been back twice under warranty but that wasn't the reason she was unhappy with it - it was the trackpad (and to a lesser degree an occasional skipping keyboard although that may have been due to the fucking trackpad). I did pretty much everything there was to do to rectify it but in the end she opted for an external mouse out of frustration. Someone had been in her ear about an Air (not me - I was trying to get her $1700 investment to work the way she wanted it to). I suggested we go to the Chadstone Apple store to play with one (my 15" MBP was too big so she couldn't get her head around the same trackpad on a smaller laptop). The trackpad and keyboard sold her on it and she hasn't been this happy (her words) with a laptop in a long time. She couldn't give a shit about how it "looks", it's about getting her work done and then getting off the thing without the frustration she has had so far. I honestly believe every hater here either has never worked with Apple products or have had a minor inconvenience with one and blows it so far out of proportion that they justify their unnecessary hatred for the company, their products and their customers. My current contract has me supporting a 60 site national network with around 250 Windows PCs and a small mix of Macs. Every time someone has pushed for the inclusion of a Mac, I have fought it if it wasn't for the right reasons. I have bought more PCs since being here than Macs because it makes sense, not because of looks. The last laptop purchase was for two HPs and the one prior to that was a Lenovo X220 for one of the guys who is constantly flying around the country. Not everyone who loves working on their Apple products is a sheep or a zealot. Samsung are copying every design aesthetic from Apple's playbook to try and capture that market. The end result is an inferior product that looks like it should work better but it doesn't. Maybe they are better off making a better product themselves and getting their own look and feel. It would certainly make my life easier as I don't have to fend off the people asking for this knock off crap and then complain when it doesn't work as well as they thought it would. I quite like Apple products. But I've never been a fan of the trackpad/touchpad/maxipad...whatever you want to call it, on any laptop. I'll take a mouse any day. Having said that though, what Apple are good at is blurring the line between phone, tablet and laptop. The iPad is just one big trackpad...and I'm getting used to that. So perhaps when I get my MBA I won't find it as annoying as I did previously. Actually, probably not. I do a lot of fiddly work with Viso etc...anyone use Visio or similar and enjoy using a trackpad at the same time? Go To Topic Listing Portable & Mobile Tech	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1266
__label__cc	0.7307	0.2693	UsernameFatigue All Episodes Talk: Crime And Punishment UsernameFatigue replied to Dougal's topic in Dateline What I didn't understand was, where was Charlie's mother through both his first trial and his second? He had his friends there supporting him, but where was she? I don't understand why she wasn't charged with anything. It seems obvious to me that Charlie did what he did (assuming he is even the one who shot his father) because his mother called him at school and asked him to come home. It seems to me that he was protecting her, and that she was using him. S09.E21: Hurricane Camille UsernameFatigue replied to KungFuBunny's topic in The Real Housewives Of Beverly Hills I agree with everything you have said, Though what LVP has brought with her is her narcissistic personality disorder. The traits of a person with such a disorder are: grandiose sense of self importance, lives in a fantasy world that supports their delusions of grandeur, needs constant praise and admiration, sense of entitlement, exploits others without guilt or shame, frequently demeans, intimidates, bullies or belittles others. IMO LVP has all of those traits, in spades. Which is why I do not enjoy her on the show and am glad she will no longer be on. I never said that Erika's note was unique. I pointed out that it was a handwritten note. Another poster then said that the note was basic. Yet another poster said that wasn't basic and that she was impressed that Erika took the time to send a handwritten note as no one does that these days. I agreed and said that not only was the note not basic, it was very sweet. My opinion. I am also one of the posters who said that I still have the cards sent by friends when each of my parents died, but don't remember all the people who called. I didn't once say that I didn't appreciate those calls, or the food and flowers dropped off, etc. I said at least twice that I appreciated any gesture made, in whatever form that person was comfortable with making it. Simple. As a poster above pointed out, and I agree with, Erika and LVP were work friends. Nothing more. Erika's gesture was totally appropriate IMO. Having lost both of my parents and having received numerous cards, when people took the time to hand write condolences similar to what Erika wrote I was very touched. But then again, I am not a narcissist and was actually appreciative when others reached out, in whatever manner was comfortable for them. Not only was Erika's note not basic, it was actually very sweet. (And to recap, it said "Dear Lisa - Tom and I were saddened to hear of your brother Mark's passing, Please know that our thoughts and prayers are with you and your family at this difficult time. Sincerest Condolences, Erika). It was actually more personal that buying a card and simply signing her name to it. LVP said she was upset that Erika didn't call. Not everyone is comfortable with calling (and I believe Erika said she was not, which would hardly be a surprise). When each of my parents died, I received phone calls and many cards. The cards I still have, whereas I could not tell you now who called. When my dad died there is one close friend who lives in another province that I did not hear from which surprised me a bit but I still knew that he loved my dad, and me. It wasn't until years later that I found out that he did call, I wasn't home, he left a message with my niece which she forgot to give me. In any case I was grateful for every condolence, no matter the form it took (or how long it took to receive it for that matter). I actually thought that Erika looked very pretty and natural at Kyle's luncheon, and agree that she looked very similar to the pic. I actually have enjoyed all of the cast this year, sans LVP. They remind me somewhat of the NY crew, who have their spats but generally get along and support each other. I hope Camille is not back next year, even as a 'friend of'. She was very tame at the first of the season, then the crazy came out. It is not entertaining to watch someone berate, apologize, berate, apologize, etc. Pick an lane, lady. It is too bad that she hadn't learned something about acting in the time she was with Kelsey. She is coming off like a really bad actor who is desperate for a part. There are many times that LVP has been rude, or hurtful. Her berating of Ericka because she sent a handwritten note when LVP's brother died? Tacky and classless. My biggest beef though (and why I am soooo glad she will not be on next year) is that IMO LVP is the original puppy dumper. She gave not one, but two puppies to people who she should have known more than anyone were not going to care for those dogs properly. These are two people who had to have multiple nannies for their small children. I have worked in an animal rescue for years, are we are fanatical about who we adopt our rescued animals to. And just because someone might be a friend does not mean they will be allowed to adopt. The animals' welfare comes first, always! I have no idea if LVP did this for publicity, or was hoping for a spin off featuring VP Dogs? In any case she did NOT put the welfare of those dogs first, and for that I will always consider her the original puppy dumper. Shame on her. S02.E05: Kill Me UsernameFatigue replied to saoirse's topic in Big Little Lies I actually loved this scene because I thought it was quite believable. While Renata is a brilliant business woman, we have seen her come unhinged several times when confronted with real life situations. I know a few business women who are extremely successful in business, but a mess where their own lives are concerned. And I watch enough true crime shows to know that this is often the case, where successful women make mind boggling stupid decisions in their personal lives. The fact that Renata is a self made woman, but her husband was able to bankrupt her is one. And really, why would Renata think that a magazine would feature her as a self made successful woman when it is known that she is going through bankruptcy, even if it was caused by her husband? Because she is Renata. I love Laura Dern in this role, and love MS as Mary Louise. Just because ML may look like a frumpy 60 something nothing, doesn't mean she isn't smarter and more cunning than any of these women. Age, looks and even education have nothing to do with how smart and cunning someone is. Hard to believe that a cop would go undercover to get close to Jane. But if that were plausible, what is not plausible is to also get close to Ziggy, and spending all this time with him. I can't imagine that it would ever be condoned to use a child like that to get to the mother. Not to mention, what undercover cop goes in and out of work, not in disguise and therefore not actually undercover? I think it is a red herring. Loved the scene where Renata thinks she is going to set Mary Louise straight, and ML totally takes over the conversation and direction of it. As improbable as some of these storylines are, I am still enjoying every minute of this show due to the superb acting. UsernameFatigue replied to Cranberry's topic in Other Non-Fiction Shows I agree with you regarding Abby. I think she is a user. Now she is 25, has been out of jail for 4 years, and is pregnant with a man that she is still with and met at work. Why are they moving in with her aunt? At this point she and her boyfriend should be taking care of themselves, not relying on yet another person to provide for her. She appears to have inherited more of her father's traits than her mother's. S02.E04: She Knows I thought Gordon said to Renata not to mention the party just before the meeting with the judge. So however they are paying for it, the judge doesn't know about the party. I noticed that the judge commented that Renata needed to hand over the watch, and then commented on the ring in the next sentence. When Renata took off the ring and put it on the table the watch was already there. Editing gremlins at work. I also think Corey is related to Perry, and possibly his half brother. It is obvious he is much more interested in Ziggy than Jane. I am loving this season. I don't care that they are all miserable. The acting is so superb, that I am loving every scene. Celeste's slap of Mary Louise was fabulous. Regarding the Catt Burglars (I know technically they were robbers and not burglars, but I couldn't resist) I honestly don't believe everything the kids said. When Abby entered to room to be interviewed, the same one where her father had written on the white board the banks that he had robbed in Oregon, she was not the least bit surprised. When the detective mentioned that she was looking at the board, she gave a drawn out "Yaaaaaaa". I think she was surprised that her father confessed to those robberies, but knew that he had committed them. Not to mention there were wrappings from the Oregon banks lying around the apartment. And of course thousands of dollars in cash that they obviously had spent, since they needed to rob more banks to replenish their stash. It isn't really surprising to me that the situation with the lady that took Abby in, didn't work out. By this time Abby was 21, and I think the lady, sweet as she was, was treating Abby like a teenager. And what is the point of making someone go to church if they obviously are not getting something out of it? Who knows if Abby had been in a different situation post release if she would have made better choices. But she certainly appeared to have broken every parole condition she likely had, so chances are she would not have. Interesting that Hayden has adjusted so well to prison. I think unless he does get into a situation involving a church, he will not adjust well to the outside. Wow their father was a piece of work. About the only positive thing I can say about him is that he didn't name his kids Tom and Kitty. That's all I got. S11.E17: Jesus, the Countess and Joseph UsernameFatigue replied to OnceSane's topic in The Real Housewives Of New York City How strange. Without going back too far, the last two years of NY had 19 episodes before the reunion shows. And as you have said, BH is on episode 20, but the last two years had 18 episodes each before the reunion shows. How odd that the number of epis are inconsistent both within a franchise itself from year to year, and from franchise to franchise. I really hope they didn't make this season shorter just because Lu couldn't travel out of the country. Who cares? She wasn't at the reunion last year because she checked into rehab, so why would they cut the season short because she can't travel? I think Bravo is taking their viewers for granted. So Dorinda thinks it is OK to call Tins a liar, and insist that she still must be seeing Scott because that is the only way she could have new dresses? This from the woman who has been saying for years that she is only with John because she gets the fabulous dresses that aren't claimed at his dry cleaning business. Shut up, Dorinda. Have these women never had a friendship with an ex after the romantic/sexual relationship ends? I have never not had a relationship with my exes. (Talking boyfriends here, as my present husband is also my first husband). My oldest friendship with an ex is now 40 years old. Let this be the end of us having to go to Lu's cabaret show over, and over, and over. It is becoming viewer abuse. And if Lu was really an attentive parent, she would have noticed that horrible facial hair on Noah and told him how terrible it looks on him. I thought the surprise Bethenny had for Sonja after Barbara ruined the first surprise party was very sweet. I can't believe the season is over. Doesn't filming usually go into the new year? It seems like the filming was over a period of fewer months this season.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1270
__label__wiki	0.597643	0.597643	«‹ 123456789101112131415161718192021222324252627282930313233343536373839404142434445464748495051525354555657585960616263646566676869707172737475767778798081828384858687888990919293949596979899100101102103104105106107108109110111112113114115116117118119120121122123124125126127128129130131132133134135136137138139140141142143144145146147148149150151152153154155156157158159160161162163164165166167168169170 ›170 » The Something Awful Forums > The Finer Arts > TV IV > Discovery Channel Megathread LordOfThePants I'm a big fan of The Discovery Channel. Unfortunately, it's hard to keep discussion threads going for the shows because they air them slowly over a whole year. Sometimes shows air in the same time slot, but different times of the year (for example, Deadliest Catch is about to start up Tuesdays at 9pm, which is where Dirty Jobs usually is) I thought a megathread would be a good idea, we can consolidate discussion into one thread this way because a lot of the shows aren't popular enough to merit their own thread. The Discovery Channel airs a variety of shows. If you used to be a fan, but got sick of all the "Build a Bike" shows, you should check it out again because they've all moved to TLC (although I did love Monster Garage). In addition to their own programming, the Discovery Channel also re-runs shows from the other networks owned by Discovery. Shows like Survivorman and How It's Made actually air first on The Science Channel, then later on Discovery. The Discovery Channel is also home to Shark Week. Remember kids, live every week like it's Shark Week. I've included the times when shows air, but since it's cable, things are re-run all through the week. As always, check local listings. Here's a rundown of their more popular shows. I didn't include Planet Earth, because there's a big thread for that here: http://forums.somethingawful.com/sh...hreadid=2390716 http://dsc.discovery.com/fansites/m...ythbusters.html Wednesdays at 9pm EST Adam Savage and Jamie Hyneman host this show that puts popular urban legends to the test. Does a rolling stone really gather no moss? Can you really clean out a cement mixer with explosives? Will a gun operate under water? They've done some pretty crazy stuff on the show and it's pretty entertaining. http://dsc.discovery.com/fansites/d...liestcatch.html I don't watch this (although I'll probably start because it looks interesting), but this series follows Alaskan Crab fishermen in what is a pretty dangerous job. Narrated by Mike Rowe. http://dsc.discovery.com/fansites/d.../dirtyjobs.html Mike Rowe does dirty jobs. There's really no better way to describe this show. You learn all sorts of interesting things, like what an electro-ejaculator is, or how they mine salt. Edit: Someone linked these videos of Mike Rowe on QVC. They're awesome. http://youtube.com/results?search_q...c&search=Search Futureweapons http://dsc.discovery.com/fansites/f...re-weapons.html Mondays at 9pm EST Hosted by former Navy SEAL Richard "Mack" Machowicz, this show covers up and coming weaponry. Stunt Junkies http://dsc.discovery.com/fansites/s...untjunkies.html Mondays at 10pm EST Various people perform crazy dangerous stunts, like riding a motorcycle over the edge of the Grand Canyon, gliding off and pulling a BASE jump parachute to land safely. http://dsc.discovery.com/fansites/m.../manvswild.html Fridays at 9pm EST Hosted by Bear Grylls, this follows Bear as he goes off into remote areas and finds his way out. Unlike Survivorman, Bear travels with a two man camera crew, who are under strict instructions not to get involved or help him unless he's in grave danger. He's fond of demonstrating ways to get out of danger by putting himself in that situation (ie: he wanted to demonstrate what to do if you fell through the ice into a frozen lake, so he jumped in himself). Survivorman http://dsc.discovery.com/fansites/s...urvivorman.html Airing Schedule varies Hosted by Les Stroud. Even though this is a Science Channel show, I've included it here because they air it on Discovery. Les strands himself in remote locations and tries to find his way out. He goes in with minimal equipment, usually a multi tool and some random items his producers decide he can take (when he did a show in the Canyonlands of Utah, they gave him some corn chips and part of an energy bar). Oh, he also shoots the entire show himself, carrying all the camera equipment he needs for his trips with him. Those awesome shots of him crossing a stream or climbing up a rock wall mean he had to do it twice - once to film it and once to go get the camera. http://science.discovery.com/fansit...howitsmade.html Airs various times Another Science Channel show airing on Discovery. This show is mesmerizing. The most menial things are sometimes really cool to see made and that's what this show does. In a typical 30 minute show, they'll show how three different things are made. There's lots more shows than this, so feel free to add your own summaries. The main Discovery Channel page is this way: http://dsc.discovery.com/ LordOfThePants fucked around with this message at Jun 26, 2007 around 00:36 # ? Mar 29, 2007 23:50 Adbot ADBOT LOVES YOU # ? Jul 16, 2019 22:28 Davidnssbm by Fragmaster thanks for this thread. i dont have TV at home but i still watch discovery channel everychance i get. dont forget planet earth! i have to say that man vs wild is the best show on TV right now! If not for the awesome footage, then for the savageness of christian bale--Er, bear grylls! Davidnssbm fucked around with this message at Apr 1, 2007 around 16:33 # ? Apr 1, 2007 16:30 Eat a Peach This ain't no revolution, it's evolution, but everytime I'm in Georgia I eat a peach for peace. Deadliest Catch is addicting. I watch it and think how much I would hate doing that job despite one boat making $45k per crew member in like 35 days last season. Bongle Now with more glowing "I Shouldn't Be Alive" is usually pretty riveting and well produced. It's a staple of late-night TV viewing around my house, because you can guess on which characters will live or not. Sometimes they don't show the interviews with certain characters throughout the show to keep you guessing as to whether they lived or not. Davidnssbm posted: I didn't include Planet Earth because there's already a big thread about it. There may be new episode of Man vs. Wild starting April 6th, the fansite says it airs then at 9, but doesn't say if they are doing new episodes or not. Mister Kingdom And the tears that fall On the city wall Will fade away With the rays of morning light There's a new show, Really Big Things, hosted by the moronic Matt Rogers. I like the premise of the show - big rear end machines in action, but the host has got to go. I expect him to say "Git 'r dun" after every segment. John Ford Coley by Garbage Day You know, I don't really care much for How It's Made. I don't know if it's the products they choose to show, or the narration, or the production quality, or what, it's just so BORING. There are other shows that do what it does, and better. And for some reason, when I watch the newer Mythbusters, it looks like Jamie and Adam look so ragged, especially Adam. Jeez guys, clean yourselves up a bit. boxc by Ozma Oh God these Praying Mantises(Mantisi?) are pure evil. John Ford Coley posted: Yeah, but do those shows have half-assed puns for every segment and calming elevator muzack for a soundtrack?!? I don't think so. That's why I love How It's Made. I can turn it on in the background and before I know it, hours have passed. It's great for when I'm working on crap on the computer. explosivo Fueled by Satan cka posted: Very true. I put it on for something to have in the background as I played a little DS, and soon I put my DS down to see how they make Marshmallow Cookies. Everything in that drat factory was a secret.. The Dark One I'm your friend and I'm not going to just stand by and let you do this! How Do They Do It? is a poor man's How it's Made, even if it has a higher budget and travels farther to do its segments. Maybe part of the reason I like it so much is that it's often about local companies. When they showed how manholes are produced, one of the examples was for the town of Dorval, which is close by. The Dark One fucked around with this message at Apr 2, 2007 around 04:31 Dan a man If there's really so many people in the world, there had to be someone who wasn't ordinary, someone who was living an interesting life. But why wasn't I that ChuChu? You know, at first I didn't really like How it's Made. But it's grown on me a bit. It's not fancy or flashy or anything, but it gets the job done and it's pretty informative without any unrelenting in-your-face gimmicks. She's got it in for me, that Shelly Broccoli!! Eat a Peach posted: I visited my sister out in Dutch Harbor for Thanksgiving, a really beautiful place. I got to visit the Eagle Store the Fisherman stock up at Crazy high prices. wernox Its a travesty that these guys and their lovely boat the Rollo won't be a part of season 3. Only registered members can see post attachments! Free Market Gravy I can honestly say that is all I got on my TV was the Discovery Channel and the USA network, I'd be set for TV viewing. Dirty Jobs, Mythbusters, How It's Made and It Takes A Thief are awesome ways to learn, be entertained and let the hours fly by. Did anyone else see the Season 2 recap of Deadliest Catch on last night? I've never seen the show before, but I'm pretty excited for Season 3 after watching that. It looks like a pretty cool show. Pakistani politics as we leave this existence Fallen Rib LordOfThePants posted: Yeah it was pretty great. I just love Mike Rowe. This channel is something I can watch hours of at a time. Anyone knocking How It's Made has never tried using it as a remedy for insomnia. I'm fast asleep by 5:10. You have to watch season 1, from the days of derby style fishing. Catch as much as you can as quickly as you can, it was great stuff. DAT RAM Laissez les bons temps rouler wernox posted: Season 1 was MUCH better than season 2, just because of how insane crab fishing used to be, compared to now. Also, season 2 didn't have any Coast Guard rescues or anything, just a bigass wave hitting a boat. It looks like season 3 is going to be different. But it looks like no Hiram for season 3. Bob Sapp Please posted: Donna Quashnick posted a blog thing that said they had to let him go, she really didn't go into why. I wonder if Blake uses that same crew on his Dad's boat? Or does Rick fish Opies with the same crew? Season 1 featured a 48 hour king crab season. Did Big Valley go down in season 1? Was Cash Seel on season 2 talking about it? BlockStacker Here goes nothing. How it's made: The machine that put the toothbrush bristles in knocked my socks off, then the sock-making machine made me a new pair. HOW SO FAST?! I love manufacturing. I just wish that The Science Channel was in the basic cable package where I live. It's pretty much all I watch whenever I go home. If there is a bad show about bridges, I haven't seen it. As for Mythbusters, They've been re-doing old myths alot lately. I'm starting to worry that they're running out of ideas. I haven't watched that Bear Grills guy's show. Survivor man has made me think that anyone who isn't in the wilderness alone is kind of cheating. To people who have seen both shows: How does Man vs. Wild stack up against Survivorman? Butthole Prince She said that she was working for the ABC News / It was as much of the alphabet as she knew how to use. BlockStacker posted: As far as "MythBusters", they aren't running out of ideas, so don't worry about that. I went to a 'live' show thing with Adam and Jamie last weekend, and they talked about some of the myths that they are currently filming, and they sound very interesting, so don't worry. I actually seem to prefer "Man vs. Wild". Bear isn't alone, but he does a hell of a lot more, mostly because he doesn't have to lug around the camera equipment by himself. He will specifically do things that he doesn't have to do or that are dangerous simply to show viewers certain situations. As an example, when he was filming in this frozen glacial area, he jumped into freezing/below freezing water to show viewers how you are supposed to handle those situations. First, he said that most people gasp when they first hit the water from the shock of the freezing temperatures, and that this will cause you to suck in water which can cause you to choke and then drown. Then, he demonstrated how to get out of the water and how you must do some exercises (e.g. pushups or jumping jacks) to keep the blood flowing. Things like that. I have also seen him drink the water from elephant feces for nourishment, as well as eat a fish raw, straight out of the river (like Gollum in LOTR!). It's pretty crazy. Oh, he also came across a dead zebra that had been killed and eaten by scavenging birds in Africa, and he ate that, too. B40C posted: Cool, What was the live show thing? Were they taping a show or was it like a convention appearance? I was thinking that "Man vs. Wild" was just a re-tread fo "Survivorman" stuff. But since Grills goes a step further, I'll have to check it out. I think it's interesting that, unlike Americans, Canadians can be survival experts without seeming crazy. I think they're just redoing a lot of myths on Mythbusters to show how much impact the viewers have on Discovery's programming. It's kind of a nice thing to see, really. I Brake For MILFs They also still air American Chopper on DISCHD. The whole "Family fighting" thing gets a little old, but I still enjoy the show immensely. Pretty much everything on discovery channel is worth watching. My tivo is filled with Mythbusters, It Takes a Thief, Deadliest Catch, Dirty Jobs, and more. Oh, he also came across a dead zebra that had been killed and eaten by scavenging birds in Africa, and he ate that, too. A while ago I was flipping through the channels with the sound muted, and I came up to the Discovery Channel and saw a mostly eaten zebra. I figured it was a regular nature documentary and decided to watch it. Well, Bear Grylls, (I had never seen the show before, so I didn't recognize him and still thought it was just a documentary) comes into view of the camera, takes out his knife, cuts off a piece of flesh, and eats it. My jaw nearly hit the floor. Ape Agitator Soylent Green is Monkeys College Slice I know it's past, but Everest kicked my rear end completely. Very interesting and they managed to get a solid story out of the whole deal. And it ends on such a brutal note (everyone has frostbite on their extremeties, one guy loses something everywhere and one bastard from another expedition has to be left to die. I also got into The Deadliest Catch and, as already mentioned, is amazingly awesome. They do a great job of covering the working parts involved in crab fishing and it was very easy to get into. I also have no small respect for people that can work in those conditions. It was a two hour seminar-type thing. Jamie and Adam were on stage along with a host, and they talked for about an hour or so, then showed us some "never before seen" footage that didn't make it onto the show. They discussed that a little bit and then had an audience Q&A. I was surprised that the audience seemed to be mostly families. I think the younger audience was probably upset that they weren't filming a show or busting myths, but for me, it's just what I would have wanted, really. Plus, it was only $10, and $10 for two hours of entertainment is a bargain. Jamie and Adam were both just like they are on the show, and Adam in particular was hysterical. I'm not sure if he was just joking around or not, but Adam made a comment about how he and Jamie don't get along and don't do anything outside of the show. I had heard that before, but now I really have to wonder. Robot Relations posted: They said more than once that they enjoy hearing from viewers in regards to questioning what they had shown previously as well as for submitting ideas. They mentioned that to have someone second guessing their conclusions is the aim of the show (those weren't the exact words but that's the general idea). lordblytzkrieg posted: I can't stand that retarded "Criss Angel Mindfreak" show or "A Haunting". I do enjoy "Mayday", though. The Dark One posted: I thought that Mindfreak show was on A&E? I just watched this week's episode of Deadliest Catch. I wish I had caught this earlier, because it's pretty good. I've setup a Season Pass on the Tivo to try and grab all the old episodes. As Ape Agitator said, Everest: Beyond the Limit is very good and you should try and catch it when they re-run it again. It's pretty cool to see how brutal the climb is. The part when the Chinese expedition completely blocked the only ladder up/down one part in the death zone pretty much made me never want to even attempt to climb Everest, because no matter how skilled you are, it's pretty easy for someone who's completely incompetent to kill you with their choices That's probably true. Jamie seems like he'd be a real humorless rear end in a top hat to work with or for and of the few times he's laughed at Adam's jokes or actions, none of them sounded genuine in the least. Did you see the episode where they were testing methods to pass the Breathalyzer? Jamie looks like he'd be a mean drunk. Sydney Bottocks My take on it (as a fan of both shows) is that they're similar in a lot of ways, but they're really about different things. In Man vs. Wild, Bear mostly tends to focus on what to do if you get lost or stranded, and how to survive on your way back to civilization. You'll notice that in his show, he tends to be on the move a lot, always pointing out that you need to find a stream or river which you can follow downstream, as they usually lead to some sort of civilized area (except in Africa; there you have to follow water upstream). With a few exceptions, he generally follows this rule for each show. Les in Survivorman tends to be more about just demonstrating the different ways you can survive in the wilds. From the episodes I've seen, he doesn't tend to try and find ways to get out (indeed, he knows that at the end of the week, he will be getting picked up), so his goal seems to be more to show how to survive in one area, and roam around for food and shelter, moving on only when needed. I'm sure part of the main reason for this difference is like everyone said, Bear travels with a camera crew, while Les is his camera crew. So it's a bit easier for Bear to be constantly moving, while Les understandably just wants to get settled in and rest after lugging his 55+ lbs. of camera gear around. The Discovery Channel runs it here on Saturdays in Canada. v v I remember reading a couple of interviews somewhere where Adam said that Jamie gave him his first job in the industry, and was the one who recommended they hire Adam for Mythbusters; something to the effect that Jamie was to initially be the host, but he sagely noted that Adam was a much more dynamic (and therefore television-friendly) personality than he was. I'm sure that doesn't mean they're drinking buddies, but I can't imagine they'd have done the show this long if they disliked each other. I also don't think Jamie can be too bad to work for; I read something (an interview? her blog? don't recall) with Scottie (she of the tattoos), where she said she loved working with everyone on the show, and loved working at M5, and only quit because the producers began to treat her less like an artist and more like a general mechanic. Heck, if nothing else, the fact that Jamie employed Kari to begin with shows the man has class and taste. Mister Kingdom posted: I did see that one. I think Jamie's got some secrets only he knows about. It wouldn't surprise me in the least if he was a Green Beret or such. Grandpa Pap posted: Yeah, they originally just wanted Jamie since the shop is his and his alone, but he asked them to add a second host because he knew he wasn't the most charismatic guy. I'm sure they get along. I doubt they would have been able to do the show this long if they didn't. I just get the impression that Jamie holds it together for as long as they're taping and signs off fairly quickly once the cameras are off. Also, the one assistant (Christine, was it? The one who got burned by the exploding Jawbreaker) seemed to catch a lot of poo poo from Jamie for no real reason. On more than one occasion, she'd mismeasure something or accidentally break a gear or a wheel and Jamie would just berate her almost to the point of cruelty. I'm sure the man knows his poo poo and is probably a font of knowledge about special effects and physics, but I wouldn't want to work with him. You do make a good point, now that you mention Christine. I remember the episode where they were showing the "lost footage" and Jamie and the Aussie producer were giving her crap over not wanting to do the bit where they slid down the wire from the top of a building while holding the piece of plywood or whatever (for the myth about the worker gliding with a piece of plywood). She was really upset and Adam was trying to be a bit more comforting, but as I recall both Jamie and the producer were kind of like "just do it and get it over with". Greenlantern I MADE A TYPO MY USERNAME IS SUPPOSED TO BE "SMELLY WEIRDO LUNKHEAD" I cannot stand Mythbusters but I love MegaBuilders and pretty much everything else. Also, I know it originated on BBC, but Planet earth is the best thing ever Nap Ghost I'm going to disagree both with the guy that preferred Man vs. Wild and the guy that said they were comparable. Survivorman, in my opinion, is far superior for several reasons. First and foremost, Les Stroud doesn't "cheat" in his survival situation. You can see Bear with life jackets and harnesses and whatnot when he's in dangerous situations, and I'm sure he doesn't skimp on the food, matches, fuel, and handwarmers the camera crew bring along. When you see Les stranded on a liferaft for a week, however, you know it's him and only him in that boat, with zero assistance from anyone. Also, if you watch the 2-hour documentary Les did where he tries to go green in the Canadian wild with his whole family, it's amazingly fantastic the personal drive this guy has to be close to nature and exist in harmony with his surroundings. He's such a neat guy. Additionally, and slightly less importantly, I prefer the method of surviving for a week straight in a situation (past where you can function without some sort of food and water) as opposed to Bear's ordeals where he's dropped 2 days easy hike from anywhere. While I will admit Bear does some pretty hosed up things (the raw fish and elephant poo water were amazing) and he's still a great guy and all, I just personally prefer Survivorman. TheSwami hello old friend A lot of Discovery shows eat up my DVR's drive, but of them all I enjoy Mythbusters the most. I have to admit it seems like Adam and Jamie genuinely respect eachother and work well together when they're working, but likely don't really get along as "people", per say, and wouldn't be friends outside of work. It doesn't help that Jamie seems like a completely sour, antisocial rear end in a top hat and Adam seems like a manic and obnoxious nerd. Those two personality types make for great TV but not for great friends. It is possible to have a healthy, working professional relationship with someone without being their "buddy". Mythbusters is proof of that, I think. Bookmark this thread	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1271
__label__cc	0.707465	0.292535	Home Review iPhone XS In-depth Review — Apple’s $1,000 Incremental Update Apple launched its three phone lineup at its September event along with a newly designed Apple Watch Series 4. For iPhones, this was an ‘S’ year. So, we kept our soaring expectations at bay. Apple showcased iPhone Xs (yes, it’s the return of ambiguous naming), iPhone Xs Max (Max?!) and iPhone Xr. With iPhone Xr looking like the most promising of the three phones, Apple has kept it for the last, and it has not been released yet in the market. iPhone Xs is simply an iPhone X with subtle upgrades that were necessary to “justify” the pricing. Camera improvements are significant, and the new A12 bionic chip makes it one of the fastest smartphones available in the market, and of course, dual sim is a bonus feature. iPhone Xs (ten-s and not X-s) is the incremental update of the last year’s 10th anniversary iPhone. Bearing the same form factor and almost the same design, with iPhone Xs Apple has continued its tryst with the notch or True Depth Camera Sensor casing (as Apple likes to call it). After some initial bumps, the notch was taken well by the users, and it would not be wrong to say that it caused a paradigm shift in the Android smartphone industry. Unlike the other ‘S’ years where we have seen some tremendous features like increased storage and video recording in 3GS, Siri in 4s, TouchID in 5s and live photos in 6s, this year’s iPhones are bit disappointing. If you come with dual sim and depth control feature at me then, I would say they are not path-breaking and are ubiquitous in other smartphones. iPhone Xs – Xtra Smooth or Xtra Stylish A Gorgeous Display Holding iPhone Xs is a premium feel, and its gorgeous edge-to-edge display further accentuates the experience. iPhone Xs’ Super Retina HD display is one of the best screens I have ever seen in a smartphone. There is a crispness, but you will not find oversaturated colors. The 5.8-inch screen makes the phone handy, and for people who like to operate with one hand, it is pretty convenient. With the resolution of 2,436 x 1,1125 (458 pixels per inch), movies and TV shows, if streamed in HD are sharp and crisp. The content on the screen is clearly visible from different angles, and I faced no problem in viewing the screen under sunlight. Apple’s True Tone works flawlessly and the screen’s brightness and color temperature are automatically adjusted to your surrounding. Moreover, with IP68 water resistance rating, you can accompany iPhone Xs to the swimming pool without worrying about losing your $1000. It can stay submerged up to 2 meters for around 30 minutes without any issue. Face ID – Faster Than iPhone X For those who are shifting from iPhone 8 or 8 Plus, the absence of the home button would be a prominent change. It would take some time to adjust, but once you get used to it, Face ID works fine. Setting up Face ID is easy, and by the time you bring the phone in front of you, it gets unlocked. Apple’s new Face ID in 2018’s crop of iPhones is faster and more secure than iPhone X. However, the difference in the speed is not much noticeable if you have used iPhone X. With iOS 12, Apple has also provided the option to add an alternative appearance so that your face is easily recognizable when are wearing a hat, sunglasses or your beard style is different. You can also use this option to set someone else’s face which was not possible earlier. All in all, Face ID has improved a lot since it was first introduced. There are not many failed attempts; an issue which made headlines when iPhone X was launched. Thanks to the neural engine under the hood, the Face ID uses advanced machine learning for recognizing your face in the very first attempt. One issue that I faced with Face ID is the feeble face detecting power in low light conditions. Despite being equipped with Flood Illuminator, iPhone Xs took some attempts to recognize my face in the dark. Flood Illuminator is fitted in the notch and emits invisible infrared light to illuminate your face in dark. You can turn off “Require Attention for Face ID” for further improved performance. When you disable it, your iPhone will be unlocked even when you are not looking directly at it or when your eyes are closed. You will be comprising your security though. A12 Bionic – Almost Comparable to Best Desktop PCs Apple’s A12 Bionic is one of the most significant changes in this year’s iPhone. The chip based on the 7nm fabrication process is one of the most powerful chipsets ever fitted on a smartphone. Apple stated that their new chip delivers 15% faster performance as compared to A11. If you are an iPhone X user, you would not feel much difference except opening and closing applications is smooth. This difference in performance is also because of the latest iOS 12 which promises speedier performance. The combined efforts of iOS 12 and A12 Bionic make iPhone Xs a beast able to handle whatever is thrown at it. Another reason behind the upgrade in performance is the next generation Neural Engine. Built for machine learning, the neural engine learns from experience. The major application of the is incredible performance while playing AR games. I tested benchmark scores, and iPhone Xs outperformed many other premium smartphones, and the difference was considerable. Here are benchmark scores: AnTuTu Benchmark: 332339 Geekbench 4 CPU: Single Core – 4817, Multi-Core – 11498 Camera – Most Noticeable Upgrade Despite having the same dual 12MP camera, iPhone Xs brings some significant improvements over X’s camera. With an increased pixel size for greater sensitivity for light and low-light photography coupled with bigger sensors, iPhone Xs delivers much better results than iPhone X in terms of colors. In normal lighting conditions, there isn’t much difference between iPhone X and iPhone Xs except that Xs captures more light and thus colors are more vivid. A new feature called Smart HDR has been introduced which utilizes A12 chipset’s capabilities by combining a couple of burst shots to come up with with the best shot. This feature is an upgrade to Auto HDR feature and seems like Apple has taken inspiration from Google Pixel’s HDR+. One of the benefits of Smart HDR and AI working behind it is enhanced details and proportionate highlights and improvements in low light conditions. Portrait shots have improved as Xs is more clearly recognizing the subject and blurring the background in a linear manner. You will see a slight yellow tinge which makes the photos appear more lively but in comparison with Pixel 2, iPhone Xs’ shots look a bit saturated. The blurring effect is impressive and you can clearly see its effects. Front camera portraits have also seen improvements but iPhone Xs and Xs Max users are experiencing a certain issue where skin texture is extra smooth and takes away the photo from reality. It seems as if a filter has been applied to photos. We hope that Apple will soon fix this issue by rolling updates in the upcoming iOS 12 versions. Overall, iPhone Xs’ camera is considerably better than over last year’s flagship. As an incremental update, iPhone Xs does a better job and you will clearly notice the difference even if you own iPhone X. On the video recording front, iPhone Xs comes with stereo recording feature which was missing in iPhone X. Apple has also improved video stabilization as video recordings are less shaky now. Marginally Improved Battery Apple said that iPhone Xs offers 30 minutes more battery life than iPhone X with its 2,658 mAh battery and iPhone Xs Max delivers 90 minutes longer than X. These changes are not very impressive especially if you prefer binge-watching movies/TV series or play games on your new toy. iPhone Xs lasted for a day with moderate video streaming, gaming, and calls. One of my concerns is the lack of a fast charger. Despite the fact that the trio of the iPhones launched this year support fast charging, Apple has disappointed by not shipping fast charger along with the device. As per my experience, it took nearly three hours for Xs to charge completely and for a phone of this price segment, it is utterly disappointing. While Android has scaled in the charging department with most of the premium category devices coming with fast chargers, Apple is yet to take a notice of the issue. As for wireless charging, all the three phones support it, but Apple’s wireless charging pad (AirPad) that was announced in 2017 is yet to arrive. Storage – Half a TB Storage, Is It Worth It? iPhone X had two storage options – 64 GB and 256 GB. With its 2018 iPhones, Apple has taken it further by announcing 512 GB models of iPhone Xs and iPhone Xs Max. The question that arises now is that, do you really need half a TB storage in a mobile phone. With price almost touching $1500 if you opt for the maxed storage, I don’t think it is worth that price. One of the reasons why Apple has opted for 512 GB is because of the fact that users prefer to shoot videos in 4k that are memory heavy and popular games such as PUBG, Fortnite occupy at least 2 GB of memory. 64 GB storage is enough for a normal user and I completely failed to understand why Apple has again omitted 128 GB option. It could have been a fair deal. Some Other Improvements Speakers, now, sound better and loud. Presence of two speakers does not compromise the quality at all. If you listen to songs without earphones then you’ll be surely impressed with the sound. Apple has improved the speaker fitted in the earpiece to make the sound loud and clear. 5G is yet to arrive in most of the countries so we were not expecting Apple to offer 5G support in this year’s iPhones. However, Apple has made up for it by adding 4x4MIMO support and faster Gigabit LTE. You can expect faster download speeds, provided your carrier supports it. I will post the results with different carriers after some extensive testing. We haven’t performed a drop test yet but Apple said that Xs has more durable glass than X so you can expect that your new iPhone can survive some falls. However, it is better to use a cover for additional safety. iPhone Xs and Xs Max support Dolby Vision and HDR10 that enhances video watching experience on the devices. Watching videos on iPhone Xs is an ultimate experience and for all the video content addicts, it’s nothing short of amazing. Things That Could Have Been Better I have been using iPhone Xs for more than a week now, I have found and realized some downsides as well. The scope of improvement in battery life I feel there is still scope in improving the battery life of iPhone Xs. When Apple said Xs offers 30 minutes more battery life than X, I found it quite hilarious. The number looks good on paper but in reality, the difference is really hard to notice. Interestingly, iPhone Xr has a bigger battery than Xs. To say that iPhone Xs is pricey is an understatement. I don’t understand why Apple is constantly pushing towards a price that is becoming the sole point of criticism. You can easily get a premium Android smartphone in this price range and with some additional storage. Another reason why I say that Apple could have worked on the pricing front is the lack of accessories such as fast charger, Lightning to 3.5 mm adapter. Both the accessories would set you back at least $100 mark. Apple could make 128 GB storage as the standard instead of 64 GB if they are asking for $1000. The answer depends. If you own an iPhone X, I would advise you to skip this one and wait for the next year’s freshly designed iPhones. Another reason for not splurging cash on iPhone Xs if you are currently using iPhone X is iOS 12. Apple’s this year’s update brings improvements to the overall user experience instead of stuffing features. If you are planning to upgrade from any other previous generation iPhone then I would still advise you to wait for iPhone Xr that packs many common features aside dual camera and OLED display. For Android users planning to switch to iOS, iPhone Xs is a decent option and Apple has ensured that you will feel the difference. Other than those who own premium Android smartphones, iPhone Xs is a good investment given that Apple is taking a keen interest in providing updates to older devices. Being an incremental update, iPhone Xs is supposed to bring improvements rather than bringing a design haul or new features. iPhone X that launched last year was Apple’s experiment to see the response for edge-to-edge display, the notch, home-button-less user experience and $1000 threshold. iPhone Xs brings commendable improvements to several fronts like camera, speed, video recording but I am still looking forward to iPhone Xr as it seems like the most interesting of the three new devices. Battery Performance iPhone Xs brings commendable improvements over last year's iPhone X. Same form factor combined with subtle yet crucial upgrades makes it a perfect 'S' year iPhone. Having said that, iPhone Xs still lacks in battery performance and despite the addition of two new features, its camera has certain flaws that attract some negative ratings. Google Researcher Finds Nasty iMessage Bug That ‘Bricks’ iPhone Cheap iPhone With In-Display Fingerprint Scanner Coming For China: Report 10 Cool Android Features You Won’t Find In Your Expensive iPhone	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1273
__label__wiki	0.725052	0.725052	Lenovo Zuk Edge to Sport Snapdragon 821 SoC and 6GB of RAM, Tips Certification Site Lenovo has so far launched three smartphones under its Zuk brand and if a new rumour is to be believed, then the fourth handset in the series is on its way. Lenovo’s alleged Zuk Edge has been spotted in live images. The Chinese company has so far launched the Zuk Z1 (launched in August last year), Zuk Z2 Pro(launched in April this year), and Zuk Z2 (launched in May this year). Additionally, Lenovo’s Zuk Edge has reportedly passed TENAA, the Chinese telecommunications certification authority. The listing reveals some specifications and images of the alleged device codenamed Zuk Z2151. The leaked image of the Zuk Edge purportedly shows thin bezels around the display. In one of the images, the alleged Zuk Edge is seen with switched on screen and Zuk startup screen. According to the TENAA listing, the Zuk Z2151 aka Zuk Edge features a 5.5-inch full-HD (1080×1920 pixels) display and will be powered by the latest quad-core Qualcomm Snapdragon 821 processor clocked at 2.35GHz coupled with 4GB of RAM. A Chinese publication which posted live images of the Zuk Edge claims that the handset will also come with a 6GB of RAM variant. It will be available in 32GB and 64GB storage models. Lenovo is expected to give the camera department a major bump with a 13-megapixel camera at the back and an 8-megapixel camera on the front. The listing claims that the Zuk Edge will run Android 6.0 Marshmallow with ZUI 2.0, and will pack 3000mAh battery. It is said to come sporting dimensions 142.9×74.5×7.68mm and weigh 160 grams. Some of the other details tipped by Tenaa listing include 4G LTE, Wi-Fi, NFC, GPS, and fingerprint scanner. [Source:-NDTV] November 18, 2016 Saheli Gadgets (and, 6GB, 821, Certification, Edge, Lenovo, of, RAM, Site, Snapdragon, SoC, Sport, tips, to, Zuk Magnetic Ink Can Be Used to Develop Self-Healing Electronics Google Pixel Resellers See Their Google Accounts Locked for Violating Terms of Service	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1274
__label__cc	0.619231	0.380769	Some Tree Frogs Are Mated to Death By sarajean \| 12/27/17 7:26am \| It's difficult to tell whether or not an animal is being raped sometimes, especially when a female tries to attract a mate with some kind of sex foam only to attract a bunch of mates who have sex with her so much at all once that they drown or crush her to death. It sure sounds like rape to me, but the rules are different among different species. But wait, it gets worse. Read more about Some Tree Frogs Are Mated to Death Frogs in Winter If you've ever wondered how amphibians like frogs survive the winter months, the answer is pretty simple: many of them hibernate. They sleep through winter, slowing down their metabolisms and living off stored energy much like you imagine many other animals doing through the colder months. Read more about Frogs in Winter Nonnative Frogs Increase Nonnative Birds in Hawaii The coqui is adorable, but it's not meant to be in Hawaii. My Puerto Rican Spanish teacher used to talk about the cute frog that is named after its call, but she never mentioned that it also lives in Hawaii. They were accidentally brought to the state, but more than 91,000 of them live there now where they've rapidly spread. Luckily the native bird populations haven't really changed due to the presence of the non-native frogs, but something weird has still happened. Read more about Nonnative Frogs Increase Nonnative Birds in Hawaii Australia Joins Frog Tracking Program By sarajean \| 11/26/17 11:45pm \| For many years, FrogWatch USA has encouraged citizens to help monitor frog activities in the United States, assisting scientists in tracking and studying frogs. Now citizens in Australia are also being encouraged to do the same with the country's first national frog count program. Read more about Australia Joins Frog Tracking Program Extinct Salamander Recovered By sarajean \| 11/01/17 11:34am \| Okay, so salamanders aren't frogs, but they are amphibians and many frog lovers like them, too. So it's with great pleasure that I'd like to tell you about this great news! The Jackson's climbing salamander was thought to be extinct when it was last seen four decades ago. Now scientists know that the beautiful species is alive in Guatemala. Read more about Extinct Salamander Recovered A Habitat Fit for Frogs If you're a big lover of frogs, you may want to make sure that your yard is a great place for them to live, too. Making a frog-happy habitat is a wonderful and easy project we can all do to help foster growth in the dwindling frog populations. To create a safe haven for frogs, try the following: Keep logs, leaves and other "natural debris" handy so frogs have a place to forage and stay hidden and safe. This may mean not raking at least part of your yard! Read more about A Habitat Fit for Frogs Hairy Frogs! Given that it's almost Halloween, how about learning a bit about the horror frog? Also known as the wolverine frog or the hairy frog (my daughter dubbed it the werewolf frog, which is way better), it's an animal that breaks its own bones to grow bone claws (hence the Wolverine reference) and forces the claws through its footpads, a defense mechanism it performs whenever it feels threatened. Read more about Hairy Frogs! Simulated Frog Dissection As frog lovers, we hate to see anyone harm a frog, even in the name of science. Dissecting a frog is practically a rite of passage for high school students finishing up biology 2 or anatomy class, so how do we offer up more humane options? Read more about Simulated Frog Dissection Pumpkin Toadlets are Adorable The tiny pumpkin toadlet may be the most adorable thing you see today. Sadly, like many small frogs, it's also endangered due to habitat loss, but it has even more than that stacked against it: it can't even hear potential mates calling, which makes it really difficult for this frog to breed. It gets sadder. They don't even know that their attempts to call a mate is futile. Read more about Pumpkin Toadlets are Adorable Color-changing Frogs You may have already known that certain types of frogs can change their color, but were you aware of the fact that hundreds of male frogs can perform this amazing feat? Even more incredible is the fact that their ability to hold the bright colors can last anywhere between a few hours to a few weeks! Read more about Color-changing Frogs	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1277
__label__cc	0.672189	0.327811	Glaston Showroom demos – a tour into innovation As part of the Glass Performance Days (GPD) 2019 conference, Glaston hosted informative demo tours at its facilities on June 27 and 28. Visitors had the opportunity to see the company’s glass processing machines in operation, check the actual end product quality and hear first-hand about some of Glaston’s latest innovations. The tour began with a live tempering demonstration of Glaston’s FC Series tempering line. From large furnace displays, visitors could see essential data, such as calculations from the glass surface tension. A smaller display next to the line enabled the operators to control the process effortlessly. “It’s becoming increasingly important for furnaces to provide a highly controlled way to temper glass,” explained Anna Holmqvist, Project Manager at Glaston, “With the latest iLooK glass quality measurement system integrated into the line, accurate quality control is delivered consistently and with ease.” When a complex 8 mm low-e glass with extremely wide 100mm edge deletion came out of the tempering furnace, the edge kink was measured, showing an outstanding result of 0.01 mm. Anna shared the company’s latest developments for edge kink control. “It is extremely hard to get this kind of result with a conventional machine. Yet Glaston FC Series consistently achieves excellent results,” she said. The group then got to try out the brand-new Glaston Siru mobile application on a piece of broken glass. According to Anna, the application was officially launched on the app stores just a couple of days ago. “With Glaston Siru, everyone can perform tempered glass fragmentation test automatically with a mobile phone,” she said. “It’s an easy and quick alternative for manual counting.” Another special tempering furnace, GlastonAir for tempering thin glass down to 2 mm, was also on display. Assembly factory ‒ a look within In the automotive glass bending machine assembly section of the factory, Jukka Immonen, Product Manager, explained the differences between Glaston’s Matrix and ScreenMax. Today, these represent the most sought-after technologies when it comes to automotive glass bending. During the tour, everyone had a chance to see how the machines and their modular bending lines look from the inside and out. A highlight in the hall was the large Glaston Jumbo Series furnace installation. Wide and powerful, this tempering giant was a thrill for the group to see up close. “Glaston Jumbo offers the best heating control available for high-quality jumbo glass,” Markus Kivelä, Product Manager says. “A highlight of this machine type is its unique Fusion feature, which gives you double-chamber capacity to temper different types of glass simultaneously in one run.” Laminating like a pro The Glaston ProL flat glass laminating line crowned the end of the tour. “That’s where all the fun happens,” said Glaston’s Product Manager Riku Färm. “The best part about Glaston ProL is its ease of operating. You only need to determine the desired sandwich thickness – and the machine is ready to go.” Normally, glass processors have to worry about a range of settings, like furnace temperature or glass type. “With Glaston ProL, all this doesn’t matter. That’s because we’ve replaced traditional infrared heating with full convection technology. Convection doesn’t care about what kind of glass you are running, whether it is coated or not, black or transparent,” he went on. “It produces great end-product quality regardless.” After demo runs of several glass types with different interlayers, the visitors had a chance to examine the consistent end results. In essence, the visit to Glaston’s facilities was a tour of innovations. It provided guests from around the world with an inspiring preview of a myriadof cutting-edge technologies that will take glass processing capabilities to a level beyond any before.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1282
__label__wiki	0.94212	0.94212	True Romanian Folk Metallers E-an-na release new song & video "Apele Îngheţate” and announce upcoming album The band E-an-na has just released the new song „Apele Îngheţate” (The Frozen Waters) together with a video. With each release the band strays further away from the conventions of regular folk metal, trying to bring something new and fresh to the genre. The song deals with depression and topics deriving from it, depicting an abstract place or being that functions for each of us as a shelter. The song is part of the upcoming album „Nesfârşite”. Nesfârşite will be released on the 19th of july 2019. The album contains 13 songs and is graced by some internationally known guest musicians: Michalina Malisz from Eluveitie Archy Jay a.k.a. The Snake Charmer Daniel Neagoe from Clouds, Eye of Solitude, Shape of Despair, Aeonian Sorrow Robert Cotoros fom The Bipolar Disorder Project Watch the video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=REE5syj_5O4 Preorder the album: https://e-an-na.com/nesfarsite-preorder/ https://e-an-na.com/ https://www.facebook.com/eanna.romania/ https://www.youtube.com/c/EannaRomania http://e-an-na.bandcamp.com/ https://www.instagram.com/eannaromania/ https://www.patreon.com/eanna Romanian Experimental Black Metallers Katharos XIII unveil new line-up & album details Katharos XIII have finished their third opus entitled “Palindrome”; five long tracks that shifted from the traditional depressive black metal into a more eclectic art form of expression with dark doom metal and post-jazz elements, a certain evolution into a more personal unearthly ambiance that represent a new path in the journey that this band embarked more than twelve years ago. The same paranoia and weirdness but with different tools this time. The new incarnation of Katharos XIII: Manuela Marchis - vocals F. - guitars, keyboards, vocals Sabat - drums Alex Iovan - saxophone Hanos-Puskai Péter - bass New members come from different non-metal environments like Thy Veils, Exit Oz or Dara Project and this created new different layers of expression during the recording sessions that evolved into an alienated and rather strange form in opposition with the conventional music scene of now days because most of the recordings were done by each member alone in their own universe without any connection with the rest of the band; in some cases only Attila Lukinich was there in DSPro studios to capture the sounds and drummer Sabat was responsible for mixing and mastering the whole album. “Palindrome” will be available in early autumn through Loud Rage Music on a CD format with a special visual concept designed by Alexandru Das. https://www.facebook.com/KatharosXIII/ www.loudragemusic.com loudragemusic.bandcamp.com Romanian Progressive Extreme Metallers Left Hand Path release new single and pre-orders for debut album Romanian Progressive Extreme Metallers Left Hand Path released a new single taken off their upcoming debut material. Left Hand Path lyric video was edited by Pestilence bass player Edward Negrea (https://www.facebook.com/edward.negrea) and is now streaming here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k0T__zxPfZ8 The Left Hand Path EP is scheduled to be released on June 17th 2019 via Loud Rage Music, and pre-orders are now available here: – jewel-case CD: http://shop.loudragemusic.com/left-hand-path-left-hand-path – digital: https://loudragemusic.bandcamp.com/album/left-hand-path-left-hand-path Left Hand Path are: Szenasi Attila (bass) - you've most likely heard him play with Negura Bunget, where he spent about a decade and with the brutal death metal band Malpraxis José Morales (drums) - Behind the drum set, straight from South America, Jose, who joined the band after playing in Marchosias and Dark Aevum Ádám András (guitars) - After a lot of gigging playing guitar with The Hourglass and Toy Machines, he is now ready to bring you our fresh flavour of modern metal Wagner Tamás (guitars) - Tamás played guitar for Malpraxis and bass for Spiritual Ravishment, and is a big fan of heavy rhythms and groovy riffs Cristian Aionese (vocals) - The former vocalist of Skullp and co-founder of Malpraxis, he is going to shout, scream, growl, and squeal everybody's face off! Beware of the butcher The path you make for yourself, the road less travelled. The one you lead on and not blindly follow. The way you travel to find who you are, and what secrets the world holds for you. Freedom of thought and of spirit. The Left Hand Path. https://www.facebook.com/LeftHandPathRomania/ Finland's Korpiklaani release 'Bír Bír' lyric video in support of 2019 festival season + kick off AUS/NZ tour tomorrow! Photo Credit: Jan Mrlík Finnish Folk Metal Superstars Korpiklaani don't seem to need any rest! After playing an extensive European tour with Turisas and Trollfest in support of their latest studio album 'Kulkija' ('Wanderer'), the band is about to kick off an 8-show Australian & New Zealand run (w/ Troldhaugen) tomorrow. But before the sextet continues their current touring cycle with a North American co-headline tour with their label mates in Eluveitie in September/October, Korpiklaani will perform a string of European festival gigs. In anticipation of these upcoming summer dates - starting at Metalfest Open Air, Pilsen (CZ) on June 2nd - the band has unleashed a brand new lyric video for the Czech version of their all-time favourite 'Beer Beer', which can also be found on the tour edition of 'Kulkija'. Check out 'Bír Bír' [ft. Fleret] over on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4drIAMzV7qg Fleret comments:- "The cooperation with Korpiklaani on the Czech version of their hit song 'Beer Beer (Bír Bír)' convinced us that even folk metal superstars like them can be nice guys with stellar manners. Not only did they prove this during the rehearsal at the Masters Of Rock Café in Zlín but also on the Masters Of Rock 2018 festival stage where we played with them after only one rehearsal of their song 'Vodka', our song 'Vizovice' and then - we believe we can say - our common song 'Beer Beer (Bír Bír)' with the Czech lyrics of our lyricist Jan Mrlík. That was a remarkable and exciting experience for us and hopefully for Korpiklaani as well. Korpiklaani, thanks to all of you!" The track will be available digitally from Friday, May 24! KORPIKLAANI live: 'The Wayfarers Australia & New Zealand Tour 2019' w/ TROLDHAUGEN 18.05. NZ Wellington - Valhalla SOLD OUT 19.05. NZ Auckland - Whammy Bar 21.05. AUS Brisbane - The Triffid 22.05. AUS Sydney - Manning Bar 23.05. AUS Canberra - The Basement 24.05. AUS Melbourne - Max Watt's 25.05. AUS Adelaide - Enigma Bar 26.05. AUS Perth - Amplifier 02.06. CZ Pilsen - Metalfest Open Air 21. - 23.06. LT Varniai - Kilkim Žaibu 05.07. F Colombier-Saugnieu - Plane ‘R Fest 06.07. D Ballenstedt - Rockharz Open Air 12.07. UA Kiev - Atlas Weekend 26.07. SLO Tolmin - MetalDays 01. - 04.08. RO Rasnov - Rockstadt Extreme Fest 02. - 03.08. FIN Tampere - SaariHelvetti 17.08. F St. Nolff - Motocultor Festival 'Wanderers Towards Rebirth - Kulkija Ad Ategnatos' w/ ELUVEITIE, GONE IN APRIL 19.09. USA Tampa, FL - The Orpheum 20.09. USA Atlanta, GA - The Masquerade 21.09. USA New Orleans, LA - House of Blues 22.09. USA Houston, TX - White Oak Music Hall 23.09. USA Austin, TX - Come and Take It Live 24.09. USA Dallas, TX - Gas Monkey Bar N’ Grill 26.09. USA Mesa, AZ - Club Red 27.09. USA Los Angeles, CA - Regent Theater 28.09. USA Oakland, CA - Metro Operahouse 29.09. USA Portland, OR - The Bossanova Ballroom 30.09. CDN Vancouver, BC - Rickshaw Theatre 01.10. USA Seattle, WA - El Corazon 03.10. USA Denver, CO - Summit 04.10. USA Lincoln, NE - The Royal Grove 05.10. USA Minneapolis, MN - The Cabooze 06.10. USA Chicago, IL - Concord Music Hall 07.10. CDN Toronto, ON - The Opera House 08.10. CDN Ottawa, ON - Brass Monkey 09.10. CDN Montréal, QC - Théâtre Corona 10.10. CDN Québec, QC - Impérial Bell 11.10. USA Worcester, MA - Palladium 12.10. USA Reading, PA - Reverb 13.10. USA Baltimore, MD - Soundstage 14.10. USA New York, NY - PlayStation Theater Are you a traveller or a wanderer? Be part of Korpiklaani's journey around the world! Use the hashtag #KorpiklaaniWayfarers on Twitter and Instagram, and your photos will appear here: http://nblast.de/KorpiklaaniWayfarers www.korpiklaani.com www.facebook.com/korpiklaani www.nuclearblast.de/korpiklaani English-Romanian Orthodox Black Metallers Tableau Mort announce debut album via Loud Rage Music London based Black Metal sextet Tableau Mort announce the release of their debut studio album titled Veil of Stigma Book 1: Mark of Delusion for this Summer 2019 in collaboration with Loud Rage Music. The complete material was recorded between July 2018 –February 2019 and then mixed and mastered by Neil Haynes at the well-known Parlour Studios UK. Drawing on symbolic and thematic influences from Romanian Orthodox Christianity, the album is a spiritual journey exploring humanities fixation with knowledge, sacrifice and perfection, which is often a path to madness. Whilst Tableau Mort describe themselves as a Black Metal band, there are many aspects and layers to their sound, delivering modern and powerful music. Drawing inspiration from across the many sub-genres of metal, Tableau Mort value the creation of an atmospheric and emotional sound, that is both melodic and melancholic. Vocally, Tableau Mort mix Orthodox chanting with frenzied screams to expand on their macabre foundations. Here’s a taste of the band’s sound, the single Fall of Man: https://youtu.be/5oFsbNIzn5g Tableau Mort is: George Topor – guitar/keys/backing vocals Cristian Giurgiu – guitar George Bratosin – drums/backing vocals Radu Vulpe – guitar Marek Basista – bass James Andrews – lead vocals https://www.facebook.com/tableaumort/ https://www.instagram.com/tableaumortuk/ Romanian Black Metallers Ordinul Negru re-release sold-out albums Ordinul Negru, Timisoara / Romania based Occult Black Metal band re-releases two of its previously sold out albums: Lifeless from 2008 and Nostalgia of the Fullmoon Nights from 2011, composed and released as one-man-band by Fulmineos. Both were initially out on Banatian Darkness in very limited edition and sold-out shortly after, are now remastered and re-released with new artworks via Loud Rage Music in Digipak CD format. Lifeless was re-released May 1st and is available here: Digipak CD version - http://shop.loudragemusic.com/ordinul-negru-lifeless Digital version - https://loudragemusic.bandcamp.com/album/ordinul-negru-lifeless Nostalgia of the Fullmoon Nights will be released May 15th and is now available for pre-orders here: Digipak CD version - http://shop.loudragemusic.com/ordinul-negru-nostalgia-of-the-fullmoon-nights Digital version - https://loudragemusic.bandcamp.com/album/ordinul-negru-nostalgia-of-the-fullmoon-nights Romanian Extreme Prog Metallers Left Hand Path announce debut details Cluj-Napoca, Romania based Progressive Extreme Metallers Left Hand Path have set the release date for their upcoming debut release, the self-titled EP, for the 17th of June 2019, in collaboration with Loud Rage Music. The cover artwork is signed by very talented artist Alexandru Das (https://www.facebook.com/AlexandruDas). As a taste of things to come, the band published an updated advance video for the track Egoschism here: https://youtu.be/D2bV89WMOZY Romanian Black Metallers Ordinul Negru release "Faustian Nights" music video One of the most representative Romanian Black Metal bands, Timisoara based Ordinul Negru, just released a new video in support of their most recent album, Faustian Nights, released last year via Loud Rage Music. Faustian Nights, the title-track, can now be seen here: https://youtu.be/4awR7vpPXgI Ordinul Negru‘s eight studio album Faustian Nights is available via Loud Rage Music in digital and CD formats, and will be available on vinyl and tape in Spring 2019: Digital: https://loudragemusic.bandcamp.com/album/ordinul-negru-faustian-nights Jewel-case CD with slipcase: http://shop.loudragemusic.com/ordinul-negru-faustian-nights Romanian Black Metal veterans Mercy's Dirge set to release debut album on CD Part of the very first wave of Romanian Extreme Metal bands (from the beginning of the ’90’s) Suceava based Black Metallers Mercy’s Dirge are gearing up for a Spring 2019 CD version release of their first full-length album "Live, Raw & Relentless", in collaboration with Loud Rage Music. As a preview the track Devilish Wish is now streaming here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=__kjjmcA0ks Featuring 11 tracks, Live, Raw & Relentless was recorded live at the Odyssey Studio by Cristi Rangu in February 2018 capturing a rough, visceral and organic Black Metal for fans of the old ways of this genre. http://mercysdirge.com/ https://mercysdirge.bandcamp.com/ https://facebook.com/mercysdirge/ Italy's A Tear Beyond share video footage "Journey and Live Report" from Romexpo show in Bucharest, supporting Nightwish On August 17th, Italian Visual gothic act A Tear Beyond, alongside their roster mates Fallen Arise, joined Nightwish at RomExpo in Bucharest. Today the band releases a video footage "Journey and Live Report" from the show, watch it here: https://youtu.be/ysTE55PVgeQ The band stated: "We are proud to share with you this short video about our gig @ Romexpo in Bucharest last august, with Nightwish and Fallen Arise! Live scenes filmed and edited by Alex Tuturescu. Journey scenes filmed and edited by A Tear Beyond and Hypnoise Recording Studio. Thanks to: Alpha Omega Management, METALHEAD, Olivia Ignatescu & Cavalleria Events" See more photos here: https://www.facebook.com/OfficialAlphaOmegaManagement/posts/758331527836239 A Tear Beyond – formed in 2008 in Vicenza, Italy – come from the fusion of six elements with more than 15 years of musical experience. In 2012 came out their first studio album “Beyond” followed by a strong live activity. In 2015 the band released the second studio album “Maze of Antipodes”.The album was supported by sequence of live gigs opening for international bands like Moonspell, Fleshgod Apocalypse, Folkstone, Isole, Septicflesh, Dark Lunacy, Jack Frost and Extrema. May 5th 2018 the band unleashed their third studio album “Humanitales”. The band repertoire blend industral electro sounds with gothic metal arrangements and melodies. Key point of the band is the live theatricality when the audience can get involved in a true 360° show by means of scene costumes, Venetian masks, performers and intermission shows. Watch “Frolic”, taken from the new album “Humanitales”: https://youtu.be/oFtpia9g1dc http://www.atearbeyond.com http://www.facebook.com/atearbeyond https://alphaomega-management.com https://www.facebook.com/OfficialAlphaOmegaManagement	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1283
__label__cc	0.617093	0.382907	Mobile Garrison Artifact — Vehicle Whenever Mobile Garrison attacks, untap another target artifact or creature you control. Crew 2 (Tap any number of creatures you control with total power 2 or more: This Vehicle becomes an artifact creature until end of turn.) Cliff Childs 2/9/2017 All attackers are chosen at once. You can’t attack with Mobile Garrison, untap a tapped creature, and then attack with that creature. 2/9/2017 Untapping an attacking creature doesn’t remove it from combat. 9/29/2017 Each Vehicle is printed with a power and toughness, but it’s not a creature. If it becomes a creature (most likely through its crew ability), it will have that power and toughness. 9/29/2017 If an effect causes a Vehicle to become an artifact creature with a specified power and toughness, that effect overwrites the Vehicle’s printed power and toughness. 9/29/2017 Vehicle is an artifact type, not a creature type. A Vehicle that’s crewed won’t normally have any creature type. 9/29/2017 Once a player announces that they are activating a crew ability, no player may take other actions until the ability has been paid for. Notably, players can’t try to stop the ability by changing a creature’s power or by removing or tapping a creature. 9/29/2017 Any untapped creature you control can be tapped to pay a crew cost, even one that just came under your control. 9/29/2017 You may tap more creatures than necessary to activate a crew ability. 9/29/2017 Creatures that crew a Vehicle aren’t attached to it or related in any other way. Effects that affect the Vehicle, such as by destroying it or giving it a +1/+1 counter, don’t affect the creatures that crewed it. 9/29/2017 Once a Vehicle becomes a creature, it behaves exactly like any other artifact creature. It can’t attack unless you’ve controlled it continuously since your turn began, it can block if it’s untapped, it can be tapped to pay a Vehicle’s crew cost, and so on. 9/29/2017 You may activate a crew ability of a Vehicle even if it’s already an artifact creature. Doing so has no effect on the Vehicle. It doesn’t change its power and toughness. 9/29/2017 For a Vehicle to be able to attack, it must be a creature as the declare attackers step begins, so the latest you can activate its crew ability to attack with it is during the beginning of combat step. For a Vehicle to be able to block, it must be a creature as the declare blockers step begins, so the latest you can activate its crew ability to block with it is during the declare attackers step. In either case, players may take actions after the crew ability resolves but before the Vehicle has been declared as an attacking or blocking creature. 9/29/2017 When a Vehicle becomes a creature, that doesn’t count as having a creature enter the battlefield. The permanent was already on the battlefield; it only changed its types. Abilities that trigger whenever a creature enters the battlefield won’t trigger. 9/29/2017 If a permanent becomes a copy of a Vehicle, the copy won’t be a creature, even if the Vehicle it’s copying has become an artifact creature.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1287
__label__wiki	0.527784	0.527784	Marvel Studios Will Reportedly Show a Trailer For BLACK WIDOW at Comic-Con Next Week Movie Scarlett JohanssonMarvelMarvel StudiosComic-ConImage Safe about 5 days ago by Joey Paur Marvel Studio is going to have a 90-minute presentation at San Diego Comic-Con next week! It’s sure to be the biggest and most exciting event at the con! We know that Marvel plans on revealing their slate of Phase 4 films, which is going to be filled with a few films we already know about, along with some announcements that are going to surprise fans! An executive from Marvel also confirmed to Variety that the studio will, “of course bring out the stars of its next phase, and that’ll be a moment for it, but you’re also using a presentation in Hall H to break a new piece of content.” He then goes on to tease that a trailer is currently being cut for Scarlett Johansson’s Black Widow solo film! We know the film has been shooting the past few weeks, but it sounds like they are going to have some footage to show off for it! The executive said: “Getting something ready, like footage or a trailer for ‘Black Widow,’ means a VFX acceleration. If it’s up to two or three minutes, that can run you a million bucks.” So we might have a trailer for Black Widow to look forward to! That’s awesome! I also can’t help but hope that Marvel surprises fans with footage from another film that they’ve been shooting. It would be simply incredible if they were able to pull something off like that! This is just my Comic-Con wish. It would be a crazy long shot if it turns out the be true! But, something like that would just blow everyone away! In the past, Marvel has also showed off some concept art and computer graphics tests to show what their vision is for certain films. I’m sure we’ll see some stuff like that as well. What are you hoping to see at Marvel’s big presentation at Comic-Con this year? Scarlett Johansson and Kevin Feige Think BLACK WIDOW Is Right for a Standalone Film Marvel Studios is Reportedly Skipping Hall H at Comic-Con This Year A Possible Synopsis For The BLACK WIDOW Movie Has Surfaced Marvel Will Start Shooting Their BLACK WIDOW Film in June Marvel Studios Has a Lot To Reveal in Hall H This Year at Comic-Con The Full Schedule for San Diego Comic-Con Has Been Released! Start Planning Out Your Adventure Now!	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1291
__label__cc	0.608564	0.391436	Breast cancers tumours New digital weapon in fight against breast cancer The network developed through research led by Case Western Reserve University was 100 percent accurate in determining whether invasive forms of breast cancer were present in whole biopsy slides.ANI \| May 11, 2017, 14:52 IST Washington D.C. : A deep-learning computer network has been developed that can accurately identify and delineate breast cancers on the digital tissue slides. The network developed through research led by Case Western Reserve University was 100 percent accurate in determining whether invasive forms of breast cancer were present in whole biopsy slides. Looking closer, the network correctly made the same determination in each individual pixel of the slide 97 percent of the time, rendering near-exact delineations of the tumours. Compared to the analyses of four pathologists, the machine was more consistent and accurate, in many cases improving on their delineations. In a field where time and accuracy can be critical to a patient's long-term prognosis, the study is a step toward automating part of biopsy analysis and improving the efficiency of the process, the researchers said. Currently, cancer is present in one in 10 biopsies ordered by physicians, but all must be analyzed by pathologists to identify the extent and volume of the disease, determine if it has spread and whether the patient has an aggressive or indolent cancer and needs chemotherapy or a less drastic treatment. "If the network can tell which patients have cancer and which do not, this technology can serve as triage for the pathologist, freeing their time to concentrate on the cancer patients," said co-author Anant Madabushi. To train the deep-learning network, the researchers downloaded 400 biopsy images from multiple hospitals. Each slide was approximately 50,000 x 50,000 pixels. The computer navigated through or rectified the inconsistencies of different scanners, staining processes and protocols used by each site, to identify features in cancer versus the rest of the tissue. The researchers then presented the network with 200 images from The Cancer Genome Atlas and University Hospitals Cleveland Medical Center. The network scored 100 percent on determining the presence or absence of cancer on whole slides and nearly as high per pixel. Network training took about two weeks, and identifying the presence and exact location of cancer in the 200 slides took about 20 to 25 minutes each. That was done two years ago. Madabhushi suspects training now, with new computer architecture, would take less than a day, and cancer identification and delineation could be done in less than a minute per slide. "To put this in perspective," Madabhushi said, "the machine could do the analysis during 'off hours,' possibly running the analysis during the night and providing the results ready for review by the pathologist when she/he were to come into the office in the morning." The study is published in Scientific Reports. Tags : Diagnostics, Breast cancers, tumours, Scientific reports, oncology, Case Western Reserve University, Cancer	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1301
__label__wiki	0.515856	0.515856	Risk Factors for Kidney Stones A risk factor is something that raises your chances of getting a health problem. Kidney stones are more common in people who have had them before. They also tend to run in families. The chances of kidney stones are also higher for people who: Are White or Asian Are under 40 years old Had stones develop when they were a child Had certain types of stones such as uric acid or those caused by an infection Have certain problems with their genes that make stone formation easier Take certain medicine such as allopurinol, penicillin, vitamin C, or loop diuretics Do not drink enough fluids—this may be more of a problem in warm climates Have high intakes of: Oxalates—found in berries, spinach, rhubarb, chocolate, or tea Calcium—can also happen with not getting enough calcium Vitamins C and D Have health problems such as gout, obesity, how the body uses insulin, or an overactive parathyroid gland Kidney stones. National Kidney Foundation website. Available at: https://www.kidney.org/atoz/content/kidneystones. Accessed April 1, 2019. Kidney stones. Urology Care Foundation website. Available at: https://www.urologyhealth.org/urologic-conditions/kidney-stones. Accessed April 1, 2019. Nephrolithiasis in adults. EBSCO DynaMed Plus website. Available at:http://www.dynamed.com/topics/dmp~AN~T114904/Nephrolithiasis-in-adults. Updated March 22, 2019. Accessed April 1, 2019. Urinary calculi. Merck Manual Professional Version website. Available at: https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional/genitourinary-disorders/urinary-calculi/urinary-calculi. Updated March 2018. Accessed April 1, 2019. Last reviewed March 2019 by EBSCO Medical Review Board Adrienne Carmack, MD Last Updated: 4/1/2019	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1303
__label__wiki	0.932624	0.932624	We Will Go On With 'RUGA' Grazing Reserve – State Government Insecurity: Senate, Presidency To Hold National Security CONFAB Moment LASTMA Official Was Disgraced For Driving Against Traffic By Nigerians… This Beautiful U.S-based Nigerian Woman Needs A Man (Photos) Singer, Runtown Reacts To The Killing Of Cleaner Allegedly By SARS Latest Nigeria News Home Latest News Singer, Omawumi Reveals Why She Is No Longer Hurt By Destructive Criticisms Singer, Omawumi Reveals Why She Is No Longer Hurt By Destructive Criticisms greenaija Omawumi Megbele, Nigerian R&B vocalist, has revealed what she says is the reason why destructive criticisms from fans and observers no longer hurt her. Speaking in an interview with HipTv, the 37-year-old vocalist, narrated how she came to develop a “thick skin” compared to what was the case in her early days in the industry. “When I first started out in the industry years ago, It affects, yeah. But, now, not at all. Because, first of all, I don’t even know who’s talking to me. If people I know criticize me, It’ll hurt. But not when it has to do with people I don’t know, ” she said. “I figured that when you say hurtful things about people, all it does is reflects how you see them. It doesn’t reflect on how the person sees themselves neither does it rub off on that person. That’s exactly the way it now works for me.” Speaking further, the ‘In the Music’ songstress hinted that her forthcoming album ‘In Her Feelings’ would mostly embody series of relatable love songs, most of which would portray her in a manner expressive of passions and inclinations. “‘Omawumi: In her feelings’ is me expressing myself the way I know how. In this one, I wrote a couple of love songs. The ones I’ve written before are mostly quarrel-songs. You could offend me and I’ll write a song for it, say you killed, even if it’s not true,” Omawumi said. “This time I wrote love songs that are as relatable as possible. Although outside of that, I taunted some people and spoke my passions, you won’t be disappointed. But if you’re, feel free to tell me.” From her 2012 collaborative single with Flavour, dubbed ‘Bottom Belle’ and ‘If You Ask Me’ released in 2015, to the vocalist’s recent 2019 releases, Omawumi has earned reputation and carved out a unique music style for herself. Previous articleBola Tinubu: Hero Or Villain Of June 12? Next articleREVEALED: Nigerian Man Who Vandalised Diplomats' Cars In London Is An Ex-convict Moment LASTMA Official Was Disgraced For Driving Against Traffic By Nigerians (Video) Shocker: Patient Commits Suicide At UBTH While Waiting For Doctors Latest News greenaija - July 16, 2019 Ruga settlement for herders Alhaji Ahmed Matane, the Secretary to the Niger State Government (SSG), has insisted that the state government will not renege on... According to a report by The Nation, the gruesome murder of the daughter of Afenifere leader, Mrs. Funke Olakunrin, was hotly debated in the... The Lastma official after he was nabbed An official of the Lagos State Traffic Management Authority has been humiliated by Lagosians after he was caught... © Greenaija.com Moment LASTMA Official Was Disgraced For Driving Against Traffic By Nigerians...	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1308
__label__cc	0.575113	0.424887	Trend Micro warns of ‘cryptojacking’ threat in online games Cryptojacking, trend micro League of Legends – Philippines becomes a recent target of cybercriminals Trend Micro, a global leader in IT security, has flagged the vulnerability of online games to unauthorized mining of cryptocurrencies in the Philippines, home to one the of world’s most active mobile gamers. “Mining cryptocurrencies comes with a price, taking up a significant portion of a computer’s processor capacity and consuming a huge amount of power,” Trend Micro Director for Technology Marketing Myla Pilao said. “Because of the high cost, some cryptocurrency miners resort to ‘cryptojacking’ or the unauthorized insertion of mining scripts in online games, advertisements and other websites with high traffic.” Players of League of Legends in the Philippines recently became a target of cryptojacking. On Facebook, the multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) video game reported an “unauthorized modification” of its client lobby with the insertion of a JavaScript that performs cryptocurrency mining. “The steep ascent in the value of cryptocurrencies has prompted new mining malware and other threats,” Ms. Pilao noted. “In the first half of 2018, cryptocurrency miners topped the list of malware detected, based on data from our Trend Micro Smart Protection Network.” Gamers have become a popular target of cyber criminals, according to Trend Micro. In the Philippines, 11.42 million individuals play online video games, according to market and consumer data provider Statista. “Developers and players make for good targets for cybercriminals, who see online games as a platform for stealing user information, invading privacy, or spreading malicious content and malware,” Ms. Pilao said. Other attacks in online games Earlier this year, some players of cooperative survival shooting video game Fortnite reported about their accounts being taken over. Fraudulent purchases of the game’s different versions as well as its online currency and cosmetic items for in-game characters were made using details saved on the affected game accounts. Hackers could get into a player’s account by simply designing a phishing site or “hacking” tool that asks for a player’s credentials. They could also get players to download a file that delivers information-stealing or keylogger malware onto a player’s system. The motivations of hackers range from stealing in-game items and holding characters hostage for ransom to possessing personal information that could either be sold in cybercriminal underground markets or used to further invade the victims’ privacy. Stolen online gaming currencies, for one, have serious real-world implications, Trend Micro noted. Aside from trading them for profits, hackers launder payments from illicit activities by converting them into untraceable digital currencies and use them to fund other schemes. “Gamers must be aware of the privacy risks involved, especially when a majority of the popular games these days have either an online component or a pay-as-you-play business model where in-game items and add-ons can be bought with real money,” Ms. Pilao said. Ensuring privacy, security To ensure data privacy and prevent gaming-related threats, Trend Micro listed some tips: When signing up for a gaming account, go through the account details and determine which are truly important for your gaming experience. Refrain from volunteering information for optional fields. Set up a separate email account for game registration purposes to protect email accounts that contain your address book, contact information, and verification information for other accounts such as social media or online banking. If you have to search for tips or files that could help improve your gaming experience, avoid visiting unverified sites or downloading third-party software from unknown sources. Be mindful of messages delivered via in-game chat or game networks. Take caution in using your game account credentials when logging into third-party sites or apps. Check if a site or app links back to the online game; otherwise, avoid entering your credentials directly into the site or app. Do not link your credit or debit card details to a gaming account. When needed, take advantage of online verification services offered by your card provider or route payments through reputable third-party payment providers that provide a buffer between the game network and your card information. Similarly, regularly review your bank statements for unverified purchases. Install reliable security software that can also detect malicious links and spam and regularly scan your system to make sure that your system is malware-free. About Trend Micro Trend Micro Incorporated, a global leader in cybersecurity solutions, helps to make the world safe for exchanging digital information. Our innovative solutions for consumers, businesses, and governments provide layered security for data centers, cloud environments, networks, and endpoints. All our products work together to seamlessly share threat intelligence and provide a connected threat defense with centralized visibility and control, enabling better, faster protection. With more than 6,000 employees in over 50 countries and the world’s most advanced global threat intelligence, Trend Micro secures your connected world. For more information, visit www.trendmicro.com. 5,000 jobs seen as Cal-Comp Technology expands in PH NEM.io Foundation, CEZA to build first blockchain hub in PH	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1309
__label__cc	0.612521	0.387479	Help make the #CostOfHome something we all can afford. Today, nearly 19 million households in the U.S. are paying half or more of their income on housing. That means 1 in 6 families are denied the personal and economic stability that safe, decent and affordable housing provides. Instead, 1 in 6 families are forced to make impossible choices. That’s why Habitat for Humanity has launched the Cost of Home campaign. Over the next five years, we commit to mobilizing individuals across the country to find the solutions and help create the policies at the local, state and federal levels that will improve home affordability for 10 million people. And we know we can’t do this alone. Your voice has influence. By sharing your support of the need for home affordability to policymakers at all levels of government, you are helping us make the #CostOfHome something we all can afford. State* Choose one...AlaskaAlabamaArkansasAmerican SamoaArizonaCaliforniaColoradoConnecticutDistrict of ColumbiaDelawareFloridaGeorgiaGuamHawaiiIowaIdahoIllinoisIndianaKansasKentuckyLouisianaMassachusettsMarylandMaineMichiganMinnesotaMissouriNorthern Mariana IslandsMississippiMontanaNorth CarolinaNorth DakotaNebraskaNew HampshireNew JerseyNew MexicoNevadaNew YorkOhioOklahomaOregonPennsylvaniaPuerto RicoRhode IslandSouth CarolinaSouth DakotaTennesseeTexasUnited States Minor Outlying IslandsUtahVirginiaVirgin IslandsVermontWashingtonWisconsinWest VirginiaWyoming Personalize your message to have more impact. Share your own story of how you’ve seen the stability that home should bring remain out of reach for far too many families. © 2019 Habitat for Humanity® International. All rights reserved. "Habitat for Humanity®" is a registered service mark owned by Habitat for Humanity International. Habitat® is a service mark of Habitat for Humanity International. Habitat for Humanity® International is a tax-exempt 501(C)(3) nonprofit organization. Your gift is tax-deductible as allowed by law. Habitat for Humanity International shall make every effort to use funds as designated; nevertheless, under the direction of the board of Directors, Habitat for Humanity International retains complete control over the use and distribution of donated funds in furtherance of its mission. ✓Email There are no officials for you to contact on Email. Cost of Home target set This email will be delivered to Subject: Help make the #CostOfHome something we all can afford. As your constituent, and a supporter of Habitat for Humanity, I ask that you join me in helping to achieve Habitat's vision of a world where everyone has a decent place to live by supporting comprehensive policies to address housing affordability.<br><br>Families all across the U.S. are paying too high a price to cover the cost of home. We know that a family should never have to spend more than 30 percent of their income on a home. But consider that today nearly 19 million U.S. households pay half or more of their income on a place to live. That is unacceptable. <br><br>That means that 1 in 6 families are denied the personal and economic stability that safe, decent and affordable housing provides. Instead, 1 in 6 families are forced to make impossible choices. <br><br>Bold action is needed to address the increasing cost of housing and to support the residential needs of low-income individuals and families nationwide, which is why Habitat for Humanity has launched Cost of Home, a national advocacy campaign. Over the next five years, Habitat for Humanity commits to mobilizing local Habitat organizations, partners, volunteers and community members across the country to find the solutions and help create the policies that will allow 10 million individuals to meet their most basic needs. <br><br>As your constituent, I urge you to increase home affordability through policy solutions aimed at:<br><br>- Increasing supply and preservation of affordable homes;<br>- Equitably increasing access to credit;<br>- Optimizing land use for affordable homes; and<br>- Ensuring access to communities of opportunity.<br><br>Everyone deserves to build the foundation for a strong, healthy future for themselves and their families – no matter where they live or how much money they earn. Every family deserves the chance to thrive. <br><br>Help us make that possible. Help us make the #CostOfHome something we all can afford. For more information, visit habitat.org/costofhome. <br><br>Thank you for your consideration of support for these policy solutions that address housing affordability. The targets for this email are asking for a couple more pieces of information: Skip Sending Email Sorry, we're not targeting any representatives in your district. Your messages have been sent! Thank you for sending a letter to your policymakers at all levels of government on behalf of Habitat for Humanity’s Cost of Home campaign. Your support matters. Together, we can help make the #CostOfHome something we all can afford. And your work doesn’t have to stop there. Spread the word to family and friends! Tell your community why you support home affordability on social media. Here’s a sample post below: A safe home. Nutritious food. Health care. Good schools. Reliable transportation. Which would you choose? Join the #CostOfHome campaign to ensure no family ever has to make this choice. Visit habitat.org/costofhome.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1317
__label__wiki	0.55745	0.55745	Is it possible that United States will officially apologize in future for atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki? Thread starter Azad67 World History Forum North American History MG1962a Ashoka maurya said: you are the most patriotic united statesian ever. Well lets remember the British were the first to deploy Agent Orange during the Malay crisis. So the US were not the first, nor the last to ever use the compound. BuckBradley You know "he who envies is the lesser man." aggienation Azad67 said: I agree , Japanese people were test subjects and America wanted to see the impact and effects of nukes on cities. Besides that, the intention was to terrorize Japanese nation. Thats why its a greatest incident of terrorism and war crime in human history, in my opinion. When you write opinions like this: "Thats why its a greatest incident of terrorism and war crime in human history, in my opinion" you are never again allowed to cry about whataboutism. You opened the door for comparison, you are not allowed to restrict other candidates simply because they contradict your opinion. That aside, yeah, everyone got the part where you think the atomic bombs were the great act of terrorism in history. Even though they weren't an act of terrorism, based on any legit legal definition of the word. But since you aren't aware of most of the discussion, I doubt you were aware that international bodies had actually codified that term too, which is just one of many subjects in this thread you're ignorant about yet so very opinionated over. The dropping of the atomic bombs wasn't an act of terrorism, it was an act of war. Done in a declared war against a nation state adversary, 3.5 years into that war, which had already cost the lives of 111,000 dead servicemen, 253,000 wounded, 21,000 missing in action. Now while you obviously don't give a crap about them, the American public did. And we weren't about to risk the lives of tens of thousands more in invading Japan in order to get them to surrender, when we had the means to do it without any friendly casualties. As for the Japanese people, it sucks being pawns, but their govt had already made the decision to fight to the near death to resist the invasions, and were ready to sacrifice them all. We called them on that bluff, we dropped two bombs that only killed a small fraction of those that would have died in the invasion, and by doing so we broke the will of those of the Japanese power elite who controlled the country, and got them to cheaply surrender unconditionally. An act of terrorism you call it. The reality was it was an act of mercy. But you hate the US and your goal here is to try to make the US out to be a hypocrite, especially considering other well known modern terrorists. So while your motive to rewrite history is understood, you're just not good at it. Likes: andyferdinard and BuckBradley HardtackJuniper those were probably mosquito spray. Who's trolling now? And where's our 'Reporting' specialist this time? Likes: BuckBradley HardtackJuniper said: The funny thing is we did drop mosquito repellent in numerous wars over large areas our troops were operating in, and those are also banned now too, and if that poster actually knew that, probably would also try to claim its biological warfare (lol). Azad67 aggienation said: I did not. The topic is about possibility of America officially apologizing about using nukes on Japan. It does not concern with other acts of terrorism and war crimes. America is dictating the definition of terrorism after 9/11, but it simply means an act of terror by an individual or a state. American committed state terrorism. So an American says Japanese people were pawns of their rulers and Americans liberated them and did them a great favor by instilling fear in their hearts and irradiating two of their cities. One can also say American people were/are pawns and fuel of their governments. And Al-Qaida were also thinking along your lines when they crashed planes into world trade center i.e shortcut to end American interventionism in the Muslim world at the cheaper cost of "few thousands" deaths. Whats the use of reporting posts? i found moderator himself engaged in trolling. https://historum.com/threads/minimum-character-requirement-for-posts.178961/page-3 Mastersonmcvoidson Besides that, the intention was to terrorize Japanese nation. Thats why its a greatest incident of terrorism and war crime in human history, in my opinion. The intention was psychological shock, which can be viewed as '' terrorising''. However you claiming it's the greatest incident of terrorism ever I have to ask: By what consensus? Which people put forward the idea that it was the greatest and based on what? It isn't a war crime, there weren't any laws or provisions outlawing it. If you claim something is the ''worst'' and someone draws a parallel among the lines of ''I disagree, I think X was worse and deserves to be considered the worst, here's why....'' then it isn't whataboutism, it's a perfectly rational and in many cases expected response. If you ever read a vs thread or a ''most overrated/underrated X in history'' thread you shouldn't be surprised. That's why the best/worst claims and rankings are made, to be disputed. If you refuse to accept dispute or discussion and just brush it off as whataboutsim you won't learn much or expand your opinion, the very point of a debate in my opinion. Likes: Azad67 No, this thread, which you created, is now officially about whether or not the dropping of the atomic bombs on Japan constitutes the worst terrorist attack in all of history, which are your own words. Which is a judgement based on comparison of all terrorist attacks, which means others have to be brought up. You opened that door, even if you did so inadvertently (which is obviously the case). So when you write "No whataboutism" then the natural reply now is simply, "NO" The problem with all of this is you state your ignorant opinion, as its clear you have no clue what any codified definitions of terrorism are, and then you try to play it as fact. Then you conclude with your opinion, and try to shut down any replies because it doesn't agree with your opinion, which is biased because you're anti-American with a blatant agenda. Luckily, you're bad at this or you might actually convince someone you're right. Thus far, you've gotten nothing but push back from everyone besides the one individual that already agreed with you in the first place, who also proved in the past to have a bias against Americans, and in this thread has proven that they don't even know what biological warfare means, after believing a chemical defoliant might be a type of one (LOL). And now we get to the guts of this. This entire discussion comes down to you feeling the need to defend Al Qaeda. Why didn't you just create a thread to do that? Instead you created this one, a warped roundabout way trying to place America as more dangerous and evil as Al Qaeda, which again, is just your ignorant opinion. Imagine how awesome this thread was if you could drop the sectarian bias? But alas, that wont ever happen. Mastersonmcvoidson said: The intention was psychological shock, which can be viewed as '' terrorising''. If that is the definition of terrorism, than all aspects of warfare that negatively affect the human psych are terrorism. Which means all of them, since warfare is more psychological than physical. Which then waters down the definition of terrorism to the point it doesn't even mean anything. Likes: Mastersonmcvoidson Possible Viking Scenario re Ireland/Britain. Speculative History Thursday at 1:00 PM What rendered modern women's rights possible? General History Jun 26, 2019 When did mass literacy (or universal literacy) become possible? General History Jun 23, 2019 A possible non-Biblical source for Solomon? Ancient History Jun 13, 2019 Possible Viking Scenario re Ireland/Britain. Started by Gisco What rendered modern women's rights possible? Started by VHS When did mass literacy (or universal literacy) become possible? A possible non-Biblical source for Solomon? Started by Maki	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1318
__label__cc	0.619067	0.380933	Why are children so good at learning languages? January 31, 2019 January 31, 2019 by Joanna Roberts When it comes to learning languages small children beat machines hands down, even though they are exposed to only a fraction of the vocabulary fed into algorithms. So what exactly makes them so good? In 2003, an influential study showed that children from rich families were exposed to around 30 million more words before the age of three than children from poor families – a difference that put children from lower-income families at an educational disadvantage even before they’d started school. But being bombarded by a large volume of words does not necessarily lead to rich and natural language use. Let’s take speech recognition software as an example. Scientists have been working on creating machines that can learn language through exposure to enormous datasets, but Siri and Google Assistant are still no match for a toddler. ‘If you look at some of the algorithms … they use ten times more data than a child has accessible until they are four years old,’ said Dr Sho Tsuji, a psycholinguist at École Normale Supérieure in Paris, France. So what’s the secret? The key, experts think, is precisely that a baby does not learn in isolation, nor in only one way. Learning to speak is an interactive, social process with inputs and reinforcements coming from many sources. Dr Tsuji is investigating how social cues such as eye contact and smiling are linked to language acquisition as part of a project called SCIL. To test the impact of social interaction on learning, she is running a series of experiments where babies are taught a word via video chat. In one version of the experiment, a person on screen – who cannot see the baby but uses gaze-tracking technology to know where he or she is looking – interacts with the baby for 5-10 seconds before teaching them a word. In a second test, a cartoon character does the same thing, while in a third, the baby is played a pre-recorded, non-interactive video. Dr Tsuji has found that when the human or the cartoon react to the baby’s gaze, the baby is better at learning the word than when there is no such interaction prior to the teaching. Once she has untangled the role of different social cues, she wants to try and understand how they function by detecting which brain areas are activated for each process. The results of her research could be used to design effective educational apps that can support parents. ‘It will never be better than a real social situation. But there are so many apps out there and many of them are not scientifically proven. If there could be a game that is interactive and teaches (a child) a word, that could be a great application.’ Wearable technologies The whole field of language acquisition research is taking a big leap thanks to the development of wearable technologies, says Dr Tsuji, as sensors and cameras are enabling researchers to track children outside of a lab environment and get a realistic picture of how they learn language at home. ‘Traditional studies on language tended to consider only spoken language or only text.’ Dr Laura Sparaci, Italian National Research Council This view is shared by Dr Laura Sparaci, a researcher at the Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies within the Italian National Research Council, who is investigating the link between motor skills such as grasping, pointing and playing with objects, and language acquisition. ‘A lot of research on motor skills in the past took place in lab environments. We need more research in the wild, in the sense of observing kids in their home environment with multiple caregivers, their peers, or even pets sometimes.’ She says that to really understand how children pick up language it is important to consider gestures, facial expressions and body posture as part of language. ‘Traditional studies on language tended to consider only spoken language or only text. Language has to be considered as multi-modal. There is a strong link between not only gestures and spoken word, but also actions and words.’ Dr Sparaci says that the link between actions such as grasping objects, gestures such as pointing, and the development of language, which she investigated in a project called FORGE, sounds surprising but exists for a very straightforward reason. As soon as a child starts walking they are able to hold objects in their hands which they may then show to their caregivers. ‘And the caregivers usually give labels for those objects … so they start linking the label with the object,’ she said. However, she says that scientists still need to establish what goes on in a child’s brain when this happens to understand more about exactly how different skills are linked. ‘In development there are many roads to the same skills. The main questions right now that research is focusing on is the roads themselves.’ One way of unpicking the routes to language development is to study children outside the range of typical development, for example those with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In a study published in 2018, Dr Sparaci tested the link between the development of actions and vocabulary on the younger siblings of children with ASD. Because autism has a genetic basis, siblings are at high risk of being diagnosed with the condition themselves. Through repeated observations of the children over a number of years, she and her colleagues found a child’s ability to perform functional actions – being able to use an object as a tool – at 10 months was predictive of their language development at 12, 24 and 36 months. ‘What we saw is that at 10 months, the infants in our group that later developed autism, never produced functional actions in the situations that we observed, which was using a spoon,’ she said. ‘And this predicted their vocabulary at later points of observation.’ She says that her research could provide new questions for research into autism – for example, could supporting functional actions help children with their language development? But a wider understanding of the relationship between actions, gestures and language can also help guide parents of typically developing children about the best ways to support a growing vocabulary, such as giving names to objects that children point to or making time for simple conversations. ‘Today we live in a society where adults have very little time. A smiling face or a parent that is engaged will support vocabulary development more than an adult that is typing on a computer.’ Originally published on Horizon Categories Brain & Behavior Tags environment, health, innovation, research, science Post navigation Under-road heating system to keep Europe’s highways ice-free ‘The moon is a history museum and we’ve only visited the gift shop’	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1324
__label__cc	0.538235	0.461765	Evil Dead Remake - Official Movie Poster [ Read the Evil Dead (2013) Movie Review ] [ Movie Page: Evil Dead Remake (2013) ] Boys and girls, take a look at the Evil Dead Remake movie poster. The poster shows the back of one of the female characters who has no doubt been through a horrifying ordeal. There is a serious lack of color and substance. Synopsis: Five twenty-something friends become holed up in a remote cabin where they discover a Book of the Dead and unwittingly summon up dormant demons living in the nearby woods, which possess the youngsters in succession until only one is left intact to fight for survival. A core cast of young, fresh talent includes Jane Levy (Suburgatory) as Mia; Shiloh Fernandez (Deadgirl, Red Riding Hood) as David; Lou Taylor Pucci (Carriers) as Eric; Jessica Lucas (Cloverfield) as Olivia, and Elizabeth Blackmore (Legend of the Seeker) as Natalie. Evil Dead Remake (2013) Directed by Fede Alvarez Movie Overview \| Review \| Trailer Official Synopsis: Five twenty-something friends become holed up in a remote cabin. When they discover a Book of the Dead, they unwittingly summon up dormant demons living in the nearby woods, which possess the youngsters in succession until only one is left intact to fight for survival. Cast: Bruce Campbell, Shiloh Fernandez, Lou Taylor Pucci, Jim McLarty, Jane Levy, Jessica Lucas, Rupert Degas, Bob Dorian, Ellen Sandweiss, Elizabeth… Genres: Horror, Thriller, Fantasy Source: movies.yahoo.com Return of the Evil Dead (1973) - Trailer Resident Evil: Afterlife (2010) - Trailer Resident Evil: Extinction (2007) - Trailer	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1326
__label__wiki	0.834655	0.834655	Green & Duncan Before Green's Game-Winner (Video) By Jon Rapoport November 14, 2012 Tuesday night, the San Antonio Spurs defeated the Los Angeles Lakers 84-82, after San Antonio guard Danny Green nailed a game-winning three-point field goal, with 9.3 seconds remaining in the game. On the night, the North Carolina alum posted 11 points, while shooting 3 of 7 from three-point land. Not to be forgotten, Spurs forward/NBA legend Tim Duncan contributed 18 points, 9 rebounds and 4 assists, as the team he is so synonymous with playing for, improved their record to 7-1. Three hours prior to the start of Tuesday's game in LA, the above pair was seen leaving the Shutters by the Beach hotel, in Santa Monica, California, while boarding the charter bus for the 15-mile trip east to the Staples Center, located in downtown Los Angeles. The scene is visible per the above iFolloSports.com original video. These members of San Antonio's new and old guard represent yet another example of why the Spurs still stand as one of the model franchises in all of professional sports. Follo Us Other Interesting Stories Mike Wilbon's West Coast Winter (Photo) Sharing An Elevator With Magic Johnson In Denver Stephen Curry Created Some Memories For These Fans (Video) Tyson Chandler Is A Class Act With Fans (Videos) Jimmer Fredette Trying To Find His Way (Video) Latest sports odds for all NFL games Tweets by iFolloSports About iFolloSports iFolloSports.com provides fans with a behind the scenes look at the world of sports. Through original and attributed videos, photos and encounter stories, as well as lifestyle, real estate, stadium and geographical information, no other website offers our level of unique access into the lives of athletes, away from the game. About iFolloSports.com Contact iFolloSports © 2018 Rapoport Media LLC Contact & Tips	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1337
__label__wiki	0.559741	0.559741	How to rock Field Day Fest, 2019 edition Fally Afani, July 16, 2019 Photo Gallery: The Aquabats / Reel Big Fish / Six Percent Photo Gallery: Live on Mass with Madisen Ward & the Mama Bear / Pony Bradshaw / Sky Smeed Fally Afani, July 7, 2019 Bands/Artists Serene Fiend releases heavy new music Photo Gallery: Bill Callahan / Heidi Gluck on the Library Lawn Photo Gallery: Similar Animal / The Sophomores Fally Afani, June 29, 2019 We quizzed mother-son duo Madisen Ward and the Mama Bear to see how well they really know each other Photo Gallery: The 2019 Lawrence Air Guitar Competition The Top 10 Most Badass Things We Saw From Local Bands in 2015 Fally Afani — December 30, 2015 Earlier this week, we told you about the ballsiest moves we saw from touring bands. It included anything from Mothercoat’s unforgettable Replay set to Viet Cong’s drummer playing all of SXSW with just one working arm. But as we finish out the year, it’s important to note the gutsiest plays from the locals (because we heart local music, duh). Here’s to the rebels, the agitators, and the sparkplugs that light the local scene on fire here in good old LFK. We now present to you the top 10 most badass things we saw from local bands in 2015. 10. Eyes of Iolite vs. Ingredient The last week of June was really a tough time to throw a show. You had Free State Fest throwing events (and even free street concerts) all over the place, and the Final Fridays art walk was in full effect. So Field Day Fest had the odds stacked against them. This year, the local rock band festival stretched out to three days, and on that third night, Eyes of Iolite was the first band to go on at the Jackpot. While giving zero fucks, and nearly no one to play to, the fairly new metal act ripped and roared through their set. But, unbeknown to them, they did in fact have an audience. Restaurant-goers at Ingredient were trying to delicately eat their fancy and expensive salads, but Eyes of Iolite’s deep growls nearly shook the tables they were eating off of. We saw many faces grumpily staring straight ahead while the most metal of all howls leaked out of the Jackpot and onto the sidewalk. It was hilarious. Well done, Eyes of Iolite! You pissed off the bourgeoise good and proper. 9. The People’s Punk Band Shortly after Eyes of Iolite’s brutal set, The People’s Punk Band set the bar really, really high. In fact, it was pretty hard to top them. This is a band that burst onto the scene in early Spring and made an impression immediately. To be honest, The People’s Punk Band frightens us a little bit. Watching them play leaves one constantly wondering if the frontman’s going to kick them in the teeth (one sudden move and he probably would). They thrash, they’re unruly, and they wreck stages large and small. The more shows they get under their belt, the more they stomp around and intimidate the crowd. Combine that with classic punk riffs flying at you at the speed of light, and these guys have all the proper ingredients for a punk band. We almost wonder how we managed without them in our lives before. 8. Mark Osman’s three-show nights A fellow musician once referred to Mark Osman and James Thomblison as “the rhythm section of Lawrence.” You’ll recognize them as the duo that make up Arc Flash (we’ll get to them later). But in 2015, one or both of these two diverse musicians also found themselves playing with Psychic Heat, Leggy, and Baby Birds Don’t Drink Milk. Additionally, Osman has been a longstanding member of CS Luxem and Karma Vision. Furthermore, all of these bands tour. It’s no surprise that at one point or another, these bands would collide. That happened on a September Sunday night when Arc Flash (their third set THAT WEEK), CS Luxem, and Baby Birds Don’t Drink Milk all landed on a lineup at the Replay. That meant Osman would play in all three sets– and believe it or not, this was not the first time this has happened. Osman has been flirting with his limits and stamina all year. You couldn’t throw a rock in Lawrence without hitting a show he was on. Osman is nothing short of a titan, with strength that rivals that of Hercules and Arnold Schwarzenegger, but with the speed of Usain Bolt. 7. The storm at Spring Into Summer April showers brought a lot more than May flowers this year. In general, Lawrence saw a metric fuck ton of rain this Spring (made for a miserable, mosquito-filled summer). But out of all the storms that passed through, the one that slammed Downtown during the Replay’s annual “Spring Into Summer” fest was wretched. Musicians were positively soaked. Joe Jack Talcum, of Dead Milkmen, helped the locals rush all the gear inside when the rain started up during the outdoor portion of the show (what a sweetheart, that guy). But the rain didn’t deter anyone. Dozens upon dozens of scenesters, soaked head to toe, filtered in all night for the soggy soiree. One after another, the rock bands wailed while the lightening shot up the sky and rain flew in sideways. Rain wasn’t just falling down, it was carrying out a full assault on Lawrence. It was hitting the fire pit at the Replay so hard that steam was popping off the metal top. And if you were lucky enough to ditch the moisture on your way in, you got soaked anyway when Gnarly Davidson’s Sam Gunnerson spat beer all over the audience during his set. 6. Approach’s Mom Stay with us on this one, and hear us out. There’s nothing we love more than a super fan– and for some Lawrence musicians, nobody’s a bigger fan than their mother. On Mother’s Day, we profiled mothers of local musicians who made it out to every single show their son or daughter performed at. But nobody, NOBODY, tops Approach’s mother. Kimberly Woods has consistently, for as many years as we can remember, showed up to every one of his sets. She doesn’t just sit in the back, she shows up with bells and whistles on.. spiky heels, hair done up high, and short skirts. She plants herself front and center, and leads the dance parties that erupt around this guy. She is a party in the form of a very short woman (even with the heels), and we’ve got nothing but mad respect and adoration for her. 5. The Sluts’ fans The Sluts’ fans are fucking crazy. We’ve beat this dead horse over, and over, and over again. Really, it’s mesmerizing to watch human beings destroy each other (some people just like the watch the world burn). You can’t really even watch the band anymore if you don’t want to get hit or “lightly tossed around,” as the band calls it. Even their attempts to stage dive off the tiny little Replay stage result in a few bruises and cuts. It won’t be long before they start breaking bones. How could you not? The music that comes out of The Sluts just screams “punch me in the face.” 4. Girls Rock! Camp “We might fuck up a little bit, and we’re not sorry. Because we’re girls and we’re not perfect.” Those words, spoken by one of the many campers at the Girls Rock! Showcase, set everyone off at the Bottleneck. I mean, they truly lost their minds when she said that. Feminism was at the forefront this year in pop culture, and it had a profound affect on the scene in Lawrence. Girls Rock! Camp is a nationwide organization, but this is the first year the camp came to Lawrence. It empowered dozens of young women who performed rock songs in front of some of the town’s most popular local musicians. They thrashed and rocked riffs like the best of them. Later on, they released a CD loaded with songs they wrote and recorded at the week-long camp. You can listen to one of those impressive tracks below, and look forward to what the scene will become when these women take over the town in a couple of years. 3. Stiff Middle Fingers’ four shows in four cities in one day stunt You absolutely cannot think of punk rock in Lawrence without recalling the hilariously obnoxious stunts of Stiff Middle Fingers. In October, the band known for running into the streets during their shows and intimidating passersby pulled one of their biggest stunts yet. Four shows. Four cities. One day. And they pulled it off! The band started with a show in Manhattan in the morning, then moved onto a comic book store performance in Topeka in the afternoon. By the time the evening rolled around, they were fucking up the Replay good and proper before sprinting to Kansas City for a fantastic finish. At every show, they went full gallop. The frontman darted in and out of and around the venue, a trail of punk rockers following closely behind. They screamed on the stage, they screamed off the stage, and they screamed on the streets. The singer’s voice was still somewhat intact by the time it was all over, which is good because they still had some more shows left on the roster this year (where they will surely continue to go balls to the wall like they always do). Speaking of balls, we almost named Stiff Middle Fingers’ recent near-nude rumpus through the streets in the list. For the full coverage on that full-frontal (sorta) event, click here. 2. Arc Flash goes surfing About a year ago, Arc Flash had a hard time getting a crowd to watch them. We were there, but not many others were. But because they’re insane and play just about every week, you couldn’t avoid them. Fast forward to the Fall of 2015, and you’ll find a different story. KJHK was throwing themselves a birthday show of epic proportions at the Bottleneck. The place was packed, wall-to-wall with college students, scenesters, and everything in between. The space punks were in full effect, ripping through their riffs at twice the speed they were the year before, while the crowd threw themselves onstage, ripped their hair out, and lost their damn minds. The fandom and excitement over Arc Flash has gotten a tad out of control in this town, and they can’t get enough. They’ll throw their bodies as close to the musicians as possible. But on this night, they didn’t have to. Because the musicians dived into the crowd. They recruited a “mystery guest” to beat on the drums while the distortion looped and wailed away, leaving James Thomblison to dive into the sea of people as though he were going for a swim. Mark Osman (Hey, remember him? We were just talking about this badass!) was hoisted up onto the shoulders of the band’s admirers. Without missing a beat, he reached into his space-suit, pulled out a pair of shades, threw them on, crossed his arms, and fucking chilled, you guys. If anything, the story of Arc Flash is an inspiration and a lesson in persistence. They went from playing to no one to having everyone in the crowd reaching for any physical contact with the band. The fan base reaches from Topeka to Kansas City, and when you think of what they could accomplish in 2016, it leaves our heads spinning. 1. Sam Gunnerson The Lawrence music scene is full of badasses, but Gnarly Davidson’s Sam Gunnerson has steadily positioned himself at the very top in headbanger heaven. Sam Gunnerson! The producer of puns, the badass of beer rock, and the sultan of screams. The man who made the phrase “Hot Shit!” a staple at Lawrence rock shows. The patriot, the punk, the hardcore brother of the scene. Have you ever enjoyed having beer spit on you? People in Lawrence LINE UP FOR IT at Gnarly Davidson shows! At the very first Gnarly shows, Gunnerson would hide half a cup of beer in his mouth and surprise the crowd by spitting it out halfway through one of their eight-minute songs. Since then, Gunnerson has perfected his spitting technique. Bro’s like a fucking sprinkler, man. A hot shit, kicking and back-bending sprinkler. Fucking ridiculous. No matter what any band tries to do from now on, they’re not going to get close to the shit that this guy has pulled. Did you know that they recorded their album drunk? Like, completely fucking drunk. They recorded it sober, and once told us “Why would we play it sober on the recording if we never played it sober for anyone ever? We did it really drunk because we thought that made sense.” So here’s to you, Sam Gunnerson. Leader of the beer rock rebellion, the king of jackassery, and the biggest fucking badass of the Lawrence music scene in 2015. All words and photos are by Fally Fucking Afani The Top 10 Most Badass Things We Saw From Local… The Top Ten Most Badass Things We Saw From Local… The Top 10 Most Badass Things We Saw From Touring… The Top Ten Most Badass Things We Saw From Touring… Tags: arc flashconcertgirls rock campgnarly davidsoni heart local musickansaskslawrencelfklivelive musicmark osmanpsychic heatpunkrocksam gunnersonstiff middle fingersthe people's punk bandthe replay Next post Photo Gallery: New Year's Eve with local bands Previous Article The Top 10 Most Badass Things We Saw From Touring Bands in 2015 About the Author Fally Afani Fally Afani is an award-winning journalist with a career spanning more than 15 years in media. She has worked extensively in radio, television, newspapers, magazines, and more. Alex Di Leo / Cody Lovaas at The Bottleneck The Bottleneck 737 New Hampshire St Lawrence, KS Pipeline Productions Alex Di Leo with specials guest Cody Lovaas Show at 8:30 ADVANCE TICKETS: $10.00 Purchase Tickets: https://www.etix.com/ticket/servlet/s/38177981 Featured Advertisements Archives Select Month July 2019 June 2019 May 2019 April 2019 March 2019 February 2019 January 2019 December 2018 November 2018 October 2018 September 2018 August 2018 July 2018 June 2018 May 2018 April 2018 March 2018 February 2018 January 2018 December 2017 November 2017 October 2017 September 2017 August 2017 July 2017 June 2017 May 2017 April 2017 March 2017 February 2017 January 2017 December 2016 November 2016 October 2016 September 2016 August 2016 July 2016 June 2016 May 2016 April 2016 March 2016 February 2016 January 2016 December 2015 November 2015 October 2015 September 2015 August 2015 July 2015 June 2015 May 2015 April 2015 March 2015 February 2015 January 2015 December 2014 November 2014 October 2014 September 2014 August 2014 July 2014 June 2014 May 2014 April 2014 March 2014 February 2014 January 2014 December 2013 November 2013 October 2013 September 2013 August 2013 July 2013 June 2013 May 2013 April 2013 March 2013 February 2013 January 2013 December 2012 November 2012 October 2012 September 2012 August 2012 July 2012 June 2012 May 2012 April 2012 March 2012 February 2012 January 2012 December 2011 November 2011 October 2011 September 2011 August 2011 July 2011 June 2011 May 2011 April 2011 March 2011 Copyright © 2016 I Heart Local Music \| All Rights Reserved.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1338
__label__wiki	0.592667	0.592667	Sterling slides to two-month low as Brexit pressure builds on PM May April 23, 2019 at 4:51pm Sterling slid to a two-month low on Tuesday as hopes for a breakthrough in Brexit talks between the ruling and opposition parties faded and British Prime Minister Theresa May faced growing pressure to quit. Britain’s parliament returned from an Easter recess on Tuesday as the government continued its talks with the opposition Labour party about forging a Brexit agreement that can win the support of lawmakers. But such talks have made little headway, analysts said, and weekend media reports said the pressure on May to find a solution or name a date for her to step down was growing. A report in the Financial Times on Tuesday also said that May planned a new vote on her Brexit agreement – which has been defeated three times already – next week in a high-risk push to break the deadlock. “Everyone has been a bit disillusioned about the chances of a compromise,” said Jane Foley, currencies strategist at Rabobank, adding that the pound could test February lows of $1.2775 as the negative headlines around Brexit mount. After earlier trading as high as $1.3019, the pound dropped to as low as $1.2943, down 0.2 percent on the day and its weakest since February 19. A broad rally in the dollar also hurt sterling. Volatility in sterling has fallen sharply in recent weeks after the European Union and London agreed to delay Britain’s departure date by up to six months, removing any immediate risks of a no-deal Brexit that would have hit the pound hard. Data showing stronger than expected retail sales in March and a slight slowdown in inflation failed to move the pound much last week, as Brexit continues to dominate trading. “PM (Theresa) May will again ramp up Brexit negotiations this week as the House of Commons sits again and pound volatility is set to increase,” MUFG analysts said in a note. Against a euro hit hard by the dollar’s rally, sterling strengthened 0.2 percent to 86.54 pence but remained near a one-week low. Rabobank’s Foley said that after the market had focused on the outcome of Brexit negotiations for much of this year, the six-month delay had now brought into sharp relief the hit to the economy of prolonged uncertainty. “With this extension to Halloween, what has become clear is the cost to the economy,” she said. Previous PostPolice seek help to find missing teen Next PostTravel exhibition “Taxidi 2019” opens on May 3	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1343
__label__wiki	0.743858	0.743858	Honda CB300R vs KTM 390 Duke vs BMW G 310 R - Spec sheet comparo 01/02/2019 - 13:13 \| Honda CB300R, KTM 390 Duke, BMW G 310 R, KTM, Honda Motorcycles, BMW Motorrad \| Ajinkya Lad Honda Motorcycles and Scooters India Ltd (HMSI) is set to launch the CB300R neo sports cafe in India on 8 February 2018. The Honda CB300R will be a CKD import and will rival the KTM 390 Duke and the BMW G 310 R in India. Here's a quick specs-level comparison between the three premium motorcycles. The Honda CB300R is a 'neo sports cafe' that incorporates a modern-retro design with advanced tech. The motorcycle will be launched under INR 2.50 lakh (ex-showroom) Looks are subjective; however, all three motorcycles are well-designed and feature a characteristics design, which stands out for each one. While the Honda CB300R is a modern-retro roadster, the BMW G 310 R and the KTM 390 Duke are naked streetfighters. The Honda CB300R offers us a unique outset towards how a modern-classic should be designed. While the BMW G 310 R is the more rounded product as compared to the 390 Duke, the Austrian streetfighter has an in-your-face design with sharp styling. As far as features are concerned, the KTM 390 Duke is hands down the most feature-rich motorcycle with the most bang for your bucks. It features an LCD TFT display for the instrument cluster with Smartphone integration via Bluetooth, LED headlights, ride-by-wire throttle system, dual-channel ABS with a ‘Supermoto’ mode and PASC slipper clutch among others. The KTM 390 Duke is the oldest offering in this list and features the most powerful engine. That said, the Honda CB300R has quite a few features up its sleeves. Apart from LED lights and a fully-digital instrument cluster, it offers an IMU based lean-angle sensitivity for the dual-channel ABS unit. On the other hand, the BMW G 310 R only offers digital instrumentation and dual-channel ABS as the only standout features. Specifications Honda CB300R KTM 390 Duke BMW G 310 R Engine 286cc, liquid-cooled single-cylinder with fuel injection 373.2cc single cylinder engine with liquid cooling, Ride-by-wire and fuel injection 313 cc, single-cylinder, DOHC, liquid cooled with fuel injection Maximum Power 31 bhp at 8,500 rpm 43.5 bhp at 9,000 rpm 33.5 bhp at 9,500 rpm Peak Torque 27.5 Nm at 7,500 rpm 37 Nm at 7,000 rpm 28 Nm at 7,500 rpm Transmission 6-speed 6-speed with a slipper clutch 6-Speed Front Suspension 41 mm USD forks 43 mm WP USD fork 41 mm USD Forks Rear Suspension Pro-link mono-shock WP mono-shock Mono-shock Front Brake 296 mm disc, ABS with IMU 320 mm disc with ABS 300 mm disc with ABS Rear Brake 220 mm disc, ABS with IMU 230 mm disc with ABS 240 mm disc with ABS Front Tyre 110/70 R17 Michelin Pilot Street 110/70 R17 Metzeler Sportec M5 110/70 R17 Michelin Pilot Street Rear Tyre 150/60 R17 Michelin Pilot Street 150/60 R17 Metzeler Sportec M5 150/60 R17 Michelin Pilot Street Fuel Tank Capacity 10 litres 13.5 litres 11 litres Kerb Weight 143 kg 163 kg 158.5 kg Seat Height 799 mm 830 mm 835 mm Price Under INR 2.50 lakh (ex-showroom) INR 2.44 lakh (ex-showroom Delhi) INR 2.99 lakh (ex-showroom Delhi) The Honda CB300R employs a 286cc four-valve, liquid-cooled, fuel-injected motor that is capable of producing 31 bhp of power at 8,500 rpm and 27.5 Nm of peak torque at 7,500 rpm, while the engine is mated to a six-speed gearbox. While the CB300R develops the lowest power amongst the three, the figures are only marginally lesser than the G 310 R. However, the neo sports cafe produces the power at a slightly lesser rpm, which should offer better rideability and in-gear acceleration. On the other hand, the KTM 390 Duke is the most powerful motorcycle in the segment. It uses a 373.2cc liquid-cooled, SOHC, 4-valve motor that churns out 43.5 bhp of power and 37 Nm of peak torque. The engine is paired to a 6-speed transmission with a standard PASC slipper clutch. The BMW G 310 R is the least feature-rich motorcycle in this comparison, and also the most expensive bike in its segment. The G 310 R is powered by a 313.2cc liquid-cooled, four-valve engine that pumps out 33 bhp of power at 9,500 rpm along with a peak torque of 28 Nm at 7,500 rpm. The motor is coupled with a six-speed gearbox. The BMW G 310 R is the first small-displacement motorcycle from the Bavarian bike maker. It is also the only bike to be locally manufactured in India. Also Read: Honda CB300 TT to arrive in 2020 – Report As far as pricing is concerned, the KTM 390 Duke retails at INR 2.44 lakh. On the other hand, the BMW G 310 R has been priced at INR 2.99 lakh. As for the Honda CB300R, the company has announced that the neo sports cafe will be launched under INR 2.50 lakh*, despite it being a CKD import. The other two are locally manufactured in India. Honda CB300R - Image Gallery Honda CB300R News & Updates India's first Honda BigWing inaugurated in Gurugram Honda CB300R sold-out for 2019, but available to backorder Honda CB300R India deliveries commence; gets 16 optional accessories Honda CB300R promotional video and accessories list revealed Honda CB300R gets touring ready in latest render [VIDEO] Honda CB300R gets Akrapovic carbon-fibre exhaust More from KTM KTM RC 125 registers 614 unit sales in its debut month in India KTM 390 Adventure motorcycle to be launched first in India - Report KTM RC125 deliveries in India commence First official image of Indian-spec white KTM RC125 out Limited edition KTM 790 Adventure R Rally unveiled KTM RC125 ABS launched in India at INR 1.47 lakh	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1346
__label__wiki	0.817605	0.817605	Tata Harrier to get 1.6-litre turbocharged petrol engine - Report 06/03/2019 - 13:20 \| Tata Harrier, Tata Motors \| Yatharth Chauhan Last month, it was reported that the Tata Harrier could receive an in-house developed 1.6-litre turbocharged petrol engine. In a fresh report, Autocar India confirms that the Indian auto giant is indeed working on such a petrol engine for its C-SUV. The Tata Harrier is built on a modified D8 platform called OMEGA-ARC. Its 7-seat version debuted as the 'Buzzard' at the 2019 Geneva Motor Show yesterday. Reportedly, the 1.6-lite turbocharged engine for the Tata Harrier will benefit from the direct-injection technology, which will be a first for any petrol motor from Tata Motors. Rajendra Petkar, Chief Technology Officer (CTO), Tata Motors has said that the new petrol unit is in “early stages of development but will come with competitive power figures”. It's expected that the new engine will offer a maximum power of 120 hp to 140 hp. Tata Motors has used its 1.2-litre, three-cylinder turbocharged petrol engine as a base for the development of the new motor. The petrol-sipping powerplant will be sold with either a 6-speed manual or a torque converter automatic gearbox. It will comply with the BSVI-emission norms and is likely to debut in 2020. The company should offer it in the Tata Buzzard as well. The Tata Harrier is currently available with an FCA-sourced 2.0-litre Multijet II diesel engine that has been given the 'Kryotec' moniker. The eVGT-equipped oil-burner produces a maximum power of 140 PS and a peak torque of 350 Nm. It comes mated to a 6-speed manual transmission, but the introduction of an optional Hyundai-sourced 6-speed torque-converter automatic unit is on the anvil. The company's only modern C-SUV is based on OMEGA architecture, which is basically a low-cost version of the Land Rover D8 platform. It's even the first production model to have been designed as per the IMPACT 2.0 design theme. Also Read - Tata Altroz EV unveiled at 2019 Geneva Motor Show [Update] The Tata Harrier recently made its European debut under the 'Buzzard Sport' moniker at the 2019 Geneva Motor Show. The 5-seater SUV is expected to mark the re-entry of Tata Motors into the European markets. [Source - autocarindia.com] Tata Harrier - Image Gallery Tata Harrier News & Updates Tata Buzzard (7-seater Harrier) to replace Hexa- Report Tata Harrier dual-tone launched, celebrates 10,000 customers Tata Harrier dual-tone teased, “coming soon” [Video] Tata hikes Harrier's price by INR 31,000 Tata Harrier with BS-VI compliant, 170 PS 2.0L diesel engine spied More from Tata Motors Mid-spec Tata Buzzard with Tata Harrier's 17-inch wheels spied [Video] IAB reader spies Tata Buzzard on test ahead of H2 2019 launch Tata Blackbird (Tata H4) - IAB Rendering	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1347
__label__wiki	0.850388	0.850388	Metro staff threaten stirhttps://indianexpress.com/article/cities/delhi/metro-staff-threaten-stir/ Metro staff threaten stir Since Thursday, staff members have been picketing train platforms at Badarpur, Mundka, Shahdara, Vishwavidyalaya, Jahangirpuri, Yamuna Bank, Dwarka and Huda City Centre stations from 3 pm till midnight in groups of five to 30. Written by Aneesha Mathur \| New Delhi \| Published: May 13, 2015 1:26:48 am AAP govt picks Atishi, Raghav for Delhi Metro board 21 stations of Delhi Metro’s Red Line to be renovated in phases: DMRC Services on Magenta Line hit for two hours after technical snag Employees have been protesting since last Thursday. (Source: Express Photo) For the past week, Delhi Metro staff members have been wearing a black armband over their yellow and khaki uniform, and sitting in groups on station platforms. They are now threatening to go on a hunger strike from Thursday, which could affect Metro services. “The management has called our representatives for a meeting on Wednesday at 3 pm. If our demands are not met, then we will go on a hunger strike on Thursday,” staff council secretary Anil Mahato said. The demands include better pay for the non-executive staff as well as modification of service conditions. A letter issued by staff members also mentions implementation of the standard operating procedures for train operators, which would restrict working hours for train drivers to a maximum of five-and-a-half hours or 2,000 km per day. [related-post] The Metro has over 8,000 non-executive staff, which include train operators, controllers, maintenance staff, line staff, junior engineers and station staff. “We have been pressing our demands for several months but the management is not listening to us. If we go on a hunger strike, it will be difficult for train operators to drive without food or water, and the safety of commuters will be the responsibility of the management,” said staff council member F F Ansari. The DMRC admitted there are issues, but spokesman Anuj Dayal said, “These are issues within the Delhi Metro family, which we will try to solve internally.” He insisted that there was no strike in the Delhi Metro. 1 DTC Strike: Buses back on roads after govt deal with murdered driver’s family 2 On trip to China, CM Anandiben Patel to push for smart cities 3 Surat govt schools’ new code for teachers, heads: Uniforms	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1348
__label__wiki	0.722982	0.722982	Retro Gaming & The Past Infendo OpEd Lukas Termini August 22, 2018 No Comments 6384 views Recently, I received Sonic Mania Plus, and sat down for another round of gotta-go-fast, blast-processing-powered gameplay. Mania is good – like, really, really good. Not only is it a solid Sonic game, but it manages to be one of the most competent 2D platformers currently available on the Switch. The levels are expansive and fun, and the game does a great job of feeling like it could have been made 20 years ago. Make no mistake, this isn’t a Sonic Mania review; Obviously, I love playing through this game. But as I was rolling around at the speed of sound, something hit me. It hit me hard, and made me stop and think for a second. Retro games, done right, have the ability to do something we’ve all wished we could do – they can bring us into the past. It’s no secret that the series is littered with as much trash as treasure. There are shining gems that make you proud to be a Sonic fan, like Adventure 2, CD and Colors. But there are also those games that you wish Sega had decided to skip – Sonic The Hedgehog (2006) comes to mind. Sega has experimented with a number of different mechanics over time, not all of them welcome additions. One of those moments most of us would like to forget Yes, the Sonic series has a checkered past, but as I sit here playing Sonic Mania, all of that is forgiven. Mania takes place right after Sonic CD. Sonic hasn’t discovered that “the real super power is friendship” yet. He hasn’t picked up a sword, or a gun, or turned into a werehog. He’s just Sonic. 90’s Sonic, doing what he does best – running through loops, bouncing on springs. It’s a refreshing reboot to a series that desperately needs it. Sonic isn’t the only one to enjoy having history rewritten – A few years ago, Star Fox Zero gave the Start Fox team the same benefit. After years of needlessly complex and cringey stories, talking dinosaurs and Crystal, who would make even a furry blush, the original team of 4 were back. Not on foot, not using staffs, and not with clunky touch controls and bizarre multiple-endings. It was just Star Fox again, and damn, it was good. But, you know, not really, Tricky Video games can always go back in time – there’s something magic about that. We all have moments where we wish we could have a do-over, and in a small way, video games allow us to do that. The world is so complex and hard to handle sometimes. We aren’t turning into werehogs or buddying up with talking triceratops, but that doesn’t mean we don’t make mistakes. Our personal, political, and professional lives are wrought with moments that hit us as hard as a hedgehog with an AK47. And while we have to keep marching forward, as is our destiny, we’ve finally found a way to, at least momentarily, in our own minds, go back in time. Cherish it. Written by: Lukas Termini on August 22, 2018. Mania Mania Plus Nintendo Retro Sega Sonic Star Fox Switch Lukas Termini Gamer by day, game designer by night - Lukas studied Digital Arts in school, and grew up in the age of the N64 and Gamecube. He's the youngster of the bunch, but that doesn't keep him from shouting out at every available opportunity on Infendo Radio.He often finds himself at the edge of counter-culture (hates Metroid Prime, loves Other M), but isn't afraid to dive into the next big budget AAA title with the best of 'em.Favorite game: Sonic Adventure 2 Battle/Skyward Sword/Ocarina of Time/Zero Escape 2/You get the idea The Legend of Miyamoto How do you deal with Mario Kart’s “Maka Wuhu” problem? Nintendo “looking into” DSi rights management issues	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1352
__label__cc	0.682471	0.317529	TGS Year 2: Transactions 1-7 Financial Accounting Fundamentals バージニア大学（University of Virginia） This course will teach you the tools you'll need to understand the fundamentals of financial accounting. Concise videos, the financial records of a small business, and "your turn" activities guide you through the three most commonly used financial statements: the Balance Sheet, the Income Statement, and the Statement of Cash Flows. Beyond recording transactions, you'll learn how to prepare these financial statements, and read and analyze them to draw basic conclusions about a company's financial health. By the end of this course, you will be able to: - Use journal entries to record transactions - Prepare and use t-accounts to summarize transactions recorded during an accounting period - Describe the three most commonly used financial statements and how they fit together - Prepare these financial statements based on transactions recorded during an accounting period - Draw basic conclusions about a company's financial health Financial Accounting, Accounting, Financial Statement, Balance Sheet This course gives me a practical understanding of accounting principles and key financial statements, which is helpful for my work. Strongly recommend to my friends and colleagues Really enjoyed the course - was really dreading learning about accounting but the instructor was able to break it down and make it both fun and interesting for me to learn! More Transactions, Analysis of Financial Statements, and an Annual Report During this last week, we’ll walk through the second year of operations for our fictional startup company, The Garden Spot (TGS Year 2), for additional practice recording transactions and preparing our end-of-period financial statements. Then, we’ll do some analysis of The Garden Spot’s financial statements. Finally, we’ll take a look at PepsiCo’s Annual Report as an example of reporting for a publicly traded U.S. company. Introduction to TGS Year 21:38 TGS Year 2: Transactions 1-710:16 TGS Year 2: Transactions 12-167:56 TGS Year 2: Transactions 17-2210:56 Luann J. Lynch Almand R. Coleman Professor of Business Administration Let's start with the things that Mary Jo had encountered in her first year of operations that she also encountered in her second year of operations. You'll find those in transactions 1 through 7 of the case. Take a few minutes, give them all a try. It might take more than a few minutes, but give them all a try and then come back and we'll work through all seven of those together and see how you did. How did it go? I'm curious to see. But I bet you were able to do pretty well with these. Let's start with the first one? A colleague of Mary Jo's, Jake Lawrence, invested $20,000 in The Garden Spot in exchange for shares of common stock. Mary Jo saw that same transaction in the first year, it was just that she and Josh were the ones that had invested in the company at that time. So, we see an increase to cash, left-hand side, or debit to cash for the $20,000 in cash that the company received from Jake Lawrence. An increasing capital stock, which is an owner's equity account for 20,000. We can post each of those to the T accounts. Now, one thing I want to call your attention to, before we move to the second transaction, is that the beginning balance in the T accounts for this year is not zero. You'll notice that the beginning balance in the cash T account is $3,010. The beginning balance in the capital stock T account is $60,000. Those are exactly the same as the ending balance at the end of year one of operations. Remember, the balance sheet accumulates over time. So, the beginning balance at the beginning of year two, is the accumulation of everything that's happened up to the beginning of year two at The Garden Spot, okay? Let's move to the second transaction. The company bought some land next to their current property. They bought it on July 1st, paid $100,000. They got a $90,000 loan and paid the remaining $10,000 with cash. It was going to be repaid in equal principle payments over 10 years. The interest rate was 8%. The interest rate was to be paid at the end of the first year of the loan term, and each year of the loan term at the same time the principle payment is made. Okay, the company acquired an asset, so we see an increase in an asset account. We'll call that Land, that's a new account, we haven't seen that one before at The Garden Spot. It increases by the cost of the land of $100,000. The company paid $10,000 in cash, so we have a right-hand side to cash because it decreases. And a right hand-side to loan payable because it increases, it's a liability. Note that I just called it loan payable for land. We could just simply call it loan payable, but we all ready had an account called loan payable. And I'm just interested in trying to differentiate this from that other loan payable account. We post these to the, ,we'll create a new T account for land, with a beginning balance of 0, because even though this is the second year of operations, we did not have this account prior to this year. Loan payable for land is also a new T account, 0 beginning balance for that one as well. Let's post to the T account. Left-hand side to the land account goes into the left-hand side of the T account marked transaction 2. The right-hand side to the cash account goes into the right side of the cash T account, transaction 2. And the loan payable for the land goes into the right side of the loan payable T account, transaction 2. Very similar to what we've seen before. Let's take a look at transaction 3. The company bought inventory throughout the year, cost of $310,000. Paid part of it in cash, part of it was purchased on account. The company acquired inventory, so that's an asset. So left-hand side entry or a debit, because the asset increased. It paid for part of it in cash, so that's a right-hand side entry to that asset account, which goes down by 240, 240,000. Increase into the account's payable account, the liability for 70,000 which is how they purchased the remaining inventory. All these three accounts are accounts that we've used before, so each of those has a beginning balance that's the same as the ending balance at the end of the prior year. Inventory goes up, by 310, so left side entry, denoted transaction 3. Right side entry posted the cash. Transaction 3, right side entry to accounts payable, transaction 3. Okay, good, let's move. Transaction 4. This is where we're recording sales. We've done this before as well. We have sales of 500,000. 400,000 were cash sales. 100,000 were on account. The inventory had originally cost $300,000. You might remember that we treated this as two separate entries when we tackled this in year one, we'll do the same in year two. We often have information to record sales and the cost of the inventory sold at the same time. But we typically record those in two separate entries. Let's start with the revenue portion. We're recording revenues, that's a right side to retained earnings. And we're going to record a left side entry to the two asset accounts that it received in return for those revenues, cash and a promise to pay, or an accounts receivable. The cash gets posted as an increase to the cash account on the left side, we're going to call it 4a. Receivable left-hand side, 4a. Revenues, right-hand side to the retained earnings, 4a. And remember we're going to make a notation out here that that was for revenues so that when we get to the point we're preparing our income statement it will be a piece of cake. Let's record the second part of this, before B, the cost of the inventory. So here, we're going to be looking at this. The company sees inventory go out the door. Its inventory goes down because it sold it. The cost of that inventory was $300,000. We're going to record the cost of goods sold expense to capture the expense, which was essentially a using up of the asset or a giving away of the asset. Retained earnings cost of goods sold expense, it's a decrease of $300,000. Post to the T accounts, retained earnings, a left-hand side entry, transaction 4b. We're going to make a note of what type of expense that is. Inventory goes down, that's a right side entry in that asset account, transaction 4b. How's it going? Everything okay? The company incurred operating expenses of $150,000 all paid with cash. Just like what we saw on the first year, left-hand side to retained earnings operating expense, right-hand side to cash. We're posting those in the T accounts. Nothing to do there. Same old, same old. The company made a payment to National Bank for $13,000, $10,000 of that was for repayment of the loan principal and 3,000 of which was payment for interest. These were related to the original loan of $40,000 the company had taken out when it first started operations. Same entry that we had made for year one, just slightly different amount, cash goes down for $13,000, in year one it was 14,000. And then the loan payable balance goes down for $10,000. We're paying at equal principle payments over the four years, that's why we've got a $10,000 payment, the original loan was $40,000. Interest on the loan is $3,000. Remember, the interest rate was 10% and the loan balance at the beginning of the year was $30,000. So, 10% times the $30,000 balance that was outstanding at the beginning of the year gives us the $3,000 in interest expense for the current year. We reduce the balance in the loan payable account. We reduce retained earnings. And we reduce the cash account, all denoted transaction 6. As planned, the $5,000 of the wages payable from the prior December were included in the employees' paychecks in January of the current year. Let's take a look. So we eliminate the liability, we pay it off. So, that goes down by $5,000 and we've paid the cash of $5,000. So, the way just payable liability ,which started at $5,000, now decreases by that 5, cash is down by $5,000, both are denoted with transaction 7. Notice that payment for all the work employees did December the second year were included in the paychecks during December. So, they did not have any wages to accrue for, for the second year. They had all been paid before the year was over. So, that's transactions 1 through 7. Very similar to what we saw in the first year, opportunity practice again and we've done a very, very nice job.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1364
__label__wiki	0.890058	0.890058	The Left Should Welcome Mélenchon Liberals want to smear Jean-Luc Mélenchon as a xenophobe. In fact, they fear his potential to unite the oppressed. Jean-Luc Mélenchon on May 5, 2013. Philippe Leroyer / Flickr Tonight Jacobin will host an event at The World Transformed featuring France’s most popular political leader, France Insoumise’s Jean-Luc Mélenchon. Winning seven million votes in last year’s presidential election, the radical left-winger is today at the forefront of the revolt against Emmanuel Macron’s crisis-wracked government. Mélenchon’s major breakthrough came in the 2017 contest, when he was under two points shy of beating Marine Le Pen into the second round. Even as the Socialist and Communist parties have waned, France Insoumise has eaten into the far right’s commanding position among the young and unemployed in small towns around France. Mélenchon should, then, be more than welcome at Momentum and Labour events. Yet some don’t seem so sure. Last month Stephen Bush tweeted that the invitation showed “how little attention UK politicos pay to the continent” and suggested Socialist candidate Benoît Hamon (who scored 6 percent in 2017, against almost 20 percent for Mélenchon) as more relevant. Dan Davidson’s recent LabourList article called on the British Left to be “more critical of Jean-Luc Mélenchon.” It derided Mélenchon’s political project as “essentially populist nationalism with a left-wing sheen,” supposedly based on “naked appeals to chauvinist prejudice against ethnic minorities.” Alarming claims, indeed. Things get trickier with Dan’s first example, a call for a Sixth Republic advanced “appealing to patriotic sentiments rather than calling for solidarity between workers and oppressed groups.” In fact, this demand seeks to reverse the power grab mounted by General de Gaulle during the Algerian War and abolish the presidency in favor of a new constitutional assembly. Hardly a chauvinist demand. Mélenchon’s sharp comments about the continuities of German history and the “colorblindness” of the French secularism he espouses are rightly the subject of debate and criticism within France Insoumise. But is this a “populist nationalist” movement? A fairer reading might instead judge it a success in uniting the oppressed, not only winning ex-industrial towns from the Front National but also securing a 37 percent vote among France’s Muslims. If liberal media smear Mélenchon as akin to Le Pen, he stands far to the left of the mainstream (including Hamon) on questions of racism and Islamophobia. He strongly condemned the last Socialist government’s state of emergency, made permanent by Macron, whose measures encourage police harassment of ethnic minorities. He is also a stout opponent of French interventions in West Africa and the Middle East. The article notes further chauvinism in Mélenchon’s criticisms of the European Union’s lack of democracy, allegedly scapegoating foreign powers in order to let French bosses off the hook. The reader might wonder whether Mélenchon policies such as a €400,000 maximum income; widespread nationalizations; and measures to combat unemployment, workplace exploitation, and environmental destruction, are really designed to defend France’s capitalists. Dan doubts trade unionists’ confidence in Mélenchon’s populism (a meager 51 percent of CGT members vote for him). He explains that during this spring’s rail strike “La France Insoumise proposed to have a large rally on the weekend so that those who could not strike, including small business owners, would be able to attend.” He deems this the “choice to build a broad, cross-class coalition instead of strengthening bonds of solidarity between workers across different industries and expanding the disruptive effect of the strike.” But what were the rally’s aims? Its slogans targeted Macron’s “social coup d’état,” combining a call for the defense of public services and jobs with the demand for the Sixth Republic. Building solidarity across industries is indeed difficult — but did this weekend rally present fresh obstacles. Would we criticize a protest against the Tories because small businessmen, or workers or unemployed people in unorganized sectors, also participated, rather than striking workers alone? Of course not. The reality is that Mélenchon’s role (like Corbyn’s) is not to dictate policy to trade unions, whose weaknesses can hardly be pinned to France Insoumise. Nor can its workplace-related demands like “no outsourcing” seriously be characterized as nationalist diversions from class struggle. Dan would prefer slogans that united “workers of all nationalities” in France, whether French-born or immigrants. But it seems hard to imagine why opposition to moving French workplaces abroad should undermine this cause, unless one imagines that immigrants move around with factories. Mélenchon’s patriotic tones may sound odd to British ears (as, indeed, may those of Bernie Sanders or Pablo Iglesias). But the Resistance, the Revolution, and the Commune figure far larger in French public life than the Chartists or Diggers in Britain. The Left’s own French-republican tradition owes not (as Dan tells us) to some desire to deny that Vichyite Nazi-collaborators were indeed French, or that France has committed colonial crimes, but the attempt to marginalize chauvinist narratives of French identity. Historically, this has led to many sins of omission. And yes, Mélenchon should be scrutinized for his failings just like anyone else. But it is mean spirited and not a little bit silly to judge France Insoumise, or its leader, by assembling a series of clipped quotes and assertions of guilt by association. Was Jeremy Corbyn not himself subject to such a campaign, just a fortnight ago? I don’t agree with everything that Jean-Luc (or Jeremy) says either. But a politics of solidarity starts from the future we want to build in common. Republished from LabourList . David Broder is a historian of French and Italian communism. He is currently writing a book on the crisis of Italian democracy in the post-Cold War period. Tonight Jacobin will host an event at The World Transformed featuring France’s most popular political leader, France Insoumise’s Jean-Luc Mélenchon. Winning seven million votes in last year’s presidential election, the radical left-winger is today at the forefront of the revolt against Emmanuel Macron’s crisis-wracked government. Mélenchon’s major breakthrough came in the 2017 contest, when he […] The Left Under Macron Elsa Faucillon The Meaning of France Insoumise Grégory Bekhtari The Mélenchon Economy Liêm Hoang-Ngoc Another World Is Possible With Jean-Luc Mélenchon The Mélenchon Factor Aurelien Mondon	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1365
__label__wiki	0.646984	0.646984	Home » HPC Hardware » Compute » Balancing the Load – A Million Cores in Concert Balancing the Load – A Million Cores in Concert May 2, 2018 by staff Leave a Comment Simulating complex systems on supercomputers requires that scientists get hundreds of thousands, even millions of processor cores working together in parallel. Managing cooperation on this scale is no simple task. One challenge is assigning the workload given to each processor core. Unfortunately, complexity isn’t distributed evenly across space and time in real-world systems. For example, in biology, a cell nucleus has far more molecules crammed into a small space than the more dilute, watery cytoplasm that surrounds it. Simulating nuclei therefore requires far more computing power and time than modeling other parts. Such situations lead to a mismatch in which some cores are asked to pull more weight than others. Christoph Junghans from LANL To solve these load imbalances, Christoph Junghans, a staff scientist at the Department of Energy’s Los Alamos National Laboratory and his colleagues are developing algorithms with many applications across high-performance computing. If you’re doing any kind of parallel simulation, and you have a bit of imbalance, all the other cores have to wait for the slowest one,” Junghans says, a problem that compounds as the computing system’s size grows. “The bigger you go on scale, the more these tiny imbalances matter.” On a system like LANL’s Trinity supercomputer up to 999,999 cores could idle, waiting on a single one to complete a task. To work around these imbalances, scientists must devise ways to break apart, or decompose, a problem’s most complex components into smaller portions. Multiple processors can then tackle those subdomains. The work could help researchers move toward using exascale computers that can perform one billion billion calculations per second, or one exaflops, efficiently. Though not yet available, the Department of Energy is developing such machines, which would include 100 times more cores than are found in most current supercomputers. Using a process known as co-design, teams of researchers are seeking ways to devise hardware and software together so that current supercomputers and future exascale systems carry out complex calculations as efficiently as possible. Fixing load imbalance is part and parcel of co-design. Everybody is trying to find out where the problems would lie in running simulations and calculations on a super big [machine] that nobody has seen before,” says Junghans, deputy leader of LANL’s co-design team. Fixing load imbalances could make it easier to simulate various physical phenomena such as turbulent flows and materials at a range of scales, from watery biological solutions to plastics and metals. Junghans’ collaborators include researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research (MPI-P) in Mainz, Germany, led by Horacio Vargas Guzman. One approach, pioneered at MPI-P by Kurt Kremer’s group, models complex mixtures of molecules using the adaptive resolution scheme, or AdResS. This method divides simulations into areas of high- and low-resolution, based on how much information and complexity is needed in each area. AdResS is useful for these problems, but such a scheme is “especially prone to this load imbalance,” Junghans says. Junghans and his MPI-P colleagues developed a new approach – called the heterogeneous spatial domain decomposition algorithm, or HeSpaDDA – that takes this process a step further. It assesses those low- and high-resolution areas and rearranges them to distribute the processing workload. The researchers tested it in two different simulations modeled with AdResS. In one case, they examined the protein ubiquitin’s behavior in water. They also used this algorithm combination to study a model fluid system with two phases (known as a Lennard-Jones binary fluid). The combination of HeSpaDDA and AdResS sped up these simulations by up to 150 percent. These molecular dynamics simulations are important for advances in the areas of biomedicine, drug development, biomembranes, fluid mechanics, crystal growth, and polymer research. They reported their results in November 2017 in the journal Physical Review E. Junghans and colleagues from LANL have also worked to solve load imbalances that arise in simulations of other types of matter. For example, they have developed an algorithm that redistributes the simulation workload in the heterogeneous multiscale method, which is useful for modeling solid, metallic systems. This technique could be used to simulate a shock wave traveling through metal, Junghans says. Unlike the adaptive resolution method, which breaks up simulations into cube-like subdomains, the heterogeneous multiscale method constructs a mesh-like structure around the modeled system. As calculations at various points in the mesh progress, the algorithm divides the complex domain into more manageable chunks. Like adaptive resolution, this method can still have load imbalances, Junghans notes. Load imbalances also show up on a cosmic scale. At the Supercomputing 2016 Conference, or SC16, researchers showed how they solved load imbalances while simulating a binary star system similar to that detected by LIGO, the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory. That work involved a method called smooth particle hydrodynamics. The scientists involved were Ph.D. students from LANL’s ISTI/ASC co-design summer school, which brings together future scientists to work on interdisciplinary computing challenges. Junghans and his LANL colleague Robert Pavel co-lead the program. Co-design has been a big focus of the DOE’s Advanced Scientific Computing Research (ASCR) program in the run-up to exascale HPC. “For us, co-design basically means looking at a problem, and the algorithms to solve that problem, and the hardware,” Junghans says, and answering this question: “Where can we change or modify the algorithms so that we can solve problems on new hardware?” At the moment, Junghans and his colleagues are working on simulations that use hundreds of processors, though they plan to scale that up significantly. “We have to fix problems at a smaller scale before we’re ready” to move onward, he says. “This will solve one issue, but when you scale up, there will be other problems.” Source: ASCR Argo Project Developing OS Technology for Exascale Exascale Computing Project Announces $48 Million to Establish Four Exascale Co-Design Centers DOE to Showcase Leadership in HPC at SC16 Paul Messina Presents: A Path to Capable Exascale Computing Let’s Talk Exascale Podcast Looks at Co-Design Center for Particle-Based Applications Filed Under: Compute, Exascale, Government, HPC Hardware, HPC Software, Industry Segments, Network, News, Parallel Programming, Research / Education Tagged With: ASCR, LANL, Max Planck Institute for Polymer Research, MPI-P Virtualizing HPC Throughput Computing Environments This pioneering study focuses primarily on the virtual performance of throughput workloads. Download the new white paper from VMWare that explores the possibilities of virtualizing HPC throughput in computing environments.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1375
__label__wiki	0.714568	0.714568	System and method for signal validation and leakage detection 1. A method of validating signals and detecting signal leakage in a cable communications system, the cable communications system providing channel programming on a plurality of RF channels, the method comprising the steps of: a) tuning a radio frequency receiver to a desired visual carrier center frequency of a selected RF channel; b) measuring a signal level of the carrier center frequency energy; c) off-tuning the receiver by a predetermined offset such that an off-tuned carrier frequency, within the same RF television channel allocation but at an alternate to the center carrier frequency location and independent of side band frequency location or coded signal detection, where carrier center freauency and/or side band energy in said channel programming received by said receiver, when off-tuned, should be reduced below carrier center frequency energy in the absence of interference, is selected; d) measuring a signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency energy; e) obtaining a signal level difference between the signal level of the carrier center frequency and the signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency to determine if interference exists; f) declaring an interference condition if the signal level difference is less than a predetermined difference amount; and g) providing an indication of the signal level of the carrier frequency to permit a determination of whether a signal leakage condition exists without requiring use of a coded signal of said channel programming. A system and method of validating signals and detecting signal leakage in a cable communications includes the steps of a) tuning a radio frequency receiver to a carrier frequency of a selected RF channel, b) measuring a signal level of the carrier frequency, c) off-tuning the receiver by a predetermined offset, d) measuring a signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency, e) obtaining a signal level difference between the signal level of the carrier frequency and the signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency to determine if interference exists, f) declaring an interference condition if the signal level difference is less than a predetermined difference amount, and g) providing an indication of the signal level of the carrier frequency to permit a determination of whether a signal leakage condition exists. Methods and apparatus for detecting and locating leakage of digital signals Arcom Digital LLC Data acquisition system Hitachi High-Technologies Corporation Determination of carrier and symbol frequencies in a signal Stmicroelectronics SA System and method for sorting detection of signal egress from a wired communication system ComSonics Inc. Method and apparatus for detecting carrier leakage in a wireless or similar system Marvell Semiconductor Marvell International Limited Low-Cost Receiver Using Tracking Bandpass Filter and Lowpass Filter Silicon Laboratories Incorporated Low-Cost Receiver Using Tracking Filter System and Method of Detecting Potential Video Traffic Interference ATT Knowledge Ventures L.P. Mitigating Potential Video Traffic Interference Integrated receivers and integrated circuit having integrated inductors IMAGE CAPTURE APPARATUS Canon Ayutthaya Limited Cable communication systems and methods employing QAM upstream channels below 16.4 MHz for increased aggregate deployed upstream capacity to support voice and/or data services Certusview Technologies LLC Ingress-mitigated cable communication systems and methods having increased upstream capacity for supporting voice and/or data services Methods for ingress mitigation in cable communication systems involving repair, replacement and/or adjustment of infrastructure elements Gain measurement and monitoring for wireless communication systems CommScope Technologies LLC Andrew LLC Low-cost leakage detector for a digital HFC network Cable communication systems and methods employing 256-QAM upstream channels and having increased upstream capacity for supporting voice and/or data services Receiver including a tracking filter Method and apparatus for detecting presence of an unmodulated RF carrier prior to a communication frame System and method for detecting signal ingress interferences VIASAT GEO TECHNOLOGIES Iterative mapping methods for ingress mitigation in cable communication systems Methods and apparatus for locating leakage of digital signals Neighborhood node mapping methods and apparatus for ingress mitigation in cable communication systems Hybrid fiber-coaxial (HFC) cable communication systems having well-aligned optical and radio-frequency links to facilitate upstream channel plans having high aggregate data capacity Ingress-mitigated RF cable plants and ingress mitigation methods for same Low-cost receiver using integrated inductors Integrated receiver and integrated circuit having integrated inductors and method therefor Cable communication systems and methods employing TDMA/ATDMA QAM upstream channels below 20 MHz for increased upstream capacity to support voice and/or data services Image capture apparatus and setting time information Cable communication systems and methods employing QAM upstream channels below 16.4 MHz for increased aggregate deployed upstream capacity Method for detecting leakage in digitally modulated systems Viavi Solutions Inc. Trilithic Incorporated Methods for ingress remediation in cable communication systems Cable communication system optical nodes having selectable attenuation values to mitigate distortion of upstream information Leakage detection of digital signals in an HFC network Apparatus for detecting leakage in digitally modulated systems High speed access system over copper cable plant Actelis Networks Inc. Method of determining a start of a transmitted frame in a frame-based communications network Avago Technologies International Sales Pte Limited Radio frequency leakage detection system for CATV system Upstream ingress noise blocking filter for cable television system ARRIS International plc COM21 INC. Method for measuring spectral energy interference in a cable transmission system Tektronix Incorporated RF circuit for use in a combined leakage detector and signal level monitor WAVETEK CORPORATION Coaxial cable RF leakage detector Kallina Henry D. Ingress/egress management system Combined signal level meter and leakage detector Cable leakage monitoring system Cable Leakage Technologies Incorporated In-service cable television measurements Subscriber terminal for monitoring radio-frequency signal ingress into cable television systems General Instrument Corporation RF leak detector Shimp Richard L. Surveillance system and method utilizing both electrostatic and electromagnetic fields Sensormatic Electronics Corporation View Dependent Claims (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21) 2. The method of claim 1 wherein the steps of measuring are performed by receiving signals corresponding to an existing RE carrier frequency, which signals egress from the cable communications system. 3. The method of claim 1 wherein the steps of measuring are performed passively with no encoding or injecting of test signals into the selected RE channel or modifying the channel programming of the selected channel. 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the steps (a) through (g) are continuously repeated. 5. The method of claim 1 wherein the carrier frequency of the selected RF channel is between 108 MHZ and 400 MHZ. 6. The method of claim 1 wherein the carrier center frequency is within a frequency spectrum designated for use by aircraft communication and aircraft navigation. 7. The method of claim 1 wherein the receiver is off-tuned by between 5 kHz and 100 kHz from a carrier center frequency. 8. The method of claim 1 wherein the receiver is off-tuned by between 100 kHz and 1 MHZ from a carrier center frequency. 9. The method of claim 7 wherein the receiver is off-tuned to a frequency above the carrier center frequency. 10. The method of claim 7 wherein the receiver is off-tuned to a frequency below the carrier center frequency. 11. The method of claim 1 wherein at least one of the measured signal level of the carrier center frequency and the measured signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency are saved to facilitate obtaining the signal level difference. 12. The method of claim 1 wherein the predetermined difference amount is 3 dB. 13. The method of claim 1 further including the step of validating the carrier center frequency measurement if the signal level difference is not less than the predetermined difference amount. 14. The method of claim 1 wherein if the interference condition has not been declared, declaring a signal leakage condition if the signal level of the carrier frequency is greater than a predetermined leakage amount. 15. The method of claim 1 wherein if the interference condition has not been declared, providing an indication of the signal level of the carrier center frequency so that a signal leakage condition can be determined. 16. The method of claim 15 wherein the indication of the signal level of the carrier center frequency is periodically updated. 17. The method of claim 15 wherein the indication of the signal level of the carrier center frequency is updated in real time. 18. The method of claim 1 further including the step of providing an indication of the signal level of the carrier center frequency so that a signal leakage condition can be determined. 19. The method of claim 1 wherein the signal leakage condition is determined to exist if the measured signal level of the carrier center frequency is greater than the equivalent of 20 microvolts per meter measured at three meters. 20. The method of claim 1 wherein the signal leakage condition is determined to exist if the measured signal level of the carrier center frequency is greater than the equivalent of between 5 to 20 microvolts per meter measured at three meters. 21. The method of claim 1 wherein if the interference condition is detected, an alternate RF channel is chosen having a predetermined RF frequency spacing from the selected channel, and steps (a) through (g) are repeated. 22. A method of validating signals and detecting signal leakage in a cable communications system, the cable communications system providing channel programming on a plurality of RF channels, the method comprising: b) measuring a signal level of the carrier center center frequency energy; c) saving the measured signal level of the carrier frequency in memory; d) off-tuning the receiver by a predetermined offset such that an off-tuned carrier frequency, within the same RF television channel allocation but at an alternate to the center carrier frequency location and independent of side band frequency location or coded signals in said channel programming, where carrier center frequency energy and/or side band energy in said channel programming received by said receiver, when off-tuned, should be reduced below carrier center frequency energy in the absence of interference, is selected; e) measuring a signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency energy; f) saving the measured signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency in memory; g) subtracting the signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency from the signal level of the carrier center frequency to obtain a signal level difference; h) declaring an interference condition if the signal level difference is less than a predetermined difference amount; and i) displaying the measured signal level of the carrier center frequency to permit a determination that a signal leakage condition exists. View Dependent Claims (23) 23. The method of claim 22 wherein the signal leakage condition is determined to exist if the interference condition is not declared and the measured signal level of the carrier center frequency is less than a predetermined leakage amount. 24. A system for validating signals and detecting signal leakage in a cable communications system, the cable communications system providing channel programming on a plurality of RF channels, the system comprising: a radio frequency receiver; a computer operatively coupled to the receiver and to a display, the receiver configured to tune to a carrier center frequency of a selected RF channel responsive to the computer, measure a signal level of the carrier center frequency of the selected RF channel, and display the measured signal level on the display; the computer directing the receiver to off-tune by a predetermined offset such that an off-tuned carrier frequency within the same RF television channel allocation but at an alternate location to the center carrier frequency and independent of side band frequency location where carrier center frequency energy and/or side band energy received by said receiver, when off-tuned, should be reduced, is selected, and measure a signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency without requiring detection of a coded signal in said channel programming; and wherein the computer calculates a signal level difference between the signal level of the carrier center frequency and the signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency, and declares an interference condition if the signal level difference is less than a predetermined difference amount. View Dependent Claims (25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35) 25. The system of claim 24 wherein the carrier center frequency of the selected RF channel is between 108 MHZ and 400 MHZ. 26. The system of claim 24 wherein the receiver is off-tuned by between 5 kHz and 100 kHz from a carrier center frequency. 27. The system of claim 24 wherein the receiver is off-tuned by between 100 kHz and 1 MHZ from a carrier center frequency. 28. The system of claim 24 wherein the receiver is off-tuned to a frequency above or below the carrier center frequency. 29. The system of claim 24 wherein the predetermined difference amount is 3 dB. 30. The system of claim 24 wherein if the interference condition has not been declared, the computer provides an indication that a signal leakage condition exists if the signal level of the carrier center frequency is greater than a predetermined leakage amount. 31. The system of claim 24 wherein if an interference condition has not been declared, the display provides an indication of the signal level of the carrier center frequency so that a signal leakage condition can be determined. 32. The system of claim 24 wherein the signal level of the carrier center frequency is periodically updated. 33. The system of claim 24 wherein the computer indicates that a signal leakage condition exists if the measured signal level of the carrier frequency is greater than the equivalent of 20 microvolts per meter measured at three meters. 34. The system of claim 24 wherein the computer indicates that a signal leakage condition exists if the measured signal level of the carrier center frequency is greater than the equivalent of between 5 to 20 microvolts per meter measured at three meters. 35. The system of claim 24 wherein the receiver is off-tuned to a frequency above the carrier center frequency. The present invention relates generally to a system and method for detecting RF (Radio Frequency) leakage in a cable television or CATV system, and more specifically to a system and method for signal validation and leakage detection (RF egress) using an existing RF channel without disruption of the channel subscriber service or channel programming. Cable television is a system for delivering television signals to subscribers or viewers by means of coaxial cable. Additionally, fiber optic cable and microwave links may be used. For a monthly fee, cable television viewers receive a clear picture of local channels, as well as reception of many additional channels, including many channels devoted to movies, sports, news or special events. Originating in 1949 as a way of providing good signal reception to geographic areas where the conventional television signals were weak, cable spread quickly among rural municipalities, and can now be found servicing a majority of the television viewers in the United States. In the 1980's conflict arose between cable television operators and the aviation industry because the frequencies used by the cable television operators to carry television signals shares frequency allocations with frequencies used by the aviation industry, such as air traffic controller and aircraft communication channels. Conventional coaxial cable distribution systems use the 50 MHz to 1 GHz spectrum. When signals of sufficient strength leaked or egressed from a cable plant into the atmosphere, they interfered with those used by the aviation industry for communication and navigation, thus potentially adversely affecting such communications. Accordingly, it is extremely important that the signals used in the downstream portion of the coaxial plant or system do not egress or leak from the coaxial cable plant and propagate into the terrestrial environment. In particular, air traffic control and aircraft communications, which are contained within the 108 MHz to 137 MHz and the 225 MHz to 400 MHz range, may be adversely affected by RF egress. Often, when RF egress occurs at multiple locations in a given area, the effects tend to be multiplicative. This may cause interference with critical air traffic communications. Moreover, such adverse effects may occur at surprisingly and unexpectedly high altitudes due to the radiation patterns and other electromagnetic characteristics of RF egress, the details of which are beyond the scope of this disclosure. Signal leakage can occur in a variety of situations, such as when the shielding of cable cracks or becomes weathered, when connectors become loose, when the cable breaks or when improper or unauthorized connection to the cable system are made. Accordingly, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) requires these frequencies to be monitored for signal egress on a regular basis. Mobile RF leakage detectors have been used to comply with FCC regulations. One example is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,072,899 to Richard L. Shimp, and assigned to the assignee of this invention. The Shimp RF leakage detector detects RF leakage by inserting a unique signal at the headend of the coaxial plant. Using a narrow band receiver, the device detects the unique signal, which indicates RF egress at the location where the measurement takes place. However, this system requires the transmission of a test signal on an RF channel, which precludes use of that channel during testing. Another known ingress/egress system is U.S. Pat. No. 5,777,662 to Dennis A. Zimmerman, and assigned to the assignee of this invention. This system transmits a signal encoded with global positioning system (GPS) data. If a cable fault exists, the transmitted signal is propagated from the cable fault to the headend via ingress, and the GPS data is decoded to determine the location of the cable fault. Egress is also detected by a receiver tuned to a specific frequency. However, the receiver may make erroneous measurements if noise exists of sufficient amplitude in the measured frequency range. Another known mobile RF leakage detector is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,294,937 to Ostteen et al. This RF leakage detector combines a GPS system and a computer control unit to measure RF signal strength, while tracking the corrected distance between the mobile test vehicle and the source of the egress. This data is stored for later analysis. In earlier known RF leakage detectors, the leakage test carrier was independent from normal television carriage. Typically, a unique and audible coding was modulated onto the carrier to assist the operator in determining if the detected signal was truly signal leakage from the system under test. The leakage detector would typically tune to an independent or unused test carrier center frequency, and detect the test signal modulated onto the carrier. A demodulated audio signal would then be passed directly to a speaker, where the user simply listens to the actual test signal for a positive confirmation that a leak exists. Because the modulated signal is detectable far into the receiver's normal near-zero-signal noise floor, hearing the unique audible tone positively confirms that the intercepted leakage or egress represents signal leakage from the cable plant under test. However, the increased demand for a greater number of channels, in both basic cable and premium channel services, and the advent of digital transmission, have highlighted the drawbacks of known RF leakage detectors for coaxial cable plants using a dedicated channel. The current demand for a greater number of channels places a premium on the bandwidth requirements of the cable system. This renders use of a dedicated channel for transmission of a unique test signal impractical and uneconomical. Additionally, known leakage detectors may be susceptible to taking erroneous measurements or indicating “false positive” test results if electromagnetic noise or interference (EMI) exists having sufficient signal strength in the measured frequency range. Such electromagnetic noise may be introduced into the environment by various electronic devices. Residential environments, for example, have many sources electromagnetic noise, such as motors in washing machines, refrigerators, power tools, hair dryers, fans and the like. Further, computers and other electronic equipment generate high frequency noise. Accordingly, a need exists for an RF leakage detector that does not require use of a dedicated test channel with test data injected or encoded therein, and which does not interfere with subscriber programming. Additionally, a need exists for an RF leakage detector that is not susceptible to false readings in the presence of electromagnetic noise. The disadvantages of present signal leakage detectors are substantially overcome with the present invention by providing a novel system and method for signal validation and leakage detection. The present inventive system and method does not encode or inject any test signals into the CATV programming. Accordingly, the subscriber service is not interrupted or degraded in any way. Existing “in use” channels are used to measure the RF carrier signal, which may be leaking from a defective cable or connector. Further, the signal is validated to be sure that the RF receiver is truly receiving RF egress corresponding to the measured RF carrier. Validation permits the user to distinguish between a true RF egress signal and potential noise or electromagnetic interference not related to the CATV plant. Off-tuning from the center frequency of a measured RF carrier by a little as 5 or 10 kHz provides reliable data with respect to the signal level. In particular, once off-tuned, a measured RF signal should be lower in amplitude by a significant amount. If the measured signal level of the off-tuned carrier is not reduced by at least 3 dB from the measured level of the carrier frequency, it is presumed that noise exists in that region and measurements in that frequency region are unreliable. Alternate carrier frequencies may be measured, or the leakage testing may be aborted to avoid “false-positive” test results. More specifically, one embodiment of the present inventive method includes the steps of a) tuning a radio frequency receiver to a carrier frequency of a selected RF channel, b) measuring a signal level of the carrier frequency, c) off-tuning the receiver by a predetermined offset, d) measuring a signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency, e) obtaining a signal level difference between the signal level of the carrier frequency and the signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency to determine if interference exists, f) declaring an interference condition if the signal level difference is less than a predetermined difference amount, and g) providing an indication of the signal level of the carrier frequency to permit a determination of whether a signal leakage condition exists. According to another embodiment, the steps of measuring are performed by receiving signals corresponding to an existing RF carrier frequency that leak from the coaxial cable communications system. In an alternate embodiment, the steps of measuring are preformed passively with no encoding or injecting of test signals into the selected channel or by modifying the channel programming of the selected channel. According to still another embodiment, the carrier frequency of the selected RF channel is between 108 MHz and 400 MHz wherein that frequency range corresponds to the frequency spectrum designated for use by aircraft communication and aircraft control. In yet another embodiment, the receiver is off-tuned by between 5 kHz and 100 kHz from a center frequency of the carrier. In a further embodiment, the receiver is off-tuned by between 100 kHz and 1 MHz from the center frequency of the carrier. The receiver may be off-tuned to a frequency above or below the center frequency of the carrier. In a further embodiment, either the measured signal level of the carrier frequency or the measured signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency is saved to facilitate obtaining the signal level difference. An interference condition is declared if the signal level difference is less than about 3 dB. In another embodiment, the measured signal is validated if an interference condition has not been detected and the signal level difference is not less than the predetermined difference amount. In yet another embodiment, if an interference condition has not been declared, a signal leakage condition is declared if the signal level of the carrier frequency is greater than a predetermined leakage amount. In still another embodiment, an indication of the signal level of the carrier frequency is periodically updated in real time so that a signal leakage condition can be determined. A signal leakage condition is determined to exist if the measured signal level of the carrier frequency is greater than the equivalent of 20 microvolts per meter measured at three meters. According to another embodiment, if the interference condition is detected, an alternate RF channel is chosen having a predetermined RF frequency spacing from the selected channel. The features of the present invention which are believed to be novel are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. The invention, together with further objects and advantages thereof, may best be understood by reference to the following description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 is a waveform of a known television signal; FIG. 2 is an expanded view of the waveform of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a specific embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 4A-4E are pictorial representations of display presentations; and FIG. 5 is a flowchart of a specific embodiment of the present invention. In this written description, the use of the disjunctive is intended to include the conjunctive. The use of definite or indefinite articles is not intended to indicate cardinality. In particular, a reference to “the” object or thing or “an” object or “a” thing is intended to also describe a plurality of such objects or things. It is to be further understood that the title of this section of the specification, namely, “Detailed Description of the Invention” relates to Rules of the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, and is not intended to, does not imply, nor should be inferred to limit the subject matter disclosed herein or the scope of the invention. Referring now to FIG. 1, a typical CATV channel waveform 12 is shown on the screen of a spectrum analyzer, in accordance with NTSC standards. The waveform 12 shows a picture carrier 14, upper side bands 16, lower sidebands 18, a color subcarrier 20 and a sound carrier 22. In the illustrated embodiment, the waveform 12 corresponding to channel 16 is shown with a span of 6 MHz. As shown in FIG. 2, the picture carrier 14 is expanded to show first 24, second 26, and third 28 upper side bands and first 30, second 32, and third 34 lower side bands in greater detail. Typically, the first side band 24, 30, which is located 15.734 kHz from the center frequency 36 of the picture carrier 14, is about 20 dB lower in amplitude from the peak signal level of the picture carrier or channel carrier. Successive side bands are typically 4 dB lower in amplitude than adjacent side bands. Measuring RF signal leakage or egress for compliance with FCC regulations can be difficult in the presence of electromagnetic interference. The present inventive system and method performs egress measurement by receiving signals corresponding to the existing subscriber programming signals or RF carrier frequencies carried via the coaxial cable in the CATV system. The egress measurement process does not interrupt subscriber service because no test signals are injected into the CATV channels, and no test data is encoded and carried from the headend throughout the system. The present inventive process is passive in nature. Referring now to FIG. 3, a block diagram of an RF receiver 40 is shown. The RF receiver 40 may be a dedicated receiver, or it may be a spectrum analyzer or CATV sampling spectrum analyzer. Any suitable narrow band RF receiver or spectrum analyzer may be used to perform the inventive method, provided that the receiver is highly selective, and preferably has a selectivity of about 7.5 kHz. For example, the present method may be performed using the portable sampling spectrum analyzer disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,685,065, Ser. No. 737,217 filed May 23, 1985 and assigned to the owner of the present system and method (this may require modifications to increase selectivity to about 7.5 kHz). Accordingly, the complete disclosure of U.S. Pat. No. 4,685,065 is fully incorporated by reference herein. Alternatively, the following RF receiving devices may be used to perform the present inventive method: the WINDOW family of CATV analyzers with attached SNIFFERLITE module (No. 100395-001) or attached SNIFFERLITE AGILE MODULE (No. 100395-006), the SNIFFER SLEUTH Detector (Nos. 100760-002 and 100760-001), and the SNIFFER SHADOW (No. 101213-001), all of which are commercially available from Comsonics, Inc., of Harrisonburg, Va., the assignee of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 3, an antenna 42 is provided to receive the RF signals radiated by the coaxial cable 44. The antenna 42 is preferably a directional antenna. The antenna 42 is coupled to a first tunable or tracking band pass filter 46, the selectivity of which corresponds to the frequency spectrum of interest, which is preferably 108 MHz to 150 MHz. The output of the first band pass filter 46 is then routed to an RF amplifier 48, the output of which is then routed to a second tunable or tracking band pass filter 50. The second band pass filter 50 reduces or eliminates signal distortions that may be caused by the RF amplifier 48. A computer or processor system 56 is included to control the RF receiver 40, and is shown in dashed lines. The computer system 56 preferably includes a microprocessor 58 or a single chip microprocessor having incorporated therein memory 60 (RAM for data storage and ROM for program storage), input/output ports 62, timing circuitry (not shown) and the like. However, any suitable microprocessor, computer, processor and the like may be used, as is known by one skilled in the art. Multiple components, however, may also be used to construct the microprocessor or computer portion 56 of the RF receiver 40. The computer 56 may utilize any suitable computer, processor, central processing unit, microprocessor, RISC (reduced instruction set computer), single chip computer, controller, micro-controller or discrete logic device, as is known to one skilled in the art. The microprocessor 58 receives input from a variety of switches 64. The switches 64 (data entry keys or numeric key or keypads) may be included to permit the user to enter numbers or commands into the microprocessor 58. In one specific embodiment, the user may enter data, such as the distance between the RF receiver 40 and the source of suspected RF egress, as described in greater detail hereinafter. Various alarms may also be reset by depression of the appropriate switch 64. The microprocessor 58 is coupled to a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) 66, which is in turn connected to a third band pass filter 68, which need not be a tunable band pass filter. Note that the first and second band pass filters 46, 50 may be controlled by signals 74 from the microprocessor 58. The microprocessor 58 controls tuning of the VCO 66 via control lines 76, and additionally, the VCO provides data back to the microprocessor via status lines 78 so that exact tuning of the VCO is accomplished. A mixer 80 is provided to perform the tuning function. The mixer 80 receives its first input from the output of the second band pass filter 50, and receives its second input from the output of the third band pass filter 68. Only a single mixer is needed, rather than two mixers, because preferably, the IF frequency used is a relatively high frequency, around 45 MHz, and the spectrum of interest is relatively narrow. The output of the mixer 80 is then routed to a first IF (intermediate frequency) band pass filter 86 to eliminate all but the IF signal of interest. The IF signal is then amplified by an IF amplifier 88. The output of the IF amplifier 88 is then coupled to a second IF band pass filter 90 to eliminate any amplifier induced distortion and to improve the selectivity of the receiver 40. The output of the second IF band pass filter 90 is then coupled to the input of a log amplifier 92. The log amplifier 92 permits a wide range of signal levels to be measured without requiring numerous attenuators and gain switching devices to break up or “divide” the input signal into appropriate amplitude ranges. The log amplifier 92 essentially compresses the range of the large signals without significantly affecting the range of the small signals. This permits relatively high sensitivity for weak signals. The output of the log amplifier 92 is then routed to an IF detector 94 to measure the peak signal level of the measured RF signal. The output of the detector 94 is then amplified by a DC amplifier 96, and the signal is converted from an analog signal to a digital signal by an A/ID converter 98. The A/D converter 98 is preferably an eight bit or ten bit converter 98. Data from the A/D converter 98 is received by the microprocessor 58, and is processed to provide a signal level measurement. The microprocessor 58 provides output data to an LCD driver 100, which in turn, controls an LCD display 102. The LCD display provides an indication of measured signal level, as well as other information as described below. As can be understood by one skilled in the art, the RF receiver 40 of FIG. 3 may be constructed using few components. Because the RF receiver 40 is preferably dedicated to performing specific RF measurements in the above-described spectrum of interest, its complexity is much lower relative to general purpose signal level measuring devices. It is therefore contemplated that the RF receiver 40 may be hand-held, and may be of similar dimension and weight as a commercially available pager. In such a device, a battery (not shown) would provide electrical power. Alternatively, the present inventive method described below may be incorporated into a more complex device, such as the spectrum analyzer described above with respect to U.S. Pat. No. 4,685,065. However, any suitable narrow band RF receiver may be used to implement the present inventive method. Referring now to FIGS. 4A-4E, various display presentations are shown on the LCD display 102. Preferably, an LCD display 102 (FIG. 3) is used due to its low power consumption and readability. In the illustrated embodiment, the LCD display 102 shows an indication of measured signal strength 110, units of measurement 112, remaining battery power 114, whether noise or interference is detected 116, whether leakage is detected 118, and an indication of measured signal level 120. Any suitable display, however, may be used, such as an appropriately dimensioned CRT display, LCD display, electro-luminescent display, plasma display, LED display and the like. Referring back to FIG. 3 according to one specific embodiment, the RF receiver 40 is tuned to the carrier frequency of a selected channel. Note that generally, the RF receiver 40 is preferably tuned to the video carrier rather than to the sound carrier due to its greater signal strength. The present method is based upon the detection of egress or signal leakage of existing RF carriers in the CATV system, therefore the RF receiver may be tuned to any active RF channel in the CATV system. Note that the RF receiver 40 is not directly coupled to the coaxial cable 44 in any way. Rather, RF signals that egress from the coaxial cable 44 or connectors are received by the antenna 42 of the RF receiver 40. Essentially, any RF signals leaking from a defect or break in the coaxial cable 44 radiate outward from the cable as if being transmitted by an antenna, although the strength of the radiated signal or egress is dependent upon the nature of the defect or break in the cable or connectors and the RF frequency of the emissions. Although the RF receiver 40 may be tuned to any active CATV channel, preferably, the RF receiver is tuned to a video carrier frequency within the frequency spectrum designated for use by aircraft communication and aircraft control. This is because the FAA is particularly concerned with interference cause by CATV systems in this frequency region and therefore mandates testing within this frequency band. For example, the RF receiver 40 may be tuned to frequencies between 108 MHz and 400 MHz. This range of frequencies may be further divided into two frequency regions, namely 108 MHz to 137 MHz and 225 MHz to 400 MHz. If the RF leakage or egress is of sufficient strength, the RF receiver 40 will receive the signal. However, as described above, one drawback of known systems and methods for egress detection is that such systems and methods can be “fooled” in the presence of noise or electromagnetic interference. If such noise is present in the frequency region of the RF carrier signal being measured, known methods may provide a false positive indication because the noise may be mistaken for the signal of interest. Referring now to FIG. 5, a specific embodiment of a flowchart of the present method is shown. As shown in a step 200, the method begins, and an RF channel is selected, as shown in a step 202. The narrow band receiver then tunes to the center carrier frequency of the selected RF channel, as shown in a step 204, and the signal level of the carrier frequency is measured, as indicated in a step 206. As shown in a step 208, the measured signal level of the carrier frequency is then saved in the memory. Next, as shown in a step 212, the receiver is then off-tuned by an amount or offset, preferably between 5 kHz to 100 kHz from the center frequency of the selected channel. Alternately, the receiver may be off-tuned by an amount between 5 kHz to 1 MHz from the center frequency of the selected channel. The receiver may be off-tuned either above or below the center frequency of the selected channel. The signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency is then measured, as shown in a step 220, and saved in the memory, as illustrated in a step 222. Next, as shown in a step 224, the measured signal level of the off-tuned carrier is subtracted from the measured signal level of the carrier frequency to obtain a signal level difference. Note that the steps of saving both the measured signals level of the carrier frequency and the measured signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency are not required to obtain the signal level difference value. For example, one of the values may be saved and the other value may be measured to obtain the signal level difference value. In an alternate embodiment, two receivers may be included in the RF receiver where one receiver measures the signal strength of the carrier frequency while the other measures the signal strength of the off-tuned carrier frequency. The measurements may be performed in real-time so as to obviate the steps of storing the values in specific memory locations. Additionally, the absolute order of the steps in not important. For example, it is equivalent to first measure the signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency before measuring the signal level of the carrier frequency without departing from the scope and spirit of the present inventive method. Next, as shown in a step 225, the signal strength is shown. Displaying the signal strength is optional at this point within the program, and is shown again in a step 252 below. This is because that in some embodiments, the operator of the device would find it useful to know the value of measured signal strength regardless of whether or not inference exists. After the signal level difference has been obtained, it is compared to a predetermined minimum difference value, as shown in a step 226. An interference condition is declared if the signal level difference is less than 3 dB, as shown in a step 230. This means that the signal level of the off-tuned carrier frequency is within about 3 dB of the signal level of the carrier frequency. According to the waveform shown in FIG. 2, however, the signal strength of the carrier frequency measured at an “offset” frequency of about 5 kHz to 100 kHz away from the center frequency should be significantly reduced from the peak value. Specifically, the first side band should be about 20 dB lower in amplitude than the signal level of the center frequency. Even moving away or off-tuning from the center frequency of the RF carrier by as little as 5 kHz should yield a significant reduction in signal level, which is a premise of the present inventive method. If the measured value of the off-tuned carrier frequency is not significantly lower than the measured value of the center frequency of the carrier by at least the amount specified by the minimum difference value of about 3 dB, it is assumed that some form of noise or electromagnetic interference exists in the vicinity of the selected carrier frequency. Conversely, it is assumed that if the signal strength of the off-tuned frequency is lower than the signal strength of the center frequency of the carrier by an amount that exceeds the minimum difference value, that interfering noise does not exist within the frequency range of interest. Accordingly, if the minimum difference value is not exceeded, the measurement is deemed to be validated, and the measured signal strength of the carrier represents egress or RE leakage in the vicinity where the signal is being measured. If the interference condition is detected, the noise presumably causing the interference condition is typically wide band in nature. Electrical noise generated in the environments in which CATV testing is conducted, such as noise generated by motors and other electrical equipment, is known to be wide band, typically spanning several megahertz. Of course, this is only a well-recognized presumption in a real-world environment, and nothing precludes an anomaly where narrow band noise happens to be generated. Referring back to the flowchart of FIG. 5, the interference condition was declared, as shown in the step 230 if the signal level difference is less than about 3 dB. In an alternate embodiment, this value may modified to be, for example, about 6 dB. Any suitable signal level difference may be used. In the context of the above discussion regarding electromagnetic noise, it is assumed that if the receiver measures a signal that is relatively strong at the frequency off-tuned from the center frequency of the carrier, then the receiver is measuring a noise signal. As described above, the signal strength of the off-tuned carrier should be significantly lower than the signal strength of the center frequency of the carrier. If this is not the case, then the measured signal level of both the center frequency of the carrier and the off-tuned frequency of the carrier are assumed to be noise signals, and the measurements are ignored, and the interference condition declared, as shown in the step 230. Note that as described above, the system is preferably not a “go-no-go” system. Rather, the signal strength is preferably displayed regardless of whether interference is declared or not. The user may be informed of the interference condition in many different ways, as shown in a step 236. For example, the RF receiver may provide an audio signal, such as an audible alarm, a visual signal, such as a warning light or flashing indicator. Further, the LCD display 102 (FIGS. 4A-4E) may provide graphic, character or numeric representation 116 (FIGS. 4A, 4D) or cause the display flash, as is known in the art. The RF receiver may provide any suitable form of indication to the user to inform the user that an interference condition or noise exists. Alternatively, the user may be apprised of the interference condition via failure of the RF receiver to provide or register any indication of measured signal strength, because an accurate reading cannot be taken in the presence of the noise. Accordingly, failure to display the measured signal strength would also inform the user that the interference condition exists. Next, as shown in a step 238, if the interference condition was detected, the program optionally checks to determine if a different or alternate RF carrier should be selected, as shown in a step 238. If alternate channels are to be tested, as shown in the “yes” branch of the step 238, the alternate channel is set, as shown in a step 240, and control passes back to the step 200 to begin the process. Measurement of an RF carrier removed by, for example, between 6 to 8 MHz (consistent with the channel allocations), may permit a valid measurement if no noise exists in that region. Such alternate carrier frequencies may be stored in a table in the memory or may be calculated knowing the carrier frequency spacing in the spectrum of interest. Of course, the carrier frequency spacing is dependent upon the CATV system in use and the particular country in which the CATV system exists. If no alternate channels are to be tested, as shown in a “no” branch of the step 238, control passes to the step 200 to continue processing in a continuous loop without modification of the tuning of the carrier frequency. Steps 238 and 240 are optional and are preferably not performed because, noise, if present, typically spans a frequency region so wide so as to preclude all frequency measurements in the spectrum of interest. Next, as shown in a step 250, the signal is validated if the interference condition was not declared. This means that the RF receiver properly received a signal when tuned to the center frequency of the carrier and did not receive a signal (or received a signal of sufficiently low strength) when off-tuned from that carrier. Accordingly, it is assumed that noise does not exist in the frequency region of interest. Signal validation is important because it assists the user or technician performing the tests. Signal validation eliminates “false positive” indications where the technician could mistake noise signals for RF leakage or egress signals, as occurs with known devices. The measured signal level 120 (FIGS. 4B, 4C, 4E) of the center frequency of the carrier is then displayed on the LCD display, as shown in a step 252. As shown in a step 260, the measured signal level of the center frequency of the carrier is compared against a value of 20 microvolts per meter measured at three meters. This value is the maximum measured signal strength allowable by the FCC. However, any suitable threshold value may be used, for example, 5 to 20 microvolts per meter measured at three meters, or its equivalent. Any measured signal strength above this amount is considered to be unacceptable RF leakage or egress. Of course, the signal strength measured is always proportional to the distance between the point of RF egress and RF receiver. Accordingly, the measured signal level of the center frequency must normalized. One way to normalize the measurement is to set a fixed allowed maximum value, such as 20 microvolts per meter measured at three meters, which requires that the user place the RF receiver (or antenna input) at three meters from the cable or suspected point of RF leakage. This approach is preferable because is simplifies construction and programming of the RF receiver. Alternately, the user could measure the distance between the cable or suspected point of egress and the RF receiver, and input the distance measurement into the RF receiver via keyboard or keypad 64 (FIG. 3). This embodiment, however, is more costly because additional hardware, such as the keyboard or keypad is required. In this case, it is a simple task for the microprocessor 58 (FIG. 3) to normalize or calculate an equivalent signal strength. The LCD display indicates the units of measurement 112, as shown in FIGS. 4A and 4D with respect to noise, and FIGS. 4B, 4C and 4E with respect to leakage measurement. Different units of measurement may be shown depending upon the intended country of use. In either case, if the measured signal strength 120 (FIGS. 4B, 4C, 4E) of the center frequency of the carrier is greater than 20 microvolts per meter measured at three meters (or its normalized equivalent), as shown in the step 260, a signal leakage or egress condition is declared, as shown in a step 262. Again, any suitable threshold value may be used, as described above. This value represents the maximum measured signal strength for RF leakage or egress permitted under FCC regulations. Declaration of a leakage condition may be done expressly, as shown by the leakage indication on the LCD display, or may be accomplished in a variety of suitable ways, as described above with respect to declaring an interference condition, namely, a visual or audio indication, or other LCD display-based indications. Preferably, no express egress condition need be declared. Rather, the user can determine if an egress condition exists simply by viewing the value of the signal strength of the center frequency of the carrier shown on the display. The LCD display is periodically updated in real-time, or in such rapid succession so as to appear to the user to be real time. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, the display may be updated with the measured value of the signal strength of the center frequency of the carrier between five and ten times per second. This would permit the user to move about the test environment to check for RF leakage. This would permit the user to move about and determine whether the validated measured signal strength was increasing or decreasing, with the object of the investigation being to identify the location of the egress. As the user approached the source of the egress, the measured signal strength would increase. Conversely, as the user moved away from the source of the egress, the measured signal strength would decrease. Once the user receives a validated signal (i.e., lack of “noise” indication) and discovers the approximate location of the signal egress, the user could move within a predetermined “qualifying” distance from the suspected egress location, for example, three meters, and simply views the display to determine if the signal is of sufficient strength (for example, 20 microvolts per meter measured at three meters) so as to be deemed to be RF leakage or egress. Note that the measurement of the off-tuned receiver is also repeated continuously, but need not be repeated as rapidly as the measurement of the signal level of the carrier. Because the VCO 66 (FIG. 3) and related circuitry in the RF receiver requires settling time after it is tuned (or off tuned) to a new frequency, a time delay is required between such measurements. Accordingly, the receiver preferably performs one measurement of the off-tuned carrier for every five measurements of the center frequency of the carrier. Of course, any suitable “duty cycle” of measurement may be used. Alternately, a 1:1 duty cycle may be used where each measurement of the signal strength of the carrier frequency is followed (or preceded) by the measurement of the signal strength of the off-tuned carrier frequency. Still referring to the flowchart of FIG. 5, if the measured signal level of the center frequency of the carrier is less than the maximum allowed value of 20 microvolts per meter measured at three meters or its normalized equivalent, as shown by a “no” branch of the step 260, control then branches back to the step 200 to continuously repeat the test procedure. Specific embodiments of a system and method for validating and measuring signal leakage according to the present invention have been described for the purpose of illustrating the manner in which the invention may be made and used. It should be understood that implementation of other variations and modifications of the invention and its various aspects will be apparent to those skilled in the art, and that the invention is not limited by the specific embodiments described. It is therefore contemplated to cover by the present invention any and all modifications, variations, or equivalents that fall within the true spirit and scope of the basic underlying principles disclosed and claimed herein. ComSonics, Inc. Runzo, Joseph Donald NGUYEN BA, HOANG VU A 725/143, 725/107, 725/124, 725/125, 725/150, 455/67.13, 455/226.2, 455/226.4, 455/63.1 H04B17/0085 : using test signal generators H04B17/23 : Indication means, e.g. disp... H04B17/309 : Measuring or estimating cha... H04B17/345 : Interference values H04B17/... H04B17/354 : Adjacent channel leakage power H04L1/24 : Testing correct operation H04N17/00 : Diagnosis, testing or measu... H04N7/17309 : Transmission or handling of... Current Assignee: ComSonics, Inc. Sponsoring Entity: ComSonics, Inc.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1376
__label__cc	0.588431	0.411569	Adaptive low-light image processing 1. A method for enhancing imaging in low light conditions, comprising: acquiring image data relating to a plurality of consecutive images; applying spatial and temporal filtering to a signal corresponding to the acquired image data; detecting local motion indication in the filtered image data; filtering the detected local motion indication; using a look up table, said look up table assigning greater weights to areas of greater local motion indication and lower weights to areas of smaller local motion indication, to obtain a local motion factor; and producing final image data by combining the acquired image data with a temporally filtered signal of the acquired image data using the local motion factor. A method for enhancing imaging in low light conditions, comprising: acquiring image data relating to a plurality of consecutive images; determining a local motion factor relating to the consecutive images by specifically processing the consecutive images in a predetermined manner in order to obtain an image mask that represents information about local motion; and processing the consecutive images, incorporating the image mask, to obtain final usable image information. METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR REMOVING IMAGE NOISE Trustees Of Columbia University In The City Of New York University-Industry Cooperation Group of KyungHee University Method and apparatus for image stabilization using multiple image captures Aptina Imaging Corporation Noise Cancellation Device for an Image Signal Processing System Novatek Microelectronics Corporation CONTENT AWARE SELECTIVE ADJUSTING OF MOTION ESTIMATION Interfacing application programs and motion sensors of a device Invensense Incorporated Vertically integrated 3-axis MEMS angular accelerometer with integrated electronics Integrated motion processing unit (MPU) with MEMS inertial sensing and embedded digital electronics Controlling and accessing content using motion processing on mobile devices MEMS rotation sensor with integrated electronics Method for temporally adaptive filtering of frames of a noisy image sequence using motion estimation Intellectual Ventures Fund 83 LLC Video tap for a digital motion camera that simulates the look of post processing Monument Peak Ventures LLC Moving table MRI with frequency-encoding in the z-direction Block noise detector and block noise eliminator Method of and apparatus for segmenting a pixellated image Sharp Electronics Corporation Image processing method, system and apparatus for noise reduction in an image sequence representing a threadlike moving object Motion vector field error estimation HB COMMUNICATIONS UK LTD. LEITCH EUROPE LIMITED Method and system for detection of lesions in medical images ARCH Development Corporation Dot clock recovery method and apparatus Hitachi America Limited Signal adaptive filtering method and signal adaptive filter for reducing blocking effect and ringing noise Spatial and temporal filtering mechanism for digital motion video signals VXtreme Inc. Method for simultaneous detection of multiple fluorophores for in situ hybridization and multicolor chromosome painting and banding Applied Spectral Imaging Ltd., Applied Spectral Imaging Ltd. Migdal IL Noise filtering US Philips Corporation Adaptive postprocessing system for reducing blocking effects and ringing noise in decompressed image signals Medical radiological apparatus including optical crosshair device for patient positioning and forearm and spinal positioning aides Hologic Incorporated Video signal noise reduction system using time-varying filter coefficients Panasonic Corporation Of North America Matsushita Electric Corporation Of America Noise reducing system Hitachi Denshi Kabushiki Kaisha, Hitachi Ltd. View Dependent Claims (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10) 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of consecutive images are acquired in different acquisition conditions. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the plurality of consecutive images are acquired using different exposure times. 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the plurality of consecutive images are acquired using different aperture. 5. The method of claim 2, wherein the plurality of consecutive images are acquired using different focusing distance. 6. The method of claim 1, carried out in an image domain. 7. The method of claim 1, carried out in a compressed image domain. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the compressed image domain is JPEG or MPEG. 9. The method as claimed in claim 1, wherein the signal corresponding to the acquired image data comprises a luminance signal extracted from the acquired image data. 10. The method as claimed in claim 9, wherein the luminance signal is obtained by performing color desaturation. PRIORITY REFERENCE TO PRIOR APPLICATION This application claims benefit of U.S. provisional patent application no. 60/453,286, filed on Mar. 11, 2003, and is hereby incorporated by reference. The present invention relates to improving sensitivity of video cameras and digital still cameras. More particularly it relates to improving the sensitivity of video cameras or digital still cameras by using an adaptive low-light processing method. With the advent of compact digital technology it becomes increasingly possible to introduce and implement various digital signal-processing methods in a range of products enhancing significantly their performance. Digital video and still cameras are good candidates for such integration. Modern cameras employ sensors, such as CCD (Charge Coupled Device) or CMOS (Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor), which are sampled to produce a digital signal, which is further processed by a special purpose DSP (Digital Signal Processing) device. First approaches to temporal noise reduction appeared in literature in the early eighties (see for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,296,436 (Achiha), and E. Dubois, “Noise Reduction in Image Using Motion-Compensated Temporal Filtering”, IEEE Transactions on Communications, vol. COM-32, No. 7, pp. 826-831 (July 1984)). In these works simple adaptation of filter coefficients based on the difference between the incoming frame and the frame previously stored in the memory was used to adaptively smooth camera noise. In cases where motion is substantial, filter coefficients were chosen such that mostly the current frame reflecting the moving object was presented in the final image, whereas in areas with low-motion the temporal filtering have been strong leading to the significant noise suppression. Various modifications of the basic scheme have been introduced during the following years (see U.S. Pat. No. 5,600,731 (Sezan et al.), and U.S. Pat. No. 5,442,407 (Iu)). Later on, the methods for adaptive temporal filtering have been adopted for various applications, such as adaptive cleaning of the MPEG movies (U.S. Pat. No. 6,281,942 (Wang)) and using the local vs. global motion estimation considerations (U.S. Pat. No. 6,115,502, (De Haan et al.)). There is thus provided, in accordance with some preferred embodiments of the present invention, a method for enhancing imaging in low light conditions, comprising: determining a local motion factor relating to the consecutive images by specifically processing the consecutive images in a predetermined manner in order to obtain an image mask that represents information about local motion; and processing the consecutive images, incorporating the image mask, to obtain final usable image information. Furthermore, in accordance with some preferred embodiments of the present invention, the step of processing the consecutive images in a predetermined manner in order to obtain information about the local motion factor comprising using spatial and temporal filters. Furthermore, in accordance with some preferred embodiments of the present invention, the spatial and the temporal filters are employed on the mask. Furthermore, in accordance with some preferred embodiments of the present invention, the plurality of consecutive images are acquired in different conditions. Furthermore, in accordance with some preferred embodiments of the present invention, the plurality of consecutive images are acquired using different exposure times. Furthermore, in accordance with some preferred embodiments of the present invention, the plurality of consecutive images are acquired using different aperture. Furthermore, in accordance with some preferred embodiments of the present invention, the plurality of consecutive images are acquired using different focusing distance. Furthermore, in accordance with some preferred embodiments of the present invention, the method is carried out in an image domain. Furthermore, in accordance with some preferred embodiments of the present invention, the method is carried out in a compressed image domain. Furthermore, in accordance with some preferred embodiments of the present invention, the compressed image domain is JPEG or MPEG. Furthermore, in accordance with some preferred embodiments of the present invention, before the step of determining a local motion factor the image data undergoes color desaturation. Furthermore, in accordance with some preferred embodiments of the present invention, there is provided a device for enhancing imaging in low light conditions relating to a plurality of consecutive images acquired in low light conditions, comprising: a module for determining a local motion factor relating to the consecutive images by specifically processing the consecutive images in a predetermined manner in order to obtain an image mask that represents information about local motion; and a module for processing the consecutive images, incorporating the image mask, to obtain final usable image information. Furthermore, in accordance with some preferred embodiments of the present invention, the module for determining local motion factor comprises spatial and temporal filters. Furthermore, in accordance with some preferred embodiments of the present invention, the module for determining local motion factor includes color desaturation. In order to better understand the present invention, and appreciate its practical applications, the following Figures are provided and referenced hereafter. It should be noted that the Figures are given as examples only and in no way limit the scope of the invention. Like components are denoted by like reference numerals. FIG. 1a illustrates a schematic overview of a method for enhancing low-light images, in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 1b illustrates schematically the incorporation of a method of enhancing low-light images according to the present invnetion with an image acquiring device. FIG. 1c illustrates schematically the use of a method of enhancing low-light images according to the present invnetion on previously acquired video data. FIG. 1d illustrates schematically a method for enhancing low-light images, in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2a illustrates an original image produced by a camera with common processing. FIG. 2b illustrates an output image produced with the method of the present invention. The visibility of details in the image is greatly increased, while color is preserved in the still portions of the image and is reduced in the moving parts (human figure). FIG. 2c illustrates an original image produced by a camera with common processing, where the output has been enhanced by a Gamma function to increase visibility. It is seen that the output becomes infested with strong color noise. FIG. 2d illustrates an output image produced with temporal filtering of the acquired image information. It is seen that the moving object (human figure) is strongly smeared. FIG. 3a illustrates an original image produced by a camera with common processing (black and white). FIG. 3b illustrates an output image produced with the method of the present invention. The visibility of details in the image is greatly increased. FIG. 3c illustrates an original image produced by a camera with common processing, where the output has been enhanced by a Gamma function to increase visibility. It is seen that the output becomes infested with strong noise. FIG. 3d illustrates an output image produced with temporal filtering of the acquired image information. It is seen that the moving object is strongly smeared. FIG. 4a illustrates an image produced by the camera with long exposure—and some motion blur due to camera motion—the image is vary clean but blurry. FIG. 4b illustrates an image produced by the camera with short exposure, after it was equalized to compensate digitally for the exposure difference. The image is noisy, but has less blur, and more details. FIG. 4c illustrates an output image produced with the method of the present invention. The overall noise of the image is reduced, while the image has more details. FIG. 4d illustrates an output image produced using the method of the present invention with different parameters. The present invention is aimed at enhancing low-light imaging, by increasing sensitivity. The method of the present invention is suitable for enhancing the performance of digital cameras in low-light conditions, in the process of acquiring images, but the method of the present invention may also be used to improve images. Images acquired in low light conditions usually suffer from motion blurring, caused by long-exposure times, and oversaturation of color. Blurring occurs at areas of the image where motion is present during the actual acquisition of the image. It is asserted that the quality of low-light images can significantly be improved if a plurality of images are acquired, and a motion factor is locally determined with respect to areas of the images. The motion factor is used in the production of an image mask, which assigns weights to respective areas of the plurality of images, giving greater weights to information from the last image in areas where motion is substantial or greater weights to averaged information from the plurality of images in zones where little or no motion exists. Furthermore it is asserted that the quality of low-light images can be significantly improved where special treatment is given to the luminance components deduced from the image signal. This treatment is characterized by processing that does not necessarily yield usable image data, however this processing enables determination and provision of a motion detection mask. This may be achieved by using different filters that those normally used in the proccesing of usable image data, or by using similar filters to those used in the processing of usable image data, but under different parameters or same parameters but in different ranges. In accordance with the present invention, the image signal is to be separated, the luminance signal separately processed, and then the processed luminance recombined with the complete image data to produce the final image (or series of images, when video signal is considered). The novel aspect of the present invention lies mainly in the separate refining of the luminance components of the image signal, and recombining the processed signal with the remaining components of the image signal (which may indeed to be processed). The recombined image signal may too undergo further processing. Reference is made to FIG. la, illustrating a schematic overview of a method for enhancing low-light images, in accordance with a preferred embodiment of the present invention. Input image signal 10 (such as raw image data, but other initial image data may be used too) undergoes two separate processes: in one process—which is the novel aspect of the present invention—the input image signal is treated to extract a motion factor 14 (using a signal that has undergone color desaturation 12, preferably to produce a black and white signal), whereas in the other process, the signal is filtered, preferably spatially 18 and temporaly 16, to refine the signal and obtain a balanced signal. The motion factor is used in the filtering process and a combined signal undergoes motion detection filtering 20 (by employing a local mask produced using local motion detection results). The resulting processed signal is then preferably combined with information from the original image signal and temporally filtered 22 again, to produce the final output image signal 24. The method of the present invention may be incorporated in an image acquiring device (such as a digital camera, or video camera and other image acquiring devices). Image data picked up by the sensor 30 is processed in accordance with the adaptive low-light processing method 32 (which may be incorporated in the image acquiring device in the form of software or hardware) of the present invention, and the processed signal is then further processed by the device's digital signal processor (DSP) 34. Alternatively the method of the present invention may be used on a previously acquired video signal. FIG. 1c illustrates schematically the use of a method of enhancing low-light images according to the present invnetion on previously acquired video data. Previously acquired video data 36 is processed in accordance with the adaptive low-light processing method 32 to produce a final video output signal 38. An input image signal 10 is acquired using an imaging means (for example a digital camera). The acquired signal comprising several frames (at least two) is accumulated in memory or on the camera sensor, and is passed through spatial and temporal adaptive filters to obtain the final result, which is acceptable to the human observer. However, if the images are acquired in low-lighting conditions, the noise levels present in the acquired signal are extremely high, rendering a straightforward estimation of motion non-useful. Therefore, the novel method of the present invention for robust motion estimation is introduced. Prior to motion estimation the image signal is preferably subjected to a spatial filter 42 (which may be for example a spatial IIR filter, MD in FIG. 1d designates Motion Detection, indicating that this is a part of the motion detection processing of the present invention), which prevents erroneous motion detection and causes spreading of the motion pixels to areas reflecting moving parts in the image. Additionally, motion indication is also stored in the frame memory 48 and filtered temporally (temporal IIR filter 50) to enable subsequent consistent and smooth filtering of the frame sequence. Moreover, the method of the present invention introduces a solution to cases were only as few as two or more images can be acquired to reproduce the final image, as is the case of digital still photography. As opposed to previous methods, the method of the present invention makes it is possible to utilize the ability of the camera sensor to produce a sequence of images with different integration times (this feature is typically be found in many digital cameras), suggesting that part of the time filtering is carried out on the sensor itself, at longer integration times, and more accurate data on moving parts is retrieved from the shorter integration parts of the image, as defined by the motion detection part. The method of the present invention for adaptive filtering is applied directly to the sensor's mosaic data (as in CCD or CMOS sensors) signal output, operating separately on each of the chrominance components. However, using the fact that human eye is relatively sensitive to the color noise caused by mistakenly reconstructed color signal, a cross-filtering of various chrominance components is performed in order to reduce color noise. The scheme shown in FIG. 1d basically consists of two major blocks and a memory for storing previously accumulated image data and indication data relating to motion detection. The first block deals with motion estimation indication. Since the present invention relates to images with high noise levels, simple motion detection, which is usually used for the adaptive filtering, is not suited for the job here, as it does not produce a stable indication. There is an inherently different relation in the present invention between the motion detection part and the filtering part. The second block (relating to filtering) requires a minimum level of spatial filtering (averaging) and this is for several reasons: In regions of the image where no moving parts exist it is preferable to perform strong temporal filtering in order not to decrease resolution. In regions of the image with motion, it is preferable to perform a weak temporal filtering (or no filtering at all) in order to let the eye activate its internal mechanism, which enables motion detection. Furthermore, it is necessary to preserve the color components in order to reconstruct color output image. Motion detection mechanism requires a comparison between a reference image and the image produced with minimal temporal averaging, because strong temporal averaging may delay and harm the detection quality in parts where motion exists. Therefore, it is preferable to compare the reference image to the current image with spatial averaging, large as needed. Since the reference image and the current image have to have similar characteristics in order to be compared, it is not possible to use the output image for the motion detection, but to produce an in-dependent reference image. Therefore, the present invention involves separating between motion detection and filtering. Prior to motion detection, simple averaging block is used to sum color components in order to get a signal with better signal-to-noise ratio—SNR (color desaturation 12). Additional spatial filtering and temporal filtering is applied to the image signal to produce feasible motion detection signal. These filtering operations are illustrated in the drawing of FIG. 1d as MD Spatial IIR Filter 42 and MD Pre Temporal IIR Filter 44 blocks. The spatial filter is preferably a first-order two-dimensional IIR filter with adjustable coefficient that might be tuned to match the level of the noise and it is used to smooth different color components. The pre-temporal filter is also used to clean the image signal and actually bears the history of the signal, which is used for comparison with the current frame. It also has an adjustable coefficient to enable tuning of the desired history length. Following the pre-temporal IIR filter 44 another temporal filter(MD post temporal IIR filter) 46 is used to further smooth the indication about the motion. The purpose of this additional smoothing is to eliminate sharp transitions in the motion indication, which will lead to abrupt changes in the final filtered image. Again, the coefficients of the post-temporal filter might be adapted to provide a final user with the desired measure of filtering as opposed to the noise visibility. The output from the pre-temporal and post-temporal filters is stored in the frame memory 48 together with data from the temporal filter 50. A look-up table 52 is introduced in order to normalize the motion detection to the intensity level of the signal in order to provide a similar response to motion for all portions of the images disregarding the brightness. Look-up table 52 is responsible for tuning the coefficients of the final temporal filter 50 according to motion parameter. It allows fine-tuning of the extent of the temporal low-pass filter, which performs stronger filtering in “still” regions of the image and less significant filtering in “moving” regions. The plus sign 56 indicates addition, whereas the cross-sign 58 indicates multiplication. In some applications of the present invention, Digital Signal Processing (DSP) can be made to get access to a limited number of frames in order to produce an output image, as is the case of digital still cameras (DSC) were the time to unload the data from the sensor is too long to allow large number of acquired frames per output result. In this case, we use smaller number of frames, were each frame has different integration time, i.e. the time domain integration is done on the sensor itself for part of the frames, and the motion detection filter is comparing the different frames, after passing through the equalization block, that compensates digitally for the different exposures. The Pix Mixer 60 block serves to decrease the color noise present in the reconstructed image. Color noise is very disturbing to the human observer and while the noise remains in the image during motion it is desirable at least to reduce the colorfulness of the signal and display it in more grayish tones. Exploring the difference between adjacent pixels, which have different color filters on the sensor, produces color in the complementary mosaic CCD based camera. To render more grayish (neutral) tones it is possible to average close mosaic pixels to produce more uniform signal out of which color would be reconstructed. The mixture between the incoming signal (filtered mosaic pixel) and the average of adjacent image signal provides the means for reducing color noise and for improving signal-to-noise ratio. The extent of using averaging as opposed to the pixel itself provides the motion detection parameter from the previous stage. Another example of applying the method of the present invention is illustrated in FIGS. 3a-d, refering to black and white (gray-scale) imaging. It should be emphasized regarding the operation of the present invention is that filtering is performed separately on the each mosaic component, thus requiring the use of two delay lines to make spatial IIR filtering in order to bring in respectful mosaic components. FIG. 4a illustrates an image produced by the camera with long exposure —and some motion blur due to camera motion—the image is vary clean but blurry. Note that the images shown in the figures are provided in black and white due to drawing restrictions only (apart from FIGS. 3a-d which were originally in black and white). The present invention indeed is suitable for color, as well as gray scale imaging. The plurality of images acquired to be used in the method of the present invnetion can be acquired under different conditions, such as different exposure times, different aperture, different focusing distance, and possibly other varying* parameters. The method of the present invention can be implemented in the image domain as well as in the compressed image domain (such as in JPEG or MPEG modes). The method of the present invention may be implemented as software or as hardware (preferably in the form of a chip that may be incorporated in image acquiring devices, such as digital still or video cameras). It should be clear that the description of the embodiments and attached Figures set forth in this specification serves only for a better understanding of the invention, without limiting its scope. It should also be clear that a person skilled in the art, after reading the present specification could make adjustments or amendments to the attached Figures and above described embodiments that would still be covered by the present invention. Avago Technologies General IP PTE Limited (Broadcom, Inc.) Sightic Vista Limited Arshavsky, Yuri, Vitsnudel, Ilia, Sorek, Noam Kassa; Yosef 382/260, 382/274, 382/275, 382/283, 358/3.26, 358/3.27, 358/463, 348/154, 348/155, 348/251 G06T2207/10016 : VideoImage sequence G06T2207/10024 : Color image G06T2207/20182 : Noise reduction or smoothin... G06T2207/20201 : Motion blur correction G06T5/002 : Denoising; Smoothing noise ... G06T5/003 : Deblurring; Sharpening vibr... G06T5/20 : by the use of local operato... G06T5/50 : by the use of more than one... G06T7/20 : Analysis of motion motion e... H04N5/144 : Movement detection for vide... H04N5/21 : Circuitry for suppressing o... Rotating Toy With Directional Vector Control Current Assignee: Steven Davis Sponsoring Entity: Steven Davis Self Stabilizing Rotating Toy Adaptive Low Light Image Processing Current Assignee: Avago Technologies General IP PTE Limited (Broadcom, Inc.) Sponsoring Entity: Sightic Vista Limited Directionally Controllable, Self Stabilizing, Rotating Flying Vehicle Directionally Controllable Flying Vehicle And A Propeller Mechanism For Accomplishing The Same	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1377
__label__cc	0.612588	0.387412	LinkedIn Youtube Medium Share a Comment Public Service Hearing: Improving Basic Hiring Processes The Commission will host fourteen public hearings on policy options it is considering for its final report. Through each hearing, Commissioners will gain insights from panelists as they develop recommendations for their final report to Congress, the President, and the American people in March 2020. On May 15, 2019, the Commission will host two hearings focusing on public service—specifically, civilian employment in federal, state, local, and tribal governments. The morning hearing, Public Service Hearing: Improving Basic Hiring Processes, will address challenges within current civil service personnel systems and discuss options to bring the next generation of talented Americans to public service. To attend in-person, please RSVP here. The hearing will also be livestreamed. Time: 9:00 a.m. – 12:00 p.m. Location: Partnership for Public Service, Conference Room 2ABC, 1100 New York Ave NW, Washington, DC 20005, Washington, DC Testimony from Panelists Panelist Questioning by Commissioners Staff Memo The Commission and Commission staff request feedback from the public on the ideas presented in STAFF MEMORANDUM: PUBLIC SERVICE. You can read the memorandum here and share your feedback here. The Commission will provide information about hearing panelists a week prior to each hearing. Their testimony will be posted here the day of the hearing, and a limited number of copies of each testimony will be available in-person. The public is invited to provide comment at each hearing following the conclusion of testimony. In order to accommodate as many public comments as possible, individuals will have two minutes to relate their comment to the Commission. If you are interested in providing a public comment during the hearing, please arrive no later than 9:00 a.m. to receive a ticket. The Commission will select tickets at random. If your ticket is drawn, you may provide your comment to the Commissioners during the public comment period. If you’re unable to attend the public hearing or have to leave early, you can submit your comment here, email it to info@inspire2serve.gov, or mail it to 2530 Crystal Drive, Suite 1000, Box #63, Arlington, Virginia 22202. Individuals who plan on attending this hearing and require accommodations should contact the Commission at 703-571-3742 at least 3 business days in advance to make arrangements. Back to News & Events \| Share Share on Facebook Share on Twitter Share on LinkedIn Public Minutes Selective Service System Staff Memorandum Home About Us Take Action Research News & Events Libraries Stories FOIA No FEAR Act EEO Accessibility Download Adobe Reader Privacy Policy Site Map usa.gov plainlanguage.gov osc.gov	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1379
__label__wiki	0.891561	0.891561	5 Things To Concern Ireland Ahead Of Their Clash With England Home\|International\|Six Nations\|5 Things To Concern Ireland Ahead Of Their Clash With England With Ireland set to welcome England to the Aviva in Dublin this weekend we take a look at five areas of concern for Joe Schmidt’s side… 1.Lack of tries So far in the 2015 Six Nations Ireland have just two tries in two games, both of which came in the closing stages of their victory over Italy on the opening weekend. Although there’s no need to panic at this stage, the lack of tries will be a concern for Irish fans. It’s unlikely Ireland will be able to claim victory over England without scoring tries so they need to come from somewhere and fast. [adsenseyu2] 2.The Bath connection Bath trio Jonathan Joseph, George Ford and Anthony Watson have been central to much of England’s early success in the 2015 Six Nations. Whilst Ireland have the players to deal with the trio, they will be the biggest concern for Schmidt’s men. Nulify these three, and in particular Ford and they will find England much easier to keep out in Dublin. 3.Injuries Whilst many of Ireland’s key players are finally returning from injury, there will be a few lingering concerns. Whilst Johnny Sexton was impressive from the boot against France, he still lacked a little match sharpness in open play. The injury to Heaslip is also a big blow whilst Schmidt will be hoping the likes of O’Brien and Healy are firing from the word go. 4.Tight five concerns Ireland’s last game against France may have raised some concerns for the coaching staff as the scrum struggled for parity on several occasions. Concerns have since been raised over the performances of Devin Toner and Mike Ross and could lead to one or two changes in a bid to bolster the Irish set piece. 5.The pressure As reigning champions the pressure will be on Ireland rather than England to get the victory, especially given they are playing in Dublin. Fortunately Ireland have shown themselves more than capable of dealing with high pressure situations of late, however the absence of some key leaders on the pitch could be of concern. How do you think Ireland will get on against England? By Dave Nicoll\|2015-02-23T21:33:47+01:00February 23rd, 2015\| About the Author: Dave Nicoll Lessons From The U-20’s World Cup Townsend offers hope to omitted players Folau guilty of high-level breach	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1380
__label__wiki	0.847736	0.847736	Cart \| Help Improve your ni.com experience. Login or Create a user profile. Corporate and Financial News Marissa Vidaurri e: marissa.vidaurri@ni.com NI Home > National Instruments Reports Third Quarter Revenue of $289 Million Print Page << Back National Instruments Reports Third Quarter Revenue of $289 Million 76.6 KB AUSTIN, Texas, Oct. 31, 2013 /PRNewswire/ -- National Instruments (Nasdaq: NATI) today announced Q3 revenue of $289 million, $9 million above the midpoint of its guidance range given July 29. In Q3 2013, National Instruments recognized $4 million in revenue from its largest customer, compared with $27 million recognized in Q3 2012. The company saw a 2 percent increase year-over-year in the value of total orders received in Q3. Breaking the orders down by size, the company's orders under $20,000 grew 2 percent year-over-year; orders between $20,000 and $100,000 remained flat year-over-year; and orders above $100,000 increased 8 percent year-over-year. Excluding the company's largest customer, total orders would have increased 8 percent year-over-year, and orders over $100,000 would have grown 48 percent year-over-year. GAAP net income for Q3 was $16 million, with fully diluted earnings per share (EPS) of $0.13, and non-GAAP net income was $24 million, with non-GAAP fully diluted EPS of $0.19. The company's non-GAAP EPS was $0.03 above the midpoint of its guidance range given on July 29. EBITDA, or Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation and Amortization, was $39 million, or $0.31 per share for Q3. In Q3, GAAP gross margin increased to 74 percent and non-GAAP gross margin was 75 percent, up 240 basis points from Q2 2013 due primarily to a change in customer mix. Total GAAP operating expenses were relatively flat sequentially and were up 4 percent year-over-year. Total non-GAAP operating expenses were down approximately $1 million sequentially and were up 3 percent year-over-year. The company's non-GAAP results exclude the impact of stock-based compensation, amortization of acquisition-related intangibles, acquisition accounting for deferred revenue, acquisition-related adjustments and acquisition-related transaction costs. Reconciliations of the company's GAAP and non-GAAP results are included as part of this news release. "We are pleased with the continued success of our RF and CompactRIO products, which represent key focus areas for our business," said Dr. James Truchard, NI co-founder, president and CEO. "As we saw at NIWeek, our customers continue to show strong interest in our strategic product platforms and graphical system design approach for solving the toughest engineering challenges." Geographic revenue in U.S. dollar terms for Q3 2013 compared to Q3 2012 was up 9 percent in the Americas, up 7 percent in Europe and up 24 percent in Emerging Markets. However, revenue declined 27 percent year-over-year in East Asia as the majority of revenue from the company's largest customer is recognized in this region. In local currency terms, revenue was up 3 percent in Europe, up 28 percent in Emerging Markets and down 25 percent in East Asia. As of Sept. 30, NI had $344 million in cash and short-term investments. The National Instruments Board of Directors approved a quarterly dividend of $0.14 per share on the company's common stock payable on Dec. 3 to stockholders of record on Nov. 12. Guidance for Q4 2013 "We believe NI was able to continue to gain market share in this challenging time for the industry," said Alex Davern, NI COO and CFO. "We are pleased to be guiding to improved results in Q4 and we believe we have taken the actions necessary to deliver an improved operating performance next year." NI currently expects revenue for Q4 2013 to be between $291 million and $321 million. The midpoint of this revenue guidance represents a 6 percent sequential revenue increase, which is below the company's normal historical average. While National Instruments currently expects to see relatively normal sequential order growth in Q4, the company intends to increase backlog in Q4 to better manage the mix of large orders in 2014. NI expects total non-GAAP operating expenses to be $181 million, plus or minus $2 million in Q4. The company expects fully diluted EPS to be in the range of $0.19 to $0.31 for Q4, with non-GAAP fully diluted EPS expected to be in the range of $0.25 to $0.37. Non-GAAP Presentation In addition to disclosing results determined in accordance with GAAP, NI discloses certain non-GAAP operating results and non-GAAP information that exclude certain charges. In this news release, the company has presented its gross profit, gross margin, operating expenses, operating income, operating margin, income before income taxes, provision for income taxes, net income and basic and fully diluted EPS for the three- and nine-month periods ending Sept. 30, 2013 and 2012, on a GAAP and non-GAAP basis. NI is also providing guidance on its non-GAAP operating expenses and fully diluted EPS. When presenting non-GAAP information, the company includes a reconciliation of the non-GAAP results to the GAAP results. Management believes that including the non-GAAP results assists investors in assessing the company's operational performance and its performance relative to its competitors. The company presents these non-GAAP results as a complement to results provided in accordance with GAAP, and these results should not be regarded as a substitute for GAAP. Management uses these non-GAAP measures to manage and assess the profitability and performance of its business and does not consider stock-based compensation expense, amortization of acquisition-related intangibles, acquisition accounting for deferred revenue, acquisition-related adjustments and acquisition-related transaction costs in managing its operations. Specifically, management uses non-GAAP measures to plan and forecast future periods, to establish operational goals, to compare with its business plan and individual operating budgets, to measure management performance for the purposes of executive compensation including payments to be made under bonus plans, to assist the public in measuring the company's performance relative to the company's long-term public performance goals, to allocate resources and, relative to the company's historical financial performance, to enable comparability between periods. Management also considers such non-GAAP results to be an important supplemental measure of its performance. This news release also discloses the company's EBITDA and EBITDA diluted EPS for the three- and nine-month periods ending Sept. 30, 2013 and 2012. The company also believes that including the EBITDA results assists investors in assessing the company's operational performance relative to its competitors. A reconciliation of EBITDA and EBITDA diluted EPS to GAAP net income and GAAP diluted EPS is included with this news release. Conference Call Information and Availability of Presentation Materials Interested parties can listen to the Q3 2013 conference call today, Oct. 31, at 4:00 p.m. CT at ni.com/call. Replay information is available by calling (855) 859-2056, confirmation code # 71812919, shortly after the call through Nov. 5 at 3:00 p.m. CT, or by visiting the company's website at ni.com/call. You may also view certain presentation materials that we may refer to on the conference call at ni.com/nati. This release contains "forward-looking statements," including a focus on managing costs to improve operating margins, momentum at NIWeek, significant interest in NI's strategic product platforms, guiding to improved results in Q4, the company's belief it has taken the actions necessary to deliver an improved operating performance next year, expecting to see relatively normal sequential order growth in Q4, intent to increase backlog in Q4 to better manage mix of large orders, National Instruments' Q4 guidance for revenue, non-GAAP operating expenses and GAAP and non-GAAP EPS. These statements are subject to a number of risks and uncertainties, including the risk of adverse changes or fluctuations in the global economy, U.S. budget or debt issues, foreign exchange fluctuations, component shortages, delays in the release of new products, fluctuations in customer demand for NI products including orders from NI's largest customer, fluctuations in average order size and customer mix, the company's ability to effectively manage its operating expenses, manufacturing inefficiencies and the level of capacity utilization, adjustments to acquisition earn-out accruals and the impact of NI's recent and any future acquisitions. Actual results may differ materially from the expected results. The company directs readers to its Form 10-K for the fiscal year ended Dec. 31, 2012; its Form 10-Q for the quarter ended June 30, 2013; and the other documents it files with the SEC for other risks associated with the company's future performance. Since 1976, National Instruments (www.ni.com) has equipped engineers and scientists with tools that accelerate productivity, innovation and discovery. NI's graphical system design approach to engineering provides an integrated software and hardware platform that speeds the development of any system needing measurement and control. The company's long-term vision and focus on improving society through its technology supports the success of its customers, employees, suppliers and shareholders. Readers can obtain investment information from the company's investor relations department by calling (512) 683-5090, emailing nati@ni.com or visiting www.ni.com/nati. (NATI-F) CompactRIO, LabVIEW, National Instruments, NI, ni.com and NIWeek are trademarks of National Instruments. Other product and company names listed are trademarks or trade names of their respective companies. Contact: Caitlin Gursslin, Investor Relations, caitlin.gursslin@ni.com Dec. 31, Short-term investments Accounts receivable, net Inventories, net Prepaid expenses and other current assets Deferred income taxes, net Property and equipment, net Intangible assets, net Other long-term assets Accrued compensation Deferred revenue — current Accrued expenses and other liabilities Other taxes payable Deferred income taxes Liability for uncertain tax positions Deferred revenue — long-term Other long-term liabilities Stockholders' equity: Preferred stock Additional paid-in capital Retained earnings Accumulated other comprehensive income Total stockholders' equity Total liabilities and stockholders' equity Consolidated Statements of Income (in thousands, except per share data) Nine Months Ended Sept. 30, GSA accrual Total net sales Total cost of sales General and administrative Acquisition-related adjustment Operating income Net foreign exchange gain (loss) Other income (loss), net Provision for income taxes Diluted earnings per share Weighted average shares outstanding - Dividends declared per share Cash flow from operating activities: Adjustments to reconcile net income to net cash provided by operating activities: Stock-based compensation Tax (benefit) expense from deferred income taxes Tax benefit from stock option plans Prepaid expenses and other assets Deferred revenue Taxes and other liabilities Net cash provided by operating activities Cash flow from investing activities: Capital expenditures Capitalization of internally developed software Additions to other intangibles Purchases of short-term investments Sales and maturities of short-term investments Net cash (used in) provided by investing activities Cash flow from financing activities: Proceeds from issuance of common stock AWR earn-out payment Dividends paid Net cash used in financing activities Net change in cash and cash equivalents Cash and cash equivalents at beginning of period Cash and cash equivalents at end of period Detail of GAAP Charges Related to Revenue, Stock-Based Compensation, Amortization of Acquisition Intangibles and Acquisition-Related Transaction Costs Acquisition-related deferred revenue Cost of sales Amortization of Acquisition Intangibles Acquisition-Related Transaction Costs Reconciliation of GAAP to Non-GAAP Measures Reconciliation of Net Sales to Non-GAAP Net Sales Net sales, as reported Non-GAAP net sales Reconciliation of Gross Profit to Non-GAAP Gross Profit Gross profit, as reported Acquisition-related deferred revenue and GSA accrual Non-GAAP gross profit Non-GAAP gross margin Reconciliation of Operating Expenses to Non-GAAP Operating Expenses Operating expenses, as reported Non-GAAP operating expenses Reconciliation of Operating Income to Non-GAAP Operating Income Operating income, as reported Non-GAAP operating income Non-GAAP operating margin Reconciliation of Income Before Income Taxes to Non-GAAP Income Before Income Taxes Income before income taxes, as reported Non-GAAP income before income taxes Reconciliation of Provision for Income Taxes to Non-GAAP Provision for Income Taxes Provision for income taxes, as reported Non-GAAP provision for income taxes Reconciliation of GAAP Net Income, Basic EPS and Diluted EPS to Non-GAAP Net Income, Basic EPS and Diluted EPS Net income, as reported Adjustments to reconcile net income to non-GAAP net income: Acquisition-related deferred revenue, net of tax effect Stock-based compensation, net of tax effect Amortization of acquisition intangibles, net of tax effect Acquisition-related transaction costs, net of tax effect Non-GAAP net income Basic EPS, as reported Adjustment to reconcile basic EPS to non-GAAP basic EPS: Impact of acquisition-related deferred revenue, net of tax effect Impact of stock-based compensation, net of tax effect Impact of amortization of acquisition intangibles, net of tax effect Impact of acquisition-related adjustment Impact of acquisition-related transaction costs, net of tax effect Non-GAAP basic EPS Diluted EPS, as reported Adjustment to reconcile diluted EPS to non-GAAP diluted EPS: Non-GAAP diluted EPS Reconciliation of Net Income and Diluted EPS to EBITDA and EBITDA Diluted EPS Adjustments to reconcile net income to EBITDA: Adjustment to reconcile diluted EPS to EBITDA: EBITDA diluted EPS Weighted average shares outstanding - diluted Net Revenue Excluding Its Largest Customer (in millions) Year-over-year change Net sales from its largest customer Net sales, excluding its largest customer Reconciliation of GAAP to Non-GAAP Operating Expense Guidance GAAP operating expense, guidance Adjustment to reconcile operating expense to non-GAAP Operating expense: Impact of stock-based compensation Impact of amortization of acquisition intangibles Non-GAAP operating expense, guidance Reconciliation of GAAP to Non-GAAP EPS Guidance GAAP fully diluted EPS, guidance Non-GAAP diluted EPS, guidance SOURCE National Instruments My Profile \| RSS \| Privacy \| Legal \| Contact NI © 2019 National Instruments Corporation. 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__label__cc	0.573457	0.426543	Enhanced Oil Recovery (SPE Textbook Series), Green & Willhite 1998 Uploaded by Vishal Raj saveSave Enhanced Oil Recovery (SPE Textbook Series), Green... For Later Craig F - The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Waterflooding SPE Monograph 11 - The Design Engineering Aspects of Waterflooding (1989) Enhanced Oil Recovery Latil, M. - Enhanced Oil Recovery_2.pdf Applied Enhanced Oil Recovery - Aurel Carcoana.pdf Introduction to Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Processes Waterflooding-Willhite-8no SPE Series - Enhanced Oil Recovery Aurel Carcoana - Applied Enhanced Oil Recovery Enhanced Oil Recovery Willhite Enhanced Oil Recovery.-Larry W. Lake.pdf Enhanced-Oil-Recovery-SPE-Textbook-Series-Green-Willhite-1998.pdf Gas Reservoir Engineering John Lee.pdf Theory, Measurement and Interpretation of Well Logs Khaled Aziz - Reservoir Simulation Overview of Chemical EOR CMG tutorial.pdf Water-Injection Pressure Maintenance and Water Flood Processes Don W. Green Chair and Deane E. Ackers Distinguished Professor of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering U. of Kansas G. Paul Willhite Ross H. Forney Distinguished Professor of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering U. of Kansas Henry L. Doherty Memorial Fund of AIME Society of Petroleum Engineers Richardson, Texas 1998 ---', ~, .-~~~\) ,- ',. "~ __.' " --.-H~;: .;~.,; C~ ~G~~7, G. Paul Willhite is the Ross H. Forney Distinguished Professor of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering at the U. of Kansas, Codirector of the Tertiary Oil Recovery Project, and Codirector of the U. of Kansas Energy Research Center in Lawrence, Kansas. He has been a member of the U. of Kansas faculty since 1969 and served as department chair from 1988 to 1996. He was a research scientist and senior research scientist in the Thermal Recovery Group, Production Research Div. of Continental Oil Co. during 1962-69. He holds a BS degree from Iowa State U. and a PhD degree from Northwestern U., both in chemical engineering. Willhite, an SPE Distinguished Member, has served on several SPE committees and chaired the organizing committees for the 1991 and 1993 Colloquiums on Petroleum Engineering Education. He received the Distinguished Achievement Award for Petroleum Engineering Faculty in 1981 and the Lester C. Uren Award in 1986. He is the author of the SPE textbook, Waterflooding. He was a member of the technical team for the 1978 Study of Enhanced Oil Recovery by the Office of Technology Assessment and of the Coordinating Subcommittee for the 1984 Enhanced Oil Recovery study by the Natl. Petroleum Council. He received the Professional Achievement Citation for Engineering Award from Iowa State U. in 1995. Don W. Green is Chair and Deane E. Ackers Distinguished Professor of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering and Codirector of the Tertiary Oil Recovery Project at the U. of Kansas, where he has taught since 1964. Before joining the U. of Kansas, he spent 2 years as a research scientist in the Production Research Div. of Continental Oil Co. Green holds a BS degree in petroleum engineering from the U. of Tulsa and MS and PhD degrees in chemical engineering from the U. of Oklahoma. He has won several teaching awards at the U. of Kansas. He is a Fellow of the American Inst. of Chemical Engineers and a Distinguished Member of the Society of Petroleum Engineers. Green was a 1986-87 Distinguished Lecturer and received the 1983 Distinguished Achievement Award for Petroleum Engineering Faculty. He has served on several Society committees, including terms as chairman of the Education and Accreditation Committee and the Education and Professionalism Committee. He is the author of numerous technical journal articles and the editor of the sixth and seventh editions of Perry ~ Chemical Engineers' Handbook. The development of enhanced-oil-recovery (EOR) processes has been ongoing since the end of World War II, when operators who owned reservoirs with declining reserves recognized that significant quantities of oil remained in their reservoirs after primary and secondary recovery (primarily waterflooding). Research and field activity increased as production from major reservoirs declined, worldwide consumption of oil increased, and discoveries of major new reservoirs became infrequent. Intense interest in EOR processes was stimulated in response to the oil embargo of 1973 and the following energy "crisis." The period of high activity lasted until the collapse of worldwide oil prices in 1986. Over the years, interest in EOR has been tempered by the increase in oil reserves and production. The discovery of major oil fields in the North Slope of Alaska, the North Sea, and other regions (such as Indonesia and South America) added large volumes of oil to the worldwide market. In addition, estimates of reserves from reservoirs in the Middle East increased significantly, leading to the expectation that the oil supply will be plentiful and that the oil price will remain in the vicinity of U.S. $20 to $25lbbl (constant dollars) for many years. Although large volumes of oil remain in mature reservoirs, the oil will not be produced in large quantities by EOR processes unless these processes can compete economically with the cost of oil production from conventional sources. Thus, as reservoirs age, a dichotomy exists between the desire to preserve wells for potential EOR processes and the lack of economic incentive because of the existence oflarge reserves of oil in the world. This text describes technologies that can be applied to recover oil that cannot be produced by primary recovery or waterflooding or to recover oil that remains after application of these processes. While some of the technologies are economical at current oil prices, some may never be economical if oil prices remain at their current levels. Development of these processes represents significant technological advances in our understanding of oil recovery from petroleum reservoirs and may be the stimulus for future technological developments. Chap. 1 introduces EOR processes and methods of screening reservoirs that are candidates for potential application. Chap. 2 reviews fundamental concepts for oil recovery from porous rocks at the microscopic or pore scale. Chap. 3 develops linear-displacement theory on the basis offractional-flow concepts. In Chap. 4, we introduce volumetric-displacement efficiency of processes. Chap. 5 covers polymer flooding, and Chap. 6 introduces miscible-displacement processes, including C02 miscible flooding. Chap. 7 presents chemical flooding, and Chap. 8 covers thermal recovery. This text is written as an introduction to enhanced-oil-recovery (EOR) processes, which are processes normally applied after waterflooding. These include polymer, micellar-polymer, and C02 flooding and thermal-recovery processes that are typically implemented following primary production. This book is written for seniors and first-year graduate students in petroleum engineering. We assume that those using this text have a basic understanding of petrophysics (porosity and permeability, saturation), fluid properties (viscosity, density, formation volume factor, and phase behavior) and material balances (volumetrics and elementary depletion calculations). We also assume that students have some grasp of the complexity of reservoirs through exposure to geology courses. These topics can be found in other texts. We have included three background, or review, chapters that cover microscopic (pore-level) -displacement efficiency, linear-displacement theory, and macroscopic (volumetric) -displacement efficiency, respectively. These chapters can be used by petroleum engineering students for review or by those in other engineering or science disciplines as background information for the study of the different EOR processes treated in the book. The text has been used in a one-semester graduate course in our Master's degree program taken by students majoring in both petroleum and chemical engineering. The text contains more material than can be covered in a one-semester course, allowing the instructor to place more emphasis on some processes than others. In describing the different EOR processes, we focus on the fundamental concepts of each process. However, we also present methods of predicting oil recovery when the processes are applied to oil reservoirs. Many methods are available to calculate displacement performance, ranging from simple models based on volumetric sweep to sophisticated reservoir simulators. The use of reservoir simulators is beyond the scope of this text. We chose a middle course that reinforces fundamental mechanisms but requires the mathematical skills expected of students taking this as a first course on EOR. In some cases, the computations are tedious, but they can be done easily with short computer programs. Selected programs are included in the Appendices. While this text was being written, important developments in EOR technology took place in laboratories and oil fields throughout the world. We have included those developments where appropriate. This was possible because we had access to numerous high-quality technical publications prepared by our colleagues in universities and the petroleum industry. This book began as a comprehensive text on oil-recovery processes authorized by the SPE Textbook Committee. The chapter on waterflooding in the original outline was expanded into the text Waterflooding (published in 1986); writing of this text resumed following completion of Waterflooding. In the years that followed, development of micellar-polymer-flooding technology was phased out as a direct result of the collapse of oil prices in 1986 and the development of new oil supplies throughout the world, which led to projections of oil prices in the vicinity of U.S. $20 to $25lbbl (in constant dollars) for many years. We have attempted to preserve the important parts of this technology in the text, even though it is unlikely that the technology will be applied for many years. Thermal-recovery processes continue to be the major contributor to production from EOR processes. The chapter on thermal-recovery processes is extensive and could be used for a single course. We did not include steam-assisted gravity drainage because the process was developed for hydrocarbons that are immobile at reservoir conditions and it is covered in other texts. The development of C02 miscible flooding in west Texas created increased application of this process. There will be continued development and application of this technology in addition to the material covered in this text. We anticipate that a wealth of field case histories will be developed from ongoing projects; therefore, students and instructors should look for additional material as they use the text. G. Paul Willhite Don W. Green We would like to thank several colleagues for their contributions to the development of this text. Tom Hewitt (now at Stanford U.) introduced us to the usefulness of fractional-flow concepts in understanding immiscible-displacement processes while Paul Willhite was on sabbatical leave at Chevron Oil Field Research Corp. (now Chevron Production Technology Co.). Fred Poettmann, one of our editors from the SPE Textbook Committee, provided problems from his EOR course at the Colorado School of Mines and also critical comments on each chapter. He passed away before he had an opportunity to use the text in his EOR class, a goal that he reminded us of through continual encouragement to finish the book. Fred Stalkup, the second editor for the text, provided valuable information for the chapter on miscible displacement. Several unknown external reviewers reviewed each chapter. We appreciate their comments, which contributed much to the text. We are also indebted to many on the staffs at the U. of Kansas and at the Society of Petroleum Engineers in Dallas who helped us in the completion of the text. At the U. of Kansas, Ruth Sleeper and Shari Gladman prepared some of the text and Vera Sehon, Megan Gannon, and Jim Busse of the Center for Research Inc. prepared graphics for several chapters and provided emergency repairs to other figures. The writing of this book spanned several years and several editors at SPE. We appreciate the editorial work of Flora Cohen, Carla Atwal, and Holly Hargadine. We also appreciate the review by our colleague, Shapour Vossoughi, and a number of students who took the course at the U. of Kansas. 1. Introduction to EOR Processes 1.1 1.2 Definition of EOR Target Oil Resource for EOR Processes Idealized Characteristics of an EORProcess General Classifications and Description of EOR Processes Potential of the Different Processes Screening Criteria for Process Applicability Organization of the Textbook 1 1 2 4.5 4.6 4.7 Areal Displacement Efficiency Vertical Displacement Efficiency Volumetric Displacement Efficiency 75 84 93 5. Mobility-Control Processes 2 3 10 10 11 5.1 5.2 5.3 2. Microscopic Displacement of Fluids in a 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 Reservoir Introduction Capillary Forces Viscous Forces Phase Trapping Mobilization of Trapped PhasesAlteration of Viscous/Capillary Force Ratio Introduction 100 Process Description 100 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Polymers 101 5.4 Flow of Polymers Through Porous Media 107 Polymer-Augmented Waterflood 127 5.5 In-Situ Permeability Modification 5.6 142 5.7 Field Experience 154 5.8 Mobility Control To Maintain Chemical Slug Integrity 156 5.9 Foam as an EOR Agent 161 5.10 WAG Process 168 6. Miscible Displacement Processes 3. Displacement in Linear Systems 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 Introduction Waterflood PerformanceFrontal-Advance Equations Viscous Waterflood in a Linear System Viscous Waterflood of a Linear System Initially at Interstitial Water Saturation Chemical Flooding in a Linear System Applications of the Chemical Flooding Model Displacement of Slugs Dispersion During Miscible Displacement Viscous Fingering-Instability in Displacement Fronts Introduction 186 General Description of Miscible Displacement 186 Principles of Phase Behavior Related to Miscibility 187 190 FCMProcess 193 MCMProcess Experimental Verification of the Role of Phase Behavior in Miscible 198 Displacement Measurement and Prediction of the MMP or MME in a Multiple-Contact Process 198 Fluid Properties in Miscible Displacement 206 Factors Affecting Microscopic and Macroscopic Displacement Efficiency of 210 Miscible Processes Miscible Displacement Performance 218 Modeling Design Procedures and Criteria 224 225 Field Experience 4. Macroscopic Displacement of Fluids in a Reservoir 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Volumetric Displacement Efficiency and Material Balance 4.3 Volumetric Displacement Efficiency Expressed as the Product of Areal and Vertical Displacement Efficiencies 4.4 Definition and Discussion of Mobility Ratio 7. Chemical Flooding 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 Introduction Description of the MicellarlPolymer Process Surfactants Phase Behavior of Microemulsions Phase Behavior and IFT Variables Affecting Phase Behavior and 1FT 7.7 7.8 7.9 7.10 7.11 7.12 7.13 Viscosity and Density of Microemulsions Displacement Mechanisms Surfactant Loss From RocklFluid Interactions and Phase Partitioning Modeling Chemical Flood Displacement Design Procedures and Criteria Field Experience Alkaline Flooding 8. Thermal Recovery Processes 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Heat Losses During Steam Injection 8.3 Cyclic Steam Stimulation 8.4 Reservoir Heating by Steam Injection 8.5 Estimation of Oil Recovery From Steamdrive 8.6 In-Situ Combustion 8.7 Comparison of Steam and In-Situ Combustion Appendix A Formation of a Viscous Shock Formation of the Viscous Shock Following the Oil-Bank Shock by Front Tracking Following the Oil-Bank Shock by Material Balance Appendix B Error Function Tabulation Appendix E Fluid and Rock Property Data and Supporting Data for Thermal Recovery Calculations 471 Water 471 Oil ~6 Physical-Property Correlations for Crude Oil 476 Reservoir Rocks 477 478 Unconsolidated Oil Sands 479 Consolidated Rocks 483 Air Appendix F Programs To Evaluate Functions From Marx and Langenheim Model 489 G(tD) Gl(tD) Appendix G An Introduction to Gravity Drainage Appendix H Solution to Example 8.7-Cyclic Steam Stimulation of a GravityDrainage Reservoir 494 Estimation of Heated Radius 494 Appendix I Development of ConstantVertical-Velocity Model for Gravity Override G3(tDv) Gv(tDv) G4(tD12) G e (tDv,tDvl) Gs (tDv,tDv 1) G7(tDv,tDvl) G8 (tDv,tDv 1) Appendix C Auxiliary Programs To Compute Location of Polymer Bank When Polymer Slug Is Displaced by Drive Water 448 Program Descriptions 448 Appendix D Computer Programs-Stalkup Displacement Models 464 Author Index Subject Index Introduction to EOR Processes 1.1 Definition of EOR Oil recovery operations traditionally have been subdivided into three stages: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Historically, these stages described the production from a reservoir in a chronological sense. Primary production, the initial production stage, resulted from the displacement energy naturally existing in a reservoir. Secondary recovery, the second stage of operations, usually was implemented after primary production declined. Traditional secondary recovery processes are waterflooding, pressure maintenance, and gas injection, although the term secondary recovery is now almost synonymous with waterflooding. Tertiary recovery, the third stage of production, was that obtained after waterflooding (or whatever secondary process was used). Tertiary processes used miscible gases, chemicals, and/or thermal energy to displace additional oil after the secondary recovery process became uneconomical. The drawback to consideration of the three stages as a chronological sequence is that many reservoir production operations are not conducted in the specified order. A well-known example is production of the heavy oils that occur throughout much of the world. If the crude is sufficiently viscous, it may not flow at economic rates under natural energy drives, so primary production would be negligible. For such reservoirs, waterflooding would not be feasible; therefore, the use of thermal energy might be the only way to recover a significant amount of oil. In this case, a method considered to be a tertiary process in a normal, chronological depletion sequence would be used as the first, and perhaps fmal, method of recovery. In other situations, the so-called tertiary process might be applied as a secondary operation in lieu of waterflooding. This action might be dictated by such factors as the nature of the tertiary process, availability of injectants, and economics. For example, if a waterflood before application of the tertiary process would diminish the overall effectiveness, then the waterflooding stage might reasonably be bypassed. Because of such situations, the term "tertiary recovery" fell into disfavor in petroleum engineering literature and the designation of "enhanced oil recovery" (EOR) became more accepted. This latter term is used throughout this book. Another descriptive designation commonly used is "improved oil recovery" (lOR), which includes EOR but also encompasses a broader range of activities, e.g., reservoir characterization, improved reservoir management, and infIll drilling. The term lOR is not used in this book. Because of the difficulty of chronological oil-production classification, classification based on process description is more useful and is now the generally accepted approach, although the naming of the processes still incorporates the earlier scheme based on chronology. Oil recovery processes now are classified as primary, secondary, and EOR processes. A classification scheme is clearly useful in that it establishes a basis for communication among technical persons. However, it also has a pragmatic utility in the implementation of tax laws and accounting rules. Primary recovery results from the use of natural energy present in a reservoir as the main source of energy for the displacement of oil to producing wells. These natural energy sources are solutiongas drive, gas-cap drive, natural waterdrive, fluid and rock expansion, and gravity drainage. The particular mechanism of lifting oil to the surface, once it is in the wellbore, is not a factor in the classification scheme. Secondary recovery results from the augmentation of natural energy through injection of water or gas to displace oil toward producing wells. Gas injection, in this case, is either into a gas cap for pressure maintenance and gas-cap expansion or into oil-colunm wells to displace oil immiscibly according to relative permeability and volumetric sweepout considerations. Gas processes based on other mechanisms, such as oil swelling, oil viscosity reduction, or favorable phase behavior, are considered EOR processes. An immiscible gas displacement is not as efficient as a waterflood and is used infrequently as a secondary recovery process today. (Its use in earlier times was much more prevalent.) Today, waterflooding is almost synonymous with the secondary recovery classification. EOR results principally from the injection of gases or liquid chemicals and/or the use of thermal energy. Hydrocarbon gases, CO 2 , nitrogen, and flue gases are among the gases used in EOR processes. In this book, the use of a gas is considered an EOR process if the recovery efficiency significantly depends on a mechanism other than immiscible frontal displacement characterized by high-interfacial-tension (1FT) permeabilities. A number of liquid chemicals are commonly used, including polymers, surfactants, and hydrocarbon solvents. Thermal processes typically consist of the use of steam or hot water, or rely on the in-situ generation of thermal energy through oil combustion in the reservoir rock. EOR processes involve the injection of a fluid or fluids of some type into a reservoir. The injected fluids and injection processes supplement the natural energy present in the reservoir to displace oil to a producing well. In addition, the injected fluids interact with the reservoir rock/oil system to create conditions favorable for oil recovery. These interactions might, for example, result in lower 1FT's, oil swelling, oil viscosity reduction, wettability modification, or favorable phase behavior. The interactions are attributable to physical and chemical mechanisms and to the injection or production of thermal energy. Simple waterflooding or the injection of dry gas for pressure maintenance or oil displacement are excluded from the definition. 23 Billion bbl Original Oil in Place 536 Billion bbl Fig. 1.1-U.S. oil barrel showing oil produced, proven reserves, and target for EOR at end of 1993 (after U.S. DOE"). EOR processes often involve the injection of more than one fluid. In a typical case, a relatively small volume of an expensive chemical (primary slug) is injected to mobilize the oil. This primary slug is displaced with a larger volume of a relatively inexpensive chemical (secondary slug). The purpose of the secondary slug is to displace the primary slug efficiently with as little deterioration as possible of the primary slug. In some cases, additional fluids of even lower unit cost are injected after a secondary slug to reduce expenses. In such a case of multiple fluid injection, all injected fluids are considered to be part of the EOR process, even though the fmal chemical slug might be water or dry gas that is injected solely to displace volumetrically the fluids injected earlier in the process. 1.2 Target Oil Resource for EOR Processes Several studies l -6 in the U.S. have estimated the potential oil recovery through the application of EOR processes. Part of the objectives of these studies was estimating the target oil resource for EOR-Le, the amount of oil that would remain after exhaustion of recovery through primary and secondary processes. Fig. 1.1, which shows the total U.S. oil resources, is a recent example. In the U.S. as of the end of 1993, about 536x 10 9 bbl of oil had been discovered. The cumulative production through 1993 was about 162 x 10 9 bbl and the proven reserves amounted to 23 x 10 9 bbl. 1,2 Proven reserves is the oil remaining in known reservoirs that can be expected to be recovered through application of current proven technology at economic conditions on the specified date. Thus, the proven reserves at the end of 1993 include primary and waterflood recovery. A small amount ofEOR oil is also included in the proven reserves and is principally oil expected to be recovered through the application of steam processes in California. As Fig. 1.1 shows, cumulative production plus oil reserves accounts for about one-third of the original oil in place (OOIP). Thus, the total target for EOR processes is large, amounting to about 351 x 10 9 bbl in the U.S. alone. If this one-third recovery fraction for primary plus secondary production holds worldwide, then the EOR target approaches 2 x 10 12 bbl for the world, not including countries that formerly had centrally planned economies. The physical/chemical characteristics of the target oil are varied and range from high-API-gravity, volatile crudes of low viscosity to low-API-gravity, heavy crudes of very high viscosity. Significant amounts of oil exist across this physical/chemical spectrum, and therefore, EOR technology cannot focus on a particular oil type without eliminating a large fraction of the target resource. Clearly, no single EOR process will be applicable to all crudes, and a number of different processes will have to be developed. 'Personal communication, BDM/U.S. DOE, Bartlesville, OK, June 1996. A parallel difficulty is that the oil resource exists in reservoirs of widely varying characteristics. Oil reservoir types range from very thick carbonate reef formations at significant depths to relatively shallow, thin sandstone bodies. Subsequent chapters will show that reservoir rock type and structure have an effect on most EOR processes and are important variables. Willhite 7 describes the role of geology and its significance for displacement processes. Finally, the saturation, distribution, and physical state of the oil in a reservoir as a result of past production operations are important factors in the implementation of an EOR process. Typically, a reservoir will undergo primary production followed by waterflooding. Recovery by those processes in individual reservoirs riUght have approached 35 to 50% OOIP when the waterflood reached an economic limit. The residual oil in the part of the reservoir swept by the waterflood remains largely as isolated, trapped droplets (or ganglia) in the pores or films around the rock particles, depending on the rock wettability. Residual saturation typically is about 20% to 35% in swept regions. An EOR process must be able to mobilize the droplets or oil blobs and to create an oil bank that can be efficiently propagated to producing wells. In other circumstances, an EOR process might be applied after primary production-i.e., as a secondary recovery operation in a chronological sense. In this case, the oil may exist at a relatively high saturation, perhaps about 50 to 60 %, and may still exist in a connected state with a relative permeability to oil significantly greater than zero. A gas saturation might also be present, depending on the primary recovery mechanism. In this case, the EOR process would be expected to build an oil bank, much in the manner of a waterflood. The displacement efficiency, however, must be better than for a waterflood in that only small amounts of trapped oil should be left behind. That is, the residual oil saturation following the displacement must be low relative to waterflooding because the economic attractiveness of an EOR process applied as a secondary operation normally is compared with the alternative of waterflooding-Le., recovery (and costs) above that expected from a standard waterflood. In some instances, EOR processes are implemented as the initial or primary production stage. The usual situation is a viscous oil that would not be produced in economic quantities by primary mechanisms or waterflooding. The use of thermal energy, which decreases oil viscosity, is generally the preferred process in such cases. Again, the EOR process must mobilize the oil and displace it efficiently toward production wells. In summary, the target oil resource is very large and occurs under diverse conditions. Oil type, reservoir rock, and formation type, as well as the oil's distribution, saturation, and physical state resulting from past operations, must all be considered in the design of an EOR process for a particular reservoir. This diversity has led to the development of several different EOR processes that can be considered for implementation. 1.3 Idealized Characteristics of an EOR Process 1.3.1 Efficient Microscopic and Macroscopic Displacement. The overall displacement efficiency of any oil recovery displacement process can be considered conveniently as the product of microscopic and macroscopic displacement efficiencies. In equation form, E=EDEV' ..................................... (1.1) where E=overall displacement efficiency (oil recovered by process/ oil in place at start of process), ED =microscopic displacement efficiency expressed as a fraction, and Ev=macroscopic (volumetric) displacement efficiency expressed as a fraction. Microscopic displacement relates to the displacement or mobilization of oil at the pore scale. That is, ED is a measure oCthe effectiveness of the displacing fluid in moving (mobilizing) the oil at those places in the rock where the displacing fluid contacts the oil. ED is reflected in the magnitude of the residual oil saturation, Sor' in the regions contacted by the displacing fluid. Macroscopic displacement efficiency relates to the effectiveness of the displacing fluid(s) in contacting the reservoir in a volumetric sense. Alternative terms conveying the same general concept are sweep efficiency and conformance factor. E v is a measure of how effectively the displacing fluid sweeps out the volume of a reservoir, both areally and vertically, as well as how effectively the displacing fluid moves the displaced oil toward production wells. Both areal and vertical sweeps must be considered, and it is often useful to further subdivide Ev into the product of areal and vertical displacement efficiencies. Ev is reflected in the magnitude of average or overall residual oil saturation, SOT' because the average is based on residual oil in both swept and unswept parts of the reservoir. Consider the magnitude of these efficiencies in a typical waterflood. For an example in which initial oil saturation, SOi' is 0.60 and SOT in the swept region is 0.30, Reservoir geology, and in particular geologic heterogeneity, is an important factor in the consideration of macroscopic displacement efficiency. The effects of mobility and density differences can be amplified or diminished by the nature of the geology. An ideal EOR fluid thus is one that has a favorable mobility ratio with the fluid(s) being displaced and, further, maintains this favorable condition throughout the process. In addition, the density of an ideal EOR fluid should be comparable with that of the displaced fluid unless flooding can be done in an updip or downdip direction. 1.3.2 Practical Considerations. Fluids that possess the properties required for good microscopic and macroscopic displacement efficiencies are certainly known or can be developed. A practical concern, however, is that the fluids are expensive, or for the case of thermal processes, the cost of developing the thermal energy that the fluids carry is high. As described later, the nature of flow in porous media and rock! fluid interactions lead to the diminished effectiveness of injected fluid slugs. For example, fluidlfluid mixing causes injected fluid concentrations to change and physical adsorption causes the loss of certain chemical components. For thermal processes, heat conduction to overburden and underburden rocks results in a loss of thermal energy from the process. Such chemical losses, changes in composition, or losses of thermal energy mean that the injected fluid slug size must be large enough to sustain the losses or changes and still operate effectively. Thus, the size of the fluid slugs that are injected and their unit costs become major considerations in the design of an EOR process. In fact, injected fluid cost and crude oil price (and instability in price) are the two most important factors controlling the economic implementation of EOR processes. Another consideration is the ease of handling an EOR fluid and its general compatibility with the physical injection/production system. Highly toxic or corrosive fluids, or fluids that are not readily injected, are not very amenable to use in EOR processes. While such fluids might be used with installation of special equipment, the cost is usually prohibitive. The availability of an EOR fluid is also a consideration. If an EOR process is applied in a major reservoir, the fluid requirements for that single reservoir can be quite large. And if that process is widely accepted for application across the country or the world, the volume requirements can become an important limiting factor for its application. CO 2 is an example of this. A study by the U.S. Office of Technology AssessmentS indicated that the total CO 2 required could ultimately reach 50 x 10 12 scf. While CO 2 occurs naturally in underground reservoirs and is a byproduct of some commercial operations, such as fertilizer production, this projected demand could be difficult to satisfy, especially when geographic factors are considered. The implementation and success or failure of an EOR process are always affected by reservoir geology and reservoir geologic heterogeneities. Processes that are well-understood in a laboratory environment and properly designed for the reservoir fluids may fail when implemented in the reservoir because of geologic factors. Reports of such failures are numerous in petroleum engineering literature. Geologic factors may lead to unexpected losses of chemicals or bypassing of fluids because of channeling in highpermeability zones or fractures. Similarly, fluid movement may be very nonuniform because of variations in rock properties. Unexpected chemical adsorption can sometimes occur, causing a deterioration of fluid slugs. Factors of this type, unless properly identified and understood before the start of a process, will likely cause a project failure. A number of procedures exist that can be used before implementation of an EOR process in an attempt to describe the reservoir geology. These procedures include geologic evaluations of well cores and logs, single-well and well-to-well tracer tests, pressure-transient analysis, and seismic surveys. 0.60-0.30 - - - =0.50. .. .............. (1.2) 0.60 A typical waterflood sweep efficiency, Ev, at the economic limit is 0.7. Therefore, E=ED E v =0.50xO.70=0.35. . .................... (1.3) Thus, for a typical waterflood, the overall displacement efficiency is on the order of one-third, which also represents the oil recovery efficiency (neglecting volume changes associated with pressure changes). This one-third figure is by no means a universal result applicable to all reservoirs. Individual reservoirs yield higher or lower recovery efficiencies, depending on the oil and reservoir characteristics. The result, however, does indicate that significant amounts of oil remain following the completion of a waterflood. And it is seen that this oil remains as a result of two factors. First, a residual oil saturation remains in those places swept by the water. Second, a large portion of the reservoir is not contacted by the injected water and thus oil has not been displaced from these regions and has not been displaced to production wells. In addition, some oil from the swept region may be displaced into unswept regions and increase the oil saturation in those regions over what it was before the flood began. It is desirable in an EOR process that the values of ED and Ev, and consequently E, approach 1.0. An idealized EOR process would be one in which the primary displacing fluid (primary slug) removed all oil from the pores contacted by the fluid (SoT-O),and in which the displacing fluid contacted the total reservoir volume and displaced oil to production wells. A secondary fluid slug used to displace the primary slug would behave in a similar manner in that it would displace the primary slug efficiently both microscopically and macroscopically. As will be seen, the development of a "magic" displacing fluid or fluids having properties that will yield this result and still be economical is a monumental and unfulfilled task. Several physical/chemical interactions occur between the displacing fluid and oil that can lead to efficient microscopic displacement (low SOT)' These include miscibility between the fluids, decreasing the 1FT between the fluids, oil volume expansion, and reducing oil viscosity. The maintenance of a favorable mobility ratio between displaced and displacing fluids also contributes to better microscopic displacement efficiency. EOR processes are thus developed with consideration of these factors. Fluids used as primary displacing slugs have one or more of the favorable physical/chemical interactions with the oil. Fluids used to displace the primary slug ideally should also have similar favorable interactions with the primary slug. The goal with an acceptable EOR fluid is to maintain the favorable interaction(s) as long as possible during the flooding process. Macroscopic displacement efficiency is improved by maintenance of favorable mobility ratios between all displacing and displaced fluids throughout a process. Favorable ratios contribute to improvement of both areal and vertical sweep efficiencies. An ideal EOR fluid then is one that maintains a favorable mobility ratio with the fluid being displaced. Another factor important to good macroscopic efficiency is the density difference between displacing and displaced fluids. Large density differences can result in gravity segregationi.e., the underriding or overriding of the fluid being displaced. The effect is to bypass fluids at the top or bottom of a reservoir, reducing Ev. If density differences do exist between fluids, this might be used to advantage by flooding in an updip or downdip direction. 1.4 General Classification and Description of EOR Processes EOR processes can be classified into five categories: mobility-control, chemical, miscible, thermal, and other processes, such as microbial EOR. Oil and Water Oiland-~ Water Polymer Fig. 1.2-Schematic of macroscopiC displacement efficiency improvement with polymer-augmented waterflooding (quarter of a five-spot pattern). Mobility-control processes, as the name implies, are those based primarily on maintaining favorable mobility ratios to improve the magnitude of E v. Examples are thickening of water with polymers and reducing gas mobility with foams. Chemical processes are those in which certain chemicals, such as surfactants or alkaline agents, are injected to use a combination of phase behavior and 1FT reduction to displace oil, thereby improving ED. In some cases, mobility control is also a part of the chemical process, providing the potential of improving both Ev and ED. In miscible processes, the objective is to inject fluids that are directly miscible with the oil or that generate miscibility in the reservoir through composition alteration. Examples are injection of hydrocarbon solvents or CO 2 Phase behavior is a major factor in the application of such processes. Thermal processes rely on the injection of thermal energy or the in-situ generation of heat to improve oil recovery. Steam injection or in-situ combustion from air or oxygen injection are examples. Alteration of oil viscosity, favorable phase behavior, and in some cases, chemical reaction are the primary mechanisms leading to improved oil recovery. "Other processes" is a catch-all category. Examples of processes in this category are microbial-based techniques, immiscible CO2 injection, and mining of resources at shallow depths. Such methods are not considered in this book. The classification scheme is not altogether satisfactory in that there is a certain lack of precision in the terms used. For example, chemical processes is one category but chemicals clearly are used in all the processes. Also, there is some overlap in mechanisms between the categories. For example, the chemical processes rely on phase behavior and at least a limited solubility between the different fluids, which is similar to the miscible processes. Despite these shortcomings, the indicated names are used throughout this book, principally because they are deeply embedded in the petroleum engineering literature and are quite useful, with proper clarification, to divide the discussions in the book. The following discussion of the processes acquaints the reader with the methods in general. This overview will be particularly useful for the material discussed in Chaps. 2 through 4 on microscopic and macroscopic displacement efficiencies and linear displacement processes. Fig. 1.3-Surfactant/polymer process (after U.S. DOE). 1.4.1 Mobility-Control Processes. A widely applied mobility-control process is the polymer-augmented waterflood shown schematically in Fig. 1.2. In a typical application, a solution of partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide polymer in brine, at a concentration of a few hundred to several hundred ppm of polymer, is injected to displace oil (and associated water) toward production wells. The size of the polymer slug might be as much as 50 to 100 % PV and might be varied in composition. That is, the highest polymer concentration used is injected for a period of time followed by slugs at successively lower concentrations. The final fluid injected is water or brine. Polymer solutions are designed to develop a favorable mobility ratio between the injected polymer ~olution and the oil/water bank being displaced ahead of the polyrrier. The purpose is to develop a more uniform volumetric sweep of the reservoir, both vertically and areally, as illustrated in Fig. 1.2 for a quarter of a five-spot pattern. In a conventional waterflood, if the mobility ratio is unfavorable, the water tends to finger by the oil and to move by the shortest path to the production well. This effect is amplified by reservoir geologic heterogeneities. A polymer solution moves in a more uniform manner as Fig. 1.2 shows. While flow still tends to be greatest in high-permeability zones and along the shortest path between the injection and production wells, the effect is damped because polymer solution mobility is less than water mobility. Thus, at the economic limit, Ev is larger for a polymer flood than for a waterflood. It is generally accepted that polymer solutions do not significantly affect final, or endpoint, residual oil saturation. But, depending on the nature of the fractional flow curve and the volume of water injected, the , 'effective" residual oil saturation at the economic level of a flood may be lower for polymer displacing a viscous oil than for a waterflood. The primary mechanism in a polymer flood, however, is an increase in the macroscopic sweep efficiency. Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide polymers affect mobility in two ways. First, solutions of polymers have apparent viscosities that are larger than water. The polymer solutions are non-New- Dry Gas Mixing Zone LPG Oil Bank Mixing Zone Fig. 1.4-FCM process with LPG and dry gas. tonian, however, and can exhibit significant sensitivity to shear; i.e., apparent viscosity can be a function of the shear rate to which a solution is subjected. The solutions are also sensitive to brine type and concentration, which can affect the apparent viscosity. Second, polyacrylamide polymers adsorb on porous media and/or are mechanically entrapped as a result oftheir large physical size. This polymer retention reduces the amount of polymer in solution but also causes a decrease in the effective permeability of the porous medium. The mobility of a polyacrylamide polymer solution is thus reduced to less than that of the displaced oil/water bank by a combination of viscosity and effective permeability reduction. ICarbon Dioxide I Fig. 1.5-C0 2 miscible process (after U.S. DOE). -~ HUFF (Injeclion phase) Days to Weeks SOAK (Shut-in phase) Days Dissipating Heat Thins Oil. PUFF (Production phase) Weeks to Months Fig. 1.6-Cyclic-steam-stimulation process (after U.S. DOE). Polymer types other than partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamides may also be used. The most common alternatives are called biopolymers and are produced by fermentation manufacturing processes. These polymers affect the apparent solution viscosity but have little effect on apparent rock permeability because retention is much smaller. The most serious limitation to polymer-augmented waterflooding is that projected ultimate recoveries are small compared with those of other EOR processes. Polymer flooding works primarily to improve macroscopic efficiency rather than microscopic efficiency. The process also is affected by the production operations that preceded the polymer flood. A previous successful waterflood, for example, can result in a polymer flood having only a minimal effect. Production Fluids (Oil, Gas and Water) Separation and Storage FaCilities Fig. 1.7-Steamflooding process (after U.S. DOE). Other processes exist that are based on the application of foams, relative-permeability alteration, or permeability blockage in highpermeability zones in an attempt to increase oil recovery. As discussed later, mobility-control processes also are used extensively with other EOR methods to improve overall process efficiency. '1.4.2 Chemical Processes. Chemical processes involve the injection of specific liquid chemicals that effectively displace oil because of their phase-behavior properties, which result in decreasing the 1FT between the displacing liquid and oil. The surfactant/polymer process illustrated in Fig. 1.3 has been demonstrated to have the most potential in terms of ultimate oil recovery in this category of EOR methods. In this process, the primary displacing liquid slug is a complex chemical system called a micellar solution. This solution contains a surfactant (usually a petroleum sulfonate), cosurfactant (an alcohol), oil, electrolytes, and water. The surfactant slug is relatively small, typically 10% PV. The surfactant slug is followed by a mobility buffer, a solution that contains polymer at a concentration of a few hundred ppm. This polymer solution is often graded in concentration, becoming more dilute in polymer as more of the solution is injected. The total volume of the polymer solution is typically about 1 PV. The micellar solution has limited solubility with the oil and is designed to have an ultralow 1FT with the oil phase. When this solution contacts residual oil drops, the drops, under a pressure gradient, are deformed as a result of the low 1FT and are displaced through the pore throats. Coalescence of oil drops results in an oil bank that, along with water, moves ahead of the displacing chemical slug. The micellar slug also is designed to have a favorable mobility ratio with the oil bank and the water flowing ahead of the slug to prevent viscous fingering of the slug into the oil bank and to increase the macroscopic displacement efficiency. The polymer-solution mobility buffer is injected to displace the micellar solution efficiently. The 1FT between the polymer and micellar solutions is quite low, and only a small residual saturation of the micellar slug is trapped. The existence of a favorable mobility ratio between the polymer and micellar solutions also contributes to an efficient displacement. In this process, the displacements are immiscible; that is, complete solubility does not exist between the micellar solution and oil or between the micellar and polymer solutions. A low 1FT between displacing fluids is desirable at both ends of the micellar slug. A low 1FT between the micellar solution and oil is required to mobilize discontinuous oil drops or fIlms. At the back of the micellar slug, a low 1FT results in minimal trapping and bypassing of the micellar solution. Clearly, if the micellar solution were not efficiently displaced by the polymer solution, then the micellar slug would deteriorate rapidly. The surfactant processes have significant potential because of the possibility of designing a process where both Ev and ED increase. There are important problems, however. The process is complex technologically and can be justified only when oil prices are relatively high and when residual oil after waterflooding is substantial. The chemical solutions, which contain surfactant, cosurfactant, and sometimes oil, are expensive. Chemical losses can be severe. Such losses can occur as a result of adsorption, phase partitioning and trapping, and bypassing owing to fmgering if mobility control is not maintained. These losses must be compensated for by increasing the volume of micellar solution injected. The stability of surfactant systems in general is known to be sensitive to high temperatures and high salinity. Systems that can withstand these conditions must be developed if the process is to have wide applicability. For example, early applications have essentially excluded carbonate reservoirs, in part because of the high salinity usually associated with such formations and high concentrations of divalent ions. There are several variations to the surfactant process, and some of these will be described later in this book. Other chemical methods have also been developed. Alkaline flooding is a process in which injected alkaline chemicals react with certain components in the oil to generate a surfactant in situ. The process has potential but apparently is limited in scope of application. Various alcohol processes also have been tested under laboratory conditions, but these have not been attempted in the field. These processes will be discussed but only in a limited manner. 1.4.3 Miscible Processes. The primary objective in a miscible process is to displace oil with a fluid that is miscible with the oil (i.e., forms a single phase when mixed at all proportions with the oil) at the conditions existing at the interface between the injected fluid and the oil bank being displaced. There are two major variations in this process. In one, called a first-contact-miscible (FCM) process, the injected fluid is directly miscible with the reservoir oil at the conditions of pressure and temperature existing in the reservoir. Fig. 1.4 illustrates the FCM process. A relatively small slug of a hydrocarbon fluid, such as liquified petroleum gas (LPG), is injected to displace the oil. The primary slug size would be about 10 to 15% PV. The LPG slug, in tum, is displaced by a larger volume of a less expensive gas that is high in methane concentration (dry gas). In some cases, water may be used as the secondary displacing fluid. The process is effective primarily because of miscibility between the primary slug and the oil phase. Primary slug/oil interfaces are eliminated, and oil drops are mobilized and moved ahead of the primary slug. Miscibility between the primary slug and the secondary displacing fluid (dry gas in Fig. 1.4) is also desirable. Otherwise, the primary slug would be trapped as a residual phase as the process progresses. The other variation of the miscible processes is the multiple-contact-miscible (MCM) process. In this, the injected fluid is not miscible with the reservoir oil on first contact. Rather, the process depends on the modification of composition of the injected phase, or oil phase, through multiple contacts between the phases in the reservoir and mass transfer of components between them. Under proper conditions of pressure, temperature, and composition this composition modification will generate miscibility between the displacing and displaced phases in situ. The CO 2 miscible process illustrated in Fig. 1.5 is one such process. A volume of relatively pure CO 2 is injected to mobilize and displace residual oil. Through multiple contacts between the CO 2 and oil phase, intermediate- and higher-molecular-weight hydrocarbons are extracted into the C0z-rich phase. Under proper conditions, this CO 2 -rich phase will reach a composition that is miscible with the original reservoir oil. From that point, miscible or near-miscible conditions exist at the displacing front interface. Under ideal conditions, this miscibility condition will be reached very quickly in the reservoir and the distance required to establish multiple-contact miscibility initially is negligible compared with the distance between wells. CO 2 volumes injected during a process are typically about 25 % PV. The critical temperature of CO 2 is 87.8F, and thus, in most cases it is injected as a fluid above its critical temperature. The viscosity of CO 2 at injection conditions is small, about 0.06 to 0.10 cp, depending on reservoir temperature and pressure. Oil and water are therefore displaced by CO 2 under unfavorable-mobility-ratio conditions in most cases. As described earlier, this leads to fmgering of the CO 2 through the oil phase and also to poor macroscopic displacement efficiency. One approach to overcoming this difficulty has been to inject slugs of CO2 and water alternately. This method is called the wateralternating-gas (WAG) process. The purpose of the water injection is to reduce the relative permeability to CO 2 and thereby to reduce its mobility. Another advantage of the WAG process is that it spreads the demand for CO 2 over time. Other methods of mobility control are being tested. These include the use of foams and polymers in conjunction with CO 2 injection. Another problem with the CO 2 process results from the density difference between CO 2 and water and sometimes between CO 2 and the oil. At injection conditions, CO 2 has a specific gravity of about 0.4 (again depending on the specific reservoir conditions). Depending on oil density, CO 2 can tend to move to the top of the formation and to override the displaced fluids. In some cases, this gravity effect is exploited by flooding from the top of the reservoir and displacing fluids downdip, but this can be done only where the reservoir structure is suitable: Injected Air and Water Zone (Burned Out) Air and Vaporized Water Zone Burning Front and Combustion Zone (600 - 1200F) Stearn or Vaporizing Zone (Approx. 400"F) 5. Condensing or Hot Water Zone (50 - 200F Above Initial Temperature) 6. Oil Bank (Near Initial Temperature) ~~~~~ 7. Cold Combustion Gases ] Fig. 1.8-ln-situ combustion process (after U.S. DOE). For the reasons cited, CO 2 often channels in a reservoir and breaks through at production wells relatively early in the process. Because the fuel value of CO 2 is zero, it is usually separated from other produced gases, recompressed, and reinjected. Recycling of CO 2 adds to the cost of a project, but is typically less expensive than purchasing all new CO 2 , The separated natural gas has its normal fuel value and is thus salable. Other gases are suitable for application as MCM displacement fluids in a manner similar to that described for CO 2 , These include relatively dry hydrocarbon gases (high CH 4 content), nitrogen, or flue gases. The difference is that these gases usually require much higher pressures to achieve miscibility than CO 2 , These other gases are more suitable for deep reservoirs where high pressures can be achieved without fracturing the reservoir rock. A rough rule of thumb for fracturing pressures is 0.6 psi/ft of depth. If fracture pressure is exceeded in the process, the reservoir rock will fail and injected fluids will channel through the fractures, bypassing most _Thermal t:::~ Miscible _Chemical of the oil. Thus, the process design and choice of displacing fluid depend on operating pressure, which in turn depends on reservoir depth. Another modification of the MCM process uses a hydrocarbon fluid that is rich in components such as ethane and propane. In this process, these injected components condense into the oil phase, enriching the oil with the lighter components. Again, under proper conditions, the oil-phase composition can be modified so that it becomes miscible with the injected fluid and in-situ generation of miscibility occurs. Problems with the miscible processes are primarily those described for the CO 2 MCM process. The miscible fluids generally have small viscosities and therefore fingering and poor volumetric sweeps result. Reservoir heterogeneities magnify this problem. The development of methods to control mobility has proved to be a difficult task. Density differences also contribute to poor volumetric contact because of gravity override unless these density differences 40r-----------------------------~ I.:.:.::.:.' t::::l Produced After 2013 JaI!!iI Produced Through 2013 Advanced Technology 27.5 Billion Barrels Implemented Technology 14.5 Billion Barrels $201bbl Nominal Crude Oil Price (Constant 1983 Dollars) Fig. 1.9-Potential EOR ultimate recovery (from Natl. Petroleum Council 4 ). Fig. 1.1 O-Potential EOR ultimate recovery as a function of oil price (from Natl. Petroleum Council 4 ). >ctS ,.,....-.::--- Total EOR Thermal Miscible Chemical Total EOR8,9 (Historical) ~---~ --- --------- -.... . Fig. 1.11-Potential EOR production rates (from Natl. Petroleum Council 4 ). can be used to advantage in dipping reservoirs. Finally, the fluids applicable at moderate reservoir pressures are expensive and, in some cases, in limited supply. 1.4.4 Thermal Processes. Thermal processes may be subdivided into hot-water floods, steam processes, and in-situ combustion. The hot-water flood has been used only sparingly and with limited success and will not be considered here. Steam is used in two different ways: cyclic steam stimulation and steamdrive (steamflood). Fig. 1.6 shows steam stimulation, sometimes called steam soak or the huff 'n' puff process. This is a single-well method in which steam is injected into a production well for a specified period. The well is then closed in for a while, the so-called "soak" part of the process. The well is next opened for production, which continues until flow rates diminish to a point when the entire procedure is repeated. A typical well may go through several cycles, with the effect of the steam gradually diminishing with continued applications. Production is increased through a combination of mechanisms, including viscosity reduction, steam flashing, oil swelling, and steam stripping. The cumulative effect of these mechanisms is greatest TABLE 1.1-SUMMARY OF SCREENING CRITERIA FOR ENHANCED RECOVERY METHODS 10 Oil Properties Reservoir Characteristics Oil Net Average Saturation Formation Thickness Permeability Type (% PV) (tt) (md) Thin unless dipping Thin unless dipping (Wide range) N.C. 2 Temperature (oF) EOR Method Nitrogen (& Flue Gas) Hydrocarbon GravityOAPI Viscosity (cp) Composition High % of C 1 -C 7 Depth (tt) >6,000 Gas Injection Methods (Miscible) >351'481' 1 <0.4 "0.2,, >231'411' <3"0.5,, >221'361' - < 10"1.5,, > 40 I' 751' Sandstone or Carbonate High % of C 2 -C 7 > 30 I' 80 I' Sandstone or Carbonate High % of C 5 -C 12 > 20 I' 551' Sandstone or Carbonate Chemical >4,000 Micellar/-Polymer, >201'351' Alkaline/-Polymer (ASP), and Alkaline Flooding Polymer Flooding >15-<40 <35"13,, Light, intermediate. >351'531' Sandstone N.C. Some organic acids preferred for alkaline floods N.C. > 70 I' 80 I' Sandstone N.C. preferred Thermal > 10 I' 450 I' < 9,000" 3,250 <200,,80 <150,>10 >10 3 1'8001' <9,000 <200" 140 >101'~->? <5,000->1,200 Some asphaltic components >8-13.5->? <200,000,,4,700 N.C. >501'721' High >10 porosity sand/ sandstone >401'661' High >20 porosity sand/ sandstone >50 4 < 11 ,500,,3,500 > 1001' 135 >200 5 < 4,500" 1,500 N.C. 1. Underlined values represent the approximate mean or average for current field projects. /' indicates higher value of parameter is better. N.C. = not critical. > 5 md from some carbonate reservoirs. Transmissibility > 20 md ftlcp. Transmissibility > 50 md ftlcp. on heavier (low-API-gravity) oils with high viscosities. Steam injection therefore tend.s to be used on viscous, low-API-gravity oils. The second general method of steam application is the steamdrive, or steamflood, process shown in Fig. 1.7. In this method, steam is injected through injection wells and the fluids are displaced toward production wells that are drilled in specified patterns. Recovery mechanisms in this method also are based on viscosity reduction, oil swelling, steam stripping, and steam-vapor drive. As the steam loses energy in its movement through the res.ervoir, condensation to liquid water occurs. Therefore, the process consists of a hot-water flood in the region of condensation followed by steam displacement. The process has been applied primarily to low-APIgravity, high-viscosity oils but is also applicable to lighter crudes. A major problem with steam processes is that the steam density is much lower than that of oil and water and therefore the steam tends to move to the top of a reservoir, overriding a large part of the oil body. This is compensated for partially by heat conduction away from the zone of actual contact by the steam, however, and the heated portion of a reservoir can be a high percentage of total reservoir volume. The heated volume depends significantly on the reservoir structure. Mobility control is also a problem with the steamdrive process because steam viscosity is small compared with the viscosities of liquid water and oil. Other points of concern include heat losses, equipment problems from operating at high temperatures, and pollutant emissions resulting from surface steam generation. In-situ combustion, shown schematically in Fig. 1.8, is another thermal process. In this process, thermal energy is generated in the reservoir by combustion, which may be initiated with either an electric heater or gas burner or may be spontaneous. Oxygen, as air or in a partially purified state, is compressed at the surface and continuously injected (dry process), often together with water (wet process). In the heating and combustion that occur, the lighter components of the oil are vaporized and moved ahead. Depending on the peak temperature attained, thermal cracking may occur, and vapor products from this reaction also move downstream. Part of the oil is deposited as a coke-like material on the reservoir rock, and this solid material serves as the fuel in the process. Thus, as oxygen injection is continued, a combustion front slowly propagates through the reservoir, with the reaction components displacing vapor and liquids ahead toward production wells. Recovery mechanisms include viscosity reduction from heating, vaporization of fluids, and thermal cracking. Injected gases and water pick up energy as they pass through the burned zone and move toward the combustion front. Ahead of the combustion front, a steam plateau exists-i.e., a region of condensing steam in which the temperature is almost constant at the steam saturation temperature corresponding to the reservoir pressure. A hot-water flood essentially exists in this region, much in the same manner as in a steamdrive process. Ahead of the steam plateau, the temperature decreases to the original reservoir temperature. There are variations to the in-situ combustion process. In wet combustion, water is injected along with air. The water effectively picks up energy in the burned zone behind the front. It also has beneficial effects on the combustion process and reduces the combustion-zone temperature. In another variation, not often applied, the combustion is carried out in a reverse manner. Combustion is started at the production wells. Oxygen is still injected at injection wells and so the combustion zone moves in the direction opposite to the fluid flow. The in-situ combustion process effectively displaces oil in the regions contacted. Approximately 30% of the oil in place is required as fuel in the burning. This percentage varies, of course, depending on the oil composition and saturation, combustion conditions, and rock properties. A major problem with this method is control of the movement of the combustion front. Depending on reservoir characteristics and fluid distributions, the combustion front may move in a nonuniform manner through the reservoir, with resulting poor volumetric contact. Also, if proper conditions are not maintained at the combustion front, the combustion reaction can weaken and cease completely. The process effectiveness is lost if this occurs. Finally, because of the high temperatures generated, significant equipment problems can occur at the wells. Pollutant emission control also can be of concern in some cases. 1.5 Potential of the Different Processes A number of studies 1-6 have estimated the potential U. S. recovery by the different EOR processes. While specific recovery estimates for the different processes vary, the general conclusions are similar. Results from the study by the Natl. Petroleum Council (NpC)4 are summarized in Figs. 1.9 through 1.11. These figures indicate the general magnitude of oil recovery expected from the use of the different processes to give the reader some feel for their importance. In the NPC study, mobility-control processes were included within the chemical-process category. Most of the recovery within this category, however, resulted from the use of chemicals that decreased the 1FT. The NPC study was based on examination of reservoirs having more than 50 x 10 6 bbl OOIP. This data base encompassed about 67 % of the total OOIP in the U. S. as of 1980. Fig. 1.9 shows projected ultimate recoveries for reservoirs in the data base for each of the major processes and cumulative ultimate recoveries for two different technology scenarios, both at an assumed oil price of $30/bbl (constant 1983 dollars) and a minimum rate of return of 10%. The implemented-technology case was based on application of technology in existence at the time of the study. In the advancedtechnology case, use of new technology that might be developed over the next 30 years was assumed. The effect of price on recovery is shown in Fig. 1.10, where crude oil prices from $20 to $501bbl were assumed for the two technology scenarios. Oil price has a significant effect in the $20 to $301bbl range, but little effect above about $40lbbl. Projected potential production rates for the different processes and cumulative rates are presented in Fig. 1. 11 for the advanced-technology case at an oil price of $30/bbl. Other projections 1,5 have been more optimistic in terms of ultimate recovery. All the studies projected that a significant amount of incremental oil can be recovered by EOR processes under favorable economic conditions. Recovery rates could increase over the next several years. Ultimate recoveries will not be achieved, however, until well into the 21st century. Actual cumulative production rates for all EOR projects in the U.S. for the years 1984-95 are shown in Fig. 1.11 8 ,9 along with the NPC projections. As of the beginning of 1996, thermal processes contributed about 424,000 B/D, miscible and immiscible gas processes contributed about 299,000 B/D, and chemical processes (including polymer processes) added less than 1,000 BID. Moritis 8 reports data on the status of EOR projects around the world as of the beginning of 1996. 1.6 Screening Criteria for Process Applicability The U.S. national studies 1-6 used general, or rule-of-thumb, technical screening criteria in the process evaluations. These criteria reflect current estimates of the range of oil and reservoir properties over which the different processes are applicable. Table 1.1 gives a recent set of such criteria. 10 Restrictions on the application of the processes exist. For example, the CO 2 miscible process is limited to reservoirs with sufficient depth to obtain the miscibility pressure and to oils that have relatively high API gravity because of miscibility pressure and/or mobility problems. Steamdrive has reservoir depth limitations because of heat losses and the steam temperatures obtainable. Surfactant/polymer processes are generally limited because of salinity and temperature and the associated difficulty of designing stable surfactant/polymer systems. The screening criteria shown in Table 1.1 are only approximate. In specific cases, successful designs may be developed to exceed the published criteria, and thus, each potential reservoir situation should be considered individually. Also, as the technology develops, the limitations will be relaxed to reflect new knowledge about known processes, variations of known processes, or even new processes. 1.7 Organization of the Textbook The fIrst four chapters present a general overview of the major EaR processes and a discussion of reservoir engineering principles that relate to oil recovery: The topics have been subdivided into principles that relate to displacement on a microscopic scale (Chap. 2), to linear displacement (Chap. 3), and to macroscopic (or volumetric) displacement (Chap. 4). For those familiar with trapping and mobilization processes in porous media, Chaps. 2 through 4 will be a review. The different classifIcations of processes are described in the remainder of the book. For each general type of process, a chapter deals with the fundamental displacement mechanisms for the process type. EaR technology is advancing relatively rapidly. A diffIculty in writing a book is determining which technologies are reasonably well-established and which are speculative and largely unproved. The purpose of each chapter about the different process types is to describe the principles established to relate to the recovery mechanisms. In the different chapters, certain specifIc processes are described in more detail, including current design procedures. Practical problems associated with the processes are discussed. Because of space limitations, all the variations of the different process types cannot be described in detail. For example, Chap. 6 emphasizes a description of the CO 2 miscible process. Other miscible processes such as condensing-gas drive and nitrogen displacement, however, are presented in less detail. The discussions given are intended to provide the reader with a basis for proceeding to other, related processes. So; = initial oil saturation, L3 IL3, volume fraction Sor = residual oil saturation, L3 IL3, volume fraction average residual oil saturation (averaged over entire reservoir volume), L3 IL3, volume fraction TR = reservoir temperature, T, OF = porosity, L3 IL3, volume fraction It = viscosity, mLlt, cp 1. "Oil Research Program Implementation Plan," U.S. DOE, Washington, DC (April 1990). 2. "Major Program Elements for an Advanced Oil and Gas Recovery Research Initiative," program study summary report, Geoscience Inst. for Oil & Gas Recovery Research, U. of Texas, Austin (1989). 3. "Enhanced Oil Recovery," Nat!. Petroleum Council, U.S. DOE, Washington, DC (1976) Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 76-62538. 4. "Enhanced Oil Recovery," Nat!. Petroleum Council, U.S. DOE, Washington, DC (1984) Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 84-061296. 5. "Enhanced Oil Recovery Potential in the United States, " Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress, Washington, DC (1978) Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 77-600063. 6. "Research and Development in Enhanced Oil Recovery," Energy R&D Admin., Washington, DC (1976). 7. Willhite, G.P.: Waterflooding, Textbook Series, SPE, Richardson, TX (1986) 3. 8. Moritis, G.: "C0 2 and HC Injection Lead EOR Production Increase," Oil & Gas 1. (April 23, 1990) 88, 49-82. 9. Moritis, G.: "New Technology, Improved Economics Boost EOR Hopes," Oil & Gas 1. (April 15, 1996) 94, 39-61. 10. Taber, 1.1., Martin, F.D., and Seright, R.S.: "EOR Screening Criteria Revisited," paper SPE 35385 presented at the 1996 SPE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium, Tulsa, OK, April 21-24. Parameter defInitions followed by dimensions and typical units used in text. D = depth, L, ft E = overall displacement effIciency, 010, volume fraction ED = microscopic displacement effIciency, O/L3, volume fraction Ev = macroscopic (volumetric) displacement effIciency, L3 IL3, volume fraction h = pay-zone thickness, L, ft k = permeability, L2, md PR = reservoir pressure, mL/t 2 , psi So = oil saturation, L3 IL3, volume fraction 51 Metric Conversion Factors bbl x 1.589 873 E-Ol cp x 1.0* E-03 ft x 3.048* E-Ol ft3 x 2.381 685 E-02 OF (OF-32)/1.8 psi x 6.894 757 Conversion factor is exact. m3 Pas m C kPa E+OO Microscopic Displacement of Fluids in a Reservoir 2.1 Introduction An important aspect of any EOR process is the effectiveness of process fluids in removing oil from the rock pores at the microscopic scale. Microscopic displacement efficiency , ED' largely determines the success or failure of a process. For crude oil, ED is reflected in the magnitude of Sor (i.e., the residual oil saturation remaining in the reservoir rock at the end of the process) in places contacted by the displacing fluids. Because EOR processes typically involve the injection of multiple fluid slugs, the efficiency of displacement of these slugs through the reservoir is also of interest. Poor efficiency leads to early deterioration and breakdown of the slugs, which in tum leads to poor project performance. Capillary and viscous forces govern phase trapping and mobilization of fluids in porous media and thus microscopic displacement efficiency. An understanding and appreciation of the magnitude of these forces is required to understand the recovery mechanisms involved in EOR processes. This chapter discusses forces related to phase trapping and mobilization in multiphase fluid systems, including descriptions of the roles of interfacial tension (1FT), rock wettability, and capillary pressure. Simple models of trapping and mobilization, experimental data, and empirical expressions that correlate trapping and mobilization data with system parameters are presented. Also discussed are displacement under immiscible conditions when two or more phases flow simultaneously, the role of phase behavior in displacement when solubility of the components in the different phases is significant, and the application of pseudoternary diagrams for phasebehavior representation This chapter is a review of the important factors relating to microscopic displacement behavior. Willhite 1 presents additional discussion of the subject. 2.2 Capillary Forces 2.2.1 Surface Tension and 1FT. Whenever immiscible phases coexist in a porous medium as in essentially all processes of interest, surface energy related to the fluid interfaces influences the saturations, distributions, and displacement of the phases. As Fig. 2.1 shows, water coexists with oil in a reservoir even when the reservoir has not been waterflooded or flooded by a natural waterdrive. Even though the water may be immobile in this case, interfacial forces can still influence performance of subsequent flow processes. If a reservoir has been waterflooded or there is a natural waterdrive, then water saturations will be high and the water phase will be mobile. Most EOR processes use fluids that are not completely miscible with the oil phase and/or the water phase. Interfacial forces must then be examined to determine their significance for oil recovery. A free liquid surface is illustrated in Fig. 2.2, where A, B, and C represent molecules of the liquid. Molecules that are well below the surface such as A are, on average, attracted equally in all directions owing to cohesive forces, and their movement therefore tends to be unaffected by cohesive forces. Molecules Band C, however, which are at or near the liquid/air interface, are acted on unequally. A net downward force tends to pull these molecules back into the bulk of the liquid. The surface thus acts like a stretched membrane, tending to shorten as much as possible. This surface force, which is a tensile force, is quantified in terms of surface tension, a, the force acting in the plane of the surface per unit length of the surface. Surface tension can be visualized as shown in Fig. 2.3, where a force F is acting normal to a liquid surface oflength L. The force per unit length, F/L, required to create additional surface area (that is, to extend the surface) is the surface tension, usually expressed in dynes/cm. Surface tension is related to the work required to create new surface area. Assume that the force F in Fig. 2.3 moves a distance dx, creating new surface in the amount of Ldx. The work done can be expressed as W=Fdx ........................................ (2.1) or W=adA, ...................................... (2.2) where F = force applied to surface, dynes; L=length over which force is applied, cm; a=IFT, F/L, dynes/cm; and dA=new surface area, Ldx, cm 2 . Thus, the work needed to create additional surface is directly proportional to a. From this argument, a dA also is seen to represent a surface-energy term. The term "surface tension" usually is reserved for the specific case in which the surface is between a liquid and its vapor or air. If the surface is between two different liquids, or between a liquid and a solid, the term "interfacial tension" is used. The surface tension of water in contact with its vapor at room temperature is about 73 dynes/cm. 1FT's between water and pure hydrocarbons are about 30 to 50 dynes/cm at room temperature. Mixtures of hydrocarbons such as crude oils will have lower 1FT's that depend on the nature and complexity of the liquids. 1FT's and surface tensions are relatively strong functions of temperature. Surface tensions of several paraffin hydrocarbons are shown in Fig. 2.42,3 and 1FT's between water and a number of crude oils are given in Table 2.1. 4 One of the simplest ways to measure the surface tension of a liquid is to use a capillary tube, as shown in Fig. 2.5. When a capillary tube of radius r is placed in a beaker of water, the water will rise in the capillary tube a certain height, h, as a result of the force difference created across the curvature of the meniscus. (The water level will rise if it wets the capillary-tube material. Solid wettability will be discussed later.) At static conditions, the force owing to surface tension (vertical component of surface tension multiplied by the wetted perimeter) will be balanced by the force of gravity acting on the column of fluid: upward vertical force of surface tension X wetted perimeter = downward gravitational force acting on fluid column, or ~~?:E=7l'r2h(Pw-Pa)g, ...................... (2.3) Fig. 2.1-Closeup of oil and water between grains of rock. Air and Uquid Vapor where r=capillary-tube radius, cm; h=height of water rise in the capillary, cm; pw=water density, g/cm 3; Pa=air density, g/cm3; g=gravity acceleration constant, 980 cm/s 2 ; and II = contact angle between water and capillary tube. Solving for (J gives the familiar equation for capillary rise, rh(pw-Pa)g (J= .... 2 cos II Thus, if one carefully measures II (measured through the liquid) and the height of the column for a given capillary radius, the surface tension can be determined. Example 2.1-Calculation of Surface Tension From Rise in a Capillary Tube. Calculate the surface tension of water at 7rF if II = 38 0, the capillary radius is 100 /lm and the height of the water column is 12 cm. (Neglect the density of air compared with the density of water.) Solution. (l00xlO- 6 m)(lOO cm/m)(12 cm)(l g/cm3)(980 cm/s2) (J= Uquid Fig. 2.2-Free liquid surface indicating molecular positions. Air or Vapor 2xO.788 =74.6 g/s2 =74.6 g' cm/(s2 . cm) =74.6 dynes/cm. ~I Fig. 2.3-Free liquid surface, force and length used in definition of surface tension. 30~--~~~~--~---+---+---+--~ ~20~~~~~~~~~--~--+-~ c::.2 ~ c: "\- In practice, the contact angle is rather difficult to measure. A simpler technique is the ring tensiometer method shown in Fig. 2.6 being used to measure 1FT between oil and water. In this method, a carefully cleaned platinum/iridium ring is pulled through the interface. As this occurs, the interfacial area increases (Figure 2.6a), and the surface is stretched further until it finally breaks (Figure 2.6b). The force on the ring is measured throughout the process. At the breaking point of the surface, the force divided by the circumference of the ring (corrected for a geometric factor) is the (Jow value at the experimental temperature. This method is reliable and convenient over the range of surface and 1FT values commonly encountered for water, hydrocarbons, water/hydrocarbon systems and some water/hydrocarbon/surfactant systems (J> 1.0 dyne/cm). For ultralow 1FT's such as those encountered in surfactant processes (Chap. 7), other means of measurement must be used. These include the spinning-drop and the pendant-drop methods. 2.2.2 Solid Wettability. Fluid distributions in porous media are affected not only by the forces at fluid/fluid interfaces, but also by forces at fluid/solid interfaces. Wettability is the tendency of one fluid to spread on or adhere to a solid surface in the presence of a second fluid. When two immiscible phases are placed in contact with a solid surface, one phase usually is attracted to the solid more strongly than the other phase. The more strongly attracted phase is called the wetting phase. Rock wettability affects the nature of fluid saturations and the general relative permeability characteristics of a fluid/rock system. A simple example of the effect on saturations is shown in Fig. 2.7, which shows residual oil saturations in a strongly water-wet and a strongly oil-wet rock. The location of a phase within the pore structure depends on the wettability of that phase. Considering the effect of wettability on fluid distributions, it is easy to rationalize that relative permeability curves are strong functions of wettability, 't: ~ 1 0 I---~.....-H..-"<-N'--""""~~'k:--' :::J Temperature, OF Fig. 2.4-Surface tension of paraffin hydrocarbons (from Katz, D.L. and Saltman, W.: "Surface Tension of Hydrocarbons," Ind. & Eng. Chem. (1939)2; and Amyx, J.W. et a/.: Petroleum Reservoir Engineering (1960) McGraw-Hili Book Co. 3 Reproduced with permission of McGraw-Hili Inc.). 14 TABLE 2.1-IFT BETWEEN WATER AND VARIOUS CRUDE OILS (after Donaldson et al. 4 ) Oil Formation Offshore Woodbine Lansing Choctaw Kansas City Paleocene Miocene Bartlesville Bartlesville Offshore Second Berea Offshore Uvigerina Wilcox Glen McLish Allen Squirrel Vicksberg Wacatoch Miocene Oil Viscosity (cp) 30.4 82.9 5.3 16.1 6.7 6.1 90.8 9.0 6.8 7.4 15.3 10.3 112.2 6.7 5.1 5.8 22.0 33.0 44.5 5.9 22.2 12.8 2.4 21.9 4.5 3.8 133.7 22.4 5.2 99.2 27.7 31.8 114.0 360.0 26.4 213.0 693.8 121.7 2.8 86.2 180.0 43.4 153.6 Field West Delta Cayuga Fairport Bayou Chase-Silica Hofra Black Bay Bar-Dew Bar-Dew Eugene Island Cambridge Grand Isle Bastian Bay Oklahoma City Glenpool Cumberland Allen District Squirrel Berclair Greenwood-Waskom Ship Shoal Gilliland Clear Creek Ray Wheeler Rio Bravo Tatums Saturday Island North Shongaloo-Red Elk Hills Eugene Island Fairport Long Beach Colgrade Spivey Grabs Elk Hills Trix-Liz St. Teresa Bradford Huntington Beach Bartlesville Rhodes Pool Toborg Upper Bearhead Arbuckle Ellenburger Rio Bravo Tatums Miocene Takio Shallow Zone Miocene Reagan Alamitos Wilcox Mississippi Shallow Zone Woodbine A Cypress Devonian South Main Area Bartlesville Mississippi Chat State Louisiana Texas Kansas Louisiana Kansas Libya Louisiana Oklahoma Oklahoma Louisiana Ohio Louisiana Louisiana Oklahoma Oklahoma Oklahoma Oklahoma Oklahoma Texas Louisiana Louisiana Oklahoma Louisiana Kansas Texas California Oklahoma Louisiana Louisiana California Louisiana Kansas California Louisiana Kansas California Texas Illinois Pennsylvania California Oklahoma Kansas Texas 1FT (dynes/cm) 17.9 17.9 20.8 15.6 19.6 27.1 17.7 21.4 21.4 16.2 14.7 16.1 24.8 20.1 24.7 18.5 25.9 22.3 10.3 11.9 17.3 17.8 17.3 25.3 18.2 17.8 28.8 31.5 17.7 12.6 15.3 23.4 30.5 19.9 24.5 14.2 10.6 21.6 9.9 16.4 13.0 30.5 18.0 as Willhite 1 discusses in some detail. Rocks are also known to have intermediate and/or mixed wettability, depending on the physical/chemical makeup of the rock and the composition of the oil phase. Intermediate wettability occurs when both fluid phases tend to wet the solid, but one phase is only slightly more attracted than the other. Mixed wettability results from a variation or heterogeneity in chemical composition of exposed rock surfaces or cementing-material surfaces in the pores. Because of this mixed chemical exposure, the wettability condition may vary from point to point. In fact, water sometimes wets the solid over part of the surface and oil over the remaining part. Wettability can be quantitatively treated by examining the interfacial forces that exist when two immiscible fluid phases are in contact with a solid. Fig. 2.8 shows a water drop placed in contact with a homogeneous rock surface in the presence of an oil phase. The water drop spreads on the solid until forces are balanced, as shown in Fig. 2.8. A force balance at the line of intersection of solid, water, and oil yields uos-uws=uow cos 0, ............................. (2.5) where uos' u ws ' and uow=IFT's between solid and oil, water and solid, and water. and oil, respectively, dynes/cm, and O=contact angle, measured through the water. While U ow can be measured as described earlier, uos and u ws have never been measured directly. Experimental methods have not Fig. 2.5-Use of a capillary tube to illustrate a method of measuring surface tension. a .I!2 F Fig. 2.6-Use of ring tensiometer to measure 1FT: (a) distension of interfacial film during 1FT measurements and (b) condition of surface at breaking point. been developed to make these determinations. Therefore, the contact angle, 8, is used to measure wettability. For Fig. 2.8, the solid is water-wet if 8 < 90 and oil-wet if 8> 90. A contact angle approaching 0 indicates a strongly water-wet system and an angle approaching 180 indicates a strongly oil-wet rock. By convention, contact angles are measured through the water phase; if contact angles were measured through the oil phase, the inverse of the above rule defining wettability would apply. Intermediate wettability, as described earlier, occurs when 8 is close to 90. Willhite! presents additional discussion of intermediate and mixed wettability, and describes the effect of liquid composition on wettability. In the example of 1FT measurement with a capillary tube discussed earlier (see Fig. 2.5), water was the fluid used and was assumed to wet the glass capillary. If mercury were used as the liquid, the mercury would be. depressed in the capillary as shown in Fig. 2.9. Here, mercury does not wet the glass. If as before, ois measured through the liquid, then its value exceeds 90 and cos 0 is a negative number. The value of h is also a negative quantity, and thus Eq. 2.4 yields a positive value for the surface tension of mercury. The mercury surface is in tension because a force acts upward in the mercury in the capillary because of the liquid head differential between the mercury in the container and capillary. andPw=Patm+Pog(h! +h)-Pwgh, ................... (2.7) where Palm = atmospheric pressure, dynes/cm 2 ; hand h! = fluid heights defined in Fig. 2.10, cm; Po and Pw=oil and water densities, g/cm 3 ; and g=gravity acceleration constant, 980 cm/s 2 . The water pressure is calculated by summing pressure heads through the oil and subtracting the water head in the capillary. The pressure at the oil/water interface in the container is assumed the same as the water pressure at the same elevation in the capillary. Subtracting Eq. 2.7 from Eq. 2.6 gives Po-Pw=h(Pw-Po)g=P c ' ........................ (2.8) The result indicates that a pressure difference exists across the interface, which is designated the capillary pressure, Pc' Note that the larger pressure exists in the nonwetting phase. Recalling that rgh(pw-po) U ow = , ............................. (2.4) 2 cos 8 there results 2.2.3 Capillary Pressure. Because interfaces are in tension in the systems described, a pressure difference exists across the interface. This pressure, called capillary pressure, can also be illustrated by fluid rise in a capillary tube. Fig. 2.10 shows water rise in a glass capillary. The fluid above the water is an oil, and because the water preferentially wets the glass of the capillary, there is a capillary rise. Two pressures, Po and P w ' are identified in the figure; Po is oil-phase pressure at a point just above the oil/water interface, and Pw is water-phase pressure just below the interface. Force balances yield the following: Po=Patm+Pogh! ................................ (2.6) rP c = - - - ................................... (2.9) 2cosO or Pc= 2u ow cos 8 .............................. (2.10) The capillary pressure is thus related to the fluidlfluid 1FT, the relative wettability of the fluids (through 8), and the size of the capillary, r. The capillary pressure may be positive or negative; the sign merely expresses in which phase the pressure is lower. The phase with the lower pressure will always be the phase that preferentially wets the capillary. Notice that Pc varies inversely as a function of the capillary radius and increases as the affinity of the wetting Oil Oi Water Surrounds Oil and Contacts Rock Oil Contacts Rock Water-Wet System 011 -Wet System Fig. 2.8-lnterfacial forces at an interface between two immiscible fluids and a solid. Fig. 2.7-Effect of wettability on saturation. Patm Fig. 2.9-Capillary depression of a nonwetting liquid in a capillary tube. phase for the rock surface increases. This concept is extremely important to the discussion that follows. The straight capillary is an idealistic and simplistic approximation to capillary phenomena in oil-bearing rocks. The complexity of the pore structure prohibits rigorous analytical examination. One successful treatment,S however, involves a configuration made up of uniform spherical particles of definite sizes on the order of magnitude found in oil-bearing rocks. For this system of uncon solidated uniform spheres, an expression for the capillary pressure was developed by Plateau. 6 Pc =a(lIR I Fig. 2.10-Capillary pressure resulting from interfacial forces in a capillary tube. + lIR z), ............................. (2.11) where RI and Rz are the radii of curvature shown in Fig. 2.11.5 Eq. 2.11 has been called the Laplace equation and shown to be a general relationship if R I and R z are taken as the principal radii of curvature of the fluidlfluid interface at the localized position of capillary pressure determinati0n. In a straight capillary, lIR I and llR z are equal and are given by the radius of the capillary divided by the cosine of the contact angle, rlcos 8. The values of R I and R z are related to the saturation of the wetting-phase fluid within a porous medium. Therefore, the capillary pressure depends on the saturation of the fluid phase that wt!ts the system, although the exact nature of the dependence may not be simply stated because the variation of RI and Rz with the saturation is quite complex. There are a number of methods to measure capillary pressures in reservoir rocks, and numerous papers exist on the interpretation of capillary pressure curves. Willhite I discusses capillary pressure data with implications for fluid distributions in reservoirs. Fig. 2.12? shows typical drainage and imbibition curves for a reservoir rock. Hysteresis of the type shown is a common phen6menon discussed by several authors. I,? Also, the drainage curves gener- ~ Drainage Curve pressu~~ Connate Water Sw Fig. 2.11-Wetting of spheres showing radii of curvature (from Leverett 5). Fig. 2.12-Typical capillary pressure curves for a reservoir rock, water-wet system. Water ............... A ................ ...... ...... 0 B Pc =20(1/r) COS 0 (a) Variation in r Water ............... ...... A O ........ ..... Water B -- Os (b) Variation in Fig. 2.13-lIIustration of oil/water interfaces: continuous phases vs. trapped drop. ally exhibit a threshold pressure, as shown in Fig. 2.12, that is related to the size of the larger pores in the rock. The steeply rising portion of the curve occurs at a water saturation generally corresponding to the connate water saturation. (0) Variation in 2.3 Viscous Forces Viscous forces in a porous medium are reflected in the magnitude of the pressure drop that occurs as a result of flow of a fluid through Fig. 2.14-Different conditions of trapping of a droplet in a capillary. VIEW ON THE 900 PLANE: """'II! ' 4 C; 1. DISPLACEMENT. 2. APPROACHING. 4. TRAPPING. 5. TRAPPING VIEW ON THE 45 PLANE: TRIANGULAR-LIKE CHANNEL NONANE DROP Fig. 2.15-Trapping of nonane drops in square capillary constrictions (from Arriola et a/. 13). the medium. One of the simplest approximations used to calculate the viscous force is to consider a porous medium as a bundle of parallel capillary tubes. With this assumption, the pressure drop for laminar flow through a single tube is given by Poiseuille's law. 8 D..p=---, .................................. (2.12) r 2gc Examples 2.2 and 2.3 illustrate that viscous forces yield pressure gradients in reservoir rocks on the order of O. 1 to > 1 psi/ft. These are typical values for the bulk of the reservoir volume. Values can be significantly higher for the regions around injection and production wells. 2.4 Phase Trapping Trapping of oil or other fluids in a porous medium such as a reservoir rock is not understood completely and cannot be rigorously described mathematically. The trapping mechanism, however, is known to depend on (1) the pore structure of the porous medium, (2) fluid/rock interactions related to wettability, and (3) fluidlfluid interactions reflected in 1FT and sometimes in flow instabilities. Trapping and mobilization are related to these factors in a complex way. While a rigorous analysis is not possible, a number of models partly describe the forces involved in phase trapping and mobilization. In addition, considerable experimental data on trapping have been reported and correlated with various parameter groups. A few of the simple models and important data correlations are presented in this section. The closely related phenomenon of mobilization of trapped phases is discussed in the following section. 2.4.1 Trapping in a Single Capillary. Trapping in a Single Capillary-Jamin Effect. It has been recognized for some time that the pressure required to force a non wetting phase through a capillary system, such as a porous rock, can be quite high. This phenomenon, called the Jamin effect, has been discussed by several authors. 9- 12 The phenomenon can be described most easily by analyzing a trapped oil droplet or gas bubble in a preferentially water-wet capillary, as shown in Figs. 2.13 and 2.14. The physical conditions for these cases are described, and then the cases are treated quantitatively. The analyses use the 1FT, wettability, and capillary pressure concepts discussed earlier. . Fig. 2.13 shows two possible conditions of drop size. In Fig. 2.13a, a very long, continuous water filament is in contact with a continuous oil filament. The system is static, with different pressures existing at Points A and B because of capillary forces. The static pressure difference must be exceeded for flow to occur. In Fig. 2.13b, water contacts both sides of a finite oil drop. Again the static pressure difference, PB -P A' if one exists, must be overcome to initiate flow. Fig. 2.14 shows three variations of the case shown in Fig. 2.13b, the finite drop in contact with water on both sides of the drop. In Fig. 2.14a, the capillary tube size varies and therefore the radius is smaller on one side of the drop than on the other. Fig. 2.14b shows a situation where the contact angle is different on the two sides of the drop, which could result, for example, ifthe drop were displaced in one direction, causing an advancing contact angle different from the receding angle. Finally, in Fig. 2.14c, a gas drop is trapped between water on one side and oil on the other. Again, determining the static pressure differences between Points A and B is important because this value must be exceeded to initiate flow. For the condition in Fig. 2.13a, the pressure across the interface is just the capillary pressure, Pc: 8pLv where D..p =pressure drop across the capillary tube, P2 -PI, Ibf/ft2; L=capillary-tube length, ft; r=capillary-tube radius, ft; v=average velocity in the capillary tube, ft/sec, /-t=viscosity of flowing fluid, lbm/(ft-sec), and gc=conversion factor. For an alternative set of units, pLv) D..p=-(6.22X1O-8) ( - . - .................... (2.13) r2gc where D..p is in psi, r is in inches, vis in feet per day, /-t is in centipoise, and L is in feet. Viscous forces in a porous medium can be expressed in terms of Darcy's law, D..p=-(0.158) ( - k - , ......................... (2.14) vpLcp ) where D..p=pressure drop across the porous mediumP2 -PI' psi; v=average velocity of fluid in the pores of the porous medium, ftlD; /-t=fluid viscosity, cp; L=length of the porous medium, ft; cp=porosity of the porous medium, and k=permeability of the porous medium, darcies. For a bundle of equal size capillaries, the permeability is given by k=20x 106d 2 cp, ................................ (2.15) where k=permeability of the bundle of capillary tubes, darcies; d=diameter of the capillary tubes, in.; and cp=effective porosity of the bundle of capillaries. The magnitude of viscous forces can be illustrated with example calculations. Example 2.2-Calculation of Pressure Gradientfor Water Flow in a Capillary. Calculate the pressure gradient, t:.p/L, for water flow at a typical reservoir rate of 1.0 ftlD through a straight capillary with a diameter of 0.004 in. and water viscosity is 1.0 cpo Solution. Eq. 2.12 is applicable. -=--- D..p 8/-tv r2gc 8(0.672X10- 3 Ibm/ft-sec)(1.157x1O-5 ft/sec) (1.667 x 10- 5 ft)2(32.2 Ibm-ft/lbf-sec 2) = -6.95 Ibf/(ftLft) = -0.048 Ibf/(in.2-ft) = -0.048 psi/ft. The effective permeability of this single capillary is given by k=20x 10 6 x 1.0 X(0.0004)2 =3.2 darcies. Example 2.3-Calculation of Pressure Gradientfor Viscous Oil Flow in a Rock. Calculate the pressure gradient for flow of an oil (viscosity of 10 cp) at an interstitial flow rate of 1.0 ftlD. The rock permeability is 250 md and the porosity is 0.20. Solution. Eq. 2.14 is applicable. PB-PA=Pc = 2(Jow cos () ........................ (2.16) For the other cases in Figs. 2.13 and 2.14, a generalized expression can be written by simply adding pressure drops across each interface. An assumption is made that the pressure within the oil or gas drop is constant from one end of the drop to the other. 2(Jow cos ()) (2(Jow cos ()) PB-PA = ( B (2.17) 0.158x1.0 ftIDx10 cpXO.2 0.250 darcies = -1.264 psi/ft. Subscripts A and B indicate that the values are determined for the interfaces at Points A and B, respectively. Application ofEq. 2.17 to the cases in Figs. 2.13b and 2.l4a through 2.14c yields the following forms, respectively. -= ------------ Fig.2.13h. PB -P A = ( (2aow cos ()) 2aOw cos ()) r Ar B=0, ...... (2.18) because the conditions at Point A are the same as at Point B. Pressure in the oil phase would exceed the pressure in the water phase by the value of Pc, but there would be no net pressure change across the drop. Fig. 2.14a. PB-PA=2aow cos (}(~-~) ................... (2.19) rA rB Assuming that () A =(}B, the pressure difference at static conditions is directly proportional to the difference, across the oil drop, of the inverse of the capillary radii. If rB < r A, then P A > PB and a pressure drop exists in the direction from Point A to B. This gradient would have to be exceeded to induce flow into the narrower part of the capillary constriction. The drop is trapped at a finite pressure difference of (PB - PA) Fig. 2.14h. 2aow PB-PA =--(cos r (}A -cos (}B) .................. (2.20) For an advancing contact angle at Point B and a receding angle at Point A, () A> (}B and cos () A < cos (}B. This situation occurs when the drop is on the verge of moving to the right in the figure. Again, PA > PB and a pressure gradient exists in the potential direction of flow at static, or trapped, conditions. Fig. 2.14c. 2 PB-PA =-(agw cos r (}A -ago cos (}B) ............... (2.21) In this case, 1FT and contact angles are different at the two interfaces because the fluid systems are different. Again, if ago cos (}B > agw cos () A' a pressure drop exists from Point A to B when this system is static. For any of the situations, if the parameters are known or can be estimated, then the pressure drop required to initiate flow (i.e., to overcome the trapped conditions) can easily be calculated. Example 2.4-Pressure Required To Force an Oil Drop Through a Pore Throat. Calculate the threshold pressure necessary to force an oil drop through a pore throat that has a forward radius of 6.2 JAm and a rear radius of 15 Jlm. Assume that the wetting contact angle is zero and the 1FT is 25 dynes/cm. Express the answer in dynes/cm2 and psi. What would be the pressure gradient in psi/ft if the drop length were 0.01 cm? PB-PA =2x25 dynes/cm( 1 ___ I_)lIcm 0.00062 0.0015 able rock exist, and this mitigates the effect of single-capillary trapping. Nonetheless, the Jamin effect and calculations like that in Example 2.4 illustrate that trapping forces are large compared with typical viscous forces and that they will not be overcome by normal waterflood conditions. That is, oil drops trapped as residual oil in a waterflood are not likely to be displaced by additional waterflooding at conditions of injection rates and wellhead pressures normally attainable. The effect of altering parameters, such as the 1FT, to reduce trapping forces is discussed later. Trapping in a Single Capillary With Fluid Bypassing. Pore channels in reservoir rocks are not straight, smooth capillaries but irregularly shaped channels. Isolated oil drops in a channel do not ordinarily seal the channel; bypassing by a second phase is possible because of channel geometry. The calculations of the Jamin effect in the previous section assumed static conditions with no bypassing of oil drops by the water phase. A simplification of the situation that exists in a rock is shown in Fig. 2.15, which is based on an experimental study by Arriola et at. 13 The capillary used in the study was about 100 Jlm square in cross section. The constriction was also approximately square and was about 10 Jlm at its narrowest point. An oil drop (nonane) isolated in the capillary was displaced by flowing water. Because the capillary was square in cross section, the oil drop could not flll the entire cross section and water was able to bypass the oil drop at the comers of the capillary. At the constriction of the capillary, the oil drop became trapped as a result of the Jamin effect discussed earlier. Water continued to bypass the trapped drop, as illustrated in Fig. 2.15. A force balance indicates that the oil drop should move into the constriction until capillary forces are balanced by viscous forces in the flowing water. At that condition, the oil drop will be trapped. Viscous forces consist of form drag (resulting from the geometry) and interfacial shear. Fig. 2.16 shows experimental results for the system.13 Measured pressure drop across the constriction is plotted as a function of the distance of the drop-front interface from the throat of the constriction (point of minimum diameter of the constriction). Results of several experiments for a number of different water flow rates are shown. Fig. 2.16 also contains a plot of the calculated pressure drop based on the Laplace equation and the radius of curvature of the front interface of the drop. This calculation is basically the Jamin-effect calculation described in the previous section. Drop-interface curvature was determined with a microscope that measured capillary dimensions and drop position. Water was assumed to wet the capillary completely (cos ()= 1.0) Lapla~e's equation fits the experimental data over part of the range, but yields a pressure drop that is a few percent low when the drop interface is less than about 50 Jlm from the throat. Arriola et al. 13 attributed the difference to optical distortion in microscope readings, unidentified wall effects, and viscous losses in the drop resulting from internal fluid circulation. In general, however, the agreement is quite good, illustrating the balance of viscous and capillary forces existing when one fluid phase flows by and around a trapped phase. 2.4.2 Pore-Doublet Model. Another relatively simple model for oil trapping is the pore doublet. In this model, the complexity of the porous medium is extended beyond that of a single capillary by considering flow in two connected parallel capillaries, as illustrated in Fig. 2.17. Although this model still lacks the complexity of a real reservoir rock, it allows the concept of differential flows in different flow channels in a rock to be introduced. Analysis of flow in a pore doublet contributes to the understanding of one of the ways in which oil drops can be isolated and trapped. The following analysis is taken from Willhite. 1 Stegemeier 14 also presents an analysis of the pore doublet. In Fig. 2.17, water displaces oil from two pores with radii of rl and r2 respectively. Pore 1 is smaller than Pore 2, and the two pores are connected at Points A and B to form a pore doublet. The pores are assumed to be water-wet, and for purposes of this development, the viscosities and densities of the oil and water phases are assumed to be equal. Oil will be trapped if displacement pro- = -47,300 dynes/cm2 = -47,300 dynes/cm2 X 1.438 X 10 -5 psi/(dynes/cm2) = -0.68 psi. Ap/L= - 0.68 psi 30.48 cm ft -2,073 psi/ft. As Example 2.4 illustrates, the pressure gradient required to move an oil drop through a constriction can indeed be quite large. It is misleading, however, to assume that the pressure gradient calculated for the single capillary exists throughout the length of the flow path in a reservoir. This assumption would be true if a reservoir consisted of a single capillary path with pore constrictions in series. In fact, numerous alternative paths for fluid flow in a perme- 3.0...-----;r----,-----r---,-----r--, Run Run RN-28 RN-29 DRN-27 ~RN-24 ... RD-5-1 o RD-5-11 - - - Laplace's Equation "Doublet Flow "Darcy Flow Fig. 2.17-Pore-doublet model for illustration of displacement and trapping of oil filament (from Willhite 1). Considering the pressure difference between Points A and B after water enters Pore 1, for either pore there results 0.0 300 200 100 Distance of Drop Front Interface From Throat, Ilm PA -PB= PA -Pwi pressure drop caused by viscous forces in water phase +Pwi-Poi pressure change aCross interface resulting from capillary force +Poi-PB' .. (2.24) pressure drop in oil phase caused by viscous forces Fig. 2.16-Pressure drop during the trapping of nonane drops in square capillary constrictions (from Arriola et al. 13 ). Substitution of Eqs. 2.22 and 2.23 into Eq. 2.24 for Pore 1 yields Eq. 2.25 for downstream minus upstream pressure. PB-PA=- 8f.1-wLwVI ceeds faster in one pore than in the other and if there is insufficient pressure difference between Points A and B to displace the isolated oil drop from the pore with the slower displacement rate. Pressures at Points A and B are assumed to remain constant until trapping occurs. The trapping process can be simulated by estimating the velocity of the water in each pore from elementary models of fluid flow and capillary forces. If the densities of both phases are constant, the flow of each phase will be steady and the flow rate can be computed from Poiseuille's equation for laminar flow in a circular tube. 8 When the velocity is vI, the pressure drop caused by viscous forces between the flowing fluid and the pore walls is given by Eq. 2.12 presented earlier and rewritten here for cgs units. LlPI = - 2a cos (J 8f.1-aLovI ........ (2.25) Because f.l-o=f.l-w=f.I- and L""'Lw+Lo, LlPBA =PB-PA = - - - +LlPcl ' viscous pressure drop 8P-Lvl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.26) 8f.1-L 1VI , .............................. The magnitude of the pressure terms on the right side ofEq. 2.26 is illustrated by an example calculation. Example 2.S-Pressure Change Along a Capillary, Two-Phase Flow. Consider the oil displacement by water in a single pore of radius r at a velocity of 1 ftlD. The length of the pore is 0.02 in., the viscosity is 1 cp, and the 1FT is 30 dynes/cm. The contact angle, (J, is zero. Calculate the pressure difference, PB -PA for different radius values. Solution. Eq. 2.26 applies. Numerical values of PB-PA for different pore radii are shown in Table 2.2. As Table 2.2 shows, PB -P A is always positive for the displacement of a nonwetting phase at rates expected in reservoir rocks; i.e., downstream pressure, PB, is always larger than upstream pressure, PA' because of the dominance of capillary forces over viscous forces. In the pore-doublet model, the same pressure difference (PB -p A) exists across both pores until water breaks through from one pore. Thus, for Pore 2, 8P-Lv2 2a cos (J PB-PA=---+ ................... (2.27) where LI =length of the pore filled with the particular phase. Because the pores are preferentially wetted by water, a difference in pressure exists between the water and the oil across an oil/water interface, as discussed earlier. The pressure in the oil phase is higher than the pressure in the water phase, as given by Eq. 2.23. LlPc=Poi-Pwi , ....................... (2.23) where LlP c is used for capillary pressure to, emphasize that it is a pressure change and Subscript i denotes the pore channel, either I or 2. P ,/; wI ~/{' 01 "'Z. P 02 \ ---- P w2 Fig. 2.18-Trapped oil drop in larger pore of pore doublet after displacement of oil from smaller pore (from Willhite 1): (a) isolated oil globule in Pore 2 after water breakthrough in Pore 1, equal contact angles, and (b) advancing and receding contact angles for displacement of isolated globule in Pore 2 after water breakthrough in Pore 1. MICROSCOPIC DISPLACEMENT OF FLUIDS IN A RESERVOIR TABLE 2.2-CAPILLARY AND VISCOUS FORCES FOR DIFFERENT SIZES OF PORE RADII, EXAMPLE 2.5 Pore Radii (p,m) 2.5 5 10 25 50 100 -8pLvlr 2 l1P c dynes/cm 2 -22.6 -5.6 -1.41 -0.23 -0.056 -0.014 psi x 10 4 -3.25 -0:81 -0.20 -0.033 -0,008 -0.002 dynes/cm 2 240,000 120,000 60,000 24,000 12,000 6,000 3.45 1.73 0.86 0.35 0.17 0.086 PS-PA dynes/cm 2 +239,977 +119,994 +59,999 +24,000 + 12,000 +6,000 TABLE 2.3-CONDITIONS FOR FLOW IN PORE-DOUBLET MODEL l1PBA = ilp BA < ilpBA> TABLE 2.4-PORE-DOUBLET MODEL, REQUIRED VELOCITY IN SMALL PORE TO MAINTAIN ZERO VELOCITY IN LARGE PORE (r 1 = 2.5 p,m) V2 =0 V2>0 V2 <0 +l1P c1 + l1P c1 + l1P c1 i/ 1 =0 V1 >0 v1 <0 = + l1P c2 < + l1P c2 l1p BA > + l1P c2 l1PBA l1p BA Eqs. 2.26 and 2.27 ca.n be used to determine the relative flow velocities in Pores 1 and 2 in the doublet model. Table 2.3 summarizes the possibilities for vI and v2 for different values of APBA' For displacement of oil to occur from both pores in the doublet, both VI and v2 must be positive. Table 2.3 shows that for this to occur, two conditions must exist: APBA < AP CI and APBA < AP Cz' It also follows that AP Cz < AP CI because r2 > rl' Thus, to have APBA < AP Cz' 8pLvI ---2-+ APcI <APcz ........................ (2.28a) r2 1r 1 2 4 10 20 40 V1 (fl/D) 5,315 7,940 9,580 10,090 10,600 8pLvI o r - - -- <APcz -AP cl ' r2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (2.28b) Applying Eq. 2.23 for the capillary pressure terms, we see that a value of VI for which vI> c:~rf (rl1 - r~) Example 2.6-Jamin Effect. Water flowing in Pore 1 of the poredoublet model has reached Point B, isolating the oil in Pore 2. The radius of Pore 1 is 2.5 /-tm and the velocity is 1.0 ftlD [0.3 m/d] . Find the radius of curvature at the downstream end of the drop that would hold the drop motionless if the radius of Pore 2 is 10 /-tm. Also, if the capillary were straight, find the advancing contact angle that would hold the drop motionless. (Assume the water is wetting with 0=0 when the drop is at rest.) Solution: The pressure drop owing to viscous flow in Pore I was computed from Eq. 2.22 in an earlier example and is given in Column 2 of Table 2.2. From the table, APBA = -22.6 dynes/cm2. The capillary pressure at the upstream interface of Pore 2 was computed from Eq. 2.23 and appears in Column 3 of Table 2.2. By substitution into Eq. 2.19, -22.6=60,000-2a/rB' ....................... (2.29) 60,022.6 dynes/cm 2 x 30 dynes/ cm is required for v2 to be positive-i.e., to move the oil in Pore 2. Eq. 2.29 was used with an equality sign replacing the less-than sign to calculate values of VI corresponding to v2 =0 for different r2/rl ratios for the same example used to prepare Table 2.2. The value of rl is 2.5 /-tm. Table 2.4 shows results of the calculation. The VI values in Table 2.4 are orders of magnitude larger than normal reservoir velocities; i.e., to displace any oil from Pore 2, very large velocities are required. According to the pore-doublet model, oil is displaced only from the small pore at this stage of the displacement process. In fact, for velocities that could be present in a reservoir during displacement in Pore 1, the computed velocity in Pore 2 would be negative. Negative or reverse flow is limited and probably does not occur. Probably, the radius of curvature of the oil/water interface becomes smaller, preventing flow from Pore 2 into Pore 1. At the instant that all oil in Pore 1 has been displaced, the pressure at Point B drops and P A becomes larger than PB' For a constant velocity through Pore 1, the pressure difference, PB - P A' caused by frictional losses in that pore is now available to force the isolated oil globule from Pore 2, as depicted in Fig. 2.18. As the figure shows, movement of the oil drop creates a difference in the contact angles (receding vs. advancing contact angles). According to the Jamin effect described earlier, this would result in phase trapping. Also, any narrowing of the pore channel would result in trapping because of differences in capillary radii between the front and back sides of the drop. Example 2.6 illustrates the magnitude of the parameters of contact angle and pore-channel narrowing required to trap the oil drop by the Jamin effect. =1000.38 cm- I rB=9.996/-tm. Therefore, a decrease of only 0.004 /-tm in the radius of curvature on the downstream side would be sufficient to trap the isolated oil in the lO-/-tm pore. The isolated oil drop could also be trapped in a uniform pore by hysteresis in contact angles. If the receding contact angle were 0, the advancing contact angle for the motionless globule can be computed from Eq. 2.20: 2a -(cos 0B-cOS OA)=22.6 dynes/cm2, r2 (2)(30 dynes/cm) - - - - - - - - ( c o s 0B-cOS 0A) lO/-tm X 10 -4 cm/ /-tm =22.6 dynes/cm2, where cos 0B -cos A =3.767 X 10- 4 . Because 0B=O, cos 0A=0.99962 and 0A=1.57. From this example, either a small change in contact angle caused by hysteresis or a small change in pore radius, r2, would be sufficient to trap the oil globule. In systems composed of water, crude oils, and reservoir rocks, oil/water contact angles exhibit much greater hysteresis than calculated in this example. The pore-doublet model is by no means an exact representation of a porous medium. It does, however, incorporate the mechanism of competing flows in parallel flow channels that exists in reservoir rocks. The influence of capillary forces on the movement of fluids in the parallel channels is demonstrated. Nonuniform flow resulting from capillary forces is shown to lead to isolation of oil in the larger pore (where water is the wetting phase). Once the oil drop is isolated, it becomes trapped by capillary forces. The example calculations clearly indicate the dominance of capillary forces over viscous forces for typical reservoir-rock conditions. 2.4.3 Experimental Data in Reservoir Rocks-Capillary Number Correlation. Considerable experimental data exist on the trapping of residual oil in rocks and other porous media. Most of these data consist of measurements of residual saturations when a nonwetting phase (oil) is displaced by a wetting phase (water). Fewer data exist for trapping of a wetting phase displaced by a nonwetting phase. The list below gives typical experimental steps in the collection of such data. For this discussion, water will be used as the displacing fluid and oil as the displaced fluid, although the procedure is applicable for any two immiscible phases. 1. A core is first saturated with the water phase to be evaluated, part of which will remain as an initial water saturation after Step 2. 2. The core next is flooded with oil to establish an initial oil saturation. This flood leaves a residual saturation of water comparable to that found as connate water in reservoirs. 3. The core is then flooded with the water phase being evaluated at a specific constant rate. This flood establishes residual oil saturation for the particular flood conditions. The water phase in Step 3 is the same as in Step 1. 4. Material balances on all fluids are maintained for each step of the experiment to determine saturations. Pressure drops are also measured. This procedure leaves a residual saturation that results from trapping of a phase that initially was at a relatively high saturation and was continuous; i.e., the phase flowed initially as connected stringers or ganglia. Trapping is a result of saturation reduction that leads, for a nonwetting phase, to isolation of drops or ganglia, as described earlier for the doublet model. For a displaced wetting phase, thin films that cover the surface lose hydraulic connectivity, leaving the wetting phase distributed in the smallest pores and crevices. Experimental studies of the type described yield data on residual saturations of a displaced phase for the conditions and parameters of the particular experiments. A method of correlating the data is desirable. The use of dimensionless groupings of variables involv- l: " o .... x 0: l: 70r-------------------------------------, BEREA OUTCROP SANOSTONE .., " 0: 0:.., :l " ..,'" uo. .... > c: 40 ~;!. 20 z 0: OJ O~----~~----~~_r--~~----~~----~ ..J .0- 8 .0 7 Ncalcos e Fig. 2.19-Correlation of Nca/cos 0 term with oil saturation in core at water breakthrough (from Moore and Siobod 15 and Abrams 16) Abrams converted fl to poise for dimensional consistency. ing the ratio of viscous to capillary forces has proven to be reasonably successful. An analysis of the pore-doublet model yields the following dimensionless grouping of parameters, 15 which is a ratio of the viscous to capillary forces in flow through a capillary. - - - , ............................... (2.30) (jow cos (J where F v and Fe = viscous and capillary forces, respectively, and v = interstitial velocity. Subscript w denotes displacing phase and (jow is the 1FT between the displaced and displacing phases. The dimensionless group, or variations of the group, are called the capillary number. In this text, the capillary number is defined as in Eq. 2.30, but without the cos (J term. Therefore, VJtw N ca = - ' .................................... (2.31) (jow Any set of consistent units can be used because the group is dimensionless. Some investigators use interstitial velocity in the definition I#lw 0' DIMENSIONLESS OowCOS 10- 7 30 25 l:Il ::I Ie> 10-S I 10- 4 I e> ce!! f? .t.o Co e> COS 8 a I ... 0 ... ... 20 I- e ~ ~O 0 ~ e> ~8 .~~ "'0-. FOR EACH BRINE-Oil SYSTEM INDICATED ABOVE EACH SYMBOL 0.401 1.26 1.23 3.0 9.0 30.S ~S ~CQe ~ ~ ... u ... ... S~! ~ ~e c oQ 0.94 50.0 50.0 3.15 37.4 35A 37.0 37.0 38.6 0 C 0 35.5 36.3 34.5 ~ C gg 1'0' 1' IN 10- 2 POISE "'0-. IN DYNES/eM Fig. 2.20-Correlation of Nca term with residual oil saturation (from Abrams 16 ). uowcos8 Po , i (PW)0.4. DIMENSIONLESS 10- 4 1 C058;; 1 ;32.3 320 31.3 5.0 10;;,.... n.al 31.51 33.1 1 ~ p.o. iJow' IN 10- 2 POISE 0" o-w IN DYNES leM Fig. 2.21-Correlation of No. (p, wlP,o) 0.4 with residual oil saturation (from Abrams 16 ). and others use Darcy velocity. Eqs. 2.30 and 2.31 use interstitial velocity. The relationship between the two forms is Nta = cf>Nca' where Nta is based on Darcy velocity. Figs. 2.19 and 2.20 15 ,16 show two experimental data sets that have been correlated by use of the dimensionless group in Eq. 2.31. The plots show residual oil saturation as a function of Nca1cos () for a large number of experiments. The data collectively represent experiments on cores of various lengths and in which velocity, viscosity, and 1FT were varied over signficant ranges. Water was the wetting phase for all experiments shown. The data of Moore and Slobod 15 (Fig. 2.19) were measured with the procedure described earlier. However, the reported residual saturations are values at the time of water breakthrough rather than fmal saturations. Oil recovery after water breakthrough was small for the water-wet system investigated. The data in Fig. 2.20 16 came from a strongly water-wet porous medium with cos () "'" 1.0. The velocity used by Abrams was ul[cf>(Soi-Sor)]' The capillary number, N ca' as defined above does a reasonable job of correlating the data, although there is significant scatter. Basically, however, the results show that at capillary numbers less than about 10 -6 , the residual oil is relatively constant and is not a function of the magnitude of N ca' Waterfloods typically operate at conditions where Nca < 10- 6 , and Nca values on the order of 10- 7 are probably most common. This implies, for example, that waterflood recoveries should be independent of injection rate over the range of values that can be accomplished in practice. Moore and COS 8;; I 30 :;: ""' 2S[ 1St1 SAMnE SOURce GALLUP " DALTON .. DALTON n 8RYANS MILL " BANDERA " o.. 1 -------- 796 ",: 10 ~ --.-.. - .. - 798 5,----879 I =.=;~: ----831 _.-.-- Sf REA o ' INDIANA I. 10'5 IO'~ uowcos8 /.lw (pw)O.4 ' DIMENSIONLESS Po Fig. 2.22-Correlation of N o.(P,wlP,0)0.4 with residual oil saturation for different rocks (from Abrams 16). Slobod 15 showed that waterflood recoveries from laboratory cores in which waterflood water was imbibed into the cores were just as good as those when water was injected at typical rates used in the field. This result agrees with the experience of other investigators. The correlation also indicates that if thf! value of N ca could be increased to more than about 10- 5 in a flood, then the magnitude of residual oil would decrease. As seen, the projected decrease in Sor is a smooth function of N ca' At values on the order of 10 -2, virtually all oil is recovered. . The correlation shows that Nca can be increased by either (1) increasing the flow rate of the displacing fluid, (2) increasing the viscosity of the displacing fluid, or (3) reducing 1FT between the displaced and displacing fluids. This implication has been verified by experiments, as indicated by the data in Fig. 2.20. All three variables were changed in different experiments within the experimental set, and yet, with the use of N ca ' the data are grouped along one curve. Abrams 16 suggested that the correlation would be improved if the water/oil viscosity ratio were considered. His improved correlation is shown in Fig. 2.21 where N ca is multiplied by (1'-w/1'-o)O.4 . These are the same data used for Fig. 2.20, but the viscosity ratio term has been added in the correlation. As can be seen, the improved correlation reduces the data scatter. Abrams 16 also investigated the effect of rock type. For a number of sandstones, the behavior was about the same as that shown in Fig. 2.21. Fig. 2.22 shows the effect of rock type. The sandstones all showed a change of slope at values of the correlating parameter, N ca (1'-w/1'-o)O.4, of about 10- 4 to 10- 5 . A limestone sample investigated exhibited a linear decrease in Sor in the range of the parameter of 10 - 6 to 10 - 2. The correlations of Figs. 2. 19 through 2.21 contain cos 0 in the denominator of the capillary number term. The implication is that if the fluids were close to neutral wettability (0 -->90), the term would increase signficantly and residual saturation would be reduced markedly, but this has not been tested. The magnitude of water-wettability has been varied in the different experiments, but over a moderate range. Thus, the validity of the correlation has not been established at conditions close to neutral wettability. The general effect of wettability on phase trapping will be discussed later. The validity of the capillary number as a correlating parameter has also been demonstrated in a single-capillary model. 13 The physical model was described earlier and is shown in Fig. 2.15, in which a capillary with an approximately square cross section was used. In the experiments, nonane drops were displaced through the capillary by a second immiscible liquid. The nonane drops were trapped at a constriction in the capillary and held there by viscous forces resulting from drag and interfacial shear caused by the other <II -C,,) RJN-26 Nonane/Water v RF-\ } RF-3 HeptanollWater RJN-2 } IsobutanollWater RJN-12 o RJN-28} E ;:, ~ 1.0 ..: ..!..I I I o I 100 200 Distance of Drop Front Interface From Throat, J.lm Fig. 2.23-Correlation of N cam in a single capillary with a 13 ). constriction (from Arriola et flowing liquid. In different experiments, either water, heptylalcohol/water, or isobutyl-alcohol/water systems were used as the displacing fluids. 1FT's between these liquids and the nonane were 32.1, 8.16, and 2.31 dynes/cm, respectively. Flow velocities also were varied in different experiments. A modified capillary number was defined as 17 ilp Nca,m=-' .................................. (2.32) abc where ilp =pressure drop across the capillary, a= 1FT between the immiscible liquid pairs, and be = minimum width of the capillary in the constriction. The term is dimensionless, so any consistent set of units is applicable. Results for the experiments are shown in Fig. 2.23, in which the distance of the front end of a trapped nonane drop from the throat (point of mimimum constriction width) is plotted vs. Nca,m' The data lie along one smooth curve, indicating that Nca,m is a viable r---,r---------..., r--r----------..., :B 0.8 ~ 0.8 i o. Q) .il: 20 40 60 80 Water Saturation, % PV (a) Water-Wet Rock (b) Oil-Wet Rock Fig. 2.24-Effect of wettability on relative permeability curves: (a) typical water/oil relative permeability characteristics, strongly water-wet rock, and (b) typical water/oil relative permeability characterictics, strongly oil-wet rock. less of wettability. Also, the capillary number correlation for trapping incorporates wettability and, conceptually at least, applies for fluids of intermediate wettability. As previously indicated, however, the applicability of the correlation has not been established for systems where cos 0 closely approaches zero. The simple capillary models do not incorporate all the complexity of a reservoir rock. For example, assuming no effect of advancing or receding contact angles, a true neutrally wetting fluid (0=90) would not be trapped in a converging capillary. Even for this ideal case of neutral wetting, however, trapping has been demonstrated 22 to occur in rocks because of geometry effects not considered in the simple capillary or pore-doublet models already described. Purce1l 22 considered a "doughnut-shaped pore" where the pore is like the doughnut hole. He showed that, depending on the position of the fluidlfluid interface, the pressure in one phase could be greater than, equal to, or less than the pressure in the other phase, even though the wetting properties and contact angle were the same. Thus, the capillary pressure that must be overcome by viscous forces is a strong function of pore geometry and not a function of wettability and 1FT only. Such arguments have led to the belief that the magnitude of final residual saturation often is not a strong function of wettability. Certainly, however, the location of a trapped phase, the manner in which trapping occurs, and the efficiency of approach to residual saturation are functions of wettability. Mobilization, as will be discussed, also depends on wettability. correlating group. Under conditions where the nonane drop approached within about 8 /Lm of the throat, the drop passed through the constriction. Again, various values of Nca m were achieved in the experiments by variation of I:lp (through flow-rate variation) or a. The initial nonane drop length was the same in all runs. Various forms of a capillary number have been defmed by different investigators. 14 If Darcy's law is introduced into Eq: 2.31 and Darcy velocity is used, N~a=---' krwkVif> a ow . ................................. (2.33) where krw = relative permeability of the displacing phase, k=absolute permeability of the porous medium, and Vif>=gradient of the flow potential. Any consistent set of units can be used because the group is dimensionless. Eq. 2.33 is analogous to Eq. 2.31. Brownell and Katz 18 suggested an alternative group in which Eq. 2.33 was divided by krw' This removes the saturation dependence of the dimensionless group. A more generalized expression for a capillary number, which incorporates porous medium geometrical factors in a manner similar to Dullien 19 and Melrose and Bradner, 20 is presented by Stegemeier. 14 2.4.4 Effect of Rock Wettability on Trapping. The model and experimental data described earlier were based on trapping of a nonwetting phase. Solid wettability of a phase affects the nature and, to some extent, the magnitude of trapping. A prime example of the effect of wettability is the asymmetry of relative permeability curves. Fig. 2.24 shows typical curves for strongly water-wet and strongly oil-wet systems. At a given saturation of a fluid, the relative permeability to that fluid will be larger if it is the nonwetting rather than the wetting fluid. This is clearly seen, for example, by comparing the relative permeabilities of water at a water saturation of 60% in Figs. 2.24a and 2.24b. The water relative permeability value is much larger when water is the nonwetting phase because of the location of the wetting and nonwetting phases in the pore structure relative to the solid boundaries. Even though relative permeability curves are affected by wettability, for many rocks the residual saturation at which phases cease to flow altogether are not strong functions of wettability. As discussed earlier, a nonwetting phase tends to be trapped as isolated drops when the nonwetting phase is displaced by a wetting phase. The isolated drops are held by strong capillary forces that cannot be overcome by the relatively small viscous forces, and the trapped phase tends to reside in the larger pores. Flooding at successively larger capillary numbers displaces the trapped phase from .smaller to larger pores successively. When a wetting phase is trapped, it is held in small cracks and crevices interconnected by thin fluid layers around the solid. 21 One result of the nature of the wettability and the physical location of a trapped phase is the length or distance over which trapping occurs in porous media. When a nonwetting phase is being displaced, the trapping occurs as isolated drops or ganglia, which reside in the larger pores. The competition of viscous and capillary forces that leads to trapping occurs over very short distances, probably on the order of a few pore lengths. When a wetting phase is trapped by a displacing nonwetting phase, however, the trapping occurs over relatively larger distances in the porous medium. In linear waterfloods in which oil wets the medium, this is reflected in early water breakthrough followed by continued oil production for long periods of time. That is, the oil and water flow together in the porous medium over long distances. The wetting-phase saturation is reduced rather slowly to a point where capillary forces dominate viscous forces and flow ceases. As previously indicated, however, the final residual saturation for a displaced wetting phase is often not too different from the value for a displaced nonwetting phase. The ~fficiency with which this final residual saturation is accomplished IS quite different and is poorer when a wetting phase is the displaced phase. Phases that display intermediate wettability are those for which 0-90 . Ideally, the simple models described earlier apply, regard- 2.5 Mobilization of Trapped Phases-Alteration of Viscous/Capillary Force Ratio 2.5.1 Mobilization vs. Trapping. The models and experimental data described earlier provide a description of the trapping phenomenon and insight into the magnitude of forces involved in phase trapping in a porous rock. The experiments discussed, which were correlated with the capillary number, were for physical situations in which the displaced phase was initially at a relatively high saturation. The phase was essentially in continuous contact throughout the porous medium initially. Such a condition would exist, for example, at the initiation of a typical waterflood. The question arises as to whether a capillary number correlation is applicable for the mobilization of oil or another phase once it has been trapped. The answer is that the same type of correlation is applicable; however, for strongly water-wet systems, curves representing data taken under conditions of trapping will not necessarily coincide with curves representing data taken under conditions of mobilization. Experience indicates that once the nonwetting phase is trapped, it is somewhat more difficult to mobilize. There is hysteresis in the trapping/mobilization process . MQore and Slobod 15 present data illustrating this hysteresis. They conducted numerous experiments in which an initially continuous nonwetting phase was trapped by a displacing wetting phase. These data, referenced earlier (Fig. 2.19), showed that the amount of trapping was dependent on the conditions that existed at the front end of the flood-i.e., at the interface between the displacing and displaced phases. That is, the trapping depended on conditions at the specific point of trapping and not on conditions that might occur later as additional fluids moved by the point of trapping. Table 2.5 gives Moore and Slobod's results. The effect of flood rate on residual oil for three different flooding conditions in three separate cores is shown in the nine results at the top of the table. A flooding rate of a constant 2.0 ftlD left residual oil saturations of 41.6%,48.2 %, and 49.5% in three different cores. This trapped oil was presumably left as isolated oil drops. When corresponding floods were conducted at a much higher rate of 200 ftlD, residual saturation was reduced significantly, as Table 2.5 shows. This result is to be expected from the N ca correlation if viscous forces have been increased by a factor of 100. In the third set of experiments, the initial flood rate was again 2.0 ft/D. After trapping occurred at the lower rate, the rate was increased to 200 ft/D. As seen, residual saturations were somewhat lower than for the run made at a rate of only 2.0 ftlD, but significantly larger than for the run made at the high rate (200 ftlD). TABLE 2.5-EFFECT ON RESIDUAL OIL OF CHANGING CAPILLARY OR VISCOUS FORCES AT THE FRONT AND BEHIND THE FRONT (from Moore and Slobod 15 ) Residual Oil (%PV) Torpedo Elgin Berea Effect of flood rate 2 ftlD at front 200 ftlD at front 2 ftlD at front followed by 200 ftlD behind front Effect of favorable viscosity ratio f1- 0/f1- w = 1.0 at flood front f1-o/f1-w = 0.055 at flood front f1-o/f1-w = 1.0 at flood front followed by 0.055 behind front Effect of reducing 1FT (T = 30 dynes/cm at flood front (T = 1.5 dynes/cm at flood front (T = 30 dynes/cm at flood front followed by 1.5 dynes/cm behind front Wagner & Leach27 1.0 t-""II05;;;:::s;:s;;::r,,----------~~ Foster24 \ "', 41.6 33.8 38.1 41.6 19.3 41.0 41.6 28.5 41.0 en 0.5 Nonwetting Residual --- Wetting Residual \ ......... Dombrowski ... ....Du p rey25\ & Brownell 26 ...... ...... Prey\ \ 25 \, , O~--J---~~-L--~~~~--~---L--'~~--~ NCa = Ull/cr Fig. 2.25-Correlation of recoveries of residual phases as a function of Nca (from Stegemeier 14 ). The experiments show that once the oil has been trapped, the process is not completely reversible. In the two-rate experiment, the higher rate mobilized some of the oil trapped during the preceding low-rate flood, but the final residual saturation was not as low as it would have been if the high rate had existed at the point of trapping at the time of trapping. Similar results were obtained when viscosity ratio was varied and when the 1FT was reduced, as Table 2.5 shows. Thus, mobilization of a trapped phase apparently does not occur until an N ca value higher than the value that existed when an initially continuous phase was trapped is achieved. This result has been substantiated by other investigators. 23 the oil/water 1FT must be very significantly reduced to achieve pro duction at reasonable pressure gradients. This conclusion can be shown from the result of Taber's experiments by a simple calcu lation. Example 2.7-IFI Required for Oil Mobilization, Taber Ex periments. Calculate the 1FT required for a Taber number, Ap/La, of 30.0 (psi/ft)/(dynes/cm) in a sandstone reservoir if the maxi mum pressure gradient obtainable is 0.5 psi/ft. Solution. Ap - =30.0 (psilft)/(dynes/cm). La Ap 0.5 psi/ft a=---= 2.5.2 Mobilization by Alteration of the Viscous/Capillary Force Ratio. The difficulty of mobilizing trapped oil was demonstrated in a set of displacement experiments conducted by Taber. 12 In these experiments, oil at typical residual waterflood saturation in Berea sandstone cores was displaced by increasing the pressure drops in the displacement or by reducing 1FT. The sequence of operations was as follows. Step 1. A core was saturated with a 2.5% brine solution. Step 2. The core was flooded with an oil phase (SoltroI) until no more water could be displaced. Step 3. The core was then very slowly waterflooded to create a residual oil saturation. Sometimes this waterflooding step was performed by simple capillary imbibition of water by placing the oil-saturated core in a beaker of water. Residual oil saturations after the waterflood were in the range of 37 % to 44 %. Step 4. The final displacement of the residual oil thus created was accomplished by increasing the flooding rate (by increasing the pressure drop across the core) until oil was observed to emerge from the core. The pressure drop was then held constant until oil production ceased. At this point, the pressure drop was again increased slightly and the oil production allowed to proceed. This process was repeated with pressure increases occurring in small steps and oil production recorded for each step. For these final displacements, different alcohols and surfactant systems were used (as well as water) so that 1FT could be varied in addition to pressure drop. The result of this work was that no residual oil was produced from the cores unless a "specific" critical value of Ap/La was exceeded. This value was on the order of 6.0 (psi/ft)/(dynes/cm) and was considered a minimum value for the indicated parameter group. A value of about 30.0 was required for reasonable production rates of residual oil from the cores. The magnitude of the pressure gradient required to mobilize residual oil far exceeds values obtainable under normal field waterflood conditions of pressure drop and well spacing. The implication of Taber's work for field application clearly is that if residual oil is to be recovered by processes involving fluid displacement, L(30.0) 30.0 (psi/ft)/(dynes/cm) =0.016 dynes/cm. The value of a calculated in the example is three orders of mag nitude smaller than the normal 1FT between oil and water. The sig nificance is that surface-active agents, which reduce oil/water 1FT's, or miscible processes, which eliminate interfaces entirely, must be used to recover residual oil. The only alternatives would be to altel geometries and/or to use very close well spacing, which is gener ally not practical. Considerable experimental data have been published on the mobilization and removal of residual oil. Stegemeier l4 summar izes and reviews these results. The porous media used included un consolidated sand, glass beads, sandstones, and sintered teflou particles. Oil and water were the fluids typically used, but in some cases, alcohols and surfactants were added to reduce 1FT. Residual saturation data are correlated as a function of capillary number Nta in Fig. 2.25. 14 The ordinate in the figure is the frac tion of normal waterflood residual oil that remains trapped followin~ a displacement at the indicated Nta' The data represent a diverse set of conditions. The Abrams, 16 Moore and Slobod, 15 and Wagn er and Leach 27 data are for trapping of an initially continuom phase. Two of these data sets were discussed earlier. The othel data are for physical situations in which a trapped phase was mobi lized and then displaced at the indicated capillary number. More recent data,23,28 both for trapping of a continuous oil phase and mobilization of a trapped phase, are in general agreement with the results in Fig. 2.25. The following points are emphasized relative to the correlation. 1. Oil that is initially continuous exhibits a partial oil trappin~ at lower values of Nta than those required to mobilize trapped, dis mobile; i.e., an oil bank must be developed. Once the oil bank is formed, additional oil will be mobilized at the leading edge of the bank. The injected fluid must now displace an oil phase that is continuous; i.e., the injected fluid must prevent trapping of a flowing continuous phase. Capillary number correlations presented earlier indicate that there is a difference in mobilization and trapping behaviors at relatively large residual oil saturations, not too different from saturations obtained in waterflooding. However, at small final residual saturations, the two phenomena are apparently governed by N~a values that are comparable. The implication for process design is that it is not generally necessary to consider one N~a value for mobilization and another for trapping. The development and growth of an oil bank is governed by displacement efficiency, phase behavior, the material balance on the system, and relative mobility relationships. The development of such banks will be illustrated throughout the book and, in some cases, described by simple mathematical models. continuous oil. At higher values of N~a' however, trapping and mobilization curves appear to be indistinguishable. 2. Variations in the correlating curves, resulting from the use of different types of porous media, are significant. Nonetheless, the general trends of the data are consistent, making the N~a a useful way of correlating the data. 3. Wettability is quite important, as illustrated by the data of Dombrowski and Brownell, 26 which are for mobilization of oil trapped as pendular rings. The data and resulting correlation clearly show that- reduction of oil saturation to a value significantly below normal waterflood residual saturation, if accomplished by alteration of the viscous/capillary force ratio, can be done only by altering the ratio by several orders of magnitude. In the application of waterflooding, it generally will not be possible to increase the flow rate enough to recover additional oil. Likewise, the use of polymers or other viscosity-enhancing chemicals cannot be used to increase viscous forces to the desired level in field applications. In both cases, allowable pressure drop through the reservoir between injection and production wells is the limiting factor. While both actions-flowrate increase and/or viscosity increase-might improve recovery to a small extent, the magnitude of increase that can be accomplished in practical application severely limits the utility of this approach. The only practical alternative to increase microscopic displacement efficiency significantly over that of a waterflood is to use miscible fluids or to create a very large reduction in 1FT between the displacing phase and the trapped or mobilized oil. What is required is a "magic" fluid that is miscible (eliminates 1FT completely) or has an ultralow 1FT with the oil phase. This fluid could then mobilize trapped oil and, having mobilized the oil, could displace it toward producing wells with a microscopic displacement efficiency approaching unity. It is clear that the miscibility or low 1FT must be maintained throughout the process. Otherwise, oil that has been mobilized in one part of the reservoir might be trapped at another part where displacement efficiency deteriorates. This latter concern is important because chemicals, such as surfactants, that reduce 1FT can be removed from a displacement front through adsorption onto the rock, partitioning into phases that are trapped, and dilution through mixing. 2.6 Mobilization of Trapped PhasesRole of Phase Behavior Mobilization of trapped oil and displacement of oil can be accomplished by use of favorable phase-behavior relationships between the oil and a displacing fluid. Phase-behavior relationships, for example, can result in solubilization of a displacing fluid into the oil with resulting swelling of oil volume. Relative permeability considerations then lead to improved oil recovery. Alternatively, extraction of components from the oil phase into a displacing phase can result in oil components being transported through a rock. And, as described in Chap. 6, alteration of composition through repeated contacts between injected fluids and original reservoir oil can create miscibility between displacing and displaced phases with attendant high displacement efficiency. The application of ternary phase diagrams has proved useful for description of displacement processes in which phase behavior is important. The following section discusses general concepts that relate to the use of ternary diagrams and to the role of phase behavior in displacement processes. 2.5.3 Mobilization of Residual Oil-Formation of an Oil Bank. In preceding sections, the roles of viscous and capillary forces were ;, :r r- le r- n- lC- ~n ler ,biore md the on . ing dis- described for (1) trapping of an oil phase that initially was connected and flowing and (2) mobilization of oil drops or ganglia that were initially trapped. Both processes, trapping and mobilization, may occur in an EOR process. If reservoir oil is at a relatively high saturation at the start of an EOR process, then the displacement must be efficient to minimize trapping of the flowing oil. Alternatively, in processes at or near residual oil saturation at their initiation, the displacement must first mobilize residual oil to form a flowing oil bank and then displace this bank efficiently. Fig. 2.26 illustrates the development and displacement of an oil bank in a reservoir initially at residual oil saturation. In this example, the injected EOR fluid has a relatively low 1FT, both with water and oil, so that both fluids are displaced efficiently. At the initiation of such a process, trapped oil drops or ganglia are mobilized and connected with other drops. A stabilized oil bank of relatively constant saturation forms that flows ahead of the injected fluid front, as illustrated. Fig. 2.26 shows phase saturations as a function of position at some arbitrary, fixed time. Two-phase flow exists in the stabilized oil-bank zone ahead of the injected EOR fluid. This oil bank grows in volume; i.e., the length increases as the process proceeds. At the leading edge of the bank, oil is mobilized and solubilized into the bank. Thus, once the bank is established, it becomes the mobilizing fluid. Note that no oil production would occur from the reservoir until the oil bank arrived at the producing point. At the trailing edge of the oil bank, fluids are displaced efficiently by the injected fluid as long as a relatively large N ca is maintained. If the capillary numbers between the injected fluid and both water and oil are large, no significant trapping of either phase will occur. Thus, at the initiation of a displacement process involving residual oil, the injected fluid must mobilize oil that was trapped and im- 2.6.1 Phase Behavior-Ternary Diagrams. The description of displacement processes involving liquid/liquid or liquid/vapor equilibrium is facilitated by the use of ternary diagrams to describe the phase behavior: Ternary, or triangular, phase diagrams can be used to plot the phase behavior of systems consisting of three components. In some cases, for systems containing more than three components, certain components can be grouped to form pseudocomponents. A common example is the decomposition of crude oil into CH4 , C 2 -C 6 components, and C7+ compounds. The phase behavior on a ternary diagram is plotted at fixed pressure and temperature. A ternary diagram for hypothetical Components A, B, and C is shown in Fig. 2.27. Compositions are in weight percent. If these three components were miscible, then no multiphase region would appear on the diagram. The vertexes represent the pure components, and the sides of the equilateral triangle are scaled to represent the binary compositions of the three possible pairs. Systems consisting of all three components are represented by points interior to the triangle. Either weight, mole, or volume percentage may be used, although the last should be used only if there are no significant volume changes on mixing. An equilateral triangle is used in Fig. 2.27. Alternatively, a right triangle may be used, as illustrated by Benham et al. 29 As an example of the representation of concentrations, Point M on Side AC in Fig. 2.27 represents a composition of 67.5 % of Component A and 32.5% of Component C. This can be determined by measurement along Side AC; Point M is 67.5 % of the distance from Point C to Point A. Alternatively, the distance can be measured along a line drawn perpendicular to the base that reaches from the base to Vertex A. The altitude of the triangle represents 100 % of a single component, so Point Mis 67.5% of the distance from the base to Vertex A. Oil Bank zone~idth satuTion Indicates ReI. EOR Injected Fluid Oil and Water Flow WaterFlow Only Fig. 2.26-Development of an oil bank in an EOR process initially at residual oil saturation. Point P in the interior of the triangle consists of a mixture of 40 % of Component A, 40% of Component B, and 20% of Component C. Point P is located so that the weight of Component A is to the weight of Component B is to the weight of Component C as the ratio of the perpendicular distances Pa is to Pb is to Pc from Point P to the respective sides. The weight fraction of Component C is given by the ratio of Pc to the altitude of the triangle. Lines Pa, Pb, and Pc sum to equal the altitude of the triangle. In triangular-coordinate graph paper, ruled lines are included so that percentages may be read directly from the paper. An important property of ternary diagrams is that mixtures of the different components can be easily represented. For example, all mixtures of Components A and C lie along Line AC. Recall that Point M is a mixture of 67.5% of Component A and 32.5% of Component C. Likewise, all ternary mixtures of Binary Mixture M with Component B lie along Line BM. Point P represents a mixture of 60% of Mixture M and 40% of Component B. Its location is determined by the so-called inverse-Iever-arm rule. The Distance MP is to the Distance MB as the amount of Component B is to the total weight of the mixture. Conversely, the Length PB is to the Length MB as the amount of Mixture M is to the total amount of the mixture. In equation form, MP/MB=amount of B/total amount of mixture ...... (2.34) Fig. 2.27-Ternary phase diagram for a system consisting of Components A, e, and C which are miscible in all proportions. These same mixing rules apply to the combination of any two mixtures represented on the ternary. All mixtures of Component P with another system defined by Point U on the plot would be along Line PU. The point representing the composition of the fi- nal mixture would again be determined by applying the inverselever-arm rule along the line. Phase relationships may also be represented on a triangular phase diagram, as shown in Fig. 2.28. The diagram shows the phase conditions at equilibrium (constant temperature and pressure) for a system consisting of hypothetical Components A, B, and C. Compositions are in mole percent. The plot is typical of hydro carbon systems in which vapor/liquid equilibrium exists over regions of the concentration domain. All concentrations represented by points lying inside the two-phase envelope would separate into two phases, while systems with concentrations lying outside the twophase envelope would exist as a single phase. The curve defining this boundary of the two-phase region is called the binodal curve. Consider a system with an overall composition P that is in the two-phase region. If the system were a typical hydrocarbon system, then it would separate into a vapor phase, denoted by Y and a liquid phase, denoted by X. The compositions of these two phases are determined by measurement, as described previously, or by reading directly from the graph paper if it is ruled. The relative 100%C1 Methane Two-Phase Region Immiscible T = Constant p = Constant 100%C7+ Fig. 2.28-Ternary phase diagram for a system consisting of Components A, e, and C which have limited solubility. Liquid Components Fig. 2.29-Pseudoternary diagram. 29 For systems that separate into two or more liquid phases, equilibrium compositions can also be shown on a ternary diagram. An example is the alcohol/water/oil system shown in Fig. 2.30. Systems with overall compositions lying in the region under the binodal curve will separate into two phases, an oil-rich phase and a water-rich phase. For example, a system with overall composition of 0 will separate into Phases Y and X. The tie-lines that connect the equilibrium phases are generally obtained experimentally. Distances AA' and BB' represent the solubility of water in the oil and the solubility of the oil in water, respectively. Alcohol is completely soluble in both the water and the oil for the system illustrated. Note that the diagram is a pseudoternary diagram in that oil is a pseudocomponent. In such a diagram, electrolytes (NaCl, CaCI 2 , etc.) are typically included with the water component, which is then designated as a brine and is also a pseudocomponent. amounts of the two phases can also be calculated using the inverselever-arm rule. That is, the Distance YP is to the Distance YX as the amount of liquid is to the total amount of material. Similarly, PX is to YX as the amount of vapor is to the total. Lines connecting equilibrium concentrations such as X and Y are called tie-lines. There are, in fact, an infinite number of these, but for practical purposes, several usu~ly ar~ drawn on a ~ia~ram and interpolation is used for concentratlO~s lymg ~etween tie-hnes. The ends of the tie-lines converge at a smgle pomt on the two-phase envelope. This point is the critical, or plait, point. This point of convergence is the point at which the phase properties become indistinguishable and therefore is the critical concentration at the specified temperature and pressure conditions. The 1FT between the phases approaches zero in the vicinity of the plait point. As indicated, mixtures that lie within the two-phase region are in thermodynamic equilibrium. If one applies the phase rule to a ternary system of two phases in equilibrium for a given pressure and temperature, the number of additional independent variables that must be set to define the system is one. For example, in the two-phase region, if the concentration of only one of the components in either phase is set, the system is defined. In the singlephase region, the composition of two of the components must be set. The tie-lines drawn between liquid and vapor curves connect vapor- and liquid-phase compositions corresponding to the equilibrium. Along any tie-line, the compositions of the gas and liquid phases in equilibrium are invariant. The ratio of the amount of gas phase to the amount of liquid phase does vary. For example, the liquid and vapor phases at Point K have the same composition as Point J, while the liquid mole fraction is 90% at Point J and 10% at Point K. The tie-lines for a given system are by no means parallel and may swing significantly upward or downward in slope as the amount of any component in the mixture increases or decreases. The point of convergence (the critical, or plait, point) does not necessarily lie at the summit (midpoint) of the binodal curve, but frequently lies well to one side or the other. Its location and the consequent position of the tie-lines may be such that a very small change in the percentage of one phase results in a very large change in the other conjugate phase. The plait point for liquid/vapor hydrocarbon systems is that point at which the bubblepoint and dewpoint curves merge. It is a point of fixed composition corresponding to a definite ratio of any two components. At constant pressure, the position of the plait point varies with temperature. Reservoir fluids are complex mixtures of hydrocarbons with components ranging from methane to C 40 +. In miscible displacement processes, a fluid that is, or eventually will become, miscible with the reservoir fluid is injected into the reservoir. The injection of this fluid alters the chemical composition of the total system and consequently the thermodynamic properties. Rigorous thermodynamic analysis of such a process is only possible if all chemical constituents are identified, compositions are known, and thermodynamic properties are available. These conditions are never met in practice. As mentioned earlier, experience has shown that complex hydrocarbon systems can be represented with groups of hydrocarbons that preserve many of the important properties of the system. A typical representation of the process is a pseudoternary diagram with C j , C 2 -C 6 , and C7+' as the pseudocomponents, as shown in Fig. 2.29. Temperature and pressure are constant. Thus, concentrations of two components are sufficient to define any point on the diagram. Phase Boundary VO is the saturated vapor curve and Boundary LO is the saturated liquid curve. An important assumption in using pseudocomponents and a pseudoternary diagram is that the composition of a pseudocomponent does not change in the different phases. For example, the relative compositions of com~onents that make up the C7+ pseudocomponent must be approxImately the same in the liquid phase as in the eqUilibrium vapor phase. If this does not hold, then use of the pseudoternary diagram can lead to serious errors in calculations of phase compositions and amounts. The oil represented by Point E in Fig. 2.29 is one that Contains mostly heavy components. It would be a relatively low API gravity oil. Conversely, an oil having the composition of Point B would be a fairly volatile, high API gravity crude. 2.6.2 Mobilization and Displacement Through Favorable Phase Behavior. Alcohol/oil/water systems will be used to illustrate the manner in which phase behavior between displacing and displaced fluids can result in mobilization and displacement of oil. Alcohol systems have been studied as displacement agents in the laboratory. However, they have not been applied successfully in the field for various practical and economic reasons. Nonetheless, the system is useful to demonstrate mechanisms associated with mobilization through favorable phase behavior. Mechanisms of miscible displacement, oil swelling, and oil extraction are illustrated in the following sections. Miscible Displacement. Fig. 2.31 shows a system consisting of a hypothetical alcohol, oil, and water. The alcohol is miscible with either oil or water. Over much of the concentration domain, however, two liquid phases exist in equilibrium when all three components are present. Consider the injection of pure alcohol in a displacement process. Assume that at the point of contact with the alcohol, oil and water in the reservoir were at an overall volumetric composition represented by Point A in Fig. 2.31. Mixing of the alcohol with oil and water at the designated composition would occur along Line AC. At high alcohol compositions, above the binodal curve, the mixed system would be a single phase. For fluid flow occurring in this regime, oil and water would be displaced completely. Any trapped oil contacted by the miscible system would be solubilized and thereby displaced, and trapping of a residual phase would not occur. In effect, for such a miscible process, interfaces are eliminated; i.e., 1FT is reduced to zero. Interfaces will be eliminated even though local equilibrium (complete mixing) may not necessarily be achieved as the process proceeds. Zero 1FT corresponds to an infinite value of N ca ' Thus, a miscible process can be viewed as one in which the viscous/capillary force ratio is increased to infinity. The process would mobilize oil and generate an oil bank that would flow ahead of the alcohol front as described earlier. Twophase flow would exist in the region of the oil bank. Single-phase flow would occur in the alcohol zone as long as concentrations were at or above the binodal curve. Processes that operate within a miscible phase-behavior regime displace oil by total solubilization. The flow is single phase, and a residual fluid is not trapped. Such a process can solubilize both oil and water, as in the alcohol example. Alternatively, a displacing fluid that is miscible with oil but immiscible with water would solubilize only oil. In this latter case, two-phase flow could exist at the displacement front, but oil would still be mobilized and displaced through solubilization. Oil trapping would not occur as long as the oleic phase volume remained above residual saturation. EOR fluid systems that exhibit phase behavior of the type shown for the hypothetical alcohol generally would require extremely large alcohol slugs if the displacement were to maintain miscibility throughout because, as mixing occurs at the alcohol front, alcohol concentration is reduced and overall concentration moves along Line AC toward the two-phase region. 30 For slugs of practical volume, concentrations would in fact move into the two-phase region at some point and the process would degenerate to an immiscible process. General behavior in this immiscible mode will be discussed in the following sections. L...I.:....-_~:....- _ _...).I.._ _ _~_ _~'--_.-..::~ H 0 A-A' B-B Fig. 2.30-Ternary phase diagram for liquid/liquid equilibrium. Fig. 2.31-Ternary phase diagram for an alcohol displacement process. Mobilization Through Increase in Oleic Phase Volume. Consider the tertiary butyl alcohol (TBA)/Soltrol/water system displayed in the pseudoternary diagram of Fig. 2.32.30 TBA is preferentially soluble in the hydrocarbon phase, which is a light oil, and the plait point lies on the left side of the diagram. A mixing line from pure TBA to a reservoir-oil/water composition at Point A passes well to the right of the plait point. If a large volume of TBA were injected (as opposed to a relatively small slug), oil would be mobilized and a stabilized oil bank would form, as previously described. Upstream of the stabilized oil bank, a composition-transition zone would exist. At relatively high concentrations of alcohol, above the binodal curve, the system would be single phase and very efficient displacement would occur. The concentration would vary along the mixing line that runs from Point A on the brine/Soltrol base line to Point C at the alcohol apex. When alcohol concentration falls below the binodal curve, there would be a phase separation into oleic and aqueous phases, resulting in two-phase flow. When the plait point is to the left of the mixing line, as is the case with TBA and the oil considered, the oleic phase would increase in volume along this mixing path. This result can be seen by applying the inverse-level-arm rule along the path. For the particular system shown, because of the tie-line slopes, the oil phase decreases in volume at low alcohol concentration but then increases in volume as the binodal curve is approached. The increase in the oleic-phase volume in the transition zone promotes continuity of the oil phase and a favorable fractional flow relative to the aqueous phase. The oleic phase would tend to move faster than the aqueous phase. If the alcohol slug were large enough to maintain a miscible zone throughout the displacement, trapped residual oil would not be encountered by this miscible zone for the illustrated TBA process. If the alcohol slug were of such a size that a breakdown of miscibility occurred, then some residual oil would be left, but the swelling of the oleic-phase volume that occurred would diminish this residual. Thus, the relative increase in oleicphase volume that would occur because of the phase behavior would promote recovery of the oil. As the plait point is approached in a three-component system, the 1FT between equilibrium phases approaches zero because the phases tend to become indistinguishable. If the mixing path carried the system concentration very near the plait point, then an in- Fig. 2.32-Pseudoternary diagram for an IPA/Soltrol/brine system (from Taber 30 ). Fig. 2.33-Pseudoternary diagram for a TBAISoltrol/brine system (from Taber 30 ). MICROSCOPIC DISPLACEMENT OF FLUIDS IN A RESERVOIR TABLE 2.6-0IL SATURATION AS A FUNCTION OF APPLIED PRESSURE GRADIENT, PROBLEM 2.1 Pressure Gradient (psilft) 70 370 600 1,200 2,400 3,200 TABLE 2.7-AIR/WATER CAPILLARY PRESSURE: JAYHAWK SANDSTONE, PROBLEM 2.2 Pc=Pa-Pw Pc (psi) 2 3 4 5 6 7 (PV) 0.355 0.355 0.284 0.213 0.142 0.114 (%) 100 93 86 78 73 67 (psi) 10 12 14 16 18 20 (%) 54 48 43 40 38 36 crease in Nca might be expected as a result of reduction in capillary forces. Were this to occur, displacement efficiency would be improved. This usually does not occur, however, because concentrations are sufficiently removed from the plait point that reduction in 1FT is negligible. As previously discussed, the N ca must be increased a few orders of magnitude above the value at normal waterflooding conditions before residual saturation is affected. If a small slug of alcohol were injected (rather than a large volume), followed by brine injection, there would be concentrationtransition zones at both the leading and trailing ends of the alcohol slug. The relative increase in oleic-phase volume and favorable fractional flow would still occur until the slug volume was diluted by the aqueous phase to the point where the aqueous phase became continuous and the oleic phase was left as a residual. Mobilization Through Oleic-Phase Extraction. Fig. 2.33 shows another alcohol system, isopropyl alcohol (lPA)/Soltrollbrine. IPA is preferentially soluble in the aqueous phase and thus the plait point lies right of the binodal curve. The IPA/Soltrol/water mixing Line AC passes to the left of the plait point. As with the other alcohol system discussed, if a large volume of IPA were injected, the oil would be mobilized and an oil bank would form. At high alcohol concentration, a composition-transition zone would form in the miscible region along Line AC on the ternary diagram. In contrast to the TBA displacement, however, when overall composition fell within the two-phase region, the aqueous phase would increase in volume. The implication of the reducing oleic-phase volume is that a residual oleic-phase saturation would be deposited at some point in the transition zone. Where the saturation is above a residual value, the flow rate of the oil would be less than that of the aqueous phase. If the IPA slug were large enough to maintain miscibility, then the trapped residual oil would be solubilized when the miscible zone arrived. If miscibility were lost at some point in the process, however, then a residual saturation would be left. The flowing aqueous phase would extract some of the oil from the trapped phase. This process is not as effective as the oil-swelling mechanism that occurred with the TBA system, and ultimate recovery generally would not be as good. As with the TBA system, the concentration path would not approach sufficiently close to the plait point to derive any benefit from 1FT reduction. If a slug of IPA were injected followed by brine, compositiontransition zones would form at the leading and trailing edges of the slug. When the slug was sufficiently diluted, trapped oleic phase would not be displaced. Summary Statement. Different mechanisms involving system phase behavior have been discussed. As described, the mechanisms of increase in oleic-phase volume and extraction do not depend on modification of viscous/capillary forces to increase oil recovery. If by virtue of phase behavior a significant reduction in 1FT occurs, however, then the mechanisms of alteration of viscous/capillary forces and favorable use of phase behavior are complementary. Overall recovery is improved if both mechanisms are operative. Miscible displacement can be viewed as involving either a phasebehavior mechanism or an alteration of capillary forces. As discussed in Chap. 6, multicontact-miscible processes are dependent on phase behavior to develop a miscible condition in situ. Again, the different mechanisms are complementary. As discussed in Chap. 7, surfactant processes depend on both favorable phase behavior and 1FT reduction. The thermal processes, especially steamflooding, are also shown to use both mechanisms (Chap. 8). In a very general sense, understanding viscous/capillary force relationships and system phase behavior is necessary to comprehend recovery mechanisms for most of the EaR processes. Such an understanding in detail is difficult to obtain for complex EaR fluid systems operating in complex rock structures. Problems 2.1 Fig. 2.34 31 contains a set of data illustrating the effect of pressure gradient on the recovery of discontinuous residual oil. Table 2.6 summarizes selected data. Compute the capillary number for each data point with Eq. 2.31. For the purpose of this problem, the 1FT is 30 dynes/cm, the viscosity of water is 1 cp, and the absolute permeability of the rock is 156 md. Porosity is 0.20. 1.0 ~~~~~nnlected ~~ ~~ 60 a: ~ 40 (30 ~ 0.5 o Trapping of Continuous Oil Calculated. Isolated 011 Taber Runs 7&9' x-l00 A Taber Run 6 IPA V Taber Run 8 IPA C Abrams Continuous 011 Moore & Siobod Minimum Rate at Which any of Residual Oil can be Recovered ~:0.2 #. 20 Recovery from Initial Displacement Berea Sandstone k: 0.4 d NCa" UIJ/O' Pressure Gradient: psi/ft Fig. 2.34-Pressure gradient required to recover disconnected residual oil, Problem 2.1 (from Jordan et al. 31). Fig. 2.35-Correlation of residual oil saturation with capillary number at trapping and mobilization, Problem 2.1 (from Stegemeier 14). -----Gas --- 10 --0.0005 em Fig. 2.36-Trapped gas bubble, Problem 2.3. Relative permeability data for water are given by the following equations, where SWi=0.29: Sw-Swi S;t=--I-Swi and krw =S;t2.5 . The capillary number is dimensionless. Compare the ratio of Sor/Sorw at your values of the capillary number with the correlations of Fig. 2.35. 2.2 The water/air capillary pressure data in Table 2.7 were measured for a sandstone core from the Jayhawk formation. The oilsaturated part of the Jayhawk formation is underlain by a water table at a depth of 1,500 ft (Sw= 100% below this depth). Estimate and plot the water saturation above the 1,500-ft level. Assume that only water and oil exist in the formation (no gas saturation). Additional data: p (at 1,500 ft) =750 psia, Pw = 1.02 g/cm 3, Po =0.80 g/cm 3, O"ow=25 dynes/cm, and O"aw=70 dynes/cm. Assume that the rock is strongly water-wet; i.e., the contact angle in the presence of air is about the same as the contact angle in the presence of oil. 2.3 Fig. 2.36 shows a gas bubble confined in a 0.0002-in.diameter capillary tube. The tube is wet by water in the presence of gas and by oil in the presence of gas. The bubble is motionless. The contact angles, measured through the wetting phases, are 10 and 30 for the water and oil, respectively. The pressure in the oil phase is 6.9 x 10 6 dynes/cm 2 . The 1FT between the water and gas, O"gw, is 70 dynes/cm and that between the oil and gas, O"go' is 33 dynes/cm. 1. Calculate the minimum pressure in the system and indicate the phase in which this pressure exists. 2. What is the pressure in the water phase that will just cause the gas bubble to be displaced to the left ( ..... )? At this condition, what is the pressure difference between the oil and water phases; i.e., what is Pw-Po? 2.4 To determine water/oil 1FT, water is being displaced through a small tube into an oil bath as shown in Fig. 2.37. The water forms a spherical drop, which breaks away from the water in the injection tube when it is large enough and falls to the bottom of the container. For one experiment, the following data are given: rt=inside radius of discharge tube=0.04 in. rd = drop radius (at time of breaking away) = 0 .104 in. pw=water density = 1.0 g/cm 3 Po = oil density=0.75 g/cm 3 With these data, estimate the water/oil 1FT. Breaking -t---~ Point Water Oil Bath 011 Bath Water Before Breaking After Breaking Fig. 2.37-0illwater 1FT measurement, Problem 2.4. 2.5 A researcher assembles a bundle of capillary tubes to simulate a porous medium. The tubes are of uniform size and are 0.004 in. in diameter. It is known that water wets the capillary tube glass with a contact angle of about 30. The tubes are placed in a horizontal position and completely filled with water. The water is at atmospheric pressure. The tubes are then flooded with oil; i.e., oil is injected, displacing the water. The 1FT between the oil and water is 30 dynes/cm. 1. What is the minimum pressure required in the oil phase to displace the water? 2. Assume the capillaries are constructed such that they varied in diameter from one end to the other as shown in Fig. 2.38. For this condition, what pressure would be required in the oil phase to displace the water? That is, at what pressure would the displacement start, and what pressure would be required to displace the water completely? Assume that the water is in contact with a water reservoir at the outlet end and that capillary forces do not exist at that point. 2.6 Magichem Chemical Co. has announced the development of a new chemical that can be used in displacement processes to recover more oil than waterflooding. The company reports the following displacement test results to substantiate their claim. Core length=2.0 in. Initial oil saturation=70% Residual saturation after typical waterflood=37% Residual saturation after flooding with new chemical=20% Pressure drop during displacement test with new chemical (across total core length)=50 psi Water -+Water -+- Oil t.-----~------,t r = 0.005 em r = 0.01 em Fig. 2.38-Capillary of varying diameter, Problem 2.5. For typical waterflooding conditions, and assuming that the poredoublet model is applicable, describe the general effect on trapping of a relatively large oil viscosity. (It is not necessary to derive a precise relationship.) Vapor Curve Fig. 2.39-Ternary diagram, Problem 2.9. 2.9 Fig. 2.39 shows the phase behavior of mixtures of Chemicals A, B, and C. The diagram is on a pound-mass basis and is for a fixed Tandp. Mixtures of Components A, B, and C are contained in three vessels as shown in Fig. 2.40. The contents of the three vessels are mixed together in a fourth vessel, which is held at the p and T corresponding to the ternary diagram. 1. Describe the resulting mixture as follows: (a) show the overall composition on the diagram, (b) indicate whether the mixture is one phase or two phases at the specified p and T, and (c) if the mixture is two phase, specify the composition and amount of each phase. 2. Assume that a long porous media bed is originally saturated with a liquid mixture which is 70% A, 25% B, and 5% C. This mixture is displaced by pure C, which is a vapor. When the injected vapor first breaks through at the end of the bed, what will be the composition of this effluent vapor phase? Use the ternary diagram to show the basis for your answer. of new chemical=3.5 cp 1FT (new chemical-oil) = 15 dynes/cm Cost of the new chemical is relatively low. On the basis of these results, would you agree that the new chemical shows potential as an oil recovery agent? Justify and document, as completely as you can, the reason for your answer. 2.7 One the petroleum sulfonates being used in a commercial laboratory has the trade name TRS 1O-80. The spinning-drop method was used to measure the 1FT between a solution of TRS 10-80 in brine and a light hydrocarbon. The 1FT at 80F was 0.03 dynes/cm. Assume this surfactant solution is to be used to displace the light hydrocarbon from a 4.0-ft Berea sandstone linear core (k=200 md). The core initially has a water saturation of 20 % and a hydrocarbon saturation of 80 %. The core is waterflooded before injection of the TRS 10-80 solution. The residual oil saturation after waterflooding is 40%. The TRS 10-80 solution is then injected. The experiment is conducted at a temperature of 80F. 1. If it is desired to recover 90 % of the original oil in place through a combination of both floods, what pressure drop do you predict would be required across the core during the TRS 10-80 displacement? 2. If the temperature were increased to 100F, would the required pressure drop be larger or smaller? Why? 3. TRS 10-80 is adsorbed on Berea sandstone. What effect would adsorption have on the experiment? Refer to Ref. 12 for solutions to this problem. 2.8 The pore-doublet described in Sec. 2.4.2 assumes that oil and water viscosities are equal. In many cases, oil viscosity is considerably larger than water viscosity. Vi~cosity Nomenclature Parameter definitions are followed by dimensions and typical units used in text. A = area, L2, ft2 be = width of capillary construction, L, cm d = diameter, L, ft ED = microscopic displacement efficiency, L3 /L3 , volume fraction F = force, mL/t 2 , dynes Fe = capillary forces, mLlt 2 , dynes Fv = viscous forces, mL/t 2 , dynes g = gravity acceleration constant, Llt 2 , 32 ft/sec 2 ge = conversion factor [32.2 Ibmft/(lbfsec 2)] h = height, L, cm k = permeability, L2, darcies krw = relative permeability to water L = length, L, ft, or cm Lf = distance from oil drop front to capillary construction, L, cm La = length of oil phase in doublet model, L, cm Lw = length of water phase in doublet model, L, cm Ll = length of Pore 1 in doublet model, L, cm L2 = length of Pore 2 in doublet model, L, cm Nea = capillary number based on interstitial (pore) velocity, N~a=cf>Nea N~a = capillary number based on Darcy velocity N ea .m = modified capillary number, Eq. 2.32 P = pressure, m/U 2 , psi Palm = atmospheric pressure, m/U2, dynes/cm2 t:..p = pressure change, m/U2, psi P e = capillary pressure, m/U2, dynes/cm2 q = flow rate, L3/t, ftlD r = radius, L, cm 1.01bm 85% A 5% B 10% C 1.01bm 600/0 A 300/0 B 100/0 C Fig. 2.40-Components to be mixed, Problem 2.9. 0%A 0% B 100% C ENHANOED OIL RECOVERY rd = drop radius, L, cm rt = tube radius, L, cm rl = radius of Pore 1 in doublet model, L, cm r2 = radius of Pore 2 in doublet model, L, cm R = radius of curvature, L, cm S = saturation, L3 /L3, volume fraction SD = dimensionless saturation Sob = saturation of oil in oil bank, L3 /L3 , volume fraction Soi = initial oil saturation, L3/L3, volume fraction Sor = residual oil saturation, L3 /L3, volume fraction Sonv = residual oil saturation at end of a waterflood, L3 /L3, volume fraction Swb = saturation of water in oil bank, L3/L3, volume fraction Swi = initial water saturation, L3 /L3, volume fraction T = temperature, T, OF u = Darcy velocity in a porous medium, LIt, fi/hr v = interstitial pore velocity, LIt, fi/hr v = average velocity in a capillary tube, LIt, cm/s VI = average velocity in Pore 1 of doublet model, LIt, cm/s V2 = average velocity in Pore 2 of doublet model, LIt, cm/s W = work, mL 2 /t 2 x = distance in x direction, L, cm () = contact angle, degrees J.t = viscosity, mILt, cp p = fluid density, L3, g/cm3 II = 1FT, mIt 2, dynes/ cm cP = porosity cI> = flow potential, mL/t 2 Subscripts a = air phase atm = atmospheric conditions aw = air/water interface A = indicates position B = indicates position g = gas phase go = gas/oil interface gw = gas/water interface i = pore channel index o = oil phase os = oil/solid interface ow = oil/water interface w = water phase ws = water/solid interface 1 = indicates position 2 = indicates position 1. Willhite, G.P.: Waterflooding, Textbook Series, SPE, Richardson, TX (1986) 3. 2. Katz, D.L. and Saltman, W.: "Surface Tension of Hydrocarbons," Ind. & Eng. Chem. (Jan. 1939) 31, 91-94. 3. Amyx, J.W., Bass, D.M. Jr., and Whiting, R.L.: Petroleum Reservoir Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City (1960). 4. Donaldson, E.C., Thomas, R.D., and Lorenz, P.B.: "Wettability Detennination and Its Effect on Oil Recovery," SPEJ (March 1969) 13-20. 5. Leverett, M. C.: "Capillary Behavior in Porous Media," Trans., AIME (1941) 142, 152-69. 6. Plateau, T .A.F.: "Experimental and Theoretical Research on the Figures of Equilibrium of a Liquid Mass Withdrawn from the Action of Gravity," annual reports, Smith Inst. (1963-66). 7. Craig, F.F. Jf.: The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Waterflooding, Monograph s e r i / Richardson, TX (1971) 3. 8. Craft, B.C. and Hawkins, M.F.: Applied Petroleum Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ (1959). 9. Gardescu, I.I.: "Behavior of Gas Bubbles in Capillary Spaces," Trans., AIME (1930) 86, 351-70. 10. Muskat, M.: Physical Principles of Oil Production, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York City (1949). 11. Bethel, F.T. and Calhoun, J.C.: "Capillary Desaturation in Unconsolidated Beads," JPT (Aug. 1953) 197-202. 12. Taber, J.J.: "Dynamic and Static Forces Required To Remove a Discontinuous Oil Phase From Porous Media Containing Both Oil and Water," SPEJ (March 1969) 3-12. 13. Arriola, A., Willhite, G.P., and Green, D.W.: "Trapping of Oil Drops in a Noncircular Pore Throat and Mobilization Upon Contact With a Surfactant," SPEJ (Feb. 1983) 99-114. 14. Stegemeier, G.L.: "Mechanisms of Entrapment and Mobilization of Oil in Porous Media, " Improved Oil Recovery by Surfactant and Polymer Flooding, Academic Press, New York City (1977) 55-91. 15. Moore, T.F. and Slobod, R.C.: "The Effect of Viscosity and Capillarity on the Displacement of Oil by Water," Producers Monthly (Aug. 1956) 20-30. 16. Abrams, A.: "The Influence of Fluid Viscosity, Interfacial Tension, and Flow Velocity on Residual Oil Saturation Left by Waterflood," SPEJ (Oct. 1975) 437-47. 17. Arriola, A.: "An Experimental Study of the Effects of Viscous and Capillary Forces on the Trapping and Mobilization of Oil Drops in Capillary Constructions," PhD dissertation, U. of Kansas, Lawrence, KS (1980). 18. Brownell, L.E. and Katz, D.L.: "Flow of Fluids Through Porous Media-Part IT: Simultaneous Flow of Two Homogeneous Phases," Chem. Eng. Prog. (Nov. 1947) 43, 601-12. 19. Dullien, F.A.L.: "Determination of Pore Accessibilities-An Approach," JPT (Jan. 1969) 14-15. 20. Melrose, J.C. and Bradner, C.F.: "Role of Capillary Forces in Determining Microscopic Displacement Efficiency for Oil Recovery by Waterflooding," J. Cdn. Pet. Tech. (1974) 13, 54-62. 21. Reisberg, J. and Doscher, T.M.: "Interfacial Phenomena in Crude OilWaterPorousMedia," ImprovedOilRecoverybySurfactantandPolymer Flooding, Academic Press, New York City (1977). 22. Purcell, W.R.: "Interpretation of Capillary Pressure Data," Trans., AIME (1950) 189, 369-71. 23. Chatzis, I. and Morrow, N.R.: "Correlation of Capillary Number Relationships for Sandstone," SPEJ (Oct. 1984) 555-62. 24. Foster, W.R.: "A Low-Tension Waterflooding Process," JPT(Feb. 1973) 205-10. 25. Lefebvre du Prey, E.G.: "Factors Affecting Liquid-Liquid Relative Perrneabilities of a Consolidated Porous Medium," SPEJ (Feb. 1973) 39-47. 26. Dombrowski, H.S. and Brownell, L.E.: "Residual Equilibrium Saturation of Porous Media," Ind. & Eng. Chem. (1954) 46, 1207-19. 27. Wagner, O.R. and Leach, R.O.: "Effect ofInterfacial Tension on Displacement Efficiency," SPEJ (Dec. 1966) 335-44. 28. Games, J.M. et al.: "Capillary Number Relations for Some North Sea Reservoir Sandstones," paper SPE 20264 presented at the 1990 SPE Symposium on Enhanced Oil Recovery, Tulsa, April 22-25. 29. Benham, A.L., Dowden, W.E., and Kunzman, W.J.: "Miscible Fluid Displacement-Prediction of Miscibility," Trans., AIME (1960) 219, 229-37. 30. Taber, J.J., Kamath, I.S.K., and Reed, R.L.: "Mechanism of Alcohol Displacement of Oil From Porous Media," SPEJ (Sept. 1961) 195-212. 31. Jordan, J.K., McCardell, W.M., and Hocott, C.R.: "Effect of Rate on Oil Recovery by Waterflooding," report, Humble Oil & Refining Co., Houston, TX (1956). SI Metric Conversion Factors cp x 1.0* E-03 dyne/cm x 1.0* E+OO fi x 3.048* E-Ol OF (OF-32)/1.8 psi x 6.894757 E+OO Pa's mN/m Displacement in Linear Systems 3.1 Introduction This chapter covers displacement mechanisms described by frontaladvance theory. 1-3 The objective is to introduce fundamental concepts of EOR processes using simple mathematical models that retain important features of more complex models presented later. The application of frontal-advance theory to predict waterflooding performance in a linear system is reviewed. 4 Then, frontaladvance theory is applied to viscous waterflooding and chemical flooding processes, such as polymer and surfactant flooding. Injection of chemicals as slugs is introduced. Finally, dispersion (or mixing), when one fluid displaces a second, miscible fluid, is described, as are viscous fingering and its effect on displacement. 3.2 Waterflood PerformanceFrontalAdvance Equations 3.2.1 Frontal-Advance and Related Equations. This section describes the application of frontal-advance theory to oil displacement by water in a linear system. 4 For the discussion, the rock is considered homogeneous with porosity cp, permeability k, length L, and cross-sectional areaA. The water in the rock is initially at interstitial saturation, Siw' Interstitial water saturation is defined as the saturation at which the water is immobile; i.e., the relative permeability to water, krw, is zero. Also, there is no gas saturation. When water is injected into this linear system at a sufficient rate for the frontal-advance assumptions to apply, each water saturation, Sw, travels at a constant velocity through the system given by Eq. 3.1. This equation, called the frontal-advance, or BuckleyLeverett equation, is derived by Willhite 4 as :sw Fig. 3.1 is a typical plot of fractional flow vs. saturation. The derivative, afwlaSw, can be evaluated graphically by constructing tangents to thefw-Sw curve at a given saturation or numerically if the relative permeabilities, kro(Sw) and krw(Sw), are available. For many combinations of fluid and rock properties, the frontaladvance solution is characterized by a saturation discontinuity at the flood front where the water saturation jumps from Siw to Swj, the flood-front saturation. This discontinuity occurs because the velocities of low water saturations ( < Swf) are less than the velocity of the flood-front saturation and are overtaken by this saturation. The flood-front saturation is found by constructing a tangent to the fractional-flow curve from Siw, when the water in the rock isinitially at interstitial saturation-i.e., immobile, as depicted in Fig. 3.1. The slope of the tangent is given by f:..t=(fwf-fiw)/(Swf-Siw), ........................ (3.3) wherefwf=fractional flow of water at the flood-front saturation, fiw = fractional flow of water at interstitial water saturation equal to zero, Swf=flQod-front saturation, and Siw=interstitial water saturation. The flood-front or saturation discontinuity moves at a velocity given by vwf=(qtIAcp)(afwlaSw)swj' ........................ (3.4) When the interstitial water saturation is immobile, as depicted in Fig. 3.1, Iiw=O and vwf is given by vwf=(qtIAcp)[fwfl(Swf-Siw)]' ..................... (3.5) All saturations less than Swf travel at the flood-front velocity. Eq. 3.3 is also an expression of the conservation of mass across a saturation discontinuity as the flood front, sometimes called a "shock wave, " travels through the porous rock. This is discussed in Section 3.3.1. The location of a particular saturation is found by integrating Eq. 3.1 with respect to time to obtain =;: G~:) S=Sw' .......................... (3.1) wherexs =location of water saturation, Sw, measured fromx=O, A=cross~sectional area, cp=porosity, qt=injection rate'!w=fractional flow of water, t=time from the beginning of injection, and any consistent set of units may be used. When the system is horizontal and gravity-and capillary forces are negligible, the fractional flow of water can be computed from Eq.3.2. fw=(kwIJl.w)/(koIJl.o+kwIJl.w), ...................... (3.2) where kw =permeability of rock to water, ko =permeability of rock to oil, Jl. w =viscosity of water, Jl.o = viscosity of oil, and fw is dimensionless. xSw =(qttIAcp)(afw1aSw>Sw' ........................ (3.6) Because the velocity of every saturation is constant, the graph of saturation location vs. time is a set of straight lines starting from the origin. This graph is often plotted in dimensionless form by introducing the following terms into Eq. 3.6. Let xv=xIL, ....................................... (3.7) 1.0 ,.----r----r"--..,--r7'""-r----, a " !l is 'il ~ a .. .. ., j:I 0.00 ~;;;:::r:::G=--,---,,--,-~.L....L-'-...L......J'--'---'-.L....L-.J 0.00 0.75 1.50 \ . Dimensionless Time or Pore Volumes Injected Fig. 3.2-XDltD diagram for a linear waterflood. L...-_--1._--I~"__.L.-_----L_ _...... ~----_-8wf Fig. 3.1-Fractional flow saturation. where xD = dimensionless distance from origin. tD=qtt/AcpL, ................................... (3.8) where tD=dimensionless time (the same as Q;, the number ofPV's of fluid injected). Eq. 3.6 becomes xDSw =tDf':'. . .................................. (3.9) Fig. 3.2 is a graph of dimensionless distance/time for the movement of water saturations predicted by the frontal-advance equation. Saturations S;w < Sw < Swf travel at the same velocity and are located on the flood-front path. The region ahead of the flood front has a uniform saturation. Saturations greater than Swf travel at progressively slower velocities, as indicated by the decreasing slopes in Fig. 3.2 and the fan-like distribution on the xDItD graph. This region is sometimes called a spreading wave. Saturation profiles or saturation histories can be constructed by making cross sections through the time/distance graph. A saturation profile is a graph of the locations of all saturations along a cross section of fixed time, as illustrated by the dashed line at tD=0.15 in Fig. 3.2. Fig. 3.3 displays the saturation profile at tD =0.15 that was obtained from Fig. 3.2. The saturation history is the graph of saturation vs. time at a particular value of xD' A plot of water saturation vs. tD for xD = 1, shown in Fig. 3.4, illustrates the arrival of water saturations at the end of the linear system. Displacement performance is obtained by determining the average saturation of the region displaced by water. Before breakthrough (the arrival of the flood-front saturation at xD = 1), only oil is produced and the volume of oil is equal to the water injected until breakthrough. At breakthrough, the volume of oil produced, expressed as a fraction of PV, is tDbl' given by tDbt= lIf./.t .................................... (3.10) At and after breakthrough, the volume of oil displaced is given by Np=(Sw-S;w)AcpLlBo' .......................... (3.11) where N = stock tank barrels of oil displaced, Sw = average water saturatiln in the linear system, and B 0 = oil FVF. ,,-'-----------1 0.00 L....1.-'-...L......J'--'---'-.J.......I--L-...J..1.-'-...J......L.....L--L......L......J'-'-~ 0.00 0.50 1.00 '1>' Dimensionless Distance Fig. 3.3-Saturation profile at t D = 0.15. The average water saturation at any time after breakthrough is computed from the Welge 5 equatiQn given by Sw=Sw2+tD2(l-fw2)' .......................... (3.12) where Sw2 = water saturation at xD = 1, fw2 = fractional flow of water at xD = 1, and tD2 = dimensionless time required to propagate saturation Sw2 from the inlet of the system (xD=O) to the end of the system (xD = 1.). The value of tD2 is obtained from tD2 = lIf.Ja .................................... (3.13) Sw may also be determined graphically, as shown by Willhite. 4 Example 3.1 illustrates the solution of the frontal-advance equation for a waterflood of a linear core initially at interstitial water saturation. Example 3.1-Application of Frontal-Advance EquationsLinear Waterflood. A core is saturated with oil and water at interstitial water saturation. Table 3.1 gives the properties of the core, fluids, and saturations. Prepare the following: 1. A dimensionless-distance, dimensionless-time xD/tD graph showing the displacement until WOR=50 is reached at the end of the system. 2. A saturation profile when the flood front is located at xD=0.75. 3. The volume of oil displaced from the beginning of the waterflood to WOR=50. Relative permeability relationships are given by k ro =al (l-S wD )m .............................. (3.14) and krw=a2S:{'D' ................................. (3.15) s,.. .B II> " 101 'a 0 II> II> " . 0.00 L....J..-L-...I-J'--'--'-..L-1--'---LI--'---'--L....L-'-~--'-~ 0.00 0.75 1.50 Dimensionless Time or Pore Volumes 1>' Fig. 3.4-Saturation history at =1 (outlet of the system). 1>' Dimensionless Time or Pore Volumes =0.8, az =0.2, m=2, n=2, and Fig. 3.5-x olt o graph for parameters of Example 3.1. SwD=(Sw-Siw)/(I-Sor-Siw), .................... (3.16) where Sor=waterflood residual oil saturation (ROS). Assume that Bo=Bw=1.0. Solution. Construction of the distance/time diagram, saturation TABLE 3.1-ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTIES, EXAMPLE 3.1 Property Value 0.20 0.30 0.30 profile, and displacement performance requires determination of the flood-front saturation and derivatives of the fractional-flow curve at various saturation values. These were determined numerically with programs presented in Appendix C.4 For this example, SI1j=0.4206 and fwz =0.65076. The slope of the tangent to the fractional-flow curve fromfw=O, Siw=0.30 is found with Eq. 3.3: f~=(fI1j-fiw)/(Swj-Siw) Siw Sor /1-0' cp /1-w, cp B o ' bbl/STB tD=XDj/f;"j =0.75/f~ =(0.65076-0.0)/(0.4206-0.3) =5.396. When the flood reaches the end of the linear system (xD = 1.0) Swz=SI1j' tDZ = l/f';' =0.139. Locations of other saturations (SI1j < Sw < I-Sor ) at tD =0.139 are found from Eq. 3.9, XDSw=tDf;" . =1/5.396 =0.185. The average water saturation'at tDZ = 0 .185 is computed with Eq. 3.12: Sw=Swz +tDZ(I-fwz) At Sw=0.560, f';' =0.60183. Thus, xDw =(0.75)(0.60183) =0.0837. The computed saturation profile is given in Table 3.3 and presented in Fig. 3.6. In Table 3.3, distances were determined at increments of 0.02 saturation units from Sw= I-Sor to Swj' 3. Displacement performance is obtained by computing the average water saturation with Eq. 3.12. Table 3.4 summarizes the results with the displacement performance expressed as a fraction of the PV, Np/(AL), determined from Eq. 3.11: Np = [(Sw -Siw)/BolAc/>L. =0.4206+0.185(1-0.6508) =0.485. Table 3.2 shows other saturations and computed parameters. 1. The distance/time graph is constructed by determining the time thateach saturation arrives at the end of the system (xD = 1.0) and constructing a straight line from that point to the origin. Because Eq. 3.13 is applicable, tDz=lIf~z Thus, Np/Ac/>L=(Sw-Siw)/Bo' From Table 3.2 at Swz =0.5547, Sw=0.6025 and N p /Ac/>L=0.6025 -0.3 At Swz =0.538, f~z =0.87882. Thus, tDZ =1If~z =0.3025 when Bo = 1.0. Fwo, the producing WOR, is calculated by rearrangement of the fractional flow equation (Eq. 3.2). Because fw=qw/(qw+qo)' ............................... (3.17) =110.87882 =1.13789. The distance/time graph shown in Fig. 3.5 was prepared by drawing a line from the origin (xD =0, tD =0) to the end of the system (xD = 1) for the arrival-time-selected water saturations (tD =tDZ)' 2. The saturation profile when the flood front is at xD =0.75 is the locus of all saturations at the corresponding value of tD' From the frontal-advance equation, where qw=water flow rate and qo=oil flow rate, and F wo = (qw/qo)(Bo/Bw), ........................... (3.18) then Fwo =[fw/(l-fw)l(Bo/B w)' ..................... (3.19) 38 TABLE 3.2-SUMMARY OF AVERAGE WATER SATURATION CALCULATIONS, EXAMPLE 3.1, BREAKTHROUGH TO WOR > 50 ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE 3.4-ESTIMATED DISPLACEMENT PERFORMANCE, EXAMPLE 3.1, LINEAR WATERFLOOD AT INTERSTITIAL WATER SATURATION 0.4206 0.4262 0.4318 0.4374 0.4430 0.4485 0.4541 0.4597 0.4653 0.4709 0.4765 0.4821 0.4877 0.4932 0.4988 0.5044 0.5100 0.5156 0.5212 0.5268 0.5324 0.5380 0.5435 0.5491 0.5547 0.5603 0.5659 0.5715 0.5771 0.65076 0.67991 0.70708 0.73232 0.75569 0.77727 0.79716 0.81545 0.83225 0.84766 0.86177 0.87469 0.88650 0.89729 0.90715 0.91614 0.92435 0.93183 0.93865 0.94487 0.95053 0.95568 0.96036 0.96462 0.96849 0.97200 0.97519 0.97808 0.98069 NpIAcf>L 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.4206 0.4262 0.4318 0.4374 0.4430 0.4485 0.4541 0.4597 0.4653 0.4709 0.4765 0.4821 0.4877 0.4932 0.4988 0.5044 0.5100 0.5156 0.5212 0.5268 0.5324 0.5380 0.5435 0.5491 0.5547 0.5603 0.5659 0.5715 0.5771 _t_D_ TABLE 3.3-SATURATION PROFILE AT x D = 0.75, EXAMPLE 3.1, tD =0.75 0.70 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.58 0.56 0.54 0.52 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44 0.4206* 0.30 0.30 'Swf __ _ W f' 0.00000 0.02914 0.06842 0.12137 0.19289 0.28982 0.42169 0.60183 0.84880 1.18799 1.65289 2.28437 3.12370 4.19083 5.3958 ~ 0.000 0.00405 0.00951 0.01687 0.02681 0.04028 0.05861 0.08365 0.11798 0.16513 0.22975 0.31752 0.43419 0.58251 0.75 0.75 1.00 0.00000 0.01853 0.03707 0.05560 0.07413 0.09266 0.11120 0.12973 0.14826 0.18533 0.19846 0.21332 0.23005 0.24879 0.26970 0.29295 0.31877 0.34736 0.37899 0.41393 0.45250 0.49503 0.54192 0.59358 0.65051 0.71324 0.78237 0.85857 0.94263 1.03541 1.13789 1.25123 1.37671 1.51585 1.67039 1.84237 2.03418 2.24865 (bbl/bbl) 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.86332 2.12410 2.41390 2.73576 3.09308 3.48969 3.92990 4.41858 4.96123 5.56411 6.23434 6.98001 7.81043 8.73625 9.76974 10.92510 12.21878 13.66995 15.30101 17.13829 19.21285 21.56150 24.22817 27.26550 30.73700 34.71980 39.30822 44.61852 50.79517 balance on the interstitial water. Because the volume of interstitial water is conserved and no water is displaced from the linear system under the conditions being considered, =AcpSwb(Xj-Xb), ........................ (3.20) where Swb = average water saturation in the interval between xb an~ Xj. Swb may be computed by use of the expanded version of the Welge equation developed by Craig. 6 From Willhite,4 the average water saturation between the interval Xl :$x:$x2 obtained with the frontal-advance solution is given by qtt)( fw2-fwl ) .......... (3.21) (Acp Sw2 -Swl 3.2.2 Disphicement of Interstitial Water. During a waterflood, the injected water displaces the interstitial water as well as oil. The movement of interstitial water during a waterflood can be followed by use of a simple model. This model, with some modification, also will be useful in following the movement of chemicals used to improve oil recovery by viscosity increase or alteration of interfacial tension (1FT). The interstitial water is chemically distinct from the injected water but is displaced miscibly. No mixing is assumed to occur between the injected and interstitial fluids, so that a distinct boundary exists between the injected and interstitial water as if the displacement process were piston-like. Under these assumptions, the interstitial water will be distributed in the saturation profile as depicted in Fig. 3.7. The location of the boundary between the injected and interstitial water, xDb, at any time can be found by applying a material X2- X I In this case, XjSwf-XbSwb Swb = - ' - - " - - - Xj-Xb Substituting into Eq. 3.20 and rearranging gives XjSiw=XjSwf-XbSwb-(qttIAcp)(fwf-fwb) .......... (3.23) or Xj (Swf-Siw) =XbSwb -(qttIAcp)(fwj-fwb)' ......... (3.24) From the frontal-advance equation, Xj=(qttlAcp)[fwfl(Swf-Siw)] . ..................... (3.25) :;3 ~ en rn 0.50 ~Io Stw - L . . - - - - - I 0.20 L....JL...-I-..I.......L-L-L.-L....L--'-.l.-'--'L...-I......L-L.-L...L--'-.I-J 0.00 JD.. 0.50 ~ 1.00 ~. Dimensionless Distance ~. 0.50 Dimensionless Distance Fig. 3.6-Saturation profile when x D =0.75, Example 3.1. Fig. 3.7-Saturation profile showing interstitial water displaced by the injected fluid. Substituting Eq. 3.25 into Eq. 3.24 gives xb=(qttIAr/(fwbISwb)' .......................... (3.26) Because the location of Swb must also satisfy the frontal-advance solution, Xb=(qttIAr/(ofw1oSw)Swb' ....................... (3.27) Comparison of Eq. 3.26 and 3.27 gives (ofw1oSw)Swb =fwbISwb' .......................... (3.28) Thus, the derivative of the fractional-flow curve with a slope of fwblSwb is the slope of a line from the origin (fw=O, Sw=O) that is tangent to the fractional-flow curve, as shown in Fig. 3.8. The values offwb and Swb are determined from the intersection of the tangent. For the problem in Example 3.1, fwb=0.8989 and Swb=0.4941. The location of the boundary between the interstitial water and the injected water can now be plotted because this boundary also travels at a constant velocity. Fig. 3.9 shows the boundary for the parameters of Example 3.1. The shaded area is the expanding region occupied by the interstitial water. Expansion occurs because interstitial water is added to this region as the flood front advances at a constant velocity. It is the resident water, rather than the injected viscous fluid, that forms the leading flood front. Because there is a discontinuity in the viscosity between the viscous and resident fluids, a second discontinuity in saturation, or shock front, must form at the viscouswater/resident-water boundary. In Sec. 3.3.1, a relationship between the velocity of this discontinuity and fractional flows is derived on the basis of mass conservation. 3.3 Viscous Waterflood in a Linear System Waterflood displacement efficiency is affected by the viscosity ratio of the displaced to the displacing fluid. This can be shown simply by altering the viscosity in a displacement calculation. For example, if the water viscosity in Example 3.1 were 40 cp (both interstitial and injected water) rather than 1 cp, the waterflood performance presented in Fig. 3.10 would be predicted by the frontaladvance solution. Also reproduced in Fig. 3.10 is the predicted performance for the waterflood in Example 3.1 with P-w=l cpo This example suggests that the injection of a viscous fluid is an attractive possibility to improve waterflood displacement efficiency, particularly in reservoirs containing viscous oil. However, it does not properly consider the role of interstitial or previously injected water that must be displaced. In this section, frontal-advance techniques are used to estimate waterflood performance when the injected fluid is viscous but still miscible with the interstitial or previously injected water, which has a low viscosity. The viscous fluid is assumed not to be adsorbed on the rock, an assumption that will be modified in Sec. 3.5. As in Sec. 3.2, no mixing occurs between the viscous fluid and the low-viscosity resident water. Thus, a boundary exists between the viscous and displaced water where there is a step change, or jump, in viscosity from P-w to p-,t. The displacement process can be described as a waterflood in which a viscous fluid displaces both oil and low-viscosity resident water. The resident water is miscibly displaced by the injected fluid. 3.3.1 Determination of Velocity and Saturations of the Viscous Shock. Fig. 3.11 illustrates the locations of a saturation discontinuity or shock wave moving at a constant velocity V t when the flow rate, qt' is constant. The shock front moves from Xjt to Xj(t+At) in the time increment At but is confined within the interval x2 -xl' Saturations and fractional flow are assumed to be uniform on either side of the saturation discontinuity because the distance can be made arbitrarily small by the choice of At. From Fig. 3.11, the volume of water in the volume element X2 -Xl at time t is Vollt=(xjt-xl)Ar/>S:J3 +(x2 -Xjt)Ar/>Swl, ........... (3.29) where, S:J3 =saturation on the upstream side of the discontinuity and Swl =saturation on the downstream side of the discontinuity. At time t+At, the volume of water in the volume element is Vol/t+At=[Xj(t+At) -Xrl A r/>S:J3 +[x2 -Xj(t+At)]Ar/>Swl' ................................. (3.30) A volume balance on water across the volume element during the time At thus yields (by subtraction of Eq. 3.29 from Eq. 3.30) ([Xj(t+At) -xrlAr/>S:J3 +[x2 -Xj(t+At)]Ar/>Swl} - [Xjt -xl)Ar/> S:J3 +(x2 -Xjt)Ar/>Swrl =(qtAtIAr/(f:J3 -fwl)' .......................... (3.31) After some rearrangement, [Xj(t+At)-Xjt](S:J3 -Swl)=qtAtIAr/>(f:J3 -fwl) ....... (3.32) or [Xj(t+At) -Xjt] At ~(f:J3 -fwl Ar/> S:J3 -Swl ) ................ (3.33) The velocity of the saturation discontinuity is obtained by letting At-+O to obtain dxf dt =~(f:J3 -fwl ) ......................... (3.34) Saturations in the viscous waterflood also satisfy the frontal-advance solution. Thus, dx S;t3 = ~ (af:J) Ar/> oS: s* dt w3 ......................... (3.35) f"b } .. !l ~ '(J ! . JI..=40cp p.,,=40cp p." JI.. = 40cp = 1 cp r;; p; fi: 0.50 'iil 0.50 1.00 DJmensl.onl.etIS Time or Pore Volumes Injected (Qi) &: :.~ Fig. 3.10-Waterflood performance, frontal-advance solution, Ilw =40 cp vs. Ilw = 1 cp and Ilo = 40 cp VS. Ilw = 40 cp, Example 3.1 parameters. =/wIq/Ac/>SwI' ........... ; ................... (3.37) where Ac/>Swi is the cross-sectional area that the water flows through. By analogy, 0.50 S". Water Saturation Vf=/;;;3q/Ac/>S;;;3' .............................. (3.38) At the boundary between the viscous solution and the displaced water, the velocities of the viscous phase and the displaced water must be equal (Le., vI =vf). Thus, Fig. 3.8-Tangent to the fractional-flow curve showing the slope of interstitial water curve, Example 3.1 parameters. /wl/Swl =/;;;3/S;;;3' .............................. (3.39) It is convenient to express these velocities in terms of dimension- less parameters by introducing the specific velocity defined as v]j3 =vf/(q/Ac/ . ............................... (3.40) " " ] Converting Eq. 3.34 to dimensionless form by introducing xD and yields OJ OJ S~3 /;;;3 -/wl S;;;3 -Swi .......................... (3.41) Thus, v]j3 =(/;;;3 -!wI)/(S;;;3 -SwI)' ................. (3.42) Because the specific water velocity must be equal to the velocity of the discontinuity, I"l v]j3 =vDI ..................................... (3.43) ........... (3.44) 0.75 Dimensionless Time or Pore Volumes Inspection ofEq. 3.44 shows that/;;;3 and S;;;3 can be found by constructing a tangent from the origin to the/:-S;;; curve for p,;;;, as shown in Fig. 3.12. The intersection of this tangent with the fractional-flow curve for p,w gives the values of/wI and Swi' With these values, the displacement of the shock caused by the differences in viscosities is completely defined. Example 3.2 illustrates the determination of flood-front saturations for a viscous waterflood. Example 3.2- Viscous Waterflood. The linear reservoir in Example 3.1 is to be flooded with a viscous solution that does not adsorb. The viscosity of the solution is 4 cp, and no mixing occurs between the viscous solution and the interstitial water. All other parameters used in Example 3.1 remain unchanged (see Table 3.1 and Eqs. 3.14 through 3.16). Find the flood-front saturations. Solution. Fractional-flow curves for the viscous and nonviscous waterfloods are shown in Fig. 3.12. Table 3.5 contains values of fractional flow and saturations used to prepare Fig. 3.12. A tangent was constructed to the It;;; fractional-flow curve to determine /;;;3 (0.926) and S;;;3 (0.576). The intersection of the tangent with Fig. 3.9-XDltD diagram showing region occupied by the interstitial water, Example 3.1 parameters. Because the saturation S;;;3 moves at the same velocity as the saturation discontinuity, a/:) (as: s* /;;;3 -/wl .......................... (3.36) To complete the specification of the saturation discontinuity, use is made of the miscibility between the viscous solution and the resident water. At the saturation discontinuity, the velocity of the viscous phase must be equal to the velocity of the displaced water because of miscibility. The velocity of the resident water phase is given by ---Sw --, I I I I I I I I I I I '" ro: iil 1:1 0 ";3 Xf(t+~t) :.'" Fig. 3.11-Schematic of shock front at two times. Sw' Water Saturation the /kw fractional-flow curve is at fwl =0.687 and Swl =0.428. These values were obtained numerically with a root-finding program and verified graphically. Note that Swf from Example 3.1 is 0.4206 and that Swl > Swf The region behind the viscous shock behaves as a viscous waterflood and is described by the frontal-advance solution. Thus, the specific velocity of each saturation S,t(S,t 0::: S;3) is obtained from the derivative at the viscous fractional-flow curve, as in Eq. 3.45: v~v=(afJlaSJ)sJ' Fig. 3.12-Construction of tangent to find f;3, S;3 , f wl , and Swl' Example 3.2. and Swf=0.4206, so there is a small change in the saturation profJle between the waterflood front, xf' and the viscous flood front, x3' This difference is small but is retained in the average water saturation calculations. The average water saturation is given by j:3 SJdx+ j;~ Swldx+ j;{ Swdx+ j~fSiWdx -Sw3 ............................. (3.45) The formation of the viscous shock when viscous water is injected after the beginning of a waterflood is complicated. Appendix A presents a conceptual model of this process. 3.3.2 Oil Recovery During a Viscous Waterflood. The volume of oil displaced during a viscous waterflood is determined by computing the average water saturation in the system at various points in time, as done for waterflooding calculations. When the initial oil saturation is I-S iw , the displaced oil, expressed in PV's, is given by NpIAfjJL=(Sw -Siw)IBo. .. ....................... (3.46) __* X3 + L (Xl -X3) Swl + (Xf- XI )_ +S'w (L-Xf) . . Swl L L L . ................................ (3.47) In dimensionless form, Eq. 3.47 becomes Sw=XD3 S;\',3 +(xDI -xD3)Swl +(xDf-XDl)Swl +(1-xDf)Siw, ................................. (3.48) where S;\', and Swl are the average water saturations in the respective regions. Both S;\', and Swl can be computed from the modified Welge equation when the appropriate fractional-flow curves are used. The viscous shock is assumed to form immediately when the viscous fluid is injected. According to the computations in Example A.l, this appears to be a reasonable assumption. When viscous water injection begins at tDo =0, S;\',3 =S;3 -(tDlxD3)(f;3 -1) ..................... (3.49) Because the saturation profJle for a viscous waterflood may have several discontinuities, the average water saturation must be determined by integrating the saturation distribution at discrete times. When Swl > Swf' the saturation profJle is depicted by Fig. 3.13 as long as the flood front is in the system. In Fig. 3.13, Swl =0.428 tD;; :;j Swt > s,., Sw, < s,., ~~. Sy" r-----s.a. 0.50 I- OUBank ~'" i. :r,. IS'" Viscous Fluid is.... , :r,.. :r,. l. .I Dimensionlen Distance Xu. Dimensionless Distance Fig. 3.14-Saturation profile for viscous waterflood at interstitial water saturation when SWl <Swt. Fig. 3.13-Saturation profile during a viscous waterflood at interstitial water saturation when SWl >Swt. TABLE 3.5-FRACTIONAL-FLOW DATA FROM FIG. 3.12, EXAMPLE 3.2 TABLE 3.6-SATURATION FOR VARIOUS ZONES, EXAMPLE 3.3 Waterflood Front of Oil Bank 0.30 0.32 0.34 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70 I-t; =4.0 cp 0.00000 0.00688 0.02994 0.07223 0.13514 0.21739 0.31469 0.42024 0.52632 0.62597 0.71429 0.78879 0.84906 0.89608 0.93156 0.95745 0.97561 0.98770 0.99509 0.99889 1.00000 f* w Viscous Shock S;3 =0.5764 f;3 =0.9259 f!u3 = 1.6064 I-tw = 1.0 cp 0.00000 0.02695 0.10989 0.23747 0.38462 0.52632 0.64748 0.74355 0.81633 0.87003 0.90909 0.93726 0.95745 0.97182 0.98196 0.98901 0.99379 0.99690 0.99877 0.99972 1.00000 Swf =0.4206 fwf =0.6508 f!u, =5.3958 =0.4276 Fw1 =0.6869 f!u1 = 4.9499 TABLE 3.7-LOCATION OF SATURATIONS BEHIND THE VISCOUS SHOCK WHEN tD = 1.5, EXAMPLE 3.3 0.5764 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70 XOw 1.6064 1.0865 0.7436 0.4766 0.2717 0.1164 atto = 1.5 2.410 1.630 1.115 0.715 0.408 0.175 to atxow=1.0 0.622 0.920 1.345 2.098 3.680 8.591 XDjSwf-XDlSw1 and Sw1 =--''---''----XDj-XDl fWj-fw1 XDj-XDl . . .......... (3.50) Because the viscous shock forms immediately, the oil bank also forms at the same time. To compute the average saturations, it is necessary to know the locations of saturations Swf' Sw1, and S;t3 . These saturations travel at different velocities given by their fractional-flow relationships. By starting the injection of viscous water at tD =0, the following equations give the location of each region during the viscous waterflood: XDj=f,iftD' .................................... (3.51) XD1 =f';;ltD' ................................... (3.52) and xm =f~jtD. . ................................ (3.53) Before breakthrough, oil recovery is a linear function of tD. At breakthrough of the flood front, NpIAf/>L= Sw -S;w =tDf = Ilf,if. . ............................... (3.54) The oil bank (Sw-Sw1) arrives at the end of the system when xD1 =1 or tDl = lIf';;l . .................................... (3.55) Between breakthrough and arrival of the oil bank, xD1' Sw =Xm S;\',3 +(xDl -Xm)Sw1 +(1-XDl)Sw1. . ....... (3.56) 3.4 Viscous Waterflood of Linear System Initially at Interstitial Water Saturation In this section, a viscous waterflood in a linear reservoir at interstitial water saturation (initial oil saturation) is considered. As in Sec. 3.3, the injected viscous fluid is miscible with the interstitial water and is not retained on the porous rock by adsorption or other mechanisms. Dispersion is neglected so that a sharp boundary is maintained between the viscous solution and the interstitial water. A viscous shock forms instantaneously when the viscous solution is injected into the reservoir. This shock has the same properties as in Sec. 3.3. Thus, f;t3 -fw1 S;t3 -Sw1 and xm =tD f;t3 -fw1 ............................ (3.62) S;;;3 -Sw1 When Sw1 <Swf' the oil bank forms immediately, overtakes Swf' and has a uniform water saturation, Sw1. Fig. 3.14 illustrates the saturation profile for this flood. The velocity of the oil bank is given by fw1 Af/> (Sw1 -S;w) or, in dimensionless form, fw1 - - - .......................... (3.64) Sw1-S;w Water saturations greater than S;;;3 travel at velocities given by Eq. 3.56 can be simplified by substituting Eqs. 3.49 and 3.50 for S;\',3 and Sw1 respectively, to obtain Sw=tDU';;2Sw2 + I-fw2), ........................ (3.57) where Sw2 = oil saturation at the end of the linear system. During the time period tDj::;; tD::;; tDl' Sw2 will increase from Swf to Sw1 . When the oil bank arrives at the end of the system (xDl = 1.0), the average water saturation is given by Sw =Xm S;\',3 +(I-xm)Sw1. . ..................... (3.58) ( : ) s$ = ;~ (;~~) S$ The oil bank region has a unifom saturation, SwI' while the saturations greater than S ;3 form a fan-shaped region like that described in Sec. 3.3. Breakthrough of water is obtained from tDl =(Sw1 -S;w)/fw1' ............................ (3.66) while the viscous solution breaks through at tm = (S;;;3 -Sw1)IU;;;3 -fw1). . .................... (3.67) In some cases, Swl > Sw/ and the oil bank cannot overtake the floodfront saturation. A saturation profile for this case is shown in Fig. 3.13. The displacement is characterized by arrival of the waterflood front, a zone of increasing water saturation, a region .of Substituting Eq. 3.49 for S;\',3 and Eq. 3.53 for xm gives Sw=SW1 +tD(1-fw1) . ........................... (3.59) The viscous waterflood arrives at the end of the system when xm = 1 or tD = lIf;t3. Therefore, for tD;:: Ilf;;;3 , S;\', =S;\',2 +tD(1-f;;;2) . .......................... (3.60) TABLE 3.B-SUMMARY OF RECOVERY CALCULATIONS, EXAMPLE 3.3, VISCOUS WATERFLOOD AT INTERSTITIAL WATER SATURATION 0.4206 0.4276 0.5764 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.6508 0.6869 0.9259 0.9575 0.9756 0.9877 0.9951 0.9989 Event at End of System <-Water bank <-Krrival of oil bank <- Arrival of viscous shock [ Region behind ] viscous shock ~ 0.1853 0.202 0.623 0.920 1.345 2.098 3.681 8.591 Sw 0.4853 0.4909 Sw-S/w 0.1853 0.1909 constant water saturation, the viscous shock, and a region of increasing water saturation. Example 3.3 illustrates the computation of viscous waterflood performance assuming that the initial water saturation is uniform, as in Example 3.2. Fig. 3.15 illustrates the distance/time diagram for this waterflood. Example 3.3-Performance of a Viscous Waterflood-Initial Interstitial Water Saturation. Estimate the performance of a viscous waterflood with the parameters of Example 3.2 when the viscous waterflood starts with the reservoir at interstitial water saturation. Fluid and rock properties are the same as in Example 3.2. Solution. When the reservoir is at interstitial water saturation, the saturation profIle develops immediately and propagates through the system. Table 3.6 summarizes saturation values for the various zones determined in Examples 3.1 and 3.2. Because Swl is slightly larger than Swf' it never overtakes Swj and the saturation profIle shown in Fig. 3.13 is obtained. Thus, there are three distinct banks in the flood: water bank, oil bank, and viscous shock. The xD/tD diagram can be generated from the fractional-flow data. From Eqs. 3.51 through 3.53, xDf=5.3958 tD' xDl =4.9499 tD' and xJ3 =1.606 tD' The saturation paths are presented in Fig. 3.15. The region between Swfand Swl is narrow in this case (0.007 saturation units), which in practice would not be worth separating but is done here for understanding. In this region, each saturation travels at a different velocity, as indicated by several paths drawn in Fig. 3.15. Paths for saturations behind the viscous shock are obtained from Eq. 3.6: xJ = tDf": * . Values off":* are given in Table 3.7 for several values of S;t. Also included in Table 3.7 are the arrival time of S;t at xD=1.0 and the location of xJ when tD=1.5. Fig. 3.13 is a saturation profile constructed from the xDitD diagram at tD=0.15. Oil recovery is obtained by applying Eqs. 3.57 through 3.60 to the appropriate zones. A convenient way to compute oil recovery is to choose the saturation at the end of the linear system and then compute the arrival time, tD' when xD= 1.0. Table 3.8 summarizes the oil recovery calculations. Displacement performance of the viscous waterflood is compared with a normal waterflood in Fig. 3.16. 3.5 Chemical Flooding in a Linear System The viscous waterflood discussed in Secs. 3.3 and 3.4 enhances displacement performance because fractional-flow curves are altered. However, one or more chemical species must be added to the injected water to make it viscous. In most cases, the added chemical is polymer. Also, adding surfactants to the injected water can alter the shape of the fractional-flow curves by decreasing 1FT and can change the end points of the curves by reducing the ROS. In this section, the frontal-advance equation that describes the transport of chemical species in oil displacement processes is developed. Then, the use of frontal-advance theory to estimate displacement performance of chemical floods, such as polymer and surfactant floods, is illustrated. 3.4.1 Transport of Chemical Species in Porous Rocks. The transport of chemical species in porous media can be described by applying material-balance concepts to each species. Attention is restricted to ID, isothermal, two-phase flow to simplify the mathematical model. A single chemical species is added to the injected fluid. Dispersion, or fluid mixing, is neglected. Effects of dispersion are discussed in Sec. 3.8. Other assumptions include neglecting gravity and capillary forces and viscous fingering. Fluids are considered incompressible. There is no mass transfer between oil and water phases. s:I II II Po. = d "0 = 40 cp ...... = cp ..f 1>. 0.75 1.50 Dimensionless Time or Pore Volumes Injected 1>. Dimensionless Time or Pore Volumes Injected Fig. 3.15-Distanceltime diagram for viscous waterflood at interstitial water saturation when Sw1 > Swt, Example 3.3. Fig. 3.16-Comparison of displacement performance for a viscous waterflood at interstitial water saturation with a normal waterflood, Example 3.3. x+Ax Concentration in Fluid, ppm Fig. 3.18-Typical adsorption isotherm for chemical species on porous rock. Fig. 3.17-lncremental element of porous rock. Consider the flow of oil and water through the incremental element of porous rock shown in Fig. 3.17. The water contains one chemical species that adsorbs on the surface of the rock. A material balance on this chemical species entering and leaving the incremental element over a small time increment I1t yields qtiwCi Ixl1t-qtiw Ci IxHxl1t=[CiSwlt+~tl1xA-CiSwltl1xAlC!> +AiPgr(l-c!l1xltHtA -A iPgr(l-c!l1xl t A, ........ (3.68) where the vertical bars indicate that the term is evaluated at the indicated position or time; the first two terms represent the net amount of Species i that enters the differential element by fluid flow during I1t; the second two terms represent the net retention of Species i in the element resulting from changes in concentration, Ci , or water saturation, Sw, in the pore space (Ac!>l1x) that can be occupied by Species i; and the third pair of terms is the net retention of Species i by the rock in I1t. In Eq. 3.68, Ci=concentration of Species i, c!> = porosity fraction of PV, Ai = amount of Species i retained by the rock, and Pgr=grain density of the rock. It is assumed that the porosity occupied by Species i is c!>. Dividing both sides of Eq. 3.68 by Al1xl1t, gives _ [(qtfwCi)lx+~x-(qtiwc;lx)lA I1x [CiSwltHt-CiSwltlc!> I1t Ci = AiPgr(l-c! c!> ............................... (3.73) Then, Eq. 3.70 becomes - - - + -.................. (3.74) at at Next, Eq. 3.74 is expanded by differentiating the products. Before carrying out the differentiation, Eqs. 3.72 and 3.74 are converted to dimensionless form. Recalling that xD =xlL and tD = (qtt)1 (Ac!>L), then a(SwCi) ---+-+ atD atD aUwCi) aXD =0 .................... (3.75) and aSwlatD +afw1axD =0 .......................... (3.76) Expanding Eq. 3.75 gives aCi asw aCi afw aCi Sw-+Ci-+-+fw-+Ci-=O, ....... (3.77) atD atD atD aXD aXD and gathering terms gives aCi (asw af w ) aCi aCi Sw-+Ci - - + - +-+fw-=O . . . . . . . . (3.78) atD atD aXD atD aXD The term in parentheses in Eq. 3.78 is identically equal to zero. Eq. 3.78 becomes aCi aCi aCi Sw- + +fw- =0 ........................ (3.79) atD atD aXD To proceed further, a relationship must be developed between Ci and C . If retention is assumed to be instantaneous and reversii ble, an equilibrium retention isotherm such as that shown in Fig. 3.18 relates A; to C; and thus C to Ci . The isotherm in Fig. 3.18 i has negative curvature, which is necessary for the flow solutions. Because Ci=f(Ci), aCi =(aCi)(aCi ). .......................... (3.80) atD atD aCi Let Di=aCilaCi ................................... (3.81) where Di=slope of the equilibrium isotherm for Ci . Then, aCi aCi =D i atD at D . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.82) {[AiPgr(l-C!lt+~t-[AiPgr(l-C!lt} ............. (3.69) I1t The limit as I1x and I1ttend to zero in Eq. 3.69 is Eq. 3.70. Recalling that qt and c!> are constant, Eq. 3.70 can be simplified as follows. A material balance considering water as a chemical constitutent is given by a(cwSw) - - - ....................... (3.71) at Retention of water on the rock is neglected. Because Ci is present in small concentrations, Cw is essentially constant, and Eq. 3.71 becomes qt a(fw) a(Sw) ----=-Ac!> ax at ........................... (3.72) It is convenient to define a new variable, C , to represent the reteni tion of Species i on the rock in terms of the PV of the rock: (f"'llwa) ~ :g "Swa* .. .s 8,..1 ;l 0.00 -1.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 i,.. S,... Water Saturation Fig. 3.19-Construction procedure to determine f:'3 and S:'3 for when adsorption occurs, Example 3.4. Fig. 3.20-Saturation profile for chemical flood started at interstitial water saturation. and Eq. 3.79 becomes aCi aCi (Sw+Di)- +fw- =0 ........................ (3.83) atD aXD fwl dtD Swl +Di S:t3 -Swl f:t3 - - - ........... (3.91) S:t3 +Di Eq. 3.83 describes the movement of a sharp concentration front through the porous rock. There is no dispersion or mixing of the fluids, and the concentration jumps from Cio to Ci at the concentration front. The concentration front can be followed by deriving an expression for the concentration velocity in a similar manner to the development of the frontal-advance equation for waterflooding. Consider a path of constant composition where Ci=Ci(xD,tD)' ................................. (3.84) Inspection of Eq. 3.91 shows that the values off::'3 and S:t3 can be found by drawing a tangent to thef,t-S; fractional-flow curve from the pointf,t=O, S;= -D i . The intersection of this tangent with the (fw, Sw) curve for the original oil/water system gives (fwl, Swl)' Fig. 3.19 shows the construction procedure. Fig. 3.20 shows the saturation profile generated from the injection of Species i. The flood-front saturation is Swf' and the flood front moves at a specific velocity given by Then, dCi=(ac ) aXD dxD+(ac ) dtD ............. (3.85) atD XD (:;)= S:~SiW' ............................ (3.92) Because Swl > Swf' the oil-bank front travels at a specific velocity given by =f"; ISwI ....................... (3.93) wI and arrives at the end of the system when tDI = (1/f"; for a path of constant composition dCi =0 and ( dxD ) dtD __ (aCi) (ac i ) =vci' ........... (3.86) Ci atD XD aXD tD :; =G~:)s Eq. 3.86 gives the specific velocity of the concentration shock. Combining Eqs. 3.83 and 3.86 gives vci = - )I swl ' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.94) The chemical shock arrives at the end of the system when Swl+Di - - - ........................ (3.95) fwl dx D dtD = - - - ............................. (3.87) Sw+Di When the concentration jumps from Cio (usually zero) to Cii , the injected concentration, there is a change in viscosity or relative permeability curves associated with Cii . This creates a chemical shock front analogous to the viscous waterflood example. In this case, the chemical shock is retarded by retention of chemical species on the rock. For the sharp-front approximation, Di=Cii/Cii . ................................... (3.88) In Eq. 3.88, C is the retention of Species i on the rock in units ii of mass per unit pore volume and is computed from Saturations greater than S:t3 move at the velocity determined by the properties of the fractional-flow curve behind the chemical shocks, as discussed in Sec. 3.3. Thus, for 1-Sor>S;~S:t3' X;=tDG~~) SW' Cii =[A i Pgr(1-cf]/cf>, It can be demonstrated that Eq. 3.96 is correct by doing an overall material balance on Species i. If Species i is injected at tD=O, the location of Cii is given by xD3 =tDf~;' ................................... (3.97) where Ai = chemical retention and Pgr=density of sand grain. Because the concentration front causes the saturation shock and these shocks must travel at the same specific velocity, the specific velocity of the saturation shock is J:t3 -fwl S:t3 -Swl Fig. 3.21 shows the concentration profile after injection for tD' At time t, the amount of Species i injected must be equal to the amount retained plus the amount in the pore space where Ci=Cii . That is, .............. (3.90) '!':'~------------------------- l:I :e ~ ~ Q :e b l:I 0 0 -; "'--' .3 ~ ~ Q 02~ .:l 0.5 Dimensionless Distance Xm "Db Dimensionless Distance Fig. 3.21-Concentration profile after injection of to PV's of solution. Fig. 3.22-Concentration profiles showing the effect of reten tion in porous rock for step-function concentration changes. where the second term represents the amount of Species i in the water behind the chemical shock and the third term represents the quantity of Species i retained on the rock. Rearranging Eq. 3.98 gives X3' ................... (3.99) qttCu=AcuI x3 Sw dx +Ac/>CU orxDi=xD/(1+D i ) . ............................. (3.108) The model assumes that Species i is removed instantaneously as the chemical front advances, and thus "denuded" water flows ahead of the chemical front where it displaces resident water. The location of the boundary between the denuded water and the resident water can be found easily in frontal-advance models by making a material balance on the denuded water. Refer to Fig. 3.23, where the location of the chemical shock x3 and the boundary xb are identifed. In the region behind the chemical shock, the amount of chemical retained is=AiPgrX3A(1-c/. Because the concentration of chemical in the injected solution is Cu, the volume of denuded water released is given by Vw=[AiPgrX3A(1-c/]/Cu, ..................... (3.109) where Vw=volume of denuded water. The denuded water is confined to the interval xb-x3, where the water saturation is Swl' Thus, and converting to a dimensionless form by introducing xD and tD gives tDCU=CUXD3S~D3 +CUXD3' .................... (3.100) When the Welge equation (Eq. 3.12) is applied, XD3S~D3 =xD3S;t3 -tD(f;t3 -1) .................. (3.101) Substituting into Eq. 3.100 gives tDCU=CU[xD3 S;t3 -tD(f;t3 -1)] + C\iXD3' ......... (3.102) Recall that x D3 = tD f ~r. Substituting for x D3 and rearranging yields '* ~ f w3 (C u S;t3 +CU )=C;!;t3 ....................... (3.103) fW3 - - - , ................ (3.104) Sw3+ D i which is equivalent to Eq. 3.90. This shows that the chemical speciesis conserved within the region occupied by the moving chemical shock. 3.5.2 Movement of Interstitial and Injected Water. A consequence of the assumptions made to develop the fractional-flow model for Species i is that the chemical species travels slower than the water in which it was injected. For simplicity, consider the injection of water containing Species i into a porous rock completely saturated with water. If Species i is not retained, the concentration profile at tD is given by the dashed line in Fig. 3.22. When Species i is retained as in the models assumed in this section, the concentration profile is given by the solid line. The area between the two curves represents the amount of species adsorbed by the rock. Let xDb=location of the interface between the injected and resident water and x Di = location of the concentration shock for Species i. In this case CuAc/>XDi =(xD -xDi )Ac/>Cu . ..................... (3.105) Introducing the definition of D i , DixDi=xD-xDi, .............................. (3.106) givesxD=xDi(1+D i ) ............................ (3.107) Solving for xb gives i g Xb=X3[1+ A P r(1-c/] ....................... (3.111) Ciic/>Swl or xDb =xD3(1 +D;lSwl)' ......................... (3.112) Recall from Eq. 3.53 that XD3=f~rtD' Substituting Eq. 3.91 for f~r yields xDb=tD ( Di) fwl )(1 + - ................... (3.113) Swl+Di Swl Eq. 3.113 shows that the location of the boundary separating the denuded and interstitial water is a linear function of tD' Thus, the specific velocity is constant and is given by dx Db fwl vDb=--=-' ............................ (3.114) dtD Swl Fig. 3.24 is a distance/time diagram showing the movement of the denuded and interstitial water. It is also possible to develop relationships for the location of the boundary between denuded and resident water when a waterflood precedes a chemical flood by making a material balance on the chemical species. s1rI'I '" is I'l ____________________IS~ '" -a .2 I'l Q) Interat1Ual Yater 0.75 1.50 DiInensionless Time or Pore Volumes Injected Fig. 3.23-Locations of denuded and interstitial water during a chemical flood initiated at interstitial water saturation. Fig. 3.24-Distance/time diagram showing movement of denuded and interstitial water in a chemical flood. 3.6 Applications of the Chemical Flooding Model The chemical flooding model developed in Sec. 3.5 is useful for understanding basic displacement processes for both polymer and surfactant floods. It also may be extended to predict the performance of carbonated water floods. 1 In this section, the chemical flooding model is used to estimate displacement performance for a polymer flood at interstitial water saturation, a low-tension chemical flood at interstitial water saturation, and a low-tension chemical flood at ROS. 3.6.1 Polymer Flood of a Linear System Initially at Interstitial Water Saturation. Certain high-molecular-weight polymers increase the viscosity of water significantly when concentrations on the order of a few hundred parts per million are dissolved in the water. Characteristics of these polymers are discussed in more detail in Chap. 5. Because polymer solutions are not believed to alter relative permeability curves, the improvement in oil recovery is a result of an increase in viscosity, as discussed for viscous waterflooding. Because all polymers adsorb, or are retained on porous rocks to some degree, the relationship between polymer retention on the rock and the concentration of the polymer in solution must be known. As long as the adsorption isotherm has negative curvature, as in Fig. 3.18, the sharp-front assumption used in the chemical flooding model applies. Estimation of polymer flood performance when the initial water saturation is uniform but immobile follows the general procedure outlined in Secs. 3.3 and 3.4. The specific velocity of the polymer shock is computed from Eq. 3.44 or Eq. 3.90 after values of (f;3 ,S;3) and (fwl ,Swl) are found from the intersection of a line from (O,-Dp) tof$-S;;" as depicted in Fig. 3.19. Example 3.4-Polymer Flood in a Linear System. A polymer flood is to be conducted in a linear system. Properties of the rocks and fluids from Example 3.1 will be used. The oil viscosity is 40 cpo A concentration of 300 ppm polymer is used to raise the viscosity of the injected water to 4 cp, and the adsorption isotherm of Fig. 3.18 represents the retention of polymer on the rock. Estimate the oil recovery as a function of PV's injected. The density of the rock is 2.65 g/cm3, and the porosity is 0.267. Solution. The value of D i must be estimated from the adsorption isotherm before (f;3 ,S;3) and (fwl ,Swl) can be determined. From Fig. 3.18, A i =17.5 p,g polymer/g rock. C u =300 ppm =300xlO- 6 g/cm 3 . From Eq. 3.89, C =(17.5XlO- 6 g rock g)( 2.65 g rock cm 3 rock volume x [(1-0.267) cm 3 rock vOlume] 0.267 cm 3 PV = 1.27 x 10 -4 g/cm 3 PV. Thus, Di is computed with Eq. 3.88: Di=CU/CU =(1.275 x 10 -4)/(300 x 10 -6) =0.424. The graphs ofj$-S;;, andfw-Sw are shown in Fig. 3.19 with the tangent drawn from (-0.424,0) to thef;-S;;, curve. From this construction, f;3 =0.9657, fwl =0.8319, S;3 =0.6082, Swl = 0.462, andf':'3 =0.9356. In this case, Swl > Swf, so that two shocks are formed separated by a region of constant water saturation at Swl and a region where Sw decreases from Swl to SWf. The polymer shock travels at a specific velocity equal to f;3 -fwl * af$ f;3 -fwl vD3 =--= as;;, S;3 -Swl - - - ...................... (3.115) swl +Di Eq. 3.115 is also an expression of the requirement that the specific velocities of the water and polymer solutions are equal at a miscible boundary. If Swl <Swf, the second shock travels at a specific velocity given by vDl =fwl /(Swl -Siw)' ...................., ....... (3.116) =0.9356. The waterflood shock travels at the same specific velocity (5.3958) as in Example 3.3, while the oil-bank front travels at the velocity of saturation Swl on the fw -Sw fractional-flow curve. This specific velocity isf':'l' The remainder of the solution follows Example 3.3. The following equations give the locations of the three regions as a function of tD: The saturation profile before water breakthrough is similar to that in Fig. 3.14. Displacement performance is computed following the same procedure described in Sec. 3.4. Example 3.4 illustrates the computation of polymer flood performance at interstitial water saturation. r-----------~------------------___, -:;; N'" SW~l---------------------lSwf '-----I 0.00 L....JL.....J.--L.-L.....L...-'--J......Jc.....I.-L-L.....L...-'--J......J........L--'--'-...L...J 0.00 0.75 1.50 1>' Dimensionless Time or Pore Volumes Injected Dimensionless Distance Fig. 3.25-Saturation profile when XDf = 0.75, Example 3.4. Fig. 3.26-Comparison of oil recovery from a viscous waterflood and a polymer flood initiated at interstitial water saturation, Example 3.4. XDf=5.3958 tD, xDl =2.8846 tD, and xD3 =0.9356 tD' Fig. 3.25 is the saturation profile when XD/=0.75. Because Swl > Swf' there is a small variable saturatIOn region where Swl > Sw > Swf Fig. 3.26 compares oil recovery from the polymer flood with oil recovery from the viscous waterflood in Example 3.3. Recall that the viscosities of the injected solutions are identical. The polymer flood recovery lags the viscous waterflood because the polymer shock travels at a slower specific velocity because of polymer retention. At large tD, the recoveries are identical. 3.6.2 Low-Tension Flood of a Linear System Initially at Interstitial Water Saturation. Addition of certain chemicals to the injected water can reduce the 1FT between the injected fluid and the oil. A low-tension flood is one in which the 1FT is on the order of 10- 3 dynes/cm or lower. The required chemicals, usually mixtures of surfactants and cosurfactants, are discussed in Chap. 7. The mixture of chemicals is treated as a single component. The reduction of the 1FT between two fluids in porous rock has two effects on the relative permeability curves. 7 First, the relative permeability curves have less curvature. In the relative permeability functions used in this text, the values of m and n would decrease, approaching a limiting value of 1.0 where the fluids are completely miscible. The second effect is a reduction of the ROS from Sor, the waterflood residual oil, to Sore the residual saturation to the low-tension flood. Therefore, the fractional-flow curve representing the low-tension oil system will shift toward higher water saturations, as shown in Fig. 3.27, and will have a different curvature. Chemicals that reduce 1FT have one characteristic in common with polymers: adsorption and retention occur as a result of rock/fluid interactions, as discussed in Chap. 7. Adsorption of the chemical constituents, primarily surfactants, is often much larger than for polymers. Adsorption isotherms are similar in shape to Fig. 3.18, with negative curvature, and the sharp-front assumptions apply. Estimation of displacement performance of a low-tension flood at interstitial water saturation is analogous to the approach outlined in Sec. 3.6.1. First, the equilibrium adsorption isotherm is necessary to compute D i' Relative permeability functions corresponding to the low-tension flood are used if available. Otherwise, the use of the relative permeability curves for a normal waterflood will give conservative results. The fractional-flow curves are drawn in Fig. 3.27. The tangent from (O,-Di) to thefJ-S;t curve gives values of (f~3 ,S;t3) and (fwl,Swl)' as in Sec. 3.5.1. The remainder of the computations are identical to those outlined in Sec. 3.3.2 and Example 3.3. As in polymer flooding, two shocks form. The waterflood shock at the front moves at the largest velocity and is followed by the chemical shock. If Swl > Swf, the two shocks will be separated by a region of constant saturation, Swl' with the flood-front velocity given by Eq. 3.116. Example 3.5 illustrates the application of frontal-advance theory to a low-tension flood. Example 3.5-Low-Tension Flood in a Linear System at Interstitial Water Saturation. A chemical system has been found that reduces the 1FT sufficiently to obtain an ROS of 0.10 in laboratory displacement tests for the reservoir rock and oil system presented in Example 3.1. The relative permeability curves for the chemical flood are obtained by using the same values for al' a2, m, and n, as in Example 3.1., but shifting the ROS from 0.30 to 0.10. The viscosity of the injected solution is 4 cpo Prepare a xDitD diagram and determine the oil recovery (Np/A>L) as a function ofPV injected to tD = 1.5. Solution. In this example, the chemical is assumed to be strongly absorbed with a value of D i =0.8. Values of (f;t3, S;t3) and (fwl, Swl) must be found by constructing the tangent to the chemical fractional-flow curve, as shown in Fig. 3.27. From this construction, fJ3 =0.96619, fwl =0.77070, SJ3 =0.76304, Swl =0.44680, f~;=0.61815, andf~l =2.8846. Because Swl >Swf, fwf =0.65076, Swf=0.4206, and f~f= 5.3958. The following equations give the dimensionless locations of Swf, Swl, and S;t3 as a function of tD: xDf=5.3958 tD, xDl =2.8846 tD, and xJ3 =0.61815 tD Construction of the XD/tD diagram is straightforward. Locations of saturations Swf:5, Sw:5, Swl are found from the frontal-advance equation: xD=f.);tD Saturations S;t2:S w3 are found with Eq. 3.9 from the fJ-S; fractional-flow curve: =f.);tD The xD/tD graph is presented in Fig. 3.28. Oil recovery calculations follow the procedure outlined in Sec. 3.3.2 and illustrated in Example 3.3. Table 3.9 summarizes the results and Fig. 3.29 plots the oil recovery vs. PV's injected, tD' 1-8... 1-8.... Constant 5"1 t:l 0.00 Sw' Yater Saturation Dimensionless Time or Pore Volumes Injected Fig. 3.27-Fractional-flow diagram for a low-tension system, Example 3.5. Fig. 3.28-Distance/time diagram for a low-tension flood at interstitial water saturation, Example 3.5. 3.6.3 Low-Tension Flood of a Linear System Initially at ROS. A principal application of low-tension floods is in reservoirs that are nearly at waterflood ROS. In these reservoirs, there is little oil flow in the regions swept by large volumes of water. Injection of a low-tension chemical system can mobilize the residual oil, creating a growing oil bank that is displaced through the system by a chemical shock. The analysis of displacement performance is analogous to Sec. 3.6.2 with the exception that there is no flow of oil when chemical injection starts. Fig. 3.30 shows the fractional-flow diagram for the mobilization of residual oil. A chemical shock forms with the same values of (/;'3 ,S;'3) and (/wl ,Swl)' forming an oil bank with water saturation Swl' Because the oil in front of this bank is immobile, a second shock is created where Swl increases abruptly to I-So" The specific velocity of this oil-bank shock is the slope of the line connecting Swl with I-So" Note that the oil-bank shock moves faster than all other saturations in the saturation profIle shown in Fig. 3.31. Displacement performance is computed by determining the arrival times of the various banks. The oil-bank specific velocity is given by Eq. 3. 117 while the location of the oil bank is expressed by Eq. 3.118. vDo= The chemical shock travels at a specific velocity given by Eq. 3.91, vJ3 =/;'3/(S;'3 +D;), and arrives at the end of the system when (Eq. 3.95) tD=(S;t3 +D;)I.%. Oil displacement is computed in the same way as for the polymer flood except that there is no oil recovery until the oil bank breaks through. Thereafter, the average water saturation in the linear system is given by Eqs. 3.57 and 3.58. Example 3.6 illustrates prediction of low-tension flood performance at ROS. Example 3. 6-Low- Tension Flood in a Linear System at Waterflood ROS. A low-tension flood will be conducted in a linear system at ROS. The chemical system has the same properties as in Example 3.5. That is, the chemical solution leaves an ROS after chemical flood of 0.10, is retained by the rock to give D; =0.8, and has a viscosity of 4 cpo The waterflood ROS is 0.32. Relative permeability relationships are given by Eqs. 3.14 through 3.16. Estimate the oil recovery as a function of PV's injected. Solution. All properties are the same as in Example 3.5 except the initial oil saturation. The flood-front saturation is now Swl, and the oil bank corresponding to this saturation travels at a specific velocity given by Eq. 3. 117. 1-/wl I- S o,-Swl ............................. (3.117) vDo=(I-/wl )/(I-So,-Swl) =(1-0.7707)/(1-0.3-0.4468) XDcf> =vDej,tD' .................................. (3.118) The oil bank arrives at the end of the system when The oil bank arrives at the end of the linear system at tD=I/vDo' ................................... (3.119) tD=I/vDo TABLE 3.9-SUMMARY OF OIL RECOVERY CALCULATIONS, EXAMPLE 3.5, LOW-TENSION FLOOD AT INTERSTITIAL WATER SATURATION 0.4206 0.4468 0.7630 0.78 0.81 0.828 0.84 0.87 0.90 0.6508 0.7707 0.9662 0.9756 0.9877 0.9926 0.9951 0.9989 1.00 Region of flood front <- Arrival of oil bank <- Arrival of low-tension shock <- Arrival to 0.1853 Sw -Siw 0.26286 1.6177 2.0172 3.1476 4.3228 5.5215 12.8899 Low-tension flood . ~ > .... "a Ii! 0.50 'il t., u 1>= I> 0 :g ...i (-o.a,O) ,J 0.00 Water Saturation 1.00 t.., Fig. 3.29-0il recovery from low-tension flood at interstitial water saturation, Example 3.5. Fig. 3.30-Fractional-flow diagram for mobilization of residual oil by a low-tension flood, Example 3.6. tD =1I0.9056 3.7 Displacement of Slugs Chemicals used in EOR processes are expensive, and thus continuous injection of polymer, surfactant, or a miscible solvent is not economically possible. Frontal-advance theory can be applied to investigate the use of a chemical slug rather than continuous injection. The chemical slug is displaced by a drive fluid that is assumed to be miscible with the slug. For example, viscous water or polymer can be displaced by water containing no injection chemical. As in previous use of frontal-advance theory, mixing between miscible fluids is neglected. Thus, viscous fingering or unstable displacement caused by unfavorable mobility ratios is not considered by the approach presented here. Mixing, or dispersion, is presented later in this chapter. Before this time, water is produced from the system. The long time required for arrival of the oil bank results from the large value of D; assumed in this example. In most systems of commercial interest, breakthrough occurs from 0.2 to 0.5 PV injected. Fig. 3.32 presents the distance/time diagram for this example. Oil is produced at a constant oil cut until the chemical shock arrives at the end of the system when tD=1.6177. When this happens, the average water saturation is given by Eq. 3.60. S~ =S;};3 +tD(1-j;};3) =0.7630+(1.6177)(1-0.9662) =0.8177. Because the initial water saturation, Sw;, was 0.70, the volume of oil displaced when the chemical shock arrives is 0.8177 - 0.70, or 0.1177. Average saturations when Sw2 > S:t3 are identical to those in Table 3.9. The oil displaced is Sw-Sw;' Table 3.10 summarizes the results of these computations. Oil recovery is plotted vs. PV's injected in Fig. 3.33. Note that the form of the relative permeability functions yields a zero derivative of the fractional-flow curve at Sor' Thus, Sorc=O.lO cannot be attained in a finite time. 3.7.1 Piston-Like Displacement. A simple example is used to illustrate the displacement of a slug through a linear system as a viscous waterflood with a nonadsorbing chemical species. The viscosity of the viscous fluid is large enough so thatj:t3 == 1.0 and S:t3 == 1Sor' Thus, the saturation profile during injection of the viscous fluid is depicted in Fig. 3.34 when the flood begins at interstitial water saturation and Swl <Swf. The dimensionless velocities of the flood front and the saturation shocks are given by Eqs. 3.63 and 3.120, respectively. v;3 = 1/(I-Sor)' .............................. (3.120) At tDo' injection is switched to low-viscosity drive water. The drive water is miscible with the viscous water and at the boundary TABLE 3.10-0IL RECOVERY CALCULATIONS FOR A LOW-TENSION CHEMICAL FLOOD AT ROS, EXAMPLE 3.6 Oil ~splaced 0.4468 0.7630 0.78 0.81 0.828 0.84 0.87 0.90 Swl =0.7. 0.77070 0.9662 0.9756 0.9877 0.9926 0.9951 0.9989 1.0000 Region <-- Arrival of oil bank <-- Arrival of low-tension shock atxo=1.0 1.1043 1.6177 2.0172 3.1476 4.3228 5.5215 12.8899 Sw -SWi 0.70 0.8177 0.8292 0.8487 0.8600 0.8671 0.8701 0.9000 = NeIAcf>L 0 0.1177 0.1292 0.1487 0.1600 0.1670 0.1701 0.2000 c: ~0.8 cu 1U 0.7 U) ... :::J Low .; 0.6 r - Tension 3: Slug Water Flowing at 8 0r Oil - - - - - Bank at -............. /SWI JO.5 Water Flowing atSor .- .2 ., ~ ., ., -a 0.4 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 xD, Dimensionless Distance Fig. 3.31-Saturation profile for a low-tension flood at ROS. 1)' Dimensionless Time or Pore Volumes Injected Fig. 3.32-Distance/time diagram for a low-tension flood at ROS, Example 3.S. between these fluids vDw=vDv or fwISw=f$IS!J, . ................................ (3.121) VDb=fwl/(Swl +D i ) =1/(I-Sor +D i ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.126) With the properties of the viscous fluid described earlier, f{:;3=f{:;=I ................................... (3.122) and S{:;3 =S!J,=I-Sor . ............................ (3.123) Therefore, the velocity of the miscible boundary, or the slope of the xD-tD trajectory, is given by dx D/dtD=VDb=lI(1-Sor)' ...................... (3.124) The drive water arrives at the end of the linear system when tD =tDo+l-Sor ' .............................. (3.125) Fig. 3.35 shows the trajectory of the slug. Fig. 3.36 shows the concentration profIle corresponding to the nonadsorbing chemical species in the viscous slug. Because there is no mixing between the drive water and the viscous slug, a small slug is as effective as a large slug in this example. In practice, this will never be the case. Displacement of an Adsorbing Slug. When a chemical species, such as polymer or surfactant, adsorbs or is retained on the rock by an equilibrium process, it will desorb when contacted with drive water containing no chemical. The desorption process is identical to the adsorption process. Thus, the concentration profIle of the chemical species at various times is a square wave that travels through the linear system at a specific velocity given by Eq. 3.91: The drive water initially travels at a specific velocity given by Eq. 3.124 that is faster than the velocity of the rear of the chemical slug but is slowed down because the chemical species desorbs into the drive water. Fig. 3.37 is the distance/tinIe diagram of the chemical flood showing the motion of the slug. Displacement of a Chemical Slug That Does Not Desorb. Some chemical species retained by the rock desorb at such a slow rate that the retention process may be considered irreversible. When a slug containing this species is displaced through the porous rock, desorption of the chemical into the drive water is negligible. The porous rock behind the chemical shock contains the injected concentration, Cu. Because retention is assumed to be irreversible, the slug decreases continuously in size (but not concentration) as it is displaced through the rock. This is depicted in Fig. 3.38, where concentration profIles are shown as a function of tD for a chemical slug equivalent to 0.424 PV at xD =0. If the chemical slug is small enough, it will disappear before it reaches the end of the linear system, and the displacement returns to the original waterflood fractional-flow curves at that point. Design of an ideal slug would propagate the slug just to the end of the system before it vanished. It is possible to estimate this ideal slug size from fractional-flow theory by visualizing the displacement process on the distance/time diagram. 1.0 , . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - . J ... ill 11.1 tII ... ~ ~ .;~ = :;:: (wi ~I>. Fig. 3.33-0il recovery from low-tension flood at ROS. Fig. 3.34-Saturation profile for a viscous waterflood in piston-like displacement. .2 ., "1 1' " "il Drive Water .2 OJ -:;; " u~ .~ Interstitial Water "u~ 0.50 t , Dimensionless Time D 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.25 x ' Dimensionless Distance D 0.50 Fig. 3.35-Trajectory of slug when a nonadsorbing slug is displaced through a porous rock. Fig. 3.36-Concentration profile during displacement of a slug of nonadsorbing chemical through porous rock. Sec. 3.5 showed that the chemical slug traveled at a specific velocity given by Eq. 3.91: tem when it vanishes. Fig. 3.39 is a distance/time diagram illustrating the movement of the chemical slug. 3.7.2 Non-Piston-Like Displacement. In many systems, S;3 1 -Sor. Consequently, a two-phase flow region exists behind the viscous flood front, as illustrated in Sec. 3.4. When the chemical is injected as a slug, the drive fluid displaces this region of variable saturation. The efficiency of slug displacement depends on the characteristics of the drive fluid. The methods discussed in Appendix A must be used to follow the various fronts. If the mobility of the drive fluid is equal to the mobility of the chemical slug and adsorption or desorption do not affect viscosities and relative permeabilities, the slug will be displaced through the porous rock as if the slug were infinite. This is an ideal situation that does not exist. Consequently, displacement of a chemical slug when there are marked differences between the fractional-flow curves of the chemical slug and the drive fluid is investigated. Consider a viscous waterflood with a nonadsorbing chemical like the one discussed in Sec. 3.4. Assume that a slug of viscous solution equal to tDo is injected before switching to low-viscosity drive water. Viscous fingering is neglected, and the drive water and viscous fluid are assumed to be miscible. Viscous fingering and dispersion are assumed to be negligible to simplify the development of conceptual models presented in this section. When viscous fingering and/or dispersion are incorporated into the models, displacement calculations become complex. Results predicted by neglecting these terms are always optimistic and thus set upper bounds on displacement performance. vD3=j;3/(S;3 +D;) . ........................... (3.127) When chemical injection begins at tD=O, the leading edge of the chemical slug arrives at the end of the linear system at a dimensionless time given by " tD=(S;3 +D;)/j;3' ............................ (3.128) For the piston-like displacement conditions assumed in this section, tD=I-Sor +D; . ............................... (3.129) The rear of the chemical slug is displaced by drive water. Because of piston-like displacement, miscibility, and the assumption of no mixing or viscous fmgering, the drive-water boundary moves at a velocity given by vDw= l/(I-Sor )' .............................. (3.130) This velocity is higher than the velocity of the chemical shock and tracks the rear of the chemical slug when retention is irreversible. The drive water arrives at the end of the linear system at a dimensionless time given by tD=tDo+l-Sor- .............................. (3.131) The chemical slug vanishes as it just reaches the end of the system when Eqs. 3.129 and 3.131 have the same value oftD' Thus, when tDo = D;, the chemical slug will just reach the end of the sys1.00 I; . !', Ii' ~ ., is ., on Bank OS"1 ~ b ., "il .s Drift Water .. . ., "il .s .. ., ~ O.4U Chemical Slue j=l 0.8Z4 ""::... 0 0.75 1.50 Dimensionless Time for Pore Volumes Injected 0.00 0.00 Fig. 3.37-Distance/time diagram for displacement of an adsorbing slug through porous rock. Fig. 3.3S-Concentration profile for displacement of a chemical slug that does not desorb. ..:I !l ., is on Bank os., Drive Yater ., ., .. .::a Interstitial and Injected Water 0.50 , Dimensionless Distance D Fig. 3.39-Distance/time diagram for displacement of a chemical slug that does not desorb. Fig. 3.40-Saturation profile for displacement of a nonadsorbing viscous slug by drive water. When the drive-water injection begins, the saturation profIle is given by Fig. 3.25. Fractional-flow curves for the two fluids are represented by Fig. 3.12. As discussed in Appendix A, a saturation discontinuity develops between the drive water and the viscous fluid because of the differences in fluid viscosities. The specific velocity of the drive water at any saturation is larger than the specific velocity of the saturations behind the viscous flood front. Thus, the drive water cuts into the rear of the saturation profIle, forming a saturation discontinuity between the drive water and the viscous fluid, as shown in Fig. 3.40. The specific velocity of this discontinuity is given by Eq. A-2, where (fw,Sw) and (fJ ,S:,) are the fractional-flow/saturation pairs that satisfy the material-balance requirements across a discontinuity, as shown in Fig. A-1 : vDv=(fw-fJ)/(Sw- S:'). Because the drive water and the viscous water are miscible, vDv=fw/Sw=fJ/S:'. The path followed by the saturation discontinuity between the drive water and the viscous fluid is estimated with the front-tracking method presented in Sec. A.2. In this case, the advancing drivewater shock intersects paths of constant saturation, S:" eliminating these saturations, while saturations Sw evolve from the saturation discontinuity . The front-tracking method starts when drive-water injection begins and determines the time required for the viscous shock to intersect a smaller value of S:, in the saturation profIle. The oil-bank and flood-front saturations for the viscous waterflood are assumed to be established instantaneously, as described in Sec. 3.4, when a nonadsorbing viscous fluid is injected into a linear system at interstitial water saturation. The locations of saturations S:, are obtained from the frontal-advance equation and given by x/)=tw./;* . ................................... (3.132) The drive-water shock forms at tD =tDl when injection is switched from viscous water to drive water. This shock travels at an averI between timesteps nand n + 1, where age velocity of vB: vB:! =~[ (~: r+! +(~ rJ. ................. As noted earlier, the velocity of this shock is greater than v/)wand overtakes S:,. Following the development in Sec. A.2, n n n+!_ n vDv xDv -xDv +-n+!(tD+! - tD ) . ................... (3134) . Because S:, is overtaken by the shock, xB:! =tB+!f./;n+! ............................ (3.135) andxBv =tBf./;n, ............................... (3.136) where S:,n = saturation overtaken by the viscous shock at timestep nand s:,n+! =saturation overtaken by the viscous shock at S.,=<>.6469 Sw=0.6625 ~i~~~~~~~:I:!=r=r:c:C:E=OJ.:66JO~8J:J:j III 0.0 0.5 to. Dimensionless Time or Pore Volumes Injected 1.0 CB 0.5 Step Input Concentration Profiles at Fixed X Response with Mixing o~--~-------------------- Time, t Fig. 3.41-Distance/time diagram for displacement of a 0.2PV viscous slug by drive water when the viscous fluid does not adsorb, Example 3.7. Fig. 3.42-Miscible displacement of Fluid A by Fluid B, step change in concentration at inlet. ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE 3.11-SATURATION PROFILE WHEN DRIVE WATER INJECTION BEGINS AT tD1 =0.2, EXAMPLE 3.7 Inlet Slug of B 0.4276 0.4276 0.5764 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70 0.6868 0.6868 0.9259 0.9575 0.9756 0.9877 0.9951 0.9989 1.0000 4.9505 1.6064 1.6064 1.08646 0.74360 0.47655 0.27166 0.11638 0 0.9901 0.3213 0.3213 0.2173 0.1487 0.0953 0.0543 0.0233 0 Comments <-Front of oil bank <- Viscous saturation Di~placemen.t by VISCOUS Distance from Inlet, X Fig. 3.43-Concentration profiles for injection of a slug of Fluid B to displace Fluid A. timestep n + 1. The. time when saturation s;];n+ 1 is overtaken by the drive water shock is given by tB+ 1 =tB[(f,,:n -vB: 1 )/(f,,:n+l-vB: 1)] ...... (3.137) Successive solution for pairs of tB+ 1 and xB: 1 yields the tr~ec tory of the drive-water shock. Fig. 3.41 shows the distance/time diagram for the viscous waterflood of Example 3.3 when drivewater injection begins at tDo =0.2. Supporting calculations associated with the development of Fig. 3.41 are presented in Example 3.7. Example 3.7-Injection of a Viscous Water Slug. The viscous waterflood described in Example 3.3 will be converted to drivewater injection after 0.2 PV's of viscous water are injected. Prepare the distance/time diagram for this flood. Solution. The saturation profIle is computed when drive-water injection begins at tD=0.2. From Table 3.8, the water bank is seen to be already out of the system (tD =0.1853) and the oil bank is about to arrive at the end of the system (tD=0.202). Locations of other saturations, summarized in Table 3.11, are determined from the frontal-advance equation. A saturation discontinuity forms immediately when the drive water is injected. Table A-I gives computed (fw,Sw) and (fJ ,S;];) saturation pairs that satisfy the material-balance requirement across the saturation discontinuity. Following Example A.l, the location of the saturation discontinuity is estimated starting at S;];=0.7. In Example A.l, the average specific velocity as the saturation discontinuity moves from S;];=0.70 to S;];=0.68 is 1.4488. As this happens, new saturation Sw=0.6806 evolves from the saturation profIle. The time corresponding to the point where saturation Sw =0.6806 evolves from the saturation discontinuity can be found by substitution into Eq. 3.137. Applying Eq. 3.137 gives t(l) =t(O) 1,'(0) D ( 1"(1)-v(1) -v(l)) Dv Dv =(0.2)(0. -1.4488)/(0.1164-1.4488) =0.2175, and x~~ =(0.2175)(0.1164) =0.0253. Table 3.12 summarizes the remaining computations. The drivewater shock approaches vI;3 asymptotically because VDv < vI;3 . 3.8 Dispersion During Miscible Displaceme~t 3.8.1. General Description of the Dispersion Process. In all miscible displacement processes, mixing occurs between the displac- ing and displaced fluids. That is, there is dispersion between the different fluids. This dispersion dilutes the displacing fluid with the displaced fluid and thereby affects the phase behavior. Thus, understanding the dispersion phenomenon is important in the design of miscible displacement processes. This section emphasizes a description of the dispersion process, the physical mechanisms that cause dispersion, and a mathematical treatment of dispersion in relatively simple systems. Consider a linear porous medium such as shown in Fig. 3.42. The porous medium initially contains Fluid A, either a gas or a liquid. At a designated time, Fluid B is injected into the system at the left face at a constant velocity. Fluid B, which is miscible with Fluid A, displaces Fluid A from the system. The lower part of Fig. 3.42 shows a plot of the concentration of Fluid B vs. time at the inlet face of the porous medium (atx=O). This is a so-called step change in concentration. A normalized concentration of Fluid B has been plotted so that the concentration varies between 0 and 1.0. If injection of Fluid B were continued and a concentrationmonitoring device were placed at some fixed position downstream, the concentration profIle for Fluid B would be similar to that shown in Fig. 3.42. The curve of concentration of Fluid B vs. time would be S-shaped. Fluid B would first appear sometime before the time required for injection of 1.0 PV of Fluid B. The concentration would increase very slowly at first, followed by a much sharper increase and a concentration tail, until no more Fluid A was present in the effluent. The 0.50 concentration point would occur near the time required to inject 1.0 PV. The S-shaped curve in Fig. 3.42 is the classic concentration profIle for miscible displacement of one fluid by a second in a linear system in which the mobility ratio is favorable and gravity effects are negligible. The transition from the stepchange input to the S-shaped curve is the result of mixing, or dispersion, of Fluids A and B in the porous medium as the displacement occurs. If absolutely no mixing of the two fluids occurred, then the concentration response at the fixed downstream position would be a step change, as at the inlet, and would occur at a time corresponding to injection of 1.0 PV of Fluid B. As another illustration, consider the injection of a small slug of Fluid B followed again by Fluid A, rather than changing totally to Fluid B at the inlet. The inlet concentration might appear as in Fig. 3.43. If this Fluid B slug were followed as it moved downstream and concentration profIles were measured at different fixed times, the profIles would appear as shown in Fig. 3.43. The concentration profIles would tend to spread as the fluid moved downstream, and the amplitude (maximum concentration) would decrease. Again, this would occur because of the dispersion of Fluids A and B. The phenomenon described is longitudinal dispersion in that it occurs in the direction of primary flow-i.e., along the axis of flow. Dispersion also occurs in a transverse direction-that is, in a direction perpendicular to flow. This is illustrated by considering the injection of Fluid B to occur at a single point in the porous medium rather than across the entire inlet face. In this case, Fluid B would be dispersed in a direction normal to the flow direction as well as along the axis of flow. This mixing is called transverse dispersion. 3.8.2 Mechanisms and Models of Longitudinal Dispersion Phenomena. The dispersion of miscible fluids may be attributed to DISPLACEMENT IN LINEAR SYSTEMS TABLE 3.12-SUMMARY OF CALCULATIONS AND PARAMETERS FOR DETERMINING THE TRAJECTORY OF THE DRIVE WATER SHOCK, EXAMPLE 3.7 Timestep 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0.70 0.68 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60 0.5764 f" 0.20 0.2175 0.2452 0.2931 0.3892 0.6570 1.4286 1.4488 1.4884 1.5255 1.5585 1.5847 1.6011 0 0.1164 0.2717 0.4766 0.7436 1.0865 1.6064 ~ 0 0.0253 0.0662 0.1397 0.2894 0.7139 several different physical phenomena. This section discusses these phenomena. Simplified porous media models are used to illustrate the ways in which dispersion occurs. Molecular Diffusion. Molecular diffusion is present in all systems in which miscible fluids are brought into physical contact. If two fluids are placed in contact in a straight capillary, the diffusion process may be described quantitatively using Fick's first law. For the diffusion of Fluid B into Fluid A, the diffusional flow across any plane may be expressed as mBx= -DBAA(acB/ax) , ......................... (3.138) porous medium. At rates that commonly exist in reservoir displacement processes, however, dispersion also results from bulk flow or convective phenomena. The models that follow illustrate some ways in which dispersion can occur because of bulk movement of the fluids. Velocity Profile (Taylor) Effect. Taylorll showed that if one fluid (Fluid B) displaces a second (Fluid A) in a straight capillary, there will be a dispersion of Fluid B into Fluid A because of the velocity profile in the capillary as illustrated in Fig. 3.44. Assume that Fluid A is initially in the capillary and that Fluid A is displaced by Fluid B. Assume further that the flow rate is relatively low so that flow is laminar. The velocity profile radially across the capillary would have the parabolic form shown in Fig. 3.44. The profile would be such that v= (V2)Vmax' .................................. (3.141) where mBx = rate of Fluid B diffusing in the x direction across a plane, A = cross-sectional area open for diffusion, C;=concentration of Fluid B, DBA = molecular diffusion coefficient for Fluid B diffusing into Fluid A, and x=position along the diffusion path. That is, the diffusion of Fluid B into Fluid A is proportional to the concentration gradient of Fluid B. The negative sign is imposed because the diffusion is in the direction of a decreasing concentration-i.e., from a higher to a lower concentration of Fluid A. Diffusion coefficients, as defmed in Eq. 3.138, typically are functions of concentration, temperature, and the particular chemical species present. For a rigorous analysis, the dependence on concentration and/or temperature should be included before integration of the equation. Assuming an average value for DBA over the concentration and temperature ranges involved is often satisfactory, however, and this is what generally is done in reservoir analysis. In addition, the expression for diffusion in Eq. 3.138 requires an assumption of ideal fluid behavior, an assumption that is often valid for systems encountered in EOR processes. If a reservoir rock were a bundle of straight capillary tubes, as is sometimes assumed in simple models, then Eq. 3.138 would be directly applicable to describe the molecular diffusion process. However, a straight capillary is not a very good representation of a porous medium. Fluids must move through a rock in a tortuous path. For example, if these fluids were assumed to move on average at about 45 to the basic flow direction, then the diffusion coefficient would need to be modified as follows. 8 DaBAIDBA = 1/-J2,=0.707, ....................... (3.139) where DaBA =apparent diffusion coefficient in a porous medium. Eq. 3.139 has been shown to be a fair representation of the molecular diffusion coefficient in a porous medium. However, several investigations 8,9 have suggested that a more sophisticated approach is to use the formation electrical resistivity factor. This approach recognizes the analogy between electrical conductivity and mass diffusion in porous media. That is, the path of electric current flow through a rock is essentially the path of mass movement by diffusion. The expression for the apparent diffusion coefficient is DaBAIDBA = lIFRc/> , ........ (3.140) where F R = formation electrical resistivity defined as R/R', (R=electrical resistivity of a porous medium saturated with a liquid that conducts electricity and R' = electricity resistivity of the liquid in the porous medium). The factor lIFR c/> typically ranges from 0.6 to 0.7, although it may be significantly lower, depending on the porous medium. 10 The diffusion process is molecular in nature; i.e., it results from the random motion of molecules in solution. Diffusion is the dominant dispersion mechanism if flow rates are very low in a and the maximum velocity would occur in the center of the capillary. If the effluent from the capillary were collected and the concentration measured, breakthrough of Fluid B would occur when a volume equal to one-half of the capillary volume had been injected. With continued collection and measurement of the effluent, the concentration of Fluid B would increase until there was no more Fluid A in the effluent. Thus, Fluids A and B would mix in the collected effluent because of the velocity profile that develops in laminar flow in a capillary. Molecular diffusion also would occur across the Fluid A/Fluid B boundaries in the capillary, and this would affect the effluent concentration. However, this does not alter the basic conceptual idea that mixing occurs because of velocity gradients in the capillary. Series of Mixing Cells. Another model for the mixing of miscible fluids is based on the assumption that a porous medium is a series of mixing cells or tanks in which fluids are perfectly mixed. 12 Fig. 3.45 illustrates this concept. Fluid B, which is displacing Fluid A, enters a pore (Tank 1) from the left. Fluids in the tank are perfectly mixed; i.e., there are no concentration gradients in the tank. This assumption means that, at any instant, the fluid being withdrawn from the tank has the same composition as the fluid in the tank. The mixed fluids from the first pore then enter the second pore (Tank 2), where the fluids are again perfectly mixed. The process is repeated as Fluid B moves through the system. The assumption of perfect mixing in each pore is mathematically convenient and allows a quantitative expression to be developed for the mixing, or dispersion, process. Conceptually, it is clear that such a model, with or without perfect mixing in each pore, will lead to dispersion of Fluid B into Fluid A as the displacement process continues. Stagnant Pockets. Another contribution to dispersion can be attributed to the flow behavior around stagnant pockets or dead-end pores. 13 Fig. 3.46 illustrates this concept. Again, assume that Fluid B is displacing Fluid A, which was originally in the porous medium. The part of Fluid A that is in the main flow channel is displaced directly by Fluid B. However, some of Fluid A is in stagnant pockets or dead-end pores-i.e., pore spaces that are connected to the main channel but through which there is no flow. This quantity of Fluid A is not displaced directly but is initially bypassed by Fluid B. Displacement of this bypassed fluid does occur slowly, however, as a result of molecular diffusion between the main flow channel and the stagnant pocket. Thus, Fluid A, which was in the pocket, is slowly removed. The overall result of this process is to cause mixing of Fluids A and B in the medium as the displacement progresses through the system. Variation in Flow Paths. Dispersion of Fluid B into Fluid A can result from the variation of flow paths through the media encountered by different fluid particles. 14,15 Fig. 3.47 shows this model. As before, Fluid A is being displaced by Fluid B. Visualize two separate particles (very small quantities) of Fluid B located at Point 1 in Fig. 3.47. As flow progresses, the particles move downstream to Point 2 but by slightly different paths through the medium. Because the flow paths are different, the particles, which were originally side by side, arrive downstream at different times. That is, dispersion of the fluid has resulted directly from the tortuosity inherent in the porous medium. Fluids become mixed because flow paths are varied as flow progresses through the system. Fig. 3.44-Dispersion resulting from laminar flow in a straight capillary (Taylor effect). L...._ _ _- - ' J--~A Fig. 3.45-Dispersion based on porous medium being viewed as a series of mixing tanks. Summary Discussion of Dispersion Models. The simplified models described illustrate different ways in which dispersion can occur in a porous medium. The models are described in a qualitative way. Mathematical formulations have been developed to describe the diffusion process, the Taylor model, and the perfectly mixed tank model. None of these formulations is adequate to describe the dispersion process in the porous media of reservoir rocks, however, so the mathematical relationships are not presented. The dispersion process in reservoir rocks represents some combination of all the different mechanisms, and a precise mathematical description is not available. Simplified mathematical models have been developed and found to be useful, and Sec. 3.8.3 presents an introduction to this approach. Perkins and Johnston 8 provide an excellent review of dispersion models. 3.8.3 Mathematical Description of Longitudinal Dispersion Process. Even though the dispersion process in reservoir rock is complicated, numerous experimental investigations 8 have shown that the process can be approximated with a relatively simple mathematical model. Probably the most useful approach is based on the introduction of a dispersion coefficient, a parameter analogous to the molecular diffusion coefficient. The partial-differential equation that describes dispersion in porous media, which is based on use of the dispersion coefficient, is derived below. The following primary assumptions are made in the derivation. 1. Fluid B is displacing Fluid A, and the two fluids are miscible. 2. Flow is single phase. 3. The fluids are incompressible. 4. The mobility ratio is unity; Le., there is no viscous fingering. 5. The fluids are of equal density. 6. Flow is in only one direction (x direction). 7. The fluid velocity is constant. 8. Flow is through a porous medium of constant porosity and of constant cross-sectional area, A. The system is sketched in Fig. 3.42. Consider a mass balance on Fluid B over the volume elementA~x and over a time period ~t. mend-mbegin=Emin-Emout, .................... (3.142) where mend and mbegin = amounts of Fluid B in the element at the end and beginning of ~t, respectively, and Emin and Em out = amounts of Fluid B that flow in and out of the element during ~t, respectively. Eq. 3.142 is a symbolic representation and states that the net accumulation of Fluid B in the volume element during ~t is equal to the net flow of Fluid B into the element during the same ~t. Eq. 3.142 must now be rewritten in terms of fluid densities, concentrations, velocities, etc. In doing this it must be recognized that the net movement of Fluid B into the element occurs by two mechanisms. The first is by convection-Le., by bulk floW of the fluid stream-and is directly dependent on the fluid velocity. The second mechanism is dispersion, which in the context used here includes all the different mixing phenomena discussed earlier. It is assumed that an expression for dispersion can be used that is analogous to Fick's law: mBx= -KeA(aCBlax), .......................... (3.143) where mBx = rate of dispersion of Fluid B across an arbitrary plane, CB = concentration of Fluid B, Ke = longitudinal dispersion coefficient, and x=distance along the dispersion path. The net dispersional flux of Fluid B across any plane in the system is proportional to the negative of the concentration gradient. With these concepts, Eq. 3.142 can now be rewritten as Act>CB~xlt+At-Act>CB~xlt=vAct>CBlx~t-vAct>CBlx+Ax~t - KeAct>(aCBlax)lx~t+ KeAct>(aCBlax)lx+Ax~t, ...... (3.144) "1 .. Fig. 3.46-Dispersion resulting from bypassing of fluid trapped in stagnant pockets. Fig. 3.47-Dispersion caused by variation of flow paths in a porous medium. DISPLACEMENT IN LINEAR SYSTEMS TABLE 3.13-CALCULATED CONCENTRATION PROFILE IN A DISPERSION PROCESS, EXAMPLE 3.8 CD () ~ c 8 0.4 "0 :a Ttl E 0.2 0 (hours) 76.7 79.2 81.3 83.4 85.9 88.0 92.6 95.4 o Calculated ... Experimental Data Error Function Argument 0.9851 0.6062 0.2971 0.000 -0.3527 -0.6379 -1.2399 -1.5923 Argument 0.8364 0.6087 0.3256 0.0000 -0.3821 -0.6330 -0.9205 -0.9757 0.082 0.196 0.337 0.500 0.692 0.817 0.960 0.988 "'C B is a normalized concentration. Time, t, hr Fig. 3.48-Calculated and experimental concentration profiles in a linear system, Examples 3.9 and 3.10. where cf>=porosity, t=time, and v=pore velocity (this is the Darcy velocity divided by cf. The vertical bar in Eq. 3.144 denotes that the quantity to the left is evaluated at the time or position specified with the bar. Simplifying yields CBIt+At - CBIt/lx = vCBIx -vCB IX+Ax/lt +[ - Kf (oCBlox) Ix + Kf (oCBlox)lx+Ax]/lt. . ........ (3.145) Dividing through by /lx and /It gives cBIt+At-CBl t /It -(vCBlx+Ax-vCBlx) Kf (oCBlox)lx+Ax-Kf (oCBlox) Ix /lx . . ............ (3.146) Now let /It ..... O and /lx ..... O, and let v and K f be constant: when the input concentration of a particular chemical species is changed in a step-wise manner. A sample calculation is shown in Example 3.8. Example 3.8-Calculation of Concentration Profile in a Linear Miscible Displacement. This example illustrates the calculation of a concentration profile in a linear Berea sandstone core during a miscible displacement. The core is 0.165 ft in diameter and 4.01 ft long. Porosity is 0.206. The core is initially saturated with brine of concentration 30,000 ppm of NaCI (30 g NaClIL). Brine flow rate is 2.12 x 10 -4 ft3 Ihr. Flow interstitial velocity is 1.155 ft/D. The concentration of the brine injected is suddenly changed to 20,000 ppm NaCl (step-function change). Calculate the concentration (normalized) at the effluent end of the core-i.e., atx=L=4.01 ft -assuming the dispersion coefficient is given by Kf = 3.46 x 10 -4 ft2/hr. Solution. The calculation is made by first substituting all known values into Eq. 3.148. The only unspecified independent variable is t. Thus, different values of t are specified, and the error function solution is calculated to obtain CB as a function of time. Consistent units must be used. Results are given in Table 3.13 and Fig. 3.48, which show the normalized concentrations. Notice that the time of 83.4 hours corresponds to the time required to inject 1 PV of brine and that CB =0.5 at this time. To obtain concentration in parts per million of NaCl, simply use the definition of the normalized concentration: oCB oCB o2CB --=-v--+Kf - - ...................... (3.147) ot ox ox 2 Eq. 3.144 reduces to the classic convection-diffusion equation in one space dimension. The diffusion coefficient has been replaced by the dispersion coefficient, which is an empirical parameter. That is, the coefficient must be determined from experimental data and is not known a priori. Empirical correlations for K f and the method of calculating it from displacement data are presented in Sec. 3.8.4 Solutions to Eq. 3.147 are available for various boundary conditions. For the case of a step change in input concentration the solution 9 is CB=~{1-erf[(x-vt)/2.JKet]), ................. (3.148) CB =(C;-CBo)/(CBi - CBO ) or CB =(C; - 30,000)/(20,000- 30,000), where C;=concentrations in parts per million of NaCl. 3.8.4 Calculation of Longitudinal Dispersion Coefficient From Experimental Data. It is not possible to predict the dispersion coefficient for a given system from fundamental principles. However, K f can be determined for a specified porous medium and specified flow conditions by conducting an experimental miscible displacement and empirically fitting concentration data to the appropriate differential equation solution. A number of investigators 8 have done this and have shown that K f is a function of several system parameters. In particular, Kf depends on the structure of the porous medium, the particle size of the medium, the velocity of the displacement, and the miscible fluids. On the basis of experimental results, empirical correlations have been developed that relate K f to different system parameters. The following sections give the method of calculating K f from experimental data. This is followed by a discussion of some of the available correlations for K f Plot of Data on Probability Graph Paper. The nature of the solution to the describing partial-differential equation for the case of a step concentration input (Eq. 3.148) is such that a plot of CB vs. (x-vt)/Vt yields a straight line on probability paper. This leads to a simple method for calculating K f . To arrive at the method, the solution is first changed to a slightly different form. 9 Consider the argument of the error function, with boundary and initial conditions given by CB=O, O<x, t=O; CB=1.0, x=O, t>O; and CB=O, x ..... oo, t>O. Defining CB as having values between 0 and 1.0 is analogous to defining a normalized concentration CB=(C;-CBO)/(CBi-CBO)' .................... (3.149) where C;=actual concentration of Fluid B, CBo=initial concentration of Fluid B in the system, and CBi=injected or maximum concentration of Fluid B. The error function (erf) is a tabulated function defined as erf(s-)= ~ 1 t2 dSte'Y 7r .......................... (3.150) or derf(S-)/dS-=2/..);.e-t2 . ......................... (3.151) Tabulated values are given in Appendix B. Eq. 3.148 provides a means of calculating a concentration response in a linear system 2-.f'K;-Jt x-vt 2-JK; (x-vt) --;;=;- .... ,............. (3.152) ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE 3.14-EXPERIMENTAL DATA FOR A LINEAR MISCIBLE DISPLACEMENT, EXAMPLE 3.9 0.01 L,ft Vp ,ft 3 v, ft/hr 4.01 0.01766 0.0481 ~ .... ~ , 76.7 78.4 79.2 80.5 81.3 82.6 84.3 85.1 85.9 87.2 88.0 90.1 92.6 V;lVp 0.920 0.940 0.950 0.965 0.975 0.990 1.000 1.020 1.030 1.045 1.055 1.080 1.110 0.0111 0.00822 0.00682 0.00474 0.00336 0.00134 ::J 80 90 95 Normalized Concentration, Ca, % -0.00263 -0.00393 -0.00585 -0.00712 -0.0102 -0.0139 Fig. 3.49-Plot of experimental dispersion data on probability graph paper, Examples 3.10 and 3.11. Set x=L, the measuring-point location, which is usually the core effluent, to obtain (L-vt) 2...fi<; -Jt* = 2...fi<; (LAcf>-VAcf>t) ~ --1Acf>t , .... (3.153) The results shown in Fig. 3.49 are for an experiment run under nearly ideal conditions. The rock was relatively homogeneous and the properties of the displaced and displacing liquids were similar. For this system, the probability graph plot is essentially linear over the range CB =0.1 to 0.9, which is typical for such an ideal case. For some systems, however, linearity exists over a smaller CB range. Reasons for deviations from the theory are discussed in Sec. 3.8.8. Calculation of Ke. The equations previously presented in this section may be used with data, as shown in Fig. 3.49, to calculate the dispersion coefficient for the conditions of the experiment. Applying Eq. 3.156 at CB =0.9 gives where A = cross-sectional area for flow. Now, introducing Vp = volume in 1 PV, Vi = volume of fluid injected, and t* =time to inject 1 PV gives 0.9=~[1-erf(U90-_1- __ L_)J, 2 2...fi<; --1 Vpt* (Vp-Vi ) --.Iv arg= 2...fi<; --1Acf>tv ~ where U90 =value of U evaluated when CB =0.9. 0.90622=-U90 - 2...fi<; - - .................. (3.158) = __ 1_( VP-Vi )--1L1t(_1_) ........ (3.154) 2...fi<; -JV; ~ Because t=Acf>LlvAcf>, the argument may be written 1 (Vp - Vi) L 1 L Arg= 2...fi<; -JV; --1vpt = 2...fi<; U --1vpt* . ................................ (3.155) The solution can now be written as At CB =0.1, where U=U IO , 0.1O=~[1-erf(UIO--1- __ L_)J 1 L and 0.90622=U IO - - - - .................. (3.160) 2...fi<; --1 Vpt* Adding Eqs. 3.158 and 3.160 yields CB=~[ 1-erfC...fi<;~ where U= (Vp - Vi )/-JV; . 1............... 1 L 1.8124= - - --(UIO-U90)' 2...fi<; --1vpt* Now, squaring both sides and solving for Ke gives Probability graph paper may now be used. This graph paper is designed such that a plot of the dependent variable CB vs. the error-function argument yields a straight line. Because U is the only parameter in the error-function argument that varies with CB , U vs. CB should result in a straight line, as stated earlier. Example 3.9 illustrates the plotting method. The calculation of Ke from the data is described in Example 3.10. Example 3.9-Plotting Experimental Dispersion Data. Experimental miscible-displacement data were taken for a system having the same properties as described in Example 3.8. The data are shown in Fig. 3.48 and tabulated in Table 3.14. Rock properties, fluids, and flow rates are as given in Example 3.8. Plot the data on probability paper. Solution. Fig. 3.49 shows the data, plotted on probability paper, with the best straight line through the data indicated. Ke= [L(U IO - U90 ) 3.625 J2 _1_ ...................... (3.162) Vpt* Thus, Ke may be calculated from the probability paper plot with U values at 10% and 90% concentrations. The following procedure can be used to calculate Ke from dispersion data in a linear displacement experiment. 1. Measure CB at the exit of the core. Measure the PV's of fluid displaced. 2. Plot CB vs. U on probability paper. 3. Place the best straight line through the data. 4. Select U IO and U90 from the plot. 5. Calculate Ke from Eq. 3.162. An alternative procedure may be used in which U values are selected at other concentrations, such as 0.20 and 0.80. In this case, l- '/': It- t- ~IC ~+-~-+~--1--r-+-o~~~~~-~~ ~t-f. . r -0'17 (l plea for Uncons .......10 :::t::::--~ 1-+--I-...:0~.3::.-t--r-r- ..... vF,dp D Fig. a.50-Longitudinal dispersion coefficients for porous media. 8 an appropriate equation to replace Eq. 3.162 must be developed with the above approach. The method illustrated above is used in Example 3.10 to calculate the dispersion coefficient for the experimental data of Example 3.8. Example 3.I0-Calculation of Ke From Experimental Data. Fig. 3.49 is a probability-paper plot of the experimental data. Calculate the value of Ke. Solution. The required U values are UlO=0:9J~ ft3/2 and U90 =-0.0099 ft3/2. From Eq. 3.162,~~;:\:::;6Pv Ke=[L(UlO-U90)]2_1_ 3.625 Vpt* the overall dispersion process, and this is the regime commonly encountered in reservoir flow processes. Perkins and Johnston 8 present the following correlation for the longitudinal dispersion coefficient: Ke ID= lIFR cp+0.5(vF[dp ID) ...... , .......... , .. (3.164) for vF[dpID<50, where v=interstitial velocity (Le., Darcy velocity divided by cp) dp=average particle diameter, D=molecular diffusion coefficient, and F[=inhomogeneity factor for the porous medium. Eq. 3.164 is dimensionless and any consistent set of units is applicable. Eq. 3.164 is plotted in Fig. 3.50 along with a suggested correlating curve for vF[dplD > 50. In general, the inhomogeneity factor must be determined experimentally. Fig. 3.51 shows results for random packs of spheres of various sizes. 8 For consolidated porous media, F[ cannot easily be separated from d p , and the product F[dp is often used. Table 3.15 gives suggested values for a few outcrop cores. Over the range of applicability ofEq. 3.164, the convective component of the dispersion coefficient is proportional to the first power of the velocity. At higher velocities, however, experimental data suggest that Ke ID varies with (vF[dpID) 1.2. This is reflected in the slope of the correlating curve in Fig. 3.50. Example 3. II-Application of Empirical Correlation to Calculate Ke. Consider the data of Example 3.8. Use the correlating equation of Perkins and Johnston, 8 K e ID=lIFR CP+0.5(vF[dp ID), to estimate Ke. Solution. In Berea core, v=0.0481 ft/hr, F[dp =0.146 in.= 0.0121 ft (average value of Berea cores, Table 3.15), IIFR CP=0.6 (estimated for relatively homogeneous rock), D = 3.87 x 10 - 5 ft 2/hr (assumed for brine system), Ke ID=0.60+ [(0.5)(0.0481 ft/hr)(0.0121 ft)/3.87 x 10- 5 ft 2/hr]=0.60+7.52=8.12, and :. K e =3.14x 10 -4 ft 2/hr. This compares to Ke =3.46x 10 -4 ft2/hr determined experimentally. The error is 100(3.46-3.14/3.46)=9.2 %. 0~~:;~Jt, 1 (0.01766ft 3)(83.4hr) = [(4.01ft)(0.0105 +0.0099)(ft 3/2)] 3.625 =3.46xlO- 4 ft2/hr. This is equal to the dispersion coefficient used in Example 3.8 to calculate the theoretical concentration profile. Fig. 3.48 shows the experimental and theoretical profiles. 3.8.5 Empirical Correlations for the Longitudinal Dispersion Coefficient. The equation development and examples presented in Sec. 3.8.4 illustrate the manner in which longitudinal dispersion coefficients are determined experimentally. Numerous studies of dispersion have shown that Ke is a function of the porous medium properties, fluid properties, and flow rate. 8 Empirical correlations have been presented to relate Ke to the appropriate parameters. One premise in the correlations is that Ke can be represented as the sum of molecular-diffusion and convective-dispersion components. That is, Ke=Da+Kc, ....... ' .......................... (3.163) where D a = apparent molecular-diffusion component and Kc = convective-dispersion component. At relatively low flow rates, the convective component is negligible and diffusion controls. At high flow rates, diffusion is negligible and convective dispersion is dominant. Between these extremes, both components contribute to This is certainly an acceptable agreement. The correlations are no better than 20% in general. Note that, for the conditions of the experiment, the molecular diffusion component is less than 10% of the total. ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE 3.15-VALUES OF Fld p FOR OUTCROP SANDSTONES u:- arIi} u. 61.~ Q) c Q) C) E 0 .s::. oS Typical Values for Ordinary Labatory Packs F1d \,1 f~_~~~~~~~~:~~~~ Theoretical Minimum . . r .. '......... Source Crane and Gardner 16 Brigham et al. 9 Raimondi et al. 14 Hand y 17 Dispersion Transverse Longitudinal Longitudinal Longitudinal Longitudinal __ ~_~______________ _ ..........- Rock Berea Berea Torpedo Berea Boise Average (in. 0.098 0.154 0.067 0.181 0.217 0.143 0.1 Particle Diameter, dp , mm Fig. 3.51-lnhomogeneity factor for random packs of spheres. 8 3.8.6 Dispersion-Zone Width. The width of the dispersion zone when one fluid displaces a second, miscible fluid is an important parameter to examine because it is a reflection of the amount of mixing between the displaced and displacing fluids. In a miscible displacement process, the mixing-zone width directly relates to the miscible slug size that must be injected. If the width is arbitrarily defined as the distance between positions at which the dimensionless concentration is 10% and 90%, it can be calculated from x10 -x90 =3.625 ~, ........................ (3.165) where x 10 and x90 = distances to positions at which concentration is 10% and90%, respectively. Eq. 3.165 can be derived fromEq. 3.148 by use of an approach analogous to the derivation of Eq. 3.162. If the width were defined as the distance between positions at which the concentrations have different values (such as 1 % and 99 %), the width expression would have the same form, but the constant 3.625 would change. The result indicates that the width is proportional to ...Ji. Becausex=vt, the width of the dispersion zone is proportional to the square root of the mean distance traveled. Thus, the relative width of the dispersion zone, compared with mean travel distance, decreases as the front progresses through the porous medium, as illustrated in the following example. Example 3. 12-Calculation of Dispersion-Zone Width. The objective of this example is to calculate the .dispersion-zone width after the front has traveled different distances through the porous medium. Width is defined as the distance between positions at which normalized concentrations are 10% and 90%. The data from Example 3.8 are used. Solution. In Example 3.8, v=0.0481 ft/hr, K e=3.46 x 10- 4 ft2/hr, and x1O-x90=3.625 ~. Let x=4.0 ft. x10 -x90=3.625[(3.46 x 10 -4 ft2/hr)(4.0 ft)/(0.0481 ft/hr)] 'h =0.61 ft. Therefore, the relative width is (0.61/4.0) x 100= 15%. For x= 100 ft, X1O-x90=3.625[(3.46xlO-4 ft2/hr)(100 ft)/(0.0481 ft/hr)]Vz =3.07 ft. The relative width is (3.07/100)100=3.1 %. For x=400 ft, X1O-x90=3.625[(3.46XlO-4 ft2/hr)(400 ft)/(0.0481 ft/hr)]Vz =6.15 ft. 104:==:==:=I":i:=:==:=:==:=J=:J:":J=:===::":,=:==:=~rE-~'jr-arpon~~trri~~nJ-.-n~~I~~ ,-.ofData / 103~~4-4-+-~4-4--+-+~-1~-+--~~r~~~-+~r~: vF1d p Fig. 3.52-Transverse dispersion coefficients for porous media. 8 ---J~~ A--+~B<~A Fig. 3.S3-Viscous fingering in a displacement process. The relative width is (6.15/400)100= 1.5%. Example 3.12 indicates that relative width decreases as the interface moves through the porous medium, as described earlier. For normal reservoir well spacings, calculated dispersion-zone widths are relatively small fractions of the distances between wells. The implication for design is that miscible slug sizes can be relatively small compared with the reservoir volume. However, widths calculated with the dispersion theory must be considered minimum widths. As described later in this chapter, several factors increase the amount of mixing and cause deviations from ideal behavior. These factors generally lead to much larger apparent dispersion and hence larger dispersion-zone widths. 3.8.7 Empirical Correlations for the Transverse Dispersion Coefficient, K t Dispersion also occurs in a direction transverse to the principal flow direction. The molecular-diffusion component is not affected by flow and thus is the same for longitudinal and transverse dispersion. The convective component of transverse dispersion, however, is an order of magnitude smaller than the corresponding component oflongitudinal dispersion. A correlation given by Perkins and Johnston 8 is K t lD=lIFR CP+0.0157(vF[dplD) ................. (3.166) The correlation is plotted in Fig. 3.52. The inhomogeneity factor, Fb is generally assumed to have the same value in correlations for both Ke and Kt . K t generally is used to model dispersion when more than one space dimension is considered. A typical example is the release of a component at a single point in a porous medium through which a fluid is flowing in a specified direction. In this case, dispersion occurs in the direction of flow and also in directions transverse to flow. A 3D spread of the traced component occurs even though bulk flow is in only one direction. This spread (dispersion) is not equal in all directions, however, as indicated by the correlations for Ke and Kt . Further, the traced component would move with the bulk flow; i. e., the dispersion is superimposed on the bulk transport. 3.8.8 Deviations From Ideal Behavior. The'data used in Examples 3.9 through 3.12 were taken under nearly ideal conditions. The rock was relatively homogeneous, and displaced and displacing liquids had properties that were quite similar. A number of factors cause deviations from idealized behavior, resulting in measured concentration profIles that do not agree with the solution to Eq. 3.147. Viscous Fingering. The idealized behavior is not followed if the viscosity of the displacing Fluid B is less than that of the displaced Fluid A-i.e., if itA/itB > 1.0. In this event, so-called viscous fingering occurs in the displacement process, as shown schematically in Fig. 3.53. Fluid B tends to channel, or finger, into Fluid A. When this happens in a linear displacement experiment, the apparent value of Ke increases significantly because, in most cases, the average concentration of the effluent is measured. Flow in fingers is mixed with bypassed fluid, creating a much longer mixing zone. The effect is illustrated in Fig. 3.54, which shows average effluent concentrations from linear experiments in which itA/itB was varied over a wide range. 9 The amount of dispersion and the general appearance of the concentration profIles change dramatically when itA/itB is increased above 1.0. Viscosity ratios are called unfavorable or favorable depending on whether viscous fingering occurs. An unfavorable viscosity ratio results in an increase in the apparent dispersion, the magnitude becoming larger as the viscosity ratio becomes more unfavorable. A second effect of an unfavora- for vF[dplD< 10 4 . !XI c: '0 == ~ .!:! 'C CD 1il 0 z 0.2 Pore Volumes Injected, Vpl Fig. 3.S4-Effect of viscosity ratio on effluent-concentration curve. 9 -1.0 O.S -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 O.S 1.0 I ~A = Viscosity of Displaced Fluid A I ~A l ~B = Viscosity of Displacing Fluid BJ ~B =1.002~ ~~ ~ L.dV l~ ~=0.175 ~~ L -y ~ ~B L--o- ~ =0.99S~ vy L I 95 97 50 60 70 % Displacing Fluid B Fig. 3.55-Effect of viscosity ratio on error function plot, Bead Pack 113-1. 9 ble ratio is to cause deviation from the idealized theory, as Fig. 3.55 9 shows. In this figure, error-function plots are shown for unfavorable and favorable ratios. When JkA/JkB increases to only slightly more than unity (1.002), the error-function plot is no longer linear. A straight line cannot be drawn through the data points. It follows that the solution of Eq. 3.147 could no longer be fit to the concentration profIle shown in Fig. 3.48. A dispersion coefficient cannot reasonably be determined for the experiment. The reason for growth of viscous fingers may be described intuitively by considering Fig. 3.56a. Fluid B, which is displacing Fluid A, has a larger viscosity than Fluid A (JkA/JkB < 1.0). When a perturbation in the displacement front occurs as a result of flow in the tortuous path of the medium, the perturbation tends to dampen out because the flow resistance through the displacing liquid is greater than the resistance through the displaced fluid. However, when the viscosity ratio is made less than unity, as in Fig. 3.56b, perturbations tend to grow. In this case, the resistance through the displacing fluid is less than through the displaced fluid and more Fluid B flows through the path of least resistance, creating a finger that grows. It is interesting to consider that transverse dispersion will diminish fingering because it decreases concentration differences in a direction normal to finger growth. Viscous fingering is discussed in greater detail in Sec. 3.9, where a model for dispersion is described. 18 Asymmetry of Tail. An experimental result commonly encountered is the asymmetry of the dispersion tail, illustrated in Fig. 3.57. In this case, the data fit a straight line on an error-function plot over part of the concentration range, but then deviate from a straight line at higher or lower concentrations. Several factors can cause such behavior. One of these factors is dead-end PV; i.e., a fraction of the pore volume has openings to the pores but no exits. There is no bulk flow through such pores, and fluid trapped in the pores can be removed only by molecular diffusion. If these pores form a significant fraction of the total PV, then a long concentration tail occurs because diffusion is a slow process. The concept is essentially the stagnant-pocket models discussed earlier, but the effect is more pronounced when an asymmetric concentration tail occurs. Deadend PV has been treated mathematically by Coats and Smith. 19 Other factors that cause asymmetry in the concentration profIle include the presence of a second, immiscible or partially soluble phase and permeability heterogeneities. Either of these, because of their effect on flow, can result in an apparent large dispersion coefficient and/or a deviation from the simple dispersion model. Perkins and Johnston 8 discuss some of these factors. Multiphase Systems. The treatment of dispersion presented earlier was based on the assumption that a single phase existed in the porous medium and that the species being considered were miscible. The presence of a second phase significantly affects the dispersion process. 20 As the saturation of a phase decreases, the dispersion of miscible species in that phase increases. That is, the presence of a second phase increases the apparent magnitude of the dispersion coefficient over values obtained in a single-phase system. The amount of dispersion in a phase also is affected by the wettability of the phase. Flow Pertubation ~B (a) Pertubation Damps Out (b) Pertubation Grows Fig. 3.56-Conditions promoting growth or dampening of flow perturbation. Thomas et ai. 20 also determined that the dispersion coefficient is not an adequate measure of the mixing process in multiphase flow. Their results indicate that the mixing is not well-described by the theory and differential-equation solutions based on an empirical dispersion coefficient. 3.8.9 Dispersion in Cylindrical or Field-Pattern Geometries. The dispersion experiments and mathematical models described earlier were for linear systems. Most reservoir flow patterns,. however, involve flow in cylindrical geometry-Le., radial flow into or out of a well. In typical well patterns, such as the five-spot pattern, the flow is diverging/converging radial flow. Dispersion in linear flow has been studied extensively because of the simplicity of experimentation and ease of mathematical description. The study of the empirical dependence of Ke on velocity would be difficult in a cylindrical geometry. For cylindrical geometries, the describing differential equation is the cylindrical form of Eq. 3.147. Solution of the equation would yield CB as a function of radial position and time. A difficulty in obtaining a solution is that Ke is generally a function of fluid velocity, which, in a cylindrical system, is a function of radial position. In a well-pattern geometry such as a five-spot pattern, the task of obtaining a solution is even more difficult. Baldwin 21 and Brigham et at. 22 have obtained approximate solutions for this case. The solutions were used to describe chemical tracer tests to obtain information on reservoir flow patterns. o Experimental Data with Tail 0.5 Normalized Concentration of Displacing Fluid B Fig. 3.57-Asymmetry in the concentration profile. 3.9 Viscous Fingering-Instability in Displacement Fronts 3.9.1 General Description. The nature of the front in a displacement process differs markedly depending on whether the mobility ratio is greater or less than unity. For example, if a solvent displaces an oil phase with which it is miscible at M:5 1.0 and there are no gravity effects, the displacement process is efficient. A uniform front results, with little penetration of the displacing solvent into the displaced oil other than by molecular diffusion and dispersion. PV~------------------~ M- 2.40 M - 4.58 M-17.3 PRODUCING WELL X INJECTION WELL PV = PORE VOLUME INJECTED BT = BREAKTHROUGH Fig. 3.58-Miscible displacement in a quarter of a five-spot pattern at mobility ratios greater than unity; viscous fingering. 23 (Oil) %Rec.=13 VPI':" 0.23 x=o r-I-f--------- L -------+-1 Fig. 3.S0-Flow model for quantitative determination of the criterion for viscous instability. the front will be unstable; i.e., viscous fingers will form along the front. At conditions where E does not grow or even diminishes in size, the front stability or uniformity will be maintained. The analysis proceeds by examining the flow resistances along the different flow regions. If the solvent and oil resistances are assumed to be in series, application of Darcy's equation in the unperturbed region yields uP-sXf uP-o(L-xf) (i1p)Xj+(i1p)L-xj=--, .......... (3.167) where (i1p)Xj=pressure drop from the entrance to position xf, (i1p)L-xf, =pressure drop from position xf to position L, u=supedicial (Darcy) front velocity, k=permeability of the porous medium, p-s=solvent viscosity, P-o=oil viscosity, and appropriate units are used. Recognizing that u=c{>(dxf/dt), ................................. (3.168) and solving for the velocity of the front gives dxf % Rec. = 12 Vpl=0.12 % Rec. = 52 Vp1 =6.50 dt -ki1p - - - - - - ....................... (3.169) c{>P-sXf+c{>P-o(L-xf) i1p is the total pressure drop across the system, defined as (PL -Po) With the definition, M=p-o/P-s dxf dt -ki1p - - - - - - ...................... (3.170) c{>p-AML+(1-M)xf] Fig. 3.59-lmmiscible displacement in a linear system at an unfavorable mobility ratio; viscous fingering. 24 Displacements carried out at conditions where the mobility ratio is greater than unity behave in a quite different manner. In this case, the displacement front becomes unstable and numerous fingers of displacing solvent penetrate into the displaced oil. Fig. 3.58 23 shows a schematic of this behavior for four different M values. Fig. 3.58 shows a displacement in a quarter of a five-spot pattern representative of data reported for miscible displacements. 23 Similar results were reported for immiscible water/oil displacements, as shown in Fig. 3.59,24 although concern has been raised about the effect of fluid wettability on fingering in immiscible systems. 25 Viscous instability begins at conditions where M> 1.0. The magnitude of the fingering becomes more pronounced as the mobility ratio increases in magnitude, as indicated for the four M values in Fig. 3.58. A similar application of Darcy's equation in the region of perturbed flow yields d(xf+E) dt -ki1p - - - - - - - .............. (3.171) c{>P-s[ML+(1-M)(xf+ E )] Subtracting Eq. 3.170 from Eq. 3.171 and carrying out some algebra manipulation gives ki1p(1-M)E - - - - - - , .................... (3.172) c{>P-s[ML+(1-M)xf]2 3.9.2 Criterion for Onset of Viscous Fingering. Collins 26 described a simple model to quantify the criterion for the occurrence of viscous instabilities. Consider the linear, miscible displacement of oil by a solvent shown in Fig. 3.60. Flow is single phase, and there is no effect of gravity on the flow. At the time of consideration of the system, the solvent front is located at position xf along the flow path. In the flow region bounded by the dashed lines, a small perturbation or protrusion of the solvent front has occurred such that the front location is at position Xf+E. The length parameter, E, represents a length that is small relative to xf. Perturbations, or small displacements, of the type shown clearly would occur in a displacement process in a porous medium in which flow paths are tortuous. The focus of the analysis is the determination of conditions under which E grows in time because, if E does grow in time, then provided that E~xf' which was an initial assumption. Eq. 3.172 is an ordinary differential equation with E as the dependent variable (under the additional assumption that xf is a constant). The solution is E=Eoe Ct , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.173) ki1p(1-M) where C = - - - - - - - - .................. (3.174) c{>P-s[ML+(1-M)xf]2 and EO = initial length of the perturbation-i.e., the length at zero time. Inspection of Eqs. 3.173 and 3.174 shows that E will grow exponentially if M> 1.0 because i1p is a negative quantity. If M < 1.0, the perturbation length, E, will decay exponentially. The latter case leads to stable, nonfingering flow, while the former case leads to viscous finger growth. The tortuosity of the path in a porous medium will lead to localized small flow perturbations. The analysis indicates that these per- turbations, once formed, will grow or decay depending on the magnitude of the mobility ratio, with the value of M.relative to unity being the critical factor. Fingers will grow if the displacing fluid is more mobile than the displaced fluid, and they will decay if the converse is true. While not considered in the analysis, capillary and gravity forces may affect the stability of the displacement front and may reduce fingering. 3.9.3 Dispersion in the Presence of Viscous Fingering. The model for dispersion described in Sec. 3.9 was shown to be invalid when the mobility ratio is unfavorable-i.e., when M = ""01""s > 1.0. In this case, viscous fingers form, and K f , as defined in Eq. 3.147, is not a good description of the dispersion process. Miscible displacement in the presence of viscous fingers is called an unstable displacement. Koval 18 developed a model to describe an unstable miscible displacement in homogeneous or heterogeneous porous media for single-phase lD flow. In this model, the frontal-advance equation is assumed to apply to the displacing phase (solvent). dxldtlss =(qtIAcjJ)(aislass)ls=ss' .................. (3.175) I[ '" ~ ~ o where qt=total volumetric flow rate, A=cross-sectional area normal to flow, and Ss = saturation or volume fraction occupied by solvent. In an immiscible displacement process, such as a waterflood, fractional flow of the displacing phase, iD, is given by iD=' , ........................ (3.176) 1 +(kolkD)(""DI""o) -PtlEDICTED (> 0 PARAIlETER 1'-, where ko = effective permeability of displaced oil phase, kD = effective permeability of displacing water phase, = viscosity of oil phase, ""D = viscosity of water phase. For a miscible process with a solvent displacing oil, Koval expressed the fractional flow of solvent, is, in a general functional form as is=f(Ss,H,E), ................................ (3.177) Fig. a.51-Comparison of Blackwell et al.'s 27 experimental data with predictions based on K-factor method. 18 An expression for is' is obtained by differentiating Eq. 3.182: where, in addition to solvent saturation, Ss, is is dependent on a heterogeneity factor, H, and a viscosity ratio factor, E. Koval then proceeded to determine the specific form of is' The two miscible fluids are taken to be ideal in that they either do not mix or retain their individual identities and properties if they mix. From this assumption, ko=kSo=k(l-Ss) ............................. (3.178) andks=kSs , .................................... (3.179) where k=permeability of the porous media and ks=effective permeability of the solvent displacing phase. It follows that kjks=(1-Ss)/Ss' ............................. (3.180) [1+(K -1)Ss]2 Eq. 3.182 is used to eliminate Ss in terms of is: K Vpi= [K-is(K-l)]2 ........................... (3.188) ort=---..!:...~ K - (KIVpi ) 'h K-l ............................ (3.189) By analogy with Eq. 3.176, 1+[(l-Ss )/Ss ](lIE)(lIH) ................... (3.181) Eqs. 3.188 and 3.189 are valid at and after breakthrough. The equations specify the relationship between a specific fractional flow value, is, and the number of PV's of solvent injected to reach that fractional flow at the porous medium effluent. At the point of initial brreakthrough of solvent is =0 ......................................... (3.190) or is = KSs/[l +Ss(K-1)], ......................... (3.182) where K=HE . .................................. (3.183) In the development that follows, the porous medium is assumed to be homogeneous withH= 1.0; thus, K=E. The parameter K (or E) is a function of the viscosity ratio, ""ol""s' and is defined specifically in Eq. 3.195. Expressions for the performance of the miscible displacement are obtained by integrating Eq. 3.175 and combining the result with . Eq. 3.182. Integration of Eq. 3.175 yields Substituting into Eq. 3.189 yields (Vpiht=lIK, .................................. (3.191) where (Vpi)bt=PV'S injected at solvent breakthrough. All the oil will have been produced when is = 1.0. Again, from Eq. 3.189, (Vpi)comp =K, ................................. (3.192) xSs =(qttIAcjJ )(aislaSs) Iss' lI(q ttIAcjJL) = (aislaSs) Iss ....................... (3.184) ........................ (3.185) If x=L, the porous medium length, or lIVpi=(aislaSs)lss =is', ........................ (3.186) where Vpi=number ofPV's of solvent injected for Ss to reach the end of the porous medium. where (Vpi)comp =PV's injected when all the oil has been produced. Between the point of solvent breakthrough and total oil recovery, oil produced is given by Fig. 3.62-Solvent cut as a function of PV's injected with K as a parameter, Example 3.14. 18 where Np=oil recovery in PV's (the oil FVF is assumed to equal unity for solvent and oil). Integration of Eq. 3.193 yields Np = 2(KIVpi ) v, -1- Vpi K-1 , ....................... (3.194) Fig. 3.6218 plots the results along with curves for other values of K. which gives Np as a function of Vpi and K. The parameter K is yet to be specified. If the porous medium is assumed to be homogeneous (H= 1.0), then K=E. Koval postulated that E was not simply the ratio of viscosities because of the mixing of oil and solvent. To obtain an expression for E, Eq. 3.194 was matched against Blackwell et at. 's27 experimental data. The expression for E proposed, based on this match, was E=[0.78+0.22(P,olP,s) 'A]4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.195) The expression for E incorporates, in part, the commonly used onequarter power mixing rule for determination of viscosities of mixtures of solvents. Fig. 3.61 compares Koval's model with the data of Blackwell et at. 27 The agreement is quite good, partly because the data were used to determine the expression for E. Nonetheless, the Koval method, sometimes called the K-factor method, is an accepted approach to the description of performance of miscible displacement when the mobility ratio is unfavorable. Problems 3.1 Consider the linear waterflood calculation of Example 3.1. Assume that the calculation can be applied to a linedrive flood where the rows of injectors and producers are 660 ft apart. The width of a single pattern may be considered to be 330 ft, and reservoir thickness is 20 ft. Other data are given in Example 3.1. 1. Calculate the volume of water injected (barrels) up to the time water breakthrough occurs at the producing end of the pattern. 2. Calculate the volume of oil produced (barrels) up to the time the WOR reaches 50. 3. Calculate and plot the volume of oil recovered (barrels) vs. water injected (barrels) out to a WOR of 50. 3.2 Examples 3.2 through 3.5 consider linear floods for the same conditions as in Example 3.1 with a different injected fluid. In Examples 3.2 and 3.3, viscous water with p,=4.0 cp is injected. In Example 3.4 adsorbing polymer solution with p,=4.0 cp is injected. In Example 3.5, low-tension liquid with p,=4.0 cp is injected. Assume that the example results can be applied to the linedrive pattern in the reservoir of Problem 3.1. Calculate and plot the volume of oil recovered (barrels) vs. water injected (barrels) out to a WOR of 50. Compare the results from the different cases. 3.3 A waterflood is planned in a reservoir that has the fluid and rock properties in Table 3.16. Relative permeability relationships TABLE 3.16-ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTIES, PROBLEM 3.3 cf> Example 3.13-Application of K-Factor Method for Calculating Performance of a Linear Miscible Displacement. An oil in a homogeneous sandpack is to be displaced miscibly with a solvent. Properties of the system and fluids are P,o=1.2 cp, P,s=O.lO cp, and k=500 md. Calculate the fractional flow of solvent in the effluent stream as a function of the number of PV' s of solvent injected. Solution. Eq. 3.189 is applicable after solvent breakthrough. K must be calculated first with Eq. 3.195. K=E=[0.78+0.22(P,olP,s) 'A]4 = [0.78+0.22(1.2/0.1) 'A]4 =2.00. First, determine (Vpi)bt and then substitute different values of Vpi[VPi > (Vp;)bt] into Eq. 3.189 to calculatefs. (Vpiht=1IK=112.0=0.5. Value -- S/w Sor p.w. cp p.o. cp (Xl (X2 0.097 0.20 0.38 0.65 1.25 1.0 0.5 3 1.5 TABLE 3.18-RELATIVE PERMEABILITY PARAMETERS, PROBLEM 3.6-CHEMICAL A 0!1 0!2 S/w Sor /lw' /lo' cp cp 20.0 1.0 0.72 3.72 2.56 are given by Eqs. 3.14 through 3.16. Determine the following using frontal advance relationships. 1. Flood-front saturation. 2. Oil recovery (PV) at breakthrough. 3. Oil recovery (PV) when the F wo = 10, 25, and 50. 4. Saturation profIle, Sw-xD' when tD=0.25. 5. Location of the boundary between the injected water and the resident water when tD=0.25. 6. Prepare a plot of xD vs. tD for these saturations: Swf; Sw=0.45, 0.5, 0.54, and Swb. 3.4 A reservoir contains an oil (0 API =25) that has a viscosity of 20 cp at reservoir temperature. The operator would like to know whether the reservoir is a candidate for waterflooding. Table 3.17 presents the rock and fluid properties for a reservoir to be waterflooded, and Eqs. 3.14 through 3.16 represent relative permeabilities for oil and water. Using frontal advance relationships, determine the following. 1. Oil recovery (in PV) as a function of PV's, tD, of water injected for 0<tD<1.5. Plot oil recovery vs. tD. 2. Oil recovery (PV) as a function of PV's of fluid injected for 0< tD < 1. 5 assuming that a nonadsorbing, viscous fluid was injected. The viscosity of the viscous fluid is 10 cpo 6. Oil recovery as a function of pore volumes of chemical injected. 7. Incremental oil from low-tension flooding for values of tD ~ 1I1s;';3 3.7 Assume that the chemical flood in Problem 3.6 is conducted late in the life of the waterflood where the oil saturation in the swept region is approximately at Sor. Determine the following. 1. Water saturation of the oil bank, Swl, and the WOR at breakthrough of the oil bank. 2. Water saturation at the chemical flood front, S;t3. 3. Saturation profIle when the chemical flood front is atxD =0.5. 4. PV's of chemical injected when the chemical flood front reaches the end of the linear system. 5. Oil recovery as a function of PV's of chemical injected. 6. Fractional flow of water as a function of PV's of chemical injected. 7. Incremental oil from low-tension flooding for the interval between 0 and the time that the chemical flood front reaches the end of the linear system as determined in 4. 3.8 A reservoir containing a viscous oil (P,o =47.8 cp at reservoir temperature of 125F) is to be waterflooded. Relative permeability data were obtained on preserved reservoir core from linear displacement tests run at constant injection rate. The krw1kro data obtained from the laboratory corefloods can be correlated with Eq. 3.196 for the saturation range of 0.356 ~Sw ~0.78. The viscosity of water at reservoir temperature is 0.59 cp; therefore, an unfavorable mobility ratio would be expected. 3.5 A chemical flood is being considered for the reservoir described in Problem 3.4. This chemical viscosifies the water but does not reduce the residual oil saturation. Sufficient chemical will be added to the injected water to increase the viscosity to 10 cpo Relative permeability relationships are not affected by the chemical; however, the chemical adsorbs on the reservoir rock and is retained irreversibly. Laboratory measurements indicate that adsorption follows an equilibrium isotherm similar to that in Fig. 3.18. The slope of the equilibrium isotherm, D i , has a value of 1.00 at the injected concentration. 1. Determine the saturation profIle when 0.25 PVs of chemical has been injected in the reservoir. Plot the saturation vs. xD. Identify the regions on the saturation profIle occupied by the resident brine and the viscous chemical. 2. Estimate the oil recovery (PV) as a function ofPV's of chemical injected for the interval O<tD < 1.5. 3. Determine the incremental oil resulting from the chemical flood. 3.6 A low-tension waterflood is to be evaluated for the reservoir described in Problem 3.3. Laboratory data indicate that the residual oil saturation is reduced to 0.15 when Chemical A is added to the injected water and is injected continuously. Chemical A adsorbs on the rock and is retained irreversibly. The amount of adsorption is not known but will be studied by varying the value of D i . Laboratory data indicate that the relative permeability relationships are altered the presence of Chemical A but can be represented by Eqs. 3.14 through 3.16 with the values of aI, az, m, and n given in Table 3.18. The viscosity of the low-tension fluid is 3.0 cpo Determine the following for the case when D i =0.50. 1. Breakthrough saturation and the WOR at breakthrough. 2. Water saturation in the oil bank, Swl. 3. Water saturation at the chemical flood front, S;';,3. 4. Saturation profIle when tD =0.2. 5. PV of chemical injected when the chemical flood front reaches the end of the linear system. )=a+b In(Sw) , ......................... (3.196) k ro where the values of a=3.544877 and b=4.742485. Note that krw1kro in Eq. 3.196 has a finite value when Sw=l-Sop Consider a chemical flood to which a low concentration of chemical is added to the injected water to increase the viscosity and reduce the mobility ratio. The residual oil saturation to waterflood is not affected by the chemical. Estimate the displacement performance of an ideal chemical flood by assuming adsorption losses are negligible and the viscosity of the injected solution is 10 cp at reservoir temperature. Table 3.19 gives other reservoir properties. 1. Determine the flood front saturation, if any. 2. Determine the saturation of the oil bank. 3. Determine the saturation of the chemical flood front and sketch the saturation profIle after 0.1 PV of chemical has been injected into this reservoir. 4. Estimate the number ofPV's injected when the chemical flood front just reaches the end of the linear system (i.e., tD at XD3 = 1.0). 5. Estimate oil recovery (PV) as a function of tD to a WOR of 25. What fraction of the oil is recovered after the chemical flood front reaches the end of the linear system? TABLE 3.19-RESERVOIR AND FLUID PROPERTIES, PROBLEM 3.8 /lo' /lw, S/w Sor 0.59 0.356 0.22 TABLE 3.20-COEFFICIENTS FOR RELATIVE PERMEABILITY CORRELATIONS, EQS. 3.197 THROUGH 3.199 cific point in time, calculate the concentration of NaCI (in parts per million) as a function of position x in the core. 3.13. Hall and Geffen 28 reported an 8.5-ft mixing-zone length for the following conditions in their dispersion experiments: core length=62 ft, v=2.0 ftlD, unfavorable viscosity ratio, and Torpedo sandstone core. The mixing-zone length is measured between the 95 % and 5 % concentration levels. How does this mixing-zone length compare with that which would be predicted by the solution to the diffusivity equation for a favorable mobility ratio? 3.14. Consider a linear core that originally contains Fluid A. Starting at time zero, Fluid B is injected at a constant rate of 0.0413 ft/hr. After a fixed period of constant injection, the injected fluid is changed to Fluid C and injection is continued at the same rate. The system is shown in Fig. 3.63. Fluid A is miscible with Fluid B, and Fluid C is miscible with Fluid B. Fluids A and C are not miscible. Also, if Fluids A and C are mixed with Fluid B the system can become immiscible. In particular, if the concentrations of Fluids A and C each exceed 1 % when mixed with Fluid B, then the system becomes immiscible. It is desired to inject a slug of Fluid B of sufficient size such that the system will stay miscible throughout the displacement process from the entrance to the end at x=50 ft-Le., until the concentration of Fluid B is 50% at x=50 ft (mean front position). Fluids A, B, and C have similar physical properties. The dispersion coefficient is assumed to be a constant value of K=3.1xlO- 4 ft 2 /hr for all three fluids. With this information, estimate the minimum slug size of Fluid B so that miscibility will not be lost. Define the size in terms of the total time of injection of Fluid B or in terms of the distance between the mean positions of the front and back of the slug. 3.15. Consider flow in a linear sandstone core. An experiment is run in which Chemical A is displaced by Chemical B, with which it is miscible. A step change in concentration is made at the inlet (x=O) at t=O. The velocity of the displacement is 6.6xlO- 5 in.!sec. When the mean position of the front has traveled 96 in. (t = 1.461 X 10 6 seconds), the width of the mixing zone is 19.5 in. The width is defined as the distance between the points where the concentrations of Chemical Bare 0.02 and 0.98 (normalized concentrations) . 1. Calculate the dispersion coefficient. Assume that the dispersion process fits the theory perfectly. 2. Assume that a second experiment is run in the same system but at a velocity three times the original. Calculate the width of the mixing zone when the mean position of the front has traveled 96 in. (same position as in the original experiment). 3. If a third experiment were run, but at a velocity of 10 times the original velocity, would the width of the mixing zone be larger than detennined in Part 2? Again assume that the width is to be measured when the mean position of the front has traveled 96 in. Explain the reasons for your answer. Additional information (applies to all questions): 1. Assume that the Perkins and Johnston correlation, Eq. 3.164, applies and that the contribution of the molecular diffusion term is completely negligible. 1.000677 -0.99625 -0.55874189 "1.2140403 1.281874 -9.42322 6. Detennine the incremental oil recovery as a function of tD' 3.9 A thin reservoir zone (8 ft thick) is to be opened in several wells to production. The oil from this zone is expected to have a viscosity of 2.36 cp at reservoir temperature. Because the oil is essentially dead, it will be necessary to supplement the reservoir energy to produce oil at economical rates. A waterflood is under consideration. Relative permeability data from an adjacent interval have been correlated with water saturation by use of Eqs. 3.197 and 3.198. Log calculations indicate that the initial water saturation should be 0.136. A residual oil saturation of 0.325 was obtained on cores from a geologically similar interval. 1. Calculate the waterflood recovery (PV) as a function ofPV's, tD' of fluid injected for O~tD to a WOR of F wo =50.The viscosity of water at reservoir temperature is 0.63 cp. Relative permeability relationships are given by Eqs. 3.197 and 3.198. kro=(ao+boS~J)2 ...................... " ..... (3.197) In Sw and In krw=aw+b w- - , ........................ (3.198) where Eq. 3.16 gives SwD and Table 3.20 gives the coefficients a o' b o' a w , and b w for the waterflood. 2. Estimate the potential for a low-tension chemical flood if the residual oil saturation to chemical flooding is Sore =0.1 for the interval from tD until the chemical flood front breaks through. Determine the incremental oil when the viscosity of the low-tension solution is 10 cp and the retention factor, D i , is 0.25. Assume that Eqs. 3.198 and 3.199 represent the relative permeability relationships for the low-tension flood. kro=(aol +bolS~J)2, .......................... (3.199) where SwD is (Sw-Siw)/(I-Sore-Siw) for the low tension flood. 3.10 Estimate the incremental oil in Problem 3.9 when the lowtension flood begins at the end of the waterflood when the residual oil saturation is assumed to be 0.325. Compare your estimation of oil recovery vs. PV of chemical injected with the results of Problem 3.9. 3.11 Show that the erfW solution (Eq. 3.148) given for the convection-diffusion partial-differential equation does indeed satisfy the equation. 3.12 Consider Example 3.9. Assume that a time of 50 hours has elapsed since the inlet brine concentration was changed. At this spe- I~r-------L = 50ft - - - - - -.....I .. ~ x =0 --~~ V = 0.0413 ft/hr Mean Positions of Fluids Shown Fig. 3.63-lnjection of a slug, Problem 3.14. DISPLACEMENT IN LINEAR SYSTEMS TABLE 3.21-GLYCEROL DISPLACEMENT RUN, PROBLEM 3.19, BEREA SANDSTONE CORE o Chloride Tracer b. Ethanol Tracer Experimental Conditions Flow rate, cm 3 /hr .Flow velocity, in.lD Collection rate, test tube/hr Permeability before run, md Average temperature, OF Temperature range, OF Average pressure In core, psig Core Dimensions Length, in. Diameter, in. Area, in.2 PV, cm 3 Porosity 6 13.8 1 303 77 70 to 85 40' oL-~~~--~~-B~--~-L~--~~~~~ 0.60 0.60 1.00 Pore Volumes Injected. Vpl 48.07 1.981 3.081 500.53 0.2062 Fig. 3.64-Glycerol displacement run in Berea sandstone core, Problem 3.19. 2. The following parameter values may be used if required: F[dp =0.24 in. andD=1.0x1O- 5 cm 2/s. 3.16. Assume that a propane miscible displacement is to be carried out in a field test. The minimum propane slug size rec,luired in the test to ensure miscibility throughout the displacement process needs to be estimated. Pressure and temperature conditions are such that propane is miscible with the crude oil and with methane, which will be used to displace the propane slug. For simplicity, assume that the reservoir is linear and is 500 ft long (distance between injection and production well). cf>=20% and Sor=37%. Determine the minimum slug size, assuming that the porous medium is homogeneous. For this purpose, define the minimum slug size to be that which will just maintain a zone of propane of at least 95 % of original composition between the oil/propane zone and the trailing propane/methane zone. Give your answer as a percent of the total reservoir HCPV. Additional data: P-o =3.0 cp, P- C 3 =0.10 cp, and P-CJ =0.015 cpo 3.17. A miscible displacement is to be carried out in a given reservoir with Chemical B. Chemical B is miscible with the crude oil at all compositions. The flood is to be conducted in a line drive. The injection well and an observation well are 400 ft apart. The flood-front velocity is to be 1.5 ft/D. Assume that the reservoir rock is similar to Berea sandstone. The viscosity of Chemical B is about the same as the crude oil viscosity (slightly favorable mobility ratio). 1. If a slug of Chemical B is injected as a step change in concentration, how long will it take for breakthrough at the observation well? Assume that a 1 % concentration constitutes breakthrough. 2. What is the width (in feet) of the mixed zone at this time? Assume that the width is the distance between the points where the Chemical B concentrations are 99 % and 1 %. Additional data: D (Chemical B in oil) =5.43 X 10- 5 ft2/hr, lI(FR cf =:: 0.5, and F[dp =0.15 in. Use the Perkins and Johnston correlation, Eq. 3.164, to estimate Ke for this calculation. 3.18. A laboratory experiment on dispersion is conducted on an outcrop core. In the experiment, water is displaced by water con- Displacement Fluids Fluid initially in core: brine, 30 9 NaCI/L, 650 9 glycerol/L Viscosity at 22.5 seconds -1 and 77F, cp 7.4 Density at 77F, g/cm 3 1.1551 Fluid injected: brine, 20 9 NaCI/L, 700 9 glycerol/L, 2.5 vol% ethanol Viscosity at 22.5 seconds -1 and 77F, cp 11.3 Density at 77 F, g/cm 3 1.1609 'Pressure caused by effluent valve restricting flow. taining alcohol as a tracer. The frontal velocity for the experiment is 5.0 ftlD. The measured dispersion coefficient, K e, is 1.63x1O- 3 ft2/hr. 1. Estimate the dispersion coefficient at a velocity of 1.0 ftlD. 2. Estimate the dispersion coefficient at a velocity of 250 ftlD. 3. For the dispersion coefficient of Part 1, calculate the width of the dispersion zone at 48 hours after the start of injection. Assume that the width of the dispersion zone is defined to be the distance between points where the concentrations are 0.01 and 0.99. Additional data: D (alcohol in water) =4.26 X 10 -5 ft2/hr and FR cf>=1.2. 3.19. The dispersion data shown in Fig. 3.64 were taken in the laboratory. Table 3.21 shows the run conditions. 1. Determine the dispersion coefficient for this run. 2. Plot the experimental data against the analytical solution to show the "goodness" of fit between theory and data. Plot concentration of the core effluent vs. time. 3. How well do these results compare with those obtained with the Perkins and Johnston correlation? That is, how does your answer to Part 1 compare to the dispersion coefficient value calculated with an appropriate correlation presented by Perkins and Johnston? 3.20. A dispersion experiment is conducted in the laboratory in a linear core, as shown in Fig. 3.65. The core properties are cf>=0.19 and Vp =455.7 cm 3 . The liquid is injected at a constant rate. The linear (interstitial) velocity is 1.39 x 10 -4 in.!sec. In the dispersion experiment, a dye is suddenly injected with the liquid and the concentration of the dye, CB, in the exit stream is measured continuously. Table 3.22 presents the resulting data, also plotted in Figs. 3.66 and 3.67. LiqU:~-0 d ;0 em Fig. 3.65-Dispersion experiment, Problem 3.20. ~LiqUid Out ~I """,I~,----- L = 122.2 em - - - -... TABLE 3.22-DISPERSION DATA, PROBLEM 3.20 Volume Injected, (cm 3 ) Brigham Parameter, * U (em 3/2) Normalized Concentration of Exit Stream, f.tAI f.t B > 1.0 with the calculated concentrations obtained from the Koval model for viscous fingering. 3.24 Consider Collins' 26 model that describes the growth of viscous fingers for an unfavorable mobility ratio (Eq. 3.173). Calculate the increase in as a function of time when o=O.OOI m, L=5.0 m, xf=l.O m, M=1.2, <1>=0.20, f.ts=0.5 cp=0.5xlO- 3 Pas, M=1l,310 kPa, and k=200 md=0.197x 10- 12 m 2 . Refer to Fig. 3.60. Nomenclature a = constant in relative permeability correlation in Eq. 3.196 a o = constant in relative permeability correlation in Eq. 3.197 a 0 1 = constant in relative permeability correlation in Eq. 3.199 a w = constant in relative permeability correlation in Eq. 3.198 A = cross-sectional area, L2, ft2 Ai = amount of Species i retained at C ii , m/m, f.tg/g rock b = constant in relative permeability correlation in Eq. 3.196 b 0 = constant in relative permeability correlation in Eq. 3.197 b 01 = constant in relative permeability correlation in Eq. 3.199 b w = constant in relative permeability correlation in Eq. 3.198 B = FVF, L3 IL3, bbllSTB C = constant defined in Eq. 3. 174 CB = actual or normalized concentration of Component B, m/L3 or fraction, Ibm/ft 3 or fraction = actual concentration of Component B, m/L3, Ibm/ft 3 CBi = injected or maximum concentration of Component B, m/L3, Ibm/ft 3 CBo = initial concentration of Component B in the system, m/L3, Ibm/ft 3 Ci = concentration of Species i, m/L3, Ibm/ft 3 Cli = injected concentration of Species i, m/L3, Ibm/ft 3 eli = retained Species i or polymer at concentration CiO in fluid, m/L3, Ibm/PV CiO. = initial concentration of Species i, m/L3, Ibm/ft 3 dp = average particle diameter, L, ft D = molecular diffusion coefficient, L 2 /t, ft 2/hr D a = apparent diffusion coefficient in porous medium, L2 It, ft 2 /hr DBA = molecular diffusion coefficient, L2/t, ft 2 /hr Di = ratio of injected to retained chemical concentrations, fraction E = Koval viscosity ratio factor f = fractional flow, L3 IL3 , volume fraction 410 420 440 455.7 470 490 500 -0.660 -1.550 -1.981 CB 0.05 0.10 0.29 0.50 0.68 0.87 0.92 "Equal to (V p - VI )/JV;. Assume that the experiment is to be repeated at a higher velocity. The new liquid velocity will be 3.33xlO- 3 in./sec. This is 24 times greater than the first velocity. The dispersion coefficient is assumed to be related to velocity by K f = av 1. 2 , where K f =dispersion coefficient, v=velocity, and a=constant to be determined. For this experiment, calculate and plot the predicted normalized exit concentration vs. Vi and U. 3.21 Consider the miscible displacement of an oil by a solvent in a homogeneous porous medium. For the conditions of each case specified below, calculate the normalized concentration of the solvent in the effluent as a function of number of PV's of solvent injected. Use the Koval K-factor method. 1. f.to=5.0 cp and f.ts=1.0 cpo 2. f.to =5.0 cp and f.ts =0.2 cpo Plot the results as C vs. Vpi . 3.22 Consider the miscible displacement of an oil by a solvent in a homogeneous porous medium. f.to = f.ts = 1.0 cp the dispersion coefficient, K f , is 5 X 10-5 cm 2 /s, Vp=550 cm 3 ; core length, L, is 48 in.; and the time to inject 1 PV, t, is 3.5x10 5 seconds. Calculate the normalized concentration of solvent in the effluent as a function of the number of PV's injected. Plot the results as C vs. Vpi on the same graph as Problem 3.21. 3.23 Brigham et at. 9 present miscible displacement dispersion data for cases where the viscosity ratio is unfavorable. Some of the data are given in Figs. 3.55 and 3.56. Compare the data for ,g !.!! E 0.6 Q) 'fa -2.0 99 5 10 30 50 70 90 Normalized Concentration. Cs 99.99 o~--~----~--~--~~--~--~ Volume Injected. Vj, cm3 Fig. 3.67-Experimental dispersion data, Problem 3.20. Fig. 3.66-Probability paper plot of data, Problem 3.20. ID = fractional flow of displacing phase liw = fractional flow of water at interstitial water saturation, fiw =0 in this text, L3 IL3, volume fraction Is' I;!; = derivative of fractional flow of solvent with respect to saturation or volume fraction of solvent = derivative of water fractional-flow curve wi~h I: = IWb = I wf = I:'! Iwl = Iw2 = Iw3 = 1:'1 t:,3 I~; = F[ = FR = Fwo = H = k = kD = kr = K = Ke = Kf = Kt = L = m = mbegin = mBx = mend = min = mout = M = n = Np = I1p PL Po q respect to Sw fractional flow of viscous or chemical solution having a different fractional-flow curve than water, L3 IL3, volume fraction . fractional flow of water at interface between interstitial and injected water at saturation Swb, L3 IL3 , volume fraction fractional flow of water at flood front at saturation Swf, L3 IL3, volume fraction derivative of water fractional-flow curve at saturation Swf fractional flow of water in oil bank preceding viscous or chemical flood saturation discontinuity, L3 IL3, volume fraction fractional flow of water corresponding to saturation Sw2, L 3/L3, volume fraction fractional flow of water corresponding to saturation Sw3, L3 IL3, volume fraction derivative of water fractional-flow curve at saturation Swl derivative of water fractional-flow curve at saturation Sw2 fractional flow of water at saturation S,t3, saturation of viscous or chemical shock front, L3 IL3 , volume fraction derivative of fractional-flow curve with respect to S;:; at saturation S;:;3, saturation of chemical or viscous-shock front inhomogeneity factor formation electrical resistivity, RIR' WOR, L3 IL3, bbllbbl Koval heterogeneity factor permeability, L2, md effective permeability of displacing phase, L2, md relative permeability, dimensionless Koval factor=HE convective contribution to longitudinal dispersion coefficient, L2 It, ft 2/hr longitudinal dispersion coefficient, L2/t, ft 2 /hr transverse dispersion coefficient, L2/t, ft 2 /hr length, L, ft exponent in Eq. 3.14 amount of Fluid B in differential volume element at beginning of time period I1t, m, Ibm rate of Fluid B diffusing across plane in x direction, m/t,lbm/hr amount of Fluid B in differential volume element at end of time period I1t, m, Ibm amount of Fluid B flowing into element, Eq. 3.142 amount of Fluid B flowing out of element, Eq. 3.142 mobility ratio, dimensionless exponent in Eq. 3.15 oil displaced by a flood, L3, STB = pressure, m/Lt2, psi = pressure drop, m/Lt2, psi = pressure at downstream position, m/Lt2, psi = pressure at upstream position, m/Lt2, psi = flow rate, L3 It, BID = total injection rate, L3 It, BID = pore volumes injected, L3/L3 electrical resistivity of porous medium saturated with liquid that conducts electricity R' = electrical resistivity of liquid in porous medium Siw = interstitial water saturation, L3 IL3, volume fraction Sor = waterflood ROS, L3 IL3, volume fraction Sore = low-tension flood ROS, L3 IL3, volume fraction Ss = saturation of solvent, L3 IL3, volume fraction Sw = water saturation, L 3/L3, volume fraction S;:; = water saturation in region where flowing fluid system is viscous fluid or chemical solution, L3 IL3, volume fraction Sw = average water saturation of the linear system, L3 IL3, volume fraction Swb = water saturation at miscible boundary between injected and interstitial water, L 3/L3,. volume fraction Swb = average water saturation in region behind miscible boundary between injected and interstitial water, L3 IL3, volume fraction SwD = dimensionless water saturation Swf = flood-front saturation, L3 IL3, volume fraction Swr = water saturation in water bank at oil-bank shock, L3 IL3, volume fraction Swl = water saturation in oil bank preceding chemical flood saturation discontinuity, L3 IL3, volume fraction Sw2 = water saturation at end of linear system, L3 IL3 , volume fraction Sw3 = water saturation on J-tw fractional-flow curve in developing viscous or chemical shock when chemical flood begins after waterflood, L3 IL3 , volume fraction S,t3 = water saturation of shock front associated with I:, fractional flow of viscous or chemical solution, L3/L3, volume fraction t = time, t, days t* = time to inject 1 PV, t, days tD = dimensionless time or PV's injected tDbt = dimensionless time when flood front breaks through at end of linear system tD! = dimensionless time of flood front breakthrough t~o = dimensionless time when S;:; evolves from saturation profile tD! = dimensionless time when Swl breaks through at end of linear system tD2 = dimensionless time when water saturation Sw2 arrives at end of linear system I1t = time increment, t, seconds u = Darcy velocity, Lit, ftlD U = parameter in solution of diffusivity equation, (Vp - V)I-JV, L3/2, ft3/2 u = Darcy velocity, Lit, ft/D U IO = value of U evaluated when CB =O.l, L3/2, ft3/2 U90 = value of Uevaluated when CB =0.9, L3/2, ft3/2 v = pore velocity, ul, Lit, ftlD v = average velocity of fluid flowing in circular conduit, Lit, ftlD vci = specific velocity of concentration shock vD = specific velocity, dimensionless vDo = specific velocity of oil bank vDv = specific velocity of viscous shock vDv = average specific velocity of viscous shock v1v = specific velocity associated with saturation Sw in flood vD! = specific velocity of water saturation Swl vjj3 = specific velocity of S,t3, chemical solution saturation discontinuity V max = maximum velocity of fluid flowing in circular conduit, LIt, ftlD VI = velocity of resident water phase, LIt, ft/D V3 = velocity of saturation S;;',3, Eq. 3.38, LIt, ft/D vj = velocity of shock front associated with viscous or chemical flood, LIt, ft/D' Vi = volume of fluid injected, L3, ft3 Vp = volume in 1 PV, AcpL, L3, ft3 Vpi = number of PV's of solvent injected for Ss to reach the end of porous medium (~ibl) = PV's of solvent injected at time of solvent breakthrough, L3 IL3, volume fraction (~icomp) = PV's of solvent injected at time that all oil has been recovered in miscible displacement, L3 IL3, volume fraction vwf = velocity of water saturation Swf, LIt, ft/D x = linear distance, L, ft xb = location of miscible boundary between injected and interstitial water, L, ft xD = dimensionless distance in x direction XDb = dimensionless location of miscible boundary between injected and interstitial water xDf = dimensionless distance to flood front, L, ft xDi = dimensionless location of chemical tracer front when adsorption occurs xDo = dimensionless location of oil-bank saturation discontinuity for low-tension flood at ROS xDw = dimensionless distance to point of saturation Sw xDl = dimensionless location of leading edge of viscous or chemical shock xD3 = shock dimensionless distance to location of saturation S;;',3 xf = location of flood-front saturation in x direction, L, ft xfl = location of flood-front saturation at time t, L, ft xSs = location of solvent saturation Ss in linear system xSw = location of water saturation Sw in x direction, L, ft xwf = location of the flood front, L, ft Xl,X2,X3 = positions in x direction xlO = distance to position where concentration is 10% of injected concentration, L, ft x90 = distance to position where concentration is 90% of injected concentration, L, ft 01 = constant in Problem 3.10 011,012 = constants in Eq. 3.15 E = length parameter EO = initial length of perturbation .\ = dummy integration variable f.t = viscosity, miLt, cp f.t* = viscosity of injected viscous water or chemical solution, miLt, cp f.tA = viscosity of Fluid A, miLt, cp f.tB = viscosity of Fluid B, miLt, cp f.tD = viscosity of displacing phase, miLt, cp f.tl = viscosity of Fluid 1, miLt, cp f.t2 = viscosity of Fluid 2, miLt, cp P = fluid density, m/L3, lbm/ft 3 Pgr = grain density, m/L3, lbm/ft 3 cp = porosity, fraction CPi = porosity occupied by Species i, fraction 2. Patton, J.T., Coats, K.H., and Colegrove, G.T.: "Prediction of Polymer Flood Performance," SPEJ (March 1971) 72-84; Trans., AIME, 251. 3. Pope, G.A.: "The Application of Fractional Flow Theory to Enhanced Oil Recovery," SPEJ (June 1980) 191-205. 4. Willhite, G.P.: Wateiflooding, Textbook Series, SPE, Richardson, TX (1986) 3. 5. Welge, H.J.: "A Simplified Method for Computing Oil Recoveries by Gas or Water Drive," Trans., AIME (1952) 195, 91-98. 6. Craig Jr., F .F.: The Reservoir Engineering Aspects of Wateiflooding, Monograph Series, SPE, Richardson, TX (1971) 3. 7. Talash, A.W.: "Experimental and Calculated Relative Permeability Data for Systems Containing Tension Additives," paper SPE 5810 presented at the 1976 SPE Enhanced Oil Recovery Symposium, Tulsa, March 22-24. 8. Perkins, T.K. and Johnston, O. C.: "A Review of Diffusion and Dispersion in Porous Media," SPEJ (March 1963) 70-81; Trans., AlME, 228. 9. Brigham, W.E., Reed, P.W., and Dew, J.N.: "Experiments on Mixing During Miscible Displacement in Porous Media," SPEJ (March 1961) 1-8; Trans., AIME, 222. 10. Carman, P.C.: Flow of Gases Through Porous Media, Reinhold Press, New York City (1956). 11. Taylor, G.I.: "Dispersion of Soluble Water in Solvent Flowing Slowly Through a Tube," Proc., Royal Soc. (1953) 219, 186. 12. Aris, R. and Amundson, N.R.: "Some Remarks on Longitudinal Mixing and Diffusion in Fixed Beds," A/ChE J. (1957) 3, 280-82. 13. Aris, R.: "The Longitudinal Diffusion Coefficient in Flow Through a Tube With Stagnant Pockets," Chern. Eng. Sci. (1959) 11,194-98. 14. Raimondi, P., Gardner, G.H.F., and Petrick, C.B.: "Effects of Pore Structure and Molecular Diffusion on the Mixing of Miscible Liquids in Porous Media," Preprint 43 presented at the 1959 AIChE/SPE Joint Symposium, San Francisco, Dec. 6-9. 15. Keulemans, A.I.M.: Gas Chromatography, Reinhold Press, New York City (1957). 16. Crane, F.E. and Gardner, G.H.F.: "Measurements of Transverse Dispersion in Granular Media," J. Chern. Eng. Data (1961) 6, 283. 17. Handy, L.L.: "An Evaluation of Diffusion Effects in Miscible Displacement," Trans., AIME (1959) 216, 382-84. 18. Koval, E.J.: "A Method for Predicting the Performance of Unstable Miscible Displacement in Heterogeneous Media," SPEJ (June 1963) 145-54; Trans., AIME, 228. 19. Coats, K.H. and Smith, B.D.: "Dead-End Pore Volume and Dispersion in Porous Media," SPEJ (March 1964) 73-84; Trans., AlME, 231. 20. Thomas, G.H., Countryman, G.R., and Fatt, I.: "Miscible Displacement in a Multiphase System," SPEJ (Sept. 1963) 189-96; Trans., AIME,228. 21. Baldwin Jr., D.E.: "Prediction of Tracer Performance in a Five-Spot Pattern," JPT(AprilI966) 513-17; Trans., AlME, 237. 22. Brigham, W.E. and Smith, D .H.: "Prediction of Tracer Behavior in Fi veSpot Flow," paper SPE 1130 presented at the 1965 SPE Conference on Production Research and Engineering, Tulsa, May 3-4. 23. Haberman, R.: "The Efficiencies of Miscible Displacement as a Function of Mobility Ratio," Trans., AIME (1960) 219, 264-72. 24. van Meurs, P. and van der Poel, C.: "A Theoretical Description of Water-Drive Processes Involving Viscous Fingering," Trans., AlME (1958) 213, 103-12. 25. van Meurs, P. V.: "The Use of Transparent Three-Dimensional Models for Studying the Mechanism of Flow Processes in Oil Reservoirs," Trans., AIME (1957) 210, 295-301. 26. Collins, R.E.: Flow ofFluids Through Porous Materials, PennWell Publishing Co., Tulsa (1961) 196. 27. Blackwell, R.J., Rayne, J.R., and Terry, W.M.: "Factors Influencing the Efficiency of Miscible Displacement," Trans., AlME (1959) 216, 1-8. 28. Hall, H.N. and Geffen, T.M.: "Laboratory Study of Solvent Flooding," JPT (Feb. 1957) 48-57; Trans., AIME, 210. Subscripts g = gas phase o = oil phase s = solvent w = water phase 1. Claridge, E.L. and Bonder, P.L.: "A Graphical Method for Calculating Linear Displacement With Mass Transfer and Continuously Changing Mobilities," SPEJ (Dec. 1974) 609-18; Trans., AlME, 257. SI Metric Conversion Factors bbl x 1.589873 E-Ol E-03 cp x 1.0* dyneslcm x 1.0* E+OO E-Ol ft x 3.048* ft2 X 9.290304* E-02 ft3 x 2.831 685 E-02 OF (OF-32)/1.8 in. x 2.54* E+OO in. 2 x 6.451 6* E+OO md x 9.869233 E-04 psi x 6.894757 E+OO m3 Pa's mNlm m m2 m3 C cm cm 2 f.tm 2 Macroscopic Displacement of Fluids in a Reservoir 4.1 Introduction Oil recovery in any displacement process depends on the volume of reservoir contacted by the injected fluid. A quantitative measure of this contact is the volumetric displacement (sweep) efficiency, Ey Volumetric sweep is a macroscopic efficiency defined as the fraction of reservoir (or project) PV invaded by the injected fluid, or stated another way, the fraction of PV that has been contacted or affected by the injected fluid. Clearly, Ey is a function of time in a displacement process. Overall displacement efficiency in a process can be viewed conceptually as a product of the volumetric sweep, Ey, and the microscopic efficiency , ED, defined in Chap. 1. E=EyED, ...................................... (4.1) where E=overall hydrocarbon displacement efficiency, the volume of hydrocarbon displaced divided by the volume of hydrocarbon in place at the start of the process measured at the same conditions of pressure and temperature; Ey=macroscopic (volumetric) displacement efficiency; and ED = microscopic (volumetric) hydrocarbon displacement efficiency. This chapter concerns the volumetric sweep efficiency of displacement processes. Four factors generally control how much of a reservoir will be contacted by a displacement process: (1) the properties ofthe injected fluids, (2) the properties ofthe displaced fluids, (3) the properties and geological characteristics of the reservoir rock, and (4) the geometry of the injection and production well pattern. Over a number of years, a significant understanding of how these factors affect volumetric sweep has developed, and this is the principal focus of this chapter. Parameters that control volumetric sweep and how those parameters affect displacement performance are described. General principles relating to volumetric sweep that must be considered in planning EOR processes are discussed. This chapter is not intended to prescribe specific design procedures, but to provide an overview of the principles that underlie most design approaches. 4.2 Volumetric Displacement Efficiency and Material Balance Volumetric displacement, or sweep efficiency, is often used to estimate oil recovery by use of material-balance concepts. For example, consider a displacement process that reduces the initial oil saturation to a residual saturation in the region contacted by the displacing fluid. If the process is assumed to be piston-like, the oil displaced is given by N p =(SOl _ S02 )VpE y , Bo1 B02 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4.2) where Np =oil displaced, SOl =oil saturation at the beginning of the displacement process, S02 =residual oil saturation at the end of the process in the volume of reservoir contacted by the displacing fluid, Bo1 =FVF at initial conditions, B02 =FVF at the end of the process, and Vp=reservoir PV. Dividing both sides of Eq. 4.2 by the oil in place (OIP). at the start of the process gives the fractional recovery as a product of the microscopic and macroscopic displacement efficiencies. NplN1 =EDEy, .................................. (4.3) where N1 =OIP at the beginning of the displacement process. If displacement performance data are available, Eq. 4.2 also can be used to estimate volumetric sweep. For example, if waterflood recovery data are available, the equation can be rearranged to solve for Ey: V (SOl _ S02) p Bo1 B02 , ........................... (4.4) where Np = oil produced in the waterflood. In a waterflood of a reservoir that has been producing under solution-gas drive, resaturation of volume occupied by trapped gas may occur. 1 In this case, the material-balance equation, solved in terms of Ey and assuming piston-like displacement, is given by N Boi E y = --------'-'--, ......................... (4.5) Sorw 1-Soi 1-(1- Np)~ where Np =total oil produced by primary recovery plus waterflooding, N=original OIP, Soi=initial oil saturation, Sorw=residual oil saturation in the swept system at the end of the waterflood, Boi=initial FVF, and Bo=FVF at conditions of the waterflood. Volumetric sweep efficiencies of waterfloods range from only a few percent to almost 100%. Because of the assumptions made in the derivation of Eqs. 4.4 and 4.5, it cannot be determined whether the entire vertical cross section of the reservoir has been swept, leaving some parts of the reservoir or the edges unswept, or whether one or more vertical zones were thoroughly swept while other zones received little injected fluid. In calculations involving a displacement process, a useful concept is the mobility ratio, M, of the displacing and displaced fluid phases. M=AD1Ad, .................................... (4.11) where AD = mobility of the displacing fluid phase and Ad=mobility of the displaced fluid phase. Note that M is a dimensionless quantity. The mobility ratio is an extremely important parameter in any displacement process. It affects both areal and vertical sweep, with sweep decreasing as M increases for a given volume of fluid injected. Further, M affects the stability of a displacement process, with flow becoming unstable (nonuniform displacement front) when M> 1.0. This unstable flow is called viscous fingering and was discussed in Chap. 3. Because a value of M relative to unity is so significant, a value> 1.0 is referred to as an unfavorable mobility ratio. Conversely, a value < 1.0 is a. favorable mobility ratio. M can be defined in a variety of ways, depending on the flow conditions in a specific process. For example, when one solvent is displacing a second solvent with which the first solvent is completely miscible and only one phase is flowing, 4.3 Volumetric Displacement Efficiency Expressed as the Product of Areal and Vertical Displacement Efficiencies Volumetric sweep efficiency can be considered conceptually as the product of the areal and vertical sweep efficiencies. Consider a reservoir that has uniform porosity, thickness, and hydrocarbon saturation, but that consists of several layers. For a displacement process conducted in the reservoir, E v can be expressed as Ev=EAEj, ..................................... (4.6) where EA =areal sweep (displacement) efficiency in an idealized or model reservoir, area swept divided by total reservoir area; and E[=vertical sweep (displacement) efficiency, pore space invaded by the injected fluid divided by the pore space enclosed in all layers behind the location of the leading edge (leading areal location) of the front. All efficiencies are expressed as fractions. E[ is the volumetric sweep efficiency of the region confined by the largest areal sweep efficiency in the system. For a real reservoir, in which porosity, thickness, and hydrocarbon saturation vary areally, E A is replaced by a pattern sweep efficiency, Ep: Ev=EpEj, ..................................... (4.7) M=lkd1lkD' .................................... (4.12) Eq. 4.12 holds because the permeability to each solvent is the absolute porous-medium permeability. For a waterflood where piston-like flow is assumed, with only water flowing behind the front and only oil flowing ahead of the front, where E p =pattern sweep (displacement) efficiency, hydrocarbon pore space enclosed behind the injected-fluid front divided by total hydrocarbon pore space in the pattern or reservoir. In essence, Ep is an areal sweep efficiency that has been corrected for variations in thickness, porosity, and saturation. In either case, overall hydrocarbon recovery efficiency in a displacement process may be expressed as E=EpE[ED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (4.8) M=( krw) Ikw Sor kro slW While Eqs. 4.6 and 4.7 are conceptually correct, application to practical problems generally is difficult. To use Eqs. 4.6 and 4.7 to determine Ev, independent estimates of Ep (or EA) and E[ are required. Such estimates are difficult to obtain because, for displacements in 3D systems, EA and E[ typically are not independent. In the absence of vertical effects, areal sweep can be approximated from correlations developed from scaled physical models or mathematical models. Additionally, there are methods to estimate vertical sweep efficiency, but the availability of model studies is more limited. In practice, Ev usually is determined by application of appropriate correlations or mathematical models based on 3D systems and not by independent calculation of EA and E[. Nonetheless, it is useful to consider Ev as the product of EA and E[ to understand the parameters that affect volumetric sweep. Thus, EA and E[ and the parameters that affect these efficiencies are considered separately in this chapter. Studies have shown that both EA and E [ are strongly influenced by the mobility ratio in either a miscible or immiscible displacement process. Therefore, the concept of mobility ratio will be reviewed before the discussion of the factors that affect E A and E [. Relative permeabilities, krw and k ro , are measured at residual oil saturation (ROS) and interstitial (immobile) water saturation, respectively, because of the assumption of piston-like displacement. Generally, two (or more) phases are flowing both ahead of and behind a displacement front. In this case, phase saturations may change with position and time. Craig 2 defined a mobility ratio for waterflooding (or any immiscible displacement process) as Ms=e IkD (:d) _ ......................... (4.14) rd Sd or MS=(AD)SD1(Ad)Sd' ........................... (4.15) where (AD)S =mobility of the displacing phase measured at the average dispfacing-phase saturation at breakthrough of that phase and (Ad)Sd = mobility of the displaced-phase measured at the average saturation ahead of the displacement front. Yet another definition of mobility ratio is based on total mobility, AI' ahead of and behind the displacement front: MI=(AID)SD1(Atd)Sd' ............................ (4.16) Here, M t is the mobility ratio based on total mobilities, which are given by (AID)SD=~ei) 4.4 Definition and Discussion of Mobility Ratio Mobility of a fluid phase flowing in a porous medium is defined on the basis of the Darcy equation: ui = -(k;llki)(dpldx), ............................. (4.9) where ui = superficial (Darcy) velocity of Phase i, k i = effective permeability of Phase i, Iki=viscosity of Phase i, p=pressure, and x=length, and where appropriate units should be used with each term. For single-phase flow, k i is the absolute permeability of the porous medium. For multiphase flow, it is the effective permeability of the flowing phase and is, therefore, a function of the saturation of the phase. Mobility of the fluid phase, Ai, is given by Ai = (k;llki)' .................................... (4.10) That is, (AID) SD is the sum of mobilities of all phases flowing behind the displacement front measured at the average saturation behind the front. An analogous definition holds for (Aid) Sd' Stalkup 3 recommended this definition " ... for characterizing mobility ratio between an oil bank and the solvent displacing the oil bank when mobile water is present in either region." Stalkup also points out that in many oil recovery processes there will be more than one displacement front. For example, many EOR processes involve the injection of multiple slugs of different fluids. The flow behavior of any specific displacement front is affected not only by the mobilities of the fluids immediately ahead of and behind that front, but also by the mobilities of fluids in regions around the other fronts. For this more general case, there is no uniquely defined mobility ratio that allows prediction of such important parameters as sweep efficiency. , \ ,-0..... A TWO-S~T '---" 'ATTE~N ,,..-0-, \. ) -0-" TH~n-S~T A I.."ECTIONWELL 'IIODUCTION wtLL IOUNOART .... o ....1t' ".... 0 , 0' , ,A,.... .... .... t I ........ I ' I .... O ....A"OIO .... I ............ 1 ' I 0 0 I , I .... I,' ,i( o lA, 0 I O....'f\ 0 I I 't . . ' I , , ' o I 0 ,~, 0 I 0 ,'f If' 0 , I " '1.... I ........ 0,'1", , 'to!,'o " 'Ii" ,'" ,', ....A' 'b"o'o ,'" ,'r, ''A' 0 I" I I I 'A A- -A- -6- -6- -6 REGUL.AR FOUR-SPOT SKEWED FOUR-SPOT I I I I I I ~--O---O---O---O II.- -II.- -6- -A--A A 0 A 0 A 0---<>--0--0---0 NORMAL NINE-SPOT INVERTED NINE - SPOT ,?,"--9-""9---9---<? o-"-o-+-o-+-o-+--o I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I , , I I I I I , I I I I , I FIVE-SPOT ~--~--~-~--t --A--~--A- fr--ct I \ ~---A o---~ p---o t-~-++-~ I I I I , , I , I I o-~-o-t-o-Hr:.-o I I , ~---.t( ,~---( p..--c( 0 'fro-A Ir--t:r-Ir--A---A DIRECT LoINE DRIVE --A---I:M---Ilr---A-- 0---0 '6---4 ,~--t( ,p..--o STAGGERED LINE DRIVE 0..--0 SEVEN-SPOT INVERTED SEVEN - SPOT Fig. 4.1-Flooding patterns (from Craig 2 ). As pointed out, there are a number of different defmitions of mobility ratio. Clearly, caution must be expressed in the application of this concept. In general, when empirical correlations based on mobility ratio are applied, the user must ensure that the mobility ratio is defined in a manner consistent with the definition used by the author of the correlation. 4.5 Areal Displacement Efficiency As discussed in Sec. 4.3, expressing volumetric sweep as a product of areal and vertical sweep efficiencies is useful because it allows correlations that are based on independent studies of the different efficiencies-Le., vertical or areal sweeps-to be applied. One must recognize, however, that this approach is an approximation because the areal sweep is not truly independent of vertical sweep and vice-versa. Nonetheless, a number of studies of areal sweep based on the use of physical models have been reported. Such studies have yielded areal displacement efficiencies, EA' as functions of various parameters for idealized or homogeneous reservoirs. For a real reservoir with variable properties, EA must be replaced with pattern displacement efficiency, E p. 4.5.1 Parameters Affecting Areal Displacement Efficiency. Areal displacement efficiency is controlled by four main factors: injection/production well pattern, reservoir permeability heterogeneity, .i2 0.6 F===--====~==::===~ 0.5 1:3 0 . 4 1 - - - 0.3 ~ 0.2r--- M -0.151 E 0.05 M -1.0 Producing Well {J Injection Well Fig. 4.2-Miscible displacement in a quarter of a five-spot pattern at mobility ratios s 1.0 (from Habermann B ). mobility ratio, and relative importance of gravity and viscous forces. Studies conducted with physical models have focused principally on the first two factors. These factors involve parameters that can be controlled in the laboratory and that have a significant effect on areal sweep. Typically, the models used have been thin, which minimizes the role of gravity segregation and allows areal sweep to be determined independent of vertical sweep-i.e., vertical sweep is essentially 100 %. Results and correlations for EA based on physical models are described in Sec. 4.5.2. A number ofdifferent injection/production well patterns have been used in reservoir displacement processes. Fig. 4.12 shows several of these patterns. The five-spot pattern has been the most commonly used for both waterflooding and EOR processes, and most of the results in this book are for this pattern. The principles and effects illustrated in the studies based on five-spot patterns gener- ally are applicable to other patterns, even though the specific correlations resulting from the studies are pattern dependent. Craig 2 presents correlations for several pattern types and gives a summary of references to modeling studies for different patterns. Permeability heterogeneity often has a marked effect on areal sweep. This effect may be quite different from reservoir to reservoir, however, and thus it is difficult to develop generalized correlations. Anisotropy in permeability has been considered and some of these results are shown in Sec. 4.5.2. Willhite l presents a lengthy discussion of the role of geology on waterflood performance. 4.5.2 Correlations of Areal Displacement Efficiency Based on Modeling Studies. Physical models have been widely used for studies of areal sweep efficiency. Specific well patterns are represented by model configurations that are appropriate fractions of the patterns being investigated-e.g., one-quarter or one-eighth of a five-spot pattern with an injection well on one comer and a production well on the opposite comer of the model. Gravity effects are eliminated by adjusting the densities of the different fluids or by using thin models so that gravity override or underride is minimized. Because laboratory models are small in size compared with a reservoir, physical scaling laws should be used in constructing and -s. .: .c 3;; l5 w l.'! '" " 2 'c" "" 'u '" :: ;,0 ., " ;: M17.:S ro4' 71.5 PV- PORE VOLUME INJECTED BT- BREAKTHROUGH 'iii 10 003 0.1 Mobility RatiO, M Fig. 4.3-Miscible displacement in a quarter of a five-spot pattern at mobility ratios > 1.0, viscous fingering (from Habermann B ). Fig. 4.4-Areal sweep efficiency at breakthrough as a function of mobility ratio; miscible fluid displacement, five-spot pattern (from Habermann B ). 100r--'~---------------------, '!. ,..~ MfO.216 ~,:,./ ,V : I , ,, ... ,A- <I: UJ .<:) .~ (;' c 60 ~~ Q) Q) Q) ;;:: l\ ~ It/;V !W~ ,,V ~ V ~ .-::...--::: -_ ---- .-M-t ,,I ~ l..---' ~ -....... 2.9$ 4.~_ 11'.~ ~tl.2- 71.$ Cii Q) <C Curve (1) From Fig. 4.4 7 - - 11 X-Ray Shadowgraph X-Ray Shadowgraph l' I O~---O~.~1----1~.O----~10-----10~O--~10~OO Fig. 4.6-Comparison of results from laboratory five-spot models; miscible systems (from Habermann 8 ). Pore Volume Injected, V iN p Fig. 4.5-Areal sweep efficiency after breakthrough as a function of mobility ratio and PVs injected; miscible fluid displacement, five-spot pattern (from Habermann 8 ). operating the models. These scaling laws are described elsewhere. 4 Basically, scaling requires that injection rates, interfacial tension (lFT) values, physical size, etc., be appropriately adjusted in the models to represent property conditions in a displacement process in a reservoir. These scaling laws have been followed, to the extent possible, in some modeling work, but have not been con- sidered carefully in other work. Claridge 5 gives a good summary and extensive bibliography for these modeling studies. Results from unscaled models, while not as quantitatively reliable as those from scaled models, are nonetheless useful and show trends in behavior and performance of displacement processes. Most of the reported modeling studies 6-9 are based on the use of fluid systems that are completely miscible. In some cases, however, immiscible fluid systems have been used. 4,10 The fronts, or interfaces, between displaced and displacing fluids were monitored by use of dyed fluids that can be photographed or by X-ray shadowgraph techniques. In the latter approach, one of the fluids is tagged with a substance that absorbs X-rays, while the other fluid is relatively invisible to X-rays. In either case, the experimental approach < w ~ c ----t-----.. --.............r-----c:=:::::::r----- ~t:-----r-- ----1.6 --- --~ r-r-- ~ eq.ff~ PI} -1.2 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 -0.5 Vi Vd Producing Rate Ratio = ( .5 Side Well Abandoned at to = 0.95 Fig. 4.7 -Areal sweep efficiency as a function of mobility ratio; miscible fluid displacement, nine-spot pattern. Producing rate ratio is the production rate of a corner well ratioed to the. production rate of a side well (from Kimbler et al. 9 ). o 100r-~~----------------------------~ 1)'<l'= 'oW Q.~ li3 ~ 90 Water-Gas Gas-Oil l~ 51 ~ Q)e Miscible, Ref. 7 70 m I!? 60 <~ 50~--~--~~~~~----~~~~~~ Fig. 4.8-Areal sweep efficiency at breakthrough as a function of mobility ratiO; immiscible fluid displacement, five-spot pattern (from Craig et al. 2 and Craig 4 ). is to monitor the displacement front as a function of the volume of displacing fluid injected. Usually, material-balance measurements also are conducted during a displacement to corroborate the fronttracking results. The two parameters of primary concern in studies of the type described are the injection/production well pattern geometry and the mobility ratio. Typical results follow. Correlations Based on Miscible Fluids, Five-Spot Pattern. Figs. 4.2 and 4.3 8 show fluid fronts at different points in a flood for different mobility ratios. These results are based on photographs taken during displacements of one colored liquid by a second, miscible colored liquid in a scaled model. The viscosity ratio was varied in different floods and, because only one phase was present, M is given by Eq. 4.12. Fig. 4.4 gives areal sweep efficiency at breakthrough of the displacing fluid as a function of M. The upper curve is based on a measurement of area invaded shown in the photographs obtained during a flood, while the lower curve is based on a material-balance calculation made from the known volume of injected liquid and assuming piston-like displacement. Because of mixing along the liquid/liquid interface, the area measurement yields a slightly larger areal sweep value than the material-balance result. As indicated in Fig. 4.4, the difference in the two curves is a measure of the mixing that occurred at the interface. As seen, EA at breakthrough is a strong function of M. At M=1.0, areal sweep is about 70%. EA increases slightly at smaller, favorable mobility ratios and decreases very sharply as M is increased. The poorer performance at larger M values occur for two reasons. First, viscous fingering occurs at M> 1.0, and becomes more pronounced as M increases. Second, for M> 1.0, the geometry contributes to the early,breakthrough. Because of the geometry, the smallest flow resistance, and therefore the largest flow velocity, is along the center line connecting the injection and production wells. Fluid flowing along this line breaks through first in a homogeneous reservoir. When M> 1.0, the resident fluid of a certain mobility is replaced by the injected fluid, which has a higher mobility. Because the largest flow is along the center-line path, the resistance along that path is reduced more than along any other flow path. Proportionately, a larger volume of injected fluid flows along the center line, reducing the resistance even more. The result is that the larger the value of M, the earlier breakthrough occurs. The argument is very similar to the one used in the analysis of viscous fingering presented in Sec. 3.8. Habermann 8 also presented values of EA as a function of dimensionless PVs injected, V/Vp , after breakthrough, as shown in Fig. 4.5. Results are given for M=0.216 (favorable) to 71.5 (unfavorable). As seen, flood performance becomes poorer as M increases. For unfavorable mobility ratios, not only is areal sweep at breakthrough poorer, but performance continues to be poor as the flood progresses. As Fig. 4.5 shows, at larger M values, areal sweep will not approach 100% for a reasonable injection volume even in idealized laboratory models. Fig. 4.6 compares the work of Habermann 8 with that of two other reported studies. 7,11 These investigations were also performed with miscible liquids; however, the fronts were tracked with the X-ray shadowgraph technique. Agreement between investigators is good in the region around unit mobility ratio, but is relatively poor at small and large M values. The differences are not understood and must be attributed to differences in experimental systems and scaling. The variation in reported results indicates that caution should be used in application of the correlations to determine specific values of areal sweep. Trends in sweep as a function of M are consistent among different investigators. Correlations Based on Miscible Fluids, Other Patterns. Numerous modeling studies for patterns other than a five-spot have been reported. Craig 2 gives a summary listing of references. As an example of such studies, Fig. 4.7 9 shows one reported result of areal sweep as a function of mobility ratio for one-eighth of a nine-spot pattern. This study was conducted with miscible liquids and the X-ray shadowgraph method. Shown is EA at breakthrough and for various volumes of fluid injected after breakthrough. V/Vp is the number of dimensionless PVs injected. In a nine-spot pattern, behavior is affected by the relative producing rates of comer wells (those wells on the comer of the pattern) and side wells (those wells in the middle of each side of the pattern). Fig. 4.1 shows a nine-spot pattern. The effect of the production rates described by Kimbler et at. 9 shows that sweep efficiency can be improved for a given volume injected by properly balancing the production rates of side and comer wells. Comparison of Fig. 4.7 with Figs. 4.4 and 4.5 illustrates the effect of geometry for the one particular case of producing-rate ratios shown in Fig. 4.7. Correlations Based on Immiscible Fluids, Five-Spot Pattern. Craig et at. 4 conducted an experimental study of areal displacement efficiency for immiscible fluids consisting of oil, gas, and water. A laboratory model was scaled to field conditions by adjusting flow rates and 1FT's between the fluids. The study was conducted in consolidated sandstone cores, and fronts were monitored with the X-ray shadowgraph technique. Fig. 4.8 compares areal sweep efficiency at breakthrough as a function of mobility ratio to the data of Dyes et al. ,7 which were obtained with miscible fluids. In a displacement process involving immiscible fluids, the definition of mobility ratio that should be used and the saturation at which the mobility ratio should be computed is questionable. The problem occurs because saturation generally will vary with position ahead of and behind the displacement front. In a waterflood in which oil ahead of the front flows at connate water saturation, the oil saturation ahead of the front may be assumed to be constant. Behind the front, however, water saturation varies with position and oil and water flow simultaneously. Craig et al. 4 determined that the best data correlation was obtained when the mobility ratio was based on water relative permeability at the average saturation behind the front at water breakthrough. The mobility ratio in Fig. 4.8 was defined in this manner. 4.5.3 Prediction of Areal Displacement Performance on the Basis of Modeling Studies. For some investigations in which physical models were used, sufficient results have been reported to allow performance calculations to be conducted. This approach is illustrated in this section. Performance calculations based on physical model results should be viewed as approximations at best. In all cases, models used to obtain the data have been small in size and the scaling of these models to field dimensions is questionable. As noted previously, significantly different results have been obtained by different investigators, especially at relatively large or small mobility ratios. Additionally, Sheldon and Daugherty 12 have presented a mathematical argument indicating that results based on physical model studies with miscible fluids are misleading at M>2 to 3. They attribute this to the effect of mixing on mobility ratio at the fluidlfluid interface. Despite the inherent problems with modeling studies, however, performance calculations based on the studies are useful in that they illustrate the manner in which important parameters affect flood behavior. Uf- (ij Fig. 4.9-Areal sweep efficiency as a function of mobility ratio and injected volume, fivespot pattern (from Caudle and Witte 11). !E Fig. 4.10-Areal sweep efficiency as a function of mobility ratio and fractional flow at displacing phase, five-spot pattern (from Caudle and Witte 11). Prediction Based on Piston-Like Displacement. Caudle and Witte 11 published results from laboratory models of a five-spot pattern in which displacements were conducted with miscible liquids. Scaling rules were not closely followed. Their results are ~resented in a form that can be used to make performance calculatIons. Because miscible liquids were used in the experiments, however, the performance calculations are restricted to those floods in v.:hich piston-like displacement is a reasonable assumption; i.e., the dIsplacing phase flows only in the swept region and the displaced phase flows in the unswept region. No production of displaced phase occurs from the region behind the front. Figs. 4.9 through 4.11 show data from the experiments. In Fig. 4.9, EA is given as a function of M (defmed as in Eq. 4.12) for various values of injected PVs. The ratio V;IVpd is a dimensionless injection volume defined as injected volume divided by displaceable PV, V pd ' For a waterflood, Vpd is given by Vpd=Ahcf>(80; -80r )' ............................ (4.18) Fig. 4.10 gives EA as a function of M for different values of the fractional flow of the displacing phase, fD' at the producing well. As previously stated, production of the displaced phase is assumed to come entirely from the unswept region of the pattern. ;:I C'CS c: ctI t; c: 'C 0 () ::l Fig. 4.11-Conductance ratio as a function of mobility ratio and areal sweep, five-spot pattern (from Caudle and Witte 11). Finally, Fig. 4.11 presents the conductance ratio, 1', as a function of M for various values of EA, but only for values of M between 0.1 and 10. Conductance is defined as injection rate divided by the pressure drop across the pattern, ql t:..p. At any mobility ratio other than M = 1.0, conductance will change as the displacement process proceeds. For a favorable mobility ratio, conductance will decrease as the area swept, EA , increases. The opposite will occur for unfavorable M values. The conductance ratio, shown in Fig. 4.11, is the conductance at any point of progress in the flood divided by the conductance at that same point for a displacement in which the mobility ratio is unity (referenced to the displaced phase). By combining Figs. 4.9 through 4.11, performance calculations can be performed. Areal sweep, as a function of volume injected, is available from Fig. 4.9. Fractional production of either phase can be determined with Fig. 4.10. Rate of injection may be determined as a function of EA from Fig. 4.11. To apply Fig. 4.11, however, it is also necessary to use the appropriate expression for initial injection rate. This is given by Craig 2 for a five-spot pattern using parameters for the displaced phase: . 1= (krD and I'D)' The displacing-phase rate at complete floodout may also be obtained by multiplying the result ofEq. 4.19 by M. Craig 2 presents corresponding equations for other flooding patterns. To determine flood progress as a function of time, a step-wise procedure is required because injection rate will change with time (other than for floods at unit mobility ratio). At any point in the flood, the flow rate is given by q=i'Y, ........................................ (4.20) where q=total flow rate at any specific time in the displacement process, and i=injection rate at the start of the displacement process as given by Equation 4.19. Because fluids are assumed to be incompressible, the total flow rate, q, at any time is equal to the injection rate, which is equal to the production rate at that same point in time. Example 4.1-Performance Calculations Based on Physical Modeling Results. A waterflood is conducted in a five-spot pattern for which the pattern area is 20 acres. Reservoir properties are /td(IOg~-0.2688) 0.001538kk rd Mp , ........................ (4.19) h = 20 ft cf> = 0.20 Soi = 0.80 Sor = 0.25 /to = 10 cp /tw = 1.0 cp Bo = 1.0 RBISTB k=50md krw = 0.27 (at ROS) k ro = 0.94 (at interstitial water saturation) t:..p = 1,250 psi rw = 0.5 ft where i=injection rate at start of a displacement process, BID; k=absolute rock permeability, md; krd=relative permeability of displaced phase, h=reservoir thickness, ft; t:..p=pressure drop, psi; /td=viscosity of displaced phase, cp; d=distance measured between injection and production wells, ft; and rw =wellbore radius, ft. Eq. 4.19 is applicable where the displaced phase is the only phase flowing oi: where the mobility ratio is unity. At complete floodout (100% areal sweep), Eq. 4.19 is applicable, but with displacedphase properties replaced by the properties of the displacing phase Use the method of Caudle and Witte ll to calculate (1) the barrels of oil recovered at the point in time at which the producing WOR=20, (2) the volume of water injected at the same point, (3) the rate of water injection at the same point in time, and (4) the initial rate of water injection at the start of the waterflood. Solution. Apply the correlations presented in Figs. 4.9 through 4.11. 1. Calculate oil recovered. "$. ..: 80 M=(krw l I'-w)(kro l 1'-0)' If we assume piston-like displacement, M=(0.27/1.0 cp)(10.0 cp/0.94)=2.9 andfD=20121=0.95. From Fig. 4.10, EA =0.94. Oil recovered is then :>; :E w 1 1 Np=Ahcf>(Soi-Sor)EA 5.615 ft 3ibbl Bo =[(43,560 ft 2 /acrex20 acre)x20 ftxO.20 x(0.80-0.25)xO.94]/(5.615 ft 3/bblxl.O RBISTB) =321,000 STB. 2. Calculate total water injected. From Fig. 4.9, V/Vpd =2.5 (at EA =0.94). CD CD Mobility Ratio. M Vpd= Vp(Soi -Sor) =Ahcf>(SOi -Sor)(115.615) (0.80-0.25) =(43,560X20)X20xO.20x---5.615 =341,300 bbl. Fig. 4.12-Areal sweep efficiency for a miscible displacement in a five-spot pattern with dispersion scaled (from Mahaffey et al. 13 ). V/=Vpd x2.5 =341,300x2.5 =853,300 bbl. 3. Calculate water injection rate at the same point in time. From Eq.4.19, 0.001538kkroh.4lp 1'-0 (lOg -0.2688) 0.001538 x50xO.94x20x 1250 660 ) 10 ( log- -0.2688 0.5 unscaled models, were too high compared with scaled-model results. Their reported sweep efficiencies, however, agreed with the fractional area lying inside a curve drawn through the tips of the viscous fingers in photographs of displacements taken in more properly scaled models. The X-ray shadowgraph work of Caudle and Witte thus was assumed by Claridge to predict' 'the fraction of total pattern area invaded by fmgers at breakthrough and subsequent levels of throughput. " Claridge 5 developed a correlation by combining the Caudle and Witte 11 data with the model of viscous fingering derived by Koval 14 (see Sec. 3.8). Even though the Koval model was derived for a linear flow system, its application was justified on the basis of observations that it approximately fit the fingering in a five-spot geometry. The correlation is shown in Fig. 4.13, where recovery efficiency is given in displaceable PV's of oil produced as a function of displaceable PV's of fluid injected, F i , and mobility ratio, M. For a miscible flood of a porous medium that originally is at interstitial water saturation (water immobile), and for which Sor=O, the displaceable PV is the original HCPV. Alternatively, for a waterflood, the displaceable PV is given by Eq. 4.18. The curves of Fig. 4.13 are represented by the following equations: =63.4 BID. From Fig. 4.11, "1=2.7. From Eq. 4.20, Fibt = [0.9/(M+ 1.1)] ~ ........................... (4.21) q=i'Y =63.4x2.7 NplVpd-Fibt 1.0-NplVpd (~)( Fi-Fibt 1.0-Fibt )1.28/F~.26 , ..... (4.22) =171 BID, which is the injection rate because flow is constant through the system. 4. Calculate initial water injection rate. This is the injection rate, i, calculated from Eq. 4.19 with the properties of the oil: i=63.4 BID. where F/l is the Koval 14 effective mobility ratio given by F/l=[0.78+0.22(::) lOr ...................... (4.23) Fig. 4.1213 shows another set of miscible displacement data for a five-spot pattern. This study was conducted in a parallel-plate glass model scaled so that dispersion effects were at or near the molecular diffusion level. Differences with the Caudle and Witte 11 data exist, particularly for the breakthrough curve at large mobility ratio values. Because of better scaling in Mahaffey et at. 's13 work, their data are probably more representative of behavior in a reservoir. Mahaffey et al. compare their results to those of other investigators and present data for an inverted five-spot pattern. Claridge 5 developed an improvement of the areal sweep correlation for a five-spot pattern. Basically, he observed that the sweep efficiencies reported by Caudle and Witte, 11 which were based on and where Fi = dimensionless displaceable PV's injected, V/Vpd , and Fibt = dimensionless displaceable PV's of solvent injected at the time of solvent breakthrough at the producing well. The FVF's of the fluids were assumed to equal unity. Example 4.2-Application of Claridge Correlation To Calculate Areal Displacement Efficiency. A miscible displacement is to be conducted in 20-acre five-spot pattern in a reservoir with the following properties. h = 20 ft cf> = 0.20 Soi = 0.75 1'-0 = 2.0 cp I'-s = 0.04 cp Bo=Bs = 1.0 RBISTB (assumed for simplicity) < w is c: :c (J) :B !!? 10 Mobility Ratio, M Fig. 4.13-Claridge correlation for areal sweep efficiency (from Claridge 5 ). A very large solvent slug is to be injected. Calculate oil recovery out to a solvent iIUection of 1.0 PV. Compare this to expected recovery if the mobility ratio were unity. Solution: Calculate M for the solvent injection: M=p.,o/p.,s=2.010.04=50. Apply Eqs. 4.21 through 4.23 to calculate Np: 0.9 ) l-> ( 0.9 ) l-> Fibt= ( M+1.1 = 50+1.1 =0.133 PV. F~=[0.78+0.22(::) l->r =[0.78+0.22(50) 'A]4 =3.47. Vpd=AhSoi =(20 acrex43,560 ft 2/acre)(20 ft)0.20XO.75 =2.61 x 10 6 ft3 =4.65 X 10 5 bbl. CalculateNp for various values of Fi with Eq. 4.22. Make the corresponding calculation for M=p.,o/p.,s=l.O. spot, 16 nine-spot,9,16 and linedrive patterns. 7 An alternative set of data for a five-spot pattern is also available in Ref. 7. In general, calculations based on the Dyes et at. data are more favorableLe., yield higher efficiencies-than calculations based on the Caudle and Witte ll results. Prediction Considering a Mobile Displaced Phase Behind the Displacement Front. In an immiscible displacement such as a waterflood or a gas/liquid displacement, there is typically two-phase flow and a saturation gradient behind the front. In this case, after breakthrough, the major part of the displaced phase production comes from the unswept region but part comes from the swept region. The methods based on modeling results for miscible systems will not yield correct results for this situation. Craig et at. 1,2,5 developed a calculation procedure to handle a displacement process in which there is a significant amount of displaced phase production from the region behind the front. The procedure is based on correlations for areal sweep and on frontal-advance theory. Willhite 1 describes the method as used in the prediction of waterflood performance in detail. Chap. 4 of Ref. 1 describes the method and gives a detailed example calculation. Areal sweep correlations based on laboratory models are available for this method for five-spot patterns but generally not for other geometries. Directional Permeability Exists. As discussed by Craig, 2 limited data are available for determination of areal sweep when a directional permeability exists in the flood pattern. One such study is based on a mathematical analysis of results obtained from a potentiometric model. 17 Results are limited to steady-state conditions with M = 1.0. As in other studies of areal sweep, gravity effects are negligible. The calculations are summarized in Table 4.3, which shows areal sweep efficiency at breakthrough for five-spot and linedrive patterns as a function of permeability ratio, kx/ky- The x- and ydirection permeabilities are normal to each other. For the results 4.5.4 Calculations of Areal Displacement Efficiency When a Fibt =0.655. F~ = 1.0=M(true only for M= 1.0). For both cases, before breakthrough, Np=FiVpd. Fig. 4.14 plots the results which are given in Tables 4.1 and 4.2. This approach can also be used for other patterns for which areal sweep data are available. Data are available for four-spot, 15 seven- ~--------------------r TABLE 4.1-0IL PRODUCTION AS A FUNCTION OF VOLUME INJECTED, EXAMPLE 4.2 Np 0.8 8T, M = 1 0.133 0.15 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.00 NpIVPd 0.133 0.150 0.224 0.353 0.439 0.503 (bbl) 6.19x 10 4 6.96x10 4 1.04x10 5 1.64x10 5 2.04x10 5 2.34x 10 5 ~ a: TABLE 4.2-0IL PRODUCTION AS A FUNCTION OF VOLUME INJECTED, UNIT MOBILITY ~ATIO, EXAMPLE 4.2 NplVpd 0.655 0.735 0.867 3.05x10 5 3.42 x 10 5 4.03 x 10 5 Injection, WVpd Fig. 4.14-Calculations of areal sweep, Example 4.2. given in the top half of the table, the permeability direction kx is parallel to a line running from the injection to the production wells. In the results shown in the bottom part of the table, the permeability direction kx is rotated 45 from a line running from the injection well. As indicated, directional permeability can have a marked effect on areal sweep. Proper orientation of the well pattern can compensate for the directional permeability and actually work to improve sweep over a case where no directional permeability exists. 4.5.5 Calculation of Areal Displacement Efficiency With Mathematical Modeling. Displacement processes can be modeled mathematically, and numerous papers exist in the literature that describe the models and their applications. Most of these models are based on the use of numerical analysis methods and digital computers. In general, it is beyond the scope of this book to describe the mathematical modeling procedures and results; however, two examples of mathematical modeling that relate to areal sweep efficiency are referenced. Douglas et al. 10 described a method of mathematically simulating a 2D immiscible displacement. The method is based on the numerical solution of the partial-differential equations that describe the flow of two immiscible phases in two space dimensions. The TABLE 4.3-SWEEP EFFICIENCY AT BREAKTHROUGH WITH DIRECTIONAL PERMEABILlTy17 kx Parallel to Straight Line Connecting Injector and Producer Areal Sweep Efficiency at Breakthrough (%) general approach is that used in most of the numerical simulation studies performed over the past several years. A comparison was made between the calculated results and experimental displacements conducted in a laboratory model study of waterflooding in a five-spot pattern. The results of that comparison (Fig. 4.15) show that agreement is excellent. Mobility ratio is not reported; rather, the oil/water viscosity ratios are given for the different runs. The viscosity ratios correspond to a wide range of mobility ratios from favorable to unfavorable. Note that the mathematical model does not account for viscous fmgering, yet the agreement with experimental data is good. The effects of mobility ratio and geometry on resistance along flow paths are treated, and these effects apparently dominate in the physical system modeled. Higgins and Leighton 18 developed a mathematical model based on frontal advance theory and the concept of streamtubes. This model can be used to simulate immiscible displacements in uni1.0 e 0.6 00.5 .. ~ ::> .... .. kxlky ,f 0.3 ----Exptl. t::. kx Rotated 45 From Straight Line Connecting Injector and Producer o L-______ -L~ 0.1 1 3 10 100 Pore Volumes Water Injected, Vi N p Fig. 4.15-Comparison of calculated and experimental results, waterflood in a five-spot pattern (from Douglas et a/. 10 ). Displacing Phase Displaced Phase Displacing Phase Displaced Phase (a) Gravity Override Po < Pd (a) Gravity Underride Po> Pd Fig. 4.16-Gravity segregation in displacement processes. fonn or irregular patterns and is very useful for modeling areal displacement processes. The model does not account for viscous fingering. Willhite 1 describes application of this model in waterflooding. Higgins and Leighton compared their model results to those of Douglas et at. 10 and found good agreement for waterflooding in a five-spot pattern. 4.6 Vertical Displacement Efficiency Areal sweep efficiency, must be combined in an appropriate manner with vertical sweep to determine overall volumetric displacement efficiency. It is useful, however, to examine the factors that affect vertical sweep in the absence of areal displacement factors. To accomplish this, sample models and modeling studies based on linear reservoirs and linear displacement processes are useful and are considered in this section. 4.6.1 Factors Affecting Vertical Displacement Efficiency. Vertical sweep efficiency is controlled primarily by four factors: gravity segregation caused by differences in density, mobility ratio, verticalto-horizontal penneability variation, and capillary forces. The effect of these factors on vertical sweep has been studied by a number of investigators. Both physical and mathematical models based on numerical simulation have been used. The effects of these parameters on vertical and volumetric sweep are illustrated in the following section. Relatively simple ways to estimate vertical displacement efficiency with simple mathematical models and correlations based on physical modeling results are also discussed. 4.6.2 Effect of Gravity Segregation and Mobility Ratio on Vertical Displacement Efficiency. Gravity segregation occurs when density differences between injected and displaced fluids are large enough to induce a significant component of fluid flow in the vertical direction even when the principal direction of fluid flow is in the horizontal plane. When the injected fluid is less dense than the displaced fluid, gravity segregation occurs and the displacing fluid overrides the displaced fluid, as shown in Fig. 4-16a. Gravity override is observed in steam displacement, in-situ combustion, CO 2 flooding, and solvent flooding processes. Gravity segregation also occurs when the injected fluid is more dense than the displaced fluid, as Fig. 4-16b shows for a waterflood. Gravity segregation leads to early breakthrough of the injected fluid and reduced vertical sweep efficiency. Gravity Segregation in Horizontal Reservoirs. Scaled models or numerical simulators must be used to define when gravity forces become important and to describe their effects on displacement efficiency. Much of the readily available information on gravity segregation was obtained from displacement studies in scaled horizontal laboratory models that were homogeneous and isotropic. Other information is based on calculations made with numerical simulators. Results from these two sources are the basis of the vertical-sweepefficiency correlations discussed in this section. As predictive tools, the correlations presented should be considered as approximations. The correlations correctly indicate the dependence of sweep on the different parameters used, but they do not allow precise calculation of E[ for actual reservoirs. Craig et al. 19 studied vertical sweep efficiency by conducting a set of scaled experiments in linear systems and five-spot models. Scaling laws used were of the type based on dimensional analysis described in the literature. 20 Both consolidated and unconsolidated sands were used. Data taken in the linear systems are discussed in this section, while data taken in the five-spot model are described in Sec. 4.8. The linear models used were from 10 to 66 in. long with length/height ratios ranging from 4.1 to 66. Experiments were conducted with miscible and immiscible liquids having mobility ratios from 0.057 to 200. Immiscible waterfloods were conducted at M < 1. In this case, oil flow behind the displacement fronts was essentially zero. Vertical sweep, Eb was detennined at breakthrough by material balance and visual observation of produced effluent. Results of the linear displacements are shown in Fig. 4.17, where E[ at breakthrough is given as a function of a dimensionless group called a viscous/gravity ratio. 3 RV/g=C;:p )(~). ............................ (4.24) where u=linear Darcy velocity, Itd=viscosity of displaced phase, k = porous media penneability, g = gravity acceleration constant, Ap=density difference between displacing and displaced phases, L = length of system, h = height of system and consistent units should be used. Expressed in customary units, is given by Rv/g Rv/g=CO:::ltd )(~), ......................... (4.25) where u is in B/(D-ft2), is in centipoise, k is in millidarcies, Ap is in grams per cubic centimeter, and Land h are in feet. The magnitude of viscous forces relative to gravity forces increases with increasing values. At small values, the displaced phase tends to override or underride, depending on the magnitude of the liquid densities, which leads to early breakthrough of the displacing phase, even for M= 1. As R v/g becomes relatively large in magnitude, with M=1.0, E[ approaches 100%. Data correlated in Fig. 4.17 were obtained for the case in which the horizontal penneability, kH' is equal to vertical penneability, kv. If these permeabilities are not equal, Stalkup 3 suggests the penneability be approximated as k=.JkvkH. The application of the correlation to estimate the importance of gravity effects is illustrated in Example 4.3. R/g v Example 4.3-Relative Importance of Gravity Segregation in a Displacement Process. A miscible displacement process will be used to displace oil from a linear reservoir having the following properties: L = 300 ft h=lOft = 0.20 Soi = 0.75 Siw = 0.25 ko = 200 md (effective permeability to oil at interstitial water saturation) Range of Field Operations M=20 (~\L RY/g = \kgApj 11 RY/g = 2050 u (B/D ft2) IJd (Cp) L (ft) k (md) Ap (glcm3) h (ft) Fig. 4.17-Volumetric (vertical) sweep efficiency at breakthrough as a function of the ratios of viscous/gravity forces, linear system (from Craig et a/. 19 ). Determine the effect of gravity segregation on the vertical sweep efficiency if the oil is displaced miscibly by a solvent with a density of 0.7 g/cm 3 and a viscosity of 2.3 cp at reservoir temperature. The density of the oil is 0.85 g/cm 3 and the viscosity is 2.3 cpo For this example, consider displacement at a frontal advance rate of 0.5 ft/D. This is equivalent to a Darcy velocity of 0.075 ftlD. Solution. Calculate the viscous/gravity ratio with Eq. 4.25. u=0.075 ftlD( 1 ) 5.615 ft 3 lbbl Similar studies of gravity segregation have been done with mathematical models. This approach has the advantage of producing the complete displacement performance rather than the more limited results obtainable from physical models. Spivak 21 used a 2D and 3D numerical model to study gravity effects during waterflooding and gasflooding Fig. 4.18 presents a correlation of the results. The correlation is in terms of a gravity/viscous ratio, F g1v , similar to that used by Craig et al. 19 The effect of having a vertical permeability that is different from the horizontal permeability is reflected in the definition of F g1v ' This difference in permeabilities was not considered in the correlation of Craig et al. F g1v = =0.0134 B/(D-ft2) (2,050)(0.0134)(2.3)(300) and Rvl = 0.00633-JkvkH ApA qJ.l.d , ..................... (4.26) =63. (200)(0.85 -0.70)(10) Calculate M. M= kD J.l.d J.l.D =!.!:.. =2.3/2.3 = 1.0. From Fig. 4.17, E J (at breakthrough)=O.86. As discussed in Chap. 3, mixing (dispersion) in miscible flow leads to breakthrough in a linear system before 1.0 PV has been injected. Thus, the importance of gravity override in the proposed miscible displacement is relatively small and probably not significant. If the frontal advance rate were 0.0075 ftlD, the value of R vlg would be 6.3. In this case, EJ would be about 0.70 and gravity segregation becomes an important mechanism in the displacement. Any ~hange in a parameter in R vlg that reduces its numerical value co~~nbutes to gravity effects. For example, increasing the permeabilIty from 200 to 4,000 md has the same effect as reducing the frontal advance rate from 0.075 to 0.00375 ftlD. where kv and kH=vertical and horizontal permeabilities, respectively, md; A = average cross-sectional area for flow, ft2; and q=flow rate, ft31D. The area term, A, in the definition of F g1v is average crosssectional area normal to flow. Using an average area makes the correlation applicable to linear displacements as well as displacements in five-spot patterns. The recovery factor, E', in the correlation of Spivak 21 is defined in terms of recovery at breakthrough with gravity effects compared with recovery at breakthrough in the absence of gravity effects. E' is not equivalent to vertical displacement efficiency, Eb which is used in the correlation of Craig et at. 19 Additionally, the factor R vlg in the Craig correlation contains a length/height ratio, Llh. Thus, the two correlations are not directly comparable. It should be noted that if the same permeability is used in the two correlations and if adjustments are made for units, then Rvl8 =LI(hFg1v )' The correlations of Craig et al. 19 and Spivak 21 indicate the following effects of various parameters on gravity segregation, as summarized by Spivak: 1. Gravity segregation increases with increasing horizontal and vertical permeability. E' = (ree. at bt.)no gravity - (ree. at bt.)grav~ (ree. at b.t)no gravity -r----+--+---j----;"~ :';"""I:t---j---t--i krw\ (~\ ( M = Ilwlsor or Ilg lsor -t--+--i----(-:;;ootoC-""7,.c;.--:l7oC-t-;: 0.4r-_+----~~~-r-L_+~~~~c-~~r__+--~~_+--~~~--4 kro\ (-p;}Swc (kro\ 0 -P;}S. Fig. 4.18-Gravity segregation in two-phase water/oil or gas/oil displacements, linear systems (from Spivak 21 ). (a) REGIONS I AND II (b) REGION III OIL- (c) REGION IV Fig. 4.19-Flow regimes in miscible displacement of unfavorable mobility ratios (from Stalkup 3). 2. Gravity segregation increases with increasing density difference between the displacing and displaced fluids. 3. Gravity segregation increases with increasing mobility ratio. 4. Gravity segregation increases with decreasing rate. (This effect can be reduced by viscous fingering, as discussed in a following section.) 5. Gravity segregation decreases with increasing level of viscosity for a fixed viscosity ratio. The effect of mobility ratio in a displacement is to accelerate or to retard the gravity effect, depending on whether M is greater than or less than 1.0. If the displacing phase is less mobile than the displaced phase, then the override or underride is hindered owing to the greater viscous flow resistance through the injected phase. If M> 1.0, then viscous resistance in the displacing phase is smaller and gravity override or underride is enhanced. When M> 1.0, viscous fingering can occur along with gravity segregation. Thus, at conditions where gravity effects are important and the mobility ratio is unfavorable, vertical sweep can be affected by both the tendency of the displacing fluid to flow into the gravity tongue and the superposition of viscous fingers onto the gravity tongue. Flow Regions in Miscible Displacement at Unfavorable Mobility Ratios. Flow experiments in a vertical cross section in horizontal porous media have shown that four flow regions, depicted in Fig. 4.19, are possible when the mobility ratio is unfavorable. 3,22 The onset of the different regimes is governed by the magnitude of the viscous/gravity ratio defined in Eqs. 4.24 and 4.25. Region I occurs at very low RV/fI values and is characterized by a single gravity tongue, with the dIsplacing liquid either underriding or overriding the displaced liquid. Vertical sweep is a strong function of R v/g ' At larger Rv/{? values, in Region IT, a single gravity tongue still exists, but vertIcal sweep is relatively insensitive to the value of the viscous/gravity ratio. The transition to Region III occurs at a piuticular critical Rv/s value. In Region Ill, viscous fingers are formed along the graVIty tongue and appear as secondary fingers along the primary gravity tongue. Vertical sweep is improved by the formation of the viscous fingers in this region. In Region IV, flow is dominated by the viscous forces and by viscous fingering. A gravity tongue does not form because of the strong viscous fingering. The vertical sweep in this region is relatively insensitive to Rv/ . The different flow regions are shown in Fig. 4.20 3 as a function of R v/g and for different values of M. Stalkup points out that the flow regions illustrated in Fig. 4.20 were estimated from several different literature sources and should be considered only as approximations. A generalized correlation of flow regions for immiscible displacements has not been developed. Viscous fmgering likely occurred in the physical modeling studies of gravity effects in which miscible liquids were used, as it did in the areal displacement models. Thus, results shown in Fig. 4.17 MACROSCOPIC OISPLACEMENT OF FLU lOS IN A RESERVOIR u lJo L h k ~p :2 B fi3* Flux, bbllday ft2 Viscosity, cp Length, ft Height, ft Permeability, md SolventOil Density Difference, g/cm 3 =w_ w a."c cg~ -CD t-1I1-~"'I"----IV-- CD ... II-----~+-ol.f---IV - - UOlJooL Viscous/Gravity Force Ratio, Rv/g = 2050 K. ~p h Fig. 4.20-Flow regimes in miscible displacement in linear systems as a function of viscousl gravity and mobility ratios, R v/g defined in Eq. 4.25 (from Stalkup 3). reflect the influence of gravity forces, mobility ratio effects, and in some cases, viscous fingering. At unfavorable mobility ratios, the importance of viscous fmgering depends on the existing flow region. The numerical modeling studies of Spivak 21 did not consider viscous fingering. Gravity Segregation in Dipping Reservoirs. Density differences between displacing and displaced fluids can have a pronounced effect on displacement processes in dipping reservoirs. The different flow regimes previously described can occur, depending on the relative importance of gravity and viscous forces. When the reservoir has a dip and the general flow direction is not horizontal, however, the specific correlations shown in Figs. 4.17 through 4.20 are not directly applicable. Corresponding correlations for dipping reservoirs do not generally exist. When the reservoir has a dip, gravity can be used to advantage to improve displacement performance. For example, if an oil were displaced from a reservoir by injecting a less dense, more mobile solvent updip, gravity would tend to stabilize the displacement front. That is, if the displacement velocity were sufficiently low, gravity forces would act to prevent the formation of fingers at the solvent/oil interface. Similarly, in a waterflood, downdip injection of water can work to stabilize the interface between the water- and oil-bank interface. The criterion for stable displacement in a dipping reservoir, for the cited conditions of density and mobility, can be determined by examining a relatively simple model of flow at the interface, as shown in Fig. 4.21. Consider a displacement in a downdip direction in which the reservoir dip is at an angle () to the horizontal. Assume that the interface is sharp with only the displacing fluid flowing ahead of the front. This would occur in an immiscible displacement under the assumption of piston-like flow or in a miscible displacement under the assumption of negligible mixing at the interface. Consider further that a small perturbation, finger, or protrusion has formed at the inter- Po,llo PO<Pd Ilo < Ild Fig. 4.21-Model for determination of stability criterion in a dipping reservoir. Fig. 4.22-Stable and unstable displacements in an immisci ble flood conducted in the updip direction (from Dake 25 ). face. The objective of the analysis is the determination of conditions under which the protrusion will remain stable or, alternatively, will grow in magnitude, leading to an unstable interface. According to Hill,23 the fmger will remain stable if just across the interface of the finger the pressure in the displaced phase is greater than the pressure in the displacing phase-Le., Pd>PD' Darcy's equation can be applied to obtain expressions for Pd and PD across the interface. From Fig. 4.21, . I'-duMp . Pd=Po+PdgMp sm {}kd .................. (4.27) and In I'-=CD In I'-D+(l-CD ) In I'-d, I'-D<I'-d, ........ (4.35) where CD = concentration of the displacing phase, P = density of the mixture, and I'-=viscosity of the mixture. The assumption about the dependence of In I'- on concentration is an approximation based on commonly used mixing rules for viscosity. Dumore defined a minimum stable Darcy velocity, US!, which he showed to be related to U c by ......................... (4.36) . I'-DuMp andpD=po+PDgMp sm {}, .............. (4.28) kD where P =reference pressure at the point of the unperturbed interface, ; d = density of the displaced phase, P D = density of the displacing phase, I'-d=viscosity of the displaced phase, I'-D=viscosity of the displacing phase, kd=effective permeability of the displaced phase, kD = effective permeability of the displacing phase, u=Darcy velocity, g=gravity acceleration constant, and Mp= length of the perturbation (Fig. 4.21). For the interface to remain stable, PrPD>O .................................... (4.29) or-=---Uc In M ( 1-~) M Because I'-D <l'-d(M> 1.0) and PD <Pd for the conditions of the derivation and flow is downdip, usrluc is always less than unity. Thus, Eqs. 4.36 and 4.37 for US! provide a more stringent .and more reliable condition for stable flow than the results for U c based on a sharp transition zone. Stalkup 3 presented a relationship between Uc and US! assuming a quarter-power blending rule for viscosity: 1'-=[ CD I'-D or, subtracting Eq. 4.28 from Eq. 4.27, g(Pd-PD)Mp sin (}_(I'-d - I'-D)UMp>O. ......... (4.30) kd kD + (l-CD I'-d )]-4 ........................ (4.38) The resulting equation relating US! and Uc is Eq. 4.30 establishes the maximum velocity, called the critical velocity, uc' at which the interface will remain stable. If, as stated, AD>Ad and PD<Pd, then, uc = g(Pd-PD) sin {} (1- ~) - - - .............................. (4.39) 4(M\4 -1) (:; :;) In customary units, Eq. 4.31 is u,= 0.0439(Pd-PD) sin {} (:; -::) where P is in Ibm/ft 3 , I'- is in centipoise, k is in darcies, and U c is in feet per day. If kd=kD=k and if the mobility ratio, M=I'-dll'-D' is introduced, 0.0439(Pd-PD) sin {} I'-D(M-1) ...................... (4.33) Eqs. 4.31 through 4.33 establish the maximum velocity at which the interface will remain stable for the stated relative properties of the displacing and displaced phases. The same analysis is applicable for other relative property values of the fluids and for displacements in the updip direction. For example, if properties were such that Pd>PD, kd=kD=k, and I'-D < I'-d, then examination of Eq. 4.30 shows that the interface would be unconditionally stable if flow were in the downdip direction, as shown in Fig. 4.21. The derivation of the expression for U c was based on the assumption of a sharp concentration, or phase, transition at the interface between the displacing and displaced fluids. Dumore 24 considered a miscible displacement in which mixing occurred at the interface, resulting in a concentration-transition zone. For this case, both viscosity and density are a function of position because of the concentration gradient. In one form of the derivation it was assumed that both density and In I'- were linear functions of concentration: P=CDPD+(l-CD)Pd,PD<Pd ................... (4.34) The choice of application of Eqs. 4.35 and 4.37 or Eqs. 4.38 and 4.39 should be based on the dependence of viscosity on concentration. In the absence of data, Eqs. 4.38 and 4.39 are recommended. The application of the criterion for the critical flow rate, uc' is illustrated in Example 4.4. Example 4.4-Calculation of Criterion for Gravity-Stabilized Flow. A miscible displacement is to be conducted in a laboratory experiment in which one glycerol/brine solution is displaced vertically downward by a second solution having a different concentration of glycerol. Liquid properties are as follows. Liquid 1, Displacing Liquid: 30.00 g NaCl/L 650 g glycerol/L PD = 1.1551 g/cm 3 at 77F I'-D=7.4 cp at 77F Liquid 2: 20.00 g NaCl/L 700 g glycerol/L Pd=1.1609 g/cm 3 at 77F I'-d= 11.3 cp at 77F The liquid velocity is to be 0.237 ft/D (Darcy velocity). Porosity of the porous medium is 0.206 and permeability is 303 md. Determine whether the flow will be stable-i.e., whether viscous fingering will occur. Solution. Eq. 4.31 is applicable for the calculation of u c ' I'-d _ I'-D) kd kD k d =kD =303 md or 0.303 darcies, Pd=72.440 Ibmlft 3 , and PD =72.078 Ibm/ft3. Therefore, 0.0439(72.440-72.078)1.0XO.303 (11.3-7.4) =0.00123 ftlD. Fig. 4.23-Vertlcal cross section with layers of different permeabilities and thicknesses. Because the planned velocity of 0.237 ftlD u c' the flow will be unstable. Viscous fingering will occur. Calculate the ratio us/u c. Eq. 4.34 is applicable. USI _ there is no crossflow between layers and that the flow is pistonlike in each layer. If the displacement is conducted atM= 1.0, then by Darcy's equation qj = --;;-A....:,i_h-=-j_ [1 - (l/M)] In M fl-d fl-D - --;;n"-:--=---, ................. (4.40) kjhj M Usl _ 11.3 = 1527 7.4 . . [1 - (1/1.527)] In 1.527 Fluid mixing results in an even smaller maximum velocity for stable flow. where subscriptsj and k refer to the layers, qj =flow rate in Layer j, qt = total flow rate in the vertical section, Aj =mobility of injected fluid in Layer j , kj =permeability of Layer j , hj =thickness of the Layer j; and the sum in the denominator applies to all n layers in the system. Eq. 4.40 shows that for a system in which the overall pressure drop is the same for all layers, the highest fluid velocity will occur in the layer with the largest permeability. After some algebraic manipulation, application of the equation allows calculation of sweep efficiency at breakthrough. When a stable displacement occurs in either the updip or downdip direction, the interface stabilizes at a specific angle relative to the dip of the formation, as illustrated in Fig. 4.22 for a waterflood. 25 Expressions relating the angle of the interface to flow rate, angle of dip, mobility ratio, and fluid densities are given by Dake, 25 Hawthome,26 and stalkup.3 Conditions depicted in Figs. 4.22a and 4.22b are for stable flow, while Fig. 4.22c depicts an unstable flow in which U c is exceeded. 4.6.3 Effect of Vertical Heterogeneity and Mobility Ratio on Vertical Displacement Efficiency. Vertical variation in permeability in reservoirs is relatively common. Fig. 4.23 shows a vertical cross section of such a reservoir in which the vertical section has been divided into layers of different thicknesses and permeabilities. Such a geologic model is an idealization because permeability typically is not constant over a significant thickness with abrupt changes to a different value; Le., actual reservoir layering is not as idealized as shown in the figure. The vertical variation in permeability will lead to a reduction of vertical sweep efficiency at breakthrough in a displacement process owing to uneven flow in the different layers. This would occur at idealized conditions of unit mobility ratio and in the absence of gravity segregation. Different models of flow in layered reservoirs are described in the following sections. Crossflow between layers and gravity segregation are assumed to be negligible, although crossflow is discussed briefly. - - n - - ' ................ (4.41) where breakthrough occurs in Layer j , which has the largest mobility. If all layers were of equal thickness, Eq. 4.41 would simplify to E1bt = k=l nkj , ............................... (4.42) where, again, breakthrough occurs in Layer j, which has the largest mobility. Note that the vertical sweep efficiency is equivalent to the volumetric sweep efficiency of the vertical cross section. If piston-like displacement is assumed, Darcy's equation can be applied, as was done in the development ofEqs. 4.40 through 4.42, along with a material balance to calculate recovery of the displaced phase. Recovery can be calculated as a function of fluid injected both before and after breakthrough of the displacing phase. Displacement at a Nonunit Mobility Ratio in a Layered, Linear Reservoir With No Crossflow. As in the previous section, consider a linear, layered reservoir like that shown in Fig. 4.23. Assume that an immiscible displacement is conducted at a constant pressure drop across the system and that in any given layer the displacement is piston-like, as shown in Fig. 4.24. Crossflow between layers does not exist. Single-phase flow exists in each zone-Le., both ahead of and behind the displacing phase front. The mobility ratio is defined by Eq. 4.13 and may be equal to, less than, or greater than unity. At nonunit mobility ratios, total resistance across the system varies as a function of volume injected and thus the rate of injection varies at constant pressure drop. Unit-Mobility-Ratio Displacement in a Layered Linear Reservoir With No Crossflow. Consider a displacement involving incompres~ible fluids that is carried out in a system like the one shown I~ FIg. 4.23. Permeabilities and thicknesses of the layers may be dIffer~nt, but porosities are assumed to be equal. Overall pressure drop IS constant and the same for all layers. Consider further that Displacing Phase (D) Displaced Phase (d) Front Position x=L Fig. 4.24-Schematic of piston-like displacement in a linear system. Expressions describing the displacement in a single layer can be derived by application of Darcy's equation. In a single layer, k:k : ID = k::k : Id ......................... (4.43) - -cf>(I-Sdr-SDr) [ tMLXf +(l-M)6.327A rD kilp 2 -ML[ (ML)2 - .......... (4.53) -----~--....:=-- 2X6.327(I-M)ArDkIlPtlVz cf>(I-Sdr -SDr) (l-M) or M: ID = : Because I ............................... (4.44) d and X = f ................................. (4.54) There are two roots to Eq. 4.54, and the proper one must be selected. At any time up to breakthrough in the layer, the volume of displacing phase fluid injected is given by 1 Vi=A(l-Sdr-SDr)Xf X--cf>ft 3 /bbl, ............ (4.55) 5.615 IIp=IlPD+IlPd, ............................... (4.45) IIp=Xf dp dx + (L-Xf ) dp I ' .................... (4.46) where IIp=overall pressure drop between the entrance and exit, L=totallength of the system. From Eqs. 4.44 and 4.46, Xf =location of the displacing phase fluid front (Fig. 4.24), and IIp = [Xf +(L-Xf )M] dp I dx D where Vi = volume injected, bbl; and A = cross-sectional area of the layer, ft2. The injection rate after breakthrough is given by (in units of barrels per day) . krDkA IIp labt=-1.127---, ........................ (4.56) ltD L IIp or dp ---=----. . ...................... (4.48) dx D [Xi + (L-Xf)M] Again, from Darcy's equation, and the volume injected at any time after breakthrough is Viabt=Vibt+iabt(t-tbt), .......................... (4.57) VD= dXf = -krDk dp I ( 1 ), ........ (4.49) dt ltD dx D cf>(I-Sdr -SDr ) where vD=linear velocity of displacing phase front, Sdr=residual saturation of the displaced phase (Fig. 4.24), and SDr=residual saturation of the displacing phase in the region ahead of the displacing phase front (e.g., interstitial water saturation). Substitution of Eq. 4.48 into Eq. 4.49 gives ............ (4.50) In field units, r -----=-=--=---, ............ (4.51) [ML+(I-M)X]cf>(I-Sdr -SDr ) -6.32TA dkilp where Xf is in feet, t is in days, L is in feet, k is in darcies, IIp is in pounds per square inch, ArD is in cp -1, and M, Sdn and SDr are dimensionless parameters. Eq. 4.51 is a differential equation that may be integrated to determine the position of the displacing phase front, Xf , as a function of the length of time of injection, t. Separation of variables and integration results in Xf2 -6.327A rD kilpt MLXf+(l-M)-= 2 cf>(I-Sdr-SDr) ............ (4.52) where t=time from the beginning of the injection process, days; and tbt=time of breakthrough, days. Eqs. 4.53 through 4.57 may be applied to a multilayer linear system to calculate volumes injected and recovered as a function of time by application of the equations to each layer in the system. The application is described in Example 4.5. Example 4.5-Displacement Performance Calculation in a Linear, Layered Reservoir, M=1.0. Consider the reservoir shown in Fig. 4.25. It is a horizontal, linear system having a width of 100 ft and a length of 350 ft. The reservoir consists of two layers, each 5.0 ft thick. Layer 1 has a permeability of 20 md, while Layer 2 has a permeability of 100 md. Porosity is 0.18. There is no crossflow between layers. The reservoir has an initial oil saturation, Soi, of 80% and a water saturation, Siw of20%. Water is injected at the end atX=O, displacing oil to the production end at X=L (350 ft). A constant pressure drop of 500 psi is maintained across the system. In the calculations to be made, it is assumed that the displacement is by plug or piston-like flow. That is, only oil flows ahead of the front (Sw=Siw) and only water flows behind the front (So=Sor)' Additional data are as follows. Itw = 1.0 cp at TR Ito = 20 cp at TR Bo = 1.0 RBISTB Bw = 1.0 RBISTB krw k ro 0.27 at Sor=0.25 0.94 at Siw=0.20 MACROSCOPIC DISPLACEMENT OF FLUIDS IN A RESERVOIR TABLE 4.4-RESULTS FOR EXAMPLE 4.5, PART 1; M=1.0 and Arw=0.047 Cp-l Vi x Layer 1 * Layer 2** for Each Layer for Each Layer (bbl) (bbl) 617 1,234 1,851 2,468 3,085 3,782 5,672 7,062 8,452 9,842 11,232 12,839 617 1,234 1,851 2,468 3,085 (days) 815.6 1,631 2,447 3,263 4,078 (days) 163.1 326.3 489.4 652.2 815.6 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,078 Layer 1; k = 20 md Layer 2; k = 100 md Fig. 4.25-lIIustration of reservoir for Example 4.5. 'k=20 md. "k=100 md. The mobility ratio is given by M=(krwl/tw)(/tw1kro) =(0.27/1.0)(2010.94) Eq. 4.S3 is applicable. -c/>(1-Sor- S 6. 327Arwk!J..p iw) [ MLXj +(1-M)- XJ] =S.74 (unfavorable). Calculate the following: 1. Oil recovery (barrels) vs. water injected (barrels), assuming the water mobility is equal to the oil mobility-i.e., M= 1.0 (based on oil phase). 2. Oil recovery (barrels) vs. water injected (barrels) at the specified mobility ratio, M=S.74. 3. Oil recovery (barrels) vs. water injected (barrels) assuming the reservoir consists of a single lO-ft-thick layer and an average permeability of 60 md. 4. Vertical displacement efficiencies at water breakthrough for conditions of Parts 2 and 3. S. For M=S.74, show the relative locations of the water fronts in the two layers for at least three different points in time. -0.18(1-0.20-0.2S) [ 6.327xO.27kxSOO 3S0MXj +(1-M)2' Solution of the equation yields the location of the water front as a function of time up to the time of water breakthrough in the layer. After breakthrough, which will occur first in Layer 2, the water injection rate in Layer 2 is given by Solution. 1 and 2. The calculation procedure is as follows: a. The position of the front is set at certain discrete values in each layer. b. The volume of water injected corresponding to each front position is calculated. c. Oil recovery corresponding to each front position is calculated. d. The time corresponding to each front position in each layer is calculated with Eq. 4.S2. e. Calculations for each individual layer are combined to yield the overall performance. TABLE 4.5-RESULTS FOR EXAMPLE 4.5, PART 2; M=5.74 and A rw =0.27 Cp-l (-SOO) -1.127 xO.27xO.100xSx lOOx-3S0 =21.74 BID. Tables 4.4 and 4.5 show calculations for Part 1 for M = 1.0 and Part 2 for M=S.74. Results are plotted in Fig, 4,26. Total performance for the two layers was determined by combining volumes injected and oil produced for the two layers at equal points in time obtained from the calculations in Tables 4.4 and 4.S. The results show the general effect of mobility ratio on recovery as a function of water injected in a layered reservoir. ;/Single La~~~~~erage Properties) 6,000 : Np VI for Each Layer for Each Layer (bbl) (bbl) 617 1,234 1,851 2,468 3,085 8,987 14,422 19,857 25,292 30,727 36,162 44,684 617 1,234 1,851 2,468 3,085 ... " , Case1 M=1.0 (days) 747.6 1,360.7 1,839.2 2,183.0 2,392.3 (days) 149.5 272.2 367.9 436.7 478.5 750 1,000 1,250 1,500 1,750 2,000 2,392 4,000 'N p '" !I .;1'Np =3700 bbl Case 2 M =5.74 =3475 bbl 0L--L--~-L--~~--~~--~~~ VI> bbl Fig. 4.26-Results of Example 4.5, oil recovery as a function of water injected. Layer 1 (20 md) 368 Days Layer 2 (100 md) 478 Days (Breakthrough) 200 Distance. ft Fig. 4.27-Results of Example 4.5, relative location of the water front at different times. Fig. 4.28-Dykstra-Parsons model, reservoir layering. 3. Calculation of oil recovery vs. water injected, averaged properties. If the two-layer system is considered as a single layer with an average permeability of 60 md, then water injected is equal to oil produced. The result of the calculation is also shown in Fig. 4.26. 4. Calculation of vertical displacement efficiency, Eb at water breakthrough. From Fig. 4.26 for M= 1.0, N =3,700 bbl at breakthrough. Total mobile oil is 6,170 bbl. Therefore, E[=3,7oo/6,170=0.60. Alternatively, from Eq. 4.42, E[=20+ 100/2 x 100=0.60 displaced fluid at the producing well can be determined from this model and is given by Eqs. 4.60 and 4.61. This is the WOR for a waterflood, Fwo' Again, the equations apply when nj layers have been flooded out. For M = 1, j k=l kk .............................. (4.60) kk Fwo= From Fig. 4.26 for M=5.74, Np =3,475 bbl. Vertical sweep at breakthrough is reduced as M increases. 5. Relative location of the water front at different points in time, M = 5.74. Fig. 4.27 shows the locations of the water front at times of 368, 478 (breakthrough), and 1,839 days. Data were obtained from calculations inTable 4.5. k=j+l For M> or <1, Fwo=--n~----------------k=j+l . ............ (4.61) Dykstra-Parsons Model for Vertical Heterogeneity. As described in previous sections, the effects of reservoir heterogeneity on vertical sweep efficiency can be estimated with simple models by assuming that the reservoir is represented by noncommunicating layers and by neglecting gravity segregation. Such a model l ,3,27 was developed by Dykstra and Parsons for piston-like displacement in a linear reservoir flooded at constant pressure drop. The DykstraParsons model is based on subdividing the reservoir into n layers of equal thickness that have different permeabilities. Layers are arranged in order of descending permeability, as shown in Fig. 4.28. When the displacement is piston-like, the vertical sweep efficiency is given by Eqs. 4.58 and 4.59. For M=I, Dykstra and Parsons also developed a correlation for vertical sweep efficiency as a function of a parameter that describes permeability variation. Permeability tends to be log-normally distributed. 28 On the basis of this tendency, calculations were made for a hypothetical series of reservoirs that were each assumed to consist of 50 layers. Permeabilities were assigned to each layer in each reservoir according to a log-normal distribution. The distribution was characterized by a parameter V, the permeability variation defined as follows: = k84.l -kso V - - - , ................................ (4.62) kso nj+ E[= kk kj , .......................... (4.58) where n=total number of layers, nj =number of layers flooded out, and k=permeability. Eq. 4.58 IS a special case of Eqs. 4.41 and 4.42 and is applicable at the specific points in time at which the successive layers are flooded out. For M other than unity, the displacement efficiency is given by nj+ (n-n)M E[=--------------------------~~-------- 1 --M-l kk W+-k.(I-M2) ]'h ................................. (4.59) In piston-like displacement, only displaced fluid is produced before breakthrough and no displaced fluid is produced after breakthrough in a particular layer. Thus, the ratio of displacing fluid to where kso =permeability value at the 50th percentile and k84 . l =permeability value at the 84.1 percentile. The Dykstra-Parsons model can be used to obtain E[ as a function of permeability variation, V, and mobility ratios, M, at various values ofWOR, Fwo' Results of the calculations for Fwo values of 1.0 and 25 for a linear reservoir are shown in Figs. 4.29 and 4.30. The correlations show that both reservoir heterogeneity and mobility ratio strongly affect vertical sweep efficiency. Figs. 4.29 and 4.30 give optimistic estimates of vertical sweep efficiency for layered systems because viscous fingering is not modeled and most displacement processes are not piston-like. Dykstra and Parsons,27 Craig,2 and Willhite l discuss methods of calculating permeability variation for particular reservoirs. A perfectly homogeneous reservoir would have a permeability variation of zero, while a totally heterogeneous reservoir would have a variation of 1.0. V=0.7 is typical for many reservoirs and is often 1.0~----------------~F~w-o~P-ro~d~uc~in-g~w~m-e-~~O~iI-' Ratio =1.0 bbVbbl M =Mobility Ratio = .2 .~ 0.6 t ~: > c: :a 0.4 Sl 0.2 0.4 0.6 Vertical Sweep Efficiency, E, 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Vertical Sweep Efficiency, EI Fig. 4.29-Vertical sweep efficiency as a function of permeability variation and mobility ratio for a WOR of 1.0, linear system [from Dykstra, H. and Parsons, R.L.: "The Prediction of Oil Recovery by Waterflood," Secondary Recovery of Oil in the United States, American Petroleum Institute, (1950) 160-174. 27 ]. Fig. 4.30-Vertical sweep efficiency as a function of permeability variation and mobility ratio for a WOR of 25.0, linear system ([from Dykstra, H. and Parsons, R.L.: "The Prediction of Oil Recovery by Waterflood," Secondary Recovery of Oil in the United States, American Petroleum Institute, (1950) 160-174. 27 ]. assumed when there are no data available. Willhite l gives examples of the application of the Dykstra-Parsons model. Effect of Crossflow in a Layered Reservoir. The models previously discussed were based on the assumption that crossflow does not occur between the layers of the reservoir. This would be strictly true only where permeability barriers existed between the layers. In the absence of such barriers, factors exist that lead to crossflow between layers, resulting in the introduction of error into the models discussed in the previous sections. The effects of crossflow are difficult to treat mathematically, but may be modeled with numerical simulators. In an early paper Douglas et at. 10 modeled an immiscible oil displacement in a stratified reservoir in which crossflow was considered. Goddin et at. 29 later conducted a similar study. In these works, the effects of viscous and capillary forces on crossflow were analyzed. Gravity forces were considered to be negligible. Goddin et at. characterized their results in terms of a crossflow index. They showed that under certain conditions, crossflow caused by viscous and capillary forces significantly affected waterflood performance. Capillary pressure gradients clearly affected the amount and location of crossflow. They found that under conditions of favorable mobility ratio, "computed oil recovery with crossflow was always intermediate between that predicted for a uniform reservoir and that for a layered reservoir with no crossflow. " Goddin et at. and Douglas et at. ' s results are described in detail by Willhite. 1 Craig 2 also reviewed published studies of crossflow. He concluded that crossflow acts to improve sweep efficiency at favorable mobility ratios, but that the reverse is true at adverse mobility ratios. 4.7 Volumetric Displacement Efficiency As discussed in previous sections, areal and vertical sweep efficiencies generally have been determined from 2D physical or mathematical models. Areal sweep efficiencies have been determined by use of areal models that simulated various well patterns-e.g., five-spot or linedrive patterns. In these studies, vertical sweep effects were minimized by the use of homogeneous, relatively thin, porous media and/or fluids of matched density. Vertical sweep efficiencies generally have been determined by use of linear models with multiple layers (vertical heterogeneities) or a large vertical dimension. Areal effects have been minimized by the use oflinear flow-Le., by the negation of the influence of a third space dimension. Using 3D models as a basis of correlation of either EA or E[ is difficult because these efficiencies are not truly independent. For example, the influence of gravity override or underride on vertical sweep in a five-spot areal pattern would be affected by the 3D geometry of the reservoir model and by any vertical heterogeneities, such as layers with different properties, that exist. Thus, where 3D models have been used in studies of displacement efficiency, volumetric sweep, Ev, generally has been the efficiency of concern. One exception is the study of Withjack and Akervo1l 30 in which volumetric, areal, and vertical sweep efficiencies were reported for miscible displacements. Likewise, use of correlations of EA or E[ based on 2D models to calculate Ev by application ofEq. 4.6 should be undertaken with care. Geometry effects and the interdependence of factors that control EA and E[ make this approach to calculation of E v subject to significant error. Volumetric displacement efficiency should be determined on the basis of the application of an approach that considers the 3D nature of a reservoir. Methods of estimating volumetric displacement efficiency in a 3D reservoir fall into two classifications. lOne classification is based on direct application of 3D models. While a limited number of such studies has been conducted with physical models, the application of numerical simulators has a greater potential. In this latter approach, the entire 3D reservoir is modeled by solving the fluid-flow equations in three spatial coordinates. The solution of the equation set yields volumetric displacement efficiency. This approach is limited in that the number of gridblocks that can reasonably be used in a model is limited and this affects the accuracy of the calculations. This limitation is especially true for displacements with miscible or near-miscible fluids. A second classification is based on a layered-reservoir model. The reservoir is divided into a number of noncommunicating layers. Displacement performance is calculated in each layer with correlations or calculations based on a 2D areal model. Performances in individual layers are summed to obtain overall, or volumetric, displacement efficiency. These two approaches to determining volumetric sweep efficiency are discussed briefly in this section. 4.7.1 Volumetric Sweep Calculations Based on Physical Modeling Studies, Five-Spot Pattern. Craig et at. 19 conducted a study of volumetric displacement efficiency as a function of viscous/gravity ratio. Their results for a linear system were presented in Sec. 4.6.2. They also used physical models in a study of a five-spot pattern. ).+.---- 933 ft -----+",0 (;' 5S~ : ~ - - - - 0.05 c - - - - 0.445 M~ ffiw g.-, Q)::;' ~ :::: ~:~5~ - - - - 1.85 e. !tJ C/)J::. ~~ CD ... ::;, Em 20 Wilhjack } and AkervoU30 10 i (bbl/day/well) IJd (Cp) Rv/g,5 =512 kx (md) ~p (glcm 3) y2 (ft2) Fig. 4.31-Volumetric displacement efficiency at breakthrough as a function of the ratio of viscous/gravity forces, five-spot pattern (after Craig et al. 19 and Withjack and Akervoll 30 ). Injection Well Producing Well Fig. 4.32-Well pattern, Example 4.6. The models consisted of unconsolidated sandpacks representing one-eighth of a five-spot pattern. The larger of the models was 46 in. between wellbores and 4 in. thick. The scaling factors were such that this represented a five-spot with 10-acre spacing. Immiscible gas and liquid flooding were simulated in the five-spot models. In another study, Withjack and Akervo1l 30 used computerized tomography (CT) scanning to investigate volumetric displacement efficiency in a 3D model of a five-spot pattern. Their model was 8 in. wide, 8 in. long, and 6 in. thick and represented a quarter of a five-spot pattern. The model was physically scaled with dimensionless scaling groups, and unconsolidated beads composed the porous medium. Miscible displacements were conducted at different mobility ratios and with fluids of different densities. Results of both studies are consolidated and given in Fig. 4.31, where E v at breakthrough of the displacing phase is correlated as a function of viscous/gravity ratio, R vlg 5' In customary units, the ratio is defined as ' krw = 0.27 (at Sor of 0.25) k ro = 0.94 (at Siw of 0.20) i = 120 B/D 1. Estimate the barrels of oil to be recovered at water breakthrough assuming that gravity effects are negligible. 2. Estimate the barrels of oil recovered at water breakthrough taking gravity underride into consideration. Solution. 1. Calculate oil recovered at breakthrough with no gravity effects. Apply Fig. 4.4, the correlation of Habermann,8 to calculate M: M = (krwl/1-w)(/1-o/kro) =0.27/1.0 x5.0/O.94 =1.4. From the upper curve of Fig. 4.4, EAbt =0.65 (sweep efficiency at breakthrough). N p = Vp(Soi-Sor)EAbt R vlg 5 = 512i/1-d k H.6.py2 , .............................. (4.63) where i is in barrels per day, /1-d is in centipoise, k is in millidarcies, .6.p is in grams per cubic centimeter, and y is in feet. Volumetric sweep at breakthrough decreases with increasing mobility ratio and with decreasing ratio of viscous to gravity forces. Volumetric sweep in the absence of gravity forces is not 100% at breakthrough, as discussed in Sec. 4.6. That is, the straight lines in Fig. 4.31 do not extrapolate to 100% sweep efficiency. The upper limits of the extrapolations may be approximated from correlations of EA based on areal-sweep data taken in the absence of gravity effects. Data taken by Habermann 8 were used for this purpose, and the resulting limits of various values of M are shown along the right side of Fig. 4.31. Example 4.6-Calculation of Volumetric Sweep Efficiency in a Homogeneous Five-Spot Pattern in Which Gravity Segregation is Possible. Consider the problem of a waterflood in a five-spot pattern shown in Fig. 4.32 with the following data: h = 20 ft cP = 0.20 Soi = 0.80 /1-0 = 5 cp /1-w = 1.0 cp =(933 ft2 x20 ftXO.20)( =221,700 bbl. 1 )(0.80-0.25)0.65 5.615 ft3/bbl 2. Calculate oil recovered at breakthrough with gravity underride. Apply Fig. 4.31, the correlation of Craig et al. ,19 to calculate R vlg ,5: R vlg ,5 = 512i/1-0/k .6.py 2 512(120)(5.0) 50(1.00-0.875)(20)2 =123. In Fig. 4.31, R vlg ,5=123 is off the chart to the right. Extrapolation of an interpolated straight line for M = 1.4, however, indicates that the upper limit of E A would be reached at a value of R vlg ,5 < 123. Thus, gravity underride is insignificant; EAbt =0.65. If the injection rate were reduced by a factor of two, so that R vlg ,5=61.5, there would be a slight decrease of E Abt . As indicated in Example 4.6, the correlations of Craig et at. 19 and Withjack and Akervo1l 30 can be used to estimate volumetric displacement efficiency in a homogeneous reservoir. The k=50md Bo = 1.0 RB/STB Po = 0.75 g/cm3 Pw = 1.00 g/cm3 -----------------------------~-----J1------------------ ------------------ j:J---p............ -; -;- ... ; ......... A : If ~..,,.,,., t:J.. ... }:/ : I ,--------------.! II "''':'', I : : I I: I : 1(. l,,' ~I I i I JJ------t!----~--~--tf------t.J-----f~ , i If ~ i ." ~ate'lopd". i . . ,/ '" '~ /Peripheral Water Injection " Pattern :.:.i.:. , , I , ~---------------------------- ~--------------:: :' :>-<, H " f------it---~~~r..r:..~~--------J< ' ______ , : ., . ' . ' ; . , ;: : : . . '.' 'J :, ,.,., ,. L_~:_..~. . ~...... I ' : p Existing Producing Wells Existing Injection Wells ~-=::::~~-. ... -p-.... : :-e--.p-'" ...... ,. . .i t'. 'P----~-f:{ \ . . ', ~" : I I "Main Dome" Area Unit Outline 'J;1-----p: "East Dome" Area . _____________ _ : : :, : :~-------------------- -----------------------~: ,-------------_. ,! Fig. 4.33-Unit outline, West Seminole field (from Harpole 31 ). correlations are based on data taken in 3D physical models. The correlations are not applicable where either areal or vertical heterogeneities exist in a reservoir. Sec. 6.9 gives additional results from the Withjack and Akervoll study. It is possible to use data taken in 2D models to estimate behavior in 3D systems. As an example, the existence of certain flow regimes, governed by gravity fingers and/or viscous fingering, was discussed in Sec. 3.7. The data for the correlations were taken in 2D models. Stalkup 3 suggested that the correlation can be used for 3D systems by adjusting the flow velocity. For a five-spot pattern, the suggested velocity to use is u= 1.25i1hd, ................................... (4.64) where i=injection rate, h=formation thickness, d=distance between production wells, and u=Darcy average velocity. The formula is based on the assumption that the proper width for calculating the average linear velocity is one-fifth the distance between wells. Stalkup 3 cautions, however, that Eq. 4.64 is an approximation based on limited data and that the underlying assumptions could be substantially in error. 4.7.2 Calculations of Volumetric Sweep With Numerical Simulators. Three-dimensional volumetric displacement efficiency may be determined by numerical simulation-Le., mathematical modeling based on computer solutions. This approach requires the formulation of differential equations that mathematically represent the physical displacement process. The equations then must be solved by use of mathematical numerical-analysis techniques, which require a computer. Because of the complexity of the equations and the calculation procedures, significant effort often is required to obtain a solution algorithm. Once an algorithm has been developed, however, a number of cases can be computed and the effect of different parameters on displacement performance can be evaluated. Harpole 31 described the application of a 3D, three-phase numerical model (black-oil model) to simulate waterflood performance in the West Seminole field of west Texas. In this reservoir, after an initial primary stage of production that lasted several years, a peripheral waterflood was established as a pressure-maintenance project. This was followed by the development of a waterflood on 40-acre five-spot patterns. Fig. 4.33 31 illustrates the field outline and flood patterns. The numerical model first was used to match the performance history of the field. Based on this history-matching process, geologic and flow models of the reservoir, which served as a basis for subsequent decisions, were developed. For example, an important operating consideration throughout the field's life, and especially during the pattern waterflooding period, was the extent of vertical communication within the reservoir. There was particular concern about communication between the oil zone and the overlying gas cap. The model study indicated the degree of sensitivity of the waterflood performance to vertical communication. On the basis of the history match with the model, it was concluded that a small, but important, vertical communication existed between different layers. Subsequent management and operating decisions were based on this conclusion. Volumetric waterflood displacement efficiency, in effect, was calculated for various proposed operating and development schemes. On the basis of the results of those calculations and corresponding economic considerations, reservoir management plans were implemented. Some 30 months after the original simulation, model predictions for the management plan implemented were compared with field performance for that same 30-month period (Fig. 4.34). Agreement is quite good, indicating the utility of the modeling approach. 4.7.3 Calculations of Volumetric Sweep Based on Layered Models. An approach to the simulation of performance in a 3D reservoir is to subdivide the reservoir into vertical layers with the assumption that crossflow between layers does not occur. The performance in each of the 2D layers is evaluated, and results from all layers are combined to obtain the 3D result. The key assumption in this approach is that no communication exists between layers, or if it does, any errors introduced by the crossflow are acceptable. As discussed in Sec. 4.7, the layers may be described in different ways. For example, the layers and layer properties may be set on the basis of what is known about the reservoir geology. This method is valid when discrete layers are identifiable from welllpgs or core data. Layers also may be set from the results of a permeability-variation model such as that described by Dykstra and Parsons. 27 In this approach, the layers are hypothetical and the number of layers to be used in a model must be determined. This determination was addressed by Craig. 32 .ooo~ ____________________________________________________________-,oooo ,~ c iii r~~--- L.....------i PREDICTED PERFORMANCE ~-tHt____ ACTUAL PERFORMANCE ~.7. Fig. 4.34-Comparison of predicted vs. actual performance, West Seminole field (from Harpole 31 ). Example 4.7-Application of a Layered Model To Calculate Volumetric Sweep Efficiency at Breakthrough, Five-Spot Pattern. Consider a 20-acre, five-spot pattern such as that illustrated in Example 4.5. The reservoir is thought to consist of two noncommunicatinglayers. In Layer 1, hI =8 ft, </>=0.18, andkl =150md, and in Layer 2, h2 =12 ft, </>=0.18, and k2 =60 md. Other properties are the following: Soi = 0.75 krw = 0.40 (at Sor of 0.30) kro = 0.98 (at Siw of 0.25) fhw = 1.0 cp fho = 2.5 cpo The ratio of the injection rates into Layers 1 and 2 is il/i2 =(k l lk 2 )(h 1/h 2 ) = (150)(8)/(60)(12) =1.67. Breakthrough occurs in Layer 1. From Fig. 4.9, EAI =0.68 (at breakthrough). The volume injected in Layer 1 at breakthrough can be calculated from Fig. 4.9: 1 Vii =A 1h 1 </>(Soi- Sor)-- XEA1 5.615 For piston-like displacement, =(933 ft2)(8 ft)(0.18)(0.75-0.30)( =68,300 bbl. 1 )0.68 5.615 ft 3 /bbl The volume injected in Layer 2 at this same point in time is calculated as =(0.40)/(0.98) 1.0 2.5 Vi2 = Vii (i2 Ii l) =68,000(1/1.67) =1.02. Gravity effects are negligible. A constant pressure drop of 500 psi is maintained across the system-Le., from injection-well to production-well bottomhole pressure (BHP). From the Caudle and Witte 11 results for areal displacement efficiency in a five-spot pattern (Figs. 4.9 through 4.11), calculate the volumetric sweep efficiency at water breakthrough. Calculate relative injection rates in the two layers. The flow rate in each layer is constant because M"" 1.0. Assume piston-like displacement in each layer. Solution. Eq. 4.19 is applicable: 0.001538kkroMp i = --,----------:-fho (lOg =40,900 bbl. The volumetric sweep efficiency is determined by the ratio of the total volume injected to the total displaceable volume. (68,300+40,900 bbl) (933 ft2)(20 ft)0.18(0.75-0.30)( 1 ) 5.615 ft 3 /bbl 109,200/251,100 =0.435. MACROSCOPIC DISPLACEMENT OF FLUIDS IN A RESERVOIR TABLE 4.6-DISPLACEMENT RUN 4, GLYCEROL DISPLACEMENT IN BEREA SANDSTONE CORE A, PROBLEM 4.1 Experimental Conditions Flow rate, cm /h Flow velocity, in.lD Collection rate per hour Permeability before run, md System compressibility, cm 3 Before run After run Average temperature, OF Temperature range, of Average pressure in core,' psig Core Dimensions Length, in. Diameter, in. Area, in.2 PV, cm 3 Porosity Displacement Fluids Viscosity" Brine (cp) Fluid initially in core 30 gIL NaCI 650 gIL glycerol 20 gIL NaCI Fluid injected 700 gIL glycerol 2.5 vol % ethanol 6 13.8 One test tube 303 77 70 to 85 40 to 115 Fig. 4.35-Layered reservoir, Problem 4.2. 48.1 2 to 0.2 3.1 500.53 0.2062 Densityt (g/cm 3 ) 1.1551 1.09 While this approach to calculation of E v is valid, it is a more complex approach and is of limited utility. Note that this example does not establish the validity of calculating Ev as the product of EAI and E[. The calculation is valid only within the constraints of the layered, noncommunicating model applied. The example calculation was made much simpler by use of a value of M = 1.0. Por any other mobility ratio at constant pressure drop, the rate in each layer would be a function of time and would require a numerical integration technique to determine volume injected. Willhite l gives an example of a waterflood calculation in a linear layered reservoir in Chap. 5. That example is based on the application of the Dykstra-Parsons model. 27 Craig 32 showed that results obtained with the layered-model approach are dependent on the number of layers used in the calculation. Where separate layers are identifiable from geologic considerations, this dependence is appropriate. When a model based on permeability variation is applied, however, a dependence on the number of layers is questionable because the layers are hypothetical; i.e., they are constructs for the model. Craig 32 addressed this problem and developed a series of tables that show the minimum number of equal-thickness layers required to match performance of a 100-layer reservoir at specified values of M and producing WOR's. This guide should be used in conjunction with the DykstraParsons model. Time sequence: Injection began at 1:30 a.m. on June 15, 1976, with Test Tube 141. The run ended at 1:30 p.m. on June 22, 1976. 'Pressure caused by effluent valve restricting flow. "At 22.5 seconds -1 and 77 F. t At 770F. Note that a vertical displacement efficiency could be calculated for this example: Ev = EAIE[ 0.435 = 0.68E[ E[ = 0.64. Alternatively, E[ could be calculated directly based on its definition and then Ev could be determined as the product of EAI and E[. Ev as the product of EAI and E[ is calculated as follows for a two-layer five-spot pattern. At breakthrough EAI =0.68. At this same point in time, EA2 =40,900/150,688 EA2 (h l ,+h2) E[=EAI (hI +h 2) [(EA2 -EAI )] EAI hI (hI +h 2) Problems 4.1 Consider a dispersion experiment with data shown in Table 4.6. Assume that the experiments were conducted with the core oriented in the vertical direction. Two liquids were used in the experiment: Liquid 1 is a brine with 30.00 g NaCIIL and 650 g glyceroIlL. PI =1.1551 g/cm 3 and ILl =7.4 cp at 77P. Liquid 2 is a brine with 20.00 g NaCIIL and 700 g glycerol/L. P2 = 1.09 g/cm 3 and IL2 = 11.3 cp at 77P. Analyze the flow in terms of the Dumore model 24 for gravity stabilized fingering for four possible displacement conditions: (1) Liquid 1 displacing Liquid 2, flow downward; (2) Liquid 1 displacing Liquid 2, flow upward; (3) Liquid 2 displacing Liquid 1, flow downward; and (4) Liquid 2 displacing Liquid 1, flow upward. 4.2 Consider the reservoir shown in Fig. 4.35, a horizontal, linear system having a width of 100 ft and a length of 350 ft. The reservoir consists of two layers, each 5.0 ft in thickness. Layer 1 has a permeability of 20 md, while Layer 2 has a permeability of 100 md. Porosity is 0.18. The reservoir has an initial oil saturation, SOi' of 80% and an initial water saturation, Siw, of20%. Water is injected at the end at x=O, displacing oil to the production end at x=L (350 ft). A constant pressure drop of 500 psi is maintained across the system. In the calculations to be made, it is assumed that the displacement is by plug flow. That is, only oil flows ahead of the front (Sw=Siw) and only water flows behind the front (So=Sor)' Calculate and plot the following: 0.27 (0.68-0.27) --x20+ x8 ft 0.68 0.68 20 =0.64. Ev=EAIE[ =0.68xO.64 =0.435 (agrees with previous calculation). 1. Oil recovery (barrels) vs. water injected (barrels) assuming that the reservoir consists of a single layer with an average permeability of 60 md. 2. Oil recovery (barrels) vs. time (days) for the condition of Part 1. 3. Oil recovery (barrels) vs. water injected (barrels), assuming that the reservoir consists of two noncomrnunicating layers as described. 4. Oil recovery (barrels) vs. time (days) for the condition of Part 3. 5. For Part 4, show the relative location of the water front in the two layers for at least three different points in time. Additional data are Bol = oil FVF at the beginning of process, L3 IL3, B02 = Ci = d = E = E' = EA = EAbt = ED = /tw = 1.0 cp at TR , /to = 20 cp at TR , Bo = 1.0 RBISTB, Bw = 1.0 RBISTB, krw = 0.27 at Sw=1-S0T' and k ro = 0.94 at So = 1-Siw . EI Elbt Ep Ev = E Vbt = Fg/v = Fi = F ibt = 4.3 Consider the analysis of the linear waterflood in the two-layer reservoir of Problem 4.2. For that problem, the mobility ratio was unfavorable (M=5.74). Recalculate Parts 3 and 4 of Problem 4.2 for M= 1.0 and 0.5. Assume that, in each case, M is modified by changing the viscosity of the injected water. Prepare two graphs to present your results: Graph 1, oil recovery vs. water injected, and Graph 2, oil recovery vs. time. Put the results for all three Mvalues (the two above plus the original value, M=5.74) on each graph. 4.4 Consider the problem of a waterflood in a five-spot pattern (Fig. 4.32) with the following data: h = 20 ft F wo = Fp. = g = h hj hk i = = = = iabt = k = ki = kj = 4> = 0.20 Soi = 0.80 /to = 10 cp /tw = 1.0 cp k = 50 md Bo = 1.0 RBISTB Po = 0.875 g/cm 3 Pw = 1.00 g/cm 3 i = 120 BID kk kr kx ky kso k S4 . l = 1. Estimate the barrels of oil recovered at water breakthrough assuming that gravity effects are negligible. 2. Estimate the barrels of oil recovered at water breakthrough taking gravity underride into consideration. For Part 1, use an appropriate correlation presented in the text. For Part 2, use the correlation presented by Craig 2 (Fig. 4.31). 3. Recalculate Parts 1 and 2 for M=1.0. 4. Calculate oil produced as a function of water injected out to a producing WOR of 20. 5. Calculate the WOR as a function of water injected out to a ratio of 20. 6. Plot your results. Use the correlations of Caudle and Witte 11 (Figs. 4.9 through 4.11) for your calculations. L = Lp = M = Ms = Mt = n = nj = 4.5 Consider Example 4.5, which concerns linear displacement in a layered reservoir (two layers). Data are the same except for the oil viscosity. Consider Case 1, /to=1.74 cp, and Case 2, /to=3.48 cpo For both cases calculate oil recovery (barrels) vs. water injected, oil recovery (barrels) vs. time, and vertical displacement efficiency at water breakthrough. Compare the results of the first two calculations with Example 4.5 for M=5.74. N Np Nl P Pr I1p q qi = = Rv/g = qt rw Nomenclature Parameter definitions are followed by dimensions and typical units used in text. A = area, L2, ft2 B = FVF, O/L3, RBISTB B oi = initial oil FVF, 010, RBISTB SDr = Siw = Soi = Sor = RBISTB oil FVF at the end of process, L3 IL3, RBISTB concentration, L3 IL3, vol/vol distance between wells, L, ft overall hydrocarbon recovery efficiency recovery efficiency in Spivak correlation, Fig. 4.18 areal sweep efficiency areal sweep efficiency at breakthrough microscopic displacement efficiency vertical displacement efficiency vertical displacement efficiency at breakthrough pattern sweep efficiency macroscopic (volumetric) recovery efficiency volumetric sweep efficiency at breakthrough fractional flow of a phase, L3 IL3, volume fraction gravity/viscous ratio defined in Eq. 4.26 displaceable PV's of fluid injected, Claridge correlation displaceable PV's of fluid injected at breakthrough of injected fluid at producing well, Claridge correlation producing WOR, L3 10, vol/vol effective viscosity ratio, Koval model, Eq. 4.23 gravity acceleration constant Llt 2 , 32.174 ft/sec 2 formation thickness, L, ft thickness of Layer j, L, ft thickness of Layer k, L, ft volumetric injection rate, L3 It, BID injection rate after breakthrough, 0 It, BID absolute permeability, L2, md effective permeability of Phase i, L2, md absolute permeability of Layer j, L2, md absolute permeability of Layer k, L2, md relative permeability permeability in x direction, L2, md permeability in y direction, L2, md permeability at 50th percentile, log-normal distribution, Eq. 4.62, L2, md permeability at 84.1 percentile, log-normal distribution, Eq. 4.62, L2, md length, L, ft length of flow perturbation, L, ft mobility ratio mobility ratio based on average saturation, Eq. 4.14 mobility ratio based on total mobilities, Eq. 4.16 number of layers number of layers flooded out original oil in place, 0, STB oil displaced or produced, L3, STB oil in place at beginning of process, L3, STB pressure, m/U 2 , psi reference pressure, m/U2, psi pressure drop, m/U2, psi volumetric flow rate, L3 It, BID total volumetric injection or flow rate in Layer i, Olt, BID total volumetric injection or flow rate, L3 It, BID wellbore radius, L, ft viscous/gravity ratio defined in Eq. 4.24 average saturation, L3 IL3, volume fraction residual saturation of displaced phase, L3 IL3 , volume fraction residual saturation of displacing phase, L3 IL3 , volume fraction interstitial water saturation, L3 IL3, volume fraction initial oil saturation, L3 IL3, volume fraction residual oil saturation, L3 IL3, volume fraction 11. Caudle, B.H., and Witte, M.D.: "Production Potential Changes During Sweepout in a Five-Spot System," Trans., AIME (1959) 216, 446-48 12. Dougherty, E.L., and Sheldon, J.W.: "The Use of Fluid-Fluid Interfaces to Predict the Behavior of the Recovery Processes, " SPEJ (June 1964) 171-82. 13. Mahaffey, J.L., Rutherford, W.M., and Mattbews, C.S.: "Sweep Efficiency by Miscible Displacement in a Five-Spot," SPEJ (March 1966) 73-80. 14. Koval, E.J.: "A Method for Predicting the Performance of Unstable Miscible Displacement in Heterogeneous Media," SPEJ (June 1963) 145-54. 15. Caudle, B.H., Hickman, B.M., and Silberberg, 1.H.: "Performance of the Skewed Four-Spot Injection Pattern," JPT (Nov. 1968) 1315-19. 16. Guckert, L.G.: "Areal Sweepout Performance of Seven- and Nine-Spot Patterns," MS thesis, Pennsylvania State U., University Park, PA (1961). 17. Landrum, B.L. and Crawford, P.B.: "Effect of Directional Permeability on Sweep Efficiency and Production Capacity," ,Trans., AIME (1960) 219, 407-11. 18. Higgins, R.V. and Leighton, A.J.: "A Computer Method to Calculate Two-Phase Flow in Any Irregularly Bounded Porous Media," JPT (June 1962) 679-83; Trans., AIME, 225. 19. Craig, F.F. Jr. et al.: "A Laboratory Study of Gravity Segregation in Frontal Drives," Trans., AIME (1957) 210, 275-82. 20. Geertsma, J., Croes, G.A., and Schwarz, N.: "Theory of Dimensionally Scaled Models of Petroleum Reservoirs," Trans., AIME (1956) 207, 118-27. 21. Spivak, A.: "Gravity Segregation in Two-Phase Displacement Processes," SPEJ (Dec. 1974) 619-32. 22. Crane, F.E., Kendall, H.A., and Gardner, G.H.F.: "Some Experiments of the Flow of Miscible Fluids of Unequal Density Through Porous Media," SPEJ (Dec. 1963) 277-80; Trans., AIME, 228. 23. Hill, S.: "Channeling in Packed Column," Chern. Engr. Sci. (1952) 1,247. 24. Dumore, J.M.: "Stability Considerations in Downward Miscible Displacement," SPEJ (Dec. 1964) 356-62. 25. Dake, L.P.: Fundamentals ofReservoir Engineering, Elsevier Science Publishing Co. Inc., New York (1978). 26. Hawthorne, R.G.: "Two-Phase Flow in Two-Dimensional SystemsEffects of Rate, Viscosity and Density or Fluid Displacement in Porous Media," Trans., AIME (1960) 219, 81-87. 27. Dykstra, H. and Parsons, R.L.: "The Prediction of Oil Recovery by Waterflood," Secondary Recovery of Oil in the United States, API, New York City (1950) 160. 28. Law, J.: "A Statistical Approach to the Interstitial Characteristics of Sand Reservoirs," Trans., AIME (1944) ISS, 202-22. 29. Goddin, C.S. Jr. et al.: "A Numerical Study ofWaterflood Performance in a Stratified System with Crossflow," JPT (June 1966) 765-71; Trans., AIME, 237. 30. Withjack, E.M. and Akervoll, 1.: "Computed Tomography Studies of Three-Dimensional Miscible-Displacement Behavior in a Laboratory Five-Spot Model," paper SPE 18096 presented at the 1988 SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, Houston, Oct. 2-5. 31. Harpole, J.H.: "Improved Reservoir Characterization-A Key to Future Reservoir Management for the West Seminole San Andres Unit," JPT (Nov. 1980) 2009-19. 32. Craig, F.F. Jr.: "Effect of Reservoir Description on Performance Predictions," JPT (Oct. 1970) 1239-45. S 1 = oil saturation at beginning of displacement process, o L3 IL3, volume fraction S 2 = oil saturation at end of displacement process, o L3 IL3, volume fraction t = time, t, days TR = reservoir temperature, T, OF u = Darcy velocity, Lit, B/(D-ft2) u = critical velocity defmed in Eq. 4.31, Lit, ft/D u~ = Darcy velocity of Phase i, Lit, STB/(D-ft2) u t = critical velocity defined in Eq. 4.36, Lit, ftlD s . V = Dykstra-Parsons coeffiCIent, Eq. 4.62 V = total volume injected, 0, bbl I 3 V = PV, L , bbl V ~ = displaceable PV, 0, bbl px = distance, L, ft XI = location of a displacement front, L, ft y = vertical dimension, L, ft 'Y = conductance ratio fJ = angle of reservoir dip A = mobility, Otlm, md/cp Ai = mobility of Phase i, Ot/m, md/cp Aj = mobility of fluid in Layer j, Ot/m, md/cp Ak = mobility of fluid in Layer k, L 3 t/m, md/cp Ar = relative mobility, krlp., L 3 t/m, cp-l At = total mobility; sum of mobilities of all flowing phases, L 3tlm, md/cp p. = viscosity, miLt, cp P.i = viscosity of Phase i, miLt, cp p = density, m/L3, g/cm 3 /:!..p = density difference, mlO, g/cm 3 c/J = porosity Subscripts abt = after breakthrough bt = breakthrough d = displaced phase D = displacing phase H = horizontal 0= oil s = solvent V = vertical w = water 1. Willhite, G.P.: Wateiflooding, Textbook Series, SPE, Richardson, TX (1986) 3. 2. Craig, F.F. Jr.: The Reservoir Engineering Aspects ofWateiflooding, Monograph Series, SPE, Richardson, TX (1971) 3. 3. Stalkup, F.1. Jr.: Miscible Displacement, Monograph Series, SPE, Richardson, TX (1983) 8. 4. Craig, F.F. Jr., Geffen, T.M., and Morse, R.A.: "Oil Recovery Performance of Pattern Gas on Water Injection Operations from Model Tests," Trans., AIME (1955) 204,7-15. 5. Claridge, E.L.: "Prediction of Recovery in Unstable Miscible Displacement," SPEJ (April, 1972) 143-55. 6. Slobod, R.L. and Caudle, B.H.: "X-Ray Shadowgraph Studies of Areal Sweepout Efficiencies," Trans., AIME (1952) 195, 265-70. 7. Dyes, A.B., Caudle, B.H., and Erickson, R.A.: "Oil Production After Breakthrough As Influenced by Mobility Ratio," Trans., AIME (1954) 201, 81-86. 8. Habermann, R.: "The Efficiencies of Miscible Displacement as a Function of Mobility Ratio," Trans., AIME (1960) 219,264-72. 9. Kimbler, O.K., Caudle, B.H., and Cooper, H.E. Jr.: "Areal Sweep Behavior in a Nine-Spot Injection Pattern," JPT (Feb. 1964) 199-202. 10. Douglas, J. Jr., Peaceman, D.W., and Rachford, H.H.: "A Method for Calculating Multi-Dimensional Immiscible Displacement, Trans., AIME (1959) 216, 297-308. 51 Metric Conversion Factors E-01 bbl x 1.589873 E-03 cp x 1.0 E-Ol ft x 3.048* ft2 x 9.290304* E-02 OF (OF - 32)/1.8 in. x 2.54* E+OO E+OO in. 2 x 6.451 6* E-04 md x 9.869233 psi x 6.894757 E+OO m3 Pas m m2 cm cm 2 p.m 2 kPa Mobility-Control Processes 5.1 Introduction Mobility control is a generic term describing any process where an attempt is made to alter the relative rates at which injected and displaced fluids move through a reservoir. The objective of mobility control is to improve the volumetric sweep efficiency of a displacement process. In some processes, there is also an improvement in microscopic displacement efficiency at a specified volume of fluid injected. Mobility control is usually discussed in terms of the mobility ratio, M, and a displacement process is considered to have mobility control if M ::51.0. Volumetric sweep efficiency generally increases as M is reduced, and it is sometimes advantageous to operate at a mobility ratio considerably less than unity, especially in reservoirs with substantial variation in the vertical or areal permeability. Examination of Eq. 4.14 shows how the mobility ratio can be changed in a displacement process. Inspection ofEq. 4.14, reproduced here as Eq. 5.1, indicates that the mobility ratio can be modified by any combination of changes in the permeabilities of the rock to the displacing and displaced fluids and/or changes in fluid viscosities. M=(krD/ltD)Sv(ltd/krd)Sd' ......................... (5.1) where krD = relative permeability of the displacing phase, krd=relative permeability ofthe displaced phase, ltD =viscosity of the displacing phase, Itd=viscosity of the displaced phase, SD = average saturation of the displacing phase in region behind the displacing-phase front, Sd = average saturation of the displaced phase in the region ahead of the displacing-phase front, and consistent units are used. Because it is often not feasible to change the properties of the displaced fluid when it is oil or the permeabilities of the rock to the displaced fluids, most mobility-control processes of current interest involve addition of chemicals to the injected fluid. These chemicals increase the apparent viscosity of the injected fluid and/or reduce the effective permeability of rock to the injected fluid. The chemicals used are primarily polymers when the injected fluid is water and surfactants that form foams when the injected fluid is a gas. In some cases, mobility control is attained in gas-injection processes by the injection of alternate slugs of gas and water. This chapter introduces the principles of mobility control applicable to the development of EOR processes. Mobility control is essential to the effectiveness of such processes as micellar/polymer flooding and offers much potential to improve the effectiveness of other processes, such as miscible gasflooding and steam displacement. 5.2 Process Description 5.2.1 Polymer-Augmented Waterflooding. High-molecularweight water-soluble polymers in dilute concentrations [on the order of a few hundred parts per million (ppm)] increase the viscosity of water significantly. Two types of polymers are commonly used for mobility control in waterfloods: partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide and xanthan biopolymers. Properties of these polymers are discussed later, but here note that the mobility of polymer solutions containing polyacrylamide is reduced by a combination of increased solution viscosity and reduced rock permeability caused by polymer retention. In contrast, xanthan polymer solutions reduce the mobility of the injected solution by increasing the solution viscosity. When the initial mobility ratio is unfavorable for a waterflood, mobility control can increase the microscopic displacement efficiency at a specified WOR. In most cases, polymer flooding is used to increase volumetric sweep efficiency. In a polymer-augmented waterflood, polymer is injected continuously at the initial polymer concentration for a limited period. Reducing the polymer concentration systematically as more PV's are injected (as depicted in Fig. 5.1) is the most cost-effective method to conduct a flood. After sufficient polymer has been injected, the polymer slug is displaced through the reservoir by injecting water. Polymer selection, injected concentration, polymer volume injected, and the method of reducing the polymer concentration with PV's of fluid injected are determined from data obtained in laboratory experiments and by simulating the polymer flood with computer models. 1 5.2.2 Mobility Control To Complement Other EOR Processes. Chemical Flooding. Chemical flooding processes are based on the injection of a surfactant solution or the in-situ generation of surfactants by injected-solution/crude-oil reaction to mobilize oil. Because the injected chemicals are expensive, a small chemical slug (about 5% to 40% PV) is injected in the process. This slug is displaced through the reservoir by a polymer bank, which in tum is displaced by drive water. Fig. 5.22 illustrates a typical chemical flooding process. Mobility control is essential for three steps in the chemical flooding process. In the chemical slug, mobility control is needed to prevent the chemical slug from fingering into the oil/water bank where it would dissipate by dispersive mixing. Mobility control between the mobility buffer (polymer bank) and chemical slug minimizes dissipation of the slug by mixing with the mobility buffer. Finally, mobility control is needed to prevent the drive water from fingering through the mobility buffer into the chemical slug. residual oil saturations (ROS's) as low as 5% to 10%. The steam mobility in this region of steam displacement is high, so injection rates must be reduced to avoid excessive steam production at production wells. Vertical expansion of the steam zone is slow relative to lateral movement. Mobility control is needed to reduce steam movement laterally across the pattern, thereby promoting faster vertical expansion of the steam zone. In-situ generation of foam has potential as a mobility-control process for both miscible and steamflooding processes. Foam forms when a gas phase displaces a liquid solution containing a surfactant in porous rock. The foam is a viscous, coml}ressible dispersion of gas in water separated by a surfactant film at the interface. Mobility control is obtained in the foamed region because the permeability of gas in the foamed region is reduced markedly. The properties of the foam are governed by the porous medium, the characteristics of the surfactant, and the foam qUality. These properties must be determined from laboratory testing. In practice, the surfactant solution may be injected as a slug between gas-injection cycles or concurrently. An inert gas, such as nitrogen or methane, must be injected with the steam to develop foams in steamflooding applications. -+1- Polymer ~ Drive 165 Water ppm Fig. 5.1-lnjection schedule for a continuous polymer flood. Miscible Gas-Injection Processes. In miscible flooding by gaseous solvents, a slug of solvent is injected that is either miscible with the crude oil on first contact or develops miscibility through repeated contacts with the oil. Because the viscosities of most solvents are much less than oil or water viscosities, the mobility ratio is typically very unfavorable. This leads to such negative effects as viscous fingering, channeling through high-permeability zones, and generally reduced sweep effIciency. Mobility control improves the performance of such miscible processes. The water-alternating-gas 0N AG) process often is used for mobility control in miscible gas-injection processes. Mobility control is obtained by choosing a water/gas injection ratio that minimizes gas bypassing. Although the process is based in principle on simultaneous flow of water and gas in porous rock, as depicted in Fig. 5.3, * gas and water are injected as slugs in practice. Water and gas injection slugs are sized so that two-phase flow is obtained in the mixing zone as gas fingers through the water slug. WAG ratios can be computed from relative permeability data for linear displacement but also may be determined empirically in field applications from interpretation of field data. Steamflooding. Mobility control is also a concern in steamflooding. The injected steam rises to the top of the reservoir as a result of gravity segregation. Areal sweep is often quite high in this region. Oil displacement is confined primarily to the upper portion of a reservoir, leaving a transition zone of hot water above the cold oil, as shown in Fig. 5.4. 3 The region contacted by steam may have Personal communication with Larry W. Lake. U. of Texas, Austin, 1986. 5.3 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Polymers 5.3.1 Polymer Types. Two types of polymers, often called macromolecules, are used widely in EOR processes: polyacrylamides and polysaccharides. Polyacrylamides can be manufactured by polymerization of the acrylamide monomer, shown in the brackets in Fig. 5.5,4 to produce a polymer that resembles a flexible coil. Polymerization produces macromolecules with average molecular weights ranging from 0.5 million to 30 million, depending on the extent of polymerization. Molecular weights commonly used range from 1 million to 10 million. Polyacrylamide adsorbs strongly on mineral surfaces. Thus, the polymer is partially hydrolyzed to reduce adsorption by reacting polyacrylamide with a base, such as sodium or potassium hydroxide or sodium carbonate. Hydrolysis converts some of the amide groups (NH 2) to carboxyl groups (COO-), as shown in Fig. 5.5. The degree of hydrolysis is the fraction of amide groups that are converted by hydrolysis and ranges from 15 % to 35 % in commercial products. Polyacrylamide also is used in the "unhydrolyzed" form in some applications. Even "unhydrolyzed" polyacrylamide will have small amounts (2 % to 4 %) of hydrolyzed groups unless exceptional precautions are taken in the manufacturing process. Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamides are also produced by copolymerization. Polyacrylamides are supplied as a dry polymer or as liquid emulsions with oil- or waterexternal systems . ~~--~~----------~-------------r--------~~ BRINE SALINITY) POLYMER DRIVE 11.0 PVI BIOPOLYMER p.3SCP SALINITY. 70% TSS" MICROEMULSION 10.3 PVI 2.3 WT "4 SURFACTANT 2.65 WT "4 250 WOB BIOPOLYMER p.2SCP SALINITY. 96%TSB" OIL l00~ TSB } J AODITIVES 500-1500 PPM FORMALDEHYOE FOR BACTERIAL CONTAOL 90 PPM CITRIC ACID FOR IRON CONTROL QUADRANT AND OVERALL TRACERS VISCOSITY MEASURED AT 11 SEC 1 TAR SPRING BRINE IRESIDENT SRINE) Fig. 5.2-Mobility control of a chemical flood process. 2 The most widely used polysaccharide is xanthan gum, which is a biopolymer produced commercially by microbial action of the organism Xanthomonas campestris 5 on a carbohydrate feed stock. Typical structure of the xanthan biopolymer is shown in Fig. 5.6. 6 The polymer acts like a semirigid rod and is quite resistant to mechanical degradation. Average reported molecular weights of xanthan biopolymers used in EOR processes range from 1 million to 15 million, depending on the method used to determine the molecular weight. The properties of a particular biopolymer depend to a large measure on the organism used to manufacture the polymer. There are many strains of Xanthomonas campestris, and different biopolymers consequently have been developed from these strains. Xanthan biopolymers are supplied as a dry powder or as a concentrated broth. Unless special precautions are taken in the manufacturing process, the biopolymer product contains cellular debris that must be removed by filtration before it can be injected into porous rocks. Dry xanthan biopolymers are also susceptible to formation of microgels, which have plugging tendencies. 7,8 Kolodziej9 proposed that the formation of microgels in solutions made from xanthan was dependent on the presence of denatured proteins and salt. Unlike ordinary chemical reactions, where the products are discrete, identifiable molecular species, all polymerization reactions yield polymers with a broad distribution of molecular weights. This characteristic is called polydispersivity. Fig. 5.7 10 shows an example of the size distribution for a high-molecular-weight polyacrylamide. Molecular weight distributions are difficult to obtain, so product specifications report an average molecular weight based on weight average or number average. Viscosity-averaged molecular weights often are determined from correlations of intrinsic viscosity with molecular weight. 11 Other polymers have been developed for particular applications. For example, polyvinylpyrrolidone 12 was developed for hightemperature applications in harsh environments where polyacrylamides and biopolymers were found not to be applicable. 5.3.2 Polymer Stability. The property that makes polymers useful for EOR applications is that small concentrations of polymer, on the order of a few hundred to a few thousand ppm (by weight), increase the viscosity of an aqueous solution significantly. The rheology of these solutions is examined later. This section addresses the critical question of polymer selection for a particular reservoir environment. For a polymer to be useful in EOR applications, it must be stable at reservoir conditions for the expected residence time in the reser- Secondary WAG Displacement Profile attD = 0.4 1.0 Injected Water 0.8 Resident Water F--vw r-- ~Vob C/) :::l 0.4 Solvent i---- Vs O~~~'~~'~~L-'--L-I__~ Fig. 5.3-Mobility control with alternate injection of water and gas (personal communication with L.W. Lake, U. of Texas, Austin, 1986). voir rock. Because polymers can degrade under certain conditions, short-time laboratory tests can be misleading. Polymer stability at reservoir temperature and in the presence of reservoir brine is essential to EOR applications. Several papers 13-15 describe methods of evaluating polymer stability and present experimental data defining principal effects. The important variables are summarized here. It is well-established that both polyacrylamides and biopolymers are susceptible to oxidative attack by dissolved oxygen in the injected water. Degradation is detected by the loss of solution viscosity with time. 13 - 15 At low temperatures, the reaction rate is slow and can go undetected in short tests. The degradation rate increases as temperature increases, which is consistent with chemical reaction kinetics. The oxidative degradation reaction is catalyzed by dissolved metal ions, such as Fe + + + . 16 Degradation by oxidative attack can be prevented or minimized by reducing the oxygen content of the water or brine to less than a few parts per billion. liHL LAI~ Z)1 ~'---r-------f-------f-----+-----r------~ --+-------------+----:!:-----+--------I-----4---1- OISTA.CE fROM WELL LAIlolll. fT. E- Fig. 5.4-Gravity segregation in a steam displacement process. 3 Siruciure of polyacrylamide CH iH 2 -c.o l T Fig. 5.5-Molecular structure of high-molecular-weight polyacrylamides. 4 This usually is done by use of oxygen scavengers or deaeration. Sodium dithonite is used to stabilize polyacrylamides. 17 Yang and Treiber 15 provide guidelines for the use of oxygen scavengers to prevent degradation of polyacrylamides in field brines under simulated reservoir conditions. A mixture of thiourea, isopropyl alcohol, and sodium bisulfate was found to retard oxidative attack on xanthan biopolymers at temperatures up to 207F. 14 Oxygen scavengers are not typically used in field applications because most reservoirs have a reducing environment and because dissolved oxygen is consumed rapidly after the injected fluid containing oxygen enters the reservoir. The thermal stability of polymers (Le., stability at higher temperatures) is a second important consideration. Laboratory tests indicate that the carboni carbon backbone of polyacrylamides is stable in the absence of oxygen and divalent ions to temperatures up to 194 OF .18 During incubation at high temperatures, however, polyacrylamides undergo hydrolysis by reaction of the amide groups with water. This is reflected in an increase in solution viscosity, as shown in Fig. 5.8. The behavior of xanthan polymers at elevat- ed temperatures is complex. 19 Acetyl groups in this polymer are susceptible to base-catalyzed hydrolysis. For example, unbuffered xanthan solutions exhibit a decrease in pH when exposed to elevated temperatures. The increase in hydrogen-ion concentration is attributed to the generation of H + when O-acetyl groups are hydrolyzed. The xanthan molecule has a helical structure that appears to take on different configurations, depending upon salinity, divalent-ion concentrations, and temperature. Changes in structural configuration can be correlated in terms of a transition temperature. The transition temperature increases with salinity and divalention content. 19 In the absence of dissolved oxygen, Seright and Henrici 19 estimate that a xanthan solution could maintain at least half its original viscosity for 5 years if the temperature does not exceed 167 to 176F. This estimate is consistent with current practice, in which most xanthan biopolymers are limited to applications where the temperature is :$ 140F. Scleroglucan polymers have been reported to be more stable than xanthan at elevated temperatures. 20 ,21 It is usually necessary to prepare the injected polymer solution in reservoir brine. Reservoir brines often contain high concentrations of divalent cations, in particular Ca + + and Mg + + . The solution viscosity of each polymer is affected by the presence of divalent cations, as discussed in Sec. 5.3.3. Both polyacrylamides and biopolymers are stable in high concentrations of divalent cations at low reservoir temperatures. 20 ,22,23 Ferric ion (Fe + + +) will cause gelation of polyacrylamide and must be excluded or chelated within reservoir brines. The presence of divalent cations causes stability problems for polyacrylamides at elevated temperatures. As the degree of hydro1ysis increases as a result of polyacrylamide reaction with water, the solubility of the polymer decreases in the presence of calcium and magnesium. Fig. 5.9 presents approximate guidelines for the stability of polyacrylamide exposed to divalent cations as a function of temperature. 23 Polymer degradation also results from bacterial attack. Biopolymers are susceptible to biological attack resulting in the loss of solution viscosity from the destruction of the carbohydrate backbone, which can be rapid. For this reason, the polymer broth usually contains a bactericide, such as formaldehyde, to control bacterial growth. At one time, it was thought that bacterial attack would not be a problem in petroleum reservoirs because the organisms could not be transported through the porous rock. Unfortunately, bacterial attack has been observed in at least two field tests. 24,25 Fig. 5.S-Structure of xanthan biopolymer. 6 SYNTHETIC RESERVOIR BRINE. goc. 6 f.p.m., High M. W. Polymer POLYACRYLAMIDE A ... _. POLYACRYLAMIDE B ANAEROBIC AMPOULE "ANAEROBIC" VISCOMETER RESIDENCE TIME (DAYS) C 15 ~ O~ __L-__L-__ __ 6 8 10 12 Molecular Welghl X W L-~~~~~ Fig. 5.7-Frequency distribution of high-molecular-weight polyacrylamide at 1-ppm concentration. 10 Fig. 5.S-Viscosity/time history indicating thermal degrada tion of polyacrylamide at 194F.18 7=f1.-Y, " ....................................... (5.2) Specimens of bacteria were recovered from core material from the Loudon reservoir, demonstrating that bacteria could be transported appreciable distances through porous rock. In the case of the Loudon field test,2 high concentrations of formaldehyde (1,500 ppm) successfully controlled the bacterial attack. When H 2S is present, no known bactericide is effective. Polyacrylamides are perceived to be less susceptible to biological attack than biopolymers, but no data to support this perception exist in the published literature. 5.3.3 Rheological Properties. Effect of Shear Rate. Polymers are of interest in EOR applications because of their rheological properties in dilute solutions. Aqueous solutions of polyacrylamides and xanthan biopolymers often exhibit non-Newtonian rheological behavior. A Newtonian fluid has a linear relationship between shear stress and shear rate given in Eq. 5.2. The proportionality constant in this relationship is the viscosity of the fluid. where 7=shear stress, f1.=solution viscosity, and -y=shear rate. A more general expression relating shear stress to shear rate is 7=K-yn, ....................................... (5.3) where K and n are constants that characterize the fluid. If n =1= 1.0, then shear stress does not vary linearly with shear rate and the fluid is non-Newtonian. For this case, an apparent viscosity, f1.a' may be defined by 7=f1.a-Y' ........................................ (5.4) ,...._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-,450 The apparent viscosity varies with shear rate. The subscript on f1.a is usually dropped when discussing non-Newtonian fluids. Normally, the apparent viscosity of polymer solutions used in EOR processes decreases as shear rate increases. Fluids with this rheological characteristic are said to be shear thinning. The apparent viscosity decreases because the polymer molecules are able to align themselves with the shear field to reduce internal friction. Often it is possible to represent the rheological properties of a shearthinning fluid by the power-law model given by Eq. 5.5, which 1.00---------------.500 Flocon 4800 MEe Lot V43111 3X 400 0.8 ~\~\\ "(,J DEeRE! OF HYDROLYSIS (Xl \\\ "- "\\\ \ "\ --\ o --,!.!,_ . <> _8.2:!._ a .!!.:L !'!:! AI. -!'}~~10 10 --38.0 \\, \ .\ \'.\\ 'ZOO en cd E 200 ::Z .~ \.~1000 SO 10000 Ca2++Mg2+, ppm 500 1000 1500 Polymer Concentration, ppm Fig. 5.1 a-Variation of powerlaw parameters with polymer concentration, Flocon 4S00 ME.26 Fig. 5.9-Approximate stability guidelines for polyacrylamides exposed to divalent cations. 23 35r-----~--------------------------~ SYNTHETIC RESERVOIR BRINE. SOC. 6 . p.m . POLYACRYLAMIOE A ----- POL YACRYLAMIOE B ANAEROBIC AMPOULE "ANAEROBIC" VISCOMETER A AEROBIC 6 8 10 12 Molecular Weight X W Fig. 5.8-Viscosity/time history indicating thermal degradation of polyacrylamide at 194F.18 Specimens of bacteria were recovered from core material from the Loudon reservoir, demonstrating that bacteria could be transported appreciable distances through porous rock .. In the case of the Loudon field test,2 high concentrations of formaldehyde (1,500 ppm) successfully controlled the bacterial attack. When H 2S is present, no known bactericide is effective. Polyacrylamides are perceived to be less susceptible to biological attack than biopolymers, but no data to support this perception exist in the published literature. 5.3.3 Rheological Properties. Effect of Shear Rate. Polymers are of interest in EOR applications because of their rheological properties in dilute solutions. Aqueous solutions of polyacrylamides and xanthan biopolymers often exhibit non-Newtonian rheological behavior. A Newtonian fluid has a linear relationship between shear stress and shear rate given in Eq. 5.2. The proportionality constant in this relationship is the viscosity of the fluid. r=/J/y, ......................................... (5.2) where r=shear stress, /L=solution viscosity, and i' = shear rate. A more general expression relating shear stress to shear rate is r=Ki'n, ....................................... (5.3) where K and n are constants that characterize the fluid. If n 1.0, then shear stress does not vary linearly with shear rate and the fluid is non-Newtonian. For this case, an apparent viscosity, /La' may be defined by '* r=/Lai' . ........................................ (5.4) The apparent viscosity varies with shear rate. The subscript on /La is usually dropped when discussing non-Newtonian fluids. Normally, the apparent viscosity of polymer solutions used in EOR processes decreases as shear rate increases. Fluids with this rheological characteristic are said to be shear thinning. The apparent viscosity decreases because the polymer molecules are able to align themselves with the shear field to reduce internal friction. Often it is possible to represent the rheological properties of a shearthinning fluid by the power-law model given by Eq. 5.5, which '00 200 \K~~ \,\ " --\\\ " \\~ \\ ""\ 1.00---------------.500 Flocon 4800 MEe Lot V43111 0.8 \\, \ '\ OE.REi OF HYORO~ YBIS <Xl o __I!,.! __ . ~-~O_B.?,.!._ SO \''\\ cd a.. E 200 ':>l a - 2!:.!.- __ Z'!:! ___ A. --!J~~_ ~\ \\ '~ \. 016-~~~----~------~~ CB2++Mg2+ ppm 500 1000 1500 Polymer Concentration, ppm Fig. 5.10-Variation of power-law parameters with polymer concentration, Flocon 4800 ME.26 Log-Log Plot moCl;~ '----v----' ::l. Lower Newtonian ~Th;nn;ng U~er Newtonian 100'1'" 600",. c.oo~, !Z w 1CO:~tI Shear Rate, sec- 1 SEA\{ArE~ Fig. 5.11-Rheology of a shear-thinning fluid. 26 'CO '00000 SHEAR RATE. results from combining Eqs. 5.3 and 5.4. The constants K and n depend on the concentration of the polymer. /t=K1(n-1) , .................................... (5.5) Fig. 5.12-Rheograms of a biopolymer showing a Newtonian region at low shear rates. 28 where /t=apparent viscosity, K=power-Iaw constant, n=powerlaw exponent, 1 = shear rate, and consistent units should be used. Fig. 5.10 shows the correlation of K and n with polymer concentration for a xanthan biopolymer. 26 The data can be correlated as a function of polymer concentration by use of curve-fitting techniques to obtain Eqs. 5.6 and 5.7.27 Similar correlations can be developed for other polymers if the rheological data are available. perimental data. The parameter /tpN is the viscosity in the lower Newtonian region, and /too is the viscosity of the polymer at very high shear rates. At high shear rates, /too is approximated by the viscosity of the solvent. /t-/too = (/tpN -/too)[1+(1ITr)2] [(n-1)/21. . ........... (5.8) n= 1.0/(1.0+0.002CO.943) ........................ (5.6) and K=5.435+2.362xlO- 5 C2.286, .................. (5.7) where K has units of mPa' sn and C=polymer concentration (ppm). The shear-thinning behavior may encompass a wide range of shear rates and, in many cases, may be the only behavior that is measurable with available viscometers. However, shear thinning is often just one part of the rheological behavior. Fig. 5.11,26 a plot of apparent viscosity vs. shear rate, represents a typical rheogram for a shear-thinning fluid. At low shear rates, the fluid behaves as a Newtonian fluid in that the apparent viscosity is constant. This region is called the lower Newtonian region. As shear rate increases, there is a transition to the shear-thinning behavior represented by the power-law model. At high shear rates, there is another transition from shear-thinning behavior to Newtonian behavior. This region is called the upper Newtonian flow region. Fig. 5.1228 shows rheograms for a biopolymer demonstrating portions of the shear-thinning behavior. Eq. 5.8 gives a model developed by Carreau 29 ,30 describing the complete rheological behavior of a shear-thinning fluid. The parameters nand Tr are determined by fitting the model to ex- Fig. 5.13 31 shows the rheological behavior of a 1,500-ppm solution of Pusher 500 , a partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide, in fresh water. The line through the data points represents the correlation obtained from Eq. 5.8. Table 5.1 contains representative parameters obtained for several solutions of Pusher 500. 32 Example 5.1 illustrates the use of the Carreau model to fit experimental data. Example S.l-Application of Carreau Model. Viscometric data are obtained to evaluate polymer solutions over a range of shear rates. A data set for a 1,500-ppm solution of Pusher 500 in 53 meq/L TABLE 5.1-PROPERTIES OF PUSHER 500 SOLUTIONS 32 * "'0 Concentration (mg/L) (cp) 750 in fresh water 7.5 1500 in fresh water 28.2 2000 in fresh water 64.5 2500 in fresh water 138.0 1500 in 3% NaCI 6.9 p, 00 is assumed to be 1 cpo (mPas) 10.9 40.6 8004 142.5 10.1 0.818 0.712 0.660 0.619 0.854 (sec -1) 6.0 3.1 1.7 1.0 9.6 1500 mgll Pusher 5008 in Fresh Water 0.1 Shear Rate, sec- 1 ~ig. 5.13-Rheogram of a 1500-mg/L solution of Pusher 500 fresh water. 31 Fig. 5.14-Graph of viscosity/shear-rate data in the form to determine Carreau model parameters, Example 5.1. ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE 5.2-S0LUTION VISCOSITY FOR 1,500-ppm PUSHER 500 IN 53 meq/L NaCI AT 72.3F, EXAMPLE 5.1* Shear Rate (seconds -1) 0.945 1.285 1.747 2.37 3.23 4.39 5.96 8.11 11.02 14.98 20.4 27.7 37.6 51.2 69.5 94.5 128.5 Viscosity (cp) 23.74 23.36 22.56 21.93 21.22 20.52 19.58 18.67 17.64 16.50 15.41 14.26 13.18 12.12 11.12 10.21 9.34 NaCI brine at 72.3 of is presented in Table 5.2. * Fit these data to the Carreau model (Eq. 5.8) and determine 7, and n. Assume that the viscosity of the polymer solution at high shear rates, /too, is the viscosity of the solvent. In this case /too = 1.0 cpo Solution. Fig. 5.14 presents a graph of (/t-/too) vs. shear rate. In the absence of data at lower shear rates, it is as.sumed that the shear rate of 0.945 seconds -1 is the end of the lower Newtonian region. The shear-thinning region is present from about 15 to 128.4 seconds - 1, as indicated by the linear relationship between /t and 1. A long transition region is present between 1 =0.945 and 15 seconds -1 for this solution. The Carreau model requires determination of 7, and n. The value of 7, is found from the intersection of the lines extrapolated from the Newtonian and the power-law regions, as shown in Fig. 5.14. From this intersection, the value of 7, is 4.25 seconds -1. The power-law constant n is found from the slope of the graph in the power-law region. That is, log(/t-/too) = (n~ 1 )tOg [ 1+ (:,) 2] +10g(/tPN - /too)' . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5.9) In this region, (117,)2 1 at high shear rates so that log(/t- /too)=(n-l)log(1)-(n-l)log 7, +log(/tpN -/too) Eq. 5.9 applied to any two points on the shear-thinning region, yields n_l=IOg(/tI-/too /t2 - /too Personal communication with H.W. Gao,NIPER,Bartlesville, OK (Dec. 23,1988) . )fIOg(~I) ................... (5.10) 'Y 2 With shear rates of 37.6 and 128.5 seconds-I, 12.18) ( 37.6 ) n-l=log ( - - flog - 8.34' 128.5 =-0.308 n=0.692. The Carreau model parameters are /tpN=23.74 cp, /too =1.00 cp, 7,=4.2 seconds-I, and n=0.692. A least-squares fit also could be used to determine the power-law constant n. The line through the data points in Fig. 5.14 represents the fitted data. Effect of Salinity. The rheological behavior of polymer solutions also may be affected by salinity and divalent-ion content. The ef'Personal communication with HW. Gao, NIPER, Bartlesville, OK (Dec. 23, 1988). fects are specific to polymer type, and the largest effects are observed with polyacrylamides. Because it is not possible to produce unhydrolyzed polyacrylamide commercially, the discussion concerning polyacrylamides refers to partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamides. Hydrolysis of polyacrylamide introduces negative charges on the backbone of the polymer chain that have a large effect on the rheological properties of the polymer solution. At low salinities, the negative charges on the polymer backbone repel each other and cause the polymer chain to stretch. Each polymer molecule occupies more space in solution, and the apparent viscosity of a dilute solution increases accordingly. For example, the apparent viscosity of a dilute solution (250 ppm) of Pusher 500 at a shear rate of 200 seconds - 1 in distilled water is about seven times the viscosity of water. Larger differences are observed at lower shear rates. When an electrolyte, such as NaCl, is added to a polymer solution, the repulsive forces are screened by a double layer of electrolytes and extension is reduced. As the electrolyte concentration increases, the extension of the polymer chain decreases and the solution viscosity declines. Fig. 5.15 33 illustrates the effect of salinity on the relative viscosity (apparent solution viscosity/solvent viscosity) of 250-ppm solutions of Pusher 700, a partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide. 34 Chain extension also is controlled by the i-Wt % NaCI f- (.) Distilled i-O.001%~~ i5-001i."~-- ::-~......-H20 ..... .::!'ooo ~~ .Q Q)O > en ~~~~::::::~ 0.10/0--__ 0.5% 2 r- ....::: ......... _- .. - > " 1000 ~::l. ---_~------~ - ___ ] .3- 1'",::::::::.::~ ......... ~":: ........ PAM, Unhydrolyzed PAM, 15'/0 Hyd ro Iyzed PAM, 25'/0 Hydrolyzed PAM, 35'/0 Hydrolyzed 600 mgi1 polyme r, 25 C 7.3 sec' shearrate (6 rpm) :;:: .... .................... --------....... 1.0% _____ 2.0% ------....--...... ---I I I I I I II ,. ....... -- tit, ~ 0 .2: iO CI> ""::"~ .... ........ .... ,,'~, ... , ... "~, I 2 x 102 5 x 102 103 Shear Rate, sec- 1 ,"':::::"w:.--: ',~" c>: 1. 00 Distilled 10 100 1000 10,000 Water Salt Concentration, mg/L NaCI Fig. 5.15-Variation in relative viscosity with salinity and shear rate for 250'ppm Pusher 700 solutions at 25C. 33 (Reprinted with permission from the Canadian Inst. of Mining, Metallurgy, and Petroleum.) Fig. 5.16-Relative viscosity of hydrolyzed polyacrylamides in NaCI waters. 34 '~E. 00 > ....... .. :;:::tU ~"O .!!? "OQ) Q)o. .... <0 ~750ppm ...()500 ppm co~ :::J e . 10 1,000 10,000 100,000 100 Sodium Chloride Concentration, ppm Fig.,5.17-Effect of salinity on visco metric properties of xanthan biopolymer. 36 > ....~ 30 20 10 1,000 10,000 100,000 100 10 Calcium Chloride Concentration, ppm .!!2 0 .... <0 "OQ) -+-' Q)o. 0 e . co~ Fig. 5. 18-Effect of divalent-ion content on viscometric behavior of xanthan biopolymer. 36 degree of hydrolysis. This is shown in Fig. 5.16, where rheograms are compared for four polymers with the same average molecular weight but different degrees of hydrolysis. Salinity has little effect on the relative viscosity of the "unhydrolyzed" polymer. At each salinity, the relative viscosity decreases as the degree of hydrolysis increases. The relative viscosity of all solutions decreases rapidly with salinity, however, reaching values of 3 to 5 for salinities greater than about 20,000 ppm. Thus, much of the increase in solution viscosity anticipated from rheological data taken on polymer solutions prepared in distilled water is not attainable at salinities expected in reservoir brines. Divalent ions (Ca + + , Mg + +) bond readily to the negatively charged macro-ion in preference to a monovalent ion, such as sodium. The effect of divalent-ion concentration on relative viscosity is more pronounced than sodium-ion concentration because the divalent ions locate themselves in such a way as to screen the negative charges on the backbone more effectively. 35 Compared with solutions ofpartiaIly hydrolyzed polyacrylarnides, viscosities of xanthan solutions are much less affected by changes in salinity or divalent-ion content. Figs. 5.17 and 5.18 36 illustrate this by plotting the solution viscosity at various shear rates vs. salinity and divalent-ion content. 5.4 Flow of Polymers Through Porous Media 5.4.1 Polymer Retention. When a polymer flows through a porous sandpack or rock, there is usually a measurable amount of polymer retention. Retention is caused primarily by adsorption on the surface of the porous material and mechanical entrapment in pores that are small relative to the size of the polymer molecule in solution. 4,37,38 In most cases, retention of polymers used in EOR applications is considered instantaneous and irreversible. This is not exactly true because smaIl amounts of polymer can be removed from porous rock by prolonged exposure to water or brine injection. l!sually, however, the rate of release is so small that it is not posSIble to measure the concentrations accurately. It is thus more ac- curate to state that the rate of polymer retention is much greater than the rate of polymer removal. Retention also may occur when flow rates are suddenly increased after polymer has been iJ:Uected at a constant rate until a steadystate condition has been attained-i.e., until the effluent concentration has reached the injected concentration. This type of retention, called hydrodynamic retention, is characterized by expUlsion of the polymer when the flow rate is reduced suddenly. Thus, it is possible to obtain polymer concentrations in the effluent of linear displacement experiments that are larger than the iJ:Uected concentration. 39-41 Hydrodynamic retention appears to be reversible because the amount of polymer retained after an increase in flow rate is about the same as the amount of polymer recovered when the rate is reduced. The amount of polymer retained when a polymer solution is displaced through a porous medium must be determined by experimental measurement. If the porous material is unconsolidated and the permeability is on the order of 1 darcy or larger, polymer adsorption can be estimated with batch adsorption experiments. In these experiments, a polymer solution of known concentration is contacted with a known mass of sand grains until no further change in polymer concentration is detected. The concentration of the equilibrated polymer solution is determined, and adsorption is computed by material balance. Fig. 5.19 42 presents adsorption data for partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamides on unconsolidated Miocene sand. Adsorption ranges from about 20 p,g/g rock at 38 % hydrolysis to about 700 p,g/g rock for the sample with minimum hydrolysis. The minimum in the adsorption is related to a charge interaction between the negatively charged silica surface on the sand and the negatively charged carboxyl group on the polymer, which acts to reduce adsorption. Adsorption data in Fig. 5.19 indicate that polyacrylamides used in mobility-control processes must be partially hydrolyzed to reduce adsorption to acceptable levels. Polymer retention in consolidated porous media cannot be determined with batch adsorption techniques because the process of disaggregation to obtain representative granular material generates significant amounts of new surface area and polymer adsorption is usually excessive. Polymer retention in porous media is determined primarily by flow experiments. Two methods are commonly used. In the first method, a polymer solution is injected at a constant frontal-advance rate into a linear core plug or series of linear core plugs until the polymer concentration in the effluent is equal to the injected polymer concentration (radial core segments are preferred by some investigators). Fig. 5.20 shows a representative concentration profIle for the displacement of Pusher 700 through: Berea sandstone core material (Pusher 700 is a partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide with a higher molecular weight than Pusher 500). It is often necessary to inject several PV's of polymer into the porous material because the concentration profIle typically has a long "taiL" In the second method, injection is switched to brine or water after the effluent concentration reaches the injected concentration and the mobile polymer is displaced from the pore space. Fig. 5.21 is a concentration profile used to determine polymer retention by the second method. Polymer retention in each method is determined by material balance. Table 5.3 summarizes some polymer retention data from displacement experiments for partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamides. Retention varies from 35 to about 1,000 lbm/acre-ft over a wide range of fluid and rock properties. Information on converting retention values from pounds per acre-foot to micrograms per gram of rock is given as a footnote in Table 5.3. Several trends are present in the limited amount of retention data in the literature. Fig. 5.22 shows the variation of polymer retention with brine permeability at ROS. 45 The retention at low permeabilities is large and is probably a result of excessive mechanical entrapment of polymer molecules in small pores. Another possible explanation is high clay content. Polymer concentration appears to have little effect on retention for the data shown in Fig. 5.22. The weak concentration dependence in Fig. 5.22 is reinforced by data from Shah 47 for the retention of partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide on Berea core material shown in Fig. 5.23. Retention at 50 ppm polymer concentration is 77 % of the retention at 1,070 ppm. Limited data, summarized in Table 5.4, have been published for the retention ofbiopolymers on porous media. Values of about 38 to 78 lbm/acre-ft have been reported. Retention of xanthan biopolymer depends on the effective permeability of the porous rock. Retention data from Huh 51 * plotted in Fig. 5.24 show the same trend as Fig. 5.22. Polymer retention increases as the effective permeability decreases. The uncertainty range indicated in Fig. 5.24 shows the effect of different values of inaccessible PV (IPV) on polymer retention determined by material-balance calculations (inaccessible PV is discussed in Sec. 5.4.2). In experiments conducted in 10- and 33-md porous media, the injected concentration was not reached when the experiment ended. Some uncertainty exists in these values, possibly because of the effects of sandface plugging. Retention of biopolymers is generally less than polyacrylamides at comparable concentrations. Also, retention of biopolymer may be lower when oil is present in the porous media. Kolodziej 52 reported retention of xanthan biopolymer in Berea sandstone to be 75Ibm/acre-ft-PV for 100% brine corefloods and 38 lbm/acre-ft-PV in corefloods at ROS. Polymer retention in porous media may be correlated by use of the Langmuir isotherm model, which is given by "0 .Q> "" Q) a.. 100 Cl :J. cO .~ 10~----~----~----~----~ Hydrolysis, mole % Fig. 5.19-Adsorption of hydrolyzed polyacrylamide in 2.2% NaCI solutions on Miocene sand. 42 :::tL..-. ~L_- Meth_Od A----I] Pore Volumes Injected Fig. 5.20-Concentration profile for the constant displacement of a polymer through a porous rock for determination of polymer retention. C=a l b I Cl(1+b I C), where C=polymer adsorption, C=polymer concentration in solution, and aI' b l =constants. The Langmuir model is an eqUilibrium relationship, and its application assumes retention is instantaneous. The constants al and b l are determined by fitting the data. If the Langmuir retention model applies, the graph of lICvs. lIC on a linear scale is a straight line with slope lIal b l and intercept lIal' Fig. 5.25 is a typical retention isotherm for high-molecular-weight polymers. 53 In the Langmuir model, retention is reversible. Thus, when polymer retention is considered to be irreversible, the Langmuir model cannot be used when the polymer concentration is decreasing. Personal communication with C. Huh. Exxon U.S.A., Houston, Oct. 9, 1990. Fig. 5.21-Concentration profile for the displacement of a slug of polymer through a porous rock for determination of polymer retention . MOBILITY-CONTROL PROCESSES TABLE S.3-RETENTION OF POLYACRYLAMIDES DURING FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA Total Dissolved Solids (ppm) Brine 0 0 0 Polymer HPAM M w =3x10 6 HPAM M w =3x10 6 HPAM Pusher 700 M w =5x10 6 Concentration (ppm) 500 500 500 500 Porous Medium Miocene sand Muffled Berea Berea Ottawa sand Permeability (md) 53 at So, Retention * (lbm/acre-ft) 684 201 316 747t Reference 43 33 33 33 Brine Surfactant Surfactant Surfactant 133,000 133,000 13,340 20,000 1,000 NaCI 20,000 NaCI 1,000 NaCI 20,000 NaCI 1,000 NaCI 20,000 NaCI 1,000 NaCI 20,000 NaCI 1,000 NaCI 20,000 NaCI 1,000 NaCI 20,000 NaCI 1,000 70,000 1,270 Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir Reservoir core core core core core core core core 45 30 17 13 359 117 97 80 at at at at 34.9 44.0 46.9 75.4 224 561 580 64 99 147 70 135 107 160 68 130 103 155 95 149 40 415 151 HPAM M w =5x10 6 So, So, So, So, HPAM Pusher 500 Pusher 700 Pusher 1000 Betz Hi Vis Cyanatrol 960 S Nal-flo HPAM Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Wyoming reservoir core Oklahoma reservoir core South American reservoir core 350 550 550 550 550 550 550 550 550 550 550 550 200 300 1,500 Assuming 20% porosity. "Conversion from mi~rograms per gram to pounds per acre-foot is done by multiplying micrograms per gram by 2.717(1-q,)Pg' where Pg is the grain density of the rock in grams per cubic centimeter. For quartz, P 9 = 2.65 g/cm 3 . t Assuming 35% porosity. 10,000 Polymer Concentration 300 ppm .., 600 ppm .;;: .>:: ~ :I. DI2J a c 0 ,S! .., % .., ~ 15 :n 10 5 0 0 200 400 600 800 1000 Polymer Concentration, ppm 1200 1 10 100 Brine Permeability at Residual Oil, md 10~~~~llll--~-W~ll-~~~~ Fig. 5.23-Retention of Pusher 700 by Berea sandstone. 47 ~ig. 5.22-Variation of polymer retention with permeability sandstone containing ROS's.45 .::.:. (J U 120 .. b 100 r :I. '... * a.. 60 f40 t! Polymer B 580-614 ppm ... Polymer A 622 ppm Polymer B 1373. ppm IPV = 0.15 IPV = 0.10 0 .... 20 ""i::: ::t Q. Cl E >. :0:: Q. 0 '0 oL---~~~~~~~--~~~~~~ 102 Effective Permeability, md Concentration in Fluid, ppm Fig. 5.24-Retention of xanthan biopolymer in Berea sandstone (personal communication with C. Huh, Exxon U.S.A., Houston, Oct. 19, 1990).51 Fig. 5.25-Typical adsorption isotherm for high-molecularweight polymers. 53 Sec. 5.1 pointed out that high-molecular-weight polymers used in EOR applications have a wide range of average sizes, expressed by the average molecular weight, and an often unknown size distribution. Porous rocks also have characteristic pore sizes. Because mechanical retention is a significant contributor to polymer loss in porous media, a relationship between polymer retention in a specific porous medium and average molecular size should be expected. However, general relationships of this kind have not been developed because of the difficulty in characterizing both polymers and porous rocks. When polymers from various suppliers are screened for a particular reservoir rock, it is necessary to conduct flow tests to determine which polymers can be transported through a porous rock with acceptable retention. 5.4.2 Inaccessible PV. Polymer molecules are larger than water molecules and are large relative to some pores in a porous rock. Because of this, polymers do not flow through all the pore space contacted by the brine. The fraction of the pore space not contacted by the polymer solution is called the inaccessible PV. The concept of inaccessible PV is illustrated from the results of an experiment shown in Fig. 5.26. 53 In this experiment, a polymer solution containing 2 % NaCI was displaced through a Berea sandstone core until no further polymer was retained. Then the polymer and NaCI composition of the injected fluid were reduced for a period to create a "pulse" change in NaCI and polymer concentrations. The concentration profIles shown in Fig. 5.26 are effluent profIles of polymer and NaCl. The midpoint of the change in salt TABLE 5.4-RETENTION OF BIOPOLYMER DURING FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA Concentration (ppm) 750 750 750 750 750 750 580 630 1,350 2,450 100 310 560 850 920 1,450 400 500 500 500 325 Total Dissolved Solids Brine 1,000 ppm NaCI 20,000 ppm NaCI 1,000 ppm NaCI 20,000 ppm NaCI 1,000 ppm NaCI 20,000 ppm NaCI Brine Permeability (md) 6,000 350 550 550 550 550 550 Polymer Kelzan M Xanflood Xanthan broth (Abbott) Biopolymer 1035 (Pfizer) Biopolymer Xanthan Xanthan Xanthan Xanthan Scleroglucan Scleroglucan Scleroglucan Scleroglucan Scleroglucan Scleroglucan Xanthan Xanthan Xanthan Xanthan Xanthan Porous Medium Nevada sand Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Berea sandstone Bentheim sandstone Retention' 38.0 Ibm/acre-ft" 48 Ibm/acre-ft 75 Ibm/acre-ft 36 Ibm/acre-ft 77 Ibm/acre-ft 41 Ibm/acre-ft 46 Ibm/acre-ft 78 Ibm/acre-ftt 70,ug/g 83,ug/g 151 ,ug/g 114,ug/g 17,ug/g 35,ug/g 58,ug/g 117 ,ug/g 126,ug/g 149,ug/g 31,ug/g 35,ug/g 55,ug/g 76,u/g 70,u/g Reference 48 46 46 46 49 50 Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Sand Reservoir core at So; Reservoir core at Sor Reservoir core at Sor Reservoir core at So = 0 Reservoir core at So = 0 Assuming 20% porosity . .. Assuming 35% porosity. tConversion from micrograms per gram to pounds per acre-foot is done by multiplying micrograms per gram by 2.717(1-q,)P g , where Pg is the grain density of the rock in grams per cubic centimeter. For quartz, P g = 2.65 glcm 3. Polymer Retention of Rock Satisfied Before Injection of Pulse s.-1 .0.5 --I Pulse Size ;:: u.. ~ It! c: 0.3 ... '" I .; I.,I" :r ~ :z: ~ V> :::; 11-- \y c-- TRACER POLYMER c: 0.1 0 Fluid Injection, PV Fig. 5.26-Early arrival of polymer front caused by inaccessible PV.53 CUMULATIVE PRODUCTION, mL Fig. 5.27-Comparison of tracer and polymer concentration profiles in the effluent when inaccessible PV is significant. 28 concentration arrived at about 1 PV injected, as expected from displacement theory discussed in Chap. 3, assuming complete contact with the PV. The polymer pulse, however, arrived about 0.24 PV earlier than expected and thus did not contact all the PV in the core. About 24% of the pore space was not accessible to the polymer. Inaccessible PV has been observed in all types of porous media for both polyacrylamides and biopolymers and is considered to be a general characteristic of polymer flow in porous media. The magnitude of the inaccessible PV can range from 1 % to 2 % to as much as 25% to 30%, depending on the polymer and porous medium. Table 5.5 presents representative data on inaccessible PV for a xanthan and polyacrylamide in porous materials. A slight decrease in inaccessible PV with concentration is indicated by the polyacrylamide data. Several models have been offered to explain why inaccessible PV occurs, 7,9,54,55 but none has gained universal acceptance. The impact of inaccessible PV on polymer transport in porous rocks often is concealed by polymer retention. In displacement experiments where a constant polymer concentration is injected into a porous medium that has not been contacted previously by polymer, retention causes the effluent concentration to lag, as seen in Fig. 5.27.28 However, inaccessible PV offsets part or all of this lag so that polymer breakthrough can be essentially the same as tracer breakthrough even though significant polymer retention occurs. 5.4.3 Flow Characteristics. Permeability Reduction. Polymer retention reduces the apparent permeability of the rock. Permeability reduction depends on the type of polymer, the amount of polymer retained, the pore-size distribution, and the average size of the polymer relative to the pores in the rock. Permeability reduction is determined experimentally by first displacing polymer solution through a porous medium and then displacing the polymer with brine and measuring the permeability to brine after all mobile polymer has been displaced. Fig. 5.28 56 illustrates the effect of initial rock permeability on the permeability reduction of Berea sandstone cores by partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide in 3% NaCl. The trend in permeability reduction in Fig. 5.28 is consistent with the trend of increased retention as permeability decreases shown in Fig. 5.22. It is convenient to describe the permeability reduction in terms of the initial brine permeability. In practice, this is done by defining the residual resistance factor (Eq. 5.12) as the ratio of the brine mobility before contact with polymer, Aw, to the brine mobility after all mobile polymer has been displaced from the pore space, TABLE 5.5-INACCESSIBLE PV Polymer Xanthan Xanthan Xanthan Xanthan Pusher 700 2% NaCI 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% NaCI NaCI NaCI NaCI NaCI Concentration (ppm) 500 500 500SQ' 325 51.5 106 201 297 502 760 1,070 Inaccessible PV (%) 31 29 25 20 0.24 0.28 0.26 0.25 0.21 0.195 0.187 Comments Reservoir core at Sor Reservoir core at Sor Reservoir core at Sw = 1.0 Reservoir core at Sw = 1.0 Berea sandstone core 4>=0.206, k=277 md Reference 28 28 28 28 47 'SQ=super quality. Awp. Residual resistance factors are shown in Tables 5.6 and 5.7 for several xanthan biopolymer and polyacrylamide solutions. Frr=Aw/Awp ................................... (5.12) and Frr=kwlk wp , ................................. (5.13) where F rr = residual resistance factor for the porous matrix after contact with a particular polymer solution, kwp = permeability of the porous matrix to brine after contact with polymer solution, and kw = initial brine permeability. The permeability to brine after the mobile polymer has been displaced, kwp, is assumed to be the same as the permeability of the porous medium to the flow of polymer, kp Retention of xanthan biopolymer is relatively small when bacterial debris are removed by filtration. The permeability to brine after contact with polymer may be reduced from 10% to 30%. Table 5.6 compares the brine permeability before and after contact of Berea sandstone and unconsolidated sandpacks with xanthan biopolymer. Compared with xanthans, polyacrylamides usually cause larger reductions in brine permeability. At high salinities or divalention content, permeability reduction is decreased. Table 5.7 contains typical permeability data before and after contact of porous rocks with polyacrylamides. No Treatment Residual Oil Satuaration C Dri-filmed ~ IOb--..::::--+---'!I'------\-". Dri-filmed with .~ Residual Oil .-8 ~ci a:~ l~l-L~~~-J~~~~--~LL~~ Permeability to 3% NaC I Before Polymer, md Fig. 5.28-lnfluence of initial permeability on reduction of permeability of Berea sandstone core by partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide in 3 0;0 NaCI. 56 TABLE 5.S-REDUCTION IN BRINE PERMEABILITY AFTER CONTACT WITH XANTHAN BIOPOLYMER Porous kw kwp Comments and References (md) Material (md) F" After contact with 2,000 ppm Ottawa sand pack 525 1.70 893 Pfizer 4800METM 1,573 Ottawa sand pack 1,768 1.12 1.27 Ottawa sandpack 8,255 6,522 27 15,260 Ottawa sandpack 17,394 1.14 Fired Berea 909 818 to 847 1.08 to 1.11 26 Fired Berea 668 876 1.32 412 1.18 Fired Berea 352 Fired Berea 352 1.21 425 Fired Berea 1.16 153 177 1.24 155 Fired Berea 192 Berea 46 Berea 1.2 750 mg/L Abbott broth, 1,000 ppm NaCI Berea 1.2 20,000 ppm NaCI Berea 5.3 750 mg/L Xanflood TM, 1,000 ppm NaCI Berea 6.7 20,000 ppm NaCI Berea 3.2 750 mg/L Pfizer 1035, 1,000 ppm NaCI Berea 2.3 20,000 ppm NaCI TABLE 5.7-REDUCTION IN BRINE PERMEABILITY AFTER CONTACT WITH PARTIALLY HYDROLYZED POLYACRYLAMIDE Polymer Concentration (ppm) 1,200 1,200 to 200 NaOH 1,800 1,400 1,400 to 400 NaCI 1,400 to 400 NaCI 750 mg/L 750 mg/L 1,000 ppm NaCI 1,000 ppm NaCI 1,000 ppm NaCI 1,000 ppm NaCI 1,000 ppm NaCI 1,000 ppm NaCI 1,000 ppm NaCI 20,000 ppm NaCI 20,000 ppm NaCI 20,000 ppm NaCI 20,000 ppm NaCI 20,000 ppm NaCI 20,000 ppm NaCI 20,000 ppm NaCI Porous Material Berea Polymer Sweepaid 102 Betz Hi Vis Cyanatrol 960S Pusher 500 Pusher 700 Pusher 1000 Nal-flo Sweepaid 102 Betz Hi Vis Cyanatrol 960 Pusher 500 Pusher 700 Pusher 1000 Nal-flo kw (md) 156 203 140 466 438 140 350 to 550 md kwp (md) 87 91 56 114 104 12 1.79 2.23 2.50 4.09 4.21 11.67 2.26 2.1 14.8 2.7 3.3 4.2 2.2 1.1 1.3 3.9 1.4 1.1 1.5 3.2 Reference 38 ; .. TABLE S.S-PERSISTENCE OF PERMEABILITY REDUCTION IN BEREA SANDSTONE CORES TREATED WITH POLYACRYLAMIDE 38 Polymer Solution .Injected (PV) Solvent Solution Injected (PV) Permeability (md)" .... 11 ;: 1ii II- -1 2 3 1""* ~ 5 -~ ~ o Polymer A 1500 ppm [] Polymer 8 1500 ppm Solvent- Simulated Sea Water AI. 1'> A Polymer 0 1500 ppm ~ Polymer C 1500 ppm t::--:-[] :::t--o 'Original permeability = 203 md. ~ CD a: 1 iii 3 :::l rw- The permeability reduction usually persists for a large number ofPV's of fluid throughput. In laboratory tests with relatively low fluid throughput, little change in brine permeability occurs, as shown in Table 5.8. However, prolonged fluid injection eventually erodes the permeability reduction, as indicated in Fig. 5.29, where the residual resistance factor declines markedly with PV's throughput. 57 . Prediction of the permeability reduction from propertIes of the porous rock and the polymer is not possible at this ?me. Ex?erimental measurement with the rock and polymer of lllterest IS necessary. It is often possible, however, to correlate permeability reduction for the same polymer in the same type of porous medium and use the resulting correlation for interpolation and extrapolation. Gogarty37 correlated the permeability of consolidated porous rocks after contact with polyacrylamide by use of an empirical relationship. Willhite and Uhl 26 determined the permeability of Berea sandstone cores to brine following contact with xanthan biopolymer. The empirical correlation of the data is Brine Volume Throughput per Unit Flow Area, cm3/cm 2 Fig. 5.29-Degradatlon of permeability reduction of polyacrylamide after prolonged brine injection. 57 kwp =ak~, ..................................... (5.14) where a and b are parameters fitted from experimental data in Table 5.6 and kw is in md. Hejri et al. 58 measured the permeability of brine in sandpacks after displacement with xanthan biopolymer and correlated the data with k>1p =O.377kJ,-088. . ............................. (5.15) Polymer Mobility in Porous Media. Polymers are non-Newtonian fluids. Consequently, the flow characteristics in porous media for some polymers are related to the rheological properties described in Sec. 5.3.3. For shear-thinning fluids with rigid structures, such as xanthan biopolymers, the flowing polymer exhibits Newtonian characteristics at low frontal-advance rates, a shear-thinning region at intermediate frontal-advance rates, and Newtonian characteristics at high frontal-advance rates. Because the shear-thinning region often includes the range of most reservoir frontal-advance rates, most experimental data have been taken in this region. Data describing the flow of polymers in porous media can be obtained by conducting steady-state flow tests in core plugs or sandpacks over the range of frontal-advance rates anticipated in the bulk of the reservoir and in the vicinity of the wellbore. In these tests, polymer of a specific concentration is injected at a constant rate. Pressure drops are measured across the entire length of the porous medium and between measuring ports spaced along the porous medium, as depicted in Fig. 5.30. A constant rate is maintained until the pressure drop reaches a steady state. A series of measurements of flow rate vs. pressure drop is taken to determine the flow properties of the polymer in the porous material. ISCO,....., a. () Data AcqulslUon System ;!() t/) ""T ~ Pteuu18 Tranacluceta Pmaure Porta Tranar" ~~r350ppm ~~650ppm ~ ~150ppm ~OOOppm !-._---l_...L-...L-.I-l....J...J...1..I-_-I._-'-----' 0.5 1 Frontal Advance Rate, ftlD Fig. S.30-Core layout with pressure taps for determination of polymer mobility. Fig. S.31-Effective viscosity as a function of frontaladvance rate. 59 .~ (II (0.256) (0.037) .:!: 'E 3 (0.020)~ l!! (0.0096)~ c. c. (0.0033) <I: 2 CI) XP5g/l NaCI pH=7 O=30C Co = 400 ppm Sandstones '(ij a:. '!ii eI=' - - - Bulk Shear Viscosity Apparent Viscosity (k) Permeability In 11m2 'K" ". > 2 ~ CI) <I c. 0: Shear Rate, sec1 0.1 l..-J..-L..w..uw..........L....I-U.J.J.IJJ...--1-...J....LJWJJJL.......l-W.J.lJ.1lJ-..J......J...LUJJJJ 0.001 0.01 0.1 10 100 q, cm 3/min Fig. 5.33-Pressure-drop/flow-rate data for concentrations during the flow of Flocon 4800ME through Berea sandstone core. 26 Fig. 5.32-Comparison of apparent viscosity in Fontainbleau sandstone and the bulk viscosity in the upper Newtonian and shear-thinning regions. 61 The data can be analyzed by assuming that Darcy's law applies to the flow of polymer in porous media: u=Ap(f:..p/L), .................................. (5.16) Solution. From Eq. 5.16, Ap=uLlf:..p =vLlf:..p. where u=Darcy velocity, Ap=mobility of the polymer in the porous rock, f:..p=pressure drop, L=length over which the pressure drop is measured, and consistent units are used. The mobility of the polymer is defined by Ap=kp/I'-p, .................................... (5.17) Because units are mixed, a unit conversion factor is needed: vL ft2 [ 1 J[ 1 J Ap = f:..p D-psi (3.281 ft/m)2 (86,400 seclD) where kp =permeability of the porous medium to polymer and I'-p = apparent viscosity of the polymer at the average shear rate existing in the porous medium. The polymer mobility, Ap, can be calculated from data of the type described. In general, however, neither kp nor I'-p is independently known and the apparent viscosity of the polymer cannot be calculated unless a value for kp is assumed. When kp is not known, an effective viscosity may be defined by assuming that kp =kw; I'-e=kw/Ap, .................................... (5.18) x[ 1 J[(10-3 pa's)J (6,894.8 Pa/psi) cp X[(0.98692X1~-15 =34.7 md/cp. Assuming I'-w=1.0 cp, Aw =576 md/cp m 2/mdJ = 158.005(md/cp)(psi-D/ft2)(vLlf:..p )(ft2/D-psi) = 158.005[(0.21)(1.85)(0.667)11.18] md/cp where I'-e = effective viscosity. Fig. 5.31 presents effective viscosity data as a function of frontaladvance rate for the flow of xanthan biopolymer through Frannie reservoir core. 59 The effective viscosity decreases as the frontaladvance rate increases because the biopolymer is shear-thinning in this range of frontal-advance rates. Another common practice is to assume that kp is the permeability of the porous rock to brine, k wp , after the mobile polymer has been displaced and compute the apparent viscosity of the polymer. In studies of polymer flow in porous media, experimental data are often reported in terms of a flow resistance called the resistance factor. The resistance factor, F r> is the ratio of the brine mobility in the porous medium before polymer contact to the polymer mobility in the same porous medium and is defined by Fr=Aw/Ap . .................................... (5.19) and F r =(576 md/cp)/(34.7 md/cp) =16.6. The resistance factor also is equivalent to the ratio of the pressure drop in the porous medium when polymer is flowing to the pressure drop when water flows at the same rate before exposure of the porous medium to polymer. Example 5.2 illustrates the calculation of the polymer mobility from a set of experimental data. Example S.2-Calculation of Polymer Mobility. Data for the flow of a partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide through a 1O-in. -long Berea sandstone core were obtained by injecting polymer solution at a constant frontal-advance rate and measuring the pressure drop between pressure taps located 8 in. apart. The following data are available 60 : kw=576 md, f:..p= 1.18 psi, distance between pressure taps is 0.667 ft, frontal-advance rate, v, is 1.85 ft/D, and porosity is 0.21. Determine the polymer mobility in md/cp from these data. Flow Regimes. The lower Newtonian region is recognized when the polymer mobility, or resistance factor, is independent of flow rate or frontal-advance rate at low rates. Chauveteau and Zaitoun 61 presented data for xanthan biopolymer demonstrating that the lower Newtonian region can be reached at low shear rates (low Darcy velocities). Fig. 5.32 illustrates the variation of the apparent viscosity with the estimated in-situ shear rate for polymer flow through Fontainbleau sandstones. Also plotted in Fig. 5.32 is the apparent viscosity of the biopolymer. In the porous media used in these experiments, Chauveteau and Zaitoun found that permeability reduction caused by polymer retention was negligible, so that kp =kw' The apparent viscosity of the polymer was constant over an extensive range of shear rates, indicating that Newtonian flow was present. However, the apparent viscosity in the lower Newtonian regime was less than the corresponding viscosity in the lower Newtonian regime from rheological data. A model based on the concept of excluded PV was proposed to explain the observed phenomena. 7,55 In the shear-thinning region, most polymers are represented by Darcy's law modified for a power-law fluid: unc =A;(f:..p/L), ................................ (5.20) TABLE 5.9-PARAMETERS FOR FLOW OF XANTHAN BIOPOLYMER IN BEREA SANDSTONE CORE REPRESENTED BY FIG. 5.33 26 DATA Polymer Concentration (ppm) [(md/Cp)/(ft/D)) 45.7 24.3 17.7 14.2 10.05 500 800 1,000 1,200 1,500 0.65 0.579 0.524 0.507 0.471 where A;=polymer mobility constant, nc=polymer flow constant, and consistent units are used. Analysis of Eq. 5.20 shows that a plot of pressure drop vs. flow rate (or Darcy velocity) should be a straight line on log-log graph paper when the power-law model is valid. Such a data set is shown in Fig. 5.33 for the flow of a xanthan biopolymer in Berea sandstone core material. In Fig. 5.33, a linear relationship is observed over a range of frontal-advance rates from 0.23 to II7 ftlD. Values of A; and nc are obtained from the graph or by analysis of the data. There is little evidence of either upper or lower Newtonian flow regimes in these data. Values of A; and nc obtained from the analysis of the data in Fig. 5.33 are presented in Table 5.9. Fig. 5.34 is a data set for the flow of xanthan biopolymer (1,000 to 2,000 ppm) in a sandpack with a permeability of 15.26 darcies. 58 The graph of pressure drop vs. Darcy velocity begins to depart from linear behavior at Darcy velocities less than 0.5 ftlD. The curves asymptotically approach the Newtonian region where the graph of pressure drop vs. flow rate is a straight line with slope = 1.0 because nc = 1.0 for a Newtonian fluid. Polyacrylarnides exhibit similar flow characteristics at low and moderate frontal-advance rates. A lower Newtonian regime exists at low frontal-advance rates. As frontal-advance rate increases, there is a transition to a shear-thinning region. Fig. 5.35 illustrates pressure-drop vs. flow-rate data for the flow of polyacrylamide in Berea core material. 60," This polymer is shear-thinning because nc < 1.0. However, polyacrylamides are not as shear-thinning as biopolymers. The mobility of polyacrylamide in porous rocks is strongly influenced by the reduction of permeability caused by the retained polymer. The computation of A; and nc from these data is illustrated in Example 5.3. 'Personal communication wilh HW. Gao, NIPER, Bartlesville, OK (Dec. 23, 1988). Example 5.3-Calculation of A; and nc From Flow Data. The pressure-gradient vs. frontal-advance rate data in Fig. 5.35 were obtained from Gao and French. 60 ,** These data are part of the experimental data from a study of the flow through Berea core material of a 1,500-ppm solution of Pusher 500, a partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide, in 53 meq/L NaCl. Table 5.10 summarizes pressure gradients and frontal-advance rates. These data are to be analyzed to obtain values of A; and nco Porosity of the sandstone is 0.21. Solution. Because the plot of I1plL vS. v is linear on the log-log graph in Fig. 5.35 for frontal-advance rates within the range listed in Table 5.10, the data can be fitted to Eq. 5.20 by use of least squares. Eq. 5.20 can be rearranged in the form I1plL = (4Jn c IA;)vnc =a2vnc . .................................. (5.21) From a least-squares analysis of the data, a2 = 1.005 and nc= 0.918, with a correlation coefficient of 0.995 and the units used in Table 5.10. Thus, this polymer is slightly shear-thinning in the Berea core over the range of frontal-advance rates studied. For the data in Table 5.10, a2 has the units of (psi/ft)/(ft/D)nc. Oilfield units of A; are (md/cp)/(ftlD) 1-n c . The conversion factor developed in Example 5.2 for oilfield units was 158.005 md/cp= 1(ft2 Ipsi-D). A; is computed from the following relationship: md)(psi-D)(4Jnc) (ft/D)nc A;=158.005 ( - - -cp ft2 a2 (psi/ft) n =158.005 4J c a2 (md)/(~)l-nc cp D = 158.005(0.21)0. 918 /1.005 = 37. 52(md/cp)/(ftlD) 1- nc. For frontal-advance rates, v, between 0.03 and 5.56 ft/D, the Darcy velocity is related to the pressure gradient by u O.918 = 37.52(md/cp)/(ftlD) 1- nc (l1pIL)(psi/ft) 158.005(md/cp)(psi-D/ft2) = 0.2375(l1pIL)(ft/D)nc . . ................... (5.22) Prediction of Polymer Mobility in the Shear-Thinning Region. Prediction of polymer mobility in porous media for conditions other than those measured in laboratory corefloods is sometimes desirable. Experimental data can be correlated to allow prediction of polymer mobility from rheological measurements for particular :s. 10 -I Darcy VelOCity. fIID Frontal Advance Rate, ftJD Fig. 5.34-Pressure-drop/flow-rate data for xanthan in an unconsolidated sand pack showing onset of Newtonian region at low frontal-advance rates. 58 Fig. 5.35-Pressure-drop/flow-rate data for polyacrylamide in Berea core material. 60 116 TABLE 5.10-FLOW BEHAVIOR OF 1,500 ppm PUSHER 500 IN BEREA CORE (576 md) AT 72.3F, EXAMPLE 5.3 60 Frontal-Advance Rate (ftlD) Pressure Gradient (psi/ti:) ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE 5.11-POWER-LAW PARAMETERS OF FLOCON 4800 MX 58 (mPas n ) 0.0295 0.0577 0.0883 0.129 0.159 0.316 0.652 1.090 1.85 2.22 3.43 4.14 5.56 5.10 3.84 3.18 2.12 1.77 0.689 0.242 0.078 0.161 1.095 0.194 0.042 0.110 TABLE 5.12-XANTHAN RHEOLOGICAL PARAMETERS63 K (cpsec n - 8.6 26.0 102.0 1,000.0 J1-pN 300 600 1,200 1,600 polymer/rock systems. This section presents examples of correlations developed for xanthan biopolymers. Correlations based primarily on theoretical models of polymer flow in porous media assume that the power-law index for polymer flow in porous media, n c ' is identical to the power-law index determined from rheological measurements. This is not a good assumption, and nc for flow in porous media must be determined from analysis of experimental data. Several polymer/rock systems have been studied in which n c =Fn. 26 ,27,38 When sufficient experimental data are taken, correlations may be developed relating polymer mobility to polymer and rock properties. Willhite and Uhl 26 correlated A; and nc with kwp for three xanthan concentrations with Eqs. 5.23a through 5.23g. Units for A; are (md/cp)/(ftlD)l-nc. For a 500-ppm xanthan concentration, A;=0.783k~708 ............................... (5.23a) nc=0.37n+0.132 . ............................... (5.26b) For 1,000 ppm, A;=0.212k~700 . .............................. (5.26c) A;=0.187k~621 ............................... (5.26d) A;=0.190kp552 . .............................. (5.26e) and n c =0.618kpOO9 . ............................. (5.23b) For a 1,000-ppm concentration, A;=0.746k~578 ............................... (5.23c) and n c =0.659k;pO.035 . ........................... (5.23d) For a 1,500-ppm concentration, A;=0.679k~488, .............................. The correlations represented by Eqs. 5.26a through 5.26e can be extended to interpolate for polymer concentrations between 1,000 and 2,000 ppm by use of a correlation based on the modified BlakeKozeny model for the flow of non-Newtonian fluids. 62 Eq. 5.27 is an expression for AftBK derived from the Blake-Kozeny model. Note that all parameters are either properties of the porous medium or rheological measurements. Eq. 5.27 underestimates A; by about 50%. However, Hejri et al. 58 were able to correlate AftBK and A; for the unconsolidated sandpack data with Eq. 5.28. Eqs. 5.27 and 5.28, along with Eq. 5.24, predict polymer mobility for polymer concentrations ranging from 1.,000 to 2,000 ppm within about 7%. Aft BK =kwp (1+n)/2/[ (5.23e) and n c =0.710k;pO.073, ........................... (5.23f) kllp =0.83kw' ................................. (5.23g) In Eq. 5.23g, kw is the permeability to water (md) before the core is contacted with polymer. If the core is at ROS, kw is the permeability to water at ROS. The polymer mobility is computed from Ap=A;U1-nc . ................................. (5.24) (~ )C : (150cp)(l-n)/2 ] " .(5.27) and A;=2.322A;g~47, ............................ (5.28) where AftBK is in (md/cp)/(ftlD) I-n, K is in cpn, and kllp is in md. In some polymer/rock systems, nc=n. For example, Cannella et at. 63 and Teeuw and Hesselink 64 report good agreement between nc and n for xanthan biopolymers in porous media used in their studies. Cannella et at. report permeability reduction from biopolymer retention was less than a factor of 0.9. They were able to correlate the apparent viscosity with a modified power-law expression of the form given by /Lp=/L00+K1lrl ............................... (5.29) 1 At high shear rates, the polymer mobility approaches the mobility of water (or brine) as the upper Newtonian flow region is encountered. Under these conditions, the polymer mobility is limited by Ap =kllp//Loo, .......... (5.25) where /Loo =viscosity of the brine. Correlations developed from experimental data generally are specific to the polymer/rock system used in their development. Hejri et al. 58 developed correlations for the flow of xanthan biopolymer through unconsolidated sandpacks over a range of permeability from 0.53 to 15.3 darcies for polymer concentrations of 1,000, 1,500, and 2,000 ppm. Flow behavior was shear-thinning over a range of frontal-advance rates from 1 to 117 ftlD. Table 5.11 presents rheological properties of the polymer. Correlations are presented in Eqs. 5.26a through 5.26e. kwp =0.377k~088. . ............................ (5.26a) and /Lp=/L00+KC::1 r( r~ , ............ (5.30) where consistent units are used. In Eq. 5.29, the apparent shear rate is given by 1 a =6[(3n+ 1)/4n](u/~). . ..................... (5.31) In Eq. 5.31, the units of k must be ft2 or m 2 and be consistent with the Darcy velocity. Units of the Darcy velocity may be ft/sec or m/s. The constant six was determined empirically by matching the data for particular rock and fluid systems. A representative correlation is illustrated in Fig. 5.36. Table 5.12 presents rheological param- 10>~----------------"" 1200 ppm XA.NTH.A.H 25-C UOmc:lCAI\80NATE '" 47mdCAR!QHAn 2604 INS leMA . f PEO '" a: .-m 20 10l..,-_-J.,.---L,---....L,---L,--_...J. 10' 10' APPARENT SHEAR RATE. saconds- I ........... ______~--~~--B-rin-.e~~erHP~ 5 10 20 Flow Rate, ftlD Fig. S.3S-Correlation of apparent viscosity with apparent shear rate for 1,200-ppm xanthan biopolymer in reservoir rocks. 63 Fig. S.37-Shear thickening during flow of 500-ppm polyacrylamide in 3% NaCI solution through sandstone. 42 eters determined by Cannella et at. 63 for the xanthan biopolymer used to develop the correlation. Polymer mobility in the shear-thinning region can be predicted from correlations of experimental data. However, predictions from theoretical models based solely on rheological data are not dependable. Some experimental data are required for the particular polymer/rock system of interest to develop a suitable correlation or to verify the applicability of a particular correlation. Prediction of Polymer Mobility in the Shear-Thickening Region. At high frontal-advance rates, polyacrylamides exhibit an unusual flow behavior in porous rocks. The flowing fluid appears to become more viscous as the flow rate increases. This behavior is called shear thickening. Fig. 5.37 shows the development of shearthickening behavior (i.e., the sharp increase in the resistance factor) as flow rate increases for a 500-ppm solution of partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide flowing in a sandstone. 42 Shear thickening is caused by the viscoelastic nature of polyacrylamide. Polyacrylamide has a flexible coil conformation in solution. When the flexible polyacrylamide molecule flows from pore to pore, it deforms (i.e., stretches) to adjust to the flow field. If the average flow time from one constriction to the next is large relative to the time required for the polymer molecule to relax and assume the random coil configuration, the polymer remains shear thinning. The characteristic time required for the polymer molecule to relax is called the relaxation time and can be measured with specially designed rheogoniometers. At high flow rates, however, the transit time between pore throats (i.e., successive deformations) is of the same order of magnitude as the relaxation time of the polymer and the polymer chains remain elongated during flow, increasing the apparent viscosity of the flowing fluid. Shear thickening of polyacrylamide is a characteristic of flow in porous materials and is not observed in rheological measurements of polyacrylamide at comparable shear rates. The transition from shear thinning to shear thickening often occurs over a narrow range of frontal-advance rates. Fig. 5.38 shows experimental data 65 for the flow of polyacrylamides in porous rocks. Shear-thinning behavior was observed in each porous rock until a critical frontal-advance rate, v c' was attained. Thereafter, shearthickening behavior was observed. Shear thickening causes an additional pressure drop in the flowing fluid. This pressure drop, APE, is shown in Fig. 5.39, which also shows the pressure drop, Apv, that would have been observed if the flow remained shear thinning. When shear thickening occurs, the slope of pressure drop vs. frontal-advance rate (or volumetric flow rate) on log-log graph paper, nc ' is larger than unity. In the shear-thinning region where v<v c' the flow index, n c' is less than 1.0. Brine Permeability kb (Ilm2) b ... )( o a: n:w ::> ~ a.. i<:J M = 26 106 C = 1000 ppm T=2SoC 10.1 10.6 10'5 10.4 INTERSTITIAL VELOCITY, Interstitial Velocity, v, Fig. S.3S-Shear-thickening behavior of polyacrylamide in sandstone. 65 Fig. 5.39-Determination of critical velocity for onset of shearthickening flow for polyacrylamide in cores. 65 Example 5.4 illustrates the analysis of polymer flow data in the shear-thickening region. Example S.4-Analysis of Polymer Flow in the ShearThickening Region. This example is a continuation of Example 5.3. Additional data were taken at frontal-advance rates up to 35.34 ftlD on the same Berea core (kw=576 md and =0.21). 60 Table 5.13 presents the data. A plot of pressure gradient vs. frontaladvance rate is shown in Fig. 5.40, including the data used in Example 5.3. There are two linear regions in Fig. 5.40, the shearthinning region previously discussed and a shear-thickening region from about 14 to 35.34 ft/D. The transition from shear thinning to shear thickening begins at a frontal-advance rate of about 6 ft/D. Analyze the data to determine the critical velocity. Solution. The shear-thickening region of the data can be fitted to the power-law model of Eq. 5.20 by determining the values of At and nc with the same procedure described in Example 5.3. Regression analysis was used to obtain the following values: a2=0.297, n c2=1.481, R 2 =0.999 (correlation coefficient), At2 = 158.005nc la2 = 158.005(0.21) 1.481 10.297, and Ah =52.74 (md/cp)/(ftlD) 1-n c . An approximate model of the flow of 1,500 ppm Pusher 500 in 53 meq/L NaCl in Berea sandstone can be developed for the entire range of frontal-advance rates by use of the two linear regions in Fig. 5.40, which appear to intersect at vc2"" 10 ftlD. The value of v c2 can be determined by solving Eq. 5.20 at the intersection of the two regions. In the shear-thinning region, unci = U nc2 TABLE 5.13-FLOW BEHAVIOR OF 1,500 ppm PUSHER 500 IN BEREA CORE AT 72.3F, EXAMPLE 5.4 60 Frontal-Advance Rate (ftID) Pressure Gradient (psi/tt) 35.34 28.32 24.79 21.33 17.71 14.01 10.66 10.47 6.95 5.56 At1 (l1pIL). At2(l1pIL). In the shear-thickening region, At the critical velocity, both velocity and pressure gradients are equal. Thus, u c 2 = (At2 /At1) 1/(nc2 -ncl). . ...................... (5.32) tally. Fig. 5.41 65 presents experimental data showing the effect of average molecular weight on polymer flow in sandstones with permeabilities ranging from 912 to 115 md. Table 5.14 summarizes power-law parameters obtained from these data. In Table 5.14, nc 1 is the flow index for the shear-thinning region and nc2 is the flow index for the shear-thickening region. The value of v c2 can be computed from the value of the Deborah number, N Dec , as described in the next section. In oilfield applications, the viscoelastic character of polyacry larnide solutions is evaluated with a simple apparatus called the screen viscometer. The screen viscometer, 42 shown in Fig. 5.42, consists of a bulb with known volume connected to a glass tube. A set of five 100-mesh stainless-steel screens is inserted into a fitting at the end of the glass tube. The screen viscometer is used by determining the times required for known volumes of polymer and brine to flow through the viscometer. The screen factor, Fs' is defined as the ratio of the flow time for the polymer solution, I1tp, to the flow time for the brine, I1tb: Fs=l1tpll1tb' .................................. (5.33) Solving for U c with Eq. 5.32 yields u c 2 =(52.74/37.52) 1/(1.481-0.918) =1.831 ft/D. Thus, vc2=1.831/0.21 =8.72 ftlD. The onset of viscoelastic or shear-thickening flow is a function of permeability, temperature, salinity, molecular weight, and polymer concentration. Flow parameters must be determined experimen- Table 5.15 presents values of screen factors for some polyacrylamide solutions. The screen factor was initially used to correlate flow resistance in porous rocks. However, as discussed in the next section, the screen factor commonly is used to evaluate shear degradation of the polymer solution. The screen factor has been shown to be a direct measure of the viscoelastic characteristics of a polymer solution. 67 Shear Degradation. Flexible polymer molecules like polyacrylamide are quite susceptible to shear degradation. 68,69 They can be easily degraded if subjected to high shear rates, as would occur if a '02C---______________________________ MOLECULAR MASS. M x lOS 18 12 5.61.0 !Ol CI) CI) Ie':! II! II. ka-0.9-11 Jlrr(1. C -1000 ppm T -25'C Frontal Advance Rate, ftlD INTERSTITIAL VELOCITY, Yo mi. Fig. 5.40-Determination of critical velocity for onset of shearthickening flow in Example 5.4. 60 Fig. 5.41-Pressure drop as a function of interstitial velocity for solutions with polyacrylamides of different molecular weights. 65 MOBILITY-CONTROL PROCESSES TABLE 5.14-PARAMETERS FOR CORE FLOW TESTS IN BENTHEIM SANDSTONES65 (x10- 6 ) 26 18 12 5.6 1.0 (md) 1,095 963 1,034 916 917 ...:L n c1 ~ 1.1 0.32 0.24 0.10 0.06 N.. Dec large pressure drop is taken across a valve or an orifice. Shear degradation causes a rupture of the polymer chain with corresponding changes in the average molecular weight, screen factor, and solution viscosity. The screen factor is more sensitive to shear degradation than the solution viscosity. Thus, the screen factor is used widely to assess the rheological quality of a polyacrylamide solution. Biopolymers do not degrade under a similar shear history. Shear degradation of partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamides may occur when polymer solutions are injected into the reservoir. The injected solution is sheared when it passes through perforations in the well casing. Degradation also may occur when a polymer solution flows through a porous matrix at high frontal velocities, as might exist in the vicinity of the injection wellbore. Fig. 5.43 68 shows degradation of a 600-ppm solution of polyacrylamide in 3.3 % brine (3% NaCI and 0.3% CaCI 2) forced through consolidated sandstone plugs over a wide range of flow rates. Flow rates are plotted as fluxes [Le., ft3/(ft2_D], which are equivalent to the Darcy velocity of the fluid. The data in Fig. 5.43 show that shear degradation occurs over a wide range of flow rates. At the highest fluxes, 80% to 90% of the screen factor was lost. Loss of solution viscosity was less than 20% in the range of fluxes studied. The onset of shear degradation occurred after viscoelastic flow began. These results show that loss of viscoelastic properties can be significant at high fluxes in the vicinity ofthe injection wellbore. Thus, shear degradation must be 2" Bulb from 25 mm Flask "Decal" --~-i considered in the flow of partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamides in porous media. 68,69 Solvent properties affect shear degradation, as shown in Figs. 5.44 and 5.45. 68 Degradation decreases as ionic strength decreases. For example, the onset of degradation increases from 18 to 100 ft3/(ft2D) when the salinity is decreased from 130,000 to 3,000 ppm NaCl. Causes of mechanical degradation are not fully understood, and explanations based on solution properties conflict. There should be more entanglement of polymer molecules at 3,000 ppm because the polymer should be able to expand and thus more degradation would be expected at low salinities. However, the polymer has a tighter coiled configuration and thus less flexibility at 130,000 ppm than at 3,000 ppm. The degradation experiments in porous media suggest that polymers are more susceptible to degradation when tightly coiled at high salinities. Calcium causes more degradation than expected from changes in ionic strength. Effects of polymer concentration on degradation are shown in Fig. 5.46. For concentrations of 300 to 600 ppm, screen factor was not affected by concentration. Solution viscosity losses were identical up to a flux of about 100 ft3/(ft2_D). Data from studies by Seright66 support the concept that degradation occurs primarily within a short distance after the fluid enters the porous matrix. He presented flow data showing that an extra pressure drop is observed at the entrance of the porous medium when degradation begins. Table 5.16 contains a set of runs in a 6-in. Berea core over a wide range of fluxes. Polymer was injected at constant rate until the pressures stabilized. Pressure is plotted vs. length in Fig. 5.47 for two different polymer flow rates and for brine flow. The pressure from Pressure Tap 2 to the end of the core is a linear function of distance, indicating undetectable degradation in that region. Extrapolation of the linear pressure profile to the core entrance gives the value of the pressure (p int) that would have been measured if all degradation occurred at the sandface as the polymer enters the core. The difference between the actual measured entrance pressure, Pi' and Pint is the estimated pressure drop (Apmd=PiPint) associated with polymer degradation. These data suggest that, at the higher flow rates, degradation occurs in the entrance region and that no further degradation occurs after this region. The onset of degradation was detected when the screen factor began to drop from its initial value of 17.8. Note that changes in the solution viscosity were much smaller than changes in the screen factor. The data in Table 5.16 may be examined to determine flow characteristics of the polymer solution in the porous matrix. Fig. 5.48 plots pressure drop vs. u for the data in Table 5.16. This pressure drop is the total pressure drop across the 6-in. core after the pressure drop caused by shear degradation, Apmd, is deducted. The graph is linear from u=3.7 to 10.7 ftlD and the slope is 1.49, indicating that the fluid is shear-thickening in this interval. The onset TABLE 5.15-SCREEN FACTORS FOR SELECTED POLYACRYLAMIDE SOLUTIONS Concentration (ppm) 600 600 600 750 in fresh water 1,500 in fresh water 2,000 in fresh water 2,500 in fresh water 1,500 in 3% NaCI 1/4" Nylon 5-100 Mesh Screens ~l----rt1/4" Diameter 17.8 18.9 18.1 11.2 17.3 22.8 27.3 14.1 Reference 66 66 66 31 31 31 31 31 Pusher Pusher Pusher Pusher Pusher 500 500 500 500 500 All Tubing 6.3 mm 0.0. Fig. 5.42-Screen viscometer. 100~~----~--------~---.--~----'---~---r----'----- :> 80 Sandstone Plugs used to Induce Degradation kb' md r:: 1537 530 361 71.2 78.6 85.9 40~----~--~~~~--~---4-+--~--~~--+---~----~----~ E .3 20 ~----~-t"h~-b~---++-4---~~o,..di--'ll~'+-".....+-~~} Viscosity c.. Flux, ft3/(ft2 D) Fig. 5.43-Laboratory degradation data: percent losses of screen factor and viscosity as functions of flux through consolidated sandstone plugs for 600-ppm polyacrylamide solutions in 3.3% brine. 68 of shear degradation was indicated by the value of IlPmd determined at u=1O.7 ftlD. Thus, there was a substantial region of shearthickening flow before significant shear degradation was observed. Seright also presented data for the flow of a polymer solution that was degraded before flow studies. Table 5.17 shows results obtained when a polymer solution had been degraded by injecting the solution into a 150-md Berea core at a flux of 42.1 ft3/(ft2D). The screen factor of the polymer solution decreased from 18.2 to 6.5, while the solution viscosity decreased from 2.56 to 2.10 cpo There were no shear-thinning effects on this polymer because the salinity was 3.3 %. Table 5.17 summarizes the displacement data when this solution was used for fluxes ranging from 7. 1 to 56.4 ft3/(ft2_D). Measurements of the screen factor indicate that no further degradation occurred until the flux exceeded 42.1 ft3/(ftLD). These data suggest that shear degradation is inevitable in some situations. This has led some operators to flow polyacrylamide solutions through shear plates to degrade the polymer slightly before injection to reduce the pressure drop caused by mechanical degradation that occurs in the vicinity of the wellbore. By reducing the pressure drop, injecting at higher rates becomes possible. The onset of viscoelastic effects can be correlated with properties of the fluid and rock. For unconsolidated porous media, visco- elastic effects begin at a Deborah number of about 0.5. 70 ,71 The Deborah number is dimensionless and is defined by N De =E7f, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5.34) where NDe=Deborah number, = stretch rate of the fluid, and 7f=relaxation time of the fluid. The stretch rate of the fluid (time -1) is approximated by =v/(d /2), ............ ; ...................... (5.35) p where dp = average grain diameter, v= average interstitial velocity, and consistent units are used. For consolidated rocks, the average grain diameter cannot be obtained easily. An equivalent average grain diameter is estimated from dp =[(l-<//</>lvlI50kw /(l-</, ................... (5.36) where kw =permeability to water at 100% saturation in units of ft2 or m 2 to be consistent with Eq. 5.35. Relaxation times are determined from rheological experiments. Table 5.14 includes representative values for polyacrylamides 65 and critical values of the Deborah number for the onset of viscoelasticity. The Deborah numbers were in the vicinity of unity for these data. I::. Loss of S?ree~ Factor} 3% NaCI + 0.3% CaCI . k 4 Loss of VlscosHy lij 2' b =580 md en -g C<I !!? 0 80 o Loss of S?reen Factor} 3% NaCI, kb = 580 md ~ Loss of Viscosity 60 II) II) .3 20 c: [7l' V / v.~ o L--2000 5000 FluxThrough Berea Disk, ft3/(ft2 D) Fig. 5.44-Effect of CaCI 2 addition on mechanical degradation of 600-ppm polyacrylamide solutions in Berea sandstone. 68 ~ u.. l; c 0> l!! <.> 100 Salinities. A. 13.0% NaCI + 1.3% CaCI2 B. 3.0% NaCI + 0.3% CaCI2 80 CA 13.0% NaCI DLl. 0.3% NaCI + 0.03% CaCI 2 Ee 3.0% NaCI 60 FO 0.3% NaCI II! c 0> e 0> 100 200 500 1000 Flux Through Berea Disks, ft3/(ft2 D) Fig. 5.45-Effect of NaCI and CaCI 2 concentrations on mechanical degradation of 600-ppm polyacrylamide solutions in Berea sandstone. 68 A LOSS OF SCR~EN FACTOR 600 . k - 530 & 431 ~ LOSS OF "'SCOSllY ppm. b ",,, o LOSS OF SCREEN FACTOR '300 II _ 480 LOSS OF VISCOSITY I ppm; b- SCREEN F o~__~l-~~~l:~==~~~~::~:::f:::::j==~V~tSC~O~S~tT~Y~L~O~S~S 10 20 SO 100 200 500 1000 FLUX THROUGH SUEA SLICES - FT t'FT 2/0A Y 2000 Fig. 5.46-Effect of polyacrylamide concentration on mechanical degradation in Berea sandstone. 68 TABLE 5.16-LlNEAR COREFLOOD RESULTS FOR 600 ppm POLYMER A IN 3.3% BRINE (229-md BEREA CORE, 6-in. LENGTH, 4> = 0.20) 66 Pressure * (psi) PO% P19% P57% PS4% Pintereept Correlation Coefficient Ll.Pmd (ftfO) 0 0.38 3.7 6.8 10.7 17.7 43.6 105 171 289 4.9 6.4 8.5 10.6 11.6 10.0 6.9 5.8 4.6 (psi) 0 0 0 1 4 27 61 89 122 0.53 8 20 40 75 177 313 432 586 6.6 16.2 31.7 57.9 123 207 283 382 3.7 8.6 16.5 28.8 59 98 133 183 1.8 3.3 5.9 9.5 15.5 23 Screen Factor 17.8 17.8 17.8 17.0 16.1 13.1 7.9 4.5 3.3 2.5 Viscosity (cp) 2.44 2.44 2.44 2.43 2.41 2.39 2.13 1.88 1.70 1.67 'PXOlo =pressure at x"lo core length and Pl000/o =0 psig. Pintereept and correlation coefficients were determined by linear regression with all points except x=O. 0% Length 100% Length SANDSTONE CORE Tap 3 ~I----~I--------~I--------~I--~I ~ ~ p'" (,0 .~o~"'.o~ ~\\~VA~\' ~~v Onset of Degradation Tap 1 Tap 2 Tap 4 0 psig /J-'- Shear Thickening ~r-Ap = 1.49 111.14 (e) brine (A) polymer solution flux = 17.7 ftID (II) polymer solution flux = 105 ftID Data from Table 1 u.ftID "Ci) 300 eQ.. Fig. 5.48-0nset of shear thickening and degradation in Berea sandstone core. 66 Percent Core Length Fig. 5.47-Pressure vs. percent core length for polymerdegradation studies. 66 where LD = dimensionless flow distance in which degradation occurs in number of grain diameters and L = distance where degradation takes place. In radial geometry, mechanical degradation occurs under a diminishing shear rate as the injected polymer flows away from the wellbore. Maerker 68 showed that the total degradation during radial flow can be estimated by computing the stretch rate at the sandface radius and the distance where degradation takes place at one-half the wellbore radius. Eq. 5.40 gives the stretch rate as a function of radial distance. Ei =5.615ql(86,40071'4>hdpri)' ..................... (5.40) where q=injection rate, BID, h=depth of perforation, ft, and Ei = stretch rate, seconds -I, at radius ri, ft. When degradation occurs in a porous rock, the region is confined to a small interval (0.5 to 1 in.) after the polymer enters the porous rock. Example 5.5 illustrates the use of this correlation to estimate degradation of polyacrylamide in an injection well. The effects of mechanical degradation for uniform materials can be correlated from the stretch rate of the fluid. Fig. 5.49 is the correlation 68 between screen-factor loss and a group ELl; determined as follows. The average grain diameter is computed from Eq. 5.36 with appropriate modification for units. When kw is in md and v is in ftlD, the average grain diameter and stretch are computed from E= (2v/86,400 dp ) seconds -I Example 5.5-Application of Maerker Correlation To Estimate Degradation. A polyacrylamide solution is to be injected into a well at a rate of 5 B/(D-ft). The well is completed open hole with a diameter of 6 in. Average permeability to the flow of polymer solution is 50 md, and the average porosity is 15 %. Determine whether mechanical degradation is likely to occur. Solution. Begin by computing the parameters necessary to evaluate the stretch rate in radial geometry with Eq. 5.40. The average grain diameter is estimated with Eq. 5.38. _ 1-4> d =-p 4> 150kw l.0623 x 10- 14 _ 1-4> andd = - p 150k w l.0623 x 10 -14 - - - - - - - - - - " ft. . ........... (5.38) 1-4> LD=Lld , p . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5.39) 1-4> TABLE 5.17-LlNEAR COREFLOOD RESULTS FOR 600 ppm POLYMER A IN 3.3% BRINE (150-md BEREA CORE, 6-in. LENGTH, l/> = 0.215) 66 Pressure (psi) PO% P19% P49% PS1% Pintercept Correlation Coefficient 0.997 1.000 1.000 0.998 0.998 0.999 0.999 0.999 Flux ft3/(D_ft2) 0 42.1 7.1 15.3 25.5 34.1 41.6 49.2 56.4 LlPmd .f..t.... (psi) 35 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 253 7 220 55 110 157 204 248 178 5.9 16.2 44 88 126 164 193 107 3.8 10.3 30 59 83 105 121 29 1.5 3.8 10.0 18.7 26 31 34 218 7 20 55 110 157 204 239 Screen Factor 18.1 6.5 6.2 6.2 6.1 6.0 5.6 5.2 4.8 Viscosity (cp) 2.56 2.10 2.14 2.14 2.11 2.08 2.05 2.08 2.02 'Data in this row concern a freshly prepared polymer solution forced once through a core at high flux. This solution was then reinjected into the same core to obtain the data in the next row. ... '" Z ... 60 ... V '" ... V .---....v--- 1500 mg/L Pusher 500" in Fresh Water o Initial SolUtion ... v=24fVD A v= 78fVD v= 136fVD o v= 278 fVD ... o '" .. '" 40 -] Shear Rate, sec-1 ... '" ... lli!.Q. __b_ DIMENSIONLESS PLUG LENGTH-L O DIAMETERS C '" IS 37 md 37 GRAIN S30 52 568 361 12l 71.2 546 78.6 85.9 1431 Fig. 5.50-Effect of mechanical degradation in carbonate core on solution viscosity. 31 4>1/3 TABLE 5.18-CARREAU MODEL PARAMETERS FOR 1500 mg/L PUSHER 500 IN FRESH WATER DEGRADED IN CORE p3 31 (cp) sec-1 /-to Fig. 5.49-Correlation of screen-factor loss caused by mechanical degradation in consolidated porous media. 68 (seconds -1) 58.5 78.0 136.0 278.0 1-0.15 0.15 (150)(50)(1.0623 x 10 -14) 1-0.15 5.2 6.0 6.8 12.8 =5.49xlO- 5 ft. The stretch rate is evaluated at the wellbore radius with Eq. 5.40. Ei =5 .615q/(86,4007l'</>hd ri ) p 5.615(5) 86,40071'(0.15)(1)(5.49 x 10 -5)(0.25) = 50 seconds -1 . The dimensionless distance, L D, is computed by assuming L= 'h rw at the sandface radius. 'Solution properties before injection. LD=rw/(2d ) p =0.25/(2)(5.49 x 10 -5) =2,277. Thus, EiLg33 =(50)(2,277)0.333 =641 seconds -1. From Fig. 5.49, the screen-factor loss caused by mechanical degradation is about 67 %. Thus, significant mechanical degradation of the polymer is expected at this injection rate. Because solution viscosity is not as sensitive to mechanical degradation as the screen factor, additional data are needed to evaluate the effects on solution viscosity. displayed for the injected solution and effluent solutions of a series of flow tests conducted at interstitial velocities ranging from 24 to 278 ft/D. The core plug used in these experiments was from the Phosphoria formation and had a permeability of 85 md. 32 There is substantial loss in solution viscosity caused by mechanical degradation. Table 5.18 summarizes Carreau model parameters and screen factors for these solutions. The reduction in solution viscosity is a clear indication that the average molecular weight of the polymer was reduced by mechanical degradation. This reduction was confirmed by size-exclusion chromatography when a decrease in the molecular weight of about 68 % was determined for the effluent from the flow experiment at a frontal-advance rate of 278 ftlD. Holzworth et al. 73 determined the molecular weight distribution of partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamides before and after injection through at 2-in.-thick Berea core (570 md) at a frontal-advance rate of 600 ftlD. The molecular-weight distributions in Fig. 5.51 show that shear degradation caused nearly a complete loss of the highmolecular-weight tail of the polyacrylamide molecular weight distribution. 5.4.4 Estimation of Injection Rates/Pressure Drop for Polymer Flooding. Injection rate is a critical variable in EOR processes. In this section, an approximate model is developed to predict the injection rate or the pressure drop during injection of polymer solution into a well. The well is assumed to be completed open hole or to have sufficient perforations to neglect the pressure drop across the perforations. The polymer solution flows radially away from the wellbore. Fluids are considered to be incompressible. Singlephase flow is used to simplify model development. These assumptions can be removed for specific applications. When injection begins at a constant rate, the leading edge of the polymer zone moves radially away from the wellbore and the pressure drop changes continuously with time. The location of the poly- Southwick and Manke 72 studied the injection of polyacrylamide ~olutions into perforated completions and found that degradation ~s not described completely by the Deborah number. A permeability ~ependence was observed. This reinforces the position that expenmental data are required to evaluate the particular porous-rock! polymer solution being considered. Mechanical degradation is more extensive and cannot be correlated. as well in heterogeneous porous matrices like carbonate rocks. 31 This is demonstrated in Fig. 5.50, where rheograms are 0.10 HPAM After Core ! C Lower NewtoDian ~~nillIl Uot B c: \ \ / HPAM Before Core '" ...... o:l a:: 10 0 10 1 10 2 .................... _-16 10 -1 10 -2 Molecular Weight, 10. 6 Darcy Velocity, ttID Fig. 5.51-Molecular weight distribution of partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide after passage through a core. 73 Fig. 5.52-General model for the variation of polymer mobility with Darcy velocity for the flow of shear-thinning fluids in a porous material. mer front can be determined by material balance if dispersion and inaccessible PV are neglected. Eq. 5.41 gives the radius of the polymer front, rp, after Wp barrels of polymer have been injected into a formation of thickness h and porosity cp. and ;\p=;\;u 1- nc ; ............................... (5.46b) and for the upper Newtonian region, u c 2 < u ....................................... (5.47a) and ;\p=;\puN' .................................. (5.47b) The pressure drop in the radial system is the sum of the pressure drops across each flow region present in the system. In an injection well, the progression of flow regimes (that could possibly be present) with increasing distance from the wellbore is upper Newtonian if uc2 <q/(271'rwh), shear-thinning for ucl <u<u c2' and lower Newtonian if u< ucl, where qt=injection rate, h=thickness of interval taking fluid, and rw =wellbore radius. When fluid flow is considered to be incompressible, the expressions that relate injection rate to pressure drop may be derived easily because transients are propagated through the system instantaneously. The Darcy velocity at any radial position is given by rp= ~ 71'h[cpSwCpp +C(l-cp)P r l 5.615pp~pC , .................. (5.41) where rp' = radius of polymer front, ft, Pp = density of polymer solution, Ibm/ft 3 , Pr=grain density of rock, Ibm/ft 3 , C=polymer concentration, Ibm/ft 3 , C=polymer retention, Ibm/ft 3 , h = formation thickness, ft, and Wp = cumulative volume of polymer solution injected, bbl. The polymer displaces a Newtonian fluid with mobility ;\N' Flow is assumed to be radial from the injection wellbore to an effective radius r e' where the reservoir pressure is maintained constant at p e' Shear-Thinning Fluids. Polymer flow is represented by three flow regimes, depicted in Fig. 5.52, following the Carreau-type model for shear-thinning fluids. In the lower Newtonian region, the polymer mobility is constant. The transition from Newtonian flow to shear-thinning flow is assumed to be abrupt when the Darcy velocity is U c l' the critical Darcy velocity for the onset of shearthinning flow. In most reservoir applications, flow rates are well above U c 1 and laboratory data are confined to the shear-thinning region. Thus, the value of U c 1 must be estimated. In the shearthinning region, the polymer mobility is given by u=q/271'rh . .................................... (5.48) For Newtonian fluids, Darcy's law is given by u= - ;\N(dpldr), ............................... (5.49) where;\N is the mobility of the Newtonian fluid. The pressure drop between Locations r1 and r2 is obtained by setting Eq. 5.48 equal to Eq. 5.49 and integrating to obtain ;\p = ;\punc -1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (5.42) I1P12 = 27r~Nh InC~)' The shear-thinning region ends abruptly upon the onset of the upper Newtonian region, where the polymer mobility approaches the mobility of the solvent, as shown in Fig. 5.52. The limiting value of;\p is given by ;\puN=kwplp.w . ................................. (5.43) The critical velocity for the onset of the upper Newtonian region is found by noting that, on the graph of I1plL vs. u or v, the shearthinning and upper Newtonian regions intersect at the critical value of I1plL and u c2' Thus, from Eqs. 5.16 and 5.20, I1plL=uc2luJincl =;\puNn; or uc2 = (;\puN /;\;) lI(l-ncl), ........................ (5.44) where uc 2 is the critical velocity where the upper Newtonian region begins. The three flow regions are now defined. Parameters are, for the lower Newtonian region, In the power-law region, Eq. 5.20 is the appropriate form for Darcy's law, where the polymer mobility is given by Eq. 5.42. It can be shown that the pressure drop between r1 and r2 is given by qt )nc (rl- nC -rl- nC ) I1P12 = ( . .. .............. (5.51) 271'h ;\;(1-n c) Depending on the flow rate, one or more of the flow regimes may be encountered as the polymer moves away from the injection well. It is necessary to check the Darcy velocity as a function of radial position to determine which flow regimes are present. If all flow regimes are present in the system, the expression for the pressure drop is given by Eq. 5.52. Eq. 5.52 can be adjusted for a particular application if a region cannot exist on the basis of the criteria established in the preceding section. O<u<ucl .................................... (5.45a) and ;\p=;\pN; ................................... (5.45b) for the shear-thinning region, ucl <u<u c2 .................................. (5.46a) I1p= qt 271';\puN h In(rC2)+(~)nc1[r;lncl_r;2ncl rw 271'h ;\ft1(1-ncl) =(0.1 ftlD)(0.19) =0.019 ftlD. . .............................. (5.56) where rw =wellbore radius, rp = radius to pos~tion of polymer front location, r c2 =ra~ius w~ere upper Ne~oman reglon en~s ~nd shear-thinning reglOn begms, and r c 1 =radms where shear-thinning region ends and lower Newtonian region begins and consistent units are used. Example 5.6 illustrates the use of this model to estimate the pressure drop for the injection of a shear-thinning fluid into a reservoir. Example S.6-Estimation of Pressure Drop Through a Reservoir. A polymer flood is being designed that uses 1,000 ppm xanthan biopolymer. The polymer solution will be injected into a sandstone reservoir at a rate of 10 BID-ft. The permeability of the reservoir is 200 md, porosity is 0.19, and thickness is 50 ft. Initial oil saturation is 0.70, and ROS is 0.30. A five-spot pattern is planned on 1O-acre spacing. Radius of the injection well is 3.25 in., and there is no wellbore damage. At the beginning of the polymer flood, the reservoir is at interstitial water saturation and contains a crude oil with a viscosity of 1.0 cp at reservoir temperature and pressure. For this example, the displacement process is considered piston-like so that a sharp displacement front will form between the displaced oil and the injected polymer solution. Polymer retention and inaccessible PV are neglected. Determine the bottomhole pressure (BRP) in the injection well when 1,000 bbl of polymer solution have been injected. The average reservoir pressure at the effective radius of the five-spot pattern is 400 psi. Solution. The effective radius, re , for the region ofradial flow is the radius of a circle that has one-half the area of the five-spot pattern. That is, 27rr; =Ap The lower Newtonian region will be encountered when the Darcy velocity is 0.019 ftlD. If flow is radial, u=q/27rrh. . .................................. (5.57) The radius where Newtonian flow begins is found by solving Eq. 5.57 with u=ucl' Thus, rcl =q/27rhu cl [10 B/(D-ft)](5.615 ft3/bbl) 27r(0.19 ftlD) =470.3 ft. Because r c I> r e' the lower Newtonian flow region is not present. The existence of an upper Newtonian region can be determined by first fmding the critical Darcy velocity where flow changes from shear-thinning to Newtonian flow. The viscosity of the water (solvent) in the polymer solution is 1.0 cpo When the upper Newtonian region is encountered, the polymer mobility is given by ApuN = kwpl JLw =33.2 md/1.0 cp =33.2 md/cp. . ............................ (5.58) It is necessary to determine whether the upper Newtonian flow region is present in the vicinity of the injection well. From Eq. 5.44, the critical velocity for the transition to Newtonian flow is u c2 = (ApuN/A;) 1I(l-nc2) =[(33.2 md/cp)/5.65] 11(1-0.582) or re=.JAp!27r (10 acres)(43,560 ft 2/acre) 27r =263.3 ft. r w=3.25 in.l12 in.lft =(5.876)2.392 =69.87 ft/D. =0.271 ft. When 1,000 bbl of polymer has been injected, the polymer front is located at a distance computed with Eq. 5.41. Because polymer retention is neglected in this example, 5.615Wp rp = ".} 7rhcf>(1-Sor) At an injection rate of 10 B/(D-ft) into a well with a diameter of 6.5 in., the maximum Darcy velocity occurs at the sandface. Thus, u max =q/27rhrw [10 B/(D-ft)](5.615 ft3/bbl) 27r(0.271 ft) =33 ft/D. 5.615 ft 3/bbl(I,000 bbl) 7r(50 ft)(0.19)(0.7) =16.4 ft ..................................... (5.53) Flow properties of the polymer in the porous rock are obtained from Willhite and Uhl. 26 The value of kwp=0.83 kw' In this case, kw is the permeability of water at ROS. Assume that krw=0.2 at SO" so that kw=40 md. Then, kwp=33.2 md. Ahead of the polymer front, k ro at Siw=1.0, so that ko =200 md. From Willhite and Uhl, at 1,000 ppm, A;=0.746 k~p578 =0.746(33.2) 0.578 =5.65(md/cp)/(ft/D)(l-nc) ..................... (5.54) For this example, flow is entirely in the shear-thinning region. Thus, Eq. 5.52 is modified for the flow of a shear-thinning fluid to obtain I1P=(~)nC[rJ-nc1-rJ-nc1 27rh A1h (l-ncl) ]+_q_1-In(~) 27rhAN rp ................................. (5.59) The value of AN is the mobility of oil at interstitial water saturation. Assuming piston-like displacement ahead of the polymer bank, AN=kolJLo =200 md/cp. and n c =0.659k;pO.035 =(0.659)(33.2) -0.035 =0.583 .................................... (5.55) In this sandstone, Newtonian flow is assumed to begin when the frontal-advance rate is less than 0.1 ftlD. Thus, u cl =vclcf> To compute the. pressure drop with Eq. 5.40, it is necessary to introduce conversion factors to keep units consistent. When the units are barrels, days, feet, millidarcies, and centipoise, Eq. 5.59 becomes 5.615 q )nc1[rl-nc1-rl-nc1] I1p=158.005 _ _ _ I P w ( 27rh Aft(1-ncl) ql (re) + 0.007081hAN In rp ...................... (5.60) 100O--~---.---r---r---. Shear Thickening kwApp J.lp = 12.4 cp = -..,.....,-'qp LlA J.lp =2.3 cp = kwApp qp LlA eft. Q) Q) Q) !l. f jJ Polymer Viscosity = 12.4 cp Darcy Velocity, ft/D ~ Q) Fig. 5.53-General model for the variation of polymer mobility with Darcy velocity for the flow of a shear-thickening fluid in a porous material. ~t , , Polymer Viscosity = 2.3cp In Eq. 5.60, the conversion factor 0.007081 has units of B/D/[(psi)(md/cp)(ft)]. (5.615)(10) ]0.583 Ap=158.005 [ - - - 211' 0.1 '--_-L____.l.L-_--L_ _L - _ - - - l o 20 40 80 60 100 Water or Polymer Saturation, % Pore Space 16.4 1- 0.583_(0.271)1-0.583] (5.65)(1-0.583) Fig. 5.54-Water and estimated Pusher 700 relative permeabilities when effective polymer viscosities are used during displacement of polymer by oil (Sample Berea-4).74 10 I (263.3) n-(0.007081)(200) 13.7 3.21-0.580 ] (5.65)(0.417) + 7.061 In(19.22) = 158.005(3.585) [ =632.3+20.9 =653.2 psi. x[ri-nCI-ri-nc1]+ q In(rp)+ __ q_ A;h(l-n c l) 27rhApN rl 27rhAN In(~) rp' Thus, the BHP in the injection well is (644 + 400), or 1,044 psi. Because the injection rate is 10 BID-ft, the injection time can be computed directly: t=Wp/qt ................................. (5.62) where consistent units are used. Eq. 5.62 does not account for the pressure drop caused by mechanical degradation. In general, this pressure drop must be determined experimentally. Seright 66 was able to correlate this pressure loss with u max for a specific polymer/rock system. 5.4.5 Two-Phase Flow for Polymer Systems. Two-phase flow of polymer and oil occurs during a polymer flood in the region behind the zone where interstitial water (original water in place) displaces the oil. Two-phase flow also occurs when the polymer slug used for polymer flooding or mobility control is displaced by brine. Questioning whether relative permeability curves developed for the flow of oil and brine are affected by polymer flow and polymer retention is reasonable. Limited experimental data are available for when oil is displaced by polymer in a polymer flood that begins when there is a mobile oil saturation. In displacement calculations, relative permeabilities to oil for polymer displacing oil are assumed to be identical to those for water displacing oil. If permeability is not reduced by polymer retention, the relative permeabilities for polymer are assumed to be the same as those for water. The relative permeability for polymer must be adjusted when the permeability is reduced by polymer retention. The endpoint of the relative permeability curve must be reduced by the ratio of krwp/krw at Sor' This adjustment also will change the shape of the relative permeability curve for polymer. Schneider and Owens 74 conducted an extensive study to determine the effect of polymer on relative permeability in a displace- = 1 ,000 bbl/(1O BID-ft)(50 ft) =2 days. . .................................... (5.61) The flow rate could be computed when the pressure drop is constant. Eq. 5.60 is nonlinear in flow rate, and thus a root-finding scheme is necessary to find qt when Ap is given. Shear-Thickening Fluids. The model developed for shearthinning fluids can be adapted for shear-thickening fluids. In this case, the flow regimes shown in Fig. 5.53 may be present as the fluid flows radially from the wellbore into the formation. The upper Newtonian region is not present because polyacrylamide undergoes mechanical degradation when the Darcy velocity exceeds some maximum value. Properties of the flow regimes are, with mechanical degradation (first 0.5 in. from sandface), u max < u; for shear thickening, u c 2<u<u max and Ap=Ap2Ul-nC2; for shear thinning, u c l <u<u c 2 and Ap=Aplul-nc1; and for the lower Newtonian region, O<u<ucl and Ap=AN' u max ' the Darcy velocity where mechanical degradation begins, usually must be determined experimentally. When all regions are present between the sandface and the polymer front, the pressure drop is given by 100 \RRF1 \x >. :5 III :t:: :is E Qi (J) a. L - _ - - L_ _l!l.-_~'-----'----' L-_~~_ _-L~~~~-u~ __~ 20 40 80 100 Water or Polymer Saturation, % Pore Space Fig. 5.55-Water/oiIlPusher 700 relative permeabilities (Sample Berea-4).74 Fig. 5.56-Water/oiIlPusher 500 relative permeabilities in an oil-wet rock (Sample Tensleep-1).74 ment sequence in which polymer solution was injected into a reservoir that was at waterflood ROS. Steady-state relative permeability data were obtained for Berea sandstone and reservoir cores having a range ofpermeabilities and wettabilities. All the tests were conducted with polyacrylamides. Two-phase flow of oil and polymer was studied in water-wet cores on the secondary drainage path. That is, the relative permeability curves were determined as the polymer saturation was decreased from I-SOT to Swip' Permeability to oil was essentially unaffected by the flow of polymer; however, significant changes were observed in relative permeability curves for polymer. Fig. 5.54 shows relative permeability curves for the displacement of polymer by oil and the displacement of water by oil before the rock was contacted with polymer. 74 Interpretation of Fig. 5.54 requires consideration of polymer flow characteristics. When steady-state displacement tests are conducted with a polymer solution, as discussed in Sec. 5.4, the polymer mobility is extracted from the experimental data. Permeability to polymer can be calculated if the apparent viscosity of the polymer solution is known at the Darcy velocity of the polymer phase. For the core in Fig. 5.54, the apparent viscosity was determined with Eq. 5.18 to be 2.3 cp at SOT from the polymer mobility with kp=kwp . Because the effective polymer viscosity at SOT did not vary significantly with flow rate, the apparent viscosity for relative permeability computations was assumed to be constant throughout the steady-state tests. The relative permeability curve for polymer solution is significantly less than the corresponding relative permeability curve for the displacement of water before contact of the core with polymer solution. Relative permeability curves also were determined for the displacement of oil by water following the polymer/oil tests. Fig. 5.55 compares the relative permeability data for the oil and water phases before and after the rock was contacted with polymer. In waterwet rocks, there was little difference between the ROS obtained before and after polymer contacted the rock, as would be expected. Oil relative permeabilities are relatively unaffected. The rela- tive permeability to water after polymer contact, krwp, is reduced significantly, as seen in Fig. 5.55. The displacement process is analogous to what happens at the rear of a polymer slug that is being displaced through the reservoir by drive water. Fig. 5.56 presents typical data for the same displacement sequence in an oil-wet rock. The same relative permeability trends are observed in oil-wet rock, although careful inspection is necessary because krwl and krw2 are quite different owing to hysteresis. The ROS decreased after exposure to polymer because the oil saturation in an oil-wet rock exists as thin films and in small pores. Injection of a viscous liquid will decrease the oil saturation in oil-wet rocks, as discussed in Chap. 2. The relative permeability of water following polymer contact, krwp, is significantly lower than the relative permeability to water before polymer contact, k rw1 , because the water saturation increased. These differences in relative permeability characteristics have significant effects on displacement calculations. 5.5 Polymer-Augmented Waterflood Aqueous solutions of high-molecular-weight polymers are used widely to augment waterflooding. Polymer-augmented waterflooding can be divided into two broad classifications. When the mobility ratio of a waterflood is unfavorable, continuous injection of polymer solution increases the microscopic displacement efficiency at a particular WOR and increases volumetric sweep efficiency in the reservoir. Even when the mobility ratio is favorable, reservoir heterogeneity primarily in the vertical direction may cause poor volumetric sweep. In this case, polymer-augmented waterflooding is used to reduce the water mobility in the high-permeability layers, so that oil can be displaced from lower-permeability layers. Polymers also are used to improve volumetric sweep efficiency in reservoirs that are fractured or have considerable permeability variation. In this application, commonly called in-situ permeability modification, the polymer is crosslinked in situ to form a gel network. In-situ gelation reduces the permeability in the region contacted by the polymer. By selection of chemical systems, treatments can be designed to penetrate only the near-wellbore region or to extend considerable distances into the reservoir. Water injection resumes after the polymer treatment. This section illustrates the use of polymer to improve the microscopic and volumetric sweep of a waterflood by continuous polymer injection. TABLE 5.19-RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTIES, EXAMPLE 5.7 5.5.1 Design Considerations. The first step in the design process is to determine whether a reservoir is a candidate for polymeraugmented waterflooding. Reservoirs that are good candidates can be recognized by poor volumetric sweep efficiency of the waterflood, low waterflood recovery compared with similar reservoirs, rapid breakthrough of injected water into production wells, and high WOR throughout the flood life. A mobility-control problem can be recognized at the microscopic level by determining the mobility ratio of the waterflood. If the mobility ratio is much larger than unity, both microscopic and volumetric sweep efficiency decrease. At high mobility ratios, viscous fingering occurs, leading to poor sweep efficiency. Effects of reservoir heterogeneity on volumetric sweep efficiency can be assessed by determining the Dykstra-Parsons coefficients from core analysis 75 and from displacement calculations to predict whether the volumetric displacement efficiency is likely to be low. The critical question that must be addressed in design is whether polymer flooding in a particular reservoir is economically attractive. In most cases, the economics of current operations is compared with economics based on projections of the displacement performance 76,77 with a polymer flood. Usually, some type of mathematical model must be used to predict displacement performance when a polymer flood is installed. Available models have varying degrees of complexity. Relatively simple models were chosen for this text to emphasize concepts and design approaches. Sec. 5.5.2 examines polymer flooding in a linear system. /lo,cp /lw. cp Bo. bbl/STB Bw. bbl/STB 0.267 0.70 0.30 40.0 1.0 1.1 1.0 vb=fJ/(S:'-c/Je+Dp)' ........................... (5.65) where c/J e = fraction of the total PV that is inaccessible. Eq. 5.65 shows that the specific velocity of the polymer front is retarded by polymer retention (through the term Dp) but is accelerated by inaccessible PV. In some polymer systems, c/J e =Dp and the polymer front appears to be displaced through the linear system as if there were no retention. Retention still occurs, but the polymer moves at a higher velocity because of inaccessible PV. In Example 3.5, the displacement performance of a polymer flood was calculated in terms of the PV's of fluid injected for a particular reservoir-rock/fluid system, neglecting inaccessible PV. Now the displacement model is used to compare the benefits of waterflooding a reservoir with a polymer-augmented waterflood. Example 5.7 illustrates the comparison of waterflood and polymer flood performance in a linear system when the injection rate is constant. Example 5. 7-Polymer Flood in a Linear Reservoir Originally at Interstitial (Immobile) Water Saturation. The potential of using polymer-augmented waterflooding to increase oil recovery from a uniform reservoir must be evaluated. For the purposes of this example, consider a linear reservoir segment that is 500 ft wide and 20 ft thick. Production and injection wells are 1,000 ft apart. Properties of the reservoir rock and fluids, summarized in Table 5.19, are identical to those used in Example 3.1. Injection rate is constant at 200 BID. Relative permeability relationships are k ro =0.8(1-SwD)2, ............................. (5.66) 5.5.2 Polymer-Augmented Waterflooding in a Linear Reservoir. Continuous Polymer Injection. A linear displacement model represents a porous rock of length, L, width, w, and thickness, h. Porosity and permeability are uniform throughout the linear system. For the purposes of this discussion, the reservoir has a uniform initial oil saturation. The viscosities of the oil and water, as well as the relative permeability relationships, are known. It is assumed that various polymers have been evaluated through core testing, so that flow characteristics, retention, and inaccessible PV are known as functions of concentration. A polymer-augmented waterflood in a linear reservoir is one case presented for the displacement model for chemical flooding in Chap. 3, where an adsorbing viscous chemical was displaced through a linear system. The displacement model introduced in Chap. 3 did not account for inaccessible PV. Sec. 5.4.2 demonstrated that a part of the PV, called the inaccessible PV, is not accessible to polymer molecules. This portion is accessible to water and other lowmolecular-weight solvents. Inaccessible PV is incorporated into the displacement equations by introducing the following concepts. Let c/J IPV represent the porosity that is not accessible to polymer. Then, at every point in the porous rock, the PV that is accessible to polymer is (c/JSw-c/JIPV)' A material balance over the polymer following the derivation of Sec. 3.5 yields k rw =0.2SJiD' .................................. (5.67) and SwD=(Sw-Siw)/(1-Sor-Siw)' .................. (5.68) Solution. Evaluation of a polymer flood begins with an assessment of the waterflood displacement efficiency. The mobility ratio is a universal guide to waterflood performance. The mobility ratio, M s, is Ms=(krw>Sw/ltol(kro)SwiltW' ...................... (5.69) In Example 3.1, the waterflood displacement performance was estimated for this reservoir. The flood-front saturation was 0.4206, and the average water saturation behind the flood front, Swf' was determined to be 0.485. The relative permeability of water is given by Eq. 5.67. Substituting Swf=0.485 into Eq. 5.68 with Siw=0.30 and Sor=0.30 gives SwD = (0.485 -0.30)/(1-0.30-0.30) =0.463. Then, k rw =0.2(0.463)2 =0.043 and M s=(0.043)(40)/(0.8)(1.0) =2.15. The mobility ratio is greater than unity, which suggests that increased displacement efficiency could be obtained by using a polymer-augmented waterflood. The endpoint mobility ratio also is used to describe waterflood displacement efficiency because endpoint relative permeability data are often more readily available than relative permeability curves. In this case, the endpoint mobility ratio is M = (krw) Sorltol(k ro ) Siw ltw ................ (5.63) otD where C=concentration,fw=fractional flow of water, Sw=water saturation, xD = dimensionless distance, and tD = dimensionless time. Eq. 5.63 is solved as discussed in Sec. 3.4. From this solution, the specific velocity of the polymer front is given by (JxD f~r=vb= +(Sw- c/JIPV c/J +Dp)~=O, S:'-(c/J1Pvlc/J)+D p , .................... (5.64) where the asterisk denotes conditions at and behind the polymer front. The effective inaccessible PV is defined as the fraction of the total PV that is not accessible to polymer. It is convenient to define c/Je=c/JIPV1c/J so that Eq. 5.64 becomes =(0.20/1.0)(0.8/40.0) =10.0 ....................................... (5.70) can be designed to penetrate only the near-wellbore region or to extend considerable distances into the reservoir. Water i!1iection resumes after the polymer treatment. This section illustrates the use of polymer to improve the microscopic and volumetric sweep of a waterflood by continuous polymer injection. Sor /to,cp /tw, cp Bo, bbl/STB Bw, bbl/STB 0.267 0.70 0.30 40.0 1.0 vJj=fJ/(SJ,-cf>e +Dp), ........................... (5.65) where cf>e = fraction of the total PV that is inaccessible. Eq. 5.65 shows that the specific velocity of the polymer front is retarded by polymer retention (through the term Dp) but is accelerated by inaccessible PV. In some polymer systems, cf>e =Dp and the polymer front appears to be displaced through the linear system as if there were no retention. Retention still occurs, but the polymer moves at a higher velocity because of inaccessible PV. In Example 3.5, the displacement performance of a polymer flood was calculated in terms of the PV's of fluid injected for a particular reservoir-rock/fluid system, neglecting inaccessible PV. Now the displacement model is used to compare the benefits of waterflooding a reservoir with a polymer-augmented waterflood. Example 5.7 illustrates the comparison of waterflood and polymer flood performance in a linear system when the injection rate is constant. Example 5. 7-Polymer Flood in a Linear Reservoir Originally at Interstitial (Immobile) Water Saturation. The potential of using polymer-augmented waterflooding to increase oil recovery from a uniform reservoir must be evaluated. For the purposes of this example, consider a linear reservoir segment that is 500 ft wide and 20 ft thick. Production and injection wells are 1,000 ft apart. Properties of the reservoir rock and fluids, summarized in Table 5.19, are identical to those used in Example 3.1. Injection rate is constant at 200 BID. Relative permeability relationships are kro=0.8(l-SwD)2, ............................. (5.66) k rw =0.2SJD' .................................. (5.67) and SwD =(Sw -Siw)/(l-Sor -Siw )' .................. (5.68) Solution. Evaluation of a polymer flood begins with an assessment of the waterflood displacement efficiency. The mobility ratio is a universal guide to waterflood performance. The mobility ratio, Ms, is Ms=(krw)swjJl.ol(kro)swiJl.w . ...................... (5.69) In Example 3.1, the waterflood displacement performance was estimated for this reservoir. The flood-front saturation was 0.4206, and the average water saturation behind the flood front, Swf, was determined to be 0.485. The relative permeability of water is given by Eq. 5.67. Substituting S11j=0.485 into Eq. 5.68 with Siw=0.30 and Sor=0.30 gives SwD =(0.485 -0.30)/(1-0.30-0.30) =0.463. Then, k rw =0.2(0.463)2 =0.043 and M s =(0.043)(40)/(0.8)(1.0) =2.15. The mobility ratio is greater than unity, which suggests that increased displacement efficiency could be obtained by using a polymer-augmented waterflood. The endpoint mobility ratio also is used to describe waterflood displacement efficiency because endpoint relative permeability data are often more readily available than relative permeability curves. In this case, the endpoint mobility ratio is M = (krw) SorJl.ol(k ro )siwJl.w =(0.20/1.0)(0.8/40.0) =10.0 ....................................... (5.70) Porosity and permeability are uniform throughout the linear system. For the purposes of this discussion, the reservoir has a uniform initial oil saturation. The viscosities of the oil and water, as well as the relative permeability relationships, are known. It is assumed that various polymers have been evaluated through core testing, so that flow characteristics, retention, and inaccessible PV are known as functions of concentration. A polymer-augmented waterflood in a linear reservoir is one case presented for the displacement model for chemical flooding in Chap. 3, where an adsorbing viscous chemical was displaced through a linear system. The displacement model introduced in Chap. 3 did not account for inaccessible PV. Sec. 5.4.2 demonstrated that a part of the PV, called the inaccessible PV, is not accessible to polymer molecules. This portion is accessible to water and other lowmolecular-weight solvents. Inaccessible PV is incorporated into the displacement equations by introducing the following concepts. Let cf>IPv represent the porosity that is not accessible to polymer. Then, at every point in the porous rock, the PV that is accessible to polymer is (cf>Sw-cf>IPV)' A material balance over the polymer following the derivation of Sec. 3.5 yields ................ (5.63) atD where C=concentration,fw=fractional flow of water, Sw=water saturation, xD = dimensionless distance, and tD = dimensionless time. Eq. 5.63 is solved as discussed in Sec. 3.4. From this solution, the specific velocity of the polymer front is given by aXD '=v= f w3 D SJ,-(cf>IPVlcf+D ' .................... (5 .64) fJ C afw +(Sw- cf>IPV cf> p where the asterisk denotes conditions at and behind the polymer front. The effective inaccessible PV is defined as the fraction of the total PV that is not accessible to polymer. It is convenient to define cf>e=cf>IPVlcf> so that Eq. 5.64 becomes TABLE 5.20-COMPUTED PARAMETERS FOR POLYMER FLOOD, EXAMPLE 5.7 fw' S.,, ~ r;: 0.5 <l :;:l Waterflood front Front of oil bank Front of polymer bank Vp=hwLcf> Water Saturation 0.4206 0.4459 0.5925 Fractional Flow 0.6508 0.7673 0.9687 f~ =VD ... " 0.0 -0.5 (20 ft)(500 ft)(I,OOO ft)(0.267) 5.615 ft 3 /bbl =475,512 bbl. ............................... (5.77) Water Saturation Oil and water rates at reservoir conditions are obtained directly from the fractional flow at the end of the system: qo=(1.0-fw)qt ................................ (5.78) Fig. 5.57-Fractional-flow curve for the polymer flood in Example 5.7. and qw=fwqt . .................................... (5.79) The displacement performance is estimated in terms of tD, the number of PV's injected. When the injection rate is constant, the time since the beginning of the displacement is determined from t=(Vplqt)tD The endpoint mobility ratio is much larger than Ms and exaggerates the effect of the high oil viscosity on the displacement efficiency. Consider the effect of adding sufficient polymer to the injected water so that the apparent viscosity of the polymer solution is 4 cpo Assume that no reduction in water relative permeability is caused by the polymer. The mobility ratio, Ms, would be expected to decrease by a factor of four to about 0.54, which is clearly favorable. In Example 3.5, the displacement performance of a polymer flood was estimated for a polymer solution containing 300 ppm polymer with an apparent viscosity of 4.0 cpo Retention is 17.5 p.g/g at 300 ppm, so that Dp =0.424. Effective inaccessible PV for this system is estimated to be 0.25. Thus, -cf>e+Dp=0.174. The polymer-flood-front properties S.t3 and f.t3 are found by drawing a tangent from the point (0, -0.174) to the fractional-flow curve with polymer as the displacing phase. The tangent, shown in Fig. 5.57, intersects the fractional-flow curve for the waterflood atfwI, SwI' Locations of S.t3, f.t3 and SwI, fwI are shown in Fig. 5.57. The value of SlIf is the same as in Example 3.5. Two flood fronts form in this case because SwI > SlIf. The saturation profIle is similar to Fig. 3.34 and is characterized by a flood front with saturation Swf' an oil bank where the water saturation is constant, SwI, and a polymer flood front with saturation S.t3' Table 5.20 presents saturations and fractional flows corresponding to each saturation. Velocities of the three distinct banks calculated from Eqs. 3.142 and 3.143 are also included. Oil recovery during a continuous polymer flood is computed by tracking the three regions as they are displaced through the linear system and then making a material balance as described in Sec. 3.2.7. Eqs. 5.71 through 5.74 give the locations of these fronts in terms of dimensionless time and the dimensionless time when each region reaches the end of the linear system. xD=f":'tD, ..................................... (5.71) xDf=5.3958tD' ................................. (5.72) xD! =3.8530tD, ................................ (5.73) =[475,512 bbl/(200 BID)]tD =2,377.6tD days ............................... (5.80) At any time during the displacement, Np = [(So/Boi)-(SoIBo)]Vp Sw Swi 1 1 ) = ( - - - + - - - Vp . ................. (5.81) Bo Boi Boi Bo When Bo=Boi, Np=[(Sw-Swi)IBo1Vp- .......................... (5.82) Arrival ofWaterflood Front, tDf' Because there is no initial gas saturation and the system is assumed to be incompressible, at reservoir conditions, BoNplVp=tDf =0.1853 .............................. (5.83) (0.1853)(475,512 bbl) and N = - - - - - - - p 1.1 bbl/STB =80,102 STB .............................. (5.84) Before breakthrough, qo=q/Bo =(200 BID)/(1.1 bbl/STB) =181.8 STBID ............................. (5. 85a) and qw=O . ..................................... (5.85b) At breakthrough, qo = [qt(1-fw)]lB o and x D3 =1.2377tD' ............................... (5.74) Arrival time at the end of the linear system (xD = 1.0) is easily computed from these equations: tD=llf":', ...................................... (5.75) = [200(1-0.6508)]11.1 =63.5 STBID, qw=qtillflBw with tDf=O.1853, tDl =0.2595, and tD3 =0.8079. There is a small difference (0.0754 PV) between the arrival of the waterflood front and the oil bank. Locations of saturations behind the polymer front are found with xIlw =f/vtD ................................... (5.76) = 200(0.6508) =130.2 BID, t=2,377.6tD The displacement performance is calculated next. The PV of the linear segment is computed as =2,377.6(0.1853) =440.6 days, ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE 5.21-FRACTIONAL-FLOW CALCULATIONS FOR THE POLYMER REGION, EXAMPLE 5.7 and Fwo=(qwlqo) =2.05. Arrival of Oil Bank, tDl. The oil bank arrives after 0.2595 PV has been injected, tDl, and the water saturation, Swl' at the end of the system remains constant at 0.4459 until the polymer front arrives. During this time, the average water saturation in the linear system is given by Eq. 3.87, which is rewritten as ___ w S' 0.5925 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 _ f' w _ 0.9487 0.9756 0.9877 0.9951 0.9989 ,. _ f w_ 0.8079 1.345 2.098 3.681 8.591 Sw=Swl +tD(l-fwl) . ........................... (5.86) At arrival of the oil bank (tm =0.2595), Sw=0.4459+0.2595(1-0.7673) =0.5063, age water saturation at and after polymer breakthrough is given by Eq. 3.88, rewritten as S,'l;3=S,'l;+tD(1-fJ) . ............................ (5.87) BaNp IVp =0.5063-0.30 =0.2063 (at reservoir conditions), N p =[(0.2063)(475,512 bbl)]/(1.1 bbllSTB) At breakthrough f,'l;3=0.9487, tD=0.8079, and S,'l;3=0.5925. S,'l;3 =0.5925 +0.8079(1-0.9487) =0.6339, =89,181 STB, qo =[(200 BID)(1-0.7673)]/(1.1 bbI/STB) BoNpIVp =0.6339, Np =[(0.339)(475,512 bbl)]/(1.1 bbllSTB) = 144,383 STB, qo=9.33 STBID, qw=189.7 BID, t= 1,921 days, =42.31 STBID, qw=(2oo B/D)(0.7673) =153.5 BID, t=(2,377.6)(0.2595) =617.0 days, and Fwo =3.63 bbl waterlSTB oil. Note that because the water saturation in the oil bank is constant, a linear relationship exists between cumulative production and tD until the polymer front arrives. Oil and water rates remain constant during this period. Arrival of Polymer Front. Breakthrough of the polymer flood front, S,'l;3, occurs after 0.8079 PV has been injected. The aver- and F wo =27.2 bbl waterlSTB oil. The remainder of the displacement performance was computed by assuming the arrival of different polymer saturations at the end of the system. Fractional-flow data and derivatives for the polymer solution with an apparent viscosity of 4 cp, presented in Table 5.21, are identical to those developed for a viscous waterflood in Table 3.11. Table 5.22 presents the displacement performance for the polymer-augmented waterflood. TABLE 5.22-ESTIMATED OIL DISPLACEMENT FROM A POLYMER-AUGMENTED WATERFLOOD, EXAMPLE 5.7 Fluid at End of System Start injection Water-bank arrival Oil-bank arrival Polymerfront arrival Polymer injection Sw2 _to_ O 0.185 0.2595 0.8079 1.345 2.098 3.681 t (days) 0+ Reservoir Condition 0.30 0.485 0.506 0.634 0.653 0.666 0.678 qo (STB/D) 181.8 63.5 42.3 9.33 4.44 2.24 0.89 0 79,972 89,181 144,303 152,596 158,216 163,403 (BID) 0 130.2 153.5 189.7 195.1 197.5 199.0 Fwo (bbI/STB) 0 2.05 3.63 27.2 43.9 88.3 22.3 440 617 1,921 3,198 4,988 8,752 TABLE 5.23-WATERFLOOD PERFORMANCE OF LINEAR RESERVOIR, EXAMPLE 5.7 (PV) 0+ 0.185 0.249 0.347 0.594 0.650 0.943 1.25 1.377 2.034 2.249 t (days) 0+ 440 592 825 1,412 1,545 2,242 2,972 3,274 4,836 5,347 (S1B) 0 79,972 88,186 96,832 109,800 111,961 120,607 126,659 128,820 136,602 138,331 (STB/D) 181.8 63.5 44.4 30.5 16.9 15.2 10.0 7.2 6.43 3.97 3.51 0.30 0.485 0.504 0.524 0.554 0.559 0.579 0.593 0.598 0.616 0.620 0 130.2 151.1 166.4 181.4 183.2 189.0 192.1 192.9 195.6 196.1 (bbI/STB) 0 2.05 3.40 5.46 10.74 12.0 19.0 26.7 30.0 49.3 55.9 MOBILITY-CONTROL PROCESSES TABLE 5.24-COMPARISON OF OIL RECOVERY FOR A POLYMER-AUGMENTED WATER FLOOD AND A WATERFLOOD, EXAMPLE 5.7 TABLE 5.25-SCHEDULE FOR POLYMER CONCENTRATIONS FOR SLUG INJECTION SCHEME81 Time (days) Waterflood (bbl) Polymer-Augmented Waterflood (STB) Incremental Oil Recovery (STI?) 440 592 825 1,412 1,545 1,921' 2,242 2,972 3,274 4,836 5,347 -2,241 -1,730 1,495 3,003 27,678 25,841 22,447 24,015 21,137 20,380 Polymer Concentration (ppm) 500 330 165 88,186 96,832 109,800 111,961 116,625 120,607 126,659 128,820 136,602 138,331 PV Injected 0.3 0.1 0.1 Remainder of flood 'polymer breakthrough. The perfonnance of the polymer-augmented waterflood can be compared with a waterflood. Waterflood perfonnance (at reservoir conditions) was estimated for this fluid/rock system in Example 3.1 and was presented in Table 3.4 in tenns of tD, (NpIA4>L), and Fwo. With these values, the waterflood perfonnance for a constant injection rate of 200 BID is presented in Table 5.23 with B 0 = 1.1 bbI/STB. A composite table (Table 5.24) was constructed using linear interpolation to compare the polymer-augmented waterflood with the waterflood. The original oil in place (OOIP) is 302,599 STB. This comparison shows that, at polymer breakthrough, the incremental oil recovery is about 9.2 % OOIP. To obtain this recovery, it is necessary to inject 200 BID of polymer solution continuously for 1,921 days (5.26 years). The incremental oil recovery peaks in the vicinity of polymer breakthrough. Examining the economics of continuous polymer injection is useful. Let the polymer cost be $1.50/Ibm of active polymer. Daily polymer cost is computed below for injection of 200 BID at a polymer concentration of 300 ppm. mp =(200 BID) ( process. 78 -80 The polymer slug is displaced by drive water. Table 5.25 81 shows a typical injection plan. The objectives of this concentration sequence are to reduce the total amount of polymer used and to prevent, or at least to reduce, viscous fingering of low-concentration fluid into regions of higher concentrations. Viscous fingering occurs because each reduction in polymer concentration is accompanied by a reduction in the apparent solution viscosity. It is assumed that mixing in the reservoir will dampen out the viscous fingers. Methods to predict the effect of viscous fingering on the displacement process are available. Most are complex and involve approximations of viscous fingering by a dispersion process. A model developed by Claridge 82 ,83 can be used for simple linear displacement calculations. Sec. 3.6.2 introduced the theory of slug displacement when viscous fingering is not considered. This section considers the design of a slug of constant polymer concentration to replace continuous polymer injection. The slug is displaced through the porous rock by drive water. Viscous fingering and dispersive mixing are neglected. The size of the polymer slug is based on displacing a region of constant concentration through the reservoir. The minimum amount of polymer is determined from retention data by material balance. Let Ai = polymer retention in p.g/g rock. Then, Pr=(Vpl4(l-4PrAi=CoVp ., .... , ......... , ... (5.88a) and Pi=tDpCoVp, ., .............. ,'., ......... ,. (5.88b) where Pr=polymer retained, Pi = polymer injected, and Co and Co have units of g/cm 3 of PV. When retention is satisfied at Co, tDPCoVp=CoVp ., .............. " .............. (5.89) 350 Ibm water) (300 Ibm POlymer) bbl 10 6 Ibm water =211bmlD and Cp =$31.501D, where mp =amount of polymer requi,red and Cp =cost of polymer. When the polymer front arrives at the end of the linear system, the total amount of polymer injected would be 40,341 Ibm. Thus, if polymer were injected continuously, the estimated incremental oil would be 0.686 STB/lbm polymer injected. Polymer would cost $2.18/STB incremental oil. or tDp=ColCo ................................... (5.90) and tDp=Dp . .................................... (5.91) Therefore, the minimum polymer slug size to satisfy retention is Dp PV. Ideally, when Dp PV's are injected, the polymer flood front will just reach the end of the linear system but no polymer will be produced. The path followed by the rear of the polymer bank can be determined with the front-tracking methods introduced in Sec. 3.2.6. This section develops a method for locating the rear of the polymer bank that is based on a material balance on the polymer, assuming that retention is irreversible. Consider a polymer slug that is being displaced through a linear system by injecting drive water when tD =Dp; i.e., sufficient polymer has been injected to satisfy retention. As long as the polymer flood front, has not arrived at the end of the system, the material balance on the polymer is Under many conditions, continuous injection of polymer solutions is not economical. Consequently, various schemes based on the injection of polymer slugs are used in polymer-augmented waterfloods. Sec. 3.6 introduced the theory of injecting a slug of viscous fluid. Sec. 5.5.3 covers application of these concepts to a polymer-augmented waterflood. 5.5.3 Slug Injection. Sec. 5.5.2 stated that continuous injection of polymer during a polymer-augmented waterflood would not be economically attractive under many conditions. In practice, smaller volumes of polymer solution, called slugs, are injected. In most cases, the polymer is not injected at a constant concentration but rather in a staged sequence of concentration reduction. The schedule for polymer injection is empirically derived, often from laboratory experiments or from computer simulations of the x;, q[toCo =Ax;(1-4P rA i +(x;-x,nA(4>S;t,r -4>IPV)Co ................................. (5.92) The first tenn represents the mass of polymer injected, while the second tenn is the amount of polymer retained on the rock that has been contacted by polymer. The third tenn is the amount of polymer in the accessible PV at concentration Co. In Eq. 5.92, xi= location of the rear of the polymer bank and S;t,r =average water saturation in the region between xi and x;. S;t,r is obtained from the Welge equation 75: ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE 5.26-FRACTIONAL-FLOW DATA, POLYMER FLOOD, EXAMPLE 5.8 1.00000 0.99993 0.99970 0.99929 0.99871 0.99793 0.99693 0.99570 0.99423 0.99248 0.99045 0.98810 0.98542 0.98239 0.97896 0.97513 0.97085 0.96611 0.96086 0.95507 0.94871 ... .P os rn ... ., .... OS +l os =------S.. l S1t'3 I I I I I I I I I II 0.0 0.0 0.5 Dimensionless Distance 1.0 Fig. 5.58-Saturation profile when drive-water injection begins in Example 5.8. -.!L x S* -x* S* (f!;;3 -j;'r) D3 w3 Dr wr -tDr , ............ (5.93) xJj3 -xbr (xJj3 -xbr) Values of Swf, Swl, and S!;;3 remain unaffected by the shift from continuous to slug injection. When drive-water injection begins, the polymer flood front is located at x Jj3' xJj3=j~3tD where subscript D represents dimensionless distances; i.e., xD=xlL. A solution is developed to find xbr for each value of S~r as the drive water displaces the polymer slug through the linear system. Dividing Eq. 5.92 by Af/>LCio and expressing it in dimensionless terms yields tDo =xJj3Dp + (xJj3 -xbr)( S!r -f/>e)' ............... (5.94) =(1.2377)(0.424) =0.525. . .................................. (5.99) Fig. 5.58 presents the saturation profile corresponding to this time. As the drive water is injected, it displaces the polymer slug. Next, the location of the rear of the polymer slug as it is displaced through the porous rock is computed with the material-balance method. Table 5.26 contains values of S;t, g, and j..:,* from the polymer fractional-flow curve. In this example, xbr for S!r =0.6581 is computed to illustrate the procedure. From Table 5.26,f;'r=0.9945 andj":':=0.2891. Also from Table 5.~6, S;'3=0.5925, j!;;3=0.9487, and j~j=1.2377. S;tr is determmed from Eq. 5.98: where Dp=CjCo , f/>e=f/>[pv1f/>, xbr =x:IL, and xJj3 =xjlL. All saturations within the polymer slug travel at specific velocities determined by the frontal-advance equation. Thus, xbr =j~:tDr ................................... (5.95) 'S ! w3 w3 -1,'S wr wr j!;;3-j;'r j~j-j~: !'_!' w3 wr and xJj3=j~!,tD' .................................. (5.96) Substituting these equations for xb and xJj3 into Eq. 5.92 and r solving for tD yields (1.2377)(0.5925) - (0.2891)(0.6581) -0.9487 +0.9945 1.2377 -0.2891 =0.5887/0.9486 tDr= _ . . .......... (5.97) j~j(S!r +Dp -f/>e)-j":':(Swr-f/>e) _ tDo =0.6206. Recall from Example 5.7 that f/>e=0.25. The time when the rear of the polymer bank is at saturation S~r is found by solving Eq. 5.97 for tDr' In Eq. 5.97, tDo=0.424. tDr= tDo _ _ j~j( S!r +Dp -f/>e)-j":':( Swr -f/>e) The solution proceeds by computing the value of tD corresponding to each value of S~r from I-Sor to S!3' Then, xbr is computed from Eq. 5.95. Note that substitution of Eqs. 5.95 and 5.96 into Eq. 5.94 gives ' " j~jS!3-j":':S~r j;'3-j;'r Swr = - . . .............. (5.98) j~j-j~: j~j-j~: 0.424 1.2377(0.6206 +0.424 -0.25) -0.2891 (0.6206 -0.25) =0.424/(0.9834-0.1071) Example 5.8 illustrates the application of this solution technique to predict the displacement performance of a polymer-augmented waterflood where Dp PV's of polymer at concentration Co are followed by drive water. Example 5.8-Displacement oj a Polymer Slug in a Linear System. Estimate the performance of the polymer-augmented waterflood when a slug of Dy PV is injected into the linear reservoir described in Example 5.7. Solution. The polymer-augmented waterflood performance to tD=0.424(Dp ) is identical to that estimated in Example 5.7. =0.4839. The location of the rear of the polymer bank is found from the frontal-advance solution: xbr =j~:tDr = (0.2891 )(0.4839) =(0.1399) ................................. (5.100) MOBILITY-CONTROL PROCESSES TABLE 5.27-LOCATION OF REAR OF POLYMER BANK, EXAMPLE 5.8 J 0.5 . f/) 1.50 0.75 Dimensionless Time or Pore Volumes Injected, to Fig. 5.59-Dlstance/tlme diagram showing displacement of the polymer bank by drive water in Example 5.8. The remaining calculations of tD for this example were done with a short computer program. Cols. 2 and 3 of Table 5.27 contain pairs of coordinates on the distance/time diagram (xb /tD) that correspond to each saturation S~r at the rear of the poly~er slug. The drive water is moving faster than the saturations in the polymer bank and gradually overtakes the polymer bank. The drive water arrives at the end of the linear system at the same time as the polymer flood front, xt3' Fig. 5.59 shows the path traced by the rear of the polymer bank. The location of the rear of the polymer slug is almost a linear function of time for this example. Thus, for this case, the rear of the polymer slug appears to travel at a constant velocity. Fig. 5.59 also shows the waterflood front, oil bank, polymer flood front, and paths of selected saturations in the polymer slug. Saturations in the drive-water region are discussed later. When the polymer flood front arrives at the end of the linear system, the displacement process becomes a waterflood. The WOR jumps from 3.53 in the oil/water bank to 27.2 at the polymer flood front and then continues to increase. The remainder of the oil will be produced at high WOR. Oil recovery when the polymer front reaches the end of the linear system is identical to that in Table 5.22 at tD=0.8079, corresponding to polymer-flood-front breakthrough. Remember that in the case of slug injection where the PV of polymer injected equals D p' the polymer flood front disappears just as the polymer reaches the end of the linear system. Incremental oil displaced at this time is 27,658 STB from the injection of 0.424 PV of polymer solution. Polymer required in the slug is specific velocity of the rear of the polymer bank. That is, fwr f>'tr ---"-'--- ........................... (5.102) S~r -c/Je A step-function change in polymer concentration occurs at the rear of the polymer slug. A discontinuity in saturation also occurs because, at the polymer rear, the specific velocity in Eq. 5.102 must also satisfy vbr =(f!r -fwr)/(S~r -Swr)' ..................... (5.103) where Swr=water saturation in the polymer-free water and fwr=fractional flow of water in the polymer-free water. The water just behind the rear of the polymer bank is called polymer-free water. Because polymer travels faster through the porous rock than the water with which it was injected, a denuded region of' 'polymer water" is present between the drive water and the rear of the polymer slug. At every value of S~r' there is a corresponding value of Swr at the saturation discontinuity. Thus, as the polymer-free water displaces the polymer slug, saturations S~ are overtaken by the drive water and new saturations, Swr, evolve at the rear of the polymer bank. The saturations Swr can be found graphically for each value of S~r by observing thatfwr> Swr is the intersection of a line from fw=O, Sw= c/J e tof>'t" S~r with thefw, Sw fractional-flow curve. Fig. 5.60 shows one line for the fractional-flow curves used in Example 5.8 when c/J e =0.25. At high fractional flows in the polymer bank, the difference between saturations S~r and Swr is difficult to determine graphically. A root-function program was used to find pairs off;;r, S~r andfwr , Swr for the problem in Example 5.8, and values of these parameters are summarized in Table 5.28. The saturation differences are quite small. Paths of saturations for the drive water displacing the polymer slug can be determined by noting that each saturation Swr evolves from the rear of the polymer bank at xDr' tDr' Thus, at any time tD > tDr> the location of each saturation is given by applying Eq. 5.71 to obtain mp =(0.424 PV)(474,472 bbl/PV)(350 lbm/bbl) X (300 X 10 -6 Ibm polymer/Ibm) =21,170 Ibm. Incremental oil at this point is 1.31 STB/lbm polymer. This estimate is optimistic because it does not consider dispersion of the polymer or viscous fingering. Drive-Water Region. The drive-water region contains all saturations S>'t3:s;Sw:s;I-Sor ' These saturations evolve at the rear of ~e polymer bank as the displacement proceeds through the system m a manner similar to that discussed in Sec. 3.6.2. At every saturation S~r' the velocity of the rear of the polymer bank is given by Eq. 5.101. The retention term, Dp ' is omitted at the rear of the polymer bank because retention is assumed to be irreversible. xD=xDr+(tD-tDr)f;"r' ......................... (5.104) Example 5.9 gives a sample calculation of a saturation path. Example 5.9-Saturation Path in Drive-Water Region Following Injection of a Polymer Slug. Generate saturation paths in the drive-water region for the polymer-augmented waterflood using a 0.424-PV slug of polymer described in Example 5.8. Solution. One path in the drive-water region is calculated in this section from the results of Example 5.8. From Example 5.8 at S~r =0.6581, tDr=0.4839 and xDr=0.1399. vbr =f!/(S~r -c/Je)' ........................ (5.101) Because the drive water and the polymer solution are miscible, the specific velocity of the polymer-free water must be equal to the ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE 5.28-FRACTIONAL-FLOW PARAMETERS FOR REAR OF POLYMER BANK, EXAMPLE 5.8 S;r --1.00000 0.99993 0.99970 0.99929 0.99871 0.99793 0.99693 0.99570 0.99423 0.99248 0.99045 0.98810 0.98542 0.98239 0.97896 0.97513 0.97085 0.96611 0.96086 0.95507 0.94871 f;r --0.70000 0.69464 0.68934 0.68409 0.67890 0.67377 0.66872 0.66372 0.65881 0.65396 0.64921 0.64454 0.63996 0.63548 0.63112 0.62688 0.62277 0.61878 0.61495 0.61127 _ ~ i". Sy 0.60 Water Saturation Fig. 5.60-Determinatlon of fw," Swr from the fractional-flow curve In Example 5.8. wr --- 2.22223 2.24893 2.27593 2.30321 2.33074 2.35850 2.38647 2.41461 2.44287 2.47123 2.49962 2.52800 2.55631 2.58447 2.61242 2.64007 2.66731 2.69406 2.72020 2.74561 From a root-finding program, a line from Sw=0.25, fw=O to gr = 0.9945, S~r=0.6581 intersects the fw, Sw fractional-flow curve at fwr = 0.9988, Swr= 0.6598, and f~r = 0.0689. Substitution into Eq. 5.104 yields, for Swr=0.6598, xV=xVr+(tV-tvr)f':'r =0. 1399+(tv -0.4839)(0.0689). Selected values of S:tr were chosen for construction of saturation paths. Fig. 5.59 shows paths for saturations in the drive-water region. Fig. 5.59 displays a complete picture of the saturation paths in the example linear displacement of a polymer slug where dispersion and viscous fingering are neglected. Displacement performance after water breakthrough is estimated by determining the average water saturation along lines of constant tv. Because water saturations travel at slow specific velocities, the remaining oil will be produced at high WOR's. Saturation profIles may be constructed from this diagram because a saturation profIle is the locus of saturations along a line of constant tv. Displacement performance after the polymer flood front breaks through and disappears is found by determining the average saturation of the linear system at specified values of tv. After the polymer front just reaches the end of the system, a saturation profIle ranges from l-Sor at the beginning of the system to Sw2 at the end of the system. The location of every saturation is found with Eq. 5.104. In Eq. 5.104, xVr is the location where the saturation Swr evolved from the rear of the polymer bank at tVr" The average water saturation in the linear system is found by integrating the saturation distribution over the length of the system with Sw = J Insufficient Polymer To Satisfy Retention. If the amount of polymer injected is not sufficient to satisfy retention in the porous rock, the drive water will overtake the polymer front at some point in the linear system. Recall that in Examples 5.8 and 5.9, sufficient polymer was injected so that the polymer front just reached the end of the system. The time and location at which the polymer front is overtaken by the drive water are determined by material balance, as in Eqs. 5.92 and 5.94. If tvp =PV's of polymer injected, then the polymer front will be overtaken by the drive water when Xb3b =tvpl D . The time when this happens can be estimated from the frontiladvance solution. Let tVb = dimensionless time when the polymer front is overtaken by the drive water. Then, ................................ (5.108) The path followed by the rear of the polymer slug is predicted in the same manner as described earlier and illustrated in Example 5.8. When the polymer front is overtaken by the drive water, the process becomes a waterflood. For example, when tvp =Dp (in Ex/2 ample 5.8), the polymer front is overtaken at tv =0.'5/1.2377= 0.404. Fig. 5.61 shows the saturation distribution at this instant. Note that the oil bank created by the polymer front is present, with a saturation discontinuity from Swr to Swl at the rear of the oil bank. This saturation discontinuity is not stable. Because of miscibility, the velocity of this discontinuity is given by vVr=fwl/Swl =fwrlSwr .......................... (5.109) or vVr=(jwr-fwl)/(Swr-Swl)' .................... (5.110) The velocity at the rear of the oil bank would be constant and stable ifvVr=f':'r. Inspection of the fractional-flow curve or tables off';' at the saturation between Swr and Swl shows that vVr>f';'r' Therefore, the drive water cuts into the rear of the oil bank until Swr=Swl' The velocity of the rear of the oil bank increases until Swr=Swl' The location of the rear of the oil bank at tv is determined by making a material balance on the water phase. Fig. 5.61 is a generalized saturation profIle for the displacement of the oil bank by the drive water after the polymer flood front has been overtaken. The total volume of water injected (polymer water and drive water) is given by tv= J tVb=xb3blf~j . r 1.0Swdxv ............................. (5.105) If there are m saturations within the system (i.e., xvswr:S 1.0), the integral in Eq. 5.105 can be evaluated numerically with a short computer program. Using the trapezoidal rule for integrating Eq. 5.105 results in Sw=O.5 (Swrj +Swrj+l)(XVj+l-XVj), ......... (5.106) rXVr SwdxV+Swl(XVl -XVr) + J ," I water in oil bank rXV! Swdxv-Siwxv/, water behind oil bank wherexvj =location of saturation Swrj when tv PV's of fluid have been injected. The oil displaced at tv is computed by material balance: Np=[(Sw-Siw)Vp]lBo . ......................... (5.107) I~I_-'-I_~ water in region interstitial between water Swl and Swf ................................ (5.111) c J!I I/) I/) I/) polymer Retention Region C 0 0.5 'iii c G) Xes 0.5 Xci XO. Dimensionless Distance Fig. 5.61-Saturation profile when polymer front is overtaken by drive water. Dimensionless TIme or Pore Volumes Injected, tD Fig. 5.62-Distance/time diagram showing polymer being overtaken by drive water, Example 5.10. The first integral on the right side of Eq. 5.111 represents the water in the region behind the oil bank. This region contains all saturations Swrj that evolved from the rear of the polymer or oil bank:. Let xDr represent the location at which saturation SwJj evolved at tDj as the drive water displaced the polymer or oil bank. Thus, the location of saturation Swrj after tD PV of fluid have been injected is found from XDj =xDrj +(tD-tD)f-:'rj ........................ (5.112) The location of the rear of the oil bank, XDr> is found by integrating the velocity of the saturation discontinuity. Recall that dXDr/dt=vDr' ................................. (5.113) Then, for the timestep from tfj-l to tfj, xn =xn-l + Dr Dr (vn +v n- l ) Dr Dr (tn_tn-l) ............. (5.114) 2 DD Example S.IO-Polymer Slug With Insufficient Polymer To Satisfy Retention. The amount of polymer to be injected as a slug in a linear system is chosen so that the polymer front disappears before reaching the end of the system. The properties of the system in Example 5.7 are used in this example, where a polymer solution with an apparent viscosity of 4 cp displaces oil with a viscosity of 40 cpo Inaccessible PV is 0.25 and Dp =0.424. In this example, the polymer slug will be Dp/2=0.212 PV injected. Determine the displacement performance of the polymer flood. Solution. During polymer injection (tD:S; 0.212), the polymer flood performs exactly as described in Examples 5.7 and 5.8. A waterflood front forms at saturation Sl1f, followed by an oil bank that has constant water saturation Swl' The oil bank is displaced by a polymer flood front, S;;;3' Table 5.20 presented properties of these fronts. The first part of the solution is to determine the displacement performance to the time when the polymer flood front is overtaken by the drive water. When the volume of polymer injected is Dp/2, the polymer front will disappear when x]j3 =0.5. That is, Dp/2 is the amount of polymer required to satisfy retention for one-half of the linear system. Then, t Db =x]j3/f~j =0.5/f~j When there are m saturations (m-1 saturation increments) from x D=0 to x lJr ' the first integral is approximated by rXDr Swd x D=0.5 (Swrj +Swrj+l)(xDj+l -XDj), .. (5.115) where xDrm =xlJr' Note that xDl =tDf..(,l ................................... (5.116) and xDj=tDf:v.t ................................. (5.117) The second integral in Eq. 5.111 is evaluated by applying the Welge equation. Thus, =0.5/1.2377 =0.404. The path of the rear of the polymer front and the saturation paths in the drive water can be determined with the method presented in Sec. 5.7.2. Program PREAR in Appendix Cwas used to determine the values of Swr, xDr> and tD when the saturation interval between l-Sor and S;;;3 was divided into 100 increments. Fig. 5.62 presents the distance/time diagram for 0<tD:s;0.404. After the polymer front is overtaken, the path of the rear Of the oil bank (xD" tD) is determined by solving for tD andxDr for each saturation between Swrb and Swl' For the purposes of this example, the saturation interval Swrb - Swl was divided into 50 increments. Eq. 5.111 is solved in the following manner. 1. tfj is estimated by assuming that tfj -tfj-l "",tfj-l_tfj-2 beginning with the last saturation increment. 2. Locations of all saturations are computed at tD with Eqs. 5.113 through 5.116. 3. Eq. 5.115 is used to compute the first integral in Eq. 5.111. 4. The value of tD is computed from Eq. 5.111 and called tDm' 5. If ItDm -tfjl is less than some value E, calculations cease and the value of tfj is accepted. Otherwise, an iterative solution is used. r XDj Sw dx =Sl1fl(XDj-XDl), (5.118) h f-:v.t Sl1f- f -:'l S wl-fl1f+f wl were Sl1fl = f:v.t-f-:'l ............ (5.119) Sl1fl is independent of tD' Inspection of Eqs. 5.111 through 5.119 shows that xDr and tD are dependent variables once a value of Swr is chosen. In principle, xD can be eliminated from Eq. 5.111 by use of Eqs. 5.108 and 5.110 through 5.119. Then a value of tD can be found for each v~ue of Swr between Swrb and Swl' However, this approach is sens!tive to small numerical errors. Example 5.10 illustrates the solution of Eq. 5.111 when an approximation technique is used. 136 TABLE 5.29-SUMMARY OF CALCULATION TO LOCATE REAR OF OIL BANK, EXAMPLE 5.10 tD 0.40381 * 0.41525 0.42669 0.43814 0.44958 0.46102 0.47246 0.48390 0.49535 0.50679 0.51823 0.52967 0.54112 0.55256 0.56400 0.57544 0.58688 0.59833 0.60977 0.62121 0.63265 0.63384** 0.40381 0.41514 0.42658 0.43802 0.44946 0.46090 0.47234 0.48379 0.49523 0.50667 0.51811 0.52955 0.54099 0.55244 0.56388 0.57532 0.58676 0.59820 0.60964 0.62108 0.63253 0.63372 0.50000 0.5174.0 0.53535 0.55389 0.57305 0.59285 0.61334 0.63454 0.65650 0.67925 0.70285 0.72732 0.75273 0.77912 0.80654 0.83506 0.86473 0.89562 0.92779 0.96131 0.99625 1.00000 c:: Q) () iii c:: 0.75 1.5 Dimensionless Time or Pore Volumes Injected, tD Fig. 5.63-Distance/time diagram-0.212-PV polymer slug displaced by drive water, Example 5.10. curved path at the rear of the oil bank depicts this process. An oil bank of water saturation Swl is produced until breakthrough of the drive water at tD "'" 0.626. Thereafter, oil production declines as higher water saturations reach the end of the system. Paths of water saturations in the drive-water region (I-Sor > Sw 2= Swl) were computed with Eq. 5.112 with the values ofxDIj and t Dj obtained from Table 5.29. Displacement performance for the linear system (0 sXD S 1.0) is obtained by computing the average water saturation in this region for various tD. The average water saturation in the linear system is given by Sw= Polymer bank is overtaken by drive water. .. Rear of oil bank leaves system If the number of saturation increments is large, the two values are in good agreement after the first computation. The computations are too complicated to conduct by hand but are easily done with a short computer program. Program PSLUG in Appendix C computes the location of the rear of the oil bank (xDrl' tD) using the procedure described above. Computed results are presented in Table 5.29. Values of tD and tDm are within 1.5 x 10 -4, which shows that the calculation technique is valid. Fig. 5.63 is the distance/time diagram for the displacement process. After the polymer slug is overtaken by the drive water, the oil bank is eroded continually by the drive water until the drivewater saturation at the rear of the oil bank decreases to Swl. The j ISwDdxD . .............................. (5.120) The volume of oil displaced at reservoir conditions is found by subtracting the volume of water initially present at the beginning of the flood. Thus, TABLE 5.30-DISPLACEMENT PERFORMANCE OF POLYMER FLOOD, EXAMPLE 5.10 (0.212-PV polymer slug followed by drive water, injection rate 200 BID, 8 0 = 1.1) tD (PV) 0.0 0.185* 0.21200 0.21764 0.22447 0.23277 0.24297 0.25562 0.26001 ** 0.27153 0.29186 0.31842 0.35413 0.40381 0.46102 0.51823 0.57544 0.63384t 0.68293 0.83371 0.17602 1.17664 1.89771 3.32138 4.35441 Time (days) 0.0 440.0 504.04 517.45 533.68 553.43 577.68 607.76 618.19 645.58 693.92 757.07 841.95 960.08 1,096.10 1,232.13 1,368.15 1,507.00 1,623.71 1,982.19 2,796.06 2,797.53 4,511.93 7,896.79 10,352.87 (fraction) 0.300 0.485 0.494 0.496 0.497 0.500 0.502 0.505 0.506 0.509 0.514 0.520 0.528 0.540 0.553 0.566 0.580 0.593 0.598 0.608 0.620 0.620 0.633 0.646 0.653 Np (STB) (STBID) 181.8 63.5 53.68 51.99 50.11 48.00 45.67 43.07 42.31 42.31 42.31 42.31 42.31 42.31 42.31 42.31 42.31 25.97 15.22 8.74 4.79 4.79 2.42 1.32 1.03 0.0 130.2 140.96 142.81 144.88 147.20 149.77 152.62 153.46 153.46 153.46 153.46 153.46 153.46 153.46 153.46 153.46 171.43 183.26 190.39 194.73 194.73 197.33 198.55 198.86 0.0 2.05 2.63 2.75 2.89 3.07 3.28 3.54 3.63 3.63 3.63 3.63 3.63 3.63 3.63 3.63 3.63 6.60 12.04 21.79 40.69 40.69 81.39 150.86 192.15 0 79,972 83,813 84,518 85,347 86,315 87,452 88,787 89,227 90,386 92,431 95,103 98,693 103,692 109,412 115,167 120,923 126,798 128,993 133,021 138,191 138,196 143,956 149,563 152,427 'Water breakthrough. "Oil bank arrives. t Oil bank ends. J:J Polymer Flood - 0.212 ""'''''' ... PVc::;~------] -ti Q) ------ ----- 0Q) ::I '"0 ........... <waterfIOOd Waterfiood-..... ............ .... ........ ....... ........ ........ ........ o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~. Dimensionless Time or Pore Volumes Injected, to Fig. 5.64-Comparison of displacement performance for 0.212.PV polymer slug with a waterflood, Example 5.10. Np=[(SW-Swi)VP]/Bo . ......................... (5.121) 112,500 Cumulative Oil Production, bbl Fig. 5.65-WOR's for 0.212PV polymer flood and a water flood in Example 5.10. The integral in Eq. 5.120 is evaluated in the same manner as Eq. 5.106. Table 5.30 presents the displacement performance for the polymer flood when enough polymer is injected to satisfy polymer retention for one-half the length of the system. Fig. 5.64 compares the displacement efficiency of the polymer flood (tDp =0.212) with a waterflood of the same linear reservoir. Fig. 5.65 presents graphs of WOR vs. cumulative production for the same floods. In Example 5.8, the incremental oil recovered as a result of the injection of a polymer slug (0.424 PV) was found to be 27,658 STB at tD =0.8079, corresponding to arrival of the polymer slug at the end of the system. When the polymer slug is reduced to 0.212 PV, as in Example 5.10, cumulative oil production is estimated to be 132,625 STB at tD =0.8079. Incremental oil above the waterflood is 15,739 STB for an oil/polymer ratio of 1.49 STBllbm of polymer. Reduction of the size of the polymer slug reduces the cost of polymer and the incremental oil recovery. If economic parameters were known, it would be possible to determine an optimum slug size by conducting a series of these calculations. Note that the comparisons of incremental oil recovery in Examples 5.8 through 5.10 assume that the water and polymer injection rates are constant throughout the flood. Sufficient pressure drop is assumed to exist across the system to maintain the rates at the values in the examples. This is often not the case. Sec. 5.5.4 addresses the problem of estimating pressure drop during a polymer flood in a linear reservoir. 5.5.4 Estimation of Pressure Drop During a Polymer Flood at Constant Injection Rate. When the injection rate is maintained constant during a polymer flood, as assumed in Example 5.7, the pressure drop must change in response to the changes in fluid saturations and mobilities along the length of the system. The pressure drop can be computed at any point in the displacement process when the saturation profile is known. Fig. 5.66 depicts the saturation profile and distribution of fluid components during a polymer flood. This figure, adapted from Fig. 3.34, is referenced in Example 5.11. Because the fluids were assumed to be incompressible in the development of the polymer flood model, the total flow rate, qt, is invariant with respect to x at a specific time. The relationship between flow rate and the pressure gradient at every location is given by Darcy's law. That is, qt=-(1l.ro+Arw)kbA(dp/dx), .................... (5.122) where Aro =relative mobility of the oil phase, Arw = relative mobility of the aqueous phase, kb = base permeability, A = crosssectional area perpendicular to the direction of flow, p =pressure, and consistent units are used. The relative mobility of the aqueous phase in the region contacted by polymer is the relative mobility of the polymer flowing in the rock. Because Aro and Arw are functions of the saturation profile and fluid properties, when the saturation profile is known, as in Fig. 5.66, the mobilities of both phases can be computed at every value of x. Eq. 5.122 can be integrated to find the pressure drop corresponding to the value of tD' Thus J g '@ f1p=~ bS~3 I ~ I E >. I '0 I 0J kb A 0 r( 1 )dX ..................... (5.123) A,o + Arw Sw !I When expressed in terms of dimensionless distance, xD, Eq. 5.123 becomes :lSw Siwl Denuded and Interstitial Water qt L r I f1P=-J (A r- 1 )dxD, ........................ (5.124) kbAO >Co3 where A,-1 =reciprocal relative mobility, Ar- b ll(A ro +Arw)' ............................ (5.125) The value ofthe.integral in Eq. 5.124 is analogous to a viscosity in the single-phase flow of a homogeneous fluid t1!!'ough a linear system. For this reason, this integral is defined as A-I, the average apparent viscosity. That is, Dimensionless Distance, Xo Fig. 5.66-Saturation profile in Example 5.11 for computation of the average apparent viscosity. X-I == I\A 1 r- )dxD , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . where X-I = average apparent viscosity of a linear system corresponding to the saturation profIle that is present at tD' With this definition, qt=k0tJ.pIX-IL ............................. (5.127a) or tJ.p=qtX -ILlkbA . ........................... (5. 127b) Saturation profIles and fluid distributions change during the displacement but remain functions of tD in all cases. Thus, the average apparent viscosity is also a unique func:;tion of tD for a particular polymer flood. Once the relationship between X-I and tD is determined by integrating Eq. 5.126, it is possible to compute the injection rate or pressure drop during a linear polymer flood when one of these parameters is known. Computation of the average apparent viscosity is a straightforward application of numerical integration techniques. The procedure is illustrated by determining the average apparent viscosity when the saturation profIle is given by Fig. 5.66. In this case, there are four discrete regions where fluid saturations and/or properties change with dimensionless distance, xD: (1) the region where o:5XD :5xjj3 and polymer and oil are flowing, (2) the region where xjj3:5X:5XD! and oil and water are flowing and the water saturation is ~onstant, (3) the region where xDl :5X:5XDj and the water saturatIon decreases from Swl to Swj, and (4) the region where XDj:5X:5 1 and oil is flowing at interstitial water saturation. Applying Eq. 5.126 to the saturation profIle in Fig. 5.66 yields fwf=0.6508, fwl =0.7673, f;t3=0.9687, f~ =5.3958, f~1 =3.8530, f~;= 1.2377 When the waterflood front is located at x Dj = 0.75, the dimensionless injection time is given by tD=XDif~ =0.7515.3958 =0.139 .................................... (5.135) Also, xDl, XDj, xjj3 can be located: xDl =f:dD =(0.139)(3.8530) =0.536, xDj=f~tD' and xj')3 =(0.139)(1.2377) =0.172. A numerical method is required to find };. - 1 because X-I is a nonlinear function of xD' The following relationships are ~sed to compute Ar-I. Aro =krol Ito =[0.8(1-SwD)2]llto' ........................ (5.136) Arw=krwlltw =0.2S~Dlltw' .............................. (5.137) - -I = J Xv \.r-ldxD+(XDl-xjj3)A;:-s~1 + JXDfAr-1dxD r A +(l-XDj)A ;:-s)w . ........................... (5.128) Eq. 5.128 may be viewed as the sum of the contribution of each region to the apparent viscosity of the total system. After the polymer shock breaks through the end of the system, the average apparent viscosity for Sw2;::: S;t3 is computed from X-I = J\r-ldxD' The dimensionless distances xjj3' xDl, and XDj are determined from the frontal-advance solution: Xjj3=( The viscosity of the water is replaced by the apparent viscosity of the polymer solution in the region contacted by polymer. There are two integrals to be evaluated in Eq. 5.128 when flood fronts from both waterflood and polymer floods are in the system. The regions are treated separately with the same approach. The integral for the region behind the polymer shock can be rewritten as an equivalent integration with respect to the derivative of the fractional-flow curve. 75 Recall that x D =tD f'* 0 <xD* < w' xjj3' Then, Sw3 cf>e+ D ; ~;t3 J DAr-IdxD Xr-I* = -"0'--_ _ __ )tD, ....................... (5.130) X* D xDl =f~ltD' ................................... (5.131) and xDj=f~tD' ................................. (5.132) Saturation profIles are found by use of the following relationships. For saturations in the region O:5XD :5Xj')3 (Le., 1-Sor ;:::Sw;:::S;t3), Xj')=f:ttD' .................................... (5.133) and for saturations in the region xDl :5XD :5XDj (Le., Swl ;::: Sw;::: Swf), xD=fwtD' .................................... (5.134) The evaluation of the average apparent viscosity for the saturation profIle of Fig. 5.66 is illustrated in Example 5.11. Example S.Il-Estimation of Pressure Drop During a Continuous Polymer Flood in a Linear Reservoir. Determine the pressure drop for the polymer flood in Example 5.7 when the waterflood front, XDj, is located at a distance of 0.75 from the entrance of the system. Base permeability, the permeability to oil at interstitial water saturation, is 250 md. The injection rate is constant at 200 BID. Recall that the linear segment of the reservoir being simulated is 500 ft wide and 20 ft thick. Injection and production wells are 1,000 ft apart. Solution. The first step is to determine the saturation profIle that corresponds to xDj=0.75. It is useful to summarize flood-front parameters from Example 5.7. Swj=0.4206, Swl =0.4459, S;t3=0.5925, f;'* . ....................... (5.138) rX J 5Ar-1dxD=Ar-lxjj ................... (5.139) The saturation profIle in Fig. 5.66 was constructed when xDj=0.75. Becausef~ =5.3958, the value of tD =0. 139. Also, for the set of relative permeability curves used in this example, f;' =0 at S;:; = l-Sor ' Values of A1- 1 are plotted vs. f:' in Fig. 5.67. The integral is the area under the curve betweenf~j andfw'3' Actual calculations were done numerically with the trapezoidal rule by dividing the saturation interval between S;:; = l-Sor and S;t3 into 100 incre 1-"* ments. .Table 5.31 gives selected values of Xr -I and Jw for each saturatIon S;:;. The average apparent viscosity, Xr-I , for the region behind the polymer flood front is 28.66 cpo From Eq. 5.139, =4.93 cpo TABLE 5.31-AVERAGE APPARENT VISCOSITY COMPUTED FOR EXAMPLE 5.11 , POLYMER REGION };; -1 s w 0.592478 0.597854 0.603230 0.608606 0.613982 0.619358 0.624735 0.630111 0.635487 0.640863 0.646239 0.651615 0.656991 0.662367 0.667743 0.673119 0.678495 0.683871 0.689247 0.694623 0.699999 fl' W f'w' Fig. 5.67-Apparent viscosity vs. fractional flow, polymer region, Example 5.11. The second integral includes the waterflood region where the saturation changes from Sw1 to Swf. Numerical integration could be used to compute the value of the integral in the same manner as for the polymer region. In this case, however, there is not a large difference between Sw1 and Swf at Sw1 =0.4459, k ro =0.3228, krw=0.0266, and the value of ArS';! =28.84 cpo At Swf=0.42.06, k ro =0.3903, krw=0.0182 and A,:s~ =35.77 cpo The trapezOIdal rate is applied to the interval xD1 ::s'xD ::s'xDf to give 28.662727 28.050756 27.458923 26.887281 26.335779 25.804293 25.292606 24.800457 24.327520 23.873444 23.437824 23.020252 22.620281 22.237457 21.871311 21.521368 21.187138 20.868097 20.563623 20.272432 20.000088 value of tD, the injection rate can be predicted at any point in the displacement process when the pressure drop is specified. This computation is illustrated in Example 5.12. rXD! Ar- 1dxD= (A rs,;! + A~ ) Example S.12.-Estimation of Injection Rate in a Polymer Flood When the Pressure Drop Is Constant. The continuous polymer flood described in Example 5.7 is to be operated at a constant pressure drop of 1,000 psi between injection and production wells. Determine the injection rate (and thus the production rate) at tD=0.479. Solution. The flow rate for a linear displacement is computed from Eq. 5.142. Table 5.32 contains values of the average apparent viscosity, X-1, as a function of tD' At tD=0.479, the average apparent viscosity is 28.708 cpo Substitution into Eq. 5.141, (XDj-XDl) (28.84+35.77) -----(0.75-0.536) 2 =6.91 cpo ......................... (5.140) Collecting terms yields X-1 =4.93 + 28.84(0.536-0.172)+6.91 + 50(1.0-0. 75) =34.84 cpo The pressure drop at tD=0.139 is computed with Eq. 5.141 when parameters are in oilfield units (psi, cp, darcies, ft, and BID). Constant 1.127 is a unit conversion factor. qt = 1.127kbA(Pi-PL) at tD=0.479 gives (1.127)(0.250 darcy)(lO,OOO ft 2)(l,000 psi) qt= =98.1 BID. It is possible to calculate the i~ection rate for every value of tD in the displacement process with this procedure. (28.708 cp)(I,OOO ft) A-1L ......................... (5.141) and~p=--------------------- (200 BID)(34.84 cp)(l,OOO ft) (1.127)(0.250 darcy)(lO,OOO ft2) =2,473 psi ............................... (5.142) As the polymer flood progresses, the average apparent viscosity changes with the saturation profile. When the polymer flood front breaks through, X-1 =28.66 cpo lithe injection rate remains constant, the pressure drop at this time will be 2,034 psi. Because there is a unique saturation profile at every value of tD' there is a unique average apparent viscosity. Values of X-1 computed for the polymer flood are presented in Table 5.32 and plotted in Fig. 5.68 as functions of tD' Pressure drops corresponding to an injection rate of 200 BID are also included in Table 5.32. To complete the solution for a linear polymer flood at constant pressure drop, it is necessary to predict rates and cumulative production as functions of time. This task is easy when the injection rate is constant. When the pressure drop is constant, however, injection rates can vary over a wide range. For example, the injection rate would be 72.7 BID at tD = 0.103 when the pressure drop is constant at 1,000 psi, as in Example 5.12. It is necessary to develop a procedure for determining the time when injection rates vary. When the pressure drop is constant, the flow rate varies with time. The solution developed in this section gives the flow rate at all values of dimensionless time, tD' or PV's injected, Qi' The time can be extracted from pairs of qt, tD data by recalling that tE+1=rn+lqtdt .............................. (5.143) o Vp 5.5.5 Estimation of Injection Rate With a Constant Pressure Drop. When the pressure is constant during a polymer-augmented waterflood, the injection rate changes as the saturation profiles develop and are displaced through the linear system. Sec. 5.5.4 showed that the average apparent viscosity is a function of tD' Thus, at any 140 TABLE 5.32-AVERAGE APPARENT VISCOSITY AND PRESSURE DROP CALCULATIONS, EXAMPLE 5.11, CONTINUOUS POLYMER FLOOD AT 200 BID Average Apparent Viscosity (cp) 50.000 47.753 43.260 38.767 34.274 29.781 29.578 29.375 29.172 28.969 28.766 28.737 28.708 28.679 28.651 28.622 28.006 27.409 26.833 26.275 25.737 25.217 24.716 24.232 23.764 23.313 22.875 Pressure Drop at 200 BID (psi) 3,549 3,390 3,071 2,752 2,433 2,114 2,100 2,085 2,071 2,056 2,042** 2,040 2,038 2,036 2,034 2,032 t 1,988 1,946 1,905 1,865 1,827 1,790 1,754 1,720 1,687 1,655 1,624 t-; --.!JL 0.000 0.021 0.062 0.103 0.144 0.185 0.200 0.215 0.230 0.245 0.260 0.369 0.479 0.589 0.698 0.808 0.886 0.975 1.077 1.193 1.327 1.484 1.667 1.884 2.143 2.459 2.850 :i0 "E 30 l!1 c. c. Dimensionless Time or Pore Volumes Injected, to Fig. 5.6S-Variation of the average apparent viscosity with PV injected, Example 5.11. mer flood in Example 5.7 when the pressure drop is maintained constant at 1,000 psi. Solution. Injection rates are computed at every value of tD in Table 5.32 for a constant pressure drop of 1,000 psi with the procedure in Example 5.12. Table 5.33 gives rates for each value of tD Times corresponding to each value of tD are computed sequentially. Eq. 5.149 is used for the first time increment and then Eq. 5.148 is used. Computed times also are presented in Table 5.33. 'Waterflood breakthrough . Oilbank breakthrough. t Polymer breakthrough. and tfj = Itn qtdt . . .............................. (5.144) o Subtracting Eq. 5.143 from Eq. 5.144 gives tfj+1-tfj= J tn tn+lqdt _t-, ......................... (5.145) Vp which becomes qn+1 +qn) tn+ 1 _tn "'" ( t t (tn+ 1 -tn) .............. (5.146) D D 2V when qt is approximated by (qr+ 1 +qr)/2. Thus, tn+l=tn+ 2(t n+l -t n )V D D p ...................... (5.147) (qr+ 1 +qr) when n=O, t n =0, and tfj =0. For this case, t l is estimated with =to + 2(ti>)Vp (q} +q?) . . ........................... (5.148) The value q? is the flow rate of the oil and water at the initial water saturation. If the interstitial water is immobile, Example 5.13 illustrates computation of the flow-rate/time relationships for the polymer flood in Example 5.7. Example S.13-Estimation of Injection-Rate/Time History During a Polymer Flood in a Linear Reservoir at Constant Pressure Drop. Predict the injection rate as a function of time for the poly- 5.5.6 Polymer-Augmented Waterflood in a Layered Reservoir. Reservoirs are usually heterogeneous, particularly with respect to permeability. The largest changes in permeability typically occur in the vertical direction. When there is a wide range ofpermeabilities in the vertical cross section, the injected water flows through the most permeable layers where the displacement process occurs rapidly. Water breakthrough from these layers may cause high WOR's and abandonment of the waterflood while substantial portions of the low-permeability zones are being waterflooded at a slower rate. Injecting polymer into a linear system slows the flow of injected fluids in all zones contacted by the polymer. The amount of polymer flowing into each zone of a uniform, layered reservoir will be proportional to the permeability of the layer. It is tempting to assume that polymer injection will change the vertical distribution of fluids flowing in the system and thus change the displacement efficiency. To be an effective mobility-control agent, however, the polymer solution must not be slowed as much in low-permeability zones as in high-permeability zones. The impact of polymer flooding on the displacement performance of a linear reservoir with noncommunicating layers can be predicted by several techniques. If a polymer-flood model, such as that used to generate the polymer-flood performance in Examples 5.7 through 5.10, is available, the displacement performance can be simulated easily when the pressure drop is constant. A similar calculation technique can be developed for constant injection rate, but the computations are complex and are not included in this text. When no crossflow occurs between layers, the performance of a multilayered, linear reservoir flooded under a constant pressure drop can be simulated by computing the displacement performance of each layer separately as a function of time, as described in Sec. 5.5.5. Then, the predicted performance of the composite reservoir is determined by combining the results from individual layers at the same time. Composite results are computed for predetermined time increments by linear interpolation. When crossflow between layers occurs, a numerical model must be used to simulate polymerflood performance. 84 ,85 Consideration of crossflow in polymer flooding is beyond the scope of this text. MOBILITY-CONTROL PROCESSES TABLE 5.33-INJECTION RATE DURING CONTINUOUS POLYMER FLOOD, PRESSURE DROP MAINTAINED CONSTANT AT 1,000 psi, EXAMPLE 5.12 Average Apparent Viscosity (cp) 50.000 47.753 43.260 38.767 34.274 29.781 29.578 29.375 29.172 28.969 28.766 28.737 28.708 28.679 28.651 28.622 28.006 27.409 26.833 26.275 25.737 25.217 24.716 24.232 23.764 23.313 22.875 Injection Rate Steamtubes Injection Well Production Well 56.30 59.00 65.13 72.68. 82.21 94.61 95.26 95.91 96.58 97.26 97.95 98.04 98.14 98.24 98.34 98.44 100.60 102.8 105 107.2 109.5 111.7 114 116.3 118.6 120.9 123.2 Fig. 5.69-Streamtube model for simulation of displacement in one-quarter of a layered five-spot pattern. 86 5.5.7 Polymer-Augmented Waterflood in Patterns or Other Arrangements of Production and Injection Wells. Estimation of polymer flood performance in pattern floods or other flooding programs where the flow is not linear requires the use of more complex models or reservoir simulators. An adaptation of a black-oil reservoir simulator is available in the public domain. 86 Most reservoir software companies have polymer flood simulators of various degrees of complexity. Application of reservoir simulators is beyond the scope of this text. Polymer-augmented waterflood performance in pattern floods can be simulated with streamtube modeling with the approach originally introduced for waterflooding by Higgins and Leighton. 75 ,87,88 In these models, the flooding pattern is represented by a collection of streamtubes connecting the injection and production wells, as depicted in Fig. 5.69. Fluid flow is 1D in each streamtube along the principal axis of the streamtube. There is no crossflow across streamtube boundaries. The polymer flooding models developed in Chap. 3 and in this chapter also are valid for each streamtube. In principle, these models simulate the polymer-augmented waterflood performance in each streamtube at constant pressure drop. Fig. 5.70 illustrates the fractional-flow, saturation, and production profIles used in each streamtube. Performance of the pattern is determined by combining the displacement performance of each streamtube at the same point in time. A model based on streamtube concepts, developed by the U.S. DOE, is available to the public and documented in a report. 86 Example 5.14 illustrates the use of the U.S. DOE model to predict the performance of a polymer-augmented waterflood in a five-spot pattern. ~15W3 1-5orw O~------~------------~ POlymer: Water Connate Water Example S.I4-Simulation of a Polymer-Augmented Waterflood in a Five-Spot Pattern With a Streamtube Model. A polymeraugmented waterflood is to be conducted in a reservoir on 20-acre spacing. The reservoir is located at a depth of 2,500 ft. OOIP in the 20-acre pattern was 1,475,800 STB. Oil recovery from primary depletion and the current waterflood is 421,700 STB, leaving an estimated 1,054,100 STB of oil in place at the beginning of the polymer flood. Average oil saturation at this point is 0.5. The ROS is 0.25, so the mobile oil left in the reservoir is about 527,250 STB. l/water BT II Polymer BT O~----~------------~------~ Fig. 5.70-Fractional-flow, saturation profile, and cumulative production relationships for the DOE streamtube model. 86 142 TABLE 5.34-INPUT DATA FOR SIMULATION OF POLYMER-AUGMENTED WATERFLOOD,86 EXAMPLE 5.14 Formation Properties and Pattern Volumes Formation depth, ft Formation temperature, OF Formation average permeability, md Formation porosity Total net thickness, ft Total PV, 10 3 bbl OOIP, 10 3 STB OIP at start of flood, 10 3 STB Dykstra-Parsons coefficient Pattern area, acres Wellbore radius, ft Injectivity coefficient, psilft Water/oil mobility ratio Polymer/oil mobility ratio Sol Sor ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE 5.35-LAYER PROPERTIES FOR SIMULATION OF POLYMER-AUGMENTED WATERFLOOD,86 EXAMPLE 5.14 2,500.0 125.0 200.0 0.3 50.0 2,327.5 1,475.8 1,054.1 0.60 20.00 0.50 0.51 2.08 Layer 1 2 3 4 5 (md) 529.76 216.56 132.61 81.69 39.38 .J!!L Fluid Properties 1.104 Oil FVF, RB/STB Water FVF, RB/STB 1.008 25.0 API oil gravity, API 5.000 Oil viscosity, cp 0.600 Water viscosity, cp 1,000.0 Formation pressure, psi 175.0 Solution GOR, scf/STB 0.700 Specific gravity of gas 900.0 Polymer concentration, ppm 100.000 Polymer adsorption, Ibm/acre-ft Polymer adsorption parameter, vol slug/PV 0.041 10.900 Polymer viscosity, cp 12.00 Resistance factor 1.101 Residual resistance factor 4.774 Power-law coefficient, cp-sec n - 1 0.600 Power-law exponent 0.300 Polymer slug size, PV 3.000 Maximum injected PV, polymer + chase water, PV Tables 5.34 and 5.35 summarize the formation, rock, and fluid properties. The reservoir has a Dykstra-Parsons coefficient of 0.6 and is assumed to be represented by five noncommunicating layers with properties given in Table S.3S. Relative permeability curves for oil/water and oil/polymer systems are represented by k ro =0.8(I-SwD )2.0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (S.IS0) and k rw =0.2S?;,g, ............................... (S.ISI) where SwD is defined by SwD= Sw-Siw I- S or-Siw ............................. (S.IS2) The plan is to inject 0.3 PV of polymer at a concentration of 900 ppm followed by a maximum of 3 PV of drive water. The effective viscosity of the polymer solution is 10.9 cpo Solution. Table 5.36 summarizes the predicted polymeraugmented waterflood performance. A summary of injection history is included in Table 5.37. In the simulation, 218,420 Ibm of polymer is injected in the first 4.7 years. Oil displaced at a WOR of l1S.9 was 430,900 STB for an oil/polymer ratio of 1.97 STB/lbm. This example illustrates the capabilities of this polymerflood predictive model. Results from such a prediction form the basis for economic analysis of the polym~r flood. For example, Fig. 5.71 illustrates the effect of slug size on cumulative oil recovery for a polymer-augmented waterflood in a five-spot pattern with a single layer. An economic analysis could be made to determine the optimum slug size based on the simulated displacement results. Further information on the model and assumptions are found in Ref. 86. 5.6 InSitu Permeability Modification The amount of oil that is recoverable from a reservoir by a displacement process depends on (1) the effectiveness with which the injected fluid displaces oil from the pores in the rock (microscopic displacement efficiency) and (2) the volumetric fraction of the reservoir contacted by the injected fluid (macroscopic sweep efficiency). This latter efficiency is governed by the mobility ratio but also in large measure by the geologic heterogeneity of the reservoir rock. Permeabilities vary both areally and vertically, and large changes typically occur in the vertical direction in a single well. As an example, Fig. 5.72 shows permeability variation with depth for a shallow sandstone reservoir in eastern Kansas. 89 When a displacement process is implemented in a reservoir with large variations in vertical permeability, injected fluid tends to flow through the zones with the highest permeabilities; thus, lowpermeability zones may receive only a small fraction of the injected fluid. Example 4.4 gave an illustration of the effect of a variation in vertical permeability for a linear reservoir consisting of two layers and for displacement processes conducted under different mobility ratios. Bypassing part of the reservoir by the injected fluid can lead to production of relatively large volumes of injected fluid per barrel of recovered oil. The result can be that the displacement process reaches the economic limit at a time when a large volume of oil remains in the bypassed or unswept regions of the reservoir. The objective of an in-situ permeability-modification process is to treat the reservoir in such a way that the effective permeability of the high-permeability zones is significantly reduced. Conceptually, it would be desirable to reduce permeability across the entire reservoir-I.e., from injection wells to production wells. Practically, treatment tends to be limited to the region relatively near the wellbore. Also, provisions must be made to prevent the gelling agents from entering and damaging the lower-permeability zones. Various methods of permeability modification have been applied. These include crosslinked polymer (gelled polymer), microbialbased, and precipitation processes. This chapter describes only the application of crosslinked polymers. In-situ permeability modification is not strictly a mobility-control process in that volumetric sweep efficiency is improved through modification of rock permeability rather than through mobility adjustment of an injected fluid. The processes are related, however, because of the use of polymer systems that are similar and because the result-i.e., improved volumetric sweep-is similar. Thus, permeability modification is described in this chapter. 5.6.1 General Description ofthe Process. In the crosslinked, or gelled, polymer process, an aqueous solution or solutions of moderate viscosity containing polymer and a crosslinking agent are injected into high-permeability or fractured zones. Polymer and the crosslinker react to form a viscous gel-I.e., a fluid with a very high apparent viscosity. The gel is essentially immobile and thus acts to reduce the apparent permeability of the rock matrix or fracture. Depending on the chemical system, the procedure used to mix the reacting chemicals is different. In some applications, the reacting chemicals are mixed at the surface by passing the different solutions through an in-line mixer before they enter the wellbore. Reaction to form a gel occurs in the reservoir. Another approach, often used with biopolymers, is to mix the solutions in tanks at the MOBILITY-CONTROL PROCESSES TABLE 5.36-PATTERN PRODUCTION REPORT, EXAMPLE 5.14 Pattern Production Summary Pattern life ratio Pattern area, acres Pattern PV, 10 3 bbl OOIP, 10 3 STB OIP at start of flood, 10 3 STB Total oil production, 10 3 STB Oil recovery, fraction OOIP Oil recovery, fraction OIP at start of flood Total polymer injected, 10 3 bbl Oillpolymer ratio, STBllbm Pattern Production Report Cumulative Cumulative Water Rate Oil Gas 3 STB) (MMscf) (STB/D) (10 0.0 0.0 0.00 451.8 45.18 7.91 247.8 86.76 15.18 21.81 250.2 124.63 159.25 27.87 252.0 261.7 188.22 32.94 213.94 37.44 239.7 226.3 238.86 41.80 352.0 265.64 46.49 289.88 50.73 396.3 312.83 54.75 362.9 348.3 333.46 58.35 353.42 61.85 337.9 65.28 373.03 342.0 343.9 389.02 68.08 539.6 396.80 69.44 402.74 70.48 701.7 407.72 684.3 71.35 412.28 72.15 690.4 879.8 414.98 72.62 73.01 417.19 882.4 73.40 419.41 878.5 873.0 421.62 73.78 866.5 423.84 74.17 869.5 426.06 74.56 428.25 74.94 879.0 1,127.1 75.24 429.92 1,130.2 430.91 75.41 3.20 20.00 2,327.5 1,475.8 1,054.1 430.9 0.2920 0.4088 218.4 1.97 Cumulative Water (10 3 STB) 0.00 65.97 135.88 209.86 287.39 371.11 458.39 546.55 632.67 721.58 811.89 904.75 998.34 1,092.31 1,190.25 1,297.18 1,406.13 1,516.13 1,626.58 1,739.08 1,852.11 1,965.13 2,078.16 2,191.18 2,304.20 2,417.25 2,530.87 2,645.24 Oil Recovery (fraction oil at start) 0.0000 0.0429 0.0823 0.1182 0.1511 0.1786 0.2030 0.2266 0.2520 0.2750 0.2968 0.3163 0.3353 0.3539 0.3690 0.3764 0.3821 0.3868 0.3911 0.3937 0.3958 0.3979 0.4000 0.4021 0.4042 0.4063 0.4078 0.4088 Time (years) 0.00 0.40 1.17 1.98 2.83 3.70 4.70 5.77 6.44 7.05 7.73 8.46 9.22 9.98 10.76 11.30 11.72 12.17 12.60 12.95 13.30 13.66 14.01 14.37 14.73 15.08 15.35 15.63 Oil Rate (STB/D) 0.0 309.4 147.4 128.1 112.5 90.6 70.6 64.0 109.5 108.0 92.2 77.3 72.1 71.4 56.1 39.3 38.2 31.0 28.5 21.1 17.3 17.2 17.1 17.0 17.0 17.0 16.6 9.7 Gas Rate (Mscf/D) 0.0 54.1 25.8 22.4 19.7 15.9 12.4 11.2 19.2 18.9 16.1 13.5 12.6 12.5 9.8 6.9 6.7 5.4 5.0 3.7 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.9 1.7 WOR -0.00 1.46 1.68 1.95 2.24 2.89 3.39 3.54 3.22 3.67 3.93 4.50 4.69 4.79 6.13 13.74 18.37 22.09 24.20 41.76 50.98 51.02 51.01 50.87 51.03 51.58 67.97 115.94 TABLE 5.37-PATTERN INJECTION REPORT, EXAMPLE 5.14 Time (years) 0.00 0.40 1.17 1.98 2.83 3.70 4.70 5.77 6.44 7.05 7.73 8.46 9.22 9.98 10.76 11.30 11.72 12.17 12.60 12.95 13.30 13.66 14.01 14.37 14.73 15.08 15.35 15.63 Fraction Water Rate (STB/D) 0.000 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200 0.250 0.300 0.350 0.400 0.450 0.500 0.550 0.600 0.650 0.700 0.750 0.800 0.850 0.900 0.950 1.000 1.050 1.100 1.150 1.200 1.250 1.300 1.350 0.0 409.3 390.4 375.2 361.0 317.1 296.4 471.9 514.6 463.9 433.0 416.9 420.1 405.4 582.6 743.5 718.2 721.6 902.8 901.3 897.3 891.8 885.2 888.0 897.6 1,145.2 1,140.9 1,207.3 Polymer Rate (lbm/D) 0.0 129.0 123.1 118.3 113.8 100.0 93.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Injection (BID-psi) 0.000 0.319 0.304 0.293 0.281 0.247 0.231 0.368 0.401 0.362 0.338 0.325 0.328 0.316 0.454 0.580 0.560 0.563 0.704 0.703 0.700 0.695 0.690 0.692 0.700 0.893 0.890 0.941 Cumulative Water (10 3 ST8) 0.00 115.45 230.90 346.35 461.81 577.26 692.71 808.16 923.61 1,039.06 1,154.52 1,269.97 1,385.42 1,500.87 1,616.32 1,731.77 1,847.23 1,962.68 2,078.13 2,193.58 2,309.03 2,424.48 2,539.93 2,655.39 2,770.84 2,886.29 3,001.74 3,117.19 Cumulative Polymer (10 3 Ibm) 0.00 36.40 72.81 109.21 145.61 182.02 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 218.42 0.40 r _r--,-_r--r----._-.---,-_..,-----,--,P""V ooSlug 0.5 ___ 0.3 Polymer Floods --- Waterflood !:!: 0.32 __---10.15 0 E :> <.) ,, ,, 5-Spot Flood Adsorption = 0.15 Single Layer Q> .c c.. 0.72 0.96 0.48 Pore Volumes Injected C 620L--- Fig. 5. 71-Effect of polymer slug size on oil recovery in a fivespot pattern with a single layer. 86 surface before injection. Reaction starts at the surface and continues after~njection into. the reservoir. Yet another procedure is to inject the dIfferent solutIons as slugs. In this case, mixing occurs in the reservoir as a result of dispersion and chromatographic transport of the different chemical species. The general problem addressed by the permeability-modification process and the potential effect on production are illustrated in Figs. 5.73 through 5.75. Waterflooding a reservoir consisting of three, noncommunicating layers is considered. 90 A computer model was used to simulate a waterflood in a lO-acre five-spot pattern. After 500 days of waterflooding at an injection rate of 2,000 BID, the relative ~~jection rates were as shown in Fig. 5.73. The highrermeab~lIty streak took about 94 % of the injected water, while I~ con:pnsed only 9 % of the reservoir net pay. A very small relatIVe oil recovery was obtained from the two lower-permeability zones after 500 days, and the WOR was large. Permeability modification was then implemented to reduce the permeability in the 500-md layer by a factor of 10 out to a radius of75 ft around the injection well. Five hundred days of additional wat~rfloo.ding at the ~ame rate following the permeabilitymodIficatIOn treatment YIelded the calculated results shown in Figs. 5 ..14 and 5:75. The injectivity profIle was modified significantly, WIth much Improved oil recoveries occurring in the low-permeability zones. Abdo et at. 90 also investigated the effect of interlayer communication on the permeability-modification treatment. Results for a cal~ulation carried. out for the same reservoir as previously descnb~~, b?t assummg that the ratio of vertical to horizontal permeabIlIty IS 0.10 for all layers, are shown in Fig. 5.75. Crossflow re?uced the effec~iveness of the post-treatment waterflood compared wIth the case WIth no interlayer communication. Both the time response of the oil production and the amount of the production were adversely affected by interlayer flow. Still, the treatment did result in increased oil recovery and reduced WOR compared with the case with no treatment. Permeability modification also is applicable to fractured systems and to reservoirs with areal heterogeneities, although the latter case is ~ore dif~cult to add~ess. Basically, the process requires applicatIOn of SUItable cheffilcal systems and techniques to place these systems selectively in the reservoir rock. Calculations show that some gel solution will flow into the low-permeability zone unless rrovision is made t~ isolate the different zones mechanically durmg treatment. 91 ThIS must be considered in the design. Calculations of ~~ type d~crib.ed also indicate the desirability of conducting permeabilIty modIficatIons that extend a considerable distance into the reservoir from the treated wells. Permeability to Air, md Fig. 5.72-Example of vertical variation in permeability, eastern Kansas reservoir. 89 . .Pe~eability modification has been applied most commonly to mJectIon wells but also is applicable to production wells. Production well applications typically involve use of a gelled polymer to shu~ of~ or to re?uce water ~roduction where, for example, water comng IS occumng. ProductIon well treatments are not considered in this book, but descriptions are available in the literature. 92,93 5.6.2 Crosslinked Polymer Chemical Systems. A number of insitu permeability-modification processes are based on the gelation of such high-molecular-weight polymers as partially hydrolyzed polyacrylarnides and polysaccharides. In these processes, the polymer molecules ~re.bound to~ether into a gel structure through the use of a crosslinking cheffilcal agent, such as a trivalent cation [Cr(III) or AI(III)] or an organic crosslinker. The gel structure may be formed at the surface and injected subsequent to gelation, or the system may be designed so that the gel structure does not form until the chemicals are placed in the reservoir. Po~yacrylarnides and partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamides form gels III the presence of Cr(III) and other trivalent cations. 92 ,94,95 In one process, polyacrylamide at a concentration of a few thousand ppm is mixed with sodium dichromate at a concentration of a few hundred ppm and a reducing agent, such as sodium bisulfite sodium thiosulfate, or thiourea. Cr(Vl) in the dichromate is reduced to Cr(IIl), which subsequently reacts with the polymer to form crosslinks and a 3D gel structure. The chemical process is summarized by reducing agent + M +6 .... M +3, ................... (5.153) polymer+M+3 .... M+3_polymer, ................ (5.154) and polymer+polymer- M +3 .... polymer- M +3 -polymer, ................................ (5.155) where M represents the metal ion. Eqs. 5.153 through 5.155 represent a simplified model of the gelation process. In fact, the ki- 0.01 Q Overburden 5 md 500 md 25 md Well bore Well bore Underburden Under burden Fig. 5.73-Flow distribution during waterflood of a three-layer five-spot pattern with no crossflow between layers. 90 Fig. 5.74-Effect of permeability-modification treatment of 500-md zone on the flow distribution during a waterflood of a three-layer five-spot pattern. 90 netics of the process are complex and only partly understood. Gel formation may take minutes to a few months, depending on reducing-agent type, component compositions, and other system variables, such as temperature. Table 5.38 shows typical ranges of component concentrations and conditions used with polyacrylamide/Cr(1II) gels. In the implementation of a treatment of this gel type, system components are mixed at the surface, usually with an in-line mixer. The gel solution is then pumped into the reservoir, where the reaction proceeds until a gel is formed. Gel slug size must be designed to be compatible with the gelation time at reser- Polymer Injection g g 100 ~ase1 Non-Communicating r----.... -----W~;rtl~~-------Time, 0 c: 100 ~ (S 50:..- ---_.J+_~ Case 2 Communic_atin g ---VVa;rl~~d------ 1100 1500 Time, 0 Fig. 5.75-Comparison of oil production response from permeability modification of 500-md zone during a waterflood of a three-layer five-spot pattern. 90 voir conditions. Por this process, if the chemical system were mixed and allowed to gel at the surface before it was pumped, the shear imposed during injection would destroy the gel. Premature gelation may cause plugging of the wellbore. In another process, which uses Cr(lII) as the crosslinker, the polymer is crosslinked with a Cr(1II) carboxylate-complex crosslinking agent. Cr(1II) can be introduced directly as chromium acetate. 96 The complexation of the Cr(lll) prevents chromium precipitation at high pH, and the gelation rate can be controlled to give gel times from minutes to days to weeks. The other advantages of this chemical system are that the process is less sensitive to pH (gelation will occur at high pH); the gelation is not adversely affected by HzS; and the use of dichromate, which is classified as a hazardous chemical, is not necessary. This process also is reported to produce gels at temperatures exceeding 200 o P. 96 Biopolymers (polysaccharides) also react with Cr(III) to form gels. 90 Until the gel structure is well developed, these gels can be sheared and then pumped into porous rock. When subjected to moderate shear, the gel solution will reheal when the shear is removed to form a gel. Thus, these systems are often mixed and held for a few hours to gel in surface tanks before they are pumped into the porous rock. It is assumed that the gel solution will reheal after flow is stopped. The solution will not reheal if the gel solution is subjected to prolonged shear beyond the nominal beaker gel time. 97 Alternatively, the chemical system can be mixed at the surface and designed to gel in situ. Because biopolymer/Cr(III) gels are not necessarily designed for in-situ gelation, the Cr(lll) may be added directly to the system in the form of chromic chloride. The use of an oxidation-reduction reaction to convert Cr(VI) to Cr(III) and thereby to control gelation time is not necessary. Low Cr(IlI) concentrations, on the order of25 ppm, are suitable for gelation of biopolymers at the polymer concentrations in the range of 2,000 to 6,000 ppm shown in Table 5.38. AI(III) also can be used as a crosslinking agent for polymers and is typically applied in a slug-type process referred to as the aluminum-citrate process. 98 This process has been described as one in which a gel layer is built along the walls of the porous medium; however, there is significant uncertainty as to how the process actually works. 99 The process is implemented as a slug process, often involving two different types of polyacrylamide polymer. In a typical application, a cationic polyacrylamide is first injected at a concentration of a few hundred ppm. The polymer is designed to adsorb onto ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE 5.38-TYPICAL RANGES OF COMPONENT CONCENTRATIONS AND CONDITIONS FOR THE Cr+ 3 /POLYACRYLAMIDE GEL SYSTEMS Polymer, ppm Sodium dichromate (source of Cr), ppm Reducing agent, ppm Initial pH Brine salinity, ppm Temperature, OF 2,000 to 6,000 500 to 1,000 500 to 1,000 4 to 6 o to 100,000 <160 the porous medium. Next, a larger slug of an anionic polyacrylamide is injected, and this polymer undergoes additional adsorption/entrapment in the porous medium. A slug of aluminum citrate is then injected; the citrate is used to keep aluminum in solution. AI(III) reacts with the retained polymer to form the first step of the crosslinking process. Additional anionic polyacrylamide is injected next and crosslinks through the AI(IIl) with the polymer retained earlier. In this manner, a gel is formed in situ. The aluminum citrate process is purported to achieve greater in-depth treatment around a well than the Cr(IIl)/polymer processes. This is accomplished through the systematic development of a gel in situ as opposed to the injection of bulk gel solution. 100 The development of in-depth treatment has been questioned, however. 99 Other polymer-crosslinking systems also have been used. One system that has shown promise is described by Mumallah. 101 Other polymers, lignosulfonate and phenoformaldehyde, for example, have been used. In a slightly different application, a polymer is generated in situ by causing a polymerization reaction to occur within the reservoir rock. 102,103 5.6.3 Gelation Time and Gel Strength. The time required for gelation to occur is an important design variable for the Cr(IIl)/polyacrylamide system. With this system, chemicals are mixed at the surface and injected as a viscous solution. The solution is designed to react and gel at a designated time after being placed in the formation. Gel time is an ill-defined variable because gelation is a continuous kinetic process and there is no clearly defined point at which one can state that a gel has been formed. The literature is replete with techniques for the measurement of gel time, and many provide a consistent measurement within the technique, but results do not necessarily correlate with other methods. One method is based on the measurement of viscosity. 104,105 Fig. 5.76 106 shows an example measurement with a Brookfield viscometer. In this procedure, the gel solution is mixed in a thermally jacketed beaker and then the viscometer is turned on with a specified spindle at a set shear rate. Apparent viscosity is measured as a function of time and typically yields a curve like that shown in Fig. 5.76. There is no apparent increase in viscosity for a period of time, and then a period of rapid increase occurs. Gel time may be arbitrarily defined as the time at which viscosity starts to increase, the time at which the extensions of the two approximately straight lines intersect, or the time at which the apparent viscosity reaches a specified value. This method has been found to give reproducible results for gel times of up to 10 days or more. 104 Another approach is to use a sophisticated viscometer, a rheogoniometer, to monitor a parameter referred to as Of, the storage modulus. 96 In this method, properties are measured under an imposed oscillatory shear. Alternatively, for screening purposes, simple bottle tests can be used in which the gel solution behavior is observed when a bottle holding a gel is tilted in a specified way or inverted. 96 Gel strength also is a variable that is related to process performance, but it too is not defined precisely. Methods of measurement based on the use of shear viscosity, dynamic viscosity, a penetrometer device, gel breakdown pressure, or visually observed flow characteristics have been proposed. These give a relative empirical indication of strength. Table 5.39 96 gives a typical qualitative measurement based on visual observation. Phenomena that relate to gel strength and that are relatively easy to measure are syneresis and swelling. 107 Swelling occurs when gel volume increases when the gel is brought into contact with excess solvent. Syneresis is a reduction in volume (gel shrinkage) resulting from a separation of solvent from the gel. Syneresis appears as a breaking up of the gel. Gels of various types can be formulated that are stable in beakers at controlled conditions for long periods. The long-term stability in reservoir environments, however, has not been widely investigated. A number of factors affect gel time and strength. Tables 5.40 and 5.41 list several of these effects. These parameters affect all the different gel systems described but not necessarily in the same direction or to the same degree. Gel time generally decreases (gelation rate increases) with increasing polymer concentration, degree of hydrolysis, and molecular weight. An increase in crosslinker concentration also accelerates gelation, and for the redox process, an increase in reducing agent concentration and strength accelerates the rate. TABLE 5.39-BOTTLETEST GEL STRENGTH CODES96 30 r~------------ 0~_~1~ ~~~~~1~!~1 Reaction Time, min Fig. 5.76-Viscosity of a polyacrylamide gel during gela tion. 106 A = No detectable gel formed. Gel appears to have the same viscosity (fluidity) as the original polymer solution, and no gel is visually detectable. B = Highly flowing gel. Gel appears to be only slightly more viscous than the initial polymer solution. C = Flowing gel. Most of the obviously detectable gel flows to the bottle cap upon inversion. D=Moderately flowing gel. A small portion (about 5% to 15%) of the gel does not readily flow to the bottle cap upon inversion-usually characterized as a "tonguing" gel (I.e., after hanging out of the bottle, gel can be made to flow back into the bottle by slowly turning the bottle upright). E = Barely flowing gel. Gel slowly flows to the bottle cap and/or a significant portion (> 15%) of the gel does not flow upon inversion. F = Highly deformable non flowing gel. The gel does not flow to the bottle cap upon inversion (gel flows to just short of reaching the bottle cap). G = Moderately deformable non flowing gel. The gel flows about halfway down the bottle upon inversion. H = Slightly deformable nonflowing gel. Only the gel surface deforms slightly upon inversion. I = Rigid gel. There is no gel-surface deformation upon inversion. J = Ringing rigid gel. A tuning-fork-like mechanical vibration can be felt after the bottle is tapped. MOBILITY-CONTROL PROCESSES TABLE S.40-FACTORS AFFECTING GEL TIME AND STRENGTH Polymer concentration and type Crosslinker concentration Reducing agent strength and concentration Temperature Salinity pH Contaminants Fe+ 2 Fe+ 3 H2S Microorganisms Divalent ions, Ca + + /Mg + + Gel time is shorter at high temperatures. For example, for the redox-reaction-based process gel time is dependent on temperature in the manner described by the Arrhenius equation used in chemical kinetics. 106 Gel time decreases with increasing temperature, and a plot of the logarithm of gel time vs. lITyields a straight line. The gel time, tg , decreases by approximately a factor of two for each 18F change in temperature, T. This relationship has been found to hold when gel time is controlled by the rate of generation of Cr(ID) through an oxidation-reduction reaction. System pH also affects gelation time, as shown in Fig. 5.77 for a Cr(ID)/polyacrylamide gel system in which thiourea was used as the reducing agent. 108 Gel time increased significantly as initial pH was increased above a value of about four. In this case, gels did not readily form outside the pH range of 3 to 5.5. The effect in Huang's data results from the effect of H + on the rate of the oxidation-reduction reaction. Just the opposite effect has been found in systems in which Cr(Ill) was added directly to the system; i.e., gelation rate increases with increasing pH. 109 Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide/Cr(Ill) carboxylate gels are less sensitive to pH than gels made by reducing Cr(VI) to Cr(lIl).96 Stable gels formed over a pH range of 4.0 to 12.5. Gelation rate increases slightly with pH for the Cr(Ill) carboxylate gels up to a pH of 10.5. Salinity also affects gelation rate. Sydansk 96 reported that the rate increased slightly for salinities between 0 and 1,000 ppm and was relatively insensitive to salinities between 1,000 and 30,000 ppm. Polyacrylamide gels produced with the Cr(Vl) reduction have been reported to gel faster with increasing salinity at low salt concentrations but to gel slower with increasing salinity at high salt concentrations. 106 The contaminants listed in Table 5.40 affect the gelation rate. H 2S, which is often present in oilfield brines, is a strong reducing agent and will accelerate the reduction of Cr(VI) to Cr(lll). H 2 S is not a severe problem for the Cr(lm carboxylate gels or for gels made by crosslinking biopolymers with Cr(lll). Iron and divalent cations (Ca + + and Mg + +) can interfere in the process because of ionic effects and promotion of crosslinking. Biopolymers, and to a lesser degree polyacrylamide, are susceptible to destruction by microorganisms. Gel strength, swelling, and syneresis are dependent on the same parameters that affect gel time. XanthanlCr(Ill) gels have been shown to synerese at low pH about 4.0) and swell at higher pH. 107 Both xanthan and polyacrylamide gels have been shown to synerese rather rapidly at 194F.110 The tendency of xanthan/Cr(Ill) gels to synerese with increasing temperature has been shown in other studies. 107 However, polyacrylamide/Cr(Ill) carboxylate gels have been reported to be stable for long periods at temperatures as high as 255F. Lignosulfonate and phenoformaldehyde gels have also been reported to be stable at high temperatures. 110 Gel strength increases with an increase in concentrations of polymer and crosslinker. However, at high concentration ratios of crosslinking agent to polymer, syneresis is promoted. In this case, TABLE S.41-EFFECT OF SYSTEM PARAMETERS ON GELATION RATE Polymer Concentration Increase Hydrolysis (%) Increase Polymer Metal Ion Concentration Increase Gel Type Partially hydrolyzed" polyacrylamide/Cr(III), Cr(VI)->Cr(lII) reduction Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide/Cr(lll), carboxylate Polysacharide/Cr(lII) t pH Decrease Salinity Increase at low concentration, decrease at high concentration Increase at low concentration, little effect at high concentration Increase' "Increase Indicates the gelation rate increases with an increasing value of the system parameters. ""Susceptible to H 2 S. t Susceptible to biodegradation. ;t 2.000 ppm Xanthan Temperature: 25C Gelling Solution: 4210 ppm Water-CUt 160: Sodium Dichromate: 383 ppm 382 ppm Thiourea: 1.68% Sodium Chloride: 0 2 4 Initial pH .;; 3.000 ppm Xanthan ... 4,000 ppm Xanthan c .2 '" '0 -60 -80 Fig. S.77-Effect of pH on gelation time for a redox system.loa Fig. S.78-Variation of the degree of swelling of Cr/xanthan gels with chromium/polymer ratio. 107 "d 100 ppm Cr(IlI), 2,000 ppm xanthan Pre-Gel Perm. = 3,900 md ~ 1/1 .6 .... ;Q <Il S J.o 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 12J 216 PV Injected at 109 Days Final perm. = 0.27% of pre-gel perm. Distance from Sandpack Inlet, cm Fig. 5.80-Apparent viscosity profiles in a long sandpack/gel . solution displacement. 113 Days of Brine Injection Fig. 5.79-Effect of brine injection on permeability of a sandpack/gel system treated with 100-ppm-Cr(III)/2,OOO-ppmxanthan gel. 112 the gel apparently is "overcrosslinked" as the reaction continues and solvent is forced out of the gel. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.78 for a xanthan/Cr(ID) gel where degree of swelling is plotted as a function of Cr(ID)/polymer ratio. A negative degree of swelling indicates syneresis. 107 Salinity also affects gel stability, and gels can synerese at very low or very high salt concentrations. Gels prepared in fresh water have been observed to synerese markedly when exposed to a brine. 110 However, the stability of gels prepared in brine has been noted to be relatively insensitive to change in salinity or to divalention concentration. 96, 107 5.6.4 Behavior of Gel Systems in Porous Media. The crosslinked polymer systems mixed at the surface are injected into a formation, where reaction occurs to form a gel. Ideally, once formed, the gel has sufficient strength or viscosity to be immobile. The effective permeability of the rock matrix or fractures in which the gel resides is reduced or, in some cases, essentially eliminated. For processes based on injection of slugs in which the different reactants reside, mixing followed by reaction occurs within the rock. The objective here also is to form a gel that is not mobile. Stability Under Flow Conditions. Gel stability under flow conditions in a porous medium depends on gel strength and the reservoir environment. Stiff or very viscous gels can withstand large pressure gradients without being moved through a porous medium. Sydansk96 reported applying a gradient of 1,000 psi/ft at temperatures up to 255F without gel breakdown. On the other hand, Martin et al. 111 reported breakdown of polyacrylamide/Cr(ID) and xanthan/Cr(ID) gels used in conjunction with CO 2 miscible displacements. Properly designed gel systems will remain stable and essentially immobile under pressure gradients imposed at reservoir conditions. One series of tests of gel stability, for a xanthan/Cr(ID) gel, is represented by the data in Fig. 5.79. 112 The tests were conducted in porous media consisting of unconsolidated sandpacks having original permeabilities between 3,700 and 4,900 md. A sandpack was flooded with a gel system and then flow was stopped for a period to allow the gel to form in situ. Flow of brine was then imposed at a pressure gradient of 13.5 psi/ft and continued for up to 4 months. Permeability was calculated as a function of time, as illustrated in the figure. The sandpack permeability was reduced to less than 1% of its original value, and the recovery of permeability was small over the test period. Some Cr(ID) and a very small amount of polymer were flushed out of the sandpacks during brine flow. An interesting result is that gels exhibiting up to 71 % volume loss (syneresis) in beaker tests were quite effective and stable in the corefloods. Recovery of permeability during flushing actually was greater in gels that exhibited swelling in beaker tests. Changing the pH of the injected brine had some effect on sandpack permeability but not to the degree inferred from pH effects observed in beaker experiments. Gel Solution Behavior During Injection. Gel solution behavior during the period a solution is being injected is of interest because it relates to gel placement in the porous medium. It has been shown that, at least for some systems, gelation time during flow in a porous medium is not the same as gelation time measured in a beaker or viscometer. 108, 113-116 . Fig. 5.80 shows results illustrating behavior in porous medium for a polyacrylamide/Cr(ID)/redox system. The data were taken by flowing the gel system at a steady rate through an unconsolidated sandpack. The gel system was mixed at the inlet of the sandpack with an in-line mixer. Pressure drop was measured along the sandpack and converted to apparent viscosity by use of Darcy's law. Apparent viscosity is plotted vs. distance at different times for the gel system up to about 240 hours. As seen in Fig. 5.80, a region of high resistance built up in the interior of the sandpack. The time required for this resistance to develop was less then the beaker gel time. In fact, at an elapsed time of 240 hours, the leading edge of the injected gel system had exited the sandpack. The age of the gel system at the point of buildup of resistance was about 125 hours. The behavior is attributed to the filtration of gel particles that formed during the gelation reaction. 113 Adsorption of polymer and reaction between adsorbed polymer and Cr(ID)/polymer in the flowing stream also contributed to the development of the resistance. The location of the point of buildup of resistance has been shown to be a function of flow rate and shear in the porous medium. 116 Similar behavior was observed for xanthan/Cr(ID) gels. 1l4 ,1l5 Analysis of these and similar data indicate that subjecting the gel solution to a shear causes earlier gelation than observed in simple beaker tests. That is, subjecting the gel solution to a shear, such as flowing through porous media, increases the gelation rate. This result was confirmed in experiments conducted in a viscometer. 1l7 It also was determined that the magnitude of the imposed shear rate affects the ultimate gel strength; the larger the imposed shear rate, the weaker the final gel. 5.6.5 Design Considerations for Gel Treatments. Design of a gel treatment consists of two parts: analysis of the reservoir problem and design of the gel system to be applied. The reservoir problem is typically analyzed with standard reservoir engineering calculations combined with field testing. Injectivity profiles conducted to determine the zones in which fluids are leaving the wellbore in an injection well are useful. Radioactive tracers, spinner surveys, and shut-in temperature profiles are commonly used. These do not define flow in the region away from a wellbore, however. Chemical or radioactive tracer tests can be used to obtain information on flow 149 The gel solution contains 1,500 ppm xanthan biopolymer. Flow characteristics of this gel solution will be assumed to be the same as those for xanthan flowing in Berea sandstone. 26 Find the injection time and volume of gel solution injected when the polymer reaches a distance of 50 ft from the well in the high-permeability zone. It will be assumed that the high-permeability zone is at Sor in the vicinity of the injection wellbore, while the low-permeability zone is at initial oil saturation until polymer injection begins. Relative permeability relationships for this reservoir rock are given by Eqs. 5.66 through 5.68. Base permeability for these relationships is the absolute permeability to liquid. Solution. It is necessary to determine what flow regions are present in the region contacted by polymer. This was done in Example 5.6, where the injection rate was specified and the pressure drop was determined. In this example, an iterative process is used because the flow rate is not known a priori and must be calculated indirectly. Xanthan biopolymer is shear-thinning, so possible additional flow regions include upper Newtonian and lower Newtonian. The transition from the shear-thinning to the upper Newtonian region occurs when the Darcy velocity exceeds uc2 given by Eq. 5.44. Because there is a single non-Newtonian region, nc=nc1 and Uc2 = patterns over a wider region of a reservoir. Depending on flow conditions, tracer tests may require several months for completion of field monitoring and analysis. Design of the gel typically consists of conducting beaker tests to determine gelation time and gel strength, followed by corefloods to evaluate the magnitude of permeability reduction, Sydansk,96 Purkaple and Summers,!05 and Nagra et at. 110 give examples of the approach. As part of the tests, it is useful to evaluate long-term stability of a gel system. . The design slug volume is calculated by estimating the volume of reservoir to be treated radially around the wellbore. When the objective is to reduce fracture permeability, an estimate of the fracture volume is required. This approach is an approximate calculation at best and is illustrated in Example 5.15. Example S.lS-Calculation o/Gel Volume. A five-spot pattern on lO-acre spacing has been under waterflood for several years. The reservoir consists of two sandstone layers separated by a 2to 3-ft shale streak that is considered impermeable. The upper layer is 20 ft thick and has an absolute permeability of 50 md. Porosity of the reservoir rock in this layer is 20 %, and the initial oil saturation is estimated to be 60%. The lower layer is 10 ft thick and has an average absolute permeability of 250 md. The average porosity of this interval is 25 %, and the initial oil saturation was 70 %. Waterflood tests indicate that residual saturations are 0.35 and 0.30, respectively, for the low- and high-permeability layers. Oil viscosity is 2 cp, and the water viscosity is 1 cp at reservoir temperature. . The WOR is high, and the possibility of reducing this ratio by carrying out a permeability-modification treatment on the lower layer needs to be evaluated. It is thought that the treated interval should extend to a radius of 50 ft into the reservoir. Determine the approximate volume of gel solution that must be injected into the highpermeability zone. Solution. Because the high-permeability zone has been under waterflood for many years, it is reasonable to assume that the oil saturation in the immediate vicinity of the wellbore is at Sor' If all the gel solution enters the high-permeability zone, the volume of gel solution required is determined by material balance: Wp =7rrjhcp(1-Sor)' (f'puN/A;) 1I(1-ncl). In the upper Newtonian region, from Eq. 5.43, ApuN=kwp/fJ-w' Evaluation of u c 2 requires values of A; and ApuN for both layers. Because the high-permeability zone is at ROS in the vicinity of the wellbore, kw=kw at SOT' From Eq. 5.67, krw=0.2 SaD' Because SwD=1.0 at SOP krw=0.2 and k w =(0.2)(250)=50 md. In the low-permeability zone, kb =50 md, so kw =(0.2)(50) = 10 md. Flow properties of the xanthan biopolymer in Berea core material are given by Eqs. 5.23e through 5.23g: A; =0.679 k!q,488 , nc =0.710 k.;;p073 , and kwp =0.83 kw' Rheological properties of the xanthan polymer at this concentration are K=0.426 Pa's n and n=0.307. Xanthan biopolymer is shear-thinning because n< 1.0. For the high-permeability zone, k wp =(0.83)(50)=41.5 md. The viscosity of brine is taken as 1 cpo Therefore, A;=0.679 k~p488 = (0.679)(41.5)0.488 =4.18 (md/cp)/(ftlD) 1-nc and nc =0.710(41.5) -0.073 =0.54. For this case, W =--------------------p 7r(50 ft)2(10 ft)(0.25)(1-0.30) 5.615 ft3/bbl =2,448 bbl. This assumes that the gel solution displaces the resident water in piston-like flow and that the amount of gel solution entering the low-permeability zone is negligible. This assumption is examined in Example 5.16. One concern during the placement of a gel system is penetration of the gel into zones other than the targeted high-permeability zones. Unless the targeted zones are isolated mechanically by packers, some of the gel system will flow into all permeable rock that is open to the injection fluid. The effect of this is detrimental because subsequent injectivity will be reduced, not only in the high-permeability, targeted zones, but over the entire itUection interval. The problem of zonal penetration has been addressed. 118 The calculations are based on application of Darcy's law in the vicinity of the treated well, as illustrated in Example 5.16. Example S.16-Penetration o/Gel Solution in Reservoir Layers. The five-spot pattern described in Example 5.15 is to be treated with a gel solution to reduce the water flow in the high-permeability layer at the bottom of the reservoir. Gel solution will be injected into the high-permeability layer at a constant BHP of 1,850 psi. The operator prefers not to isolate the two layers during the treatment so that gel solution may enter both layers. The mean reservoir pressure is 750 psi at an effective radius of 263.3 ft. The effective wellbore radius is 1.0 ft. For the low-permeability zone, k wp =(0.83)(1O md) =8.3 md, A; =(0.679)(8.3)0.488 = 1.91 (md/cp)/(ftlD) 1- n c , and nc =0.71(8.3) -0.073 =0.61. Table 5.42 summarizes the polymer flow parameters. High-Permeability-Zone Calculations. Because kwp =41.5 md at SOT' Apu N=41.5 md/1.0 cp =41.5 md/cp. Thus, u c 2 =(41.5/4.18) 111-0.54 = 146.9 ftlD. The maximum Darcy velocity occurs at the injection wellbore. The injection rate corresponding to uc2 is q=27rrwuc2hI5.615 TABLE 5.42-FLOW PARAMETERS, EXAMPLE 5.16 Zone Thickness, ft 2(3.1416)(1.0 ft)(146.9 ft/D)(1O ft) 5.615 ft 3 /bbl =1,644 BID. k b , md (md-cp)/(ft-D) 1-no A; k wp , md A pN , md/cp AN, md/cp Thus, as long as the injection rate is less than 1,644 BID in the high-permeability zone, the upper Newtonian region will not be encountered. The lower Newtonian flow region is not encountered until Darcy velocities of about 0.1 ft/D are attained using the correlations of Willhite and Uhl.26 Thus, ucl =0.1 ft/D. 20 0.20 50 1.91 0.61 8.3 0.78 20.0 10 0.25 250 4.18 0.54 41.5 41.5 This equation is solved by trial and error or by using a root finding program to determine the value of qt. For qt=64.04 BID, Ap=I,100 psi. Check Ap= 112.56(64.04)0.54 +0.565(64.04) This corresponds to an injection rate of 27r(50 ft)(O.1 ftlD)(1O ft) =1,063.82+36.18 =1,100 psi. The injection rate varies with the location of the polymer front and thus with time. The mobility of the polymer is less than the mobility of the fluids being displaced, so the injection rate will always decrease with time. The relationship between time and injection rate is found from the cumulative fluid iIljection. Assuming piston-like displacement, Wp =7r(rl-rJ)cf>h(1-Sor) The cumulative volume of polymer can be expressed as the integral of the injection rate over time. Recalling that 5.615 ft 3 /bbl =55.95 BID at a radius of 50 ft. Thus, as long as the polymer injection rate into the high-permeability zone is between 56 and 1,644 BID, flow will be shear thinning and the following equation gives the relationship between flow rate and pressure drop where 5.615 q )ncl [rl-ncl -rl-ncl ] Ap=158.005 _ _ _ t p w ( 27rh Ap(1-nc!) (0.007~~l)ANhln( :; ), where rp=radius of polymer-contacted region; rw=wellbore radius, ft; re=effective radius, ft; h=formation thickness, ft; qt=injection rate, BID; Ap=pressure drop between rw and re , psi; and AN = mobility of fluid in region between rp and r e , md!cp. This equation is solved by assuming values of rp from r w to rp=50 ft and computing the value of qt for each rp. An example calculation is outlined for rp=50 ft. The value of AN=Aw=41.5 md/cp: 1,100= 158.005 (5.615q )0.54 [ (50)1-0.54_1 ] W; = jrt qtdt. Thus, successive times are related by tp+1 =tp + 2(wn+l_wn) p p. qf+1 +qf Times corresponding to successively larger values of time are found by starting at t=O where to =0 and q}O)= _ __ [27r(1O) 0.54 (4.18)(1-0.54) AwhAp +-----(0.007081)(41.5) = 112.56q?.54 +0.565 qt. q tln(263 .3/50) In(relrw) 2W,(l) t(l) qP)+q? TABLE 5.43-INJECTION RATE FOR HIGH-PERMEABILITY LAYER, EXAMPLE 5.16 Radius of Polymer Front (ft) Pressure Drop (psi) Injection Rate Volume of Polymer Injected (bbl) Average Injection Rate 579.99 547.22 515.38 372.20 247.65 183.46 145.10 119.82 102.00 88.79 78.63 70.58 64.04 563.60 531.30 443.79 309.92 215.55 164.28 132.46 110.91 95.40 83.71 74.60 67.31 Injectivity (B/D-ft) 58.00 54.72 51.54 37.22 24.76 18.35 14.51 11.98 10.20 8.88 7.86 7.06 6.40 1 1.5 2 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 0.00 1.22 2.94 23.50 96.93 219.33 390.67 610.98 880.24 1,198.46 1,565.63 1,981.76 2,446.85 0.00 <0.00 0.01 0.05 0.29 0.86 1.90 3.56 5.99 9.33 13.71 19.29 26.20 MOBILITY-CONTROL PROCESSES TABLE 5.44-INJECTION RATE FOR LOW-PERMEABILITY LAYER, EXAMPLE 5.16 Radius of Polymer Front (ft) 1 1.5 2 5 10 15 20 25 27.77 30 35 40 45 50 Injection Rate Volume of Polymer Injected (bbl) 0.00 1.82 4.36 34.91 144.02 325.85 580.43 907.73 1,120.73 1,307.78 1,780.55 2,326.07 2,944.31 3,635.30 Average Injection Rate (BID) 516.73 443.44 322.76 186.01 119.97 90.79 74.02 71.34 60.42 55.86 51.09 47.68 45.09 Pressure Drop (psi) 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 1,100 558.96 474.51 412.37 233.15 138.88 101.06 80.52 67.52 62.16 58.68 53.05 49.14 46.23 43.95 r01 ~ Time (days) 0.00 <0.00 0.01 0.10 0.69 2.21 5.01 9.43 12.58 15.68 24.14 34.82 47.79 63.11 Injectivity (B/D-ft) 27.95 23.73 20.62 11.66 6.94 5.05 4.03 3.38 3.11 2.93 2.65 2.46 2.31 2.20 TABLE 5.45-DATABASE FOR TECHNICAL SURVEY OF POLYMER FLOODING PROJECTSl19 Oil Recovery (10 3 STB) Depth Formation Algyo 2, Szoreg 1 Corniferous Allen Mini Government Wells Squirrel Queen Queen Layton Prue Minnelusa Dogger-Beta Minnelusa Minnelusa Lithology Project Algyo Anderson-Kerr Big Sinking Bond Bone Pile Brelum Byerly Caprock Caprock Cement Cushing Cushing Hamm Hankensbuettal Kuehne Ranch Southeast Range Kummerfeld Field -- State/Country Hungary Texas Kentucky Oklahoma Wyoming Texas Kansas New Mexico New Mexico Oklahoma Oklahoma Oklahoma Wyoming West Germany Wyoming Wyoming Temperature Area (OF) (acres) Big Sinking Bond Bone Pile Brelum Byerly Cap rock Caprock Cement Cushing Cushing Hamm Hankensbuettal Kuehne Ranch Southeast Range Kummerfeld 1,000 850 10,800 Sandstone 1,950 Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone Sandstone 600 2,775 3,554 1,500 2,500 7,925 4,900 7,945 7,600 Sandstone Limestone Sandstone 70 78 207 115 77 100 98 95 105 147 136 130 130 40 261 1,760 264 28 287 1,160 784 820 316 2,140 2,140 380 662 712 TABLE 5.45-DATABASE FOR TECHNICAL SURVEY OF POLYMER FLOODING PROJECTS 119 (continued) Pattern Size (acres) Permeability Range (md) DykstraParsons Permeability Variation Number of Injectors Number of Producers Net Pay Permeability (md) 600 40 4.8 399 17.1 175 34 239 2,828 110 135 0.19 0.22 0.2 0.29 0.206 0.19 0.17 0.14 0.12 0.225 0.28 0.167 0.165 30 to 50 36 to 1,490 5 to 1,500 1 to 1,168 0.16 0.55 0.69 0.86 0.91 0.93 0.82 0.76 0.21 0.714 0.71 10 27 27 2 2 3 4 33 8 8 4 7 5 6 40 20 20 133 15 12 28 59 18 22 Table 5.43 contains values of qt' Wp , and t corresponding to the movement of the polymer front to the radius indicated. Values of qt for radius rp were found using a short computer program. Then values of Wp and t were computed as described above. Low-Permeability-Zone Calculations. The flow regions must be defined for the low-permeability zones. From Eq: 5.44, _ (ApuN) 1I(I-nej) u c2- ApuN=8.3 md/cp, u c 2 =(8.3/1.91) 11(1-0.61) root-finding program. Table 5.44 summarizes the values. injection times are determined as discussed in the high-permeability calculations. Note that the injection time required for the radius of the polymer zone to reach 50 ft in the high-permeability zone is 26.2 days. In the low permeability zone, the lower Newtonian region of polymer flow is encountered (rp=rCI) after 12.58 days of injection. Thus, it is necessary to consider Newtonian flow of the polymer in the low-permeability zone for times greater than 12.58 days (i.e., rp>rel)' Eq. 5.52 (with the upper Newtonian region deleted) gives the pressure drop when there is Newtonian flow of polymer in the region between rei and rp' q )nCl[rll-nel_rl-nel] L\p=158.005 _t_ c w ( 21rh AjW -nel) +_q_t In(!.L)+-qt 27rhApN r c1 27rhAN =43.3 ft/D. Thus, the upper Newtonian flow region will be reached at the wellbore when 21r(1.0 ft)(43.3 ftlD)(20 ft) qt= In(~). 5.615 ft3/bbl =968 BID. This rate is not likely to be obtained in the low-permeability layer; thus, the upper Newtonian region will not be present. The lower Newtonian region will be reached in the lowpermeability zone if the Darcy velocity decreases to uel in the region contacted by polymer. The injection rate at any time is related to the radius and the Darcy velocity by Eq. 5.57 modified by the factor 5.615 ft3/bbl with qt in BID. qt=27rrhu/5.615. If the injection time is long enough, there will be some radius rei where qt in Eq. 5.57 is satisfied with u=uel' The pressure drop at this instant is given by Because the polymer mobility is less than the mobility of the fluids being displaced, the injection rate will continue to decline as the polymer moves farther into the formation. This also means that the location of rei changes for each rp greater than the initial value of rei' Therefore, the injection rate must be expressed in terms of rei in the following equation. r\-nel_rl-nel ] L\p=158.005(rel u el)nel [ Aft (l-nel) 158.028rel uel ApN (rp) 158.028rel Uel ( r e) In-+ In-. rcl AN rp In the low-permeability zone, the polymer mobility, ApN' is computed from ApN = APUel (I-nel) 158.028reluel (re) In , rei = 1.91 [(md/cp)/(ftlD)(I-O.61)](0.1 ftlD)(I-O.61) =0.78 md/cp. Substitution of the appropriate values into the equation for pressure drop gives r I-O.61- r 1-0.61 ] 1,100= 158.005(0.lrel)0.61 [ p w (1.91)(1-0.61) which was obtained by replacing qt with (27rr el uel h)/5.615. In the low-permeability zone, the region ahead of the polymer front is assumed to be at initial oil saturation. Thus, AN=ko/P,o=(40 md)/(2 cp) or 20 md/cp. When the value of uel is specified, this equation is solved to [md the value of r cl for a given pressure drop. Substituting the parameters for the low-permeability zone into this equation results in the following equation, which is solved for rei' r 1-0.61 -r 1-0.61 ] 1, 100= 158.005(rluel)0.61 [ p w (1.91)(1-0.61) 158.028rel (O.I)ln(rp/r el) 158.028rel (0.I)ln(263.3/rp ) 158.028rl Uc1 In(263.3/rl) The value of rei when uel =0.1 ftlD, assumed for this example, is found by a root-finding program to be 27.77 ft. Thus, for rp < rcl the polymer will be in the shear thinning region and the pressure drop is given by 1,100=158.005 (5.615q )0.61 [r I-O.61_ r 1-0.61 ] t p w [27r(20)]0.61 (1.91)(1-0.61) qt In(263.3/rp ) This equation is solved to obtain a value of rei for each value of rp assumed. The injection rate corresponding to each value of rei is qt=(27rreluelh)/5.615. Table 5.44 summarizes computed rates and times. Comparison of injection rates at similar times in Tables 5.43 and 5.44 shows that substantial amounts of polymer enter both layers. About 26.2 days are required to displace the polymer front to a distance of 50 ft in the high (250-md) permeability layer. However, when the low- (50-md) permeability layer is open in the injection wellbore, injection rates into this zone are substantial, as Table 5.44 indicates. By 26.2 days, the polymer front in the lowpermeability zone is located 36.0 ft from the injection well. Polymer volume in this zone is about 1,886 bbl, so the total volume of polymer required to treat the high-permeability layer to a radius of 50 ft is 2,446+1,886=4,332 bbl. Example 5.16 assumes that the flow properties of the gel solution are identical to the flow properties of the polymer solution. This is probably valid for a short time after the crosslinking constituents are added to the polymer solution. In the absence of other (0.007081 )(20)(20) Injection rates into the low-permeability zone are computed from this equation in the same manner as for the high-permeability zone. Values of q t corresponding to each rp < rclare computed using a TABLE 5.45-DATABASE FOR TECHNICAL SURVEY OF POLYMER FLOODING PROJECTSl19 (continued) Polymer Solution Injected Polymer Solution Injected (10 3 bbl) Polymer Concentration (ppm) Oil (OAPI) Oil Viscosity (cp) Previous Production Polymer Type Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Biopolymer Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Synthetic Algyo Anderson-Kerr Big Sinking Bond Bone Pile Brelum Byerly Caprock Caprock Cement Cushing Cushing Hamm Hankensbuettal Kuehne Ranch Southeast Range Kummerfeld 40 32 22 28.9 34.1 35 39 43 4 20 10 24.2 4.85 6 5 4 24.8 11 18 600 8 389 to 75 250 250 5.8 3.8 2.7 Waterflood Waterflood 0.284 0.41 0.147 137 1,500 2,000 252 to to to to 625 2,000, 0 345 Polymer Recovery (% OOIP) Incremental Oil (% OIP) Incremental Oil (STB/acre-ft) Incremental Oil (STBllbm polymer) Projected Ultimate Incremental Oil (10 3 STB) Project Algyo Anderson-Kerr Big Sinking Bond Bone Pile Brelum Byerly Caprock Cap rock Cement Cushing Cushing Hamm Hankensbuettal Kuehne Ranch Southeast Range Kummerfeld AplAo Initial WOR Projected Life (months) 6 39 0.9 0.63 0.34 10.2 180 219 36 0 0 9.83 1.4 0 238 250 28 287 125 0.5 5.67 0.015 0.32 8.56 7.22 2.33 6.14 11.20 2.47 6.52 108.92 117.58 30.94 52 5.2 2.25 6.44 920 1,427 TABLE 5.46-PROPERTIES OF POLYMER FLOODING FIELD PROJECTS 120 1960-82 119 (226 projects) Reservoir and fluid properties Oil/water viscosity ratio at reservoir temperature Reservoir temperature, OF Permeability, md OOIP present at startup, % Producing WOR at startup Lithology (sand: carbonate) Polymer injection Polymer (HPAM :xanthan) Polymer concentration, ppm Polymer retention, Ibm polymer/acre-ft Projected incremental recovery over waterflooding %OOIP bbl oil/Ibm polymer bbl oil/acre-ft HPAM = hydrolized polyacrylamide. Median Values From Surveys 1980-89 120 (99 projects) 5.4 115 54 74 5.0 2.4: 1 11 : 1 500 32 3.7 0.64 20.5 Marmul 121 Selected Individual Projects Oerre1122.123 Courtenay 124 6.8 115 101 74.6 2.4 10: 1 19: 1 250 19.2 4.8 1.3 25 114 115 15,000 ,.,92 1 sand HPAM 39 136 2,000 81.5 4 55 86 2,500 ,.,69 4 1,000 373 25 1.2 461 1,500 162 ,.,13 ,.,1.4 ,.,230 -----------------------------154 correlations, this example shows that selective treatment of the highpermeability layer with the polymer/rock properties selected for this example is not possible without isolating this layer from lowerpermeability layers. 5.7 Field Experience Numerous polymer-augmented waterfloods and gelled polymer conformance projects have been implemented on an economic (fieldwide) scale since the early 1960's. Additionally, a large number of pilot floods and tests have been conducted. Manning et al. 119 identified 273 polymer projects that had been instituted or planned as of 1983. According to a statistical analysis of the fieldwide projects, median recovery of oil was 2.91 % OOIP, or 4.02 % of the remaining oil in place (OIP) at the start of the projects. This amounted to a median recovery of24.9 STB/acre-ft and 2.34 STB oil recovered per 1 Ibm of polymer injected. Incremental oil recovery by polymer-augmented waterflooding is not large on a percentage basis. Nonetheless, the incremental recovery can be sufficient to yield a satisfactory economic return. Manning et at. also reported that about 90% of the fieldwide and pilot polymer projects were in sandstone reservoirs and about 10 % were in carbonate lithologies. Table 5.45 119 gives a summary of data for selected projects. Schurz et al. 120 summarized results from 99 projects initiated during 1980-89. Table 5.46 compares median values from these projects with those reported by Manning et al. In most cases, the oil/water viscosity ratio at reservoir temperature is between 5.4 and 6.8, which would yield a slightly to moderately unfavorable mobility ratio when relative permeability effects are considered. Average permeability ranges from 54 to 101 md. Partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide was used in most polymer floods, probably because it has the lowest cost. There is a trend toward higher polymer concentrations in floods initiated during 1980-89. Projected median incremental oil recovery ranges between 3.7% and 4.8% OOIP at a ratio of 0.64 to 1.3 bbl oil/Ibm polymer. Most of the polymeraugmented waterfloods were initiated while the WOR was between 2.4 and 5.0. Most floods have been in sandstone reservoirs. Table 5.46 also shows parameters from selected projects in which reduction of the mobility ratio to improve displacement efficiency was a significant design parameter. High concentrations of partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide were used in each project to increase the viscosity of the injected polymer solution. Permeability in each reservoir was significantly higher than the average of the projects summarized in Cols. 1 and 2 in Table 5.46, favoring high injection and production rates. Projected incremental oil was 13 % to 25 % OOIP, considerably higher than expected from the other reservoirs surveyed by Manning and Schurz. 119,120 Christopher et at. 125 described a polymer-augmented waterflood in the Reagan sandstone in Nebraska. The formation contains an upper light-oil zone underlain by a heavy-oil zone. The light oil, which is the target of the flood, has a 31 API gravity and a viscosity of 24 cp. Porosity and permeability of the sandstone are relatively high at 24% and 2,580 md, respectively. The unit had been under waterflood since the late 1960's, and the flood had been successful in spite of an unfavorable mobility ratio of approximately 8.0 (based on kw at ROS). A polymer flood was initiated in 1985 to increase oil recovery. Ten inverted ninespot patterns covering about 1,685 acres were used. Design procedures included laboratory tests on polymer rheology, relative permeability, shear degradation, screen factor, stability, and salinity effects. Computer simulations were performed to predict recoveries and to examine optimum polymer concentration. Field injectivity tests were conducted to examine injectivity behavior with time and to gain experience in surface handling of the polymer. Pressure-falloff tests were conducted in conjunction with the injectivity tests. Finally, the preparation involved design of the polymer-injection plant and analysis of costs. The polymer selected was a partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide. Over the course of polymer injection, concentration varied from 1,000 to 800 ppm. The polymer was mixed in available fresh water. Fig. 5.81 shows performance of the polymer flood through Oct. 1987. The oil production responded to the polymer after a few r----v/ r-----........_--------.....--'", 8WPD .Jv,-- -J' ,.-,-/...............-----.. ,...,.....- BWlPD.1U37 10.000 "..f MoN;mt1883 _WoIIeon..-. =...~ FIbruIIy 1 1881 _8DPD.2,197 p.._./....." 1883 198< _l!/.!!!!.\Y!l~ __ ~ ! r1,..--J''--.. . ...............--~;.!!'.-! Fig. 5.81-Fluid production rates, Reagan sandstone. 125 Fig. 5.82-Predicted and actual performance of Ranger zone polymer flood, Wilmington field. 126 months of injection. WOR started to decline almost immediately after initiation of injection. Christopher et at. 125 report that, on the basis of an assumed exponential decline curve for continued waterflooding, the incremental oil recovery from polymer flooding was 1. 64 % OOIP as of Oct. 1987. The project was judged to be a technical and economic success. Krebs 126 presents an example of a polymer-augmented waterflood that was not successful. The flood was conducted in the Ranger zone of the Wilmington field, CA. This zone is an unconsolidated sand at depths from 2,500 to 4,000 ft and is made up of beds that are about 10 to 50 ft thick. Porosities are high, about 30% to 40%, because the sand is unconsolidated. Permeabilities are on the order of darcies. The oil gravity averages 18 API, and the oil viscosity is about 31 cp at the reservoir temperature of 135F. Waterflooding was initiated in 1964 in the Ranger zone area that was later to be polymer flooded. Response to the waterflood was generally favorable, but WOR's showed a steady increase. The waterflood mobility ratio was about 14, indicating that improved sweep efficiency might be expected from polymer flooding. Tests with a polyacrylamide indicated that the mobility ratio could be reduced to just slightly above 1.0 with a polymer concentration of 250 ppm. Resistance factor measured in the laboratory was 10.7, and polymer adsorption was measured and predicted to be 85 Ibm polymer/acre-ft. Polymer injection began in 1969. The injected concentration was reduced to 150 ppm because of injectivity and polymer-handling problems but later was increased to the design value of 250 ppm. The performance of the flood was predicted at various stages. Fig. 5.82 shows a prediction made in 1970. The figure shows actual performance data and predicted results from a reservoir simulator. Also shown is the predicted performance for continued waterflooding. As Fig. 5.82 shows, the reservoir did not respond to the polymer flood. WOR's were not significantly changed, and oil produc- TABLE S.47-MINNELUSA POLYMER FLOODS LESS THAN 15,000 acreft AS OF MARCH 1, 1989 127 Ah OOIP PV Gravity Porosity (OAPI) ~ (acre-ft) (10 3 STB) (10 3 bbl) Field Hamm Sharp Shepherd Ranch Simpson Ranch Wagonspoke OK Kummerfeld Edsel Semlek, West Tholson Rozet Southeast Kuehne Ranch Stewart R, East Spring Rozet Northeast Kuehne Ranch Southeast Deadman Creek North Rainbow R Victor Big Mac Kiehl, West Right a Way Pownall Ranch Lone Cedar Glo, North Kiehl Swartz Draw Candy Draw Bracken Lily American Operator Presidio Anderson Lario Pacific Enterprises Fancher URC Pacific Enterprises Apache Pacific Enterprises Osborn HRS Presidio Samedan Gallagher Presidio Bridge Oil Presidio Meridian Apache Quintana Powder River Pacific Enterprises WEM Pacific Enterprises Apache Anderson Pet Inc. PG&E Santa Fe Anadarko Vintage Ladd Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative Water Oil Injected (10 3 bbl) (10 3 bbl) (10 3 bbl) 6,531 1,049 2,248 826 2,722 2,747 5,170 3,340 3,877 3,554 1,692 3,211 679 1,536 1,089 2,629 1,356 1,706 617 514 292 378 816 1,189 682 1,300 624 901 234 507 89 6,705 1,511 778 997 3,428 3,206 3,845 2,296 2,328 5,056 1,754 494 589 945 367 3,634 971 1,044 18 17 2 1 27 25 69 71 47 19 80 118 24 17,558 4,245 2,981 1,678 8,020 6,784 19,734 5,895 9,827 6,528 3,035 9,561 1,457 2,920 1,274 12,007 3,438 3,023 640 504 283 513 871 1,313 440 1,225 873 710 184 1,118 111 22.5 13.4 14.3 19.0 17.0 18.6 16.5 19.6 19.4 17.3 11.2 14.4 15.7 15.1 17.1 16.7 17.2 18.4 14.2 19.3 23.0 14.4 15.1 17.0 15.9 22.4 15.4 15.1 16.5 19.8 14.3 10,650 3,645 5,710 1,705 6,280 5,935 14,288 8,152 9,593 9,904 8,067 9,280 2,720 6,721 4,800 10,591 6,560 9,260 4,050 2,651 1,165 3,731 5,293 7,128 4,932 8,840 5,914 9,181 1,909 4,546 2,194 13,547 2,180 4,812 1,825 6,095 6,300 12,019 8,673 10,322 9,566 4,665 9,250 2,009 4,582 3,723 9,468 5,871 8,130 3,167 2,646 1,519 2,094 5,270 7,724 4,528 9,042 4,423 6,991 1,979 5,205 1,624 18,590 3,789 7,600 2,513 8,282 8,565 18,290 12,886 14,438 13,392 7,009 14,725 3,313 7,807 5,475 13,721 8,754 12,428 4,453 3,970 2,079 4,176 6,201 9,034 6,084 15,364 7,066 10,755 2,443 6,974 2,429 tion did not increase. In fact, by 1973 oil production had dropped below the rate predicted for continued waterflooding. The polymer flood was discontinued in 1972,2.5 years after initiation, because of the poor performance. Several reasons were cited for the poor behavior. 126 One was that the polymer concentration used was not high enough. The apparent polymer slug viscosity was very sensitive to polymer concentration, and reductions in viscosity and resistance factor in the reservoir might have contributed to the poor behavior. The loss of injection rate early in the flood also was detrimental. This loss resulted from plugging by scale, undissolved polymer, and possibly polymer adsorption. Additionally, heterogeneities in the reservoir led to channeling of the polymer slug; i.e., the concentration of polymer was not sufficient to reduce flow in high-permeability zones. Hochanadel et al. 127 analyzed a number of waterfloods and polymer floods conducted in the Minnelusa sandstone formation of the Powder River basin, WY. The formation exhibits high permeability variation, with the Dykstra-Parsons coefficient typically ranging between 0.6 and 0.8. Primary recoveries have varied significantly because of the reservoir heterogeneity (5 % to 15 % OOIP). Low primary recovery makes the reservoirs good candidates for waterflooding. However, unfavorable waterflood mobility ratios, ranging between 2 and 25, and reservoir heterogeneity reduce waterflood efficiency. A large number of polymer floods have been conducted in the formation during 1975-90. The floods typically involved a combination of polymer-augmented waterflooding and the use of an aluminum citrate crosslinker. An accepted approach has been to inject a cationic polymer followed by an anionic polymer and aluminum citrate crosslinker. The approach is based on the assumption that the cationic polymer will adsorb onto the reservoir rock and that the polymer will be crosslinked by aluminum to anionic polymer subsequently injected. The crosslinking process leads to reduced permeability in those zones penetrated by the polymer-i.e., to insitu permeability modification. Polymer slug sizes have ranged from 10% to 40% PV.127 The volume of anionic polymer injected has been much larger than the volume of cationic polymer. For example, in one project, the amounts of cationic and anionic polymer injected were 10,000 Ibm and 629,115 Ibm, respectively. 128 In this project, the average anionic polymer concentration was 233 ppm, which is typical of the Minnelusa floods. Injection of polymer is thought to have had two positive effects: (1) polymer crosslinking reduced permeability variation and (2) the mobility ratio improved. Any increased recovery of polymer flooding over waterflooding results from a combination of both mechanisms. Table 5.47 127 summarizes conditions and performance of 31 polymer floods. Comparison of the polymer flood results to waterflood results in the same formation led Hochanadel et at. to several conclusions. Polymer floods, on average, recovered an additional 7.5% OOIP at a cost of $1.69/bbl of incremental oil. At equal injection volumes, polymer floods recovered more oil and produced less water than waterfloods. Sydansk and Smith 129 describe implementation of a successful gel treatment technology to improve conformance. In this technology, acrylamide polymers are crosslinked with Cr(III). The crosslinking agent is "a mixture of complex Cr(III) ions containing low-molecular-weight carboxylate anions." 129 The carboxylate anion used was acetate. Nine field tests were conducted in the Big Horn basin, WY, during 1985-86. 130 Tests were conducted in both sandstones and carbonate formations, but all the formations contained significant natural fracturing, which adversely affected waterflood performance. Polymer concentration in the injected gel systems ranged from 3,000 to 8,500 ppm. The volumes of gel injected ranged from 4,000 to 37,000 bbllwell treated. Seven of the wells treated were waterflood injection wells and two were production wells. Fig. 5.83 shows the response of offset production wells to the gel treatment of a waterflood injection well. Oil production increased rapidly and markedly in response to the injection well treatment. 1.0.---------------------, ~ 400 Fig. 5.83-Combined offset production, well response to the Injection Well 0-17 field test. 129 The favorable response presumably resulted from the sealing of fractures with the gel and subsequent diversion of injected water into previously unswept zones. Sydansk and Smith concluded that the gel system could be used in fractured reservoirs to reduce WOR's and to increase oil recovery and that the system was cost-effective. o~---------c~---~~----~ 100% Water Saturation Fig. 5.84-Typical water/oil relative permeability curves. 5.8 Mobility Control To Maintain Chemical Slug Integrity 5.8.1 Design Mobility. Mobility-control design for chemical flooding processes is based on prevention of viscous fingering between the chemical slug and the oil/water bank and between the mobility buffer and the chemical slug. This can be done by selecting the properties of injected fluids so that the mobility ratio is unity. The method developed by Gogarty et at. 131 is used to determine the design mobility for the chemical slug. The design procedure begins by defining the total relative mobility of the oil/water bank as Art=kro/Jl-o +krw/Jl-w ............................ (5.156) and Art=Aro+Arw, .............................. (5.157) where k ro = relative permeability of the oil phase, krw = relative permeability of the water phase, Jl-o = oil viscosity, Jl- w = water viscosity, Art = total relative mobility, Aro = relative mobility of the oil phase, and Arw=relative mobility of the water phase. The total relative mobility is equal to the total mobility of the oil/water bank divided by the base permeability, which is usually the absolute liquid permeability or the permeability to oil at connate water saturation. Total relative mobility varies with saturation because relative permeabilities vary with saturations, as depicted in Fig. 5.84. Because oil- and water-bank saturations are not known a priori, there is uncertainty as to what saturation should be used to evaluate the total relative mobility. Gogarty et at. 131 proposed that the design mobility should be the minimum total relative mobility encountered over the saturation range. Their approach is conservative because the actual relative total mobility of the oil/water bank may be greater than the design mobility. Two methods are used to determine the design mobility. In the first method, the design mobility is estimated from relative permeability data for the reservoir rock. To find this minimum, total relative mobilities are calculated for all saturations and plotted vs. E .... 'iii Q) 0.Q1 Minimum Mobility oo~-------------------------J 0.4 0.6 0.8 Water Saturation Fig. 5.85-Total relative mobility vs. water saturation. 131 Fig. 5.86-Steady-state relative permeability data, Run 0.07,------r---.---.---.---., :g :::!E g? O~----~----~----~----~----~ 0.5 0.6 Water Saturation Fig. 5.87-Total relative mobility data, Run saturation, as shown in Fig. 5.85. The minimum total relative mobility in Fig. 5.85 is the design mobility for the oil/water bank, Atd' The reciprocal of the design relative mobility is the maximum apparent viscosity of the oil/water bank. Estimation of Atd from relative permeability data must consider the history or path followed in building the oil/water bank. For example, consider the creation of an oil bank in a strongly water-wet porous rock. When the chemical slug is injected, the oil saturation increases and fluid flow at the front of the oil bank is on the drainage path.75 Total relative mobilities should be computed from drainage relative permeability data. At the rear of the oil bank, the water saturation increases and the displacement process follows the imbibition path. Imbibition relative permeability data describe fluid flow in this region. Somewhere in the oil bank, the flow must switch from drainage to imbibition paths. Determination of the design mobility with the Gogarty et at. procedure is straightforward for a single rock sample when imbibition and drainage relative permeability curves coincide. When there is hysteresis in the relative permeability curves, however, as shown in Fig. 5.86 for reservoir rock from the EI Dorado Admire reservoir, l32 a design mobility can be computed from each set of data, as shown in Fig. 5.87. The design mobility should be the lowest total relative mobility, which in this case is taken from the drainage curve. l32 Selection of the design mobility is complicated by variation of reservoir properties. Relative permeabilities of rock samples from different parts of the same reservoir are often different, as Fig. 5.88 shows. l31 Fig. 5.89 presents total relative mobilities for these rocks. The design mobility from Sample 4 is the conservative value for this reservoir but may not be representative of the reservoir as a whole. In this case, other information was used to confirm the selection of Sample 4. The value of Art was estimated from transient well testing to be 0.05 cp -I. Water saturation in the region surrounding the test well was estimated to be 0.60 by material balance. Because this value was in closest agreement with the data for Sample 4, the design mobility was based on Sample 4. Chang et at. l32 also present an example illustrating the use of transient pressure testing to determine the set of relative permeability data used to represent the field average. The second method used to determine the design mobility is to measure the mobility of the oil/water bank produced by the chemical flood in native-state cores. l3I ,l32 The displacement process must produce a stable oil/water bank in a region where the interfacial tension (IFT) is not altered. Fig. 5.90 l32 presents the results of an oil displacement test in a 4-ft core in which an aqueous surfactant system was injected. A stabilized oil bank formed in the interval where the IFT was not affected by the surfactant. This region is shaded in Fig. 5.90. Total relative mobility was calculated from pressure data for the stabilized oil/water bank with At=qttlLlAtlp ................................ (5.158) and Art=At/kb , where At=total mobility of the oil bank, Art=total relative mobility of the oil bank, qt=flow rate, tlp=pressure drop between pressure ports, tlL=distance between pressure ports, A = cross- Sample 2-152 md 0.0 0 20 40 60 Water Saturation 80 100% 0.0 0 20 60 40 Water Saturation 80 100% 0.4 Sample 4-161 md ",,2 0.2 0.0 0 20 40 60 Water Saturation 80 100% 40 60 Water Saturation Fig. 5.88-Relative permeability curves for samples of the same reservoir. 131 ..g ...J 0.20 1--4--I--+--I--+-+-I--+----l 0.14 I--l---+--l--l---if--:;: ~~+--+~,+---; ~ 0.10 1--P1("--t---t---hH-Y-+++-----i "" III Q) Because the chemical slug does not displace all the oil in systems of practical interest, the permeability of the chemical slug will approximate the brine permeability at Sore' the ROS to chemical flood. Relative mobility of the chemical slug is computed directly from Eq. 5.160 from relative permeability correlations of krw with Sw assuming krw (at Sore)=k re (at Sore)' Water permeability is a strong function of ROS. Fig. 5.91 illustrates experimental data for Berea sandstone obtained by Morrow et al. 134 for the endpoint relative permeability of water as a function of ROS. An empirical correlation between krw and Sw developed by Negahban for Sw$O.80 is I---I-~:---+-~~-hc..rt--+-_f ~ ~--+---+---+---+---~--~--;---~ -0.173 +0.312Sw - - - - - ....................... (5.161) 0.848-0.901Sw 40 50 60 70 Water Saturation, % Fig. 5.89-Total relative mobilities for samples of the same reservoir. 131 sectional area of core, kb = base permeability for relative permeability data, and appropriate units are used. Pressure taps must be carefully installed and monitored to ascertain that each port is measuring the pressure of the same phase to eliminate capillary pressure effects. McCool et al.133 describe procedures for obtaining and interpreting pressure data from laboratory core tests. 5.8.2 Chemical Slug Mobility. Determination of the design mobility for the oil/water bank establishes the mobility requirements for the chemical slug and the mobility buffer. The relative mobility of the chemical slug must be less than or ~qual ~o the d~sign mobility to have mobility control at the chemIcal/OIl-bank mterface. The mobility of the slug is controlled primarily by adjusting the slug viscosity. Viscosities in some formulations can be controlled by altering the concentrations of the components that mak~ up ~he chemical slug. In other systems, it is necessary to add a VISCOSlfier such as a polymer, to the chemical slug to obtain mobility contr~l. When the chemical slug behaves as a Newtonian fluid, its viscosity does not depend on frontal-advance rate. Chemical slug viscosity can be determined from viscometric measurements. The relative mobility of the chemical slug, Are' is given by Are=kre/P-e, .................................. (5.160) where k =relative permeability of the chemical slug at the anticipated ROS to chemical flood and P-e = viscosity of the chemical slug at the anticipated frontal-advance rate. When the chemical slug behaves as a non-Newtonian fluid, its viscosity varies with shear rate and thus with frontal-advance rate. Non-Newtonian behavior is observed in chemical slugs with and without polymer content. In principle, the viscosity of the chemical slug can be determined by measuring the viscosity at the shear rate anticipated in the core displacement tests. As discussed in Sec. 5.4.3, however, methods of estimating in-situ shear rate from rock and fluid properties are not adequate. It is necessary to determine chemical slug mobility by direct measurement in laboratory core experiments. Fig. 5.92 131 presents results of such a laboratory program for three similar chemical slugs with slightly different compositions. Note that the three slugs are non-Newtonian fluids because the relative mobility increases with frontal-advance rate. Slug 1 does not meet the requirements of the design mobility and would not maintain mobility control between the chemical slug and the oil/water bank. Slugs 2 and 3 are adequate for frontal-advance rates below about 10 to 20 ft/D. Because reservoir rates are about 1 ft/D, these chemical slugs would yield mobility control except in the immediate area ofthe wellbore, where frontal-advance rates could exceed 10 ft/D. In this case, a frontal-advance velocity cutoff may be established for mobility control. Viscous fingering is accepted in the region within a few feet of the injection wellbore to improve injectivity and project economics. Displacement experiments also provide a means to correlate viscometric data with mobility at selected frontal-advance rates in the core. Chap. 7 discusses this further. Example 5.17 illustrates the application of these concepts to choose the viscosities of the chemical slug and the mobility at the leading edge of the polymer buffer for a chemical flooding process. Example S.17-Mobility Control in a Chemical Flood. A chemical flood is being designed for a reservoir. The current chemical formulation reduces the ROS to 0.20 at a frontal-advance rate of 1.0 ft/D when the chemical is continuously injected into a sample Personal communication with S. Negahban, Amoco Production Co .. Tulsa, OK 1984. Pressure Drop .---- 011 Cut .6.-- Interfacial Tension G ~ Interfacial Tension between Produced 011 and Aqueous Phase Go. Interfacial Tension between Crude 011 and Formation Water ~ 'Ii " '& ]I E " Volume of Fluid Injected, mL Fig. 5.90-Laboratory flow test results of Run 23. 159 TABLE 5.48-PROPERTIES OF RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUIDS, EXAMPLE 5.17 AO A Sample BereaCA Berea BE-1 Berea BE-1 BereaCO-2 D BereaC-O Sol Sor Sg; /lo, cp /lw, cp 0.23 0.70 0.30 0.0 20.0 0.5 TABLE 5.49-COMPUTATION OF TOTAL RELATIVE MOBILITY. EXAMPLE 5.17 .1 0.5 0.300 0.316 0.332 0.348 0.364 0.380 0.396 0.412 0.428 0.444 0.460 0.476 0.492 0.508 0.524 0.540 0.556 0.572 0.588 0.604 0.620 0.636 0.652 0.668 0.684 0.700 (Cp -1) Arw 0.2 0.1 0.0 60 70 80 90 100 Sw.% Fig. 5.91-Relative permeability at reduced ROS in Berea sandstone samples at various IFT's.134 of the reservoir rock. Table 5.48 gives properties of the reservoir rock, oil, and water. Relative permeabilities are represented by Eqs. 5.162 and 5.163. For this example, assume that krw (at Sor) is represented by Fig. 5.84 and that Eqs. 5.162 through 5.164 are applicable. kro =(I-SwD )2.5, .............................. (5.162) where krw=0.209 S~D ........................... (5.163) and SwD= 0.0500 0.0451 0.0406 0.0363 0.0323 0.0286 0.0252 0.0220 0.0191 0.0164 0.0139 0.0117 0.0097 0.0087 0.0064 0.0051 0.0039 0.0029 0.0021 0.0014 0.0009 0.0005 0.0002 0.0001 0.0000 0.0000 ........................... (5.164) I-Sor -Siw Measurements indicate that the viscosity of the chemical slug is 15 cp at flow rates expected in the reservoir. Determine whether the laboratory experiments have been run under conditions where there is mobility control between the chemical slug and the oil/water bank. If mobility control was not obtained, indicate what the viscosity should be. Solution. The relative-total-mobility/water-saturation graph must be prepared to determine the design mobility. Table 5.49 contains relative mobilities computed at saturation increments of 0.016. The minimum total relative mobility is 0.0423 cp-l, which is equivalent to an apparent viscosity of 23.6 cpo Thus, the chemical slug must exhibit an apparent viscosity of23.6 cp to obtain mobility control between the slug and the oil/water bank. Next, determine the viscosity of the chemical slug. For this example, assume the chemical slug is a Newtonian fluid so that variations of viscosity with frontal-advance rate do not have to be considered. That is, the viscosity is a function of composition but does not change with shear rate. The viscosity ofthe chemical slug is obtained from the definition of mobility. It is first necessary to determine the relative permeability of the chemical slug in the presence of residual oil. The ROS to chemical flooding is 0.2. From .10r-----.---r---r--,--r----r---r--.--..--.------..---.--~..,.___, .08 .06 ___ ~:::;-.04 _" !:l! ----------------T---------:--SLUG I OeSIGN MOBILITY =_--"~L~O__:_l--~- --,---,'--. ,---,.10 .20 .40.60 .80 1.0 '02~ SLUG 3 1-------------- FRONTAL VELOCITY, fto1) Fig. 5.92-Effect of slug composition on mObility-control design. 131 J<;.;, ".n = 0.70~ S".n2 >-..fo = Design Mobility 11". = 0.5 cp kb = k o SI". ro - - (l-S :s 10 -1 10 0 10 1 Oil Viscosity, cp Oil VIscosity, cp Fig. 5.93-Variation of design mobility with oil viscosity, Example 5.17. Fig. 5.94-Effect of Sore on chemical-slug viscosity, Example 5.17. Fig. 5.91, krw at Sorc is about 0.63. Substituting into the expression for mobility and solving for Ikc yields Arc =krcl Ikc and Ikc =0.63/(0.0423 cp -1) =14.9 cpo Therefore, the viscosity of the chemical slug should be adequate for mobility control if Sorc=0.2. Selection of the correct mobility of the chemical slug is also affected by the oil viscosity. Fig. 5.93 illustrates the change in the apparent mobility of the chemical slug required to maintain unit mobility ratio as a function of oil viscosity. The displacement efficiency of the chemical slug is 33.3% of Sorw' If the displacement efficiency were higher, the viscosity of the slug would need to be increased to provide mobility control. The required chemical slug viscosity is a function of microscopic displacement efficiency because permeability of the chemical slug varies with chemical flood oil residual, as noted in Fig. 5.91. Fig. 5.94 is a plot of chemical slug viscosity vs. oil viscosity at different values of Sorc' The data in Fig. 5.91 were used to determine k rc ' Higher chemical slug viscosity is required as the displacement efficiency increases because the chemical slug relative permeability is higher at a lower ROS. Example 5.17 evaluated mobility control when the relative permeability of the chemical slug resulted only from ROS. If the chemical slug contains polymer, or if the chemical slug mobility varies with frontal-advance rate, the mobility of the chemical systems must be evaluated in the porous rock at residual saturations anticipated from the chemical slug over the frontal-advance rates expected. 5.8.3 Mobility Buffer. The mobility buffer must be miscible with the chemical slug to avoid trapping of the slug as a residual saturation. There must be mobility control between the mobility buffer and the chemical slug. The mobility buffer is water thickened by adding small amounts of polymer to the injected water. Mobility control is obtained by increasing the polymer concentration until unit mobility exists between the leading edge of the mobility buffer and the chemical slug. Therefore, for mobility control, Ap:5 Artkb , ................................... (5.165) where Ap =polymer mobility. Polymers used for mobility control are non-Newtonian fluids, and thus, the polymer mobility in porous rock varies with frontal-advance rate, as illustrated in Fig. 5.95. 131 By selecting polymer concentration, it is usually possible to meet the design mobility. Data presented in Fig. 5.95 were obtained from laboratory tests on small reservoir core plugs. Polymer mobility tests should be conducted at the ROS expected for chemical flooding to include the effects of permeability reduction resulting from the chemical flood ROS. When laboratory data are not available, it is necessary to estimate polymer mobility. The mobility of polymer in porous rock at a particular flow rate is given by Ap=kp1lkp, ................................... (5.166) where mobility, kp=permeability of the polymer at ROS to chemical flooding, and Ik =viscosity of the polymer at the average frontal-advance rate. 'The relative polymer mobility is expressed by Arp=Aplkb' .................................. (5.167) :0 0 :E 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.004 0.002 0 0.2 0.4 oj <I "' .~ 10 0 -m a: 10 20 1.0 2.0 4.0 Frontal Velocity, fVD 10 1 Mobility Ratio Fig. 5.95-Effect of thickened water composition on mobility.131 Fig. 5.96-Effect of mobility ratio on mixing-zone width. 135 r----------------------------------, >~,. :3 ZLL w>00: LL~ GLYCERINE li0BILlTY AATIO H~3.6S N>- _z we: -lw a: u x: Z a: o aU 0.5 Volume of Fluid Injected, PV POAE VOLUMES PAODUCED Fig. 5.97-Mixing with chase water at similar mobility ratio (16 ft Berea core, 408 md, 110F, 5 ft/D).135 Fig. 5.98-lnjection schedule for graded mobility buffer, North Burbank surfactant test. 136 There are two difficulties in estimating Because polymers are non-Newtonian fluids, the viscosity varies with shear rate, as discussed in Sec. 5.4.3. Viscosities can be easily measured at various shear rates with a standard viscometer. A relationship is needed between shear rate and frontal-advance rate to convert viscometric data to equivalent core data. Eq. 5.168 is an empirical expression for shear rate during flow in porous media. 61 Although this model has been widely used for computations, it does not estimate shear rates correctly for most polymer/rock systems of practical interest. At best, Eq. 5.168 may be correlated against experimental data to find the shear rate that yields the apparent viscosity observed in the rock when the frontal-advance rate is specified. 1 =4a3u/~, ................................ (5.168) where a3 =an adjustable constant characterizing the rock, u = Darcy velocity, k = absolute liquid permeability, cf> = porosity , 1=in-situ shear rate, and consistent units are used. The second difficulty is estimation of the effective permeability of the polymer at ROS to chemical flooding. This permeability is approximated by the permeability to brine at Sore for some polymers. However, polymers are retained in porous rock, and brine permeability is reduced owing to polymer retention. As discussed in Sec. 5.4, it is usually necessary to determine the amount of permeability reduction by conducting laboratory tests on small cores. This can be done for screening purposes. Candidates identified in screening tests should be evaluated thoroughly by determining polymer mobility over the range of frontal-advance velocities of interest. Sec. 5.4 discusses determination and correlation of polymer mobility data further. Costs prohibit continuous injection of the mobility buffer. At some point in the displacement process, sufficient polymer has been injected to prevent the drive water from fingering through the mobility buffer into the chemical slug. A region of variable concentration forms owing to mixing between the drive water and the polymer. If the polymer concentration in the mobility buffer remains constant, the size of the mobility buffer needed to protect the chemical slug can be estimated from experimental displacement runs or from mathematical models. Bank size may be determined experimentally. Results of a mixingzone study done in a 16-ft Berea sandstone core 135 illustrate one approach. In this study, glycerine, biopolymer, and polyacrylamide so~utions of various mobilities were displaced through the core by dnve water. The length of the mixing zone was determined from effluent concentrations to be the volume between the 5 % and 95 % concentrations. Fig. 5.96 summarizes the results. The mixing-zone volume is a function of mobility ratio, as would be expected. For example, the mobility buffer must be 0.5 PV to prevent reduction "p' of the polymer concentration at the leading edge of the mobility buffer below 95 % of the injected concentration in the effluent when the mobility ratio between the mobility buffer and the chase water is five. Bank size also is estimated with numerical models that simulate mixing and viscous fingering between the drive water and the mobility buffer. For chemical flooding , the size of the mobility buffer must be increased to compensate for the fact that polymer molecules move faster through the porous rock than water injected at the same time. This phenomenon, called inaccessible PV, was discussed in detail in Sec. 5.4. The effect of inaccessible PV can be seen in the concentration profIles shown in Fig. 5.97135 for three displacements conducted at similar mobility ratios. Both biopolymer and polyacrylamide mixing zones arrive at the end of the core about 0.17 PV before the glycerine mixing zones. The mobility buffer usually is not injected at constant concentration. A tapered slug is used to reduce the total amount of polymer required by varying the polymer concentration from design mobility at the polymer/chemical-slug interface to zero at the rear of the mobility buffer where drive water pushes the mobility buffer. Although the drive water fingers into the mobility buffer, the mixed fluid encounters progressively more viscous regions and thus mobility is reduced. Fig. 5.98136 shows the injection schedule for polymer concentration in the mobility buffer for the North Burbank surfactant field test. The total amount of polymer injected was 0.7 PV at an average concentration of 710 ppm. The quantity of polymer is equivalent to a 0.2-PV slug of polymer at a concentration of 2,500 ppm, which is at the leading edge of the mobility buffer. Design of tapered, or graded, viscosity slugs is based on empirical models. The simplest model assumes that the polymer concentration declines exponentially from the front of the slug to the lowest concentration at the rear of the slug. Other models include simulation of viscous fingering in some manner. Claridge 82 and Stoneberger and Claridge 83 developed a method based on Koval's method to design graded viscosity banks. The preferred approach is to evaluate the proposed slug design in laboratory experiments. This requires use of scaled displacements in linear core or sandpack systems. 5.9 Foam as an EOR Agent A foam is a dispersion of a relatively large volume of gas in a small volume of liquid, 137 as illustrated in the photograph of a foam shown in Fig. 5.99.138 A foam is produced when a liquid that contains a small concentration offoaming agent (surfactant) comes into contact with a gas and provides sufficient mechanical energy to cause the liquid to foam. Fig. 5.99-Foam (bubbles flattened, O.107-mm thick). 138 Foams are useful in EOR processes because they have a relatively high resistance to flow when displaced through a porous medium. The resistance typically is significantly higher than that of the individual phases that make up the foam. Thus, they are potentially suitable for improving displacement efficiency in a process or for blocking the flow of condensed fluids. The following are possible applications. 137 1. Blocking or restricting flow of undesired fluids, such as the coning of gas or water in a production well. 2. Blocking or restricting flow of injected fluids in highpermeability streaks or fractures (profile modification). 3. Improving the mobility ratio in displacement processes by reducing the mobility of the iIcted phase. The schematic of a foam displacement process shown in Fig. 5.100137 illustrates the last mechanism. An unconsolidated sandpack (k=2,760 md) was initially saturated with a surfactant solution (water containing 2% foaming agent). Air was injected at a constant pressure difference of 10 psia across the sandpack. Pressure drops across individual. sections of the sandpack were monitored through pressure taps located along the sandpack as shown in the top sketch. A foam was generated as a result of the contact between the air and the surfactant solution, and the volume of the foam continued to grow as air injection proceeded. As Fig. 5.100 indicates, the foam's resistance to flow was much larger than that for the surfactant solution. Essentially all the pressure drop occurred over the volume occupied by foam. The foam mobility was much lower than that of the surfactant solution, which was essentially equivalent to water. This is characteristic of the flow behavior of foams at reservoir conditions. Foams have been tested as diverting agents in waterfloods,139 as steam-diverting agents to reduce gravity override or steam channeling in steamfloods, 140 and as mobility-control fluids in CO 2 displacements. 141 5.9.1 Properties That Characterize Foam. Foams typically are characterized by quantifying foam quality and bubble size. 142 Foam quality is expressed as the fraction or percentage of total volume that is gas. Bubble size is specified in terms of average size or diameter (foam texture) and the range of bubble sizes present. Foam quality typically ranges from 75% to 90% but may be higher, approaching 97 %,142 or significantly lower. 137 Quality is a function of pressure and temperature, as well as foam constituents and physical conditions associated with the production and handling of the foam. Table 5.50137 shows an example of data on quality for foams generated in different porous media. In these experiments, the porous medium was saturated with a 0.25 N brine containing 2 % of a surfactant called O.K. Liquid. The liquid was then displaced with gas, generating a foam. Raza 137 also investigated the effect of a second liquid phase on foam formation. 10 psig 0 psig t .L r--...L"l....-~,,_L.l../I.-..J./I..l.-..Ll"---. t --..L I " I SURFACTANT SOLUTION I~ .% l~ ~ .. I... --.-J.I ~;=::====::::; t:::::J 1--. ~~.~.~.~~----------~. ----l.:..;...:..;.:.:~1__ ____J1 ----"'--~ :.:.:.:.:.:. -----...... .. t 720 MIN ......... ~::~ ~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.~.u- ________ I ----.~ --.a....... .%I~~ t 1.295 MIN [.......................................... ~ --......IIIIr.. ----,......- Fig. 5.100-ln-situ generation and propagation of foam in a 2,760-md unconsolidated sand pack. 137 MOBILITY-CONTROL PROCESSES TABLE 5.50-EFFECT OF POROUS MEDIUM, PRESSURE LEVEL, AND PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL ON FOAM QUALITY 137 Experimental Conditions Porous Medium Type UnConsolidated sandstone Unconsolidated sandstone Unconsolidated sandstone Unconsolidated sandstone Unconsolidated sandstone Unconsolidated sandstone Unconsolidated sandstone Unconsolidated sandstone Unconsolidated sandstone Unconsolidated sandstone Unconsolidated sandstone Unconsolidated sandstone Unconsolidated sandstone Torpedo sandstone Torpedo sandstone Torpedo sandstone Torpedo sandstone Torpedo sandstone Torpedo sand Sandstone Berea sandstone Limestone Limestone Limestone Conglomerate Permeability (md) Length Description Uniform Uniform Uniform Uniform Uniform Uniform Uniform Uniform Uniform Nonuniform Nonuniform Multilayer system Multilayer system Natural Natural Natural Natural Natural Natural Natural Fired Intergranular Vugular Vugular Nonuniform Diameter (in.) Mean Pressure (psi g) t..p (psi/tt) 6.5 124.0 124.0 124.0 48.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 34.5 5.7 28.5 8.0 1.0 26.9 13.1 Foam Quality (%) Gas Saturation at Breakthrough, Gas/Brine Test (%) 2,200 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 3,000 15,700 35,500 13,700 39,300 14,500 14,500 500 500 500 500 500 500 1.5 1,000 63 344 11 525 6.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.88 1.88 1.88 1.88 1.88 1.88 1.97 1.94 3.32 3.3 4.33 1.97 495 795 95 5 95 45 2 2 2 45 45 87.5 89.5 495 95 5 25 93 250 5 98 3 100 250 2.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 2.5 10.0 2.5 2.5 2.5 10.0 10.0 3.4 0.7 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 50.5 2.0 . 21.0 5.0 6.0 2.0 3.1 10.0 72.1 75.1 81.5 85.5 89.5 86.1 79.0 89.0 92.5 73.5 72.0 49.5 55.3 40.5 55.0 58.2 59.1 38.2 61.0 23.6 60.8 39.6 8.1 11.0 31.6 26.0 22.6 20.5 19.0 22.6 22.2 18.7 21.2 23.2 26.0 26.0 7.4 15.8 19.5 20.2 20.4 20.6 18.4 25.4 16.4 15.2 23.6 5.7 7.0 14.8 TABLE 5.51-EFFECT OF OIL ON THE QUALITY AND NATURE OF WATER FOAM 137 Time Until Gas Breakthrough (minutes) Oil Porous Medium Length Type Unconsolidated sand Unconsolidated sand Unconsolidated sand Unconsolidated sand Torpedo sandstone Torpedo sandstone Diameter (in.) Permeability (md) Description Oil Type Core test fluid Crude oil Crude oil Core test fluid Crude oil Crude oil/ pentane mixture Saturation Foam Quality (%) Oil No Oil 1.5 1.5 3.0 1.5 1.875 1.875 3,000 3,000 4,000 14,500 500 500 Uniform Uniform Uniform Multilayer Native state Native state -- - - 31.0 22.0 25.9 31.6 11.9 18.5 78.0 78.0 87.5 55.3 40.5 40.5 28 16 190 22 6 8 -2,225 2,225 15,890 300 18 18 No Oil Foaming solution = 2% OK liquid in V. N-brine. Table 5.51 shows the effect of oil on the quality of a water foam. Raza concluded that a second liquid phase tends to suppress the foaming action of the initial phase. That is, water foamability is reduced by the presence of an oil phase and vice versa. Average bubble size and distribution of sizes may vary significantly. Bubble size is affected by the foam quality and the variables that control quality. Fig. 5.101 143 shows typical data on size distributions. Foams with a relatively large distribution of bubble sizes are more likely to be unstable. 142 Pore sizes in reservoir rocks are usually smaller than the foam-bubble sizes shown in Fig. 5.101. The foam flow in porous media might therefore be expected to be affected by foam quality and bubble size, and this is the case. 5.9.2 Foaming Agents. A foaming agent (Le., a surfactant) is required to produce a foam. Numerous surfactants are suitable for this purpose. Surfactants generally are selected for specific appli~ations on the basis oflaboratory test procedures and empirical relationships. There are no theoretical quantitative relationships aVailable to make reliable, detailed predictions of foam properties. ~everal investigatorsI39-141,144 have studied foaming agents, and illustrations of this work are' discussed below. Heller et at. 141 and Dellinger et at. 144 studied the behavior of a number of surfactants for possible use in mobility control with the CO 2 miscible process. Because CO 2 is generally injected above its critical temperature and pressure, it is a relatively dense fluid at displacement conditions, typically having a density greater than 0.6 g/cm2. Because of this, Heller et at. 141 studied surfactants known to be good liquid emulsifying agents. A parameter used to rank surfactants is an empirical number called the hydrophile/lipophile balance (HLB) number. Heller et at. used surfactants with HLB numbers of 8 to 13. They also required that the surfactants be soluble in an NaCI/CaCI 2 brine and that they be anionic or nonanionic. This latter requirement was imposed because cationic surfactants probably would adsorb strongly onto reservoir rock. The screening procedure consisted of putting a few milliliters of foam solution into a test tube filled with isooctane. Isooctane was used to simulate a CO 2 phase because the density of CO 2 at typical reservoir displacement conditions is similar to that of isooctane at room conditions (room temperature and atmospheric pressure). The test tube was stoppered and shaken vigorously. The degrees of foaming and foam stability were measured and recorded. Table 5.52141 shows results of these screening tests. The surfactants Quality Quality /0 I / I /I {f II /f /' :>; / I / :::J t:T Ir- Bubble diameter, mm Fig. 5.1 01-Bubble-size frequency distribution. 143 shown are roughly ranked from good to poor (from top to bottom in the table) in terms of their potential for use in a CO 2 displacement. Heller et at. evaluated the foams further in flow tests in porous media and described flow properties in terms offoam mobility (discussed in Sec. 5.9.3). Foam also has been tested as a way to modify the permeability profile in injection wells in a waterflood.139 More than 100 surfactants were tested for this purpose, and it was found that certain ethoxylated alkyl sulfates containing amide stabilizers were efficient foaming agents. For the field test, a modified an1illonium lauryl sulfate called O.K. Liquid was used. Foaming agents are applicable in steamdrives as steam-diverting agents. 140 Gravity override and steam channeling are important problems in steam displacement. By creating a high flow resistance, foams can be used as diverting agents to make steam move more uniformly through a reservoir. Surfactants used in conjunction with steam displacement must be capable of generating flow resistance and remaining stable at steamflood temperatures, which are commonly about +400F. Duerksen 140 screened about 50 surfactants by measuring flow resistance in stainless-steel-wool packs and various porous media. He found that a number of sulfonate surfactants had good foamability and stability at the required temperature. TABLE 5.52-FOAMING RESULTS OF 0.05% (ACTIVE) SURFACTANT IN MIXED BRINE" WITH ISOOCTANE141 Ionic Type"" N Surfactant Foamed in <1 minute to full height of tube Manufacturer t e a e b e e h g f f d Emulphogene BC-720 Aerosol 30 Alipal CD-128 Arfoam 2213 Igepal CO-630 Igepal CO-710 Makon 14 Monateric ADFA Sulfotex PAl Sulfotex RIF Trycol TDA-8 Alipal CO-436 Deriphat BAW Emsorb 6900 Plurafac C-17 Witcolate 1247-H Witcolate 1259 Arnox 930-70 Emersal 6462 Pluronic F-68 BioSoft EA-4 Deriphat 160-C Emsorb 6903 13.0 13.6 15.0 A A N N N Foamed in < 2 minutes to full height of tube Refoamed easily after aging several days 12.5 A A N A Foamed in <2 minutes to full height of tube Foamed in >2 minutes to full height of tube Shaken >2 minutes; very little foam produced 15.0 16.0 N N A A N A N N e f d c 30.5 .. 12.0 10.2 b d c h f d Did not refoam easily after aging several days "Mixed brine=0.5% CaCI 2 and 0.5 wt% NaCI in distilled water. ""Ionic type: A = anionic, N = non ionic, Z = zwitlerionic (or amphoteric). tManufacturer: a=American Cyanamid, b=Arjay Inc., c=BASF, d=Emery Industries, e=GAF, f=Henkel Chemicals, g=Mona Industries, h=Stepan Chemical Co., i = Witco Chemical Co. r---.....-----r---{PG ~ 40 ~ I Ii Manometer Regulalar ~ 30 II Capillary Length, m 0.20 0.40 ... O.SO g 10 (J) Pocked Bed Foam Generolor 0.5% Alipal in Brine Foam Quality 95% Capillary Dia.=0.15x10- 2m Shear Rate, sec 1 0 0~-'---:-20~0:---'---:-40~0:---'---60'-0--'----Jsoo By.po .. 'V Fig. 5.102-Capillary viscometry apparatus. 13B Fig. 5.103-Pseudoplastic characteristics of foam.13S 5.9.3 Rheology of Foams-Flow in a Tube. Rheological behavior of foams has been measured in a viscometry apparatus (Fig. 5.102).138,145 Typically, the foam constituents are mixed and passed through a foam generator, such as a packed bed. The foam is then displaced through a small-diameter tube, and flow rates, pressure drop, and temperature are measured. Experiments of this type have determined that a foam behaves as a non-Newtonian fluid. A foam typically has the characteristics of a pseudoplastic fluid; i.e., the apparent viscosity of the foam decreases as the shear rate increases. 138 For a Newtonian fluid, the relationship between shear stress, 7, and shear rate, 1, is given by 7=p,1, ....................................... (5.169) where p,=fluid viscosity and is not a function of the shear rate. Viscosity is dependent on temperature and pressure, however. Shear rate is expressed in terms of a velocity gradient, such as dV/dr, in flow in a tube. As previously discussed, Eq. 5.169 does not hold for nonNewtonian fluids because the relationship between 7 and 1 is nonlinear. A useful model to describe non-Newtonian fluids is the power-law model attributed to Ostwald 146 and de Waele. The model is given by Eq. 5.3, which is rewritten here as The foam indices in Fig. 5.104 are functions of capillary-tube diameter and length, a characteristic of foams observed by other investigators. 145 Foam-behavior indices are also known to be functions of the foam composition and quality, as well as temperature and pressure. Foam rheological behavior is somewhat like that of the polymers described earlier in that they also are pseudoplastic. However, the foam flow is more complex and is dependent on a larger number of variables, as discussed. Experimental work of the type discussed indicates that foams can be described in a useful way by a power-law model. Foams are complex systems, however, and the model parameters are not unique but depend on the system geometry, foam properties, pressure, and temperature. 5.9.4 Flow of Foams in Porous Media. Foam rheology depends on the geometry of the flow system. This is particularly true when a foam flows through a porous medium. Heller et al. 141 discussed two important requirements for the rheological characterization of a foam to be geometrically independent. First, the foam-bubble (cell) size should be at least 20 times smaller than the characteristic flow dimension (pore size). Otherwise, the effect of the pore walls on the foam macroscopic or bulk behavior will be significant. 147 Bulk properties, such as apparent viscosity or even quality, will be affected by the geometry at low ratios of bubble size to flow dimension. Dietz et at. 148 pointed out that foam flow at the pore level may be such that rheology data taken in a standard viscometer may be meaningless. Second, pressure variations along this flow path should be such that fluid compressibility effects are negligible. Standard viscometry measurements are based on incompressible fluids, and large compressibility effects during flow can introduce significant error. 141 7=K1n, ..................................... (5.170) where K=power-Iaw constant or consistency index and n=powerlaw exponent or flow-behavior index. The shear stress, 7, is related to pressure drop, and shear rate, 1, is related to volumetric flow rate for flow in a tube as 147 q=t::.pd/4L, ................................... (5.171) where t::.p = pressure drop along a length L of the tube, d = tube diameter, L=tube length, q=volumetric flow rate, and consistent units are used. Figs. 5.103 and 5.104 138 show foam data. Fig. 5.103 plots shear stress vs. shear rate for a foam formed of nitrogen and brine. The different curves are for capillary tubes of different lengths. The curves are all slightly concave downward, indicating that the shear stress is not increasing linearly with the imposed shear rate. On this plot, the apparent viscosity of the foam at any point is the ratio 7/1. As seen, the apparent viscosity of the foam decreases as shear rate increases, a behavior called pseudoplastic. Comparison of Eqs. 5.169 and 5.170 shows that the apparent viscosity, p'a, also can be expressed as d=4.95 mm, L=O.BO m d=2.89mm, L=O.20m d= 1.50 mm, L=O.BO m d=1.50 mm, L=O.40 m d=O.69 mm, L=O.20 m l-ta=K1n-1 . .................................. (5.172) Power-law fluids should yield a straight line when log 7 is plotted vs.log 1 (Eq. 5.170). Fig. 5.104 shows several data sets for tubes of different lengths and diameters. The slope of each line is ~e floW-behavior index n. When the slope is unity (n= 1), the fluid IS Newtonian and K is the Newtonian viscosity. Fluids exhibit greater non-Newtonian behavior as n deviates more from unity. For foams, n< 1.0, indicating pseudoplastic behavior. 200 400 600 Shear Rate, sec-1 Fig. 5.104-Foam data represented by Ostwald-de Waele model. 13S 166 ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY (,) GAS SATURATION a. 100 (f) <t :::i 10 In GAS PERMEABILITY- l - I - ~ f. z ::E i= <t e:: :;) I<t (f) (f) i'- ,..... rf--I-I- o-WITH FOAM -t--I--I--I--1 C!l meability to the gas phase was very dependent on the presence of foam, however, and was more than two orders of magnitude smaller when foam was flowing in the sandpack than when water was flowing with no foaming agent. This approach to describing rheology in effect treats the flow of foam as two-phase flow. Another approach to describing foam rheology has been to calculate an apparent foam viscosity from flow-rate and pressure-drop measurements made during flow through a porous medium. 150 Darcy's law is used with the rock permeability, or water relative permeability if an oil phase is present, to calculate apparent foam viscosity. Results show that the apparent viscosity calculated in this manner is a strong function of foam quality, decreasing approximately linearly as foam quality increases. This approach essentially treats the foam as a single phase. A third approach is to describe the foam flow in terms of foam mobility, A.141 The quantities typically measured in a displacement or flow experiment in porous media are pressure drop and flow rate. These results can be used with Darcy's law to calculate a mobility. A=klp.=(q(IA)/(llpIL), ......................... (5.173) 0.1 +-+-++-1--1--1--1--+-+-+-+-4-1,........1 o I 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 9 10 II 12 13 14 LIQUID INJECTION RATE. 8/(02) ~I WITHOUT FOAM Fig. S.10S-Effect of liquid rate on gas saturation and permeability.149 where q(= total volumetric flow rate, A = cross-sectional area normal to flow direction, IIp=pressure drop across the porous medium, L=length of the porous medium, A=foam mobility, and consistent units are used. A relative mobility, A" also can be defined as Ar=Alk, ..................................... (5.174) The rheological description of foam flow in porous media has been treated in different ways. 142 One approach has been to use the single-phase fluid viscosities to calculate relative permeabilities to each fluid on the basis of experimental measurements of flow rates and pressure drop in foam flow through a porous medium. Fig. 5.105 149 shows data of this type. The data represent a series of displacements through a sandpack with a permeability of 3,190 md. In the displacements, water or foaming-agent solution was displaced through the sandpack at different rates, holding the pressure gradient constant. A constant gas pressure was maintained at the injection face of the sandpack. The relative permeability to the gas and the gas saturation were measured. Gas saturation was determined to be the same at a given flow rate, regardless of whether a foam was present. The relative per- where k=permeability of the porous medium. Heller et al. 141 analyzed a number of experimental results reported in the literature. They restricted their analyses to experiments that met the following conditions. 1. The experiment was conducted under steady-state conditions. The results would thus represent conditions well behind a foamdisplacement front where properties are changing. 2. The foam quality was thought to be fairly uniform along the length of the system. Compressibility effects should therefore be small. Most of the experiments were performed in sandpacks with air/liquid foam. Table 5.53 shows the results. Foam relative mobilities, A" ranged from 0.001 to 0.636 in the data they analyzed. Heller et at. 141 also conducted foam-flow experiments and determined relative mobilities for the foams. Figs. 5.106 and 5.107 show TABLE S.S3-SELECTED FOAM STUDIES141 Ref. 149 Porous medium Sandpack Ref. 151 Sand pack (25 to 120 mesh) Berea core Alundum 0.2 0.125,0.13 0.125 1 0.75 1.06 5.3 to 58 0.26 to 0.48 4.41 Ref. 152 Sand pack (100 to 200 mesh 2 1.5 5 10 14 1.68 1.95 0.1% O.K.TM (1.5% NaCI) 0.075 to 0.35 0.015 to 0.069 Ref. 137 Sandpack Ref. 153 Sandpack (60 mesh) 3.8 11.375 x 0.25 32.7 3.1 1.21 2.0% O.K.TM (0.25 N NaCI) 0.013 to 0.041 0.001 to 0.007 1% Suntech IVTM 3.0 to 3.7 0.09 to 0.11 Ref. 154 Carbonate core Length, ft Diameter, in. 1 to 30 0.5 3 to 150 5 150 1.34 11.20 1% solution 1.5, 1 1.5 3 to 15.7 24 to 84 3,2.7 2x2 0.086 0.114 0.052 50 100 1.02 1.03 1% Alipal CD-128 0.003 to 0.063 0.056 to 0.636 k, darcies f1p, psi Pi/Po' A, darcies/cp A,. Cp-1 0.1 or 1% Aerosol MA 0.006 to 3.5 0.013 to 0.1 0.35 to 0.75 0.01 to 0.06 0.05 to 0.20 0.08 to 0.17 p lip 0 is ratio of (absolute) inlet to outlet pressures. 0.70..--.--..-......- . -......- . . - - . - - . . - - . - - , - - - . - - - , ROCK CREEK SANDSTONE CORE k= 10.8 md 0.2% EMULPHOGENE BC-720 (ISOOCTANE FOAM) ROCK CREEK SANDSTONE CORE k =4.5 md ~D 0.2% EMULPHOGENE BC-720 ,/ (C02 FOAM) ,/ ~ 0.40 QUALITY x 70% .... / /~:;;.;/ ,/~ /" .....;:-:.-- . .,+ -w--:/,; ----~- ---- ------ ---- --- --_. "~;,, "~''~:';I' ~"-)(""" QUALITY o 75'/, .._---.0-....-... "FOAM" DISPLACEMENT VELOCITY. ftID .". + as% 0.000!--'---:5~0-'--"'10!'-'0"""'-~15-=0--'-~20::-::0~~2='=5~0-~300 'FOAM" DISPLACEMENT VELOCITY. IUD Fig. 5.10S-Relative mobility for isooctane foam. 141 Fig. 5.107-Relative mobility for dense CO 2 foam, Core A. 141 typical results. Relative mobility was found to be a function of the average foam velocity, as shown; i.e., mobility increased with increasing velocity. This finding is consistent with the pseudoplastic nature of the foams determined in viscometers. No clear dependence of Ar on foam quality was observed, however. Their analyses of literature results also indicated that Ar is not a strong function of quality over the range of 75% to 90% quality. Example S.IS-Calculation of Foam Relative Permeabilities and Mobilities. Raza 137 measured flow resistance with foam flowing in a sand-packed tube with a diameter of 1.5 in. and a length of 12.0 in. In the experiments, a liquid foaming solution (brine containing surfactant) and nitrogen were simultaneously injected into the sandpack at fixed rates. Pressure drop across the sandpack was monitored, and the injection was continued until steady-state conditions were reached. Gas saturation at the end of the experiment was measured by weighing the tube. Temperature was 25C. Table 5,54 141 summarizes data for one series of runs. With these data, calculate the relative permeability to gas and liquid and the foam mobility and relative mobility as defmed by Heller et al. 141 for the last data entry in Table 5.54. Solution. Relative permeabilities must be calculated by application of Darcy's law. 1.63 atm X 12 in. x2.54 cm/in. Solving for k rg , k rg =2.08X1O- 4 . ( Similarly, for the liquid phase, 2 2 12.2 = 3.0 k rZ (1!'1.5 X2.54 )( 3,600 1.0 2 Solving for krZ' k rZ =1.8X 10- 3 . The definition of mobility is A=(qrIA)/(l1pIL) (76.8+12.2) cm3/hJ[ =[ . 3,600 sec/hr x 12 in. x2.54 cm/in. X(111.63 atm) =0.0406 darcy/cp. Relative mobility is defined as Ar=Alk =(0.0406 darcy/cp)/3.0 darcies =0.135 cp-l. 1.63 12 x2.54 4 1!'(1.5 in.)2(2.54 cm/in.)2 kkrA I1p qr=---, where k=permeability of the sandpack, darcies, kr = relative permeability to a specific fluid, A = cross-sectional area of the sandpack, cm 2, p.=fluid, viscosity, I1p=pressure drop, atm, L=length of sandpack, cm, and qr=volumetric flow rate of the fluid cm 3Is. Substituting the experimental values, for gas, 76.8 cm 3 /h 3,600 sec/hr (3.0 darcies krg )[1!'(1.5 in.)2(2.54 cm/in,)2 ] 0.0178 cp 4 TABLE 5.55-EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE FACTOR OF CHEVRON RESEARCH CO. (CRC) SURFACTANTS IN BRINE'140 Resistance Factor" At 375F At 400F At 425F 27.4 25.1 21.2 21.7 17.5 14.3 22.3 18.6 14.6 27.8 18.9 19.3 28.6 24.3 23.4 19.1 16.3 20.4 17.0 16.3 20.0 17.9 21.4 19.9 16.6 17.0 11.0 1.1 TABLE 5.54-DATA FOR A SERIES OF LOW-RESISTANCE RUNS,141 EXAMPLE 5.18 k Sandpack (rnd) 3,000 (crn 3 /h) 35.7 34.3 62.8 30.2 76.8 IIp (atrn) 5.36 5.73 5.72 1.68 1.63 .!.L Surfactant Stepanflo 30 Suntech IV CRC Sulfonate CRC Sulfonate CRC Sulfonate CRC Sulfonate CRC Sulfonate CRC Sulfonate CRC Sulfonate CRC Sulfonate 6 13 8 1 3a 2 3b 4 'Brine contains 1% NaCI and 500 ppm CaCI2' "Resistance factor = (t.p surfactant + brine + nitrogen)/{t.p brine + nitrogen). lIP' :~4 ro . Oil RECOVERY I" HCPVI 60 -s!- OIL RECOVERY {." HCPVI w ro ." WATER IN INJECTEO WAiER ANO CO 40 30 ~ 60 70 00 ." WATER IN INJECTEO WATER AND CO 2 Fig. 5.108-Effect of mobile water on oil recovery for CO 2 displacements of reservoir crude oil (multiple-contact miscible process), tertiary displacements, water-wet core. 159 Fig. 5.109-Effect of mobile water on oil recovery for CO 2 displacements of reservoir crude oil (multiple-contact miscible process), tertiary displacements, oil-wet core. 159 Flow resistance in foam flow also can be expressed by presenting results in terms of a resistance factor, Fr' 140 This factor is defined as the pressure drop measured across a foam generator through which a mixture of water, surfactant, nitrogen, and water vapor was flowing divided by the pressure drop for the same system without the presence of surfactant. Table 5.55 shows typical data taken at three different temperatures. A number of variables affect foam performance in developing flow resistance. For steamflood applications, Duerksen 140 observed that (1) increasing temperature decreases foamability and performance, (2) increasing noncondensable gas-phase composition (N 2) increases performance, (3) increasing salt concentration in the brine adversely affects performance, and (4) performance is relatively insensitive to foam quality. Foams in steam systems can be generated at the low fluid velocities that occur at relatively large distances away from a wellbore. That is, very little mechanical energy is required to develop a foam if a system is properly designed. In a foam displacement, however, the foam requires continued regeneration to maintain high resistance. The WAG process is discussed in Secs. 5.10.1 through 5.10.4. The water-blocking phenomenon is described first, followed by discussions of flow in one space dimension and volumetric sweep efficiency in two and three space dimensions. Finally, field experiences are briefly summarized. 5.10.1 Effect of Water Blocking on Displacement Efficiency. A number of investigators have shown that the presence of a mobile water phase can adversely affect the displacement of oil by a solvent. As an example, Tiffin and Yellig 159 conducted displacement experiments in linear Berea cores. The cores in their natural state were strongly water-wet. In some cases, the Berea cores were treated chemically to make them oil-wet. The experimental procedure basically consisted of first creating immobile, or connate water saturation by injecting an oil into a core that was 100 % saturated with water to reduce the water saturation to about 31 %. Saturation in the core was next reduced to ROS by waterflooding. Then, CO 2 and water were injected simultaneously at a specified water/C0 2 ratio. Conditions were such that the CO 2 phase would develop miscibility with the oil phase in the manner described in Chaps. 1 and 6. Oil recoveries were determined by material balance. The process was a tertiary recovery process in that the displacements were conducted after a waterflood. Figs. 5.108 and 5.109 159 show results for the water-wet and oilwet cores. In the water-wet cores, the simultaneous injection of water with CO 2 resulted in a significant decrease in recovery; i.e., the water caused oil trapping to occur. The trapped oil was not miscibly displaced. As shown in Fig. 5.109, the effect was much less pronounced in oil-wet Berea cores. Tiffin and Yellig159 showed that, for tertiary CO 2 flooding, mobile water from a previous waterflood did not change overall recovery. Similar results have been presented by several researchers. 157 ,158,160,161 Oil recovery is adversely affected by the presence of mobile water in water-wet cores, but the effect of mobile water is small to negligible in mixed-wet and preferentially oil-wet cores. In these last cases, the roles of prolonged contact and diffusion of the solvent to the trapped oil were shown to be important. 157 ,161 A correlation of the trapping phenomenon is given by Sor Sorwb= , .......................... (5.175) , l+ exk ro/krw 5.10 WAG Process The mobility ratio between injected gas and the displaced oil bank in CO 2 and other miscible gas-displacement processes is typically very unfavorable because of the relatively low viscosity of the injected phase. For example, the viscosity of CO 2 at 110F is about 0.03 cp at 1,500 psia and 0.06 cp at 2,500 psia. 155 Viscosity ratios, 1'-0/I'-C02' for floods conducted in west Texas have been reported to be between 8 and 50. 155 As discussed in Chaps. 3 and 4, an unfavorable mobility ratio results in viscous fingering and reduced volumetric sweep efficiency. A technique developed to overcome this problem is to inject specified volumes, or slugs, of water and gas alternately. Simultaneous flow of the two fluids results in reduction of the mobility of each phase. The combined mobility of the two phases is less than that of the injected gas alone, and thus the mobility ratio in the process is improved. The process is called the water-alternating-gas (IN AG) process. Caudle and Dyes 156 proposed this general method to improve oil recovery in 1958. In WAG injection, water/gas injection ratios have ranged from 0.5 to 4 volumes of water per volume of gas at reservoir conditions. The sizes of the alternate slugs range from 0.1 % to 2 % PV.157 Total or cumulative slug sizes of CO 2 in reported field projects typically have been 15% to 30% HCPV,155,157 although smaller and larger slugs have been used. A problem in the WAG process is that injected water blocks contact between the injected gas phase and resident oil. This reduces displacement efficiency at the pore scale; i.e., it results in a larger ROS. This effect has been found to be a strong function of rock wettability and more detrimental in water-wet rocks. 158 where Sor=ROS following waterflooding, Sor,wb=ROS following miscible displacement in the presence of mobile water, ex = an empirical constant, and k ro and krw are oil and water relative permeabilities, respectively. A value of ex=l.O represents strong oil trapping, while values on the order of 100 represent relatively weak trapping. 161 The correlation was first presented by Raimondi and Torcaso 160 and later modified by Chase and Todd. 162 Fig. 5.110 shows an example of Sor,wb as a function of Sw for different values 0.25..------------~--_, ~ cr ;:) Solvent Ss Sorw Stwb= 1 + a k ro k rw - ~s ..J...-.vo 0;15 Water Sw - r:w Il :.: ..J UJ UJ Fig. 5.111-Secondary WAG displacement. WATER SATURATION, Sw Fig. 5.110-Water-blocking function used in simulation study. 163 of a. 163 The curves also illustrate the effect of water saturation, manifested by kro/krw in the correlation. The correlation given by Eq. 5.175 does not account for the recovery by the diffusion process that occurs in mixed-wet and oil-wet rocks. Lin and Huang 161 give a correlation to account for this time-dependent effect. Clearly, oil trapping in the presence of mobile water, when it occurs, works to the disadvantage of the WAG process. Positive effects from improved mobility ratio may be offset by trapping. Example 5. 18-Oil Trapped by Mobile Water in the WAG Process. Consider flow through a linear Berea core that is strongly waterwet. A solvent is used to displace oil that is at waterflood ROS (Sor=35%). The solvent is injected simultaneously with water. The water/solvent ratio is 1: 1. Fluid viscosities are /tw=1.0 cp and /to =2.0 cpo Calculate the residual saturation caused by water blocking. Solution. From Eq. 5.175, Stalkup 155 , developed equations to describe the condition of equal-velocity flow of solvent and water phases. He chose this condition as an optimum rate to take advantage of the increased mobility resulting from WAG injection. If too little water is injected, so that the solvent velocity is larger, then a solvent bank will form ahead of the water. This will result in an unfavorable mobility ratio at the solvent/oil interface, with resulting fingering of solvent into the oil bank, which would reduce the efficiency of the process. If too much water is injected, the water will move faster than the solvent, resulting in a high water saturation at the solvent/oil interface. Oil trapping is likely to be increased by the higher water saturation. The magnitude of oil trapping depends on rock wettability, as discussed in Sec. 5.10.1. Equations are derived below that allow calculation of the water/solvent injection ratio required for equal water/solvent velocities. The model is for 1D flow and is based on fractional-flow theory. Equations and graphical solutions are presented to describe WAG injection for both secondary and tertiary recovery conditions. * Walsh 164 gives a more comprehensive treatment using fractionalflow theory. Secondary Recovery-Water at Immobile Saturation. Consider the flow condition shown in Fig. 5.111. Oil is displaced by a solvent/water bank in which water and solvent are flowing at equal velocities. The problem is to determine the injection ratio at which the equal-velocity condition holds-Le., vs=vw' Volume balances on solvent and water are made on a differential element located at the interface between the solvent/water bank and the oil bank, as shown in Fig. 5.111. It is assumed here that no oil is bypassed by the solvent/water bank and that there is no solubility of one phase into another. Modified equations that incorporate these effects could be derived easily. Water is assumed to be immobile at the initial saturation, Swi' A balance on solvent over At, the time required for the water/solvent bank to advance a length Ax, yields Assuming that a = 1. 0, 0.35 1 + 1.0 X 1.0/1.0x2.0/1.0 =0.35/(1 +2) =0.12. Water blOCking is estimated to result in a residual saturation of 12 % after miscible displacement. 5.10.2 Displacement in One Space Dimension. In this discussion, flow is considered as though water and solvent were injected simultaneously. This assumption simplifies calculations because injection in field practice occurs as alternate injections of discrete slugs. 155 When discrete slugs are injected, the solvent fingers into the water slug because of the unfavorable mobility ratio. Thus, small slugs dissipate relatively rapidly, approaching a condition of simultaneous injection. VsltHt-Vslt=(Vs)in-(Vs)out ................... (5.176) or A<t>SsAxlt+~t-Olt=qrisAtlin -olout, ............. (5.177) where qt = total flow rate, solvent plus water; is = fractional flow of solvent; A = cross-sectional area; <t>=porosity; Ss = solvent saturation; x=distance; and t=time. Dividing by At and Ax, letting At ..... O and Ax ..... O, and rearranging gives dx s qris - = vs = - - ' .............................. (5.178) dt A<t>Ss A similar balance on water yields dx w qriw , ...................... (5.179) - = v w= dt A<t>(Sw-Swi) where Swi=initial water saturation. Equating vs=vw' 'Personal communication with F.1. Stalkup, Arco Oil & Gas Co., Plano, IX, 1992 .. 1.0 .-----------~..t_---~ u:: Solvent Ss Water v _..,.:s ~ 0.2 J - f- : Oil : Bank SOIW 0.0 I....-~J...--"O"---=::l...---'---'---'----I 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 Fig. 5.112-Secondary WAG process, calculation of water fractional flow. Fig. 5.113-Tertiary WAG displacement. It also must be true that ................................ (5.180) vw=vs=vob' .................................. (5.186) I-fw fw or--= ............................. (5.181) I- S w Sw-Swi where vob is the velocity of the trailing edge of the oil bank. The saturation of the water in the oil bank, Swob, and the water fractional flow'/wob, must satisfy the fractional-flow equation. That is, vob= Solution of Eq. 5.181 gives a value offw that is the ~ected fraction of water required to yield equal water and solvent velocities. Because Sw is unknown, Eq. 5.181 must be solved simultaneously with the solvent/water fractional-flow curve. This is done graphically as shown in Fig. 5.112. Eq. 5.181 indicates that a straight line drawn from the point (1, 1) to (O,Swi) will intersect the point (fw,Sw) on the fractional-flow curve, which satisfies both Eq. 5.181 and the fractional-flow curve. The value offw at this intersection is the desired fractional water flow. dX) (dt qt (IJfw) = ArjJ IJS Swab' w Eqs. 5.185 and 5.187, combined with the solvent/water and oil/water fractional-flow curves, make possible a graphical solution for fw and Sw, as shown in Fig. 5.114. From Eq. 5.185, a line drawn from the point (1,1) through (fw,Sw) on the solvent/ water fractional-flow curve must pass through (fwob, Swob) on the oil/water fractional-flow curve. Thus, 1-fw fw-fwob I-fwob --= = ................... (5.188) I- S w Sw-Swob l - S wob Tertiary Recovery-Oil Initially at Residual Saturation to Waterflooding, Som' Fig. 5.113 shows the displacement for this case. Oil is originally at Sorw' the residual saturation following a waterflood. Simultaneous injection of solvent and water creates an oil bank that flows ahead of the solvent/water banle Again, the problem is to determine the fractional flow of water that will yield equal solvent and water velocities. Volume balances are made on an element located at the interface, as previously shown. As before, it is assumed that no oil is bypassed and that there is no solubility of one phase into another. Stalkup 155 gives corresponding equations with these assumptions removed. A volume balance on solvent over I1t required for the front to advance a distance I1x is given by ArjJSsl1x=qt!sl1t. . ............................. (5.182) Eq. 5.187 requires that this line also be tangent to the oil/water fractional-flow curve at the point (fwob,Swob), as shown in Fig. 5.114. The required water fractional injection rate to attain equal water and solvent velocities is given by the point (fw,Sw) on the solvent/water fractional-flow curve. Application of this solution is illustrated in Example 5.19. Example 5.19-Calculation of Relative Water Injection Rate in a WAG Process, Tertiary Recovery. A WAG tertiary recovery process is to be implemented. The reservoir has previously been waterflooded to So," Relative oil and water permeability data are given Rearranging and letting I1x->O and I1t->O gives dxs qt!s - = vs = - - ' dt ArjJSs k ro =(1-SwD)2.56 ............................. (5.189) 2 , ...................... (5.190) and krw =0.785 S;d where SwD= ........................ (5.191) l-Sor -Siw In the tertiary recovery case, there is water flow ahead of the solvent/water bank and thus the water balance is ArjJSwI1X!tHt-ArjJSwobI1X!t =qt!wl1t!in -qt!wobl1tlout, ...................... (5.183) where Swob = water saturation in the oil bank at the solvent/water and oil-bank interface andfwob = fractional flow of water in the oil bank at the interface. Dividing by I1t and I1x, letting I1t->O and I1x->O, and rearranging gives dx w qt(fw-fwob) - = vw = dt ArjJ(Sw-Swob) ..................... (5.184) Setting vs=vw' fs 1-fw fw-fwob ............. '.......... (5.185) Fig. 5.114-Tertiary WAG process, calculation of water fractional flow. TABLE 5.56-FRACTIONALFLOW DATA, EXAMPLE 5.19 0.36 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.50 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.70 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.80 1.00 0 0.039351852 0.085648148 0.131944444 0.178240741 0.224537037 0.270833333 0.31712963 0.363425926 0.409722222 0.456018519 0.502314815 0.548611111 0.594907407 0.641203704 0.6875 0.733796296 0.780092593 0.826388889 0.872685185 0.918981481 1 1.474537037 0.363 0.38 0.4 0.42 0.44 0.46 0.48 0.5 0.52 0.54 0.56 0.58 0.6 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.68 0.7 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.795 1 Oil/Water Solvent/Water 1 0.902328627 0.795152032 0.69611606 0.604987208 0.52152642 0.445488632 0.376622246 0.314668525 0.259360879 0.210424031 0.167573008 0.13051193 0.098932507 0.072512146 0.050911519 0.033771323 0.020707804 0.011306246 0.005110814 0.001606852 0 0 0 4.65736 x 10 - 6 8.40583 x 10- 5 0.000419493 0.00128415 0.003031524 0.006088657 0.010951425 0.018180961 0.028400806 0.042294557 0.060603866 0.084126722 0.113715938 0.150277811 0.194770917 0.248205027 0.311640111 0.386185428 0.472998694 0.573285297 0.785 3.328655169 0 1.03229 x 10- 5 0.000211382 0.001203787 0.004227267 0.01149198 0.02660743 0.054959775 0.103586232 0.179659555 0.286729983 0.419722354 0.563162462 0.696864879 0.805632778 0.884411099 0.936302321 0.967844428 0.985572825 0.994626464 0.99860052 1 1 0 3.0969 X 10- 7 6.34277 x 10- 6 3.61558 x 10- 5 0.00012734 0.000348646 0.00081937 0.001741642 0.003454712 0.006527297 0.011916102 0.021238526 0.037235325 0.064516348 0.11059487 0.186688029 0.306025325 0.474504057 0.67206763 0.84739618 0.955370151 1 1 Table 5.56 gives the k ro and krw values for S;w=0.363 and Sor=0.205. 0.694-0.363 1-0.205 -0.363 =0.766 and k rw' 785 SwD =0 3.72 =0.785(0.766)3.72 =0.291. Assuming that the solvent relative-permeability/saturation relationship is the same as the oil relative-permeability/saturation relationship, k rs =k ro =(1-SwD)2.56 Water fractional flow is given by fw= 1 1+ (kro/krw)( Jl.w/ Jl.o) and also is tabulated in Table 5.56 for Jl.o/Jl.w=2.0. The residual oil is to be displaced by a WAG injection in which the solvent viscosity, Jl. s' is 0.06 cp at reservoir conditions. The relative injection rates are to be set such that the solvent and water flow at equal velocities in the solvent/water bank that displaces the oil bank. Calculate the fractional water injection rate. Solution. Assume that the relative solvent and water permeabilities are the same as for oil and water. The fractional flow data for solvent and water are in Table 5.56, and Jl.s/Jl.w=0.06. Fig. 5.114 plots fractional-flow curves for oil/water and solvent/water. To determine the required fw, draw a line from the point (1,1) tangent to the oil/water fractional-flow curve, as shown in Fig. 5.114. This line crosses the solvent/water fractional-flow curve at (fw,Sw)' The values read from the figure arefw=0.42 and Sw=0.694. The required injection ratio is thus 42% water and 58% solvent or 0.72 volumes of water per volume of solvent at reservoir conditions. It is also interesting to determine the improvement in mobility ratio that results from the application of the WAG process. This is illustrated in Example 5.20. Example S.20-Mobility Ratio Improvement From Application ofthe WAG Process. With the data and conditions of Example 5.19, determine the improvement in mobility ratio that results from use of the WAG process compared with pure solvent injection. Solution. For the WAG process, =(1-0.766)2.56 =0.024. Thus, (As+Aw)WAG=krs/Jl.s+krw/Jl.w =(0.024/0.06) + (0.29111.0) =0.691. ...................... (5.194) In the oil bank, from Fig. 5.114, Sw=0.50, 0.50-0.363 SwD=------ 1-0.205 -0.363 =0.317, krw =0.785(0.317)3.72 =0.011, k ro =(1-0.317)2.56 =0.377, and (Ao + Aw)ob =krjJl.o +krw/Jl.w =(0.377/2.0) + (0.01111.0) =0.200. . ......................... (5.195) The mobility ratio in the WAG process is M WAG =0.691/0.200=3.46. If the displacing fluid were pure solvent, then the total relative mobility of the displacing fluid would be As=kr/Jl.s _ (As+Aw)WAG WAG, ........................ (5.193) (Ao+Aw)ob where the numerator is the total relative mobility in the water/sol~ent WAG bank and the denominator is the total relative mobility m the oil bank. From Example 5.19, the water saturation in the WAG solvent/water bank is Sw=0.694. Thus, from Eqs. 5.189 through 5.191, _ SwD- Sw-S;w l-S or -S;w =1.0/0.06 =16.67. ,.. ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE 5.57-SUMMARY OF SIMULATION PREDICTION RESULTS FOR THE DOLLARHIDE FIELD STUDY. 163 Waterflood (End of History Match) 42.5 NA NA Waterflood With Infill 50.8 0.0 NA 8.8% HCPV CO 2 Slug 57.5 6.7 0.187 20% HCPV CO 2 Slug 61.5 10.7 0.132 30% HCPV CO 2 Slug 64.1 13.3 0.109 40% HCPV CO 2 Slug 66.2 15.4 0.095 50% HCPV CO 2 Slug 67.9 17.1 0.084 30% HCPV CO 2 1:1 WAG 66.0 15.2 0.125 30% HCPV CO 2 Hybrid 64.8 14.0 0.110 Cumulative oil recovery, % OOIP Incremental oil recovery over infill waterflood, % OOIP Solvent efficiency, bbl/Mcf Continuous Waterflood 48.0 NA NA 'OOIP = 16.0 x 10 6 bbl. Oil recoveries calculated at an economic limit of 90% water cut, or 97% water cut in the field. NA - not applicable. The oil-bank total relative mobility would be the same. Thus, Ms=Asf[O\o+Aw)obl =16.67/0.20 =83.3, .................................... (5.196) where Ms is the mobility ratio with pure solvent displacing the oil/water banle Use of the WAG displacement thus results in an improvement of the mobility ratio by a factor of 83.3/3.46=24. 5.10.3 Volumetric Sweep Efficiency. As discussed in Chap. 4, reduction of the mobility ratio in a displacement process results in an improvement of volumetric sweep efficiency. However, calculation of sweep from the empirical correlations presented in Chap. 4 is probably not justified in a WAG process because of the complex nature of the flow in the region behind the oil bank. In application, the process usually is modeled with computer-based mathematical models. 163,165,166 Limited results from properly scaled physical models have also been reported. 167 As an illustration, a study of the Dollarhide field in west Texas is briefly described. 163 The field has two productive zones separated by a limestone barrier. The lower zone contained approximately 75% of the OOIP. The field is divided into three fault blocks. OOIP was estimated to be about 138 x 10 6 bbl. The field was developed on 40-acre spacing. Recovery was initially by primary production and then by waterflood, which was quite successful. Ultimate recovery by a combination of primary and secondary production was estimated to be 43.1 % OOIP. The reservoir oil has a gravity of 40 0 API and a viscosity of 12.2 cp at reservoir conditions. Initial reservoir pressure was 3,300 psia, and temperature was 120F. The bubblepoint pressure was about 2,830 psia. CO 2 miscibility pressure (discussed in Chap. 6) was 1,650 psia, and thus, a CO 2 miscible flood was considered to be an appropriate EOR process to be applied. '"'"" ,,..... " ~ Infill Case End of Run .. 90% Water Cut CO 2 miscible flooding began in 1985 in the south fault block of the field. A computer simulation was conducted to test various CO 2 injection schemes. These included single-slug CO 2 injection, WAG injection, and a third method called a hybrid process. A computer simulation of the type described by Todd and Longstaff 168 was conducted. In the simulated WAG injection, water blocking was modeled with Eq. 5.175 with a=5.0 on the basis of core experiments. Other parameters used in the model were based on laboratory measurements and history matching of primary and secondary recovery. In the single-slug injection runs, CO 2 slug sizes ranging from 8.8% to 50% HCPV were investigated. An optimum value of30% was determined because, for larger volumes, the incremental oil recovered dropped below 0.1 bbllMcf of CO 2 injected. This CO 2 slug size was used in the WAG simulations. Results of the single-slug runs are shown in Table 5.57, where recoveries are expressed as percent OOIP. The table also shows predicted recoveries for continuation of the waterflood, which was in place, and for continued waterflooding with infill drilling. The infill drilling converted the flood spacing from 80 to 40 acres. The 40-acre spacing was used in all CO2 flooding calculations. All computer runs were terminated at an economic limit corresponding to a producing WOR of 97% water cut. In the WAG runs, predicted behavior was first determined to be relatively insensitive to WAG ratios between 0.5 to 2.0 (volume water/volume CO 2 at reservoir conditions) as long as the total CO 2 slug size was kept constant. A ratio of 1 : 1 was selected for the simulations. Table 5.57 and Fig. 5.115 show the results of the WAG run at these conditions. The WAG process yielded an incremental ultimate recovery of 1.9% OOIP above the single-slug process. As shown in Fig. 5.115, however, oil production response to the injected CO 2 was delayed in the WAG process compared with the single-slug process. Incremental oil in the WAG injection resulted because production was extended about 4 years before the economic limit was reached. The behavior in the WAG injection, compared with the single-slug injection, results from a combination of the increased sweep in the WAG process, the extension in time required to inject the volume of CO 2 , and oil trapping in the WAG process. Although oil recovery is predicted to be higher in the WAG process, the economics may not be as favorable because of the delayed production. Guided by the results of the single-slug and WAG simulations, a third approach, a hybrid CO 2 injection, was examined. This approach used a pre-WAG CO 2 injection of 8.8% HCPV. This was followed by WAG injection at a 1: 1 ratio until a total of 30% HCPV of CO 2 was injected-Le., a total WAG injection of 42.4% HCPV. Table 5.57 and Fig. 5.115 show the results. The hybrid injection scheme yielded a recovery of 1.2 % ?OIP less than the WAG injection, but 0.7 % OOIP more than the smgleslug process. The oil recovery response was essentiall~ identi~al to the single-slug injection. A study to determine the optImum su: e of the pre-WAG slug yielded a value of 5 % HCPV. An econonuc analysis conducted in conjunction with the simulation results showed the hybrid process to be the most attractive of the three schemes. Another approach to the evaluation of the WAG process, but one that has been much less widely used, is to conduct displacement Fig. 5.115-Comparison of predicted oil rates for various C02 injection processes at Dollarhide field. 163 172 ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE 5.57-SUMMARY OF SIMULATION PREDICTION RESULTS FOR THE DOLLARHIDE FIELD STUDY. 163 Waterflood (End of History Match) 42.5 NA NA Waterflood With Infi" 50.8 0.0 NA 8.8% HCPV CO 2 Slug 57.5 6.7 0.187 20% HCPV CO 2 Slug 61.5 10.7 0.132 30% HCPV CO 2 Slug 64.1 13.3 0.109 40% HCPV CO 2 Slug 66.2 15.4 0.095 50% HCPV CO 2 Slug 67.9 17.1 0.084 30% HCPV CO 2 1:1 WAG 66.0 15.2 0.125 30% HCPV CO 2 Hybrid 64.8 14.0 0.110 Cumulative oil recovery, % OOIP Incremental oil recovery over inti" waterflood, % OOIP Solvent efficiency, bbllMcf OOIP = 16.0 x 10 6 bbl. Oil recoveries calculated at an economic limit of 90% water cut, or 97% water cut in the field. NA - not applicable. Ms = As/[(Ao + Aw)ob] = 16.67/0.20 =83.3, .................................... (5.196) where Ms is the mobility ratio with pure solvent displacing the oil/water bank. Use of the WAG displacement thus results in an improvement of the mobility ratio by a factor of 83.3/3.46=24. 5.10.3 Volumetric Sweep Efficiency. As discussed in Chap. 4, reduction of the mobility ratio in a displacement process results in an improvement of volumetric sweep efficiency. However, calculation of sweep from the empirical correlations presented in Chap. 4 is probably not justified in a WAG process because of the complex nature of the flow in the region behind the oil bank. In application, the process usually is modeled with computer-based mathematical models. 163 ,165,166 Limited results from properly scaled physical models have also been reported. 167 As an illustration, a study of the Dollarhide field in west Texas is briefly described. 163 The field has two productive zones separated by a limestone barrier. The lower zone contained approximately 75 % of the OOIP. The field is divided into three fault blocks. OOIP was estimated to be about 138 x 10 6 bbl. The field was developed on 40-acre spacing. Recovery was initially by primary production and then by waterflood, which was quite successful. Ultimate recovery by a combination of primary and secondary production was estimated to be 43.1 % OOIP. The reservoir oil has a gravity of 40 0 API and a viscosity of 12.2 cp at reservoir conditions. Initial reservoir pressure was 3,300 psia, and temperature was 120F. The bubblepoint pressure was about 2,830 psia. CO 2 miscibility pressure (discussed in Chap. 6) was 1,650 psia, and thus, a CO 2 miscible flood was considered to be an appropriate EOR process to be applied. "'", "-..;'.,..... 'fi :::J ~ a. """ / " " .... ". " --", CO 2 miscible flooding began in 1985 in the south fault block of the field. A computer simulation was conducted to test various CO 2 injection schemes. These included single-slug CO 2 injection, WAG injection, and a third method called a hybrid process. A computer simulation of the type described by Todd and Longstaff 168 was conducted. In the simulated WAG injection, water blocking was modeled with Eq. 5.175 with a=5.0 on the basis of core experiments. Other parameters used in the model were based on laboratory measurements and history matching of primary and secondary recovery. In the single-slug injection runs, CO 2 slug sizes ranging from 8.8% to 50% HCPV were investigated. An optimum value of30% was determined because, for larger volumes, the incremental oil recovered dropped below 0.1 bbllMcf of CO 2 injected. This CO 2 slug size was used in the WAG simulations. Results of the single-slug runs are shown in Table 5.57, where recoveries are expressed as percent OOIP. The table also shows predicted recoveries for continuation of the waterflood, which was in place, and for continued waterflooding with infill drilling. The infill drilling converted the flood spacing from 80 to 40 acres. The 40-acre spacing was used in all CO 2 flooding calculations. All computer runs were terminated at an economic limit corresponding to a producing WOR of 97% water cut. In the WAG runs, predicted behavior was first determined to be relatively insensitive to WAG ratios between 0.5 to 2.0 (volume water/volume CO 2 at reservoir conditions) as long as the total CO 2 slug size was kept constant. A ratio of 1 : 1 was selected for the simulations. Table 5.57 and Fig. 5.115 show the results of the WAG run at these conditions. The WAG process yielded an incremental ultimate recovery of 1.9% OOIP above the single-slug process. As shown in Fig. 5.115, however, oil production response to the injected CO 2 was delayed in the WAG process compared with the single-slug process. Incremental oil in the WAG injection resulted because production was extended about 4 years before the economic limit was reached. The behavior in the WAG injection, compared with the single-slug injection, results from a combination of the increased sweep in the WAG process, the extension in time required to inject the volume of CO 2 , and oil trapping in the WAG process. Although oil recovery is predicted to be higher in the WAG process, the economics may not be as favorable because of the delayed production. Guided by the results of the single-slug and WAG simulations, a third approach, a hybrid CO 2 injection, was examined. This approach used a pre-WAG CO 2 injection of 8.8% HCPV. This was followed by WAG injection at a 1: I ratio until a total of 30% HCPV of CO 2 was injected-Le., a total WAG injection of 42.4% HCPV. Table 5.57 and Fig. 5.115 show the results. The hybrid injection scheme yielded a recovery of 1.2 % ?OIP less than the WAG injection, but 0.7% OOIP more than the smgleslug process. The oil recovery response was essentially identical to the single-slug injection. A study to determine the optimum si~e of the pre-WAG slug yielded a value of 5 % HCPV. An econormc analysis conducted in conjunction with the simulation results showed the hybrid process to be the most attractive of the three schemes. Another approach to the evaluation of the WAG process, but one that has been much less widely used, is to conduct displacement MOBILITY-CONTROL PROCESSES TABLE 5.58-INCREMENTAL OIL RECOVERY FROM FIELD CO 2 PROJECTS157 Single-Slug CO 2 Projects Little Creek-sandstone Twofreds-sandstone Garber-sandstone Mead-Strawn-sandstone Shannon, West Sussex-sandstone Maljamar-dolomitic sandstone %OOIP 18 10 WAG CO 2 Projects SACROC (Phase III)-limestone SAC ROC (total)-limestone SAC ROC (pilot)-limestone Slaughter Estate-dolomite South Welch-dolomite Shannon-sandstone North Meadow Creek Levelland-dolomite Average %OOIP 7.6 7.0 6.0 21.0 5.2 2.0 at. 167 conducted displacements in a single-layer bead pack that simulated one-quarter of a five-spot pattern. The pack was 15 x 15 x 1.0 in. They examined effects of pack wettability, WAG injection, and total COz slug size on recovery in secondary and tertiary miscible displacements. Results indicated that tertiary displacements in oil-wet packs tended to be controlled by viscous fingering. The WAG process performed slightly better than single-slug injection, and the optimum WAG ratio was 1: 1. In water-wet packs, the displacements tended to be controlled by gravity tonguing and maximum recovery was obtained with the single-slug process. In summary, both physical modeling and computer simulation have shown that WAG performance is dependent on rock wettability. Oil trapping in water-wet rocks is a significant negative factor. Volumetric sweep can be improved with WAG injection, but a corresponding delay in production response can adversely affect the economics of the process. experiments in a dimensionally scaled physical model. Jackson et Side-by-side areas were established for COz miscible flooding. Continuous COz ~ection was used in one area and a 1 : 1 WAG ratio process in the other. In both areas, an ultimate solvent slug size of 40% HCPV was used. The early oil production response in the area of continuous solvent injection was much more favorable than in the WAG area. As the flood progressed, however, some producing wells in the continuous area tended to high GaR's and had to be shut in. This led the operators to consider a combination, or hybrid, process that consisted of continuous COz slug injection for 4 to 6 years followed by a conventional 1: 1 WAG process. They called this the Denver Unit WAG (DUWAG). Fig. 5.116 compares results of a computer simulation of continuous injection, conventional 1 : 1 WAG injection, and 1: 1 DUWAG injection. The advantage of the combined approach (DUWAG) is shown. Tanner et at. 169 reported that this process is being applied in the Denver Unit, although specific parameters like slug size, WAG ratio, and time at which conversion is mad~ from continuous injection to WAG injection, may vary from location to location within the unit. 5.10.4 Field Experience. Table 5.58 157 summarizes oil recoveries in several field projects. The field, rock lithology, and recovery, expressed as percent OOIP, are shown for several single-slug and WAG COz miscible displacement projects. Rock wettability was not known. COz slug sizes varied in the different projects but were greater than 15% HCPV in all cases. Average recovery in the single-slug projects was 15% OOlP, while it was only 8.2% OOlP in the WAG projects. The Slaughter Estate project was conducted somewhat differently in that a large slug of COz/HzS solvent was injected and this was followed by an equal size N z slug. Both solvent and gas were injected in WAG cycles. The results shown in Table 5.58 raise questions about the efficiency of the WAG process. Data are reported for only a small ~umber of projects, however, and such parameters as slug size, lithology, and waterflood ROS varied significantly among the different projects. Thus, the results shown in Table 5.58 should not be eneral~zed to all WAG applications but should serve as a warning m consIderation of the process. T.here are reported successes, such as the Quarantine Bay pilot tertIary project in a U.S. gulf coast low-dip reservoir.165 Most D..S .. gulf coast miscible projects have been in relatively steeply dIppmg reservoirs, and single-slug processes have been used to de~elop gravity-stable floods. WAG injection was used in Quarantme Bay because the dip is small. Computer simulation predicted !h~t ~e WAG process would perform better than continuous CO 2 mJection. I"n optimum design, based on simulation, was a WAG process wIth a total COz slug volume of 19.5% HCPV and a 1: 1 WAG ratio. In the actual pilot, a slug size of 18.9% HCPVofCO z was used and the WAG ratio was raised to 2 : 1 during the process on the bas~s of later simulation results. Through Oct. 1987, the r~ported pilot recovery was 16.9% OOlP, compared with a predIcted value of 18.3% OOlP. The WAG process was judged to be successful. 165 Single~slug COz displacement was compared with the WAG process m the Denver Unit of the Wasson (San Andres) field of West Texas. 169 The Denver Unit had been successfully water~ooded. ROS after waterflooding was relatively high at 40%, leavmg a large target for COz flooding. 5.1 The viscosity of a 5,OOO-ppm solution of partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide was measured at several shear rates with a coneand-plate rheometer. Table 5.59 gives experimental data as a function of shear rate. Plot the viscosity vs. shear rate on log-log paper and determine the power-law exponent, n, and the power-law constant, K, from the experimental data using least-squares analysis and correlate the viscosity as a function of shear rate. Compare values of the viscosity from the correlation with experimental data. 5.2 Table 5.60 presents viscosity data for a 1,500-ppm biopolymer solution obtained with a cone-and-plate rheometer. The data are ordered in the sequence of shear rates measured. Plot the viscosity vs. shear rate on log-log paper and identify the region of shear-thinning 11:1DUWAG Fig. 5.116-Calculated cumulative incremental EOR recovery vs. time. -r! TABLE 5.59-RHEOLOGICAL DATA FOR 5,OOO-ppm CALGON 834 IN 3% NaCI Shear Rate (seconds- 1) Viscosity (cp) ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE 5.60-RHEOLOGY DATA FOR 1,500-ppm BIOPOLYMER SOLUTION Viscosity (cp) Shear rate (seconds - 1) 1.75 2.083 2.733 3.546 4.661 6.353 8.624 11.95 16.56 23.31 33.04 47.22 68.04 97.68 139:5 199.5 385.7 272.4 205.8 129.1 93.37 57.48 41.5 25.79 19.28 13.11 10.44 624.3 847.1 0.9417 1.8709 2.9696 5.9204 9.417 18.71 29.696 59.2 94.17 187.1 297 0.2976 0.0942 the power-law model given by Eg. 5.20. Compare the correlation with the experimental pressure drops assuming that the flow rate is the independent variable. behavior. Notice that the last two data points were obtained at low shear rates after the sample was subjected to a shear rate of 297 seconds - 1. Is there any evidence of degradation of the polymer caused by shear rate? Fit the data to the Carreau 29 ,30 model (Eq. 5.8) assuming that the viscosity of the polymer at high shear rates is equal to the viscosity of the solvent (2% NaCl at 77F). Compare the measured data with the correlation developed using the Carreau model. 5.3 Table 5.61 gives apparent viscosity data obtained for a 500-ppm solution of partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide flowing through a 804-md sandpack for frontal advance rates (q/A L) ranging from 0.66 to 440 ftID. The porosity of the sandpack is 42%. The polymer is shear thinning with a power-law constant of K=4.76 mPa' s-0.19 and a power-law exponent of 11 =0.815. Examine the data and determine the flow regimes that are present. Correlate the data using Eq 5.20 and determine the polymer-mobility constant, At, and I1c for each flow regime identified. Compare values of the apparent viscosity from the correlation with experimental data. 5.4 Flow experiments were conducted in a Berea sandstone core to determine the flow characteristics of a 1,OOO-ppm solution of xanthan in 1% NaC!. The core was 2 X 2 x 12 in., porosity was 0.197, and permeability to brine was 312 md. Polymer was injected a constant injection rate until the pressure drop stabilized. Flow rates were varied between 0.000138 and 0.4666 cm 3/s. Table 5.62 summarizes the experimental data. Determine the apparent viscosity as a function of Darcy velocity and plot the data. Correlate the data with TABLE 5.61-APPARENT VELOCITY DATA Darcy Velocity (fVD) Apparent Viscosity (cp) 5.5 A displacement experiment was conducted where a 50-ppm xanthan solution in 15,500 ppm NaCl was injected into a Clashach sandstone core to determine the amount of polymer retained. The Clashach sandstone is more than 99.5% quartzitic 170 and has a low concentration of clays. Consequently, retention by adsorption is expected to be low. Table 5.63 summarizes polymer concentration data from this run when 0.995 PV of polymer solution was injected followed by 0.938 PV of brine. The PV of the core was 303 cm 3 , and the porosity was 0.175. Assuming that polymer retention was irreversible, use material-balance calculations to estimate the amount of polymer retained. The length of the core was 100 cm, and the cross-sectional area was 17.35 cm 2. Express the polymer retention as mg/g of rock. The density of the solid matrix may be taken as 2.65 g/cm3 . 5.6 Table 5.64 contains effluent data from an experiment where a 250-ppm solution of partially hydrolyzed polyacrylamide was injected into a sandstone core to determine polymer retention. In this experiment, 570 cm 3 of polymer were injected followed by 138 cm3 of brine. At the end of the experiment, concentration of the polymer in the effluent was below limits of measurement. The core was 15.2 cm long, and the diameter was 5.08 cm. PV of the core was 62.5 cm 3. Initial oil saturation was 0.29. Analyze the effluent data to determine the polymer retention in mg/g rock. Assume that the density of the matrix is 2.65 g/cm 3 . Express the polymer retention in lbm/acre-ft. Use the retention data to estimate the value of Dp for this sandstone. TABLE 5.62-FLOW DATA FOR 1,OOO-ppm XANTHAN IN 1% NaCllN BEREA SANDSTONE Flow Rate (cm 3/s) Pressure Drop (psi/in.) 0.66 0.92 1.9 3.8 5.9 8 10 22 50 95 140 200 300 370 440 3.23 3.2 2.9 2.9 2.9 3.23 2.9 2.9 4.21 6.83 9.44 14.97 22.24 26.74 34.88 0.000138 0.00028 0.00116 0.00306 0.00604 0.0102 0.0224 0.0483 0.10166 0.1533 0.2005 0.2566 0.3666 0.4666 0.034 0.066 0.175 0.31 0.443 0.69 1.0 1.63 2.56 3.44 4.24 5.06 6.56 7.84 Berea core: </>=0.197. k=312 md, and dimensions are 2x2x 12 in. MOBILITY-CONTROL PROCESSES TABLE 5.63-POLYMER CONCENTRATION DATA PV's Injected 0.516 0.659 0.681 0.714 0.736 0.758 0.791 0.813 0.835 0.868 0.890 0.912 0.956 0.978 1.000 1.022 1.044 1.077 1.099 1.132 1.154 1.187 1.209 1.242 1.264 1.286 1.319 1.363 1.396 1.418 1.440 GIGo 0.000 0.007 0.054 0.108 0.196 0.297 0.385 0.486 0.568 0.622 0.689 0.743 0.784 0.804 0.838 0.838 0.858 0.899 0.899 0.919 0.959 0.939 0.959 0.953 0.959 0.980 0.980 0.959 1.000 1.000 0.980 PV's Injected 1.451 1.495 1.528 1.550 1.572 1.605 1.627 1.649 1.682 1.704 1.726 1.759 1.792 1.803 1.836 1.858 1.880 1.913 1.935 1.968 1.990 2.023 2.045 2.067 2.100 2.122 2.144 2.166 2.199 2.232 2.254 480 psi, and the injection well is on lO-acre spacing. Laboratory data are available on the injectivity of a 1,900-ppm polyacrylamide solution (at reservoir temperature) into core taken from the reservoir zone; Table 5.6S presents these data. Estimate the BHP in the injection well after 30 days of continuous polymer injection at a rate of 250 BID. 5.11 The expressions for pressure drop in an injection well developed in Sec. 5.4.4 do not account for the presence of wellbore damage (positive skin) or wellbore enhancement (negative skin). Conventionally, the skin is introduced into fluid-flow calculations by assuming that there is a hypothetical damaged region of radius rs with permeability k.\. in the immediate vicinity of the wellbore. The skin is defined by Eq. 5.197 when the viscosity of the flowing fluid is the same in the reservoir and the damaged region. k s = ( ks rs I ) In I'll" Develop the appropriate form ofEq. 5.60 when there is a skin. What assumptions do you need to make regarding the properties of polymer flowing through the region represented by the "skin"? 5.12 The polymer tested in laboratory experiments in Problem 5.3 is to be injected into an unconsolidated sand formation down casing. Table 5.69 gives the reservoir data. Injection of polymer into this well at a rate of 500 BID is desired. Compare pressure drop between the injection well and an observation well located 216 ft away. The reservoir is watered out and at ROS. Estimate the pressure drop as a function of volume of polymer injected for the first 15,000 bbl of polymer. Plot pressure drop vs. volume of polymer injected and time of injection. Polymer retention is neglected, and there is no skin in the well. 5.13 Use the properties in Problem 5.12 and estimate the injection rate as a function of time for 30 days when the pressure drop between the injection well and the observation well is maintained at 500 psi. 5.14 Consider the injection of a 500-ppm xanthan solution into a 2.S-acre five-spot pattern in a reservoir that has two layers with properties given in Table 5.70. To simplify the calculations, assume that polymer displaces oil in a piston-like manner. There is no communication between layers. Polymer injection is to be done by maintaining a constant pressure drop of 500 psi between the injection well and the effective radius of the pattern. Using the flow properties of xanthan in Berea sandstone core developed by Willhite and Uhl 26 (Eqs. 5.23c, 5.23d, and 5.23g), estimate the injection rate for each layer for the first 30 days of injection. Estimate the injection rate for the well by combining the injection rates for each layer at the same point in time. Assume that the polymer flow is Newtonian when the Darcy velocity is less than 0.1 ftID. Retention of polymer is neglected. 5.15 A reservoir has two productive zones that are separated by an impermeable shale stringer. Table 5.71 gives zone properties. An estimate the injection rate into a watered-out well in the central part of the field is wanted in connection with preliminary studies of a polymer flood. The region around the well is at ROS. A xanthan polymer will be used at a concentration of600 ppm. Table 5.12 gives the rheological properties ofxanthan biopolymer. The residual resistance factor is 1.10. Retention of polymer is neglected. 1. Derive a relationship to predict the injection rate of a shearthinning fluid in radial flow using the correlation of Cannel a et al. 63 (Eqs. 5.29 through 5.31) to estimate the apparent viscosity of the polymer solution as a function of the Darcy velocity. The pressure drop, /':;.p, is known between the injection well and the effective radius of the pattern, reo Assume piston-like displacement of the resident brine by the polymer. Limit your relationship to the shear-thinning flow regime. 2. Estimate the injection rate (in barrels per day) into each zone when the radius of the polymer front is 20 ft from the wellbore. re = 300 ft, and /':;.p between the injection well and re is 750 psi. The effective wellbore radius is 0.75 ft. 3. Estimate the time (in days) for the polymer front to reach a radius of 20 ft in each zone. 5.7 Table 5.65 summarizes dispersion data for the Clashach sandstone core described in Problem 5.5. Compare these data with the polymer concentration in the effluent from Problem 5.5. Estimate the IPV for this polymer in Clashach sandstone. 5.S A SOD-ppm solution of polyacrylamide is to be injected into a reservoir through a slirnhole completion. This completion is 27/g-in. tubing cemented to the surface in a 53/g-in. hole. The productive formation was completed open hole. The polymer injection rate is expected to be I BID-ft. The reservoir is a consolidated sandstone with a porosity of 0.20 and a permeability to brine at Sor of IO md. Using Maerker's6g correlation, estimate the loss in screen factor and solution viscosity resulting from shear degradation this polymer. 5.9 A xanthan biopolymer (C = 1,500 ppm) is to be used for mobility control in a waterflood in a sandstone reservoir. Flow characteristics of the biopolymer are given by the correlations developed by Willhite and Uhl 26 in Eqs. 5.23e through 5.23g; Table 5.66 gives properties of the reservoir. An injectivity test is planned in a watered-out five-spot pattern with a pattern area of 5 acres. Predict the pressure drop between the injection well and the effective radius of the pattern as a function of volume of polymer injected when 5,000 bbl of polymer is injected at a constant rate of 10 BID-ft. Plot presSure drop as a function of volume of polymer injected (barrels). Assu~.e that the region around the wellbore is at ROS and the permeabIlity to water at ROS is 50 md. The polymer is shear thinning until the Darcy velocity is less than 0.1 ftID. Polymer retention is 40 Ibm! acre-ft. The density of the water is 62.4lbm!ft3 at reservoir temperatur.e. Find the fraction of polymer retained. Determine the time reqUIred for the injectivity test. .5.10 A test is planned to evaluate the injectivity of a polyacrylamIde solution into a 20-ft reservoir zone. Table 5.67 gives properties of the reservoir and rock. The region around the injection well is at w~terflood ROS. Transient well testing indicated that there was no skm damage to the well from prior testing. The reservoir pressure is ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE 5.64-EFFLUENT DATA FOR 250-ppm PARTIALLY HYDROLYZED POLYACRYLAMIDE INJECTED INTO SANDSTONE CORE Polymer Concentration (ppm) Cumulative Effluent Volume (cm 3 ) Polymer Concentration (ppm) Cumulative Effluent Volume (cm 3 ) 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 0.0 0.0 3.2 9.6 30.6 72.5 110.8 133.0 150.0 162.0 170.8 179.0 183.0 187.5 191.6 193.2 196.3 196.3 203.0 205.2 205.2 207.0 207.4 207.4 209.0 212.0 212.0 217.0 212.0 217.0 226.0 217.0 221.0 221.0 221.0 217.0 217.0 217.0 221.0 221.0 226.0 226.0 250.0 56.0 212.0 212.0 212.0 212.0 6.0 36.0 42.0 48.0 54.0 60.0 66.0 72.0 78.0 84.0 90.0 96.0 102.0 108.0 114.0 120.0 126.0 132.0 138.0 144.0 150.0 156.0 162.0 216.0 222.0 228.0 234.0 240.0 246.0 252.0 258.0 264.0 270.0 276.0 282.0 288.0 294.0 300.0 306.0 312.0 318.0 324.0 330.0 336.0 342.0 348.0 354.0 360.0 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 77 78 80 81 83 84 88 89 90 91 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 113 114 115 116 117 118 215.0 215.0 212.0 244.0 215.0 215.0 215.0 230.0 208.0 215.0 210.0 210.0 199.0 199.0 197.0 197.0 190.0 190.0 181.0 181.0 179.0 179.0 172.0 167.0 167.0 167.0 172.5 176.2 161.1 123.8 107.0 73.3 56.4 47.2 36.7 28.8 21.0 11:;.7 10.5 7.8 5.2 5.2 2.6 2.6 2.0 1.0 0.0 366.0 372.0 378.0 390.0 396.0 402.0 408.0 414.0 420.0 426.0 432.0 438.0 444.0 462.0 468.0 480.0 486.0 498.0 504.0 528.0 534.0 540.0 546.0 558.0 564.0 570.0 576.0 582.0 588.0 594.0 600.0 606.0 612.0 618.0 624.0 630.0 636.0 642.0 648.0 654.0 660.0 678.0 684.0 690.0 696.0 702.0 708.0 5.16 A polymer flood is being proposed for a thin reservoir that contains a 20-cp oil. Table 5.72 summarizes properties of the reservoir, rock, and fluids. The reservoir energy was limited, and primary recovery was negligible. Because ofthe high oil viscosity, a polymer flood is under consideration. Laboratory tests indicate that a polymer concentration of 300 ppm will increase the viscosity of field brine to 5 cp at the frontal-advance rates expected in the reservoir. Polymer retention at the 300-ppm injected polymer concentration is 20 mg/g, and the density of the rock matrix is 2.65 g/cm3. IPV is 0.20. Estimate the oil recovery for a linear polymer flood in this reservoir as a function of PV's of polymer injected to a WOR ratio of 20. Plot oil recovery vs. PV's of polymer injected. Eqs. 3.14 through 3.16 give relative permeabilities for the rock and fluid pairs. Assume that oil and water FVF's are 1.0. 5.17 Consider the possibility of injecting a 0.25-PV slug of polymer in Problem 5.16 followed by continuous injection of brine. The amount of polymer is not sufficient to satisfy retention. Thus, the brine will overtake the polymer bank somewhere in the system and the polymer flood will revert to a waterflood. Table 5.73 contains the location of each water saturation when the saturation evolved as the drive water displaces the polymer region. This table was prepared by running PREAR in Appendix C and choosing selected values from the output. Table 5.73 also includes values of JII" and J:,.,corresponding to each saturation SII'" MOBILITY-CONTROL PROCESSES TABLE 5.65-DISPERSION DATA PV's Injected 0.593 0.670 0.692 0.714 0.736 0.769 0.791 0.813 0.846 0.868 0.901 0.923 0.945 0.978 1.000 1.022 1.044 1.077 1.099 1.132 1.154 1.187 1.220 1.242 1.264 1.286 1.319 1.341 1.363 1.418 1.462 1.495 1.528 177 TABLE 5.66-RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTIES CICo 0.000 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.007 0.014 0.020 0.041 0.074 0.128 0.196 0.277 0.365 0.459 0.554 0.635 0.709 0.770 0.824 0.872 0.899 0.926 0.946 0.959 0.966 0.980 0.986 0.993 0.986 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.014 PV's Injected 1.550 1.583 1.605 1.627 1.649 1.682 1.704 1.737 1.759 1.781 1.803 1.836 1.858 1.913 1.935 1.968 1.990 2.023 2.045 2.067 2.089 2.122 2.155 2.177 2.210 2.232 2.254 2.287 2.309 2.342 2.364 2.386 CICo 1.000 0.993 1.000 1.000 1.000 0.986 0.980 0.980 0.959 0.932 0.905 0.865 0.811 0.676 0.595 0.520 0.446 0.372 0.311 0.250 0.203 0.162 0.122 0.095 0.068 0.047 0.034 0.027 0.020 0.020 0.007 0.000 Wellbore radius, ft Porosity, fraction Water viscosity at reservoir temperature, cp Thickness, ft ROS, fraction 0.5 0.20 0.9 20 0.25 profile as a function of dimensionless distance for the linear system (0 S:XD s: 1). 3. Detennine the oil recovery by waterflooding and the remaining mobile oil that is potentially recoverable by polymer flooding. 4. Continuous injection of polymer is to be considered with the same polymer and rock characteristics used in Problem 5.16. Will an oil bank fonn when polymer injection is started? Why or why not? 5.19 A reservoir consists of two layers separated by a penneability barrier so that there is no flow between layers except at the wellbores. The permeability of the upper layer and lower layers is 1,400 and 33 md, respectively. Table 5.74 gives other properties ofthe reservoir. A detennination of the potential of a polymer flood for this reservoir is desired assuming that displacement is linear. The wells are on 1O-acre spacing so that the distance between rows of injection and production wells is 660 ft. Polymer is retained by the reservoir rock; Table 5.74 gives the values of polymer retention at the injected concentration of 250 ppm. Retention is assumed to be irreversible, and the density of the rock matrix is taken as 2.65 g/cm 3 . The effective IPV is 0.25. Relative penneability relationships given by Eq. 3.197 and 3.198 are assumed to be applicable for both layers. Use constants in Table 3.20 for Layers 1. aw = - 3 for Layer 2. 1. Estimate the oil recovery(in STB) as a function of volume of polymer injected into each layer until the WOR exceeds 100 in each layer. Compare the displacement perfonnance with that expected from a waterflood under the same conditions. 2. Estimate injection and production rates as a function oftime if the pressure difference between the injection and production wells is maintained constant at 1,000 psi. 5.20 Estimate the oil recovery from polymer flooding in Problem 5.19 using the Dykstra-Parsons model to describe fluid displacement. What assumptions must be made to use the Dykstra-Parsons model? What is the anticipated effect of these assumptions on the projected oil recovery? 1. Draw the saturation profile when polymer injection ends and just before drive-water injection begins. Label all regions, including polymer, oil bank, and the region at initial water saturation. 2. Draw the saturation profile when the polymer bank disappears. Label all regions that are still within the linear system (i.e., oS:XD s: 1). 3. Determine the oil recovery (in PV's) at this point in the polymer flood. 4. How much incremental oil is from polymer flooding? 5. How many PV's of polymer and brine must be injected when Sw2=0.54624? 6. Draw the saturation profile when S.v2 = 0.54624 and detennine the oil recovery (in PV's). Compare with the waterflood recovery at the same number of PV's of water injected. 5.21 The U.S. Dept. of Energy (DOE) has placed in the public domain a computer program to calculate perfonnance of a polymer flood in a five-spot pattern. Program documentation and diskettes are available from the U.S. DOE, Bartlesville, OK.86 The program name is polymer flood predictive model (PFPM). The program can be used to simulate a standard waterflood as well as a polymer-augmented waterflood. Example problems are presented as a part of the documentation. The program is designed to be run on a personal computer. Use the PFPM program to make the calculation described in Example 5.14, a polymer-augmented waterflood. Run the comparable waterflood and compare the results. 5.22 Investigate the effect of polymer retention on the polymer flood recovery in Example 5.14 by varying the amount of polymer retained between 50 and 200 Ibmlacre-ft. Compare the predicted oil recovery by plotting oil recovery in barrels vs. volume of fluid injected. TABLE 5.6B-LABORATORY INJECTIVITY DATA FOR 1,900-ppm POLYMER AT RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE Darcy Velocity (ftlD) 200 100 50 10 Mobility (md/cp) 9.1 11.0 13 10 5.18 The polymer flood in Problem 5.16 will not begin until late in the life of the waterflood, when the WOR is 10. 1. Find the numberofPV's of water injected when the WOR is 10. 2. Detennine the saturation profile at a WOR of 10 and plot the TABLE 5.67-RESERVOIR AND ROCK PROPERTIES Porosity, fraction Permeability to air, md ROS, fraction' Oil gravity, API Oil viscosity, cp Brine viscosity at 150F, cp Brine mobility at Sor, md/cp Effective wellbore radius, ft 0.31 570 0.30 27 0.45 73 0.37 Resistance Factor' 8.0 6.6 5.6 7.3 'Sased on brine mobility of 73 mdlcp at ROS. 178 TABLE S.69-RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTIES Porosity, fraction Thickness, ft Viscosity of water at reservoir temperature, cp Permeability to brine at residual oil saturation, m~ Residual oil saturation Distance to observation well, ft Wellbore radius, ft 0.32 10 0.5 804 0.3 216 0.333 ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY TABLE S.71-ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTIES Layer 1 0.2 5 500 50 1.0 1.0 Layer 2 0.18 50 50 5.0 1.0 1.0 Porosity, fraction Thickness, ft kw, md kwat Sor, md Itw, cp It"" cp TABLE S.7D-RESERVOIR, ROCK, AND FLUID PROPERTIES Layer 1 10 200 20 0.30 0.3 10 0.25 Layer 2 10 20 1 0.35 0.40 20 0.15 TABLE S.72-FLUID AND ROCK PROPERTIES Oil viscosity, cp Water viscosity, cp Initial water saturation, fraction ROS, fraction Porosity, fraction Oil viscosity, cp Water viscosity, cp ko at Siw, md kw at Sor, md Sor Siw Thickness, ft Porosity, fraction 20 0.9 0.30 0.35 0.20 1.0 0.5 3 2 5.23 A permeability modification treatment with a gelled-polymer system is planned for a well that contains three zones with properties given in Table 5.75. The plan is to treat Zone A with a gelling solution by isolating this zone. Zone A is watered out and is at waterflood ROS. The gelling solution contains 5,000 ppm polyacrylamide and a crosslinking agent. A treatment radius of75 ft is desired. Estimate the injection rate as a function of time when a !:l.p = 1,000 psi is maintained between the injection wellbore (downhole) and the mean reservoir pressure of 500 psi (at at radius of 500 ft from the injection well). The data in Problem 5.1 give the apparent viscosity of the polymer solution. Because the gel time of this gelling solution is several days, assume that the gelling solution has the same apparent viscosity as the polymer solution. The following data were obtained from a single flow test in formation core from Zone A at reservoir temperature. ROS was 0.325, brine mobility at Sal' was 399 mdlcp, and polymer mobility was 28.5 mdlcp at a Darcy velocity of 1 ftID. Use Eg. 5.24 to estimate polymer mobility by assuming that n = nc. Because core data are limited, shear thickening cannot be considered. The maximum polymer mobility is 399 mdlcp in the upper Newtonian region. Neglect retention in the porous rock. The effective radius of the well is 1.0 ft. 5.24 Fig. 5.117 shows an injection well in a reservoir with two intervals of significantly different permeability; Table 5.76 gives reservoir and rock properties. The well was hydraulically fractured with a fracture extending to a distance of 150 ft on both sides from the injection (Fig. 5.118). Both layers are exposed to the fracture. Water now flows preferentially in the high-permeability zone, leading to high WOR's in surrounding production wells and incomplete sweep of the low-permeability zone. It is desired to treat the well with a gelled polymer solution to reduce the permeability in the high-permeability zone. For this problem, assume that the fracture width is large so that the flow resistance in the fracture is neglected. Both layers will be exposed to the gelling solution. To simplify the problem, assume that both layers are at ROS. The pressure drop between the injection well TABLE S.73-EVOLUTION OF DRIVE-WATER SATURATIONS AND FRACTIONAL-FLOW PROPERTIES* Timestep XOpr 0.25 0.2503635 0.2517437 0.2543966 0.2586734 0.2650743 0.2743342 0.2875752 0.3065976 0.3344691 0.3768792 0.3822314 0.4089426 0.4357038 0.4624649 0.4892261 0.5159873 0.5427485 0.5695095 0.5962704 0.6230313 0.6497921 0.6499997 0.6406955 0.6302759 0.6200511 0.6098636 0.599849 0.5900613 0.5805492 0.5714161 0.5628135 0.5548559 0.54624 0.5348689 0.5234978 0.5121267 0.5007557 0.4893846 0.4780135 0.4666424 0.4552714 0.4439003 0.432529 1.0000000 0.9999982 0.9999819 0.9999325 0.9998268 0.9996394 0.9993423 0.9989067 0.998309 0.9975387 0.9966018 0.9952849 0.9929364 0.9896862 0.985244 0.9792309 0.9711508 0.9603554 0.9460003 0.9269941 0.9019462 0.8691297 0.0000000 0.0005859 0.0028607 0.0071753 0.0140557 0.0239688 0.0374292 0.0549568 0.0768899 0.1031648 0.133363 0.1738021 0.2424807 0.3334123 0.4534099 0.6114262 0.8191773 1.0918664 1.4488981 1.914335 2.5164993 3.2855868 0 10 0.0008209 20 0.0039957 30 0.0102422 40 0.0205573 50 0.0363768 60 0.0598302 70 0.0941957 80 0.1447629 0.2205935 90 100 0.33855 101" 0.3537569 106 0.384759 111 0.4186434 116 0.4558527 121 0.4969143 126 0.542457 131 0.5932317 136 0.6501344 141 0.7142298 146 0.7867724 151 t 0.8692164 'When 0.25 PV of polymer is displaced by drive water. "Polymer flood front overtaken by drive water. tSaturation discontinuity eliminated at rear of oil bank. MOBILITY-CONTROL PROCESSES TABLE 5.74-RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTIES Porosity Permeability, md Thickness, ft Initial water saturation ROS, fraction Viscosity of water, cp Viscosity of oil, cp Oil FVF, bbl/STB polymer retention, mg/g Effective IPV, fraction Apparent viscosity of polymer solutions, cp Layer 1 0.248 1,400 8 0.136 0.325 0.63 2.36 1.05 30 0.25 6.3 Layer 2 0.146 33 20 0.410 0.325 .0.63 2.36 1.05 60 0.25 6.3 TABLE 5.75-PRODUCTIVE-ZONE PROPERTIES Porosity, fraction Thickness, ft Permeability, md Zone A 0.248 8 1,400 Zone B 0.187 18.8 319 ZoneC 0.146 20.2 33 TABLE 5.76-RESERVOIR ROCK AND FLUID PROPERTIES Porosity, fraction ROS, fraction Permeability to water at ROS, darcy Water viscosity, cp Gelling-solution viscosity, cp Thickness, ft Layer 1 0.3 0.2 0.125 1 50 20 Layer 2 0.35 0.2 1.25 1 50 10 and the production wells is maintained at 250 psi. 1. Develop the expression for the injection rate of gelling solution into each layer as a function of the depth of penetration assuming linear flow between the injection and the production well. 2. Find the distance that the gelling solution penetrated in both layers if the gelling solution is injected for a period of 7 days. 3. Estimate the volume of polymer injected into each layer in the 7 days of injection. 4. Determine the water-injection rate into each layer if the permeability to water is reduced by a factor of 500 in the region contacted by the gelling solution. 5. Compare the water-injection rates before and after treatment and determine the percentage of the injected fluid that enters each layer. 5.25 A micellar-polymer flood is to be designed for a reservoir which has been waterflooded to ROS. Viscosities of the oil and formation water at reservoir temperature are 3 and 0.9 cp, respectively. Eqs. 3.14 through 3.16 give relative permeability relationships, and Table 5.77 gives rock and fluid properties. Determine the mobility of the micellar-polymer solution required to obtain mobility control in the displacement. 5.26 The micellar-polymer solution in Problem 5.25 reduces the ROS from 0.35 to 0.10. A xanthan biopolymer is to be used for mobility control. If the Darcy velocity for the displacement is 1 ftID, what should the concentration of the polymer solution be to maintain mobility control between the polymer buffer and the micellar-polymer solution? Permeability of the reservoir rock to oil at interstitial water saturation and the permeability at 100% oil saturation is 100 md. Eq. 5.161 gives the permeability of water as a function of maximum water saturation. Assume that the Willhite and Uhl 26 correla- TABLE 5.77-RELATIVE PERMEABILITY PARAMETERS 1.0 0.3 3 2 tion (Eqs. 5.23a through 5.23g) gives the flow properties of the polymer in reservoir rock. 5.27 A WAG process is to be implemented on a reservoir that was previously waterflooded to a ROS, SOT' Eqs. 5.189 and 5.190 give relative oil and water permeabilities, respectively, of Siw = 0.363 and Sor = 0.205. Residual oil is to be displaced by a WAG process where the solvent viscosity is 0.04 cpo Water and oil viscosities are 1.0 and 3.0 cp, respectively. Water and solvent injection rates are to be set so that the water and solvent flow at equal velocities in the solvent/water bank that displaces the oil bank. Calculate the relative water and solvent injection rates. Assume linear flow, as in Example 5.19. 5.28 Refer to Problem 5.27. 1. Calculate the mobility ratio for the WAG process. 2. Compare the mobility ratio for the WAG process with the ratio that would hold if residual oil were displaced by pure solvent. -y--! 120 ft 1 1250 md Fig. 5.117-Cross section of reservoir between injection and production wells. ................................ -................................1 Fig. 5.118-Plan view of well layout and orientation of vertical fracture in the injection well. Nomenclature a = correlation constant, permeability to water after polymer contact aw = constant in relative correlation in Eq. 3.198 a 1 = correlation constant, Langmuir isotherm model a2 = correlation constant, non-Newtonian flow in porous media a3 = correlation constant, Eq. 5.168 A = cross-sectional area, L2, ft2 Ai = retention of polymer, mlm, Jlg/g rock Ap = area of five-spot pattern, L2, acres b = correlation constant, permeability to polymer after polymer contact b 1 = correlation constant, Langmuir isotherm model b 2 = correlation constant, non-Newtonian flow in porous media B = FVF, L3 IL3, bbllSTB Boi = initial oil FVF, L 3 /0, bbllSTB C = polymer concentration, mlm, ppm C = retention of polymer, mlm, g polymer/g rock Co = injected polymer concentration, mlm, g/cm 3 Co = retention of polymer at Co, mlm, g polymer/g rock Cp = polymer cost, MIO ($/bbl) d = diameter, L, ft d = mean sand grain diameter, L, ft . Dp = retention factor, d' ImensIOnless = fractional flow, L3 IL3, volume fraction 1,' = derivative of Iw with respect to Sw w = fractional flow of water . . L3/L3 III polymer regIOn, (volume fraction) 1,'* = derivative of with respect to S;t . = derivative of Iw in polymer region with respect to S;t Iwf = fractional flow of water at Swj l:v.r = derivative of Iw w~th respect to Swat Swf 1,'* = derivative of WIth respect to S;t at S;t= I-Sop wo L 3/L3 (volume fraction) Iwob = fractional flow of water in oil bank ahead ~f solvent/water bank, L3 IL3, volume fractIOn i' Jwr = fractional flow of drive water at rear of polymer bank, 010, volume fraction I.:, = derivative of'!'vr with respect to Sw at Swr I:r = fractional flow of water at rear of polymer bank, L3 IL3, volume fraction I';': = derivative of Iwr with respect to Swat Swr Iwl = fractional flow of water at Swl, L3 IL3, volume fraction 1';'1 = derivative of Iw with respect to Swat Swl 1';'3 = derivative of Iw with respect to Swat Sw3 1:3 = fractional flow of water at polymer-flood front, L3 IL3, volume fraction '* / w3 = derivative of fractional flow of water with respect to S;t at polymer-flood front Fr = resistance factor for porous matrix during flow of polymer solution, dimensionless Frr = residual resistance factor for porous matrix after contact with polymer solution, dimensionless Fs = screen factor, dimensionless Fwo = WOR, L3 IL3, bbllbbl G' = storage modulus, m/U2, Pa h = formation thickness, L, ft k = absolute permeability, L2, md or Jlm 2 kb = base permeability for relative permeability correlatio	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1385
__label__cc	0.594556	0.405444	Tuesday News: Romantic attraction, running, SFF & Mormonism, and Barbie appeals to boys JanetPublishing NewsBarbie / gender / Mormonism / research / romantic attraction / Running / SFF / stereotypes / toys / Writers7 Comments Why We Are Attracted to Deviant Personalities – Given the discussions we have in Romance about what makes a “good” or “healthy” relationship, this study is pretty interesting. At this point, though, it seems like there are many more qualifications and limitations than conclusions, especially given the potential failures in self-reporting, the number of subjects, and the myriad reasons people are attracted to each other and the circumstances under which relationships do and do not succeed. Still, some provocative tendencies, however valid they are (or are not) as actual findings: The study results show both males and females who were pathologically reckless and impetuous attracted more short-term partners than participants with average personalities. And obsessive-compulsive males—but not females—were successful at securing long-lasting mates, an outcome strongly associated with this group’s high income (obsessive-compulsives made nearly twice as much as the less obsessive study participants), Gutiérrez says. The study results also revealed that neurotic females were more likely to be in lasting relationships. The most neurotic female participants had 34 percent more long-term mates and 73 percent more children than average despite exhibiting a trait typically associated with instability, anxiousness and insecurity, he explains. – Scientific American Why Writers Run – Another of the pieces I’ve been seeing more of lately in The Atlantic — namely a short, provocative essay that raises some interesting questions and issues but doesn’t really delve deep. Do writers love to run? I’ve lately noticed a lot of Romance heroes who love to run, often when they’re pissed at the heroine for something, but how solid is this stereotype about writers? And is it more about the sedentary work posture of the writer than about some kind of zen creativity? Why do writers so often love to run? Running affords the freedom of distance, coupled with the literary appeal of solitude. There’s a meditative cadence to the union of measured breaths and metered strides. Writers and runners both operate on linear planes, and the running writer soon realizes the relationship between art and sport is a mutually beneficial one. The novelist Haruki Murakami, a former Tokyo jazz-bar manager who would smoke 60 cigarettes a day, started running to get healthy and lose weight. His third novel had just been published, but he felt his “real existence as a serious writer [began] on the day that I first went jogging.” Continual running gave him the certainty that he could “make it to the finishing line.” – The Atlantic Sci-Fi Writer William Shunn: The Book of Mormon Is a Lot Like Lord of the Rings – I’ve been vacillating for two days about whether to post this story, but my curiosity won out. Curiosity about what other people (especially Mormons) think about Shunn’s figuration of Joseph Smith as an unintentional inspiration to Mormon SFF writers. His comments on how his parents discouraged him from writing Science Fiction, because it was “evil” are set against the relatively large Utah SFF writing community, centered at Brigham Young University. “I consider Joseph Smith to be the ur-science fiction writer of Mormonism. He essentially invented a whole fantasy world in The Book of Mormon—at least that’s how I look at it. And in fact he was a fan fiction writer too, because The Book of Mormon is nothing if not Bible fan fiction. If you look at The Book of Mormon as his Lord of the Rings, the rest of his theology is kind of like The Silmarillion—he went back and filled in all the history and cosmology of the universe. … I look at The Book of Mormon as Joseph Smith’s first novel, and he commits the same sin that any writer does when they’re writing their first novel. He seems to be the main protagonist through the first part of the novel. … There are all kinds of interesting parallels between Joseph’s life and The Book of Mormon, and I really think that [Nephi] is the Mary Sue in that book.” – Wired Boy Stars in New Barbie Commercial – The new trend toward gender neutrality in toys goes right to the wall with this new Moschino Barbie commercial (note also the racial diversity). Although there may be some other stereotyping going on here, re. boys and fashion, it’s still a big step forward. – The Advocate isn't sure if she's an average Romance reader, or even an average reader, but a reader she is, enjoying everything from literary fiction to philosophy to history to poetry. Historical Romance was her first love within the genre, but she's fickle and easily seduced by the promise of a good read. She approaches every book with the same hope: that she will be filled from the inside out with something awesome that she didnÊ¼t know, didnÊ¼t think about, or didnÊ¼t feel until that moment. And she's always looking for the next mind-blowing read, so feel free to share any suggestions! → Janet Previous article: New Releases, Week of November 17, 2015 Next Post: REVIEW: Lucia in London and Mapp and Lucia by E. F. Benson I’m a post Mormon, so I had to check out the wired article (mostly to make sure it mentioned Orson Scott Card, who actually has a fictionalized SFF series about JOseph smith–the Alvin Maker books. Also, Mormon theology/cosmology certainly lends itself to SFF. See parallels between the King Follet Discourse (a funeral sermon JS gave) and Battlestar Gallactica. http://mormonthink.com/glossary/battlestargalactica.htm JPeK “Joseph Smith as an unintentional inspiration to Mormon SFF writers” … As someone who was raised in a multi-generation Mormon family in Salt Lake City (but who finally gave up participating in the church, paying tithing, etc. about a year when I got sick of certain policies, doctrines, & attitudes towards women, LGBT concerns, etc.), I guess I could see JS serving as inspiration to some Mormon SFF writers in the sense that he is a heroic figure in Mormondom who, as a young boy, sets off on a quest to find the “right” religion, faces opposition, eventually is rewarded by God with a vision that the “right” church doesn’t currently exist & that he’s therefore been called by God to establish it himself as a newly appointed prophet. The story continues and it’s all very mythic-hero-quest stuff. So considering that and the religion’s ideal of agency (i.e., people are to take actions for themselves, determine what it is God wants of them personally, rather than sitting around waiting to be told what to do; the Church teaches that agency is a God-given right that is to be greatly respected and protected–the idea of forcing someone to do something, anything is therefore abhorrent), I can see how this sense of individualism and heroism could inspire many writers who grow up being taught these stories and values. RE SFF being regarded as “evil,” I was born in Salt Lake in 1984 and grew up reading just about everything under the sun. I wouldn’t call my parents liberal (not on most issues anyway), but they’re certainly open-minded conservatives. As a kid, they never gave me grief when I brought home SFF, romance, or books in general that many would say were too “adult” for my age. I didn’t wave my sex-scene-filled romance books around the house, but I was never discouraged from checking them out from the library either, even as a 12-year old. :) @JPeK: I just re-read the end of my comment — I don’t want to come off as though I’m denying that some people grew up in a stricter environment or to dismiss their experiences. I just meant to express how very strange the idea of being forbidden SFF books is to my own lived experience of open acceptance. It wasn’t even an issue in my house or in my friends’ when we were growing up. Shunn may very well be referring to a predominant attitude that’s before my time. shrug I, too, am completely baffled by the assertion that Mormons consider SciFi to be evil. I believe he’s conflating Mormonism with evangelical Christianity or other, more strict apostolic Protestant traditions, which is interesting as they’re as alike as oil and water. (It also casts the rest of his assertions in doubt.) Reading is heavily encouraged, although artistic pursuits are seen as unproductive when you should be making a living and/or serving others. With regard to romance, as long as there’s no explicit language or sexx0ring, it’s all good, and there’s a huge market for those kinds of books outside the church. I have my own opinions about why scifi is the artistic norm amongst Mormon (mostly) men, but they’re more boring and pedestrian than “biblical fanfiction.” @Moriah Jovan: Yes! Well said — you expressed many ideas that were only half-formed thoughts in my own mind! :) Jane Lovering November 17, 2015 @ 11:36 am I am a writer who runs. It’s nothing to do with all that ‘clearing the head’ and mindfulness bollocks; it’s to stop my arse from taking over the sofa. Ren Benton I’m another writer who chooses running over other forms of exercise for the profoundly philosophical reason that it costs nothing, which fits nicely within the budget of most writers.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1386
__label__wiki	0.876329	0.876329	Italian army to buy 50 new Centauro II 8×8 wheeled antitank vehicles in Army, News CENTAURO II MGS 120/105 (c) iveco-otomelara.com The Italian army has decided to buy 50 new Centauro II 8×8 wheeled antitank vehicles, that was reported by www.liberopensiero.eu. Italy still plans to buy more than Centauro II wheeled antitank vehicle, the latest evolution of the Centauro Family. The Centauro II represents the logical evolution, being armed with a third generation 120/45 mm gun, with integrated muzzle brake and semi-automatic loading system. The weapon system provides a fire power equivalent to that of most modern main battle tanks, and is capable of firing all latest generation 120 mm, NATO APFSDS and multi-role MP munitions. On Oct. 11 the defense commission of the lower house of the Italian parliament began debating plans by the Italian military to buy the Centauro II tank and an updated version of its A-129 Mangusta helicopter. Tags: Italy U.S. F-35s conduct bilateral training with Italian F-35 and Eurofighter Typhoons fighters U.S. Marine Corps awards contract to BAE Systems for new variants of ACV vehicles Boeing announces continue support to Italian KC-767 tankers U.S. Air Force deployed F-16C Fighting Falcons to Romania Poland to receive four AW101 maritime multirole helicopters from Leonardo Poland to order four AW101 Merlins to replace Soviet-era Mi-14 helicopters	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1388
__label__wiki	0.511512	0.511512	Senior Officer, Singapore Retail Operations United Overseas Bank Ltd (UOB)\| Date Posted: 16-Jul-2019 Office Operations About UOB United Overseas Bank Limited (UOB) is a leading bank in Asia with a global network of more than 500 branches and offices in 19 countries and territories in Asia Pacific, Europe and North America. In Asia, we operate through our head office in Singapore and banking subsidiaries in China, Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand, as well as branches and offices. Our history spans more than 80 years. Over this time, we have been guided by our values — Honorable, Enterprising, United and Committed. This means we always strive to do what is right, build for the future, work as one team and pursue long-term success. It is how we work, consistently, be it towards the company, our colleagues or our customers. The Technology and Operations function is comprised of five teams of specialists with distinct capabilities: business partnership, technology, operations, risk governance and planning support and services. We work closely together to harness the power of technology to support our physical and digital banking services and operations. This includes developing, centralising and standardising technology systems as well as banking operations in Singapore and overseas branches. Perform GL reconciliation and NOSTRO RECS matching for Singaporem Retail Operations (SRO) Perform and completion of daily and monthly proofing (Finance and Surprise proof) Prepare and update control reports including aged items for management attention and business partners Timely follow up on any GL exceptions / imbalances / exceeding norm and ensure close tracking and resolution Update Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) on a timely basis 2-4 years of of banking experience preferrably with exposure to GL reconciliation, investigation and account proofing and substantiation. Able to communicate and articulate effectively both verbal and written Proficient in MS Office (especially MS Excel) Keen attention to detail Reliability / dependability High level of stress tolerance Be a part of UOB Family Apply now and make a difference. United Overseas Bank Ltd (UOB)	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1396
__label__cc	0.681372	0.318628	Into the fray: Why Gaza must go. Martin Sherman 27/07/2014 1 Comment 1,272 Views The only durable solution requires dismantling Gaza, humanitarian relocation of the non-belligerent Arab population, and extension of Israeli sovereignty over the region. Givati brigade in Gaza. Photo: IDF SPOKESMAN’S OFFICE. We have before us an ordeal of the most grievous kind…. You ask, what is our policy? I will say: It is to wage war, by sea, land and air, with all our might and with all the strength that God can give us; to wage war against a monstrous tyranny… That is our policy. You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: victory; victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory, however long and hard the road may be; for without victory, there is no survival. – Winston Churchill, May 13, 1940 We cannot solve our problems with the same level of thinking that created them. At the time of writing this column, ground operations in Gaza were still going on and reports of increasing casualties were coming in with depressing frequency. This should, therefore, be a time for national cohesion and solidarity, with unity and support for the war effort, and criticism of the government suspended. Sadly, however, the government has given the public little coherent indication of its aims, or of the realities it is striving to create. Ill-defined and inadequate objectives Worse, not only is there no clear indication of where the country is going, there seems to be little willingness to recognize how we got here. In the third week of Operation Protective Edge, the government is still waffling on its objectives. These keep morphing from one vague, vacuous formulation to another, as developments on the battlefield make each succeeding definition of the operation’s goals appear abysmally inadequate and ineffectual. Initially, the government declared that all it aspired to was to “restore calm” – i.e. to reinstate the status quo – and if Hamas would cease fire, so would Israel. Just how myopic that would have been is starkly underscored by what has become chillingly apparent during the operation – the devastating potential of an elaborate tunnel system developed by the terror organizations in Gaza. Had a cease-fire been implemented in such circumstances, Hamas would have been free to continue developing its deadly subterranean potential, which it could activate at a moment of its choosing. This appalling prospect makes deeply disturbing questions, regarding the competence and/or judgment of the nation’s leadership, unavoidable, even as the battles rage on. Unless the reasons for the current predicament are understood, no effective remedy can be found. Deeply disturbing questions We must weigh the only two possibilities before us: (a) either the government was aware of the deadly menace posed by the network of tunnels; or (b) it wasn’t. If it was, then willingness to agree to a cease-fire before the danger was eliminated reflects a disturbing readiness to reconcile itself to the dangers and expose the country’s civilian population to murderous consequences in the future. If it was oblivious to these dangers, this reflects a grave ignorance of deadly threats facing the country, a sign of just how out of touch the leadership of the nation has been with the ominous reality we inhabit. Although I rarely find occasion to quote Haaretz as a corroborating source, my eye could not help catching the pungent title of a piece written by veteran defense correspondent Amos Harel: “Hamas’ terror tunnels – a national strategic failure for Israel”. Harel points out: “A week ago, Israel announced its willingness to accept a cease-fire in Gaza… This means one of two things. Either the ministers and generals were willing last week to let these tunnels, every one a ticking bomb, tick softly under kibbutz dining rooms until the next escalation, or they weren’t aware of the seriousness of the risk.” He continues: “So either they were taking a calculated risk of unusual [read “gigantic” – M.S.] dimensions, or they didn’t have enough intelligence [information] before the operation (which doesn’t quite square with a senior officer’s claim… that ‘never before has the army had such quality intelligence before an operation’).” Prescient prediction It is difficult to accept that the government was totally unaware of Hamas’s tunneling endeavor. As early as 2006, Hamas used a tunnel to abduct Gilad Schalit and kill two of his comrades near Kerem Shalom, eventually attaining the liberation of 1,027 convicted terrorists. Last October, the discovery of an almost 2-km.-long tunnel near Kibbutz Ein Hashlosha was widely reported, and according to several sources, its objective was a kindergarten, located close to its exit point, 300 meters inside Israel. The threat imminent in Hamas’s burrowing enterprise, and the conditions under which it might be employed, were presciently predicted 10 months ago by Harel. In an article, carrying the ominous headline: “Hamas’ strategic tunnels: Millions of dollars to spirit kidnapped Israelis into Gaza” (October 13, 2013), he warned of the likely reaction of Hamas should it feel weakened, precisely what Israeli politicians were crowing about just prior to the current round of violence. He cautioned: “… if Hamas decides to try to overcome its present distress by reigniting the front against Israel, using the tunnels to launch an attack could be one of its main options.” His prediction proved chillingly precise. Figuring the flaccidity factor: Impotence not ignorance Given that it is highly implausible that the government was unaware of the danger looming under its very nose (or rather, feet), how are we to account for the flaccidity of its response – which, but for good fortune, could have precipitated outcomes of unthinkable tragedy. Former Jerusalem Post Editor in Chief Bret Stephens, in a recent Wall Street Journal piece (July 14), provides a partial explanation for the phenomenon, suggesting that Israel’s “real weakness is a certain kind of vanity that confuses stainlessness with virtue, favors moral self-regard over normal self-interest, and believes in politics as an exercise not in power but in self-examination.” For all its admirable eloquence, Stephens’s diagnosis relates more to the symptoms of the malaise, rather than its causes. In numerous columns, I have been at pains to explain the roots of this enervating phenomenon (which I have designated “The Limousine Theory of Israeli politics”) and warned of the ruinous results it will inevitably wreak upon us. The underlying reason for the inadequate responses to clearly apparent dangers is that Israel’s leaders have been cowered into this moralistic masochism by an aggressive and intolerant triad of left-wing civil society elites (in the legal establishment, the mainstream media and academe), who, through their unelected position of privilege and power, have taken control of the political discourse in the country. The political discourse determines the elected political leadership’s perception of policy constraints and policy possibilities. Through dominance of the discourse, these elites can control the parameters of Israeli policy-making and impose their worldview of political appeasement and territorial concessions on it. Sacrificing lives for a ‘two-state deity’ These elites have, to a large degree, mortgaged their personal prestige and professional positions, and much of their livelihood, to the two-state concept and the land-for-peace doctrine on which it rests. Were this doctrine to be discredited, all these benefits – material and otherwise – would be jeopardized. They, therefore, have a vested interest in preserving a perception that it is valid – no matter how incongruent with reality and rationality it proves – and must endeavor to prevent the adoption of any policy measures that put paid to the two-state formula. Since the attainment of strategic victory in Gaza calls for measures that preclude any agreement on a Palestinian state, the policy-relevant discourse, which these elites mold, has been devoted to ridiculing such measures as impractical or infeasible, and to promoting measures that can only bring about a temporary respite to the fighting. These respites have always been exploited by the enemy to enhance its capabilities for the inevitable next round – and the next inevitable batch of casualties. Oblivious to facts, and impervious to reason, in a desperate attempt to sustain an unworkable paradigm, Israeli left-wing elites perpetuate bout after escalating bout of violence, callously sacrificing ever more lives on the altar of the false deity of twostates- for-two-peoples. ‘Mowing the lawn’ won’t cut it The reluctance to face unpalatable realities has spawned new terminology to paper over intellectual surrender, and mask unwillingness to accept the need for regrettably harsh but essential policies. First, we were told that since there was “no solution” to the Israel-Arab conflict, we should adopt an approach of “conflict management” rather than “conflict resolution.” Now we have a new term in the professional jargon to convey a similar perspective: “mowing the grass.” This is the name for an approach that entails a new round of fighting every time the Palestinian violence reaches levels Israel finds unacceptable. Its “rationale” – for want of a better term – was recently articulated by Efraim Inbar and Eitan Shamir of the Begin-Sadat Center for Strategic Studies, Bar-Ilan University, as: “The use of force, not intended to attain impossible political goals, but rather [as a] long-term strategy of attrition designed primarily to debilitate the enemy capabilities.” Sadly, what we have seen is that far from “debilitating the enemy capabilities,” because said enemy keeps reappearing, spoiling for a fight, ever bolder with ever-greater capabilities. It is an open question just how many more rounds of “mowing” the residents of southern Israel will endure before losing confidence that the government will provide adequate protection and choose to evacuate the area. No, periodically mowing the lawn is not a policy that can endure for long – it simply will not cut it. The grass needs to be uprooted – once and for all. Gaza: What would Einstein say? Albert Einstein famously said that one could not solve a problem with the level of thinking that created it. Clearly, the problem of Gaza was created by the belief that land could be transferred to the Palestinian Arabs to provide them a viable opportunity for self-governance. Equally clearly, then, the problem of Gaza cannot be solved by persisting with ideas that created it – i.e. persisting with a plan for Israel to provide the Palestinian Arabs with land for self-governance. The problem can only be solved by entirely abandoning the concept that Gaza should be governed by Palestinian Arabs. Any effective solution must follow this new line of reasoning. Any other outcome will merely prolong the problem. If Hamas comes out stronger from this round of fighting, it will be only a matter of time before the next, probably more deadly, round breaks out. If Hamas comes out weaker from this round of fighting, it is only a matter of time before it will be replaced by an even more violent extremist-successor – and thus, once more, only a matter of time until the next, probably more deadly, round breaks out. That is the only approach that can solve the problem of Gaza. That is the only approach that will eliminate the threat to Israel continually issuing from Gaza. That is the only approach that will extricate the non-belligerent Palestinians from the clutches of the cruel, corrupt cliques who led them astray for decades. That is the only approach that will preclude a need for Israel to “rule over another people.” Gaza: What would Herbert Hoover say? Former US President Herbert Hoover, dubbed the “Great Humanitarian” for his efforts to relieve famine in Europe after WWI, wrote in The Problems of Lasting Peace: “Consideration should be given even to the heroic remedy of transfer of populations…the hardship of moving is great, but it is [still] less than the constant suffering of minorities and the constant recurrence of war.” How could anyone, with any degree of compassion and humanity, disagree? Posted at the Jerusalem Post Martin Sherman (www.martinsherman.org) is the founder and executive director of the Israel Institute for Strategic Studies.www.martinsherman.net Tags cease fire gaza Hamas Palestinian Arabs tunnels Previous Antisemitism in Australia’s left-liberal Fairfax press. Next Gaza – Hamas Exploits Death Over Life. Israel’s Settlements: Obstacle to Peace? Arabs opposed the State of Israel before there were settlements—and they oppose it still today. … Brilliant article. The only answer is to crush Hamas, whatever it takes, and regardless of world opinion, which is always against Israel (read Jews) refusing to lie down and die. Sherman is spot on with his analysis about the government being constrained by” an aggressive and intolerant triad of left-wing civil society elites (in the legal establishment, the mainstream media and academe), who, through their unelected position of privilege and power, have taken control of the political discourse in the country…Through dominance of the discourse, these elites can control the parameters of Israeli policy-making and impose their worldview of political appeasement and territorial concessions on it.” Unfortunately, the same can be said for most governments in the free world.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1424
__label__cc	0.568296	0.431704	Mountain Stage Monday Nights at 10 pm Hosted by Larry Groce For more than 30 years, Mountain Stage with Larry Groce has been the home of live music on public radio. Recorded in front of a live audience, Mountain Stage features performances from seasoned legends and emerging stars in genres ranging from folk, blues, and country to indie rock, synth pop, world music, alternative, and beyond. Produced in West Virginia and distributed by NPR, each two hour episode of Mountain Stage can be heard every week on more than 150 stations across America, and around the world via NPR Music and mountainstage.org. Hiss Golden Messenger, Kris Delmhorst, and More on Mountain Stage – Monday at 10pm Performances by Hiss Golden Messenger, Kris Delmhorst, Nicki Bluhm, Teddy Thompson, and The Parachute Brigade. Mountain Stage with Larry Groce can be heard every Monday night at 10:00 pm on KRCB-FM Radio 91 / streaming @ norcalpublicmedia.org / Download our free KRCB Mobile App for your iOS or… The Wood Brothers, Todd Snider, Dave Alvin & Jimmie Dale Gilmore, Kat Wright and more on Mountain Stage – Monday at 10pm This week, special guest-host Peter Mulvey welcomes The Wood Brothers, Todd Snider, Dave Alvin & Jimmie Dale Gilmore, and Kat Wright. Mountain Stage with Larry Groce can be heard every Monday night at 10:00 pm on KRCB-FM Radio 91 / streaming @ norcalpublicmedia.org / Download our free KRCB Mobile… Lee Ann Womack, Caitlyn Smith, The Travelin' McCourys, and more on Mountain Stage – Monday at 10pm Performances by Lee Ann Womack, Caitlyn Smith, The Travelin' McCourys, Haley Heynderickx, and Anthony da Costa. Mountain Stage with Larry Groce can be heard every Monday night at 10:00 pm on KRCB-FM Radio 91 / streaming @ norcalpublicmedia.org / Download our free KRCB Mobile App for your iOS or… NRBQ, Kat Edmonson, Lindsay Lou, and More on Mountain Stage – Monday at 10pm This week, performances by NRBQ, Kat Edmonson, Lindsay Lou, The Matchsellers, and The Wooks. Mountain Stage with Larry Groce can be heard every Monday night at 10:00 pm on KRCB-FM Radio 91 / streaming @ norcalpublicmedia.org / Download our free KRCB Mobile App for your iOS or Android device from… M. Ward, The Sea The Sea, Dead Horses, and More on Mountain Stage – Monday at 10 pm M. Ward. Credit: Via Mountain StageThis week, pThis week, performances by Laura Veirs, M. Ward, The Sea The Sea, Dead Horses, and Joachim Cooder on Mountain Stage. Mountain Stage with Larry Groce can be heard every Monday night at 10:00 pm on KRCB-FM Radio 91 / streaming @ norcalpublicmedia.org /… Tank and the Bangas, Justin Townes Earle, and More on Mountain Stage – Monday at 10 pm Performances by Tank and the Bangas, Justin Townes Earle, Adia Victoria, The Trews, and Courtney Marie Andrews. Mountain Stage with Larry Groce can be heard every Monday night at 10:00 pm on KRCB-FM Radio 91 / streaming @ norcalpublicmedia.org / Download our free KRCB Mobile App for your iOS or… This Week on Mountain Stage, a Special Edition: Cover Songs – Tonight at 10 pm Performances by, The Band, Joan Osborne, Catherine Russell, Derek Trucks Band, Brandi Carlile, and More! Mountain Stage with Larry Groce can be heard… Radford University Presents John Gorka on the Mountain Stage – Monday at 10 pm Performances by John Gorka, The Weather Station, Scott Miller, Shawn Camp, and Dori Freeman Mountain Stage with Larry Groce can be heard every Monday… Gregory Alan Isakov, Mandolin Orange, and More on Mountain Stage – Monday at 10 pm Performances by Gregory Alan Isakov, Mandolin Orange, Elysian Fields , The Brother Brothers, and Hush Kids. Tal National, Ranky Tanky, and Amy Rigby on Mountain Stage – Monday at 10 pm Performances by Tal National, Ranky Tanky, Calan, Amy Rigby, and Shannon McNally. Mountain Stage with Larry Groce can be heard every Monday night at… Guest Host Kathy Mattea Welcomes Seamus Egan Project to Mountain Stage – Monday at 10 pm Special Guest Host Kathy Mattea welcomes Seamus Egan Project, Cheryl Wheeler, Kenny White, Sam Baker, and The Mulligan Brothers. West Africa's BKO; Leo Kottke and more on Mountain Stage - Monday 10/22 @ 10pm Mountain Stage listeners have the best seat in the house this week as we hear live performances from West Africa’s BKO and living legend of… Natalie Prass, Red Wanting Blue, Jill Sobule and more – tonight on Mountain Stage! 10/15 @ 10pm Join host Larry Groce for Mountain Stage, featuring Gurf Morlix, Red Wanting Blue, Todd Burge, Jill Sobule, and Natalie Prass - Monday night at 10:oo… Robert Cray Band, Luther Dickinson feat. Sharde Thomas, and more on Mountain Stage - Tonight at 10pm Performances by Robert Cray Band, Luther Dickinson feat. Sharde Thomas, Sonny Landreth, and Amy Speace. Tom Paxton and The Don Juans, The Early Mays, and More on Mountain Stage – Tonight at 10 pm This week’s guests: Tom Paxton and The Don Juans (Featuring Don Henry & Jon Vezner) Laurie Lewis & The Right Hands Bill Kirchen Cathy Fink & Marcy… St. Paul & The Broken Bones, Chastity Brown, and More on Mountain Stage – Tonight at 10 pm St. Paul & The Broken Bones, Mac McAnally, The Wild Reeds, Chastity Brown, and Sarah Siskind perform on Mountain Stage. Mokoomba, Curtis McMurtry, David Amram & Joe Pug on Mountain Stage – Tonight at 10 pm Okkervil River, Mokoomba, Curtis McMurtry, David Amram, Joe Pug, and more on tonight's show! Mountain Stage can be heard every Monday night at 10:00… Steve Earle & the Dukes, The Mastersons, Steelism, and More on Mountain Stage – Tonight at 10 pm Steve Earle & the Dukes, The Mastersons, The Sherman Holmes Project, Bil Lepp, and Steelism, this week on Mountain Stage. Caroline Spence, Julie Adams, plus Kishi Bashi with Strings on Mountain Stage – Tonight at 10 pm Mountain Stage with special guest host Joni Deutsch feat. Marcus King Band, Kishi Bashi with strings, Tristen, Tyler Childers and Caroline Spence. Bruce Cockburn, Leif Vollebekk, and Birds of Chicago on Mountain Stage – Tonight at 10 pm This week’s guests include: Bruce CockburnLeif VollebekkMark EitzelBirds of ChicagoAllison Pierce Mountain Stage can be heard every Monday night at… Béla Fleck & Abigail Washburn on Mountain Stage – Tonight at 10 pm Béla Fleck & Abigail Washburn, The Del McCoury Band, Malcolm Holcombe & Black Mountain Bluegrass Boys on Mountain Stage Mountain Stage can be heard… Loudon Wainwright III, Nancy And Beth, Mipso, and others on Mountain Stage - Tonight at 10 pm Loudon Wainwright III, Nancy And Beth, Mipso, David Childers, Liz Longley on Mountain Stage. The Stray Birds, Martin Hayes & Dennis Cahill, and More on Mountain Stage – Tonight at 10 pm The Stray Birds, Martin Hayes & Dennis Cahill, Jon Stickley Trio, Brian Dunne, and Corey Shields all on this week's Mountain Stage. Shemekia Copeland and the T Sisters on Mountain Stage – Tonight at 10 pm On this week’s Mountain Stage, Shemekia Copeland, John Németh & The Blue Dreamers, Bridget Kearney, T Sisters, and Edward David Anderson. The Chris Robinson Brotherhood on Mountain Stage – Monday at 10 pm On the next Mountain Stage, The Chris Robinson Brotherhood, Mandolin Orange, Aaron Lee Tasjan, Rorey Carroll and Tim O'Brien. Pink Martini, Beth Hart, Judith Owen w/Leland Sklar, and Don Dixon - Mountain Stage – 10pm Tonight Tonight’s Mountain Stage features performances by Pink Martini, Beth Hart, Judith Owen (featuring Leland Sklar), and Don Dixon. Margo Price, Solas, Dead Man Winter, The Company Stores, and Jonny Fritz on Mountain Stage – Tonight Margo Price, Solas, Dead Man Winter (feat. Dave Simonett from Trampled By Turtles), The Company Stores, and Jonny Fritz on Mountain Stage. NRBQ, Kat Edmonson, Lindsay Lou, The Matchsellers, and The Wooks - Mountain Stage Tonight at 10 pm Mountain Stage welcomes back NRBQ, Kat Edmonson and Lindsay Lou, with first time appearances from The Matchsellers and The Wooks. John Gorka; Shawn Camp and more on Mountain Stage - Monday nights @ 10pm Mountain Stage with Larry Groce travels to the campus of Radford University in Radford, VA for this week’s episode. Ranky Tanky, Tal National, Shannon McNally & more on Mountain Stage - Saturday 4/21 @ Noon Join us this week for Mountain Stage with Larry Groce for a globe-spanning bill of artists perform the music of Mali, Wales and beyond. On Mountain Stage this week: Bettye LaVette, Joan Osborne, Chris Smither and more! This week on Mountain Stage with host Larry Groce: Bettye LaVette, Joan Osborne, Chris Smither and Nick Moss Band feat. Patti Smith & Family, Mollie O'Brien & Rich Moore, and more - Mountain Stage - Saturday 3/24 @ Noon Poet, performer, visual artist and rock-and-roll icon Patti Smith performs on this week's Mountain Stage. Pokey LaFarge, Ruthie Foster and guest-host Todd Burge - Mountain Stage - Saturday 2/24 @ Noon This week’s episode of Mountain Stage is hosted by songwriter Todd Burge. You’ll hear new music with an old feel from Pokey LaFarge, blues and soul…	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1431
__label__wiki	0.819725	0.819725	Top Music & News from The Beat of NY 103.5 KTU - Top Music & News from The Beat of NY Carolina In The Morning Wendy Wild Hollywood Hamilton Lulu Y Lala On The Move with Enrique Santos Astra Resident Djs More Shows Top Songs KTU Playlist Community Traffic New York Events Facebook Twitter Instagram Snapchat Newsletters Trending National News Weird News Advertise on 103.5 KTU, Get Results Justin Timberlake Cancels Remaining December 2018 Tour Dates posted by Paris Close - Dec 6, 2018 Bad news, JT fans: Justin Timberlake has postponed all of the remaining 2018 dates for his "Man of the Woods Tour." The singer, who has been recovering from what was ascertained to be "bruised vocal cords," broke the unfortunate announcement on Instagram Wednesday night (December 5). "Hey guys, I’m sure you have heard that I’ve had to postpone several tour dates due to bruised vocal cords. My vocal cords are healing, but they are not all the way back to normal yet, so my doctors want me to continue to rest my voice," he writes in the post. "They have asked me to hold off on singing until next month. I’m really sorry, I want to be back on the stage and I am doing all I can to get there quickly. Thank you for understanding — I see all of your posts and I appreciate the support and the love. I look forward to coming back stronger than I was before. More to come on the rescheduled dates." Reports of JT's vocal plight first arose in late-October when he canceled dates at New York's Madison Square Garden and KeyBank Center. He has since rescheduled multiple other dates for appearances in Tacoma, Washington, Edmonton, and Vancouver to February 2019, with new shows to recommence in March 2019. Find more info on Timberlake's "Man of the Woods Tour" dates here. Meanwhile, we're wishing JT a safe and speedy recovery. WKTU Public Inspection File WKTU Political File Advertise with 103.5 KTU, Get Results Get the latest news & music from Justin Bieber, Selena Gomez, Kanye West and more top stars from 103.5 KTU, The Beat of New York!	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1432
__label__wiki	0.664057	0.664057	Tag Archives: Harrison Bergeron 30 Stories, Day 27: Harrison Bergeron If I could say one thing about Harrison Bergeron, it would be this: Vonnegut doesn’t mess around. Many thanks to I’m All Booked, who commented on my last Forum Friday post: “What is your favorite short story?” for the suggestion. After 27 of 30 short stories, I will happily concede that Harrison Bergeron has been one of my favorites, too. Full story (a quick read) at the link; synopsis, thoughts, and vocab below. Enjoys, kids. “Harrison Bergeron” by Kurt Vonnegut On the television screen were ballerinas. A buzzer sounded in George’s head. His thoughts fled in panic, like bandits from a burglar alarm. “That was a real pretty dance, that dance they just did,” said Hazel. “Huh?” said George. “That dance—it was nice,” said Hazel. “Yup,” said George. He tried to think a little about the ballerinas. They weren’t really very good—no better than anybody else would have been, anyway. They were burdened with sash weights and bags of birdshot, and their faces were masked, so that no one, seeing a free and graceful gesture or a pretty face, would feel like something the cat drug in. George was toying with the vague notion that maybe dancers shouldn’t be handicapped. But he didn’t get very far with it before another noise in his ear radio scattered his thoughts George winced. So did two out of the eight ballerinas. In 2081 everyone has been made equal: no one is better-looking, more intelligent, or talented than anybody else. This has been accomplished with the efforts of a new government industry: the United States Handicapper General. A husband and wife, George and Hazel Bergeron, are watching television. Hazel’s intelligence is average (“normal”) so she bears no handicaps, but George, an intelligent man, is required by law to wear a government radio piece in his ear. This device emits various bloodcurdling sounds and screeches approximately every twenty seconds, thus disrupting one’s thoughts and preventing people with above-average mental facilities from gaining unfair advantage. The more beautiful, strong, intelligent or talented someone is, the uglier, heavier, larger and more crippling the handicap to match. George, being also a man and of sturdy frame, must also wear weights and bags of birdshot. The ballerinas they watch on TV are burdened with such weights to handicap their muscled strength and grace, and also must wear repulsive masks to hide their beauty. When a sharp screech pieces George’s thoughts and two of the ballerinas on stage fumble and hold their ears it is evident that they also wear radio handicaps. Hazel and George, watching the show, make mindless conversation. Every twenty seconds or so George loses track of the conversation due to the terrible sounds in his ear, and Hazel likewise can not sustain any train of thought for more than a very brief span of time. Her memory—what is considered normal—is comparable to that of a goldfish. At one point Hazel says George looks tired, and suggests he take off his birdshot bag, or even just removes a few pieces from it. But George, remembering that the penalty for such treasonous behavior is two years’ jail time and two thousand dollars per grain, declines. Suddenly the televised performance is interrupted by an emergency newsflash. The announcer, who has a severe (normal) speech impediment, must give the sheet to one of the two intelligent ballerinas to read. The ballerina reads (after screwing up her voice so that it does not sound beautiful): “Harrison Bergeron, age fourteen, has just escaped from jail, where he was held on suspicion of plotting to overthrow the government. He is a genius and an athlete, is under-handicapped, and should be regarded as extremely dangerous.” Harrison is Hazel and George’s son. He was taken from them in April that year, and it had long been evident that he was a force to be reckoned with. Where Harrison Bergeron was concerned, The Handicapper General could not think up inhibitors fast enough: he wore not a tiny ear radio but huge earphones, incredible, heaping scraps of metal (he is seven feet tall, and commensurately strong), a clown nose, black ink between his teeth to ruin his charming smile, and spectacles designed give him headaches and make him half blind. But before the ballerina can finish the announcement, there is a terrible disturbance on the set: a door is torn from its hinges and the entire studio shakes. George recognizes this as Harrison’s approach. Indeed, huge and intimidating, Harrison thunders clamorously onto the set in all his scrap-metal, clown-nose etc. regalia. Musicians, ballerinas and technicians alike cower in his presence. “I am the Emperor!” Harrison proclaims. “Everyone must do what I say at once.” Harrison makes a dramatic show of tearing through all his handicaps and casting them to the floor like some hulking monster out of a cotton shirt. He smashes his headphones and glasses against the wall and flings away the rubber nose and teeth-gaps. “I shall now select my Empress!” he decrees, looking upon the cowering figures before him. The throne shall be given to the first woman who dares to rises, he says. A moment passes and a ballerina rises. Harrison approaches her, removes her mental and physical handicaps, and lastly her mask. She is incredibly beautiful. Harrison strips the musicians of their handicaps and demands that they strike up their best—if they play their best, he says, he will make them all barons and dukes and earls—and declares that he and his Empress will now show the world the meaning of the word dance. After setting the music to his liking, Harrison and the ballerina do just that: dance. They dance, uninhibited by their handicaps, more gracefully and wonderfully than anyone has seen. (See: “They leaped like deer on the moon.”) They rise higher and higher, spinning more and more beautifully, and at length, suspended in the air, kiss one another. Then, at the height of their performance, Diana Moon Glampers, the Handicapper General herself, bustles into the studio and aims a gun. She fires twice, and both Harrison and the ballerina drop dead to the floor. Then the reception goes. Hazel turns to George make some remark about it, but finds him absent. He returns after a moment, however—he had gone into the kitchen to get a beer—and sees a tear on his wife’s cheek. “You been crying?” he asks. “Yup,” she replies. He asks what about. Hazel can’t remember. Something sad on TV. George suggests that she forget sad things, and Hazel chipperly replies that she always does. Then George’s ear device emits a sound like gunfire. “Gee,” says Hazel. “I could tell that one was a doozy.” He replies in the affirmative: “You can say that again.” She does. What stands out most to me in this story is exactly what I wish to do better in my own writing: it communicates much in a very short space, and quickly. The sentences are neat and simple; the prose is unburdened by description or wandering; intro, culture, action, BAM, story’s over, and you’re left staring and going: whoa. I’ll admit though, at first when Harrison came barging into the studio and said, with no introduction, “I am the Emperor!” I had a “Mangler” moment (see: Stephen King’s laundry machine of doom) where I failed to take what was happening seriously. But afterwards, I thought about it: in the context of this story, where characters can only hold on to a single, coherent thought for twenty seconds at a time, it makes sense: Harrison, or anyone else who wanted to grab the nation’s attention, would have had to get straight to it. No dawdling. And that, my friends, is the sort of writing I hope to imitate. A whole new woooord…sorry. Couldn’t resist. I had been planning to write, “A whole new word: don’t spend it all in one place, now,” and then the fourth word came out like Aladdin. Here ye go, now: consternation: anxiety or dismay, typically at something unexpected Four days more in the month. A story for each to come. Posted in Reading, short story, Writing Tagged 30 short stories in 30 days, dystopian fiction, fiction, Harrison Bergeron, Kurt Vonnegut, speculative fiction, writers, Writing	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1435
__label__cc	0.676248	0.323752	Research Article \| Open \| Published: 03 August 2009 Secured Communication over Frequency-Selective Fading Channels: A Practical Vandermonde Precoding Mari Kobayashi1, Mérouane Debbah2 & Shlomo Shamai (Shitz)3 EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networkingvolume 2009, Article number: 386547 (2009) \| Download Citation We study the frequency-selective broadcast channel with confidential messages (BCC) where the transmitter sends a confidential message to receiver 1 and a common message to receivers 1 and 2. In the case of a block transmission of symbols followed by a guard interval of symbols, the frequency-selective channel can be modeled as a Toeplitz matrix. For this special type of multiple-input multiple-output channels, we propose a practical Vandermonde precoding that projects the confidential messages in the null space of the channel seen by receiver 2 while superposing the common message. For this scheme, we provide the achievable rate region and characterize the optimal covariance for some special cases of interest. Interestingly, the proposed scheme can be applied to other multiuser scenarios such as the -user frequency-selective BCC with confidential messages and the two-user frequency-selective BCC with two confidential messages. For each scenario, we provide the secrecy degree of freedom (s.d.o.f.) region of the corresponding channel and prove the optimality of the Vandermonde precoding. One of the appealing features of the proposed scheme is that it does not require any specific secrecy encoding technique but can be applied on top of any existing powerful encoding schemes. We consider a secured medium such that the transmitter wishes to send a confidential message to its receiver while keeping the eavesdropper, tapping the channel, ignorant of the message. Wyner [1] introduced this model named the wiretap channel to model the degraded broadcast channel where the eavesdropper observes a degraded version of the receiver's signal. In this model, the confidentiality is measured by the equivocation rate, that is, the mutual information between the confidential message and the eavesdropper's observation. For the discrete memoryless degraded wiretap channel, Wyner characterized the capacity-equivocation region and showed that a nonzero secrecy rate can be achieved [1]. The most important operating point on the capacity-equivocation region is the secrecy capacity, that is, the largest reliable communication rate such that the eavesdropper obtains no information about the confidential message (the equivocation rate is as large as the message rate). The secrecy capacity of the Gaussian wiretap channel was given in [2]. Csiszár and Körner considered a more general wiretap channel in which a common message for both receivers is sent in addition to the confidential message [3]. For this model known as the broadcast channel with confidential (BCC) messages, the rate-tuple of the common and confidential messages was characterized. Recently, a significant effort has been made to opportunistically exploit the space/time/user dimensions for secrecy communications (see, e.g., [4–14] and references therein). In [4], the secrecy capacity of the ergodic slow fading channels was characterized and the optimal power/rate allocation was derived. The secrecy capacity of the parallel fading channels was given [6, 7] where [7] considered the BCC with a common message. Moreover, the secrecy capacity of the wiretap channel with multiple antennas has been studied in [8–13, 15] and references therein. In particular, the secrecy capacity of the multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) wiretap channel has been fully characterized in [5, 11, 12, 14] and more recently its closed-form expressions under a matrix covariance constraint have been derived in [15]. Furthermore, a large number of recent works have considered the secrecy capacity region for more general broadcast channels. In [16], the authors studied the two-user MIMO Gaussian BCC where the capacity region for the case of one common and one confidential message was characterized. The two-user BCC with two confidential messages, each of which must be kept secret to the unintended receiver, has been studied in [17–20]. In [18], Liu and Poor characterized the secrecy capacity region for the multiple-input single-output (MISO) Gaussian BCC where the optimality of the secret dirty paper coding (S-DPC) scheme was proved. A recent contribution [19] extended the result to the MIMO Gaussian BCC. The multireceiver wiretap channels have been also studied in [21–26] (and reference therein) where the confidential messages to each receiver must be kept secret to an external eavesdropper. It has been proved that the secrecy capacity region of the MIMO Gaussian multireceiver wiretap channels is achieved by S-DPC [24, 26]. However, very few work have exploited the frequency selectivity nature of the channel for secrecy purposes [27] where the zeros of the channel provide an opportunity to "hide" information. This paper shows the opportunities provided by the broad-band channel and studies the frequency-selective BCC where the transmitter sends one confidential message to receiver 1 and one common message to both receivers 1 and 2. The channel state information (CSI) is assumed to be known to both the transmitter and the receivers. We consider the quasistatic frequency-selective fading channel with paths such that the channel remains fixed during an entire transmission of blocks for an arbitrary large . It should be remarked that in general the secrecy rate cannot scale with signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) over the channel at hand, unless the channel of receiver 2 has a null frequency band of positive Lebesgue measure (on which the transmitter can "hide'' the confidential message). In this contribution, we focus on the realistic case where receiver 2 has a full frequency band (without null subbands) but operates in a reduced dimension due to practical complexity issues. This is typical of current orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) standards (such as IEEE802.11a/WiMax or LTE [28–30]) where a guard interval of symbols is inserted at the beginning of each block to avoid the interblock interference and both receivers discard these symbols. We assume that both users have the same standard receiver, in particular receiver 2 cannot change its hardware structure. Studying secure communications under this assumption is of interest in general and can be justified since receiver 2 is actually a legitimate receiver which can receive a confidential message in other communication periods. Of course, if receiver 2 is able to access the guard interval symbols, it can extract the confidential message and the secrecy rate falls down to zero. Although we restrict ourselves to the reduced dimension constraint in this paper, other constraints on the limited capability at the unintended receiver such as energy consumption or hardware complexity might provide a new paradigm to design physical layer secrecy systems. In the case of a block transmission of symbols followed by a guard interval of symbols discarded at both receivers, the frequency-selective channel can be modeled as an MIMO Toeplitz matrix. In this contribution, we aim at designing a practical linear precoding scheme that fully exploits the degrees of freedom (d.o.f.) offered by this special type of MIMO channels to transmit both the common message and the confidential message. To this end, let us start with the following remarks. On one hand, the idea of using OFDM modulation to convert the frequency-selective channel represented by the Toeplitz matrix into a set of parallel fading channel turns out to be useless from a secrecy perspective. Indeed, it is known that the secrecy capacity of the parallel wiretap fading channels does not scale with SNR [7]. On the other hand, recent contributions [5, 11, 12, 14, 15] showed that the secrecy capacity of the MIMO wiretap channel grows linearly with SNR, that is, where denotes the secrecy degree of freedom (s.d.o.f.) (to be specified). In the high SNR regime, the secrecy capacity of the MISO/MIMO wiretap channel is achieved by sending the confidential message in the null space of the eavesdropper's channel [10, 11, 14, 15, 18, 19]. Therefore, OFDM modulation is highly suboptimal in terms of the s.d.o.f. Inspired by these remarks, we propose a linear Vandermonde precoder that projects the confidential message in the null space of the channel seen by receiver 2 while superposing the common message. Thanks to the orthogonality between the precoder of the confidential message and the channel of receiver 2; receiver 2 obtains no information on the confidential message. This precoder is regarded as a single-antenna frequency beamformer that nulls the signal in certain directions seen by receiver 2. The Vandermonde structure comes from the fact that the frequency beamformer is of the type where is one of the roots of the channel seen by receiver 2. Note that Vandermonde matrices [31] have already been considered for cognitive radios [32] and CDMA systems [33] to reduce/null interference but not for secrecy applications. One of the appealing aspects of Vandermonde precoding is that it does not require a specific secrecy encoding technique but can be applied on top of any classical capacity achieving encoding scheme. For the proposed scheme, we characterize its achievable rate region, the rate-tuple of the common message, the confidential message, respectively. Unfortunately, the optimal input covariances achieving their boundary are generally difficult to compute due to the nonconvexity of the weighted sum rate maximization problem. Nevertheless, we show that there are some special cases of interest such as the secrecy rate and the maximum sum rate point which enable an explicit characterization of the optimal input covariances. In addition, we provide the achievable d.o.f. region of the frequency-selective BCC, reflecting the behavior of the achievable rate region in the high SNR regime, and prove that the Vandermonde precoding achieves this region. More specifically, it enables to simultaneously transmit streams of the confidential message and streams of the common message for simultaneously over a block of dimensions. Interestingly, the proposed Vandermonde precoding can be applied to multiuser secure communication scenarios: (a) a -user frequency-selective BCC with confidential messages and one common message, (b) a two-user frequency-selective BCC with two confidential messages and one common message. For each scenario, we characterize the achievable s.d.o.f. region of the corresponding frequency-selective BCC and show the optimality of the Vandermonde precoding. The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents the frequency-selective fading BCC. Section 3 introduces the Vandermonde precoding and characterizes its achievable rate region as well as the optimal input covariances for some special cases. Section 4 provides the application of the Vandermonde precoding to the multiuser secure communications scenarios. Section 5 shows some numerical examples of the proposed scheme in the various settings, and finally Section 6 concludes the paper. Notation. In the following, upper (lower boldface) symbols will be used for matrices (column vectors) whereas lower symbols will represent scalar values, will denote transpose operator, conjugation, and hermitian transpose. , represent the identity matrix, zero matrix. denote a determinant, rank, trace of a matrix , respectively. denotes the sequence . , , , , , denote the realization of the random variables , , , , , . Finally, " '' denotes less or equal to in the positive semidefinite ordering between positive semidefinite matrices, that is, we have if is positive semidefinite. 2. System Model We consider the quasistatic frequency-selective fading BCC illustrated in Figure 1. The received signal of receivers 1, 2 at block is given by where denote an Toeplitz matrix with the -path channel vector of user 1, of user 2, respectively, denotes the transmit vector, and finally are mutually independent additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN). The input vector is subject to the power constraint given by where we let . The structure of is given by Frequency-selective broadcast channels with confidential messages. We assume that the channel matrices , remain constant for the whole duration of the transmission of blocks and are known to all terminals. At each block , we transmit symbols by appending a guard interval of size larger than the delay spread, which enables to avoid the interference between neighbor blocks. The transmitter wishes to send a common message to two receivers and a confidential message to receiver 1. A code consists of the following: (1) two message sets and with the messages uniformly distributed over the sets , , respectively; (2) a stochastic encoder that maps each message pair to a codeword ; (3) one decoder at receiver 1 that maps a received sequence to a message pair and another at receiver 2 that maps a received sequence to a message . The average error probability of a code is defined as where denotes the error probability when the message pair is sent defined by The secrecy level of the confidential message at receiver 2 is measured by the equivocation rate defined as which is the normalized entropy of the confidential message conditioned on the received signal at receiver 2 and available CSI. A rate-equivocation tuple is said to be achievable if for any there exists a sequence of codes such that we have In this paper, we focus on the perfect secrecy case where receiver 2 obtains no information about the confidential message , which is equivalent to . In this setting, an achievable rate region of the general BCC (expressed in bit per channel use per dimension) is given by [3] where the union is over all possible distribution , , satisfying [20, Lemma 1] where might be a deterministic function of . Recently, the secrecy capacity region of the two-user MIMO-BCC (1) was characterized in [16] and is given by all possible rate tuples satisfying for some with denotes the input covariance satisfying and , denotes the channel matrix of receiver 1, 2, respectively. Obviously, when only the confidential message is transmitted to receiver 1, the frequency-selective BCC (1) reduces to the MIMO flat-fading wiretap channel whose secrecy capacity has been characterized in [10–12, 14, 15]. In particular, Bustin et al. derived its closed-form expression under a power-covariance constraint [15]. Under a total power (trace) constraint, the secrecy capacity of the MIMO Gaussian wiretap channel is expressed as [19, Theorem 3] where are the generalized eigen-values greater than one of the following pencil: (In [15, 19] the authors consider the real matrices , . Nevertheless, it is conjectured that for complex matrices the following expression without in the prelog holds.) As explicitly characterized in [15, Theorem 2], the optimal input covariance achieving the above region is chosen such that the confidential message is sent over subchannels where receiver 1 observes stronger signals than receiver 2. Moreover, in the high SNR regime the optimal strategy converges to beamforming into the null subspace of [5, 11, 12, 14] as for the MISO case [14, 18]. In order to characterize the behavior of the secrecy capacity region in the high SNR regime, we define the d.o.f. region as where denotes s.d.o.f. which corresponds precisely to the number of the generalized eigenvalues greater than one in the high SNR. 3. Vandermonde Precoding For the frequency-selective BCC specified in Section 2, we wish to design a practical linear precoding scheme which fully exploits the d.o.f. offered by the frequency-selective channel. We remarked previously that for a special case when only the confidential message is sent to receiver 1 (without a common message), the optimal strategy consists of beamforming the confidential signal into the null subspace of receiver 2. By applying this intuitive result to the special Toeplitz MIMO channels , while including a common message, we propose a linear precoding strategy named Vandermonde precoding. Prior to the definition of the Vandermonde precoding, we provide some properties of a Vandermonde matrix [31]. Property 1. Given a full-rank Toeplitz matrix , there exists a Vandermonde matrix for whose structure is given by where are the roots of the polynomial with coefficients of the channel . Clearly satisfies the following orthogonal condition: and if are all different. It is well known that as the dimension of and increases, the Vandermonde matrix becomes ill-conditioned unless the roots are on the unit circle. In other words, the elements of each column either grow in energy or tend to zero [31]. Hence, instead of the brut Vandermonde matrix (14), we consider a unitary Vandermonde matrix obtained either by applying the Gram-Schmidt orthogonalization or singular value decomposition (SVD) on . Definition 1. We let be a unitary Vandermonde matrix obtained by orthogonalizing the columns of . We let be a unitary matrix in the null space of such that . The common message , the confidential message , is sent along , , respectively. We call Vandermonde precoder. Further, the precoding matrix for the confidential message satisfies the following property. Lemma 2. Given two Toeplitz matrices , where , are linearly independent, there exists a unitary Vandermonde matrix for satisfying Appendix A. In order to send the confidential message intended to receiver 1 as well as the common message to both receivers over the frequency-selective channel (1), we consider the Gaussian superposition coding based on the Vandermonde precoder of Definition 1. Namely, at block , we form the transmit vector as where the common message vector and the confidential message vector are mutually independent Gaussian vectors with zero mean and covariance , , respectively. Under this condition, the input covariances subject to satisfy the power constraint (2). We let denote the feasible set satisfying (18). The Vandermonde precoding achieves the following secrecy rate region: where denotes the convex hull and we let , , . Due to the orthogonal property (16) of the unitary Vandermonde matrix, receiver 2 only observes the common message, which yields the received signals given by where we drop the block index. We examine the achievable rate region of the Vandermonde precoding. By letting the auxiliary variables and , we have Plugging these expressions to (8), we obtain (19). The boundary of the achievable rate region of the Vandermonde precoding can be characterized by solving the weighted sum rate maximization. Any point on the boundary of the convex region is obtained by solving for nonnegative weights satisfying . When the region , obtained without convex hull, is nonconvex, the set of the optimal covariances achieving the boundary point might not be unique. Figure 2 depicts an example in which the achievable rate region is obtained by the convex hull operation on the region , that is, replacing the non-convex subregion by the line segment , . For the weight ratio corresponding to the slope of the line segment , , there exist two optimal sets of the covariances yielding the points and (which clearly dominate the point ). These points are the solution to the weighted sum rate maximization (22). In summary, an optimal covariance set achieving (22) (might not be unique) is the solution of where we let Following [34, Section II-C] (and also [7, Lemma 2]), we remark that the solution to the max-min problem (23) can be found by hypothesis testing of three cases, , , and . Formally, we have the following lemma. Achievable rate region obtained by the convex hull on . The optimal , solution of (23), is given by one of the three solutions. Case 1. maximizes and satisfies . and satisfies for some . Before considering the weighted sum rate maximization (23), one applies SVD to , where , , and are unitary, contain positive singular values , , respectively. Following [7, Theorem 3], one applies Lemma 4 to solve the weighted sum rate maximization. The set of the optimal covariances , achieving the boundary of the achievable rate region of the Vandermonde precoding, corresponds to one of the following three solutions. , if , solution of the following KKT conditions, satisfies where with a positive semidefinite for , is determined such that , and we let . if the following fulfills . We let and where , are diagonal with the th element given by where is determined such that . , if , solution of the following KKT conditions, satisfies for some where with a positive semidefinite for , is determined such that . Appendix B. Remark 6. Due to the non-concavity of the underlying weighted sum rate functions, it is generally difficult to characterize the boundary of the achievable rate region except for some special cases. The special cases include the corner points, in particular, the secrecy rate for the case of sending only the confidential message ( ), as well as the maximum sum rate point for the equal weight case ( ). It is worth noticing that under equal weight the objective functions in three cases are all concave in , since is concave if and is concave if and . The maximum sum rate point can be found by applying the following greedy search [7]. Greedy Search to Find the Maximum Sum Rate Point ( ) Find , maximizing and check . If yes stop. Otherwise go to (2). ( ) Find , maximizing and check for some . For the special case of , Theorem 5 yields the achievable secrecy rate with the Vandermonde precoding. Corollary 7. The Vandermonde precoding achieves the secrecy rate where the last equality is obtained by applying SVD to and plugging the power allocation of (30) with , , is determined such that . Finally, by focusing the behavior of the achievable rate region in the high SNR regime, we characterize the achievable d.o.f. region of the frequency-selective BCC (1). The d.o.f. region of the frequency-selective BCC (1) with Toeplitz matrices is given as a union of satisfying where , denote non-negative integers. The Vandermonde precoding achieves the above d.o.f. region. The achievability follows rather trivially by applying Theorem 3. By considering equal power allocation over all streams such that , , we obtain the rate tuple where We first notice that the prelog factor of as depends only on the rank of . From Lemma 2, we obtain where (a) follows from orthogonality between and , (b) follows from the fact that is unitary satisfying . Notice that (36) yields . For the d.o.f. of the common message, (36) and (38) yield which is dominated by the pre-log of in (37). This establishes the achievability. The converse follows by noticing that the inequalities (33) and (34) correspond to trivial upper bounds. The first inequality (33) corresponds to the s.d.o.f. of the MIMO wiretap channel with the legitimate channel and the eavesdropper channel , which is bounded by . The second inequality (34) follows because the total number of streams for receiver 1 cannot be larger than the d.o.f. of , that is, . Figure 3 illustrates the region of the frequency-selective BCC over dimensions. We notice that the s.d.o.f. constraint (33) yields the line segment , while the constraint (34) in terms of the total number of streams for receiver 1 yields the line segment , . d. o.f. region of frequency-selective BCC. 4. Multiuser Secure Communications In this section, we provide some applications of the Vandermonde precoding in the multi-user secure communication scenarios where the transmitter wishes to send confidential messages to more than one intended receivers. The scenarios that we address are: (a) a -user frequency-selective BCC with confidential messages and one common message, (b) a two-user frequency-selective BCC with two confidential messages and one common message. For each scenario, by focusing on the behavior in the high SNR regime, we characterize the achievable s.d.o.f. region and show the optimality of the Vandermonde precoding. 4.1. K + 1-User BCC with K Confidential Messages As an extension of Section 3, we consider the -user frequency-selective BCC where the transmitter sends confidential messages to the first receivers as well as one common message to all receivers. Each of the confidential messages must be kept secret to receiver . Notice that this model, called multireceiver wiretap channel, has been studied in the literature ([20, 22–26] and reference therein). In particular, the secrecy capacity region of the Gaussian MIMO multireceiver wiretap channel has been characterized in [24, 26] for , an arbitrary , respectively, where the optimality of the S-DPC is proved. The received signal of receiver and the received signal of receiver at any block are given by where is the transmit vector satisfying the total power constraint and , are mutually independent AWGN with covariance . We assume that the vectors , of length are linearly independent and perfectly known to all the terminals. As an extension of the frequency-selective BCC in Section 2, we say that the rate tuple is achievable if for any there exists a sequence of codes such that where we denote and define An achievable secrecy rate region for the case of , when the transmitter sends two confidential messages in the presence of an external eavesdropper, is provided in [25, Theorem 1]. This theorem can be extended to an arbitrary while including the common message. Formally we state the following lemma. An achievable rate region of the +1-user BCC, where the transmitter sends confidential messages intended to the first receivers as well as a common message to all users, is given as a union of all non-negative rate-tuple satisfying where denotes a permutation over the subset , denotes the cardinality of , we let , and the random variables , , , , satisfy the Markov chain Notice that the second term of the last equation in (44) can be also expressed by It can be easily seen that without the secrecy constraint the above region reduces to the Marton's achievable region for the general -user broadcast channel [35]. In order to focus on the behavior of the region in the high SNR regime, we define the s.d.o.f. region as where denotes the d.o.f. of the common message and denotes the s.d.o.f. of confidential message . As an extension of Theorem 8, we have the following s.d.o.f. region result. Theorem 10. The s.d.o.f. region of the -user frequency-selective BCC (40) is a union of satisfying where are non-negative integers. The Vandermonde precoding achieves this region. Appendix D. Figure 4 illustrates the region for the case of confidential messages. It can be easily seen that the constraint (49) in terms of the total number of streams for the virtual receiver yields the subspace , , while the s.d.o.f. constraint (48) for the virtual receiver yields the subspace , , , . We remark that for the special case of one confidential message and one common message ( ), the region reduces to Figure 3. s. d.o.f. region over dimensions of three-user frequency-selective BCC. Remark 11. When only the confidential messages are transmitted to the intended receivers in the presence of the eavesdropper, the s.d.o.f. region has the equivalent MIMO interpretation [36]. More specifically, the frequency-selective BCC (40) is equivalent to the MIMO-BCC where the transmitter with dimensions (antennas) sends messages to receivers with antennas each in the presence of the eavesdropper with antennas. The secrecy constraint (orthogonal constraint) consumes dimensions of the channel seen by the virtual receiver and lets the number of effective transmit antennas be . The resulting channel is the MIMO-BC without secrecy constraint with transmit antennas and receivers with antennas each, whose multiplexing gain is (we assume ). Figure 5 illustrates the example with , , . Equivalent MIMO interpretation for three-user frequency-selective BCC with two confidential messages. 4.2. Two-User BCC with Two Confidential Messages We consider the two-user BCC where the transmitter sends two confidential messages , as well as one common message . Each of the confidential messages must be kept secret to the unintended receiver. This model has been studied in [17–19] for the case of two confidential messages and in [20] for the case of two confidential messages and a common message. In [19], the secrecy capacity region of the MIMO Gaussian BCC was characterized. The received signal at receivers 1, 2 at any block is given, respectively, by where is the input vector satisfying the total power constraint and , are mutually independent AWGN with covariance . We assume the channel vectors , are linearly independent. We say that the rate tuple is achievable if for any there exists a sequence of codes such that where we define the average error probability as where is the output of decoders 1, 2, respectively. A secrecy achievable rate region of the two-user BCC with two confidential messages and a common message is given by [20, Theorem 1] where the random variables satisfy the Markov chain We extend Theorem 8 to the two-user frequency-selective BCC (50) and obtain the following s.d.o.f. result. The s.d.o.f. region of the two-user frequency-selective BCC (50) is a union of satisfying where are non-negative integers. The Vandermonde precoding achieves the region. Appendix F. Figure 6 represents the s.d.o.f. region over dimensions of the two-user frequency-selective BCC. The per-receiver s.d.o.f. constraints (55) yield the subspace , , , for user 1 and the subspace , , , for user 2. The constraints (56) in terms of the total number of streams per receiver yield the subregion , , for user 1 and the subregion , , for user 2. For the special case of one confidential message and one common message, the region reduces to Figure 3. s. d.o.f. region over dimensions of -user frequency-selective BCC. Comparing Theorems 10, 12 as well as Figures 4, 6 for , it clearly appears that the s.d.o.f. of -user BCC with confidential messages is dominated by the s.d.o.f. of -user BCC with confidential messages. In other words, the s.d.o.f. region critically depends on the assumption on the eavesdropper(s) to whom each confidential message must be kept secret. When only two confidential messages are transmitted in the two-user frequency-selective BCC, the set of the s.d.o.f. has the equivalent MIMO interpretation [36]. More specifically, the frequency-selective BCC (40) is equivalent to the MIMO-BCC where the transmitter with dimensions (antennas) sends two confidential messages to two receivers with antennas. The secrecy constraint consumes dimensions for each MIMO link and lets the number of effective transmit antennas be for each user. The resulting channel is a two parallel point-to-point MIMO channel without eavesdropper. Notice that the same parallel MIMO links can be obtained by applying the block diagonalization on the MIMO-BC without secrecy constraint [36]. In other words, the secrecy constraint in the BCC with inner eavesdroppers is equivalent to the orthogonal constraint in the classical MIMO-BC. Figure 7 shows the example with , and confidential messages. Equivalent MIMO interpretation for the two-user frequency-selective BCC with two confidential messages. 5. Numerical Examples In order to examine the performance of the proposed Vandermonde precoding, this section provides some numerical results in different settings. 5.1. Secrecy Rate versus SNR We evaluate the achievable secrecy rate in (32) when the transmitter sends only a confidential message to receiver 1 (without a common message) in the presence of receiver 2 (eavesdropper) over the frequency-selective BCC studied in Section 3. 5.1.1. MISO Wiretap Channel For the sake of comparison (albeit unrealistic), we consider the special case of the frequency-selective wiretap channel when receiver 1 has a scalar observation and the eavesdropper has observations. This is equivalent to the MISO wiretap channel with the receiver 1 channel and the eavesdropper channel . Without loss of generality, we assume that the observation at receiver 1 is the first row of . We consider that all entries of , are i.i.d. and average the secrecy rate over a large number of randomly generated channels with , . In Figure 8, we compare the optimal beamforming strategy [10, 13, 14] and the Vandermonde precoding as a function of SNR . Since only one stream is sent to receiver 1, the s.d.o.f. is . In fact, the MISO secrecy capacity in the high SNR regime is given by where is the beamforming vector. The Vandermonde precoding achieves where denotes the th column of orthogonal to . Clearly, there exists a constant gap between (57) and (58) due to the suboptimal choice of the beamforming vector. Achievable secrecy rate with one observation at receiver 1 and , (MISO wiretap channel). 5.1.2. MIMO Wiretap Channel We consider the frequency-selective wiretap channel with , . Although there exists a closed-form expression under a power-covariance constraint [15], the secrecy capacity under a total power constraint in (11) is still difficult to compute (especially for a large dimension of and ) because it requires a search over all possible power covariances constraints. Therefore, in Figure 9, we compare the averaged secrecy rate achieved by the generalized SVD scheme [5] and the Vandermonde precoding. We assume that all entries of are i.i.d. . For the Vandermonde precoding, we show the achievable rate with waterfilling power allocation (32) and equal power allocation (36) by allocating to streams. As observed, these two suboptimal schemes achieve the same s.d.o.f. of although the generalized SVD incurs a substantial power loss. The result agrees well with Theorem 8. We remark also that the optimal waterfilling power allocation yields a negligible gain. Achievable secrecy rate with , (MIMO wiretap channel). 5.2. The Maximum Sum Rate Point (R0, R1) versus SNR We consider the frequency-selective BCC with one confidential message to receiver 1 and one common message to two receivers. In particular, we characterize the maximum sum rate-tuple corresponding to on the boundary of the achievable rate region . Figure 10 shows the averaged maximum sum rate-tuple of the Vandermonde precoding both with optimal input covariance computed by the greedy algorithm and with equal power allocation. We remark that there is essentially no loss with the equal power allocation. Achievable secrecy/common rates in the frequency-selective BCC. 5.3. Two-User Secrecy Rate Region in the Frequency-Selective BCC We consider the two-user frequency-selective BCC where the transmitter sends two confidential messages (no common message) of Section 4.2. For the sake of comparison (albeit unrealistic), we consider the special case of one observation at each receiver. Notice that the two-user frequency-selective BCC is equivalent to the two-user MISO BCC with whose secrecy capacity region is achieved by the S-DPC scheme [18]. The proposed Vandermonde precoding achieves the secrecy rate region given by all possible rate-tuples satisfying where denotes the th column of orthogonal to , orthogonal to , respectively. Figure 11 compares the averaged secrecy rate region of the Vandermonde precoding, zero-forcing beamforming, and the optimal S-DPC scheme for where all entries of are i.i.d. . As observed, the Vandermonde precoding achieves the near-optimal rate region. As the number of paths increases, the gap with respect to the S-DPC becomes smaller since the Vandermonde precoding tends to choose the optimal beamformer matched to the channels. Achievable secrecy rate region (MISO-BCC). We considered the secured communication over the frequency-selective channel by focusing on the frequency-selective BCC. In the case of a block transmission of symbols followed by a guard interval of symbols discarded at both receivers, the frequency-selective channel can be modeled as an Toeplitz matrix. For this special type of MIMO channels, we proposed a practical yet order-optimal Vandermonde precoding which enables to send streams of the confidential messages and streams of the common messages simultaneously over a block of dimensions. The key idea here consists of exploiting the frequency dimension to "hide" confidential information in the zeros of the channel seen by the unintended receiver similarly to the spatial beamforming. We also provided some application of the Vandermonde precoding in the multiuser secured communication scenarios and proved the optimality of the proposed scheme in terms of the achievable s.d.o.f. region. We conclude this paper by noticing that there exists a simple approach to establish secured communications. 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Viswanathan H, Venkatesan S, Huang H: Downlink capacity evaluation of cellular networks with known-interference cancellation. IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications 2003, 21(5):802-811. 10.1109/JSAC.2003.810346 Zhang X, Chen J, Wicker SB, Berger T: Successive coding in multiuser information theory. IEEE Transactions on Information Theory 2007, 53(6):2246-2254. Cover T, Thomas J: Elements of Information Theory. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, USA; 1991. The work is supported by the European Commission in the framework of the FP7 Network of Excellence in Wireless COMmunications NEWCOM++. The work of M. Debbah is supported by Alcatel-Lucent within the Alcatel-Lucent Chair on Flexible Radio at Supelec. The authors wish to thank Yingbin Liang for helpful discussions, and the anonymous reviewers for constructive comments. The material in this paper was partially presented at IEEE 19th International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC), Cannes, France, September 2008. Department of Telecommunications, SUPELEC, 3 Rue Joliot-Curie, Gif-sur-Yvette, 91192, France Mari Kobayashi Alcatel-Lucent Chair on Flexible Radio, SUPELEC, 3 Rue Joliot-Curie, Gif-sur-Yvette, 91192, France Mérouane Debbah Department of Electrical Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, 32000, Israel Shlomo Shamai (Shitz) Search for Mari Kobayashi in: Search for Mérouane Debbah in: Search for Shlomo Shamai (Shitz) in: Correspondence to Mari Kobayashi. A. Proof of Lemma 2 In this appendix, we consider the rank of where satisfies the orthogonality . By letting denote the th column of we have for the case of . We define the matrix orthogonal to by appending rows to Notice that all rows are linearly independent. By definition of , it is not difficult to see that and form a complete set of basis for an -dimensional linear space. Indeed for the matrix reduces to , while , a subset of a projection matrix onto the null space of is appended to . Hence can be expressed as where is the projection of onto the row vectors of with an coefficient matrix , is the projection of onto the row vectors of with an coefficient matrix where (a) follows from the orthogonality and , (b) follows from . The equality (c) is obtained as follows. We notice where in (d) adding does not change the rank, (e) follows because any set of rows taken from is linearly independent (from the assumption that , are linearly independent). Since is orthogonal to , (A.4) yields which establishes (c). B. Proof of Theorem 5 We consider the following three cases given in Lemma 4. Supposing , we consider the objective function in (25). The objective is concave only when . Nevertheless, we consider the KKT conditions which are necessary for the optimality. It can be easily shown that the KKT conditions are given by (29) where is the Lagrangian dual matrix associated to the positive semidefiniteness constraint of for and is the Lagrangian dual variable associated to the total power constraint. It clearly appears that for the objective is concave in , and the problem at hand is convex. In this case, any convex optimization algorithm, the gradient-based algorithm [37] for example, can be applied to find the optimal solution while the algorithm converges to a local optimal solution for . Supposing , we consider the objective function in (26). Since the problem is convex ( is concave and the constraint is linear in ), the KKT conditions are necessary and sufficient for optimality. We form the Lagrangian and obtain the following KKT conditions: where is the Lagrangian dual matrix associated to the positive semidefiniteness constraint of for and is the Lagrangian dual variable associated to the total power constraint. By creating parallel channels via SVD on , in (28), we readily obtain the solution (30). For , we consider the objective function in (27). In the following we focus on . Notice that if we have which yields the corner point where denotes the secrecy rate characterized in (32). The KKT conditions, necessary for the optimality, are given by (31) where is the Lagrangian dual matrix associated to the positive semidefiniteness constraints for and is the Lagrangian dual variable associated to the total power constraint. The gradient-based algorithm [37] can be applied to find the solution satisfying these KKT conditions. Although this algorithm yields the optimal and unique solution for , the algorithm converges to a local optimal solution for . C. Proof of Lemma 9 In the following, we provide the encoding/decoding scheme to achieve a vertex point within corresponding to a specific encoding order . Our proof builds on the successive Gel'fand-Pinsker coding [38] and random binning for ensuring the perfect secrecy. The overall region is obtained by taking the union over all possible encoding orders followed by the convex hull operation. We extensively use the notation to denote a set of jointly typical sequences of length with respect to the distribution . We let arbitrary small for a large . (a) Codebook Generation Fix and . We define for and we let . the joint distribution factors as The stochastic encoder randomly generates i.i.d. codewords according where . For user , i.i.d. codewords with , where the indices are given by (b) Encoding To send the messages , we first choose randomly the index and the corresponding codeword . Given the common message , we choose randomly the codeword within the bin , that is, the index , such that . Then successively choose the codeword , that is, the indices , such that If there are more than one such sequence, it randomly selects one. Finally the encoder selects according to . (c) Decoding The received signals at the legitimate receivers are , the outputs of the channels for any . Receiver chooses so that if such pair exists and unique. Otherwise it declares an error. (d) Error Probability Analysis Without loss of generality, we assume that the message set is . We remark that an error is declared if one or more of the following events occur. Encoding fails From the construction of the codebook above, we have . Decoding step 1 fails; there does not exist a jointly typical sequence for some , that is, From joint typicality [39] we have for any . Decoding step 2 fails; there exits other sequences satisfying the joint typicality for some It can be shown that we have if for any . Hence, the error probability if the rate-tuple satisfies (44). (e) Equivocation Calculation To prove the equivocation requirement (C10) where we denote , we remark that it is sufficient to verify the above inequality for due to [24, Lemma 1]. Hence, we check whether the the sum rate secrecy constraint is satisfied by the proposed encoding strategy. where (a) follows because the conditioning decrease the entropy, (b) follows from Fano's inequality [39] stating that for a sufficiently large we have where denotes the eavesdropper's error probability when decoding with the knowledge on the message indices . We have that as if . (c) follows from the Markov chain , (d) follows by ignoring a nonnegative term , (e) follows because for any permutation over the set , (f) follows because for any , finally (g) follows because the successive encoder yields the sum rate given by This establishes the achievability. D. Proof of Theorem 10 The achievability follows by extending Theorem 8 to the case of confidential messages. First we remark that as a straightforward extension of Lemma 2 the following lemma holds. Lemma D.15. For , there exists a matrix with orthonormal columns with size satisfying where denotes the number of columns of A sketch of proof is given in Appendix E. We let be unitary matrix with orthonormal columns in the null space of such that . In other words, the Vandermonde precoder is a squared unitary matrix satisfying . Based on the Vandermonde precoder , we construct the transmit vector as where are mutually independent Gaussian vectors with zero mean and covariance satisfying . From the orthogonality properties (D.1), the received signals become where receiver observes the common message, the intended confidential message, and the interference from other users, while receiver observes only the common message. By letting , for , and considering the equal power allocation to all streams, we readily obtain and we also have from the independency between conditioned on . Plugging this together with (D.7) and (D.8) into (44), we have In order to find the d.o.f. region, we notice where (a) follows from orthogonality between and for , (b) follows from the fact that is unitary satisfying , and (c) follows from Lemma D.15. From (D.11) and (D.12), we readily obtain , which is dominated by (D.10). Combining (D.12) and (D.13), we obtain for . This completes the achievability. The converse follows by a natural extension of Theorem 8 to the -user BCC. To obtain the constraint (48), we consider that the first receivers perfectly cooperate to decode the confidential messages and one common message. By treating these receivers as a virtual receiver with antennas, we immediately obtain the bound (48) corresponding to the s.d.o.f. of the MIMO wiretap channel with the virtual receiver channel and the eavesdropper channel . The bound (49) is obtained by noticing that the total number of streams that receiver can decode is limited by the d.o.f. of , that is, . Namely, we have the following inequalities: which yields . Further by letting for any and and for any , we obtain . Adding the last inequality and (48), we obtain (49). This establishes the converse. E. Proof of Lemma D.15 We consider for a subset . First we let denote orthonormal columns that form a unitary Vandermonde matrix orthogonal to . For any subset , we let be the unitary matrix formed by columns corresponding to the subset taken from . Since a unitary matrix formed by for any can be expressed equivalently as , we consider . For a given , we let denote a unitary matrix composed by columns corresponding to the complementary set such that . In order to derive the rank, we follow the same approach as Appendix A. We define the matrix orthogonal to by appending to (E1) where the rows are linearly independent. Since and form a complete set of an -dimensional linear space, can be expressed as where is a coefficient matrix with dimension , respectively. By recalling that any set of rows taken from is linearly independent for (from the assumption that are linearly independent), we can repeat the same argument as Appendix A and obtain which yields the result. F. Proof of Theorem 12 The achievability follows by generalizing Theorem 8 for the case of two confidential messages. We remark that by symmetry Lemma 2 for one beamforming matrix can be trivially extended to two beamforming matrices and . Namely, we have Lemma F.16. For and , there exists with orthnormal columns for satisfying (F1) Further, we let be a unitary matrix with orthonormal columns in the null space of such that . We construct by Gaussian superposition coding based on the Vandermonde precoder , , and . From (F.1), each user observes the vector of its confidential message and that of the common message, that is, By letting , for , and considering equal power allocation to all streams with , we readily obtain We remark where (a) follows from orthogonality between and for , (b) follows because or spans a complete -dimensional space. These equations yield for . This establishes the achievability. The converse follows by noticing that the constraints (55) and (56) correspond to trivial upper bounds. To obtain (55), we consider the special case when the transmitter sends only one confidential message to one of two receivers in the presence of the eavesdropper. When sending one confidential message to receiver 1, the two-user frequency-selective BCC reduces to the MIMO wiretap channel with the legitimate channel and the eavesdropper channel , whose s.d.o.f. is upper bounded by . The same bound holds for receiver 2 when transmitting one confidential message to receiver 2 in the presence the eavesdropper (receiver 1). The upper bounds (56) follow because the total number of streams per receiver is limited by the individual MIMO link. This establishes the converse. Toeplitz Matrix Broadcast Channel Secrecy Rate Secrecy Capacity Equal Power Allocation Wireless Physical Layer Security	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1441
__label__wiki	0.75742	0.75742	2. System Description 3. Ergodic Channel Capacity Ergodic Capacity for the SIMO Nakagami- Channel Efstathios D. Vagenas1Email author, Petros Karadimas1 and Stavros A. Kotsopoulos1 EURASIP Journal on Wireless Communications and Networking20092009:802067 © Efstathios D. Vagenas et al. 2009 Accepted: 1 July 2009 This paper presents closed-form expressions for the ergodic channel capacity of SIMO (single-input and multiple output) wireless systems operating in a Nakagami- fading channel. As the performance of SIMO channel is closely related to the diversity combining techniques, we present closed-form expressions for the capacity of maximal ratio combining (MRC), equal gain combining (EGC), selection combining (SC), and switch and stay (SSC) diversity systems operating in Nakagami- fading channels. Also, the ergodic capacity of a SIMO system in a Nakagami- fading channel without any diversity technique is derived. The latter scenario is further investigated for a large amount of receive antennas. Finally, numerical results are presented for illustration. Fading Channel Channel Capacity Diversity Technique Maximal Ratio Combine Ergodic Capacity In recent years, the use of multiantenna systems provides large spectral efficiency for wireless communications in the presence of multipath fading environments. Multiple antennas can be used at the transmitter (MISO), the receiver (SIMO), or at both of them (MIMO). A SIMO system can be viewed as an antenna diversity scheme (diversity in space). Also, diversity combining is known to be a powerful technique to improve system performance in the presence of fading [1]. Several papers have been published regarding the capacity of SIMO systems operating in Nakagami environments. In [2], the channel capacity of a SIMO system in a Nakagami-m fading channel is presented with the assumption that all links between transmit and receive antennas are independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.). In [3], capacity with MRC and optimal power and rate adaptation is presented while in [4] Shannon capacity with MRC is derived. In both of them, the assumption that all links are correlated and not identically distributed Nakagami holds. In [5], capacity of Nakagami-m multipath fading channels with MRC was studied for different power and rate adaptation policies. Also, simple capacity formulas for correlated SIMO Nakagami-m channels were derived in [6]. In [7], an analytical expression for the capacity of SIMO systems over nonidentically independent Nakagami-m channels was derived. Significant work has been done in [8], where ergodic capacities of MRC, EGC, SC, and SSC of dual branch diversity systems are presented in closed-form expressions. The capacity expressions were obtained by assuming correlated and identically distributed Nakagami-m links. In this paper, we examine the ergodic capacity of a SIMO system operating in independent Nakagami-m channels. Specifically we derive closed-form expressions for the ergodic capacity of dual EGC, SC, and SSC systems. For the EGC and SSC cases, we extend the work in [8] by allowing the parameter m of the Nakagami-m distribution to take noninteger values. Moreover for the SSC case, a compact and quite flexible formula of the ergodic capacity for integer values of m is presented. For the SC case, we present a new expression for the ergodic capacity with the assumption that the Nakagami branches are not identical. Finally, we present for the first time in international literature the ergodic capacity of a SIMO system without using any diversity combining technique over independent nonidentical Nakagami-m branches. In addition, it is shown that when the number of receive antennas is large, the ergodic capacity of such a system can be very well approximated by the ergodic capacity of a Rayleigh channel. The remaining of this paper is organized as follows. Section 2 introduces a SIMO system. Section 3 examines the ergodic capacity for each diversity scheme and for the case where none of diversity technique is applied. Section 4 presents some results, and Section 5 draws the conclusion. Consider a SIMO system with receive antennas operating in independent Nakagami-m channels. The total power of the complex transmitted signal at a symbol period is constrained to be . The received signal vector at a random symbol period, assuming that the channel is constant over a symbol period, is given in a baseband representation as where is the complex channel-gain vector ( means matrix transposition), is the complex antenna-gain vector, and n is the zero-mean complex additive white Gaussian (AWGN) vector with i.i.d. entries and variance . The received signal can be written as where , and . Thus, the received signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) over a symbol period is Assuming that the fading process is ergodic, the ergodic channel capacity is where is the bandwidth of the channel, denotes the ensemble average over , and is the probability density function (PDF) of the SNR . For all the cases listed below, we will assume that all links between transmitter and receivers are Nakagami-m distributed. From [9], their PDF is where is the Gamma function [10, eqution (8.310.1)], , and . 3.1. Ergodic Channel Capacity of Nakagami-m Fading Channel with MRC Taking into account the above system description and assuming that the receiver has full channel state information (CSI), we choose the phases of , appeared in (2), as . Also we choose . This means that all the signals at the receiver can be added cophasely and weighted according to the channel gain. Thus, (3) becomes This SNR arises from the MRC diversity technique [1, equation (9.1)]. Substituting the PDF of (6) in (4) gives the ergodic capacity of the Nakagami-m fading channel using MRC. Closed-form expressions have been presented in [3, equation (20)], [4, equation (16)] for the general case where links are correlated and not identically Nakagami-m distributed. If the links follow i.i.d. Nakagami-m variables, the referred equations reduce to [2, equation (36)]. When the parameter of i.i.d Nakagami-m branches takes integer values, the ergodic capacity is given by [5, equation (26)]. A good approximation for the ergodic capacity, where links are independent and not identically distributed, was given in [7, equation (16)]. Also a useful expression for the PDF of for correlated and not identically distributed links can be found in [11, equation (18)]. 3.2. Ergodic Channel Capacity of Nakagami-m Fading Channel with Coherent EGC Taking into account the system description discussed in Section 2 and assuming that the receiver has full CSI, we choose phases and modulus , appeared in (2), as , for all . Thus (3) becomes This SNR arises using the coherent EGC diversity technique [1, equation (9.188)]. Substituting the PDF of (7) in (4) gives the ergodic capacity of the Nakagami-m fading channel using coherent EGC diversity technique. Finding analytically the PDF of (7) and consequently the channel capacity seems to be a very difficult problem. In [12], the sum of i.i.d Nakagami-m variables was studied. The PDF of the sum of two i.i.d. Nakagami-m variables is given by [12, equation (4)]. From [13, page 130], we obtain the PDF transformation for two random variables , related as . Using that PDF transformation in (7) (here ) with the help of [12, equation (4)], we calculate the PDF of the SNR . Thus, the PDF of the SNR of a dual branch EGC system over i.i.d. Nakagami-m fading channels can be written as where is the average received SNR, and denotes the confluent hypergeometric series, as in [10, equation (9.21.1)]. Closed-form expressions for the capacity of a dual branch equal gain combiner with correlated identically distributed Nakagami-m branches have been presented in [8, equation (8)]. In the following paragraph, we extend that ergodic capacity expression for i.i.d. Nakagami-m branches where the Nakagami parameter m is not necessarily an integer. The ergodic capacity of a dual-branch EGC system over i.i.d. Nakagami-m fading channels ( and ) is given by (see Appendix A) where is a generalized hypergeometric series, [10, equation (9.14.1)], and denotes the digamma function, [10, equation (8.36.1)]. For integer values of the parameter m, (9) is reduced to (see Appendix A) where is the upper incomplete gamma function, as in [10, equation (8.350.2)]. Taking into account [12, equations (8), (9) and (10)] and following the same procedure as in Appendix A (derivation of (9), (10)), we can derive the ergodic capacity of an equal gain combiner for three, four, and M i.i.d Nakagami-m branches. However it is impractical for the purpose of this paper to present all those tedious mathematical formulations. Nevertheless the impact of diversity on the capacity can be clearly depicted by using two branch schemes. 3.3. Ergodic Channel Capacity of Nakagami-m Fading Channel with SC We assume a combiner that chooses the branch with the highest SNR (or equivalently with the strongest signal assuming equal noise power among the branches). Thus, we choose the antenna gains appearing in (2) as if for all and 0 otherwise. Thus, (3) becomes This is the widely known SC diversity technique as in [1, Chapter (9.8)]. The PDF of the SNR of two correlated identically distributed Nakagami-m channels is given in [1, equation (9.235)], and the resulting ergodic capacity for m integer is presented in [8, equation (19)]. From [14, equation (14)] and using the PDF transformation for two random variables , related as (here ), we can calculate the PDF of the SNR of two independent and not identically distributed Nakagami-m branches as follows: where , , and is the lower incomplete gamma function, [10, equation (8.350.1)]. In order to find the ergodic capacity of a dual SC system, we have to solve the integral resulting by substituting (12) in (4). Unfortunately, this integral cannot be solved analytically when the Nakagami parameters , take noninteger values. But, assuming that , take integer values, the ergodic capacity of a dual-branch SC system over independent nonidentically distributed Nakagami-m fading channels is given by (see Appendix A) If the branches are identically distributed ( and ), (13) reduces to 3.4. Ergodic Channel Capacity of Nakagami-m Fading Channel with SSC We consider a diversity system, for which, when the SNR of the currently connected branch falls below a predetermined threshold, the receiver switches to and stays with another branch, regardless of whether the SNR of that branch is above or below the predetermined threshold. This is the widely known SSC diversity technique as in [1, page 419]. In particular, we choose the antenna gains appearing in (2) as if the SNR at the branch is above a predetermined threshold and 0 otherwise. If the SNR at the branch is below the predetermined threshold , then we choose randomly an where , . The PDF of the resulting SNR of a dual-branch SSC system over two i.i.d. Nakagami-m channels is given in [1, equation (9.276)] where . The ergodic capacity of a dual-branch SSC system over i.i.d. Nakagami-m fading channels is given by (see Appendix A) where is Meijer's- function as defined in [10, page 1032]. For integer values of the parameter m, (16) is reduced to (see Appendix A) 3.5. Ergodic Channel Capacity of Nakagami-m Fading Channel with No Diversity Combining Technique We suppose that the receiver has no CSI and no complexity (cannot make any signal processing). Thus, the system operates without any diversity technique used. Thus, for all i and the random variable (appearing in (3)) is a sum of Nakagami-m random phase vectors. Consequently, (3) becomes In order to find the PDF of (18), the PDF of the modulus of the sum of Nakagami-m random phase vectors is necessary. In [15], that PDF was derived for integer values of the Nakagami parameter m. Using that result, we write the modulus of the sum of Nakagami-m random phase vectors as a sum of weighted Nakagami-m PDFs (see Appendix B). Thus, using in (18) the PDF transformation for two random variables , related as (here ), we can derive with the help of (B.6) the PDF of the SNR as a sum of weighted gamma PDFs, that is, where is the PDF of a gamma-distributed random variable as in [13, page 87]. The ergodic channel capacity of a SIMO system without any diversity technique, over independent nonidentically distributed Nakagami-m branches, is given by (see Appendix A) Herein we will examine the case that the number of receive antennas is large. In that case the random variable (appearing in (3)) tends to be a complex Gaussian random variable, according to the Central Limit Theorem [13, page 278], that is, where and are the quadrature components of a Nakagami-m vector which follow the PDF according to [16, equation (6)]. That PDF has zero mean, and its variance equals to . According to the Central Limit Theorem, and are zero mean Gaussian random variables with variance . Thus, can be approximated by a Rayleigh distribution, as defined in [13, page 90], with its parameter . Taking into account the random variables transformation in (18), the resulting SNR follows an exponential distribution [13, page 85], that is, where . Substituting (22) in (4) and using Theorem 3, we obtain Thus, when L is large (asymptotic analysis), the ergodic capacity of the SIMO system can be approximated by the simple formula of (23), which is in fact the capacity of a Rayleigh channel [2, equations (21), (22)]. Figure 1 shows the capacity per unit bandwidth for a dual branch MRC system over i.i.d. Nakagami-m fading channels (see [2, equation (36)]) for the case , . Also, channel capacity without any diversity technique (see (20)) and SISO channel capacity (see [2, equation (21)]) are presented for comparison. It is clear that MRC improves the capacity of a SIMO Nakagami-m fading channel. It is also remarkable that channel capacity with none diversity technique is much greater than SISO capacity. Capacity per unit bandwidth of a dual branch Nakagami- m fading channel with MRC diversity as a function of the average received SNR. Figure 2 shows the capacity per unit bandwidth for a dual branch EGC system over i.i.d. Nakagami-m fading channels (see (10)) for the same parameter set as in Figure 1. Again, channel capacity without any diversity technique and SISO channel capacity are presented for comparison. It is obvious that EGC improves the capacity of a SIMO Nakagami-m fading channel. Capacity per unit bandwidth of a dual branch Nakagami- m fading channel with EGC diversity as a function of the average received SNR. Figure 3 shows the capacity per unit bandwidth for a dual branch SC system over independent Nakagami-m fading channels (see (13)) for the same parameter set as in Figures 1 and 2. Channel capacity without any diversity technique and SISO channel capacity are presented for comparison. We can see that SC performs slightly better than the case of none diversity technique. Capacity per unit bandwidth of a dual branch Nakagami- m fading channel with SC diversity as a function of the average received SNR. Figure 4 shows the capacity per unit bandwidth for a dual branch SSC system over independent Nakagami-m fading channels (see (17)), for the same parameter set as in Figures 1, 2, and 3. The optimum adaptive switching threshold was determined as in [8, equation (31)] and was found . Channel capacity without any diversity technique and SISO channel capacity are presented for comparison. It is clear that SSC improves the capacity of a SIMO Nakagami-m fading channel, but the case of none diversity technique performs slightly better than SSC. This is because SSC does not exploit both branches simultaneously. Essentially, SSC cannot have diversity gain. It simply uses one branch which has a smaller possibility to fall below a predetermined threshold (as it hops to the other). Capacity per unit bandwidth of a dual branch Nakagami- m fading channel with SSC diversity as a function of the average received SNR. Figure 5 shows the capacity per unit bandwidth for a five and a dual branch system where none diversity technique is used. Each branch is assumed to be independent and is characterized as Nakagami-m fading channel with parameters and . Figure 5 shows that (23) gives a very good approximation of (20) for the channel capacity of a SIMO Nakagami-m fading channel even with receive antennas. Capacity per unit bandwidth of a Nakagami- m fading channel with and receive antennas without any diversity technique as a function of the average received SNR. We have investigated the ergodic capacity of a SIMO system operating in a Nakagami-m fading channel. We have derived a closed-form expression for the ergodic capacity of a dual branch EGC system over i.i.d Nakagami-m branches, where the Nakagami parameter m can be any real number with . Also, a closed-form formula is presented for m integer. A simple closed-form expression for the ergodic capacity of a dual SC diversity system operating in two independent but not identically distributed Nakagami-m branches has been derived. For that case, we have assumed that the Nakagami parameters take integer values. A closed-form expression for the ergodic capacity of a dual SSC diversity system operating in two i.i.d. Nakagami-m branches has been derived for the case where the Nakagami parameter m can be any real number with . Also, a simple closed-form formula is presented for m integer. It was observed that all diversity combining techniques that are considered in this paper provide improvement to the capacity of Nakagami-m fading channels. Finally, the ergodic capacity of a SIMO system without any diversity technique has been presented in a closed-form expression. For that case, we have assumed independent but not identically distributed Nakagami-m branches, where the parameters take integer values. It was shown that when the number of receive antennas is large ( ), the ergodic capacity of a SIMO system without any diversity technique can be very well approximated by the capacity of a Rayleigh fading channel. Total power of a transmitted symbol Variance of Gaussian noise Received SNR Average received SNR predetermined threshold of SNR PDF of received SNR Generalized hypergeometric series, [10, equation (9.14.1)] Digamma function, [10, equation (8.36.1)] Meijer's-G function, [10, page 1032] Lower incomplete gamma function, [10, equation (8.350.1)] Upper incomplete gamma function, [10, equation (8.350.2)] Gamma function, [10, equation (8.310.1)] One has for , and . Proof of Theorem 1. We define . With a change of variables we have We write the term to its Taylor series expansion as , and (A.4) becomes The integral of (A.5) is solved by Mathematica Toolbox as Substituting (A.6) in (A.5), we obtain (A.1). Using partial integration and [10, equation (8.356.4)], the integral can be written as If is an integer ( ), using [10, equation (8.352.7)], (A.7) becomes The integral of (A.8) can be written with the help of [10, equation (1.111)] as and by the definition of the upper incomplete gamma function [10, equation (8.350.2)], (A.9) becomes Replacing (A.10) in (A.8), we have that Reversing the double sum of (A.11) and using [10, equation (8.352.4)], we obtain (A.2). We set in (A.8) and we have Solving the integral in the second part of (A.12) with the help of [10, equation (8.353.3)], we obtain (A.3). Derivation of (9) and (10) Substituting (8) in (4) and replacing the confluent hypergeometric function of (8) with its infinite series representation [10, equation (9.210.1)], we obtain after some manipulations The integral appearing in (A.13) was solved in [17, equation (2.6.23.4)]. Using this result, after some manipulations, (9) is derived. If in (A.13) is an integer, we evaluate the integral of (A.13) by using Theorem 3 and after some manipulations, (10) arises. Derivation of (13) Assuming that and take integer values, we are able to replace the lower incomplete gamma function , appearing in (12), with its finite sum representation [10, equation (8.352.1)]. Substituting (12) in (4) with the help of [10, equation (8.352.1)], we obtain after some manipulations Since and in (A.14) are integers, we use Theorem 3 of the current Appendix to solve the integral and finally, we obtain (13). Derivation of (16) and (17) Substituting (15) in (4), with the help of (A.4), we obtain Using Theorem 1 to evaluate the integral and considering that the integral was solved in [17, equation (2.6.23.4)], from (A.15) we obtain (16). For integer values of the Nakagami parameter m in (A.15), we are able to use Theorems 2 and 3 to solve the integrals and , respectively. After some manipulations, from (A.15) we obtain (17). Replacing (19) in (4), we obtain after some manipulations Using Theorem 3, we can solve the integral of (A.16) and finally we obtain (20). If is a sum of Nakagami-m random phase vectors, the PDF of its modulus has been derived in [15, equation (8)] as where and is an operator defined as [15, equation (4)] with , . is the Pochhammer symbol, [18, equation (6.1.22)]. Reversing the multiple sum in (B.2), we can rewrite as with the constraint that and . Thus, is defined as Using the property for the Pochhammer symbol, (B.4) can be written as Substituting (B.3) in (B.1) with the help of (B.5) we obtain which is, in fact, a sum of weighted Nakagami-m PDFs, as the author of [15] has noted. Wireless Telecommunications Laboratory, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Patras, 26500 Rio Patras, Greece Simon MK, Alouini M-S: Digital Communications over Fading Channels. John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, USA; 2005.Google Scholar Zheng F, Kaiser T: On the channel capacity of multiantenna systems with nakagami fading. EURASIP Journal on Applied Signal Processing 2006, 2006:-11.Google Scholar Alouini M-S, Abdi A, Kaveh M: Sum of gamma variates and performance of wireless communication systems over Nakagami-fading channels. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology 2001, 50(6):1471-1480. 10.1109/25.966578View ArticleGoogle Scholar Karagiannidis GK, Sagias NC, Tsiftsis TA:Closed-form statistics for the sum of squared Nakagami- variates and its applications. IEEE Transactions on Communications 2006, 54(8):1353-1359.View ArticleGoogle Scholar Alouini M-S, Goldsmith AJ: Capacity of Nakagami multipath fading channels. Proceedings of the 47th IEEE Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC '97), May 1997, Phoenix, Ariz, USA 1: 358-362.Google Scholar Zhang QT, Liu DP: Simple capacity formulas for correlated SIMO Nakagami channels. 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Proceedings of the 6th IEEE International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC '95), September 1995, Toronto, Canada 3: 1195-1201.View ArticleGoogle Scholar Karagiannidis GK:A closed-form solution for the distribution of the sum of Nakagami- random phase vectors. IEEE Communications Letters 2006, 10(12):828-830.View ArticleGoogle Scholar Fraidenraich G, Leveque O, Cioffi JM:On the MIMO channel capacity for the Nakagami- Channel. Proceedings of IEEE Global Telecommunication Conference (GLOCOM '07), November 2007, Washington, DC, USA 3612-3616.Google Scholar Prudnikov AP, Brychkov YA, Marichev OI: Integrals and Series. Volume 1. Gordon and Breach Science, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; 1986.MATHGoogle Scholar Abramovitz M, Stegun IA: Handbook of Mathematical Functions with Formulas, Graphs, and Mathematical Tables. 9th edition. Dover, New York, NY, USA; 1972.Google Scholar This article is published under license to BioMed Central Ltd. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Broadband Wireless Access	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1442
__label__wiki	0.711162	0.711162	Million Dollar Pledge #10for10 #10for10 Encore Know Your Rights Camp NFL Quarterback Investing Thousands into Milwaukee Organizations Written by Amanda Porterfield He created a stir by sitting down during the national anthem, taking a stand to raise awareness about social justice issues in America, and 49ers Quarterback Colin Kaepernick isn’t just talking the talk.. CBS 58’s Amanda Porterfield shows us how he’s walking the walk right here in Milwaukee. Urban Underground has been helping teens on Milwaukee’s North side for 17 years. Sharlen Moore is busy running the show with just 3 others on staff, and a small budget. “It’s huge for us,” says Moore. So it’s no surprise that even a football star’s agent had to call twice to get her attention. “He said what could you do with 25,000 dollars. I said we could do a lot with 25 thousand dollars. And I started to name all of the things,” says Moore. New computers, stipends for the kids that come here after school instead of the streets, and newer vans than the ones they have now which are 20 plus years old. “Some weeks after we received a check in the mail for 25,000 dollars. Couldn’t believe, I just couldn’t believe it. That this was Colin Kaepernick and that he was supporting our organization all the way in Milwaukee,” says Sharlen Moore. Besides Urban Underground, Colin Kaepernick gave another $25,000.00 to the “I Will Not Die Young Campaign” here in Milwaukee. Both organizations focus on keeping young inner city, mainly African American kids alive and moving in a positive direction, an issue Colin Kaepernick stood up for by kneeling. “A lot of times people talk about it but the one thing I really value and appreciate with Colin Kaepernick, is that he actually put his money where his mouth is,” says Moore. This is all part of Kaepernick’s initiative to donate $1 million dollars, money from his own salary to organizations across the United States. [read more…] This is exactly what Nike was thinking on Colin Kaepernick ad Despite "Outrage", Nike Sales Increased 31% After Kaepernick Ad Nike reveals inspiring new ad narrated by Colin Kaepernick © 2019 www.kaepernick7.com. © K7 2018	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1444
__label__wiki	0.888076	0.888076	Tanenbaum, Robert When a rising starlet from Spanish Harlem dies from a gunshot wound in the fashionable downtown penthouse of an eccentric and famous Broadway producer, New York District Attorney Roger "Butch" Karp and his hard-charging, crime-fighting wife, Marlene Ciampi, smell drama. Karp is outraged at claims by the producer and his high-powered attorney that the "troubled" actress committed suicide. With the help of a fearful witness who Marlene convinces to speak out, Karp wages a relentless battle for justice against a notorious defendant, a legion of experts, and a barrage of hostile threats. Meanwhile, a shadowy international power group called the Sons of Man kidnaps Karp's daughter, Lucy, as she attempts to thwart the latest terrorist threat against New York City. Karp races to decode a baffling series of riddles left behind by the group's mastermind, his longtime enemy, to uncover the terrorists' true target and save Lucy from certain death. The key may lie within the fevered mind of David Grale, a half-mad religious vigilante who has mysteriously retreated beneath the city. Hunted by a beautiful but deadly Russian assassin, Karp and his eclectic band of accomplices must infiltrate the Sons of Man before the group's scheme for world dominion succeeds. But, little does Karp know: the clock is ticking down on New York City as an invisible force prepares to unleash Armageddon. With more than twelve million copies of his books in print, Robert K. Tanenbaum is a true "master of the legal thriller" (Vincent Bugliosi) whose yanked-from-the-headlines adventures keep readers rapt until each breathtaking conclusion. Publisher: New York : Pocket Books, c2009. Branch Call Number: TANENBAU Read more reviews of Capture at iDreamBooks.com akasq Feb 24, 2013 The Karp-Ciampi family with all of the other heroes, make for more than interesting characters, with clever twists and turns. This book has it all. Karp, Butch (Fictitious Character) — Fiction. Ciampi, Marlene (Fictitious Character) — Fiction. Public Prosecutors — Fiction. New York (N.Y.) — Fiction. Legal Stories.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1456
__label__cc	0.632649	0.367351	Child Support, Military Divorce, Child Custody, Family Law, Collaborative Morgantown, Grafton, Fairmont, Philippi, Bridgeport Top Kingwood Divorce Lawyers - West Virginia Nearby Cities: Morgantown, Grafton, Fairmont, Philippi, Bridgeport Related Practice Areas: Child Support, Military Divorce, Child Custody, Family Law, Collaborative Tipton Law Offices Divorce Lawyers Serving Kingwood, WV (Fairmont) The Tipton Law Office takes a hands-on approach when serving clients in Fairmont and Morgantown, West Virginia. We aggressively represent people in personal injury, criminal defense and family law matters such as the following: Motor vehicle accidents, nursing home abuse and premises liability DUI, assault, drug crimes and murder Child support, divorce, child custody and grandparents’ rights... 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__label__cc	0.746643	0.253357	nataly aviles i'm sorry for everything you're about to read Follow nataly aviles on WordPress.com why i’m famous Journalism: Year 1. a legend was bornMarch 14th, 2017 proof that i'm cool MY EYYEEESSS!!! how i miss the family dinners, crazy encounters, & asking "y en dólar?" 🇲🇽❣ @psychocely u deserve to be celebrated every day, i love you sunny girl!! ty hector!! this what be happening when we bored... but my sweet girl olivia delivered 😩👏❣ stiff whereeeee 😭😭😩 HAPPY LOSERZ DAY LOSERTON!!!!! if yall didnt know where i get my humor from........ love u mr father clown man, ur my favorite dad ever ♡ ty for all the hugs & smiles call me carrie #prom2019 molly..... i miss u & ur Big Comfy Couch WHEN I CLOSE MY EYES I THINK ABOUT YOU EVERY TIME!!!! wise words from… moyoisamazing Drew's Journalism Journey hanna030wittmack Tag: web A Quotidian of Effort I am shocked. Completely shocked. Entering this cycle, I was overwhelmed with worries: from working with new people to producing quick-paced stories;I’m pretty sure it would even be safe to say I was on the verge of being the next 2007 Britney once assigned to work on web. With this rotation, however, learned a lot more about myself and my work ethic in a more than positive way. I most definitely got to work outside of my comfort zone, talk/interview so many people on campus, and began to write in news format for the first time. I found myself talking to people in my section much quicker the second time around; I thank working in photo beforehand for this – as my character grew gregarious from the experience. This attitude also applied to my interviews. Walking into my first interview, 2007 Britney suddenly became more intriguing. Considering that web stories ranged from twenty minute conversations to asking students simple, quick questions around campus, I’d like to believe that I won’t be shaving my head anytime soon. If anything, interviews have become one of my favorite parts of journalism. Once again, I am shocked. Completely shocked. My next cycle choice, however, is not much of a shock: Opinion. Considering that I have yet to write for print, I think the process would be rather interesting; will my 2007 Britney phase return? Most likely. Writing for print and opinion, however, has seemed to be my main goal for journalism; either way, I’m more than happy with my development in journalism as a whole. By natalyin for class December 5, 2016 December 6, 2016 260 WordsLeave a comment Adding Up The Future While venturing alongside me in web, Freshman Colby Roberts finds numbers and algorithms on his mind and in his future. Aside from the obvious liking of writing – by enrolling in journalism for his first year of high school, Roberts expresses his enjoy for the simplicity behind mathematics. “Most of the time,” Roberts said, “there is only one answer.” Roberts believes that because the subject is reasonably straighfoward, it is also the one answer for his future. “It’s more reliable. You wouldn’t lose your job just because you’re not as good as someone else,” Roberts said. When asked about said job, Roberts found himself distant from teaching others in comparison to providing for others. “I don’t see myself as a teacher,” Roberts said, “but an accountant. It is clear to see that, despite being a freshman, thinking about the path that lies ahead is nothing new for Roberts. “Really, I’m going to be a lawyer in the future. I might do a profession that uses both math and law because I enjoy each of them,” Roberts said. “If I minored in math but majored in law, that would be great.” By setting a clear path to his interets, Roberts is able to focus on what will benefit him as he grows with little doubt; it is never too late to take a glance into your future. By natalyin for class November 3, 2016 November 3, 2016 226 WordsLeave a comment Did Someone Say… Web? As my new cycle begins, I will venture into the web; I’m a WebEditor, woah. This is rather exciting and despite not wanting to leave photo – momentarily – I’m fairly pleased with this change. I’m assuming this section will fall into a similar category I once mentioned before: joy. In no way, shape, or form, do I consider myself anywhere near tech savvy. I do, however, find the value in extending my knowledge to a variety of media; for it is our future. Media matters: it lures people towards what needs to be said (which, presumably, I will need to learn the proper format for). Aside from the work itself, I will admit that I’m fairly intimidated to begin working in this section simply due to the fact that I am a stranger. Yes, I understand that, for the most part, everyone deals with working with people they have never met before; I understand that I am not the only one with that issue. Being so, I find it rather natural and 100-percent acceptable to feel this way. It’s human nature! I am allowed to be anxious when it comes to do anything that is not independent. That being said, I also tend to think that this (what some might call, irrational) fear of mine will only disparage me when it comes down to how I overcome it. Will I shy away and continue to keep to myself? Or will I break out of my pertinacity and challenge myself to use my voice? Let’s find out. By natalyin for me October 29, 2016 October 29, 2016 258 WordsLeave a comment my babbles What’s to Come Looking Into a Lens	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1459
__label__wiki	0.686091	0.686091	← Old Lahore, old books Lahore Basant 2009 celebrations likely after change of govt: KFA → Baba Shah Jamal Posted on February 28, 2009 by Raza Rumi \| 6 Comments By Barbara Plett (BBC News, Lahore) Some believe that Pakistan’s mystic, non-violent Islam can be used as a defence against extremism (Photos: Kamil Dayan Khan) It’s one o’clock in the morning and the night is pounding with hypnotic rhythms, the air thick with the smoke of incense, laced with dope. I’m squeezed into a corner of the upper courtyard at the shrine of Baba Shah Jamal in Lahore, famous for its Thursday night drumming sessions. It’s packed with young men, smoking, swaying to the music, and working themselves into a state of ecstasy. This isn’t how most Westerners imagine Pakistan, which has a reputation as a hotspot for Islamist extremism. Devotional singing But this popular form of Sufi Islam is far more widespread than the Taleban’s version. It’s a potent brew of mysticism, folklore and a dose of hedonism. Devotees work themselves into a state of ecstasy Now some in the West have begun asking whether Pakistan’s Sufism could be mobilised to counter militant Islamist ideology and influence. Lahore would be the place to start: it’s a city rich in Sufi tradition. At the shrine of Data Ganj Bakhsh Hajveri, musicians and singers from across the country also gather weekly, to perform qawwali, or Islamic devotional singing. Qawwali is seen as a key part of the journey to the divine, what Sufis call the continual remembrance of God. “When you listen to other music, you will listen for a short time, but the qawwali goes straight inside,” says Ali Raza, a fourth generation Sufi singer. “Even if you can’t understand the wording, you can feel the magic of the qawwali, this is spiritual music which directly touches your soul and mind as well.” But Sufism is more than music. At a house in an affluent suburb of Lahore a group of women gathers weekly to practise the Sufi disciplines of chanting and meditation, meant to clear the mind and open the heart to God. One by one the devotees recount how the sessions have helped them deal with problems and achieve greater peace and happiness. This more orthodox Sufism isn’t as widespread as the popular variety, but both are seen as native to South Asia. ‘Love and harmony’ “Islam came to this part of the world through Sufism,” says Ayeda Naqvi, a teacher of Islamic mysticism who’s taking part in the chanting. “It was Sufis who came and spread the religious message of love and harmony and beauty, there were no swords, it was very different from the sharp edged Islam of the Middle East. “And you can’t separate it from our culture, it’s in our music, it’s in our folklore, it’s in our architecture. We are a Sufi country, and yet there’s a struggle in Pakistan right now for the soul of Islam.” Sufism is a mixture of music, chanting and meditation That struggle is between Sufism and hard-line Wahabism, the religion of the Taleban and al-Qaeda. It has gained ground in the tribal north-west, encouraged initially in the 1980s by the US and Saudi Arabia to help recruit Islamist warriors to fight the Soviets in Afghanistan. But it’s alien to Pakistan’s Sufi heartland in the Punjab and Sindh provinces, says Sardar Aseff Ali, a cabinet minister and a Sufi. “Wahabism is a tribal form of Islam coming from the desert sands of Saudi Arabia,” he says. “This may be very attractive to the tribes in the frontier, but it will never find resonance in the established societies of Pakistan.” So could Pakistan’s mystic, non-violent Islam be used as a defence against extremism? An American think tank, the Rand Corporation, has advocated this, suggesting support for Sufism as an “open, intellectual interpretation of Islam”. There is ample proof that Sufism remains a living tradition. In the warren of Lahore’s back streets, a shrine is being built to a modern saint, Hafiz Iqbal, and his mentor, a mystic called Baba Hassan Din. They attract followers from all classes and walks of life. ‘Atrocities’ The architect is Kamil Khan Mumtaz. He describes in loving detail his traditional construction techniques and the spiritual principles they symbolise. Huge crowds are attracted to Sufi gatherings He shakes his head at stories of lovely old mosques and shrines pulled down and replaced by structures of concrete and glass at the orders of austere mullahs, and he’s horrified at atrocities committed in the name of religion by militant Islamists. But he doubts that Sufism can be marshalled to resist Wahabi radicalism, a phenomenon that he insists has political, not religious, roots. “The American think tanks should think again,” he says. “What you see [in Islamic extremism] is a response to what has happened in the modern world. “There is a frustration, an anger, a rage against invaders, occupiers. Muslims ask themselves, what happened? “We once ruled the world and now we’re enslaved. This is a power struggle, it is the oppressed who want to become the oppressors, this has nothing to do with Islam, and least of all to do with Sufism.” Sufi people are often actively engaged in social welfare programmes Ayeda Naqvi, on the other hand, believes Sufism could play a political role to strengthen a tolerant Islamic identity in Pakistan. But she warns of the dangers of Western support. “I think if it’s done it has to be done very quietly because a lot of people here are allergic to the West interfering,” she says. “So even if it’s something good they’re doing, they need to be discreet because you don’t want Sufism to be labelled as a movement which is being pushed by the West to drown out the real puritanical Islam.” Back at the Shah Jamal shrine I couldn’t feel further from puritanical Islam. The frenzied passion around me suggests that Pakistan’s Sufi shrines won’t be taken over by the Taleban any time soon. But whether Sufism can be used to actively resist the spread of extremist Islam, or even whether it should be, is another question. This entry was posted in Lahore, shrines, Sufi and tagged baba, dergah, Islam, Lahore, Punjab, Shah Jamal, shrine, Sufism, Taliban. Bookmark the permalink. 6 responses to “Baba Shah Jamal” uzma \| March 2, 2009 at 4:30 am \| Reply is not that all is a different way to real islam… ??? is’nt that the worship of a grave. is’nt that a way to turn blacks into whites…..????? farhan \| March 17, 2009 at 8:50 am \| Reply Raza sahib, this is not what you call ‘Islam’. There is only one ‘type’ of Islam. What you talk about above is a culture or a cult originating here in our part of the world. Rais Nouman Ahmed \| February 8, 2010 at 10:16 pm \| Reply Every person wants to interpret Islam according to his or her needs or convenience that why there are so many school of thoughts have been developed under the umbrella of Islam. we should not criticize others may be others have more worth instead of us. I know verywell that plenty of people will disagree but we should respect and tolerate public beliefs and opinions. we should try to learn be humble and be patient. I disliked this sect when in was a child but with the passage of time I have understood the relationship between God and his believer. In sharia we learn and obey but in mysticism we obey and through this obedience we seek the knowledge of Sharia. No religion permits drugs or intoxicants; we do this just to gain exstacy. Anyhow May God for forgive me. Pingback: Shah Jamal Shrine: Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan \| The Modern Rumi shahzaib \| September 16, 2010 at 7:04 am \| Reply This is not a culture Mr Farhan , this what we belong to , Islam didnt came here in Subcontinent via some Mullahs of Arab , but these great Sufi’s brought Islam into out life and enlightened our life with their blessings and messege of Islam , we should be thankful to them always and not deviate from what we are becauze of these great saints , They blessed our land and will forever till they day of Qayamat , Tasvir Husain \| June 11, 2015 at 6:30 am \| Reply The Sufis and their school of thought, were the major factors for the spread of Islam. This was not achieved by force; it was love and devotion which made it possible. Why can’t we follow the principle of, Live and let live?	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1463
__label__cc	0.686927	0.313073	Laila Yuile on politics & life in B.C. 100 + reasons the BC Liberals needed to go. The case to Stop Site C construction – links & news Throwback Thursday: A bit of history on BC legislature accounting practices…or lack thereof Posted on November 22, 2018 11:57 am by Laila Yuile If you haven’t followed the latest #bcpoli scandal, there is quite a story brewing in Victoria….and I thought it might be a good time to look back at how the legislature has been operating for nearly a decade, and what they have done to fix it. This week, the story broke that two top BC Legislature officials were placed on paid administrative leave, following an investigation and subsequent request by RCMP for a special prosecutor. https://www.straight.com/news/1166786/top-legislature-officials-craig-james-and-gary-lenz-placed-administrative-leave-wake But wait. It gets more interesting as time goes on. The National Post has since reported that sources indicated to them, the two were being investigated for possible fraud and theft, and that public taxpayers were the victims. https://nationalpost.com/news/politics/two-senior-officials-suspended-from-b-c-legislature-being-investigated-for-possible-fraud-and-theft-sources An earlier report indicated this had nothing to do with expenses, that remains to be determined. What was interesting in all this, was that the investigation was initially undertaken by Daryll Plecas’ special advisor, Alan Mullen. Who is Alan Mullen and why does Plecas have a special advisor? This recent story sheds some light on this: https://www.bclocalnews.com/news/ive-seen-a-lot-of-joy-and-a-lot-of-crying-life-as-a-politicians-assistant-can-be-eye-opening/ Few constituency offices have seen quite so much change as that of Abbotsford South MLA Darryl Plecas, who became Speaker of the Legislature and left the BC Liberal party in one fell swoop. As speaker, Plecas must be seen to be impartial. At the same time, though, he remains his constituent’s elected representative. So, in addition to his long-time CA, Amber Born, Plecas now employs Alan Mullen as a “special adviser.” Mullen had previously volunteered on political campaigns, first on behalf of the NDP, then for Plecas after he decided to run in 2013. The pair had come to know each other while Plecas was a prison judge and Mullen worked as a corrections manager at Kent Institution. So when Plecas decided to accept an offer from the NDP to become Speaker of the Legislature – a job in which he can’t directly advocate for policies – he tapped Mullen to perform some of the functions he could no longer do. That includes things like meeting with groups and organizations seeking funding, and taking those requests to decision-makers in Victoria. And Mullen gushed at the results so far, saying he was surprised with the ability to be able to sit down with ministers – although he said Plecas’s decision to take the speakership wasn’t the reason for that accommodation. Reports now indicate that Mullen conducted this initial investigation for nearly 7 months before handing over everything to the RCMP early this fall. That alone, has raised eyebrows, however today BC Liberal leader Andrew Wilkinson and Mary Polak came forward with an affidavit, now saying that in a meeting with Plecas, he had asked for Mullen to given the position of acting Sergent at Arms. Polak and those in attendence said it was inappropriate and that was the end of it. However, in the context of asking Mullen to fill this position temporarily, Plecas is the chair of the LMA committee and his duties as speaker are listed at the end of this post. Part of those duties is provision of security, something many reporters seem to have missed. The issue here, if any, is the perception of conflict because Mullen is also a personal friend aside from working for Plecas as a ‘special advisor’. (An initial thought that occurred to me after hearing of this position, was curiosity as to whether Linda Reid had a similar advisor, or is this unique to Plecas? I have yet to see any reporter ask this question. ) But lets move on, because I suspect this story will be occupying #bcpoli for some time. Let’s go back to the past to understand a bit more about how our Legislative Assemblys financial affairs have been handled for years… and how BC mla’s ignored warnings for years that conditions for … gasp.. fraud and theft were ripe in our most respected institution, before finally acting to fix things. In 2012, Craig James made the news for his lavish expenses, that Dermod Travis of Integrity BC discovered via FOI: http://www.vancouversun.com/news/forhttp://www.vancouversun.com/news/former+chief+electoral+officer+Craig+James+under+fire+travel+expenses/7158330/story.htmlmer+chief+electoral+officer+Craig+James+under+fire+travel+expenses/7158330/story.html It was following that debacle that it was revealed by a scathing 2012 Auditor Generals audit, that legislative affairs were a mess. Lack of bank reconciliations. No receipts. Expenses from one year classed into another. The full details are here: https://lailayuile.com/2012/07/27/politics-without-principle-makes-hypocrisy-a-governing-force-in-the-legislative-assembly/ And ironically, this wasn’t a new thing – the Auditor Generals office had recommended way back in 2007, that the Legislature provide publicly available audited financial reports, and improve internal controls to prevent fraud and misappropriation of public funds…. and it never happened. For 5 years after that, BC MLA’s did nothing to fix their own financial affairs. So, one would think the 2012 stories would have created change, yes? No.Two years later, in 2014, news broke that then speaker Linda Reid’s expenses were a bit like Imelda Marcos: Lavish expensed trips, excessive legislative spending.. you get the gist. And it wasn’t just Linda Reid…Raj Chouhan expensed a lavish trip as well, which he paid back. Full details on that,here: https://lailayuile.com/2014/03/26/politics-without-principle-2-0-just-because-you-candoesnt-mean-you-should/ Finally, following more than a decade of amateurish accounting practices, the BC Legislature and MLA’s within it had been embarrassed enough to move towards proper accounting practices and transparency, and published their first expense reports in 2015: http://www.vancouversun.com/news/Legislature+releases+detailed+expenses/10926667/story.html It’s now 2018 and the most recent LAMC Accountability report is available online to show you how and where the legislature spends its money and keeps track of it. Seems timely to show you: https://www.leg.bc.ca/content/CommitteeDocuments/41st-parliament/LAMC/LAMC_AccountabilityReport_2016-17.pdf I can’t determine what safeguards they have in place now to prevent misappropriation of funds, but it’s clear that little attention has been paid to this in the past. Darryl Plecas, in addition to speaker, is also chair of the Legislative Assembly Management Committee, which would give him access to and insight into financial matters of the legislature, and certainly affords him a unique position to see things others may not…particularly with his background in criminology. Incidentally, he is hated by most BC Liberals…and this post I wrote explains why: https://lailayuile.com/2017/09/10/educating-ryan/ Plecas was the only person to call out Clark when she tried to pass off the NDP platform as the Lib platform in a last ditch attempt to fool voters prior to the last election. And Randy Hawes said it so well. There isn’t a Liberal in that house who doesn’t want to see Plecas gone…and to see him removed as Speaker which would make it possible to try and topple the current government. Frankly this aspect alone, their contempt for Plecas, taints the situation greatly. The BC Liberals will make much noise over Mullen and Plecas, to distract #bcpoli watchers from the REAL story: what Plecas found, what evidence was handed to the RCMP and why it merited two special prosecutors. That is the story here…not Mullen. What exactly prompted this investigation in the first place? A snapshot of current and past members of this committee are as follows: Other info that might be helpful to understand context of duties, during this evolving story , from the link above: The Finance and Audit Committee is an advisory sub-committee reporting to the Legislative Assembly Management Committee on financial and administrative matters. It is comprised of the Speaker, the government and opposition Caucus Chairs, the Third Party House Leader, and the Clerk of the Legislative Assembly. Speaker of the Legislative Assembly ( Darryl Plecas) The Speaker of the Legislative Assembly is elected by its Members to serve as the Presiding Officer and Chair of the Legislative Assembly Management Committee. Under the Committee’s direction, the Speaker is responsible for the day-to-day administration of the Assembly, the provision of security within the Legislative Precinct, and the management of the use of the Legislative Precinct. ( note: Plecas has a strong background in criminology- from his mla website: “Plecas was the RCMP Senior University Research Chair and Director for the Centre for Public Safety and Criminal Justice Research at the University of the Fraser Valley, where he worked for 34 years. He holds two degrees in criminology from Simon Fraser University and a doctorate in higher education from the University of British Columbia. He is the author or co-author of more than 200 books, international journal articles, and research reports addressing a broad range of public safety issues. His most recent book, which he co-authored in his current role as professor emeritus at the University of the Fraser Valley, focuses on how government professionals can make better decisions.” Clerk of the Legislative Assembly ( Craig James) The Clerk of the Legislative Assembly is the senior permanent officer and procedural advisor to the Speaker and all Members. The Clerk manages the provision of professional and procedural advice and support to the Legislative Assembly Management Committee and the Finance and Audit Committee, and is responsible for the Assembly’s administrative and financial operations. And this link explains when and why special prosecutors are brought in. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/justice/criminal-justice/bc-prosecution-service/about/special-prosecutors So there you have it… and this is why people like Dermod Travis of Integrity BC and Bob Mackin matter so much. I would say both have been instrumental in bringing the legislature into a state of professionalism with respect to accounting, and transparency. I will post updates to this story as they develop, in the comments below. Category: BC conservatives, BC Greens, BC Liberals, BC NDP, BC Politics, BC Rail, Corruption, crimeTags: Alan Mullen, BC Greens, bc legislature, bc liberals, bc ndp, craig james, darryl plecas, Gary Lenz, Legislative assembly ← “What we do now, echoes in eternity.” ~ Marcus Aurelius To friends far and near…Merry Christmas ❤ → 120 Comments on “Throwback Thursday: A bit of history on BC legislature accounting practices…or lack thereof” Mike Summers Well written piece Laila. Laila Yuile Thanks Mike. Might help people understand some history and as well, the duties these positions hold. And that for many many years it was the wild west of accounting in the legislature. Still not sure what safeguards they have in place to prevent misappropriation of funds, if any. Here is the latest update. Plecas will be doing a press conference this afternoon I believe. Should be interesting… https://www.theglobeandmail.com/amp/canada/british-columbia/article-bc-liberals-accuse-speaker-of-trying-to-appoint-aide-as-sergeant-at/?__twitter_impression=true https://www.abbynews.com/news/who-is-alan-mullen-a-new-face-in-the-developing-legislature-scandal/ Wow. Wally Oppal coming in as second special advisor to Plecas on all things legal https://mobile.twitter.com/richardzussman/status/1065732212845244416 Plecas just gave a written ruling BC Libs use of constituency funds for partisan events was inappropriate. https://www.kamloopscity.com/speaker-liberal-mlas-proportional-representation-bashing-town-halls-not-appropriate-use-of-public-funds/ nonconfidencevote My God Wally Oppal comes crawling from under a rock back into the limelight. Do these people ever go away and die? When I saw the TV scrum the other night one thing that caught my eye was the unbelievable salaries and tax free expense accounts these trough snuffing hogs rake in. Clerk of the Legislature $357,000 per year with an additional $55,000 in expenses Sargeant at Arms : $245.000 per year and $40,000 in expenses. Christy Clark only hauled in$197,000 plus her $5ok topup from the Libs….. Fired them all. Hire monkeys with darts and put the entire legislative agenda up for them to fling darts at. Pay them in bananas and cigars. We’d have uncorrupted decisions rendered by far more intelligent simians than the IDIOTS in charge now. The amount of spending is an issue for me and always has been. There is still an air of entitlement with those public funds. Helicopter charters, dry cleaning…come on. Mla’s make excellent salaries, have excellent per diem while in Victoria, and many still choose the no receipts required sums for housing instead of submitting receipts for an allowance. Those lump sum housing payments have allowed many to buy second homes, vacation homes or whatever. They also get additional pay for committees if they are on them . So , totally feeling you on that aspect. Not sure what I think of Stonewall Oppal entering the scene. This entire thing is really bizarre. As with most, I can’t wait to hear what the investigation results in. Call me silly but I do hope this triggers a full inquiry…..( yes I know. Dreaming…) My expectation? The NDP will pull a “Liberal”. a la Basi / Virk ( BC Rail) and make this all go away with non disclosure agreements. It worked for the Fiberals right? Right? . And that other piece of s*t Plecas trying to get his “friend” inserted at the 11th hour as the new $250k per year Sgt at arms…….Fired. No severance.. His investigation may have turned up corruption, fraud, etc and then he RUINS the moment by doing the exact same thing! IDIOT! He should get two choices. Removed as speaker,, banished to the back bench or Have the Title “Honorable” removed from his appointed position while he continues to spit in the face of hard working taxpayers of this Province. I’ll take one guess as to which choice his Right “Honorable” Speaker would take after realizing his obscene salary and perks might be in jeapordy……. Who ARE these people that suck taxpayers blood like leeches and then want more? Fire them all and start over.. To hell with the smoke and mirrors of the referendum. Its been two years of a minority govt that appears to be starting down the same corruption road as the Liberals. Lets have another election. Kick them all out . Start over Yes, suggesting Mullen be put in as ACTING sergent at arms temporarily- which is what occurred and was denied- was a stupid move on his part even for a temp position. The whole aspect of Mullen being hired to assist as a special advisor in the constituency is strange. Linda Reid did not have a similar advisor so his presence is not the norm of prior Speakers. This all sadly is still being used as a distraction from whatever RCMP are investigating that was significant enough to require not one but two special prosecutors. Very little attention is being paid on this in the media. I wonder why? This. And it comes from someone with experience: https://mobile.twitter.com/bcpoli/status/1066007147383668736 An excellent report on how unaccountable the legislature is from Bob Mackin. https://thebreaker.news/business/legislature-management/ Gee. The Speaker of the House “only” pulls in $150 grand plus perks. I’m amazed Plecas didn’t nominate himself for a $250 grand job….. I mean what the hell. right? Right? I’d apply but I’m already a special advisor…to my kids 🤣 ( when they choose to listen) This just in. Plecas acted under advice Oppal says, and Libs are offside in focusing on Mullen. Also, this investigation is ongoing and will take some time to conclude. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-wally-oppal-says-bc-speaker-was-acting-on-advice-over-legislature-3/ https://mobile.twitter.com/ibushfield/status/1066060839952642048 How come leilayuile.com doesn’t have a “reply” button ? First, it’s lailayuile.com, not leilayuile.com 😉 One is my name…the other is not. And if it didn’t have a reply button…how did you reply? I’m not sure what you are referring to. There is also a contact page should you wish to get in touch. North Vans Grumps Plecas bio from the BC Legislature Website: focuses on how government professionals can make better decisions. Lenz and James are professionals. Has Plecas conducted his investigation via a double blind study? https://www.leg.bc.ca/learn-about-us/members/41st-Parliament/Plecas-Darryl Prior to his election as MLA, Dr. Plecas was the RCMP Senior University Research Chair and Director for the Centre for Public Safety and Criminal Justice Research at the University of the Fraser Valley, where he worked for 34 years. He holds two degrees in criminology from Simon Fraser University and a doctorate in higher education from the University of British Columbia. He is the author or co-author of more than 200 books, international journal articles, and research reports addressing a broad range of public safety issues. His most recent book, which he co-authored in his current role as professor emeritus at the University of the Fraser Valley, focuses on how government professionals can make better decisions. 🤣🤣🤣🤣 Hmmm. I’m still holding judgement on his actions until we know more. If Oppal said he acted on advice, one wonders who advised him. And what exactly was found. Either way, this lawyers letter from Lenz and James will speed things up. Or not? I haven’t forgotten how that slimeball Oppal enabled all the coverup at the Pickton inquiry, and cozied up to the bikers while doing it. I can’t stand that creep. ….and Wally Oppal feigns outrage at anyone questioning his client’s motives…. I recall Attorney General Wally’s sputtering outrage when a reporter dared to question him about a Judges’ comments during a trial sentencing and asked if the sentence handed down might have been too light due to the seriousness of the crime ( 2 years for sexually assaulting a minor). “How dare you question the judiciary! I wont listen to any criticism of our Judicial system! etc etc etc….” Any publicity’s good publicity in Wally World Tim. I have an audio loop playing in my head; “…fired amid allegations of inappropriate and potentially criminal conduct…” “…fired because of a flawed and rushed investigation…” “…most of the grounds relied on were unsupported by the evidence and not true..” “…charges were never laid and the RCMP never investigated the claims…” Graham Whitmarsh, a former deputy health minister, made the decision to fire the workers, and even though Premier Christy Clark and officials in her office were aware of the investigation, they did not direct Whitmarsh to dismiss the employees. NDP Leader John Horgan said pleas by Linda Kayfish, MacIsaac’s grieving sister, forced the government to shine a light on the firings. Yep. Totally agree. It’s not unexpected to have an escort out- this happens in the private sector in certain situations when employees are fired or laid off. But in such a public manner like this? And mlas were mouthing to the press…not yet. Cant recall where I read that but I did see it from a reporter somewhere. It’s still quite unreal they havent even been told what they are being investigated for..how is that even legal? This could all prove to be very embarrassing for MR. Horgan. The other thing I keep coming back to is how many law enforcement people have gone to politics and lost all sense of what’s right…if they ever had it. True that. Smirky Virk comes to mind….. kennylad I wonder how much added stress was put on Rod McIssac because of former Health Minister Margret McDirmad’s continually alluding to the line that there was an ongoing police investigation. Where did she get that from. She took over from Mike de Jong. But she continued with that shameful shit about a police investigation right up to the time of the poor guys passing. Blood boiling point gets reached with this. randyhadland I would think that there is no legal requirement to inform the people being investigated. If the police had to inform a suspect in advance of charges the suspect would be likely to disappear. Even though these two would find it hard to do a duster, they are possibly trying their best to remove evidence anyway. In a normal situation, yes. In a situation where they are publicly perp walked on TV? 2003 RCMP involved with the BC Rail trial; $6 million buyout; Failed 2016 RCMP involved in Mr. Big pressure cooker bombers, $900,000 on overtime; Failed 2018 RCMP involved with Plecasgate …… or Legisgate NVG, takes us right back to Mulligan, don’t it? We wont even talk about the $6,000,000 pay out to Robert Dziekanski’s Mother for his unecessary tasering and avoidable death at the Van airport and the police perjury at the trial…. The RCMP should be having a major rethink about their hiring practices AND their training. Small wonder Surrey has had enough with the daily shootings and daily excuses. I know some great rcmp…and I have met some really bad ones too( mostly management, I’ll let you guess who) A former cop said nothings going to happen on this case. And what about the revelations from ex mountie Fred Pinnock and what he said about the senior RCMP management that knew and turned the cheek to the money laundering issues along with the previous BC Liberal leadership. Now that’s sick, and just made my jaw drop with anger when when i watched that news interview with him. The guys a hero for doing that interview. And does anyone wonder where the hell we’re those former BC Liberal Justice Ministers and Attorney Generals. It just burns me up that the whole filthy works were complicit in screwing over British Columbians instead of serving justice in the interest of the the people. Makes one want to yell out this. WTF !! It would be interesting to see where the tenticles reach in this case, but sadly i concur that it will most likelyburn out fast and the people will be left with the bill as always because of yet another scandal brought on by clowns, wasters, and crooks. I wonder who’s going to have the most egg on their faces or faces, scapegoated possibly, tarred, feathered and dragged through the street of public opinion, and put on the political cross for crucifiction and ruin. Fallout possibilities, or will it all just wash away. Anyways I hope we get to a public inquiry to expose the big and the bad who have really caused a lot of harm to British Columbian’s. I think we’ve all heard some of those big names many times over that have worked, and still work with the BC governing empire. John's Aghast If this legislature was a private company the whole damn works would be fired before they broke the company! What? they already have? Correction. The former BC governing empire. Still sleepy. One more thing that boils my blood is when former Justice Minister Suzanne Anton told CBC Early Edition’s Michele Eliot that it was an “unintentional failure” when asked about the BC Liberal government ‘s response to money laundering. More like it was all intentional F……g failure ! Where was this Justice Minister. Mind blowing, stomach turning and outrage is all i can come up with as a citizen of BC. We must have an inquiry. Must must must. The entire legislature is unaccountable, Sean Holman says, because its largely exempt from FOI. The state of it truly is embarrassing for mlas on both sides of the house. The LAMC is bipartisan. Mla’s have known for years how bad of a state it’s been. And there is no excuse for it not to be accountable , but then again the ndp has, as Bob Mackin has also pointed out, failed to keep their election promise on Freedom of Information reform. Frankly I have little hope for that with Jinny Sims….https://thebreaker.news/business/legislature-management/ I had forgotten about that promise on FOI, have you heard of any committees or studies looking into it within the legislature? No I havent. Check with Bob Mackin. Hes the expert on all things BC Foi. Laila, WTO an earlier question from Lisa, most of your comments don’t have a reply link, Oh that’s odd. I’ll check what’s up. allmost all politicans corrupt in some form? This article is from yesterday: “With overdose deaths mounting, Canadian police are growing frustrated at the lacklustre response of Chinese authorities, whom they allege are making their cooperation conditional on unrelated diplomatic and foreign policy objectives.” https://globalnews.ca/news/4658156/fentanyl-making-a-killing-introduction/ See this really pisses me off. Remember the Sidewinder report? It talked in detail about how the triads, associates and Chinese business had bought up a big portion of Vancouver…in the 1990’s, and that many of these people were buying visas to get into Canada. And the RCMP and the federal government of the time killed the report as conjecture. One should be taking a hard look at this past report for a full understanding of how we got to where we are right now in BC. This is my piece from 2012. Still and always will be, highly relevant https://lailayuile.com/2012/04/12/playing-with-the-dragon-who-is-looking-after-canadian-interests-while-china-outwits-our-governments/ Also…this happened in the US in August. Which makes me question what China got in return for cooperating on that investigation https://globalnews.ca/news/4418315/fentanyl-drug-ring-bust-u-s-china-joint-investigation/ https://www.delta-optimist.com/b-c-legislature-investigator-was-fired-from-casino-security-job-after-suspension-for-intoxication-1.23510832 Yes I see too Horgans backtracking on how the suspensions were handled. I do not agree with them not being told what they are under investigation for. But the Libs are working overtime to discredit both Plecas and Mullen( send Mullen back to Abbotsford) Why are they more concerned about Plecas and Mullen..than whatever it is RCMP are investigating and have been for 3 months? I do believe the Libs are scared…question is…what are they scared of? @ Laila “Which makes me question what China got in return for cooperating on that investigation….” Perhaps, the US Trade Tariffs delayed for a few more months? Communist China wants to rule the world and if it takes any means necessary….so be it. We shouldn’t be surprised with the federal LPC in office. They were, after all, fully behind Canadas China Policy. https://lailayuile.com/2012/06/06/playing-with-the-dragon-ii-the-architects-behind-canadas-china-policy/ Let’s not forget Stockwell Day either. So, Mr. Horgan “regets” how this saga unfolded. Does he see the impending embarrassment? Is he trying to circle back before it becomes a major political blow? Is he now starting to see who the real DR. Plecas is? Speaking of the speaker, how can one give him any slack when he tried to slide his friend, Mr. Mullen, into a cushy job? Speaking of the speaker, how could he not have known of his friend’s history and what does this say about the credibility of either of them? https://www.timescolonist.com/news/local/alan-mullen-adviser-to-speaker-fired-from-casino-security-job-court-papers-1.23511736 An aside to all of this; the Greens are making a big effort in the Nanaimo bielection. Is a nice split vote a liberal dream come true? Speaking of the liberals, can we agree the backrooms are full of big spenders, plotting the sinking of the NDP over the Plecas affair? The $$$ pledges, and pro bono offerings, must be staggering. Of course they are which is why I blogged about how they were deliberately trying to change channels on the rcmp investigation and two special prosecutors. Mullens past is shitty. Plecas asking to have him as temporary acting sergent at arms is a stupid move too. But it doesn’t negate the fact rcmp ARE investigating. If there was nothing to investigate, pretty sure they wouldn’t be asking for those special prosecutors… This aspect is all just noise to distract from the reality I blogged above. Dermod has written extensively on the failures and expenditures in the legislature. See the Integrity BC Facebook page Most of the issues happened under the BC Libs and ignored by the LAMC. At one point while in opposition when these stories came out,even Horgan said it was embarrassing that the legislature couldn’t even keep it’s own affairs in order. I still think James and Lenz might be a part of a much bigger net designed to catch bigger fish. One can hope although Horgans lack of interest in a corruption inquiry is insane. Then there uis this. https://vancouversun.com/news/local-news/criminal-charges-stayed-in-major-b-c-money-laundering-investigation Yes what the actual fck?? Is this because a witness went missing or something similar…or the long arm of foreign policy objectives interfering. ” operational issues” https://mobile.twitter.com/scoopercooper/status/1067872718769537024 e.a.f. Until we know what is being investigated we are all just taking stabs in the dark. Perhaps Plecas really did feel he needed advisors because he was heading into unchartered territory. However, relying on a friend, does not look good. He would have been better off to check across Canada quickly and see who else was available. As to bringing Wally Opal in, that just stinks. its not that he is all that good. Not a great job on the missing women/pickton thing. He could have found some one else from another province. There are way to many insiders involved right now. We as the taxpayer/voters have a right to know what is going on, perhaps not all the details, but are they looking into some one fixing the books, using the assets of the leg. for private gain,etc., running a betting parlour, etc. We have the right to know the subject. Now it maybe that Plecas ha an idea of what has happened under the Liberals and decided to have a look and decided to bring in some one he trusted and had personal loyalty to him, but he really would have been better off to have brought in some one from another province. Now speaking of money, it was with some interest I noted various oil/gas companies making charitable donations in and around Fort St. John, yes, just check the Alaska Highway news. They also have an article up about Petronas and electrification, how to win the heats of the neighbours. computers to a school……….. Petronas and corruption go hand in hand like SNC lavalin and corruption. Dirty money floods this province, tainting even the BCLC gaming funds that provide gaming grants to community organizations , schools and charities. The govts seem to really be naive as to how corruption gets this embedded. It certainly didn’t flourish without the help of individuals in strategic positions. Agreed on Plecas. But it’s still just noise. The more attention paid to him and Mullen, the happier the libs are. went back and re read your article from 2014, yikes! Yes, I suspect Plecas knew something and went back to look. No wonder the BC Lieberals are playing deflect, deflect, deflect. doesn’t matter how much they deflect what Mullen may have done or not done in the past, its about what went on while the B.C.. Lieberals were the ruling party. Lovely Linda certainly knew how to live it up. All the while Christy was waxing on about how the government needed to deduct nickel for nickel the child support money children were receiving from their non custodial parents. the government needed the money was her line. they were grabbing $14M a year from kids when all they had to do was reign in the MLAs and their expense accounts. What I’d like to see is an oversight committee made up of tax paying voting citizens, who are living on the money provided by the government each month you know about $1,300. They ought to have a book keeping back ground, but they might have a totally different attitude towards the spending the MLAs do. Their housing allowances are bigger than a single persons whole disability pension. Talk about income inequity. They have expense accounts which run into the tens of thousands of dollars a year and people on disability are living on money less than the poverty line. /boys and girls in Victoria, pay attention, you are out of touch and if you keep it up, you may all find you’ve been replaced by a milleniual Green wearing jeans and riding a bike because they can’t afford anything else. They will be more in touch with the average voter in the province. we may have a lot of jobs, but a lot don’t pay enough to pay rent on a one bedroom apartment. Maybe, just maybe… Sam Cooper turns up the heat; https://twitter.com/scoopercooper?ref_src=twsrc%5Egoogle%7Ctwcamp%5Eserp%7Ctwgr%5Eauthor “After that stunning news today, with Canada’s largest ever casino laundering case falling apart, watch for another BC-focused story Thursday. It involves VIPs at the centre of RCMP’s investigations since 2015, and for me this next story includes some shocking findings.” And POCO Mayor Brad West steps up: Tweets by BradWestPoCo “Gov of BC must call Charbonneau style commission working with police & a special prosecutor to investigate and prosecute all involved in the #fentanyl #vanre connection. The integrity of our systems, the future of our province and the faith of our ppl is at stake. #bcpoli” Regular L.Y. readers, I’m sure. Haha. Gee I have been calling for one for how long? 10 years? ” Oh Laila, don’t be silly. There is no corruption in BC ” Me: 🙄 Here is the thing. Sam’s covering casinos, money laundering, real estate…. No ones even touched government yet…or the many public projects I’ve written about….please. let’s start on the sea to sky highway, ok😉 https://lailayuile.com/2010/10/20/corruption-is-complete-authority-plus-total-monopoly-minus-transparency/ https://www.google.ca/amp/s/lailayuile.com/2012/06/19/money-and-corruption-are-ruining-the-land/amp/ I got excited…. Then went onto read hes not ruling out a public inquiry into money laundering and casinos……🙄 If they limited the scope to just casinos and real estate it would be a monumental mistake. We need, and many agree, a full, sweeping Chabonneau commission. One that leaves no stone unturned, one that has power to compell testimony with subpoena powers. https://globalnews.ca/news/4710067/david-eby-public-inquiry-collapse-casino-money-laundering-case/amp/?__twitter_impression=true Absolutely agree. These Eby words caught my eye as well; “a public inquiry on the role of money laundering in B.C. casinos.” No, Mr. Eby, NO. Any inquiry should encompass all facets of the money laundering industry; casinos, real estate, luxury cars, politicians, law enforcement and anything a drug dollar flows to or from. Any inquiry should be a full judicial one, with subpoena powers and should be conducted by someone from outside BC. Mr. Eby cannot hide behind the “stay of proceedings” can be reactivated within a year, either. Get on with it. Gee, I wonder if France Charbonneau is looking for work? I will be dropping a note to Mayor West asking that he stay in the camera lights on this one. Good idea. There is a lot of evidence to indicate this is deep and widespread. And I believe people with direct knowledge will come forward, under the protection of an inquiry. The reason so many dont speak now is because it’s not safe to. Whistleblower protection does nothing when organized crime is involved. The good news is, Mr. Oppal, who is now hosting the Victoria Springer Show would have to recuse himself from any suggested inquiries. Hooah! Its throwback Thursday. Let’s look at how Plecas got his start….Coleman was running roughshod over his ‘nominaton’😂 https://lailayuile.com/2012/11/20/breaking-news-abbotsford-south-bc-liberal-riding-association-directors-and-president-resign-citing-unfair-not-democratic-election-of-candidate-darryl-plecas/ The never ending Diary of BC has more twists than a slinky. This whole mess is so contorted and the liberals have so much power behind them, one wonders if Mr. P isn’t just some willing, well rewarded, Coleman goat, put in place with feigned contempt from the likes of Wilkinson; whatever it takes to keep the skeletons stashed behind the 3 piece suits. Might James and Lenz have been onto something rather than up to something? Holy Cow! I go away for a week and all hell breaks out. Maybe I should go away for another week and see if it sorts itself out. Verrry interestink Laila, and you are doing a very commendable job, as usual. I remember suggesting many years ago that BC should take the Award for the most Corrupt Province in Canada, and that was before these shenanigans took place. This was about the time of the Charbonneau Inquiry and I was upset that they were getting all the accolades while I felt we were more deserving. An inquiry would surely vindicate me! “Biggest fraud in Canadian history.” Mr. Horgan, sir, please note. https://montrealgazette.com/news/muhc-bribery-scandal-former-snc-lavalin-ceo-on-trial-come-february Since SNC Lavalin hold the engineering patents for SkyTrain, I wonder how many brown manila envelopes it takes to get another SkyTrain built in metro Vancouver? several billion I’m sure…….. Sounds like Horgan is sitting on the fence as of today. My god. Another gutless politician. He was really good at spewing out the spin though. It’s laughable. He just doesn’t clue in. Eby seems to be, but unfortunately his dense master doesn’t. To bad and really sad that Coleman and de Jong are still are still making a living off the public. Makes my skin crawl these parasites are still around. It always gives me a good laugh. Gordon Campbell is still at the public trough and is advisor to Dougie Ford in Ontario. All the while the “socialist” former NDP Premier of B.C., Glen Clark is President of the Pattison Group. Always gives me a good feeling. Laila could David Eby not order an inquiry even if Horgan is to chicken shit to want one. After all Eby is the head of justice, and Horgan isn’t. Yeah i know Eby wouldn’t want to have a falling out, or maybe it’s not legally possible and politically possible. It’s to bad there’s no one with the will to break rank do and what’s right, and threaten to bring down Horgan if he’s to timid. I wonder if Eby would be that one in a million rarity with that willpower, since he sounded way more positive than his pussycat leader. The guy would be a true Canadian hero. Horgan should just go and crawl under his warm fuzzy little blanket. John McComb’s interview with Horgan yesterday was a cannot miss listen. McComb is a pleasure to listen to. One of the best of his trade. Horgan came off as a complete insult to the public’s intelligence in his explaining about the down side of an inquiry. Horgan came off as an out of touch dithering meathead. An inquiry can be as heavy duty as it needs to be, only if the will is there to make it so, but with that clowns superficial gobbledy goop sputtering one track talk it’s no wonder things dont’ get fixed. As to whether Speaker Linda Reid had an advisor as has the current Speaker: YES “After the work was done in January 2014, Reid commissioned her own security assessment by retired Richmond RCMP officer Larry Litke, who wrote an email backing up the security work she had already completed.” https://www.richmond-news.com/news/probe-into-linda-reid-s-renos-under-review-1.1390063 Going back to an earlier Post of yours Laila where you asked a similar question in response to my comment.: https://lailayuile.com/2014/12/02/civil-society-depends-on-all-of-us-deciding-were-all-going-to-abide-by-the-same-laws-premier-christy-clark/ “Do you think that it’s a typical practice on the part of MLAs’ introduction of guests (Larry Litke) in the gallery to follow up with a business offer?” December 2, 2014 12:02 pm at 12:02 pm Reids hire was specific to security assessment and improvements. Mullen was hired to do the duties Plecas could not…. always thought regular constituency staff did that which is why Mullens hire stood out as a ‘special advisor’ I hear Horgan has a new special advisor too now…Mike Harcourt!! Ahhhh yes, Allllllllll the lawyers line up to drink from the bottomless govt trough……. WHAT/ Is that true, I thought Harcourt had turned in his NDP membership card? So do tell. is Megss still there or is Harcourt there to counter Meggs. inquiring mind would like details, Nope ,not true.. another reader just sent this though…https://mobile.twitter.com/theBreakerNews/status/1068755629915828224 Kennylad, do you realize that a majority of voters elected these Right Honourable Parasites; a number of times? Makes you wonder about the makeup of these deplorables. Yes, I’m disgusted that we’re required to reward them for their ‘efforts’ until death do they depart. It does amaze me for sure. It’s a headshaker alright. Hey John i may sound cynical and frustrated but i’m at a loss as to where to mark my ballot anymore. I feel like just turning my head and mark it blindly or write on the back and say F..k you all. None of you self serving shits are worth my vote. At least i can say i vote. Maybe a bit differently. Is that cynical or what. Well, its been a long time coming but FINALLY we will see former head of SNC Lavalin in Court for bribery charges. One can only hope that if they are convicted of Bribery….SNC will be BANNED from ALL federal contracts for 10 years and perhaps the Province of BC can take a long hard look at how deeply SNC has infested all levels of govt out here. https://business.financialpost.com/pmn/business-pmn/snc-lavalin-preliminary-inquiry-begins-in-gadhafi-era-fraud-and-corruption-case But I wont hold my breath…… If its any consolation, their share value has dropped noticeably. John Brennand As always, a voice in my head goes, “Hey! Laila has another piece up.” Since this whole debacle arose I have been shaking my head at the ill informed drivel from the usual suspects. Then there’s the thinly veiled attacks on the Speaker. The one that almost had me spray my iPad with coffee was the ridiculous comparison to the Health Ministry firings. Paid administrative leave is light years apart from fired for cause. It’s nice to see a sequential, annotated, telling of a simple story that has complex issues attached to it. Good work, thank you. When the “cause” turned out to be fabricated was a combination twisting the knife plus salt in the wound. The restless train is starting to roll. https://www.straight.com/news/1172466/open-letter-attorney-general-david-eby-sam-coopers-secret-police-study-story Roll where ? https://vancouversun.com/opinion/columnists/vaughn-palmer-good-reasons-to-avoid-public-inquiry-into-money-laundering/amp?__twitter_impression=true They clearly have zero clue what’s going on in their own govt.. They have NO issue using tax dollars when it’s their priority. My goodness BC Hydro stll has not dropped the slapp suits against site c landowners. But now the public rightly wants an ounce of blood and it’s too expensive and takes too much time. I thought Horgan had more guts than this.Guess I was wrong. <<> We have a restless new mayor with a voice. We have a restless scribe at the Straight. We have a restless Mr. Cooper. We have a growing restless public, all getting aboard. The train is starting to move and we could see Mr. Horgan standing alone on the platform wondering why he missed it. In speaking with a friend ( staffer) in Vic,two other reasons he doesn’t want to call an inquiry: 1) any inquiry will inevitably bring this back up ( here, let me get this out of the way 🙄) ” Horgan was a major backroom player in the NDP governments of that era, working alongside Heaney. The Straight reported in 2004 that Heaney was a business partner with Horgan in a company called IdeaWorks. The other partners were NDP caucus research director Mary O’Donoghue, and Ian Reid, former chief of staff to ex-NDP leader Carole James. IdeaWorks was retained by casino operators Gary Jackson and Len Libin in 2003 to persuade the then-COPE-controlled Vancouver city council to lift a moratorium on slot machines. At the time, Horgan told the Straight that the company’s objective was to bring diverse groups together to demonstrate how slot machines would yield benefits for charities, fund city projects, and provide jobs for trade unionists. “Once the fabric all came together, the cloth looked pretty impressive for a majority of council, and that’s why we were successful,” Horgan told the Straight at the time. Horgan, Heaney, and Reid had all previously worked for the B.C. Ministry of Management Services, which spearheaded the expansion of gambling when the NDP was in control of the provincial government. The gambling issue dogged two NDP premiers during the 1990s. Harcourt resigned after a relentless series of news reports about the finances of the Nanaimo Commonwealth Holding Society, which raised money for the NDP. The society’s central figure, former NDP cabinet minister Dave Stupich, was found guilty of fraud and running an illegal lottery.” Yes, Horgan helped expand gaming in Vancouver. https://www.straight.com/news/638931/ndp-leader-john-horgan-hires-former-business-partner-john-heaney-new-chief-staff And 2) Some stories of corruption also go back to the nineties.One big series I wrote on Tercon-involved leg management in the MOT concealing a name on a bid,to allow an ineligible bidder to win a govt project contract. Kinda sorta bid rigging. And that all started under an ndp govt.. Neither amount to a quarter of the corruption under the BC Libs..key players move through several govts though, so any corrupt players under the Libs are most likely still in place under the NDP/ Greens now. This is why I’ve been calling for a full inquiry into bidding in all ministries for years. There is very much Quebec style Charbonneau corruption here. It’s not ‘sexy’ like the casino money laundering is news wise…but it’s wrong, and it costs us all greatly. https://lailayuile.com/2012/06/19/money-and-corruption-are-ruining-the-land/ “In speaking with a friend ( staffer) in Vic,..” All the more reason for Mr. Horgan to get out in front of this thing, do it right and fully. Sooner (hopefully) or later more lips will loosen, annonymously or in full view that will unravel it all. Being a “rat” in these circumstances is to be considered an honor. With respect to this…and money laundering….until the BC libs loosen their lips, Andrew ‘faux outrage’ Wilkonson needs to stfu with his faux, pretentious air of superiority over lack of details on the leg investigation….. Cuz this…https://globalnews.ca/news/4447653/bc-liberals-wont-waive-cabinet-confidentiality-on-documents-related-to-money-laundering/amp/?__twitter_impression=true Absolutely agree and wonder why it takes a young woman from small town BC to point that out rather than someone like, say, our leader? Mr. Horgan? Sir? Here, I’ll make it easier for you… ” …young woman…” 🤣 My gosh, the snow white coming in behind the blonde disagrees Tim. Closer to 50 now than 40. But that was good for a chuckle😉 Ah well, you see, they’re all yung to me. Ok, so Liberal Leader, Andrew Wilkinson, is calling for a JUDICIAL REVIEW. https://globalnews.ca/news/4724657/liberal-leader-andrew-wilkinson-joins-call-for-money-laundering-public-inquiry/ That sounds nice doesn’t it? Most ordinary people would say good for him, hand him a feather to put in his cap and believe he is “going after the government” to get to the bottom of this mess. Those same ordinary people cannot be faulted for thinking that because, the words review, inquiry, public and judicial are all very much, rolled together, confused misused and misunderstood. The misunderstanding is made no more evident, than that of Global News itself: ”Editor’s note: A previous version of this story stated Andrew Wilkinson was calling for a public inquiry into money laundering. He is actually calling for a judicial review. The story has been updated to reflect that clarification.” Calling for a judicial review is just a weak excuse for a weak process; a process that will only confirm what those ordinary people already believe. It solves nothing; it lets politicians off the hook, does not assess blame and does not lead to criminal consequences. That would take a JUDICIAL INQUIRY. More notably a judicial review allows the BC Liberals to avoid accountability for 16 years of, well, you pick your own word here; I’ll just use corruption. Everyone should learn the difference. What is a Judicial Review? https://www.courts.gov.bc.ca/supreme_court/self-represented_litigants/Judicial_Review_Package.pdf “A judicial review is a review of a decision that has been made by an administrative tribunal or an administrative decision maker. A Supreme Court Justice decides whether the tribunal or decision maker had the authority to make the decision it did. It is not an appeal.” https://www.supremecourtbc.ca/sites/default/files/web/Judicial-Review.pdf “A judicial review is a legal procedure that takes place in the Supreme Court. In a judicial review, a Supreme Court judge reviews a decision that has been made by an administrative tribunal or an administrative decision maker.” Some added backup and info: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judicial_review_in_Canada https://judicialreviewbc.ca/ Or, for some heavier reading the actual JUDICIAL REVIEW PROCEDURE ACT [RSBC 1996] CHAPTER 241 http://www.bclaws.ca/civix/document/id/complete/statreg/96241_01 Everyone, including MR Wilkinson should be calling for the most comprehensive inquiry possible. Damn the cost. Clean BC: BC is moving away from fossil fuels, and expanding LNG exports at the same time. Funny thing eh? Post to come on this. Electrifying oil and gas production in NE BC will allow even more LNG to be exported and burned elsewhere. No reduction in GHG emissions. This straightforward report by Norm Farrell should be a must read for everyone. Everyone. I could only wish my CPP had doubled since 2012. https://in-sights.ca/2018/12/07/still-too-timid-to-act/ Heck. I and my extended families could live comfortably off his expenses, which are for what? Dry cleaning? I have to admit John, I was innitially skeptical of various motives, on all sides, but just the optics of a graph (sp…graft?) is enough to cheer Plecas on and demand full disclosure. He is making some pretty pointed insinuations and I hope he is acting on good advice so as to not prejudice this whole thing. Tim, I think Plecas is much too intelligent to go off half cocked. I’m hoping this is Santa’s way of lancing a corrupt boil! What better way to spend the winter (starting in less than two weeks!) than reviewing the misdeeds and penalties appropriated. Have a very Merry Christmas (2 1/2 weeks!) Plecas has a PhD and is a respected academic. When Christy Clark recruited him to be one of the B.C. LieberCon’s candidates I was surprised. Little did she know…. People like Plecas, with his experience and education aren’t rash individuals and they don’t bet their whole body of work on making rash statements, so when Plecas says, he is betting his job on the investigation results, you can reasonably conclude he is going to be the winner on the bet. Another Norm Farrell piece on target: https://in-sights.ca/2018/12/08/something-smells/ Absolutely mind boggling, isn’t it! You’d expect someone to stand up and be counted (maybe Plecas?) If there isn’t a Judicial Inquiry there is something wrong with US! We already know there is something amiss with THEM. It was never meant to be US vs THEM, but that seems to be what it’s degenerated into now. “Fighting corruption is not just good governance. It’s self-defense.” Norm Farrell’s latest piece on the “investigation” certainly is a good read. In my opinion, some one or several are might want to line up their lawyers now. There are only so many really good lawyers in this province and there might not be enough to go around. In the past I’ve always been against an full blown inquiry. Focus on the present so we can get on with the work which needs to be done. i.e. schools, health care, etc. However, given the recent events I’ve re considered and I agree, B.C. needs a judicial inquiry into B.C. Not just money laundering in casinos but the role of media and politicians, how money was spent in the Leg. and all that good stuff, how the money made its way via real estate into high end shopping, how fent. gets into our province, how it gets distributed, etc. It will of course cost money and we need to spend it or we will continue to be what we currently are. If politicians don’t fix the problem, they might find come the next election they are all replaced by a group of bike riding, milleniuals running as independents. Well it pays more than many of them make and it comes with benefits and a pension. they are also fed up with working and not being able to afford rent on a one bedroom apartment while MLAs receive $12K a year as a housing allowance and don’t need to provide receipts. So a nice enquiry would be a good Christmas Present, oh and it needs a very tight time line, none of this a year and waiting. Welcome to our (the Inquirers) side. Let’s hope that Dr. Plecas has delivered a present and all we need is someone to wrap it. And a Merry Christmas to you! Well I have been asking for one for so long it seems like a dream now… I dont understand why they wouldnt. Basi-Virk alone was reason. Do they really think that kind of behavior stopped with them? Really?? I’ve been crazy busy so pardon my absence. Everything takes longer with low energy STILL from that damn horrible flu. Anyways…the amount of fervor dedicated to discrediting Plecas and Mullen are telling. The BC libs oldest trick, commonly used by all to negate whoever is the critic or whoever knows where the dirt is. Methinks they doth protest too much. Please get well again and please don’t give up on the Inquiry. I remember, a long time ago, stating that BC deserved acknowledgement for its place as the most corrupt province in Canada. Let’s get credit where credit is due! C’mon Horgan. I dare you! Oh no, I am recovered…it just takes time to get those energy levels back up with my immune system. 🙂 Me ? Give up on an inquiry? Never. I’ve continued over a decade of people saying I was crazy for saying there was corruption in bcpoli. I’m not about to give up now. To a certain party in BC ..a lump of coal perhaps? Why so quiet over here? Has Plecas gone to jail, or died? Norm Farrell has a revealing post over at insights. He reaffirms what a number of us (some with much more credibility than I) have been saying since before Dumb Horgan climbed aboard the Site C hrispy ship. Shut the damn thing down! Quick, before we spend another $2 Billion trying to resurrect the damage done after Winter passes. Don’t forget, it’s only two days away, and then the proverbial shit (freeze thaw cycles, runoff, that sort of thing Mother Nature has up her sleeve) hits the fan. Ain’t gonna be pretty! Have a very Merry Christmas anyway! The electricity is back on in Nanaimo, so here is a Merry Christmas to you, if I don’t get back to the blog before then. Thank you for the writing you do. It is much appreciated. I trust your Christmas and New Years will be enjoyable and relaxing. And to you eat,a warm,safe Christmas as well…storm season doesn’t seem to be giving us a break on island at all! From the bottom of “the island” I echo the sentiments of e.a.f. Lets see how many corners of this little piece of the globe can offer best wishes and good health to Laila Yuile and encouragement for continued feistiness from this cherished, respected fighter-author, in 2019. Many thanks Tim. Wishing you and yours the best. 🙂 I think Team Horgan better start thinking about fixing one of their major screw ups and cancel Site C, and also get on with a public/ corruption inquiry into the money laundering issues. I would think that they may want to unscrew themselves a bit, and play make up just because of the huge failure of Pro Rep. They’re not very lit or hip now, in the public view by the look of things. Not at at all. Horgan should start thinking about this, and get his shit together before next election, because time flies and unfortunately the BC Liberal monster machine will sink him and his ship of fools. Reluctantly just saying. They should appreciate the reality that they really did not win the last election on their own. This Pro Rep screw up should hopefully wake them up, especially head up his ass John Horgan. That lame brain had the nerve to say the referndum was left to the voters to decide. What an ass. It was never done with transparency and full disclosure and had such a low passing line that it could not be considered as anything remotely favourable to democracy. This wasteful selfish exercise should have never taken place. Now the public are going see Horgan as completely self serving and drunk with desperation to keep power just as the morally corrupt Libs were,and still are, to get that power back, and Johnny boy may just hand it back to them on a silver platter. Unbelievable. Well well well, will the Libs still be calling for the dismissal of Plecas & Mullen? British Columbians do indeed need to read this full report, and ask how it is this legislature was able to be manipulated in this manner. It makes Linda Reids muffins look like…well…muffins..😉 https://mobile.twitter.com/CBCtanya/status/1087488086630588416 Peter Courtney And now this….https://thebreaker.news/news/speaker-report-lamc/ Omg I just read the report. Holy sweet peaches this is unreal…posted the link to my prior background post on how bad the legislative finances were. I think they may need to go look at other expenses as well. Holy S**t! Leave a Reply to kennylad Cancel reply An update on Site C & BC LNG: When climate change reveals the BC NDP ‘vision’, was nothing but a mirage. This is my Canada… Playing with the Dragon III : Why the LPC’s historical alliance with China is one to watch amid current disputes Breaking: Peter Kiewit and Sons ULC, two former managers charged with criminal negligence in the death of Sam Fitzpatrick SNC Lavalin tried to manipulate the law… then the PM…and now you. Laila Yuile on An update on Site C & BC L… Laila Yuile on Playing with the Dragon III :… Lew Edwardson (@valt… on An update on Site C & BC L… Mike on An update on Site C & BC L… kennylad on The Coleman Files kennylad on Why Eby shouldn’t wait f… Laila Yuile on Why Eby shouldn’t wait f… Laila Yuile on The Coleman Files	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1464
__label__cc	0.571634	0.428366	Justin Cascio in Uncategorized June 20, 2016 June 18, 2016 874 Words There were three men named Marino, on both sides of the Leggio-Navarra war in Corleone. One is related to two Mafia bosses. In my first post on the relations among defendants at the 1969 Corleonesi trial, I focused on the Leggio-Riina connections. Another set of defendants with a common surname are the Marinos, whose paternal lines I’ve traced to three different couples who lived in the 1600s. One of these are the ancestors of both Dr. Navarra and of Toto Riina. In Italian, “marino” refers to the sea or the coast. The triangular island of Sicily has three coastlines, with the closest to Corleone being to the north. In mountainous, inland Corleone, the name “Marino” suggests an origin elsewhere, on one of those coasts. It’s not yet known where the family got their name, when they came to Corleone, or even if they share a common ancestor. Of the men named Marino who were involved in the Leggio-Navarra war of the 1950s, there were associates of both cosci. I’ve traced their roots to three different men who lived in Corleone in the 1600s. Of two of their families, little is known, but the third is rich in mafia connections. Some background on the war: Luciano Leggio was recruited by Dr. Michele Navarra in 1945. By that time, he’d already served a six month prison sentence for murder, when he was still a teenager. He was imprisoned again in the late 1940s, where he met Toto Riina, who would become his criminal accomplice back in Corleone. Leggio is described as an arrogant and volatile man. The kidnapping and murder of the trade unionist Placido Rizzotto, which Leggio was seen participating in, happened in broad daylight, yet Leggio was acquitted twice in the murder. He was clearly already a powerful mafioso when he began building a close group of associates who were loyal to him alone, and not to Navarra. In 1956, Leggio’s men (sometimes called the “cosca leggiana” or the Liggiani) went to war against the Navarriani. An attempt was made on Leggio’s life two years later, which he escaped with slight injury. He retaliated, killing the brothers Marco and Giovanni Marino, and Pietro Maiuri, another associate of Navarra, on 6 September 1958. The assassinated brothers are identified as the sons of Paola Pomilla in Zingales’ book on the life of Bernardo Provenzano. Paola is the wife of Salvatore Marino: they married in 1924. Marco is named after his paternal grandfather, and so is presumably the elder. I’ve traced the brothers’ male line back to (Carlo Marino‘s parents) their fifth great grandparents Antonino and Rosa, who I estimate were born around 1651. Two of Leggio’s men were also named Marino, Bernardo and Leoluca. Because they appear at Bari, their birthdates and parents’ names are known from the trial record. They’re of no known relation to one another, or to the brothers from the navarriana cosca. As part of the violence of Leggio’s war for dominance of the mafia in Corleone, one of his targets was Francesco Paolo Streva, Dr. Navarra’s fearsome, ambidextrous hit man. Bernardo Marino was one of the assassins. Streva’s face was disfigured, according to the farmer who found his body, and a finger from Streva’s left hand was removed. Bernardo is named in connection with the top members of Luciano Leggio’s cosca, including Bernardo Provenzano, Calogero Bagarella, Salvatore Riina, and Leggio himself. I’ve traced Bernardo Marino’s male line back to his fifth great grandparents (Onofrio Marino‘s parents) Antonino and Anna, who I estimate were born around 1668. Leoluca Leggio, who was on trial at Bari with three of his brothers, his father, and his uncle, is Toto Riina’s third cousin. (The large Leggio family, of which there were so many members on trial, and Luciano Leggio, their leader, do not have a common ancestor, going back at least five generations.) Riina would take over from Leggio, upon his arrest. There is no known relation between the brothers who were killed on Luciano Leggio’s orders, and his brother in law, Leoluca Marino. Marino was a defendant at Bari along with his wife, Carmela Leggio, the sister of the boss. Marino’s parents were first cousins, once removed. (Endogamy is very common among mafia families.) I’ve traced Leoluca’s paternal line back to his fifth great-grandparents, Nunzio Marino and his wife, Maria, who I estimate were born around 1649. Through Nunzio, Leoluca Marino is also related to Toto Riina: they are sixth cousins, once removed. Nunzio is also the ancestor of fourth cousins Michele Navarra and Toto Riina. One of Nunzio’s twice great grandchildren was Maria Marino, who married Puntillo, an associate of Rapanzino. Another is Lucia Marino, who married Gioachino Riina: they are the third great grandparents of Toto Riina. Nunzio Marino is the sixth-great grandfather of both Toto Riina, who took over leadership from Luciano Leggio, and of Dr. Navarra, their murdered rival. Attilio Bolzoni and Francesco Viviano. “Provenzano fantasma di Corleone che da 40 anni vive in latitanza.” Published in La Repubblica 17 September 2003. Accessed http://www.repubblica.it/2003/i/sezioni/cronaca/provenzano/provenzano/provenzano.html 16 June 2016. Luciano Leggio entry on Wikipedia. Accessed http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luciano_Leggio 16 June 2016. Leone Zingales. Provenzano: Il Re di Cosa Nostra. Pellegrini Editore, 2001. Leggio-Navarra war Luciano Leggio Michele Navarra	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1488
__label__wiki	0.66376	0.66376	Maghreb and Sahel Sand, Tea, and Guns About the Blog and its Author Author Archives: rmaghrebi About rmaghrebi I have worked extensively on development, security, economic, political, and social issues in the Sahel and North Africa, and coordinated projects supporting different government agencies and private entities including the Office of Transition Initiative (OTI), the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and the Department of Defense (DOD). I hold a Master of Public Policy with National Security emphasis from the school of Public Policy, International Affairs, and Government at George Mason University. I am also fluent (native speaker) in Arabic and French. I provided analysis that cultivates a deeper understanding of regional issues in order to implement immediate and long-term programs regarding security, economic, and political challenges in the region. I have personally written over 200 reports for specific use by USG and private entities. My reports have included analysis on local governments, local security forces, violent extremist organizations (VEOs), criminal networks, economic conditions, peace building, and counter violent extremism. I have a deep understanding of the diverse populations and demographics in the region. About the Blog: I want people interested in Mali, and the Sahel in general to have the most accurate information available out there. That's why unlike many blogs, I provide details backed by open-source when available with in depth analysis. I don't just re-report the news, I provide context. I don't just provide numbers and data because is attractive, I provide the most accurate numbers with sources. Niger: December 2018 Chronology of Violent Incidents Related to Al-Qaeda affiliates Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM), Boko Haram, Islamic State in West Africa Province (ISWAP), and Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS) By Rida Lyammouri, FULL PDF REPORT COULD BE FOUND HERE Key points for December 2018: Nigerien government announced on 07 December 2018 the extension of State of emergency in Diffa Region three more months. Reportedly, on 10 December 2018 militants cell discovered 15km from Birni N’Konni at Jima-Jima village, Sokoto Region on the borders with Nigeria. Local prefect pointed out this was an attempt to establish a coordination site to exchange information between different militants’ cells. On 07 December the government declared State of emergency in Gotheye and Tillabéri departments, Tillabéri Region. On 29 December 2018 JNIM released statement claiming the attack against police station of Tera, Tillabéri Region carried on 30 November 2018. On 21 December 2018 and under the initiative of Mr. Mahamadou Bakabé, Diffa Region Governor, a meeting on the security situation extended to the administrative, customary, military and religious authorities in the presence of representatives of youth, women, and the media. The purpose of the meeting was to discuss the very worrying security situation and the upsurge of attacks recently in addition the phenomenon of people kidnapping by suspected Boko Haram militants. Important recommendations were formulated to deal with the situation, with particular emphasis on monitoring and the ability of the population to be resilient to the shock. In December hundreds of schools have closed or suspended their courses in Tillabéri Region following threats from ISGS militants. These schools are mostly located near Ayorou and Abala on the borders with Mali, and Torodi on the borders with Burkina Faso. French and Nigerien forces conducted air-ground joint operations near Tongo Tongo, Tillabéri Region. According to French defense ministry statement at least 15 suspected ISGS members killed while arms and ammunition seized. Notable increase in acts of intimidation, ethnic related violence, and armed banditry in Tahoua and Tillabéri Region during month of December 2018 forced number of families to seek refuge in Ménaka, Mali. In December 2018 important number of shops ransacked in villages in Diffa Region near Lake of Chad during incursions by suspected members of Boko Haram. This entry was posted in AQIM, Burkina Faso, Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS), Islamic State in West African Province (ISWAP), Jama'at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM), Mali, Niger, Refugees, Sahel on January 16, 2019 by rmaghrebi. Burkina Faso: December 2018 SITREP and Chronology of Violent Incidents Related to Al-Qaeda affiliates Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM) and Ansaroul Islam, and Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS) By Rida Lyammouri Since the summer of 2018 Est Region of Burkina Faso witnessed rapid spread of violence attributed to unidentified militant groups. While most of previous attacks were attributed to the Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS), recent claims by Jama’t Nusrat al-Islam wal-Muslimeen (JNIM) of attacks in the region confirm the presence of jihadist groups and the expansion of JNIM operations beyond northern regions on the borders with Mali. For instance, and for the first time, on 29 December 2018 JNIM released statement claiming 30 November 2018 complex attack. The attack carried against mining company escort near Bongou, between Pama and Fado. During same statement JNIM also claimed 22 December 2018 improvised explosive device (IED) attack near Kompienbiga on the road between Fada N’Gourma and Pama, Kompienga Province. Insecurity in Est Region also preventing locals from conducting their usual livelihood activities such as hunting and artisanal gold mining. Violent attacks against security forces, institutions, and individuals with ties to central government continued in the month of December 2018 and most likely to continue in coming months. Acts of intimidation against civilian population witnessed during December as well and most likely to continue most notably in Sahel, Boucle du Mouhoun, Nord and Est Regions with strong possibility of expansion to other regions. FULL PDF REPORT OF DECEMBER 2018 BURKINA FASO SITREP AND INCIDENT TRACKER This entry was posted in Ansaroul Islam, Burkina Faso, Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS), Jama'at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM), Sahel on January 7, 2019 by rmaghrebi. Niger: November 2018 Chronology of Violent Incidents Related to Al-Qaeda affiliates Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM), Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS), ISWAP, and Boko Haram Nigerien security forces conducted late October and early November operations along the Burkina Faso borders near Torodi, Say Province, Tillabéri Region. Minister of interior pointed out to deteriorated security conditions in the area. On 30 November Nigerien government extended state of emergency to additional three communes of Tillabéri Region. These communes include Téra, Say, and Torodi. All communes located on the borders with Burkina Faso and especially close to Est Region where there is notable increase of suspected militants activities. Diffa Region witnessed one major incident by suspected Islamic State in West Africa Province (ISWAP). Additionally, at least 15 girls were taken while the outcome of more than 30 girls taken in the same area over a a year ago remains unknown. This entry was posted in Ansaroul Islam, Burkina Faso, Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS), Islamic State in West Africa, Niger, Sahel on December 3, 2018 by rmaghrebi. Burkina Faso: November 2018 SITREP and Chronology of Violent Incidents Related to Al-Qaeda affiliates Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM) and Ansaroul Islam, and Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS) Burkina Faso: NOV 2018 SITREP November followed recent trend as acts of violence and intimidation by suspected militant groups Ansaroul Islam and Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS) continued, if not increased, in Est and Sahel Regions. However this is based on assumptions and modes of operations since no attacks exclusively claimed by both groups. In Fada N’Gourma, Est Region local population staged protests and expressed support and backings to security forces on 02 November. On 08-09 November General Oumarou Sadou visited Fada N’Gourma, Est Region capital and met with administrative authorities and security forces based in the area. He also visited brigades based in Foutouri, Pama, and Kompienga, towns previously been under militants threats. Since September 18, 2018, a curfew prohibits the movement of motorcycles from 7 pm to 5 am in the Est Region. The circulation of other vehicles is subject to strict controls. On 01 November, prison guards on strike raided Minister of Justice residence. The government decided on November 14 the dismissal of the ranks of 10 members of the Prison Security Guard unit behind the raid, and suspended the activities of their union office. On 14 November teachers’ unions suspended classes across Loroum Province, Nord Region after physical beating and abuse of teachers at Toulfé two days earlier. On 19 November another school announced its closure following threats received from militant groups at Kodjena village, Gnagna Province, Est Region. On 13 November at least 10 bodies recovered after landslide at Basnéré, Soum Province, Sahel Region. Similar tragedy occurred at Kabonga between Fada and Pama, Est Region three weeks earlier where 50 to 100 people gone missing. Security forces reportedly hesitated to assist in fear of militants attacks. Another landslide recorded on 08 November at the gold mining site of Bontioli, Sud-Ouest Region where at least 10 people died. On 19 November Human Rights Watch (HRW) claimed to have been informed about the execution of 14 men detained at Gassel Liddji by Burkinabe Army in Soum Province, Sahel Region. Regional NGO Kisal also claimed that in the same week a total of 38 civilians have been allegedly executed in Soum Province and Burkinabe forces suspected to be behind it. On 22 November, NGO Kisal reported the execution of another 7 suspects arrested by security forces. Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, and Burkina Faso launched on November 15 to November 22 a joint security operation called Koudanlgou II in the southern and western areas of Burkina Faso to crackdown transnational crimes, including terrorism, smuggling, and drugs trafficking. 150 suspects arrested while vehicles, arms, ammunition, drugs, and motorcycles seized. Going forward: Violence and intimidation acts highly likely to continue against mining companies escorts and personnel, and civil servants in Est and Sahel Regions. Militant groups are aware of the importance of gold mining to the state and its international partners. Civil servants, notably teachers will become further reluctant to return to their posts in regions (Est and Sahel Regions) under constant threats by militant groups. Following recent success there is strong possibility to see expansion of similar acts to other regions of the country. In addition to Est and Sahel Regions, acts of intimidation against teachers observed by Sahel MeMo at least in Nord Region. This entry was posted in Ansaroul Islam, Burkina Faso, Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS), Mali, Niger, Sahel on December 3, 2018 by rmaghrebi. Burkina Faso: June – October 2018 Chronology of Violent Incidents Related to Al-Qaeda affiliates Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM) and Ansaroul Islam, and Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS) FULL PDF REPORT: JUNE – OCTOBER 2018 VIOLENT INCIDENTS IN BURKINA FASO Militants activity in Burkina Faso have been on the rise for the past two years. Since June 2018 Sahel MeMo observed similar trend with an expansion from Northern parts bordering Mali and Niger, to the Est Region on the borders with Benin, Niger, and Togo. Militant groups have been trying to establish a base there since early 2016, explaining groups’ ability to carry complex deadly attacks, including the use of improvised explosive devices (IEDs). Violence in the eastern part of Burkina Faso by militant groups most likely to continue. In addition to targeting security forces and intimidation acts against civil servants, militants will look to continue to disrupt gold mining in the area. In fact, security forces in charge of protecting gold mines or escorting staff have been subject to attacks by militants at least in August 2018. If this to continue, livelihoods of local communities benefiting from gold mining could be at risk if security situation continues to deteriorate in the region. These attacks are mostly attributed rather than claimed by militant groups known to operate in Burkina Faso. These militant groups include Ansaroul Islam, Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal-Muslimeen (JNIM), and Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS). Out of the three only JNIM have been consistent releasing official claims of attacks. Thus analysts, observers, journalists, and Burkinabe authorities are contributing most of violent incidents based on the area where occurred and means used. Important to note that between June and October 2018 no incidents officially claimed by JNIM. This could be explained by difficulty of movement during rainy season (June – October) in the region. October 3rd witnessed the first reported French airstrikes against militants after request of support from Burkinabe authorities. This was following a deadly attack against Inata gold mine gendarmerie post. This entry was posted in Ansaroul Islam, AQIM, Burkina Faso, Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS), Jama'at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM), Mali, Niger, Sahel, Violent Extremist Organizations (VEOs) in Mali on November 1, 2018 by rmaghrebi. Mali: Quick notes about presidential elections from the first day. State run TV station announced some satisfaction about conditions of the elections throughout most of the country. However also pointed out to different types of incidents that either disrupted the event or prevented people from voting at all. For instance, several offices were ransacked by unknown gunmen in Central Region and people were not able to vote. Absence of electoral agents prevented voting in 10 voting centers in Ségou and Timbuktu Regions. 61 offices never opened due to insecurity in Mopti and Timbuktu Regions. According to Malian authorities no vote took place in at least 644 elections offices due to different acts of violence. Furthermore announced that voting was disrupted in at least 3988 other offices. According to Morgane Le Cam, journalist who has been covering the elections, tweeted that 81 percent of closed voting offices due to insecurity were located in Mopti Region, 13.4 percent on Timbuktu Region, and 5.4 percent in Ségou Region. Refugees in Mauritania, Burkina Faso, and Niger were reported to have been able to vote according to impressive live coverage by sahelien.com. This was expected, at least for observers following the Malian and regional conflicts very closely. Security situation in Mopti Region have deteriorated not only due to militant groups like JNIM (Jama’at Nusrat al-Islam wal-Muslimeen), but also to tensions between local communities. No major incidents related to militant groups took place the day of elections with the exception of intimidation acts and rocket attack in Aguelhoc, Kidal Region. Alleged members of militant group JNIM threatened and warned local population from voting in different location in Mopti Region. JNIM also claimed responsibility of launching rockets on MINUSMA base in Aguelhoc during elections day. In the statement (see the claim #83) JNIM stated that this is an indication that the fight will continue against the French and its collaborators until Shari’a wins, and these elections don’t mean anything. JNIM statement claiming rockets attack on MINUSMA camp in Aguelhoc, Kidal Region on July 29th, 2018. At this stage it’s too early to predict who is going to win, however; there is strong possibility of second round. Soumaila Cissé is the strongest challenger to current president Ibrahim Boubakar Keita. Again, this is just a prediction based on early counts coming in, remains to be seen. Overall, today’s elections occurred in less violent conditions compared to 2016 municipal elections when several offices were burned and voting boxes destroyed. Also, no major incidents recorded in Ménaka and Kidal Regions where State has limited to no presence. These are crucial moments for Mali and the Malian people, whatever the outcome of these elections is, the focus should be on what’s ahead. Any elections related violence will further delegitimize state credibility not only in the north and center of the country but also in the south. The government will also lose credibility among the opposition and armed groups signatories of the peace accord. As a result causing further instability throughout the country and delay in implementing the peace process. Something militant groups, like JNIM will exploit further to its narrative highlighted by Iyad Ag Ghali, that these elections are useless and only used to serve the usual beneficiaries and not the Malian people. This is an opportunity for Malian political elites to show willingness and leadership to move the country forward and delegitimize JNIM and other spoilers. This entry was posted in Ansar al-Din, AQIM, Jama'at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM), Mali, MINUSMA, Sahel, Violent Extremist Organizations (VEOs) in Mali on July 30, 2018 by rmaghrebi. Mali – Iyad Ag Ghali: Summary of video recording released by JNIM leader two days before presidential elections Here is a translation, not full, of the key points highlighted by Iyad Ag Ghali, JNIM leader, in his 9mn51s video released on Friday, July 27th. Elections are usual business and only to serve usual suspects, nothing new. France failed to defeat al-Mujahidin and allowed Malian Army to commit crimes and atrocities against innocent people. Those Arab and Muslim nations supporting Sahel G5 are traitors. Calling for different expertise and types of support from their supporters. “I am certain many observers are expecting a huge speech to shed light and describe our position (JNIM) in regards the upcoming presidential elections and political situation in Mali. However, let me bring some disappointments to these anticipations about the most important event (elections) to those benefiting from it, our position was already addressed by our Cadi (Judge) recently. I will only say that these elections are just a distraction and waste of time full of unrealistic promises as we are accustomed to for decades. Promises that don’t fall on the same line with Shari’a.” “However I would like to ask the great people of this country and warn them, and advise them, that faith is the right path. Past and current colonizer, France, did not achieve its motivating objective to invade our country. Repeated operations did not bring the success planned, which is defeating al-Mujahidin, however [and thank to God] number of Mujahidin have doubled, gained more support, and even expanded. This failure of the French have pushed them to unleash the criminal Malian Army to commit atrocities and abuses, for instance those committed in ke-Macina and Boulkessi, in Ségou and Mopti Regions respectively, and in other places. Innocent men, women, and children were victims of these atrocities, and these crimes in God’s willing will not go unpunished. The situation did not stop here and even further ignited tensions and violence between different nations, clans, and tribes, and some even fall into the trap of dark-age wars. I am calling my people of Mali and Azawad to be cautious of falling in enemy’s trap and to be disrupted from fighting against the crusaders and their collaborators whom are responsible for Muslim’s blood. Killing fellow Muslims purposely will send them straight to hell.” “I am also seizing this opportunity to renew my call to different militias and groups abandoned their religion to return to their senses. They abandoned their people and sold themselves cheap and aligned with crusaders in the fight against al-Mujahidin. We ask them to return to the right path and God will pardon them. About our message to the Muslim nation, is to remind them of their responsibility toward al-Mujahidin in Mali. The war against Islam is a global war and the international community still trying to destroy the Islamic project here by forming Sahel G5. Several Arab and Muslim traitor nations engaged in providing financial and other supports to Sahel G5. Our beloved Muslim nation, our Mujahidin still count on your support at different levels and expertise and knowledge. I am reaching out to my brothers’-and-sons’ al-Mujahidin and their supporters to remain strong in their path toward establishing our Islamic pride. And to our prisoners in the hands of our enemies I advise you to stay strong and spend your time on what’s beneficial to you, and pray for your brothers and your Islamic nation. We will do anything and won’t stop trying until we set you free.” “Before I forget I would like to send in the name of JNIM our thoughts to the resilient people of Gaza and al-Quds. You are carrying the task of the fight against different traitors, we will pray for your victory and ask you to remain resilient. We are fighting in Mali but our eyes are on your fight and following it closely.” This entry was posted in Ansar al-Din, AQIM, Jama'at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM), Mali, Sahel, Violent Extremist Organizations (VEOs) in Mali on July 28, 2018 by rmaghrebi. Ansar al-Din Ansar al-Sharia Libya Ansaroul Islam Ansaru AQIM Darnah Islamic State in Libya Islamic State in the Greater Sahara (ISGS) Islamic State in West Africa Islamic State in West African Province (ISWAP) Jama'at Nusrat al-Islam wal Muslimeen (JNIM) Sirte The Macina Liberation Front (MLF) Violent Extremist Organizations (VEOs) in Mali	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1489
__label__wiki	0.870442	0.870442	Zdeno Chara's status remains a mystery, but Bruins don't seem worried Bruins coach Bruce Cassidy didn’t speculate whether injured captain Zdeno Chara is out for Thursday’s Game 5 of the Stanley Cup Final. ... Mentoring His Much Younger Bruins Teammates Is Vintage Zdeno Chara At 42, Chara is 14 years older than Boston’s next oldest defenseman, and he will be seeking his second title with the Bruins when the Stanley Cup fin... Boston Bruins' Zdeno Chara bloodied after taking puck to face Boston Bruins star Zdeno Chara was forced to leave Game 4 of the Stanley Cup Final on Monday night against the St. Louis Blues after taking a puck to... Stanley Cup Final: Bruins' Zdeno Chara adapts his game and still dominates at 42 Boston Bruins defenseman Zdeno Chara, playing in Stanley Cup Final against St. Louis Blues, saw how game was changing and worked to read plays better... 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Consult Alexa Britain's health care service is teaming up with Amazon Alexa to help answer medical queries with advice from the service's official websit... MotoGP Assen: Crutchlow worried to be so far behind Quartararo Cal Crutchlow admits it is "worrying" he qualified 1.2 seconds slower than rookie MotoGP polesitter Fabio Quartararo as he took sixth in qualifying f... Ghanaians worried by rising number of kidnappings The release of two kidnapped Canadian women is welcome news in Ghana where people are becoming increasingly anxious at the number of people seized, b... ‘Aladdin’ songwriters were worried they’d royally ‘screw up’ Songwriting duo Benj Pasek and Justin Paul were each just 7 years old when Disney’s “Aladdin” hit theaters in 1992. Twenty-seven years later, after w... Roglic ‘not at all worried’ by UCI investigation into Slovenian cycling "Slovenia’s Primoz Roglic says he is not concerned by the UCI’s decision to carefully monitor the activities of several of his compatriots – as the g... Top Senate Democrat says he is worried Trump will 'bumble' into war The top Democrat in the U.S. Senate said on Thursday he was worried that President Donald Trump may "bumble" into a war with Iran and he said there n... Melting Alaska sea ice has residents, scientists worried ANCHORAGE, Alaska — Sea ice along northern Alaska disappeared far earlier than normal this spring, alarming coastal residents who rely on wildlife an... Margaret Hamilton: ‘They worried that the men might rebel. They didn’t’ The trailblazing computer scientist talks about being in charge of the software for the 1969 Apollo moon landingComputer pioneer Margaret Hamilton wa... Who can trigger a review on pass interference? Why NFL coaches are worried Should coaches or replay officials be responsible for review calls in the final two minutes? The NFL's reverse engineering of the rule change hits a ... James Paxton still worried after pitching test: ‘Felt it a little bit’ KANSAS CITY, Mo. — Don’t pencil James Paxton back in the Yankees’ rotation yet. The left-hander has been sidelined with left knee inflammation ... Alexa Bliss was ‘very worried’ WWE career was over during concussion nightmare The fear of her wrestling career being over was real for Alexa Bliss. The WWE superstar had suffered multiple concussions and battled their effects s... Cramer: We have 'real reason to be worried' about the global economy The weak forecast from BASF "suggests that the global economy might be in rougher shape than that employment number might indicate," Jim Cramer says.... This clip is why I’m a little worried about ‘The Lion King’ living up to the hype Hakuna Matata is supposed to be a wonderful phrase. Unfortunately, the new clip from The Lion King that Disney released ahead of the much-anticipated... If everyone else is worried about stocks, capitalize on the fear and make a fortune Markets often pre-price widely known information, especially the bad stuff. Invest in the stock market when others pull out, and you won't regre... Worried by Iran tensions, U.S. lawmakers seek end to law of 'endless war' Rising tensions between the United States and Iran prompted some Democratic and Republican lawmakers on Wednesday to call for the repeal of a law tha... Google Stadia exec isn’t worried about data caps—but he probably should be Enlarge / A Google Stadia controller and a Google Chromecast Ultra. (credit: Google) The Google executive in charge of the company's new Stadia gam... Alec Baldwin worried he’d die going 130 miles per hour “SNL” favorite Alec Baldwin talks his love of sports cars ahead of playing infamous automaker John DeLorean in documentary “Framing... Beto and de Blasio Not at All Worried About Their Dismal Poll Numbers The Iowa caucus is still eight months away, but because Iowa is Iowa, the pollsters have already descended on the state to find out where the Midwest... Trump says he is worried about terrorist attacks if U.S. troops leave Afghanistan President Donald Trump said he wants to pull U.S. troops out of Afghanistan but is concerned that without an American military presence, the country ... The Biggest U.S. Voting Machine Manufacturer Is Worried About Election Security Election Systems & Software, the biggest voting machine manufacturer in the country, is pushing Congress to require paper records for voting machines... Fewer kids are riding and buying bicycles, and the industry is worried Manufacturers and retailers fret that U.S. children aren't bicycling as much as in past years, just as cycling equipment is about to get more expensi... Poll finds Americans are worried about asteroids, don’t care about the Moon As we creep closer to the 50th anniversary of the first Moon landing, NASA is doing its best to drum up support for a return mission that would see i... Graham isn’t worried about letting Barr declassify intelligence information Senate Judiciary Chairman Lindsey Graham said Sunday he doesn’t see any threat to national security from President Donald Trump’s decision to allow A... Facebook Worried About Mark Zuckerberg's Old Emails in FTC Privacy Probe Employees within Facebook have dug up “emails that appear to connect Chief Executive Mark Zuckerberg to potentially problematic privacy practices” in... New border czar: All illegal immigrants 'should be worried, no population off the table' President Trump’s pick to be the nation’s first-ever “border czar” is a longtime former cop and immigration official who takes a hard line on illegal... Perez: Racing Point still "worried" over Spain F1 update package Sergio Perez says he and his Racing Point Formula 1 team are "worried" that they still do not have answers as to why its upgrade package struggled at... Two reasons why the OECD's chief economist is 'very, very worried' about global trade Faltering trade growth in certain parts of the world amid increasing trade barriers and decline in investments are extremely worrying, the OECD'... U.S. Senator Says His Anti-Loot Box Bill Has The Video Game Industry Worried Is Republican senator Josh Hawley an advocate for video game players or an ambitious politician with a savvy staff who know a win-win argument when t... Donald Trump Jr. 'not at all' worried about perjury in testimony to Senate Intelligence Committee President Donald Trump's eldest son, Donald Trump Jr., testified behind closed doors before the Senate Intelligence Committee, whose members wer... IAEA chief worried about rising tension over Iran nuclear issue The U.N. atomic watchdog's chief said on Monday he was worried about rising tensions over Iran's nuclear program and called for de-escalation through... The FBI Admits Black Lives Matter Was Never a Threat. It’s White People You Should Be Worried About Last week, as Donald Trump curtsied before the Queen; as Congressional Democrats continued to cower from their constitutional obligations; while we t... Trump brushes off controversy, says he isn't worried about North Korean missile tests President Trump said Monday that he wasn’t worried whether North Korea violated international agreements with its missile tests, further separating f... 'Uncertainty is our middle name': Egyptian billionaire Nassef Sawiris isn't worried about trade war "I think the world can live with some trade friction, it's not the end of the world," Nassef Sawiris, the billionaire CEO of OCI N.V, told CNBC ... Sagan not worried about lack of victories, points to climbing efforts after Stage 4 "Three-time world champion Peter Sagan has said that he is not worried after he went another stage at the Tour de France without securing a victory."... She worried her son with autism would bother his seatmate on the plane. Instead, they ended up travel buddies. Alexa Bjornson puts her 7-year-old son, who has autism, on a plane with a note and $10 hoping his seatmate wouldn't feel bothered. The flight turned ... Worried that popcorn ceiling is hiding bigger problems? Here's how to renovate on a budget Taking on a home renovation can be costly, stressful and time-consuming. Here are tips to keep your budget under control and your sanity intact. ... We have ‘real reason to be worried’ about the global economy, CNBC host says The market “threw us a bit of a curve ball” Tuesday even after Wall Street received critical evidence that the global economy is stumblin... Warren worried about ‘slide towards war with Iran’, says Trump needs to ‘come to Congress’ before taking military action Democratic presidential candidate Sen. Elizabeth Warren said she’s “very concerned about a slide towards war with Iran” and highlighted that Presiden... A top tech analyst is getting worried, citing poor earnings and highest valuations in 15 years Soaring values of technology companies have dominated the market's bull run, but now they are getting way too expensive as the earnings picture ... Worried about Alexa spying on you? This Raspberry Pi smart speaker for kids puts privacy first If privacy worries surrounding smart speakers are a major concern for you – particularly if your kids are using this tech – then a Rasp... Lindsey Graham claims the only ones against releasing Russia probe details 'are worried about being exposed' President Trump has authorized Attorney General Bill Barr to declassify all materials related to the Russia investigation, and Sen. Lindsey Graham is... Soggy is the Status Quo The slow-moving low continues to plague the region with wave after wave of rain and thundershowers. Last night’s band of rain has mostly cleared the ... What to know about status asthmaticus Status asthmaticus is a life-threatening asthma state with symptoms that include anxiety, fatigue, and shortness of breath. An inhaler may not treat ... Nike worried about Neymar rape allegation — soccer star denies, claims extortion A woman alleged in an interview with Brazilian SBT TV that Neymar raped her in a Paris hotel room last month. The soccer star has denied the allegati... Trump Brain Status: Teflon Pan President Trump has had a wee bit of trouble with his 2016 campaign’s enthusiasm for taking opposition intelligence from foreign officials. You may h... Trump Brain Status: Man From Mars Here’s a new and important message from the president of the United States regarding the mysteries of the universe and his burning desire to plumb th... Federer relishing underdog status "Roger Federer counts himself as an \"outsider\" for the French Open title this year and says he is not merely trying to temper expectations on his r... Are you in the middle class? Here's one way to know your status One way to know if you have middle class status is having the ability to borrow money, if you need to, at affordable rates of interest. ... Trump warns of a 'market crash the likes of which has not been seen before' if he loses 2020 election — but economists are worried he's causing a recession on his own Andrew Burton/Getty Images US President Donald Trump warned Saturday of a massive market crash if he's not re-elected in 2020. The President has pr... How Your Facebook Posts Might Reveal Your Medical Status Researchers were able to correctly guess some people’s medical conditions by analyzing their Facebook posts, according to a new study. The people inv... Trump Brain Status: 'Dumb as a Rock' President Donald Trump lashed out at his former Secretary of State Rex Tillerson on Thursday, calling him “dumb as a rock” after reports Tillerson c... A status report on Yankees’ Giancarlo Stanton CLEVELAND — Manager Aaron Boone wasn’t sure when Giancarlo Stanton will start a second minor league rehab assignment, but said the process will begin... Trump Brain Status: Garlic Mashed We’re more than a year out from the 2020 election, and already President Donald Trump is reportedly insisting aides tell him things are going just g... US could lose measles elimination status over outbreaks The United States has recorded its highest tally of measles cases in 27 years. If the US cannot control the outbreaks, it may lose its status of havi... NMacedonia: Parliament strips former PM of lawmaker status North Macedonia's parliament has formally stripped former conservative prime minister Nikola Gruevski of his lawmaker status, after he fled the count... Trump Brain Status: Mad at Dead Guy's Boat Our president absolutely COULD NOT stand the sight of a giant boat named after a dead guy he hated, a report from the Wall Street Journal reveals.... Mauritanians to vote for new president, but status quo likely to prevail For the first time in 59 years of independence, Mauritanians will vote on Saturday for a successor to a democratically-elected president, though a go... Trump UK Brain Status: Bangers and Mash President Donald Trump landed in the UK on Monday for a three-day trip to merry ol’ England. And, as befits a man whose diaper-clad image is set to o... H5: Toyotas hold status quo, battle for P3 hots up Kamui Kobayashi continued to run clear of the #8 Toyota driven by Fernando Alonso, as the battle for third took centre-stage in the fifth hour of Le ... Sunnyside player earns All-American status TUCSON – Sunnyside soccer star Manuel Quiroz recently made a national All-American team. He helped lead the Sunnyside soccer squad to an undef... Factbox - Blockchain projects: A status update Banks, exchange operators and other companies are investing billions of dollars to find uses for blockchain, a digital ledger used by cryptocurrencie... Very odd Bruins, Blues war erupts: ‘Do your f—–g job’ Hockey players chirp at each other all the time. Even coaches trade barbs once in a while. But a general manager… cursing out an… ice cre... When the Boston Bruins Won Their First Stanley Cup. Twice. Confusion reigned over the Stanley Cup when the Bruins notched their first N.H.L. title. During a transition from an old era to a new one, Boston cla... The Ron Barton mystery solved How could former ABA and professional champion, a 1950s sporting celebrity, Ron Barton just disappear? Kevin Batchelor found out The post The Ron Bar... Red Bull threatens Ferrari's status as 2nd best team in F1 Red Bull is threatening to replace Ferrari as Formula One's next-best team behind a dominant Mercedes after Max Verstappen outperformed Ferrari&... Status Audio's Bluetooth Lineup Was Worth the Wait Status Audio has been best known for its cult favorite CB-1 wired over-ears, even as Bluetooth headphones have taken over the world. But while the co... A Top North Korean Official Reappears, but With His Status Damaged Kim Yong-chol, a North Korean party vice chairman, resurfaced in the public eye this week, despite reports that he had been banished to a labor camp.... Trump dunes at Scottish course may lose protected status LONDON (AP) — Scottish Natural Heritage says the sand dunes at Donald Trump’s golf resort north of Aberdeen may lose their protected status aft... Mexico says to consider 'safe third country' status if migration does not slow Mexico's Foreign Minister Marcelo Ebrard said on Monday that if migration at Mexico's southern border does not decrease within 45 days, the governmen... Use Google Maps To Check Public Transportation Status Plenty of us rely on public transportation, but there are times when your local transit system is anything but reliable. Those of us who use it to co... The Erzgebirge want UNESCO World Heritage Site status Silver, tin and uranium were mined here for over 800 years. Now the German-Czech region of Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří has good chances of being awarded th... Washington prosecutor subpoenas NRA in probe into nonprofit status The attorney general for the District of Columbia issued subpoenas on Friday to the National Rifle Association and its charitable foundation seeking ... How To Check Provident Fund (PF) Claim Status Via Umang App Users can also check their EPF balance, search establishment, get EPFO address and apply for Jeevan Pramaan certificate via Umang app, which is curre... The 2019 Volkswagen Arteon Is a Different Kind of Status Symbol The 2019 Volkswagen Arteon looks futuristic, but it feels a callback to the old school idea of a flagship sedan that exists just because. Built with ... The Latest: Bruins’ Grzelcyk taken to hospital after hit BOSTON (AP) — The Latest from Game 2 of the Stanley Cup Final between the St. Louis Blues and the Boston Bruins (all times Eastern): 11:35 p.m. Bosto... The Bruins Don't Want To Talk About Getting Into Bed With Barstool Sports The Boston Bruins were happy to plug their Barstool Sports towels this morning ahead of tonight’s Game 2, but for some reason they now don’t want to ... Blues favored to close Bruins out in 6 St. Louis is one victory from claiming the city's first Stanley Cup title, and oddsmakers believe the Blues will close out the Boston Bruins at home ... One more for the Stanley Cup: Unlike Blues, some Bruins have been there, done that “I just believe that our guys that have been there – have won a Cup, have lost a Cup," Boston Coach Bruce Cassidy said before the series. "That shoul... Bruins' Cassidy: Officiating a 'black eye' for NHL Bruins coach Bruce Cassidy said after Thursday's Game 5 loss to St. Louis that the officiating throughout the playoff has been a "black eye" for the ... NHL: Blues down Bruins 4-2 to even Stanley Cup Finals Ryan O'Reilly scored twice including the game winner as the St. Louis Blues defeated the Boston Bruins 4-2 in Game Four on Monday to level the best-o... Malta, Shrouded in Megalithic Mystery The crowd waited expectantly at Malta’s ancient Mnajdra Temple for the spring equinox sun to peek out from behind a nearby hill. ... Scientists Are Stuck on the Mystery of Tape There’s a certain patience required for studying sticky tape. Sure, sometimes experiments require peeling, but other times, researchers must simply s... Hendrick Automotive plaintiffs denied class-action status Collier County Circuit Judge Lauren Brodie in a June 27 opinion said the plaintiffs, a group of 33 former employees of Rick Hendrick Chevrolet Naples... Fallout 76 Update: Server Status Maintenance for PS4 and Xbox One on July 9 Fallout 76 Update 11 might be on hold for a few more weeks, but the wasteland will be a lot emptier during the planned downtime of later today for so... Banksy is the Brits’ favourite painter of all time - is this status deserved? The secretive stenciller is no Rembrandt – but a new poll shows that ‘high art’ alienates the public more than any other cultural formThe anthropolog... FCA says sales chief Bigland doesn't merit whistleblower status The unusual public dispute between FCA and its sales chief has continued to fester in the courts over the last few months while Bigland remains the f... Is Fortnite Down? PS4, Xbox, Switch, PC and Mobile Server Status Guide Is Fortnite down? Has Epic server status gone offline? Is anyone else having connection issues, or is it just you? This is the best place to look to ... Is It Worth Taking a Short Flight to Get Airline Elite Status? It used to be a pretty safe assumption that the more you flew, the more perks you got. If you spent enough time in an airplane, you could trade that ... Trump Administration Strips India of Special Trade Status The status exempts billions of dollars of India’s products from American tariffs, part of a deepening clash over the country’s protections for its ma... Preferential Trade Status For India Ends On June 5, Says Trump US President Donald Trump has ended India's designation as a beneficiary developing nation under the key trade preference programme after determining... Google Maps Gets Live Train Status and More Features in India Google has announced a trio of new India-specific Google Maps feature that will offer real-time bus and train journey status, as well as mixed-mode n... Cy Vance challenger slams DA for downgrading Epstein’s sex offender status A challenger to Manhattan District Attorney Cy Vance called out the prosecutor on Tuesday for his kid-glove treatment of convicted pedophile Jeffrey ... Trees demand equal status in a new Paris gallery show They do not move, think, or see, but they understand their plight: a new exhibition brings art, science and environmentalism together to speak for th... Strand Bookstore granted landmark status despite owner’s objections The Strand has a new place in history books. City officials granted landmark status to the Manhattan tome-slinger’s flagship Broadway store on Tuesda... Why de Blasio wanted to grant Strand Bookstore landmark status The de Blasio administration tagged the iconic Strand Bookstore’s building with a dreaded Landmark designation Tuesday — a move the owner says was a ... Stripped of Olympic status, boxing body calls new elections GENEVA (AP) — One day after being stripped of Olympic recognition, boxing body AIBA called for fresh elections in November to help rebuild its image ... Netherlands 'love' underdog status in World Cup final: Van de Donk Netherlands are relishing their underdog status ahead of the women's World Cup final against the United States on Sunday, midfielder Danielle van de ... Supreme Court Orders Status Quo On Demolition Of 369 Houses In Nagpur The Supreme Court on Monday directed maintenance of status quo in connection with demolition of 'encroachments', mainly houses, on 369 plots reserved... Democrats aim their fire at Trump in South Carolina, vie for frontrunner status Democratic 2020 presidential hopefuls took to the stage in South Carolina on Saturday to take a series of swings at President Trump, and position the... French priest stripped of clergy status for abusing Scouts France’s Catholic Church has stripped the priest at the center of a high-level misconduct scandal of his clerical status while finding him guilty of ... Opinion: Expect Industry Status For Real Estate Sector The Indian real estate sector is the most highly taxed with the combination of high direct and indirect taxes, stamp duties and levies for developmen... 4 seek victim status to review Carnival pollution settlement MIAMI (AP) — Four people who say they were harmed by pollution from Carnival Corp. cruise ships are seeking status as victims with rights to review a... Vicki Gunvalson Isn't Alone: More Real Housewives Who've Had Their Cast Status Changed The OG of the OC has lost her orange. Bravo dropped its trailer for The Real Housewives of Orange County's 14th season on Tuesday and revealed that ... Video: The threat to Red Bull F1 team's Monaco GP favourite status The Monaco Grand Prix has traditionally been a happy hunting ground for the Red Bull Formula 1 team, but has it already been consigned to playing sec... PSN DOWN Status: PS4 Server Network WS-37403-7 error for PlayStation, but for how long? PSN Status Updates from Daily Star as we track the latest ongoing server network issues for the PS4 console. Stay tuned for regular updates and infor... Canelo Alvarez’s status is turning middleweight division into mess It’s getting a bit ridiculous, really. It wasn’t long ago that Saul “Canelo” Alvarez and Gennady “GGG” Golovkin met for what everyone considered the ... How To Update Aadhaar Details, Check Updation Status Online Aadhaar card online services: Through the UIDAI's "self-service" portal, Aadhaar holders can apply for a change in the address fed into the Aadhaar d... The Erzgebirge's claim to UNESCO World Heritage Site status Silver, tin and uranium were mined here for over 800 years. Now the German-Czech region of Erzgebirge/Krušnohoří has good chances of being awarded th... Reports: Bruins D Chara sustained broken jaw Boston Bruins defenseman Zdeno Chara sustained a broken jaw when hit in the face by a puck in Game 5 of the Stanley Cup Final, multiple media outlets... The Latest: Blues take 1-0 lead on Bruins in Game 5 BOSTON (AP) — The Latest from Game 5 of the Stanley Cup Final between the Boston Bruins and St. Louis Blues (all times local): 9:20 p.m. Ryan O’... Blues push Bruins to brink with key Game 5 win BOSTON — Jordan Binnington stopped 38 shots, Ryan O’Reilly and David Perron scored and the Blues took a controversial 2-1 victory over the Bruins on ... Bruins' veteran quintet could be key in latest Cup bid Five current Bruins players carry knowledge from Boston's most recent Stanley Cup triumph in 2011, and loss and in 2013 ... Now, For Your Enjoyment, We Have Angry Bruins Fans Whaling On Each Other Lots of tension in the arena tonight for Game 5 of the Stanley Cup Final. Lots of wound-up hockey fans. Perhaps this sort of thing was inevitable, al... Bruins' Chara could play in Game 5 despite injury Boston Bruins veteran defenseman Zdeno Chara, who reportedly has a broken jaw, started Thursday night's Game 5 of the Stanley Cup Final after he was ... Blues yank Binnington in 2nd after Bruins score 5 Despite Jordan Binnington's struggles Saturday night, the Blues remain confident in their goalie. "It's not him; it's the guys in front of him. We ha... Stop the Bruins: We’re sick of this Boston run of titles Look, we like to be open and honest and completely transparent here at Open Mike, so I will warn you: If you are from New England, or if your sportin... Helmetless Krug sparks Bruins with huge hit After tangling with Blues forward David Perron in the third period, Bruins defenseman Torey Krug lost his helmet and skated the length of the ice to ... The Latest: Blues strike first in Cup opener vs Bruins BOSTON (AP) — The Latest on the Stanley Cup Final (all times local): 8:35 p.m. The St. Louis Blues have scored first in the Stanley Cup Final. Brayde... Blues whip Bruins in Game 7 to win first Stanley Cup BOSTON — Ryan O’Reilly scored for the fourth straight game and rookie Jordan Binnington stopped 32 shots in Game 7 of the Stanley Cup Final on ... Chara to be evaluated; Bruins plan for absence The Bruins could be without captain Zdeno Chara for Thursday's Game 5 after the defenseman took a puck to the face that left him bloodied and in need... NHL notebook: Bruins' Chara reportedly has broken jaw Boston Bruins defenseman Zdeno Chara sustained a broken jaw when hit in the face by a puck in Game 5 of the Stanley Cup Final, multiple media outlets... Reports: Chara's jaw broken; Bruins eye options The Bruins could be without captain Zdeno Chara for Thursday's Game 5 after the defenseman took a puck to the face that left him bloodied and in need... Police end mystery behind Leidy Asprilla’s death After days of wild speculation, first on where Colombian soccer player Leidy Asprilla had disappeared and then what caused the Olympian’s death, auth... When the World’s Most Famous Mystery Writer Vanished On a cold December night in 1926, Agatha Christie went out in her beloved Morris Crowley roadster and didn’t return home for 11 days. Here’s how her ... Mystery in the sand: Lost wedding ring (WFLA) Mark DesErmia has been searching the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico for nearly a quarter-century, never really knowing what he’ll fin... How a janitor wowed Darwin by solving the ice age mystery Self-educated ice sage James Croll cracked the conundrum of why Earth periodically freezes over. He was feted in his time, so why did the world forge... Mystery Made by Google device surfaces at the FCC Google has a new device up its sleeves and it is a wireless Bluetooth device with the model number of G022A. That information was discovered on the F... Jim Jarmusch: ‘I’m for the survival of beauty. I’m for the mystery of life’ The acclaimed director talks about his new climate-crisis zombie film, his unique look and why he’s taken to hanging out in the woodsCuyahoga Falls i... Djokovic enjoying Paris mystery tour Novak Djokovic's French Open has been something of a magical mystery tour so far and it will continue into round three after a convincing win over Sw... Scientists solve Stone Age murder mystery The mystery of an ancient fractured skull has been settled. An international team of researchers in Europe ruled foul play was to blame for the Upper... How Mysterio's Mystery Was Crafted in Spider-Man: Far From Home Mysterio. The name alone can give goosebumps to even the most basic comic book fan. He’s one of Spider-Man’s most devious, cunning, and visually stun... Mystery hominin had sex with ancestors of Neanderthals and Denisovans A strange signal in ancient and modern human DNA suggests the ancestors of Neanderthals and Denisovans must have mated with an unknown species of hum... Mystery of why arteries harden may have been solved, say scientists Study finds calcium deposits are triggered by molecule produced by damaged cellsThe mysterious mechanism behind the hardening of arteries may have be... Mystery serial pooper strikes in Japan Tokyo authorities are searching for a mystery pooper who repeatedly has left feces in the same shopping district, a report said. The male perpetrator... Tesla's mystery test car may be a Model S refresh For the most part, Tesla's Model S has maintained a familiar look since it was introduced in 2012 -- the largest external change was the elimina... Motive still a mystery in Virginia Beach shooting Cops in Virginia Beach are still probing why an engineer in the town’s public works department showed up to work with two .45 caliber handguns ... 1,000-year-old mystery surrounds ancient city Shrouded in thick rainforest and centuries of mystery, the ancient Mayan city of Tikal is one of the greatest overlooked sites of antiquity in the We... The Unsolved Mystery of the Malibu Creek Murder When a young father was randomly killed in Malibu Creek State Park in 2018, it sent the placid SoCal community into hysterics—spawning amateur sleuth... More than 30m people have watched Netflix's Murder Mystery – why? The critics might have hated it, but this Jennifer Aniston and Adam Sandler-starring Agatha Christie pastiche broke the record for Netflix’s biggest ... Revealed: the illustrious past of a mystery portrait Zaga Christ, a pretender to the Ethiopian throne, was the first black man depicted in a European miniature in 1635When Sotheby’s sold a 17th-century ... Warriors lose center, while Durant and Thompson’s status remain in doubt OAKLAND, Calif. — The Warriors have never been touted for their depth and now they may be tested like never before when the Finals resume Wednesday a... Nadal rebuffs interrogator who dared to question Centre Court status It was a case of "Don't you know who I am?" for Rafael Nadal when a reporter had the temerity to question whether he deserved to be on Wimbledon's Ce... Uber and Lyft allegedly paid drivers to rally against employee status There is seemingly no end in sight for Uber and Lyft's ongoing worker status dispute. The raging debate has seen battles in the UK Supreme Court... Destiny 2 Update Maintenance: Server Status Downtime for Season of Opulence DLC Bungie is about to begin the final chapter of Year 2 - but first it needs to take the game offline and do some essential maintenance. Here's what you... US Senate Passes Proposal To Give India The Same Status As 'NATO Ally' The US Senate has passed a legislative provision that brings India at par with America's NATO allies and countries like Israel and South Korea for in... US President Donald Trump terminates preferential trade status for India Washington accuses New Delhi of deploying a wide range of trade barriers that negatively affect US commerce. Media reports say that India could impos... Special Status Demands Likely In PM's NITI Aayog Meet Today: 10 Points Prime Minister Narendra Modi will chair NITI Aayog's fifth governing council meeting at the Rashtrapati Bhavan today. This would be the first meeting... Naveen Patnaik Meets PM Modi, Discusses Special Status For Odisha Odisha Chief Minister Naveen Patnaik met Prime Minister Narendra Modi on Tuesday and pitched for Odisha to be granted special category status in the ... What Trump's Move To Yank Developing Nation Status Means For India US President Donald Trump opened another potential front in his trade war on Friday, terminating India's designation as a developing nation and there... Hong Kong Independence Activists Granted Refugee Status In Germany Two former Hong Kong independence activists have been granted refugee status in Germany in what is one of the first cases of dissenters from the semi... Hong Kongers wanted for rioting granted refugee status in Germany Two Hong Kong residents wanted for rioting have been granted refugee status in Germany, in a major blow to the city's international reputation as fea... Gig economy: California bill granting employee status passes assembly Uber and Lyft drivers, considered contract workers, could be entitled to protections and benefits if the bill is signedThe state assembly in Californ... US Move Unfortunate, Says India As Trump Ends Preferential Trade Status India will "always uphold its national interest" in trade matters as "our people also aspire for better standards of living", the government today sa... Ohio State revokes doc’s status, plans sex abuse task force COLUMBUS, Ohio (AP) — Ohio State University trustees have posthumously revoked the emeritus status of a team doctor found to have sexually abused you... Netflix investor isn't worried about Disney, Apple streaming services — Netflix is 'future of film' Netflix shouldn't be worried about streaming wars, Morris Mark, CEO of Mark Asset Management, said Tuesday ahead of the company's fiscal ea... Stanley Cup Final predictions: Who will win Bruins vs. Blues series? USA TODAY Sports' NHL desk makes its picks on whether the Boston Bruins or St. Louis Blues will win the Stanley Cup. &#... Blues beat Bruins 3-2 in OT, tie Stanley Cup at game apiece BOSTON (AP) — Carl Gunnarsson scored on a delayed penalty 3:51 into overtime, Jordan Binnington made 21 saves and the St. Louis Blues beat the Boston... Bruins beat Blues in game 1 of NHL Stanley Cup Finals on NBC BOSTON (AP) – Forty-nine years after Boston’s Bobby Orr flew through the air following his Stanley Cup-clinching goal against St. Louis, ... Stanley Cup Final: Blues topple Bruins in OT to even series BOSTON — Carl Gunnarsson scored on a delayed penalty 3:51 into overtime, Jordan Binnington made 21 saves and the St. Louis Blues beat the Boston Brui... Blues must stop Bruins power play to survive SportsPulse: USA TODAY Sports' Kevin Allen breaks down what the Blues must change heading into Game 4 after losing 7-2 in Game 3 to the Bruins.... Stanley Cup Final Game 7 predictions: Will Bruins or Blues win it all? A Stanley Cup Final Game 7 is an uncommon occurrence. We’ve only seen two since 2007. Who will win this one: Bruins or Blues? ... The Latest: Bruins rout Blues 7-2, take 2-1 Cup series lead ST. LOUIS (AP) — The Latest on Game 3 of the Stanley Cup Final (all times local): 10 p.m. The Boston Bruins have a 2-1 lead in the best-of-seven Stan... Bruins destroy Blues in Game 3 Stanley Cup destruction ST. LOUIS — Patrice Bergeron and the Boston Bruins’ best players took the criticism to heart. They weren’t good enough through the first ... Bruins rout Blues 7-2, take 2-1 lead in Stanley Cup Final Boston's best players led the Bruins to a 7-2 rout of the St. Louis Blues on Saturday night to take a 2-1 lead in their best-of-seven Stanley Cup Fin... Bruins uses big third period to force Stanley Cup Final Game 7 ST. LOUIS — Facing elimination in an oh-so-hostile environment, Brad Marchand and Tuukka Rask stepped up for the Boston Bruins once again. The Stanle... NHL: Blues on verge of maiden Stanley Cup after blanking Bruins The St. Louis Blues moved one win away from their first Stanley Cup triumph after a controversial 2-1 win over the Boston Bruins on Thursday gave the... Bruins and Blues have shattered idea of Stanley Cup blueprint And to think that in early January the Rangers’ interest was piqued indeed by chatter out of St. Louis that Vladimir Tarasenko would become available... The Latest: Bruins’ Cassidy says Marchand will play Game 1 BOSTON (AP) — The Latest on media day at the Stanley Cup Final (all times Eastern): 11:55 a.m. Boston Bruins coach Bruce Cassidy says Brad Marchand t... Binnington, Blues beat Bruins 2-1, lead Stanley Cup 3-2 From last place in the league to the brink of their first Stanley Cup championship, the St. Louis Blues need one more win to complete their improbabl... Binnington, Blues beat Bruins 2-1, lead Cup final 3-2 BOSTON (AP) — Jordan Binnington stopped 38 shots, and Ryan O’Reilly and David Perron scored for St. Louis on Thursday night to give the Blues a... Blues beat Bruins to knot Stanley Cup Final at 2-all Just when the St. Louis Blues had the Boston Bruins on their heels and chasing the game, they gave up a goal and the roar went right out of the build... Blues Even Up Stanley Cup Final With Impressive Schooling Of Bruins Folks! Once again we’ve got ourselves a series! As in their stirring overtime Game 2 win in Boston, the Blues responded to having their doors blown o... Blues beat Bruins 4-2 to knot Stanley Cup Final at 2-2 ST. LOUIS (AP) — Ryan O’Reilly scored the go-ahead goal midway through the third period for his second of the night, and the St. Louis Blues th... 'Everyone should be worried' about a no-deal Brexit warns Britain's former Brexit chief BBC Panorama A no-deal Brexit is "fraught with risk" and a "step into the unknown" the civil servant in charge of Brexit planning until March. "The ... In Case You Were Worried, a Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse Sequel Is Definitely in the Works After the Oscar-winning success of Spider-Man: Into the Spider-Verse, there was little doubt a sequel would be coming. And not just a sequel—spinoffs... Vatican missing teenager mystery: bones found after all Human bones found close to the tombs of two 19th-century German princesses will be examined by forensic experts. Not only is the mystery of a teenage... Researchers solve mystery of how gas bubbles form in liquid The formation of air bubbles in a liquid appears very similar to its inverse process, the formation of liquid droplets from, say, a dripping water fa... A Quiet Place 2 Could Delve Into the Mystery of Its Horrifying Aliens Some wild rumors about The Batman are quashed. Quentin Tarantino still wants to make his sweary Star Trek. Peter Parker ponders plans in a new Far Fr... Mystery deaths among indigenous Malaysians prompt speculation Infectious disease, pollution and water poisoning among suspected causes of deathsIt was in May that the mysterious illness first took hold.In their ... 'Knives Out' trailer slices into a family-set murder mystery The first trailer for Rian Johnson's "Knives Out" takes a stab at an Agatha Christie-style whodunit, setting up a plot where a group of extended rela... Boaty McBoatface Just Helped Solve a Deep-Sea Mystery The internet was a purer place in 2016, and there’s no more perfect distillation of that truth than the spontaneous, crowdsourced effort to name a £2... There's a Mystery Car in the First New Episode of Black Mirror That Reveals Exactly Where It Was Shot There’s a new season of the technology-themed Twilight Zone-like Netflix show, Black Mirror, and the premiere episode, called Striking Vipers, has a ... Help Me Understand the Mystery of the Sign of the Two Dodge Omnis, Good and Bad Everyone, everyone, settle down! I need your attention! Over the course of a week I have somehow encountered two Dodge Omnis, each one representing a... Get your Knives Out with the first trailer for Rian Johnson's murder mystery Before he commits another chunk of his life to Star Wars, director Rian Johnson is blessing us with one more original feature: Knives Out. The first ... Mystery Mercedes-Benz engineering testbed spotted Mercedes is thought to be developing synthetic fuels with Bosch, which could explain this prototype Mercedes-Benz appears to be testing a prototype... Cyberattack that cost Baltimore $18M a mystery after experts eye NSA link Weeks after Baltimore fell victim to ransomware known as "RobbinHood," government officials and intelligence agencies don't have a clear picture of e... Kim Kardashian-West tweets mystery complaint to Jack in the Box Kim Kardashian is not happy with Jack in the Box, and she wants everyone to know that there is a problem. She just doesn’t want to say what the probl... Italian museum looks to unlock da Vinci hair mystery An Italian museum says it plans to carry out DNA tests on a lock of hair it believes might have belonged to the Renaissance artist Leonardo da Vinci,... Mystery of universe’s expansion deepens with new cosmic calculation Cosmologists have two clashing measurements of the universe’s expansion, and a new method of measuring surprisingly doesn’t match up with either. Wha... Scientists believe they have solved the mystery of Peru’s Nazca Lines The mystery of Peru’s Nazca Lines may have been solved by experts who think the drawings actually depict exotic birds to please the gods during... Murder Mystery: the film that asks – what is Jennifer Aniston doing? Viewed by 30 million people on its opening weekend, this woefully average comic caper is an odd addition to the actor’s CVsThirty-nine minutes and 40... Did ‘Murder Mystery’ really just break a Netflix ratings record? After years of declining to get specific about numbers, Netflix is finally cluing the public in. The streaming behemoth wants you to know its new com... The Bachelorette Mystery Solved! Who Did Hannah Brown Have Sex With In the Windmill? Ladies and gentlemen, it was Peter. Peter the Pilot. Pilot Pete. And now maybe forever known as Windmill Pete. Tonight's fantasy suite episode of T... Have Japanese Ornithologists Cracked the Mystery of the Nazca Lines? The Nazca Lines are among the most mysterious archaeological sites in all of Latin America. However, a team of Japanese experts has published a study... Phantom sensations: The mystery of how brains process touch Phantom sensations — misattributing tactile sensations to the wrong parts of the body — are a puzzling phenomenon. What can they tell us about the br... Agents Of S.H.I.E.L.D. confronts the season's big mystery in this exclusive clip Last season of Marvel’s Agents Of S.H.I.E.L.D. ended on a moving and bittersweet note: Phil Coulson was dying, but he and Melinda May left the team t... The Mystery of Mount Heredom, Masonic Seat of Scotland Every country in the world has a handful of mountains which demand central roles in tales of lost treasures and mysteries of a supernatural nature, b... Dominican Republic resort deaths mystery: timeline The Dominican Republic, long one of the top Caribbean destinations for U.S. travelers, is in the spotlight for reasons no country heavily dependent o... Scientists solve the mystery of the dragon with transparent teeth Dwelling in the dark ocean depths, the dragonfish is a frightful marvel that would fit nicely into any horror movie, boasting exotic adaptations such... There's Murder but no Mystery in Adam Sandler's Netflix whodunit Adam Sandler’s latest Netflix release, Murder Mystery, isn’t going to dispel the longstanding rumor that the Sandman mostly makes movies as an excuse... Wraith And Bloodhound’s Backstories Are Apex Legends’ Best Mystery Every once in a while, Apex Legends players notice that two of the game’s characters, Wraith and Bloodhound, both have a very familiar emblem hidden ... Man Found Guilty in a Murder Mystery Cracked By Cousins’ DNA The trial of William Earl Talbott II hinged on a lead from a genealogy site. The verdict will shape the future of crime-fighting and genetic privacy.... Emanuela Orlandi mystery: Vatican opens graves Vatican officials are digging up two 19th century graves as part of a decades-long search for Emanuela Orlandi, who went missing as a teenage girl. T... OIC refuses to accept any decision to change legal status of Syria's Golan Heights The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) summit in Mecca refused to accept any decision to change legal and demographic status of Syria's Golan ... Fortnite Server Status Down: Matchmaking issues not working and confirmed by Epic Games EPIC seems to be suffering from some connection issues this evening. Here's everything we know about the current Server Status issues impacting login... BJD Plans Special Status Demand With Nitish Kumar, Jagan Reddy's Parties To push its demand for special category status for Odisha, the ruling Biju Janata Dal (BJD) is planning to join hands with the YSR Congress and the J... Nigel Farage’s Brexit Party Makes Big Gains as U.K. Voters Reject the Status Quo (LONDON) — Veteran politician Nigel Farage’s new Brexit Party scored big gains in European elections, with his party and several anti-Bre... Myanmar’s temple city Bagan awarded UNESCO World Heritage status UNESCO inscribed Myanmar’s ancient capital of Bagan as a World Heritage Site on Saturday, nearly a quarter of a century after the complex of Buddhist... Destiny 2 Servers Down: Maintenance Status Updates ahead of Season of Opulence DLC release DESTINY 2 is down but there's no point checking server status pages as Bungie Maintenance has taken the game offline for a hotfix - here's what all t... Mumbai Local Trains Impacted By Rains: Check Train Running Status Here Mumbai Local Train Status: The Central Railways has said that Mumbai local trains on Harbour line will be operated between Chhatrapati Shivaji Mahara... Elena Delle Donne’s status is unclear, but Mystics welcome back Emma Meesseman Washington's leading scorer and rebounder continues to undergo testing in the concussion protocol before Saturday night's showdown with the first-pla... Henley's Joy upsets, Concrete Rose cements status in weekend turf racing Upsets by Henley's Joy and Preservationist, a status-confirming win by Concrete Rose and a Breeders' Cup "Win and You're In" victory by Promises fulf... Augsburg's historical water system granted UNESCO World Heritage status In the Middle Ages bankers like Jakob Fugger made Augsburg an important city. But its history with water is also unique. Augsburg now wants to become... St. Louis Blues beat Boston Bruins, capture first Stanley Cup The St. Louis Blues defeated the Boston Bruins 4-1 in Game 7 of the Stanley Cup Final on Wednesday night to claim their first NHL championship in fra... Bruins rout Blues 5-1 to force Game 7 of Stanley Cup Finals Boston Bruins goalie Tuukka Rask makes 27 saves to deny the St. Louis Blues a chance to win their first Stanley Cup title at home. Game 7 will be Wed... Boston Bruins beat St. Louis Blues, force Game 7 The Boston Bruins forced a seventh game after defeating the St. Louis Blues 5-1 in Game 6 of the Stanley Cup Final on Sunday night at the Enterprise ... Blues beat Bruins to clinch maiden Stanley Cup title The St. Louis Blues won the National Hockey League's Stanley Cup for the first time with a 4-1 win over the Boston Bruins in the decisive seventh gam... Blues complete amazing comeback with 4-1 win against Bruins for first Stanley Cup title The St. Louis Blues, in last place on Jan. 2, beat Boston Bruins for franchise's first Stanley Cup behind Jordan Binnington's rookie-record... Kuraly, Bruins rally, beat Blues 4-2 in Stanley Cup opener BOSTON (AP) — Sean Kuraly scored to break a third-period tie and assisted on another goal to help the Boston Bruins rally from a two-goal deficit and... Bruins rally past Blues in Stanley Cup Final opener The Boston Bruins overcame a sluggish start and erased a two-goal deficit to beat the St. Louis Blues 4-2 and draw first blood in the National Hockey... Stanley Cup keys: Here are five factors that will determine Bruins vs. Blues series The Bruins vs. Blues Stanley Cup Final is a rematch of their 1970 Final when Boston swept St. Louis. The Blues have not made the Final since 1970. &... Bruins rally to take down Blues in feisty Stanley Cup final Game 1 BOSTON — Sean Kuraly scored to break a third-period tie and assisted on another goal to help the Boston Bruins rally from a two-goal deficit and beat... Helmetless Krug's huge hit rouses Bruins to Stanley Cup win over Blues Boston beat St Louis 4-2 in Game 1 of best-of-seven series Bruins recover from slow start after 11-day layoffTorey Krug lined up St Louis center Robe... Bruins trounce Blues to send Stanley Cup Final to Game Seven The Boston Bruins staved off elimination from the Stanley Cup Final with a 5-1 victory over the St. Louis Blues on Sunday to force a decisive seventh... Boston Bruins' Matt Grzelcyk hospitalized after taking brutal hit from behind Boston Bruins defenseman Matt Grzelcyk left Game 2 of the Stanley Cup Final on Wednesday night and was taken to the hospital after taking a hit to th... Boston chases another title as Bruins, Blues play Game 7 The city of Boston has celebrated more than its fair share of sports championships in recent years, but never before has it played host to Game 7 of ... Blues suffer 7-2 home-ice thrashing at hands of Bruins in Game 3 The Blues were the worst team in the NHL for the first part of the season and they looked very much like that team Saturday night in a 7-2 loss that ... Stanley Cup Game 7: The most intriguing people in Bruins-Blues finale On Sunday, the Blues had their chance. At home, with a 3-2 lead in the series and momentum at their backs, the closest the Blues got to the title was... The Bruins-Blues keys that will decide intriguing Stanley Cup final The only time the Bruins and the Blues played in the Stanley Cup final, it produced one of the most iconic images in the game’s history — Bobby Orr f... Bruins rip referees after latest ‘black eye’ call decides Game 5 In a Stanley Cup Playoffs filled with officiating miscues, what’s one more on the NHL’s biggest stage? The St. Louis Blues took a 3-2 ser... Blues Benefit From Controversial No-Call To Take 3–2 Series Lead Over Bruins The St. Louis Blues won Thursday night in Boston, 2–1, to take a 3–2 lead in the Stanley Cup Final. If Game 5 was the last hockey game of the season ... Blues' Ivan Barbashev to have hearing for hit on Bruins' Marcus Johansson St. Louis Blues forward Ivan Barbashev will have a disciplinary hearing with the NHL Department of Player Safety for an illegal check in Game 5 of th... St. Louis Blues take Game 4 to tie up Stanley Cup Final with Boston Bruins The St. Louis Blues rebounded from a disastrous Game 3 to beat the Bruins 4-2 and send the series back to Boston tied 2-2. &... Blues dump Bruins to win Stanley Cup after agonizing 52-year wait The St. Louis Blues completed a most improbable journey and wiped out decades of misery by beating the Boston Bruins on Wednesday to capture their fi... Murder Mystery breaks Bird Box's Netflix viewing record Adam Sandler comedy was watched by 31m accounts in its opening weekend, according to streaming giant’s own figuresAdam Sandler’s latest film in his e... So many people are pulling out of Dominican Republic trips after mystery deaths New Yorkers are getting cold feet when it comes to vacationing in the Dominican Republic — in light of a growing number of tourist deaths there... Will Smith is producing a murder mystery set against the Flint water crisis It’s been over five years since the water in Flint, Michigan was initially determined to be contaminated. While the water crisis in Flint rages on (i... Adam Sandler and Jennifer Aniston reunite in 'Murder Mystery' "Murder Mystery" only half lives up to its title. Yes, there are several murders, but there's no mystery in why Netflix would enthusiastically reunit... Family reveals another tourist’s mystery death in Dominican Republic The sudden death of yet another American tourist at a resort in the Dominican Republic is being called into question, some five months after he died.... Yazılıkaya: A 3000-year-old Hittite mystery may finally be solved A 3200-year-old sanctuary once described as the Sistine Chapel of Hittite religious art could have acted as a calendar that was centuries ahead of it... Hitting the Books: Gravity's mystery may prove our multiverse exists Welcome to Hitting the Books. With less than one in five Americans reading just for fun these days, we've done the hard work for you by scouring... Netflix's Murder Mystery under fire for Spain cliche portrayal Málaga authorities complained about ‘retrograde’ scene of Gypsy woman in flamenco dressTourism boards in Spain have said the portrayal of the souther... Modern forensics solves Stone Age murder mystery after 33,000 years A forensic analysis of a 33,000-year-old skull finds a clear explanation for the mysterious pattern of fractures preserved in the bone: it was murder... NASA's Parker solar probe may solve 500-year-old Sun mystery NASA's Parker Solar Probe is on its way to another close encounter with the sun, where investigators hope the spacecraft will solve a long-standing s... A Mystery Disease Is Killing Children, and Questions Linger About Lychees Researchers said the fruit was behind annual outbreaks of a fatal syndrome in eastern India. But local doctors say that theory can’t explain all the ... At Vatican, empty tombs add new twist to missing girl mystery Emanuela Orlandi was thought to be buried in tombs of 19th century princessesThe Vatican opened two tombs on Thursday to see if the body of a girl mi... Massachusetts teen dies after being dumped at hospital in disturbing mystery A 13-year-old missing Massachusetts girl was dumped at a hospital there — possibly by a much older man — and pronounced dead shortly afterward, accor... The Curious Phaistos Disc – Ancient Mystery or Clever Hoax? In 1908 an Italian archaeologist ventured into the ruins of Phaistos, an ancient Minoan palace on the south coast of Crete. In an underground temple ... Scientists Have Pinpointed the Mystery Source of an Ozone-Destroying Chemical The recovery of the ozone hole has been a quintessential environmental success story, as the world has worked largely in harmony for decades to phase... 13-year-old girl dies after she’s dumped at hospital in disturbing mystery A 13-year-old missing Massachusetts girl was dumped at a hospital there — possibly by a much older man — and pronounced dead shortly afterward, accor... Mystery, excitement for British Open's return to Portrush BRITISH OPEN '19: A return to Northern Ireland's Royal Portrush brings a mixture of mystery and excitement ... Mystery suitors behind Salon Media $5M deal revealed as techies Salon Media Group is being acquired for $5 million by a little-known pair of tech entrepreneurs who are meanwhile caught in a legal battle over their... Vatican mystery over missing girl deepens; bones found The mystery over the 1983 disappearance of the 15-year-old daughter of a Vatican employee has taken yet another twist following excavations this week... John Turturro probes medieval murder mystery in ‘The Name of the Rose’ “The Name of the Rose,” premiering 10 p.m. Thursday on Sundance TV, is a murder mystery set in the middle of the 14th century. That may not see... Baseball will pull crowds in London despite being a mystery to most \| Matthew Engel New York Yankees against Boston Red Sox will draw a bigger attendance for each game than the weekend’s two Cricket World Cup blockbusters combinedNea... Hulu solves the mystery of when it will stream the first 3 seasons of Veronica Mars Back in September, Hulu announced that it was planning to bring back cult classic mystery show Veronica Mars for an eight-episode revival season, whi... Chris Evans was your dorky Mystery Date before he was Captain America Chris Evans has gone on millions of dates. It’s not because he’s become an international superstar by playing Captain America in the R... Division 2 Server Status Maintenance latest as Ubisoft reveals big Title Update 5 news Division 2 Maintenance is coming today with a new update for PS4, Xbox One and PC. Here's all the changes you can expect, following some big Title Up... Toronto Raptors superfan and Hyundai dealer Nav Bhatia sees his celebrity status grow Hyundai dealer Nav Bhatia, one of the Toronto Raptors's biggest fans, was the grand marshal in the team's NBA Championship parade. Bhatia uses his fr... Division 2 DOWN: Server Status Maintenance, Patch Notes, Downtime Schedule and Latest News Division 2 Maintenance is coming today with a whole new update for PS4, Xbox One and PC. Here's all the changes you can expect, following some patch ... With Bruins in Stanley Cup finals, Boston ‘suffers’ from ‘Championship Fatigue Syndrome' Can a city win too much? Boston is putting the question to the test. The Bruins could make Boston the first city since 1935 to hold three major sport... Stanley Cup Final: Torey Krug gets four points as Bruins top Blues 7-2 in Game 3 Boston Bruins defenseman Torey Krug made history with a four-point game and the Boston took a 2-1 lead in the Stanley Cup Final with a 7-2 win over t... Stanley Cup Final: Bruins making it hard to pick Blues in Game 2 Early rust. The rest was a rout. After falling behind the St. Louis Blues by two goals in the opening 21 minutes of Monday night’s series opener in t... Stanley Cup finals: Bruins turn Blues' dream homecoming into a nightmare Boston take 2-1 lead in series with 7-2 thrashing of St LouisBlues pull goalie Jordan Binnington for first time in his careerSt Louis Blues fans were... Tuukka Rask And The Bruins Spoil St. Louis's Party, Force Game 7 It certainly feels fitting that the first two of the Bruins’ goals in Game 6 came via some very visible influence from the referees. Not in any cont... Stanley Cup final Game 7: St Louis Blues v Boston Bruins – live! NHL champion will be decided at TD Garden after bruising seriesEmail Beau with your thoughts or tweet @duresport 12.27am BST The Blues’ pathIn Octobe... Ranking impact potential of Bruins-Blues Stanley Cup Final players: From 1 through 40 Stanley Cup Final begins Monday, and in one way or another, every player on each roster will make an impact. Here is a ranking of difference makers. ... Blues' Robert Thomas out for Game 2 of Stanley Cup Final against Bruins Blues' Robert Thomas has been banged up and his absence is not related to the crushing open-ice hit he took from Torey Krug in Game 1. &#... St Louis Blues silence Boston Bruins to move to brink of first Stanley Cup Jordan Binnington makes 38 saves as Blues take 3-2 series leadSt Louis move within one win of franchise’s first Stanley CupJordan Binnington stopped ... City of Champions: Boston will get third trophy since October if Bruins beat Blues Once labeled "Loserville," Boston can have the reigning champions in the NHL, NFL and MLB if the Bruins beat the St. Louis Blues Wednesday in Game 7.... Boston Bruins' Matt Grzelcyk will not travel for Game 3 of Stanley Cup Final Boston Bruins defenseman Matt Grzelcyk is in the concussion protocol and won't travel with the team for Game 3 of the Stanley Cup Final against the S... Love him or hate him, Bruins super-pest Brad Marchand always gets results Bruins star Brad Marchand's playing style is complicated. His antics, including licking players, puts focus on him, but so does his point produc... Famed Boston maestro’s statue sports giant Bruins helmet BOSTON (AP) — Count the late conductor Arthur Fiedler among the Boston Bruins’ fans as they skate into the Stanley Cup Final. The nonprofit Esp... St Louis Blues silence Boston Bruins in Game 7 to win first Stanley Cup title Blues win 4-1 in Game 7 for first title in team’s 52-year historySt Louis center Ryan O’Reilly awarded Conn Smythe trophyGame 7: St Louis Blues 4-1 B... Stanley Cup final heads to deciding Game 7 after Bruins thrash Blues Brad Marchand and Tuukka Rask star in Bruins’ 5-1 victoryElectric home crowd in St Louis can’t prevent defeatLast Stanley Cup final Game 7 came in 20... Watch: Boston Bruins' Matt Grzelcyk sent to hospital after hard hit in Game 2 Boston Bruins defenseman Matt Grzelcyk was transported to the hospital for evaluation after a hard hit into the boards by St. Louis Blues forward Osk... Bruins' consistency faces final test in Game 7 vs. Blues The Boston Bruins' consistent approach on and off the ice will be tested one more time in Game 7 of the Stanley Cup Final against the St. Louis ... Opinion: Boston Bruins' sputtering No. 1 line must be better against St. Louis Blues Boston Bruins coach Bruce Cassidy predicts Brad Marchand, Patrice Bergeron and David Pastrnak will play best game of the Stanley Cup Final in Game 3.... Stanley Cup Final: Time, TV, streaming info and everything you need for Game 7 of Bruins-Blues The Boston Bruins and St. Louis Blues will play a winner-take-all Game 7 for the right to lift the Stanley Cup. ... Atlanta couple struck by mystery illness on Dominican Republic trip An Atlanta couple says they were struck by a “very intense” mystery illness while vacationing at the embattled Dominican Republic resort ... Dominican Republic mystery deepens after third US tourist dies of respiratory failure A Pennsylvania tourist collapsed and died in the same Dominican Republic hotel where an engaged couple from Maryland was found dead five days later &... Manchester United and the mystery of the missing director of football \| Jacob Steinberg Manchester United have been seeking a director of football for some time now but nothing has happened. No wonder players are thinking twice about joi... Dad demands probe after mystery illness kills daughter, her husband in Fiji The father of a Texas woman who died along with her husband in Fiji came forward Monday and said he wanted an independent US investigation into the m... Medical Mystery: This Woman Has Seen Dozens Of Doctors And None Of Them Can Tell Her Why She Feels Totally Fine Right Now There’s nothing scarier than knowing that you have a medical issue but not being able to get any answers about it, and unfortunately, that’s the terr... Watch: Mystery Man Climbs 1,000-Foot-Tall London Building With No Ropes Some people find it hard to get motivated on a Monday. Others are already halfway up London's tallest building by 5 a.m. - seemingly without a rope o... Mystery radio waves from space tracked to a surprising home galaxy For the second time, astronomers have tracked a strange blast of radio waves from space to its host galaxy – and it is strangely different from the f... Adam Sandler's 'Murder Mystery' breaks Netflix viewing records While Netflix was famously reticent about releasing viewing statistics, over the last year or so the company has become more open about it. Its lates... The Mystery of Star Wars Legend Willrow Hood Has Finally Been Revealed He only appeared for one second in The Empire Strikes Back, but Willrow Hood became a Star Wars icon. Not for any reason in particular, however. Just... Mystery airline in talks to buy Mitsubishi SpaceJet to serve US regional market The Japanese planemaker Mitsubishi Aircraft Corporation announced it's in discussions with an unnamed U.S. airline over the sale of its SpaceJet... Woman spends Dominican Republic honeymoon in hospital due to mystery illness A woman from Virginia traveled to the Dominican Republic for her honeymoon but instead became the latest US tourist to become “violently ill... Seals with antennas on their heads helped scientists solve an Antarctic mystery A hole of open water, called a polynya, appeared in the winter ice of the Weddell Sea in Antarctica. It eventually grew to roughly twice the size of ... Shark Bite Mystery Solved 25 Years Later Thanks to Tooth Tweezed From Foot A Florida man’s long shark bite saga is finally over. Thanks to scientists at the Florida Museum of Natural History, Jeff Weakley was able to find ou... Netflix says 30 million people watched Murder Mystery in its opening weekend Netflix has traditionally kept its mysterious rating system fairly close to the vest; since the streaming service is not on the Nielsen ratings syste... 'We fell like cosmic rain': how the Mystery of the Bulgarian Voices became global stars Created by the communist regime to stave off anti-socialist feeling, the female choir was championed by 80s goths and worked with Kate Bush and Bobby... Anthony Weiner spotted brunching with mystery woman on Wall Street Sext-ual predator Anthony Weiner chatted about art during a cozy meal with a younger brunette at a Wall Street brunch spot early Saturday afternoon. ... Fortnite DOWN: Server Status latest as Queue is Full errors hit Epic Games PS4, Xbox game Epic has revealed that the server status for Fortnite is offline for some players as the Battle Royale game is struggling for the second time in as m... Frank Lampard strikes the right tone at Chelsea unveiling as returning hero looks to play down legendary status Frank Lampard's iconic status at Chelsea will buy him time as the club's new manager but Thursday's unveiling was notable for his unwillingness to us... Helmet-less Torey Krug delivers monster hit in Bruins' Game 1 win vs. Blues After losing his helmet Jostling with David Perron, Bruins defenseman Torey Krug proceeded to go the length of the ice to deliver a monster check. &... Stanley Cup Final: Bruins' Brad Marchand, David Krejci to play in Game 1 Boston Bruins forwards Brad Marchand and David Krejci are expected to play against the St. Louis Blues in Game 1 of the Stanley Cup Final on Monday n... Watch: Bruins' Torey Krug demolishes Blues' Robert Thomas with huge hit Boston Bruins defenseman Torey Krug delivered a thunderous hit on St. Louis Blues forward Robert Thomas on Monday night in Game 1 of the Stanley Cup ... Stanley Cup Final: Boston Bruins roar back to win Game 1 vs. St. Louis Blues The Bruins responded to a slow start and a 2-0 deficit with a dominant final two periods to beat the Blues in Game 1 of the Stanley Cup Final. ... Boston Bruins' Torey Krug delivers monster hit without helmet in Stanley Cup Final Boston Bruins defenseman Torey Krug looked like a linebacker on skates during Monday night’s Game 1 of the Stanley Cup Final against the St. Louis Bl... St. Louis Blues fend off Boston Bruins in Game 5, grab 3-2 series lead The St. Louis Blues are one win away from the franchise's first NHL championship after a 2-1 victory over the Boston Bruins in Game 5 of the Stanley ... Bruins vs Blues live stream: how to watch NHL 2019 Stanley Cup Final online from anywhere We’ve finally made it, NHL fans...Stanley Cup Finals time. The Boston Bruins defeated the North Carolina Hurricanes 4-0 to ease through the Ea... Boston Bruins' Matt Grzelcyk medically cleared, expected to play in Game 7 Boston Bruins defenseman Matt Grzelcyk was medically cleared from a concussion and is expected to play in Game 7 of the Stanley Cup Final against the... Chara, Grzelcyk game-time decisions after participating in morning skate with Bruins Boston Bruins captain Zdeno Chara took the ice Thursday for the team's morning skate sporting a full face shield, hoping to play in Game 5 of the Sta... Bill Belichick revs up Bruins crowd in surreal Stanley Cup final scene New England Patriots coach Bill Belichick is the surprise pregame flag bearer prior to Game 2 of the Stanley Cup Final. There had been buzz throughou... Stanley Cup Final: Bruins chase Jordan Binnington, take 2-1 lead on Blues with blowout win Blues goalie Jordan Binnington was pulled as the Bruins jumped out to a 5-1 lead and cruised to victory in Game 3 of the Stanley Cup Final. &#... Bruins' Chara takes puck to mouth as Blues level Stanley Cup with Game 4 win St Louis beat Boston 4-2 in chaotic Game 4 to level series 2-2Zdeno Chara uncertain for Game 5 after painful injuryJust when the St Louis Blues had t... Blues Beat Bruins, but Officiating Takes Center Stage at Stanley Cup Finals An official appeared to miss a penalty by a St. Louis Blues player, setting off a sequence that allowed them to score the decisive goal in a 2-1 vict... Stanley Cup Final: TV, fast facts for Boston Bruins-St. Louis Blues in Game 5 The St. Louis Blues tied up the Stanley Cup Final with the Boston Bruins in Game 4. Game 5 is headed to Boston. Here's what you need to know. &... St Louis Blues beat Boston Bruins to clinch maiden NHL's Stanley Cup title The St. Louis Blues won the National Hockey League's Stanley Cup for the first time with a 4-1 win over the Boston Bruins in the decisive sevent... Blues' Oskar Sundqvist facing suspension for boarding Bruins' Matt Grzelcyk St. Louis Blues forward Oskar Sundqvist is facing discipline for boarding Boston Bruins defenseman Matt Grzelcyk during Game 2 of the Stanley Cup Fin... Watch: New England Patriots HC Bill Belichick pumps up Boston Bruins crowd New England Patriots coach Bill Belichick fired up the crowd as the honorary fan banner captain for Game 2 of the Stanley Cup Final on Wednesday nigh... Stanley Cup Final: St. Louis Blues beat Boston Bruins in Game 4 to tie series Ryan O'Reilly scored two goals as the St. Louis Blues beat the Boston Bruins 4-2 in Game 4 of the Stanley Cup Final to tie the series at two games ap... Catfish Fetishists, Secondhand Vape, and the Mystery of Tape: Best Gizmodo Stories of the Week Welcome! Welcome to June, which is not technically summer yet so far, but good enough to do the job so long as everyone knows what’s good for ‘em and... Vatican Mystery Deepens as Tombs Prove Empty in Search for Missing Girl The fate of Emanuela Orlandi, who disappeared at the age of 15 in 1983, has become one of Rome’s longest-running whodunits, with her family unrelenti... Netflix's Murder Mystery Sets Opening Weekend Record With 30 Million Views Netflix has announced that its Jennifer Aniston, Adam Sandler-starrer comedy Murder Mystery has set a new opening weekend record for a Netflix film, ... Ravens’ Hayden Hurst turns to Twitter to find ‘gorgeous’ mystery woman Ravens tight end Hayden Hurst is putting his love life in the hands of the Twitterverse. After failing to connect on a recent flight to Baltimore, Hu... Shia LaBeouf and FKA Twigs' Relationship Is ''On Hold'' as He Spends Time With Mystery Woman It seems like Shia LaBeouf and FKA Twigs' relationship is cooling off. A source close to FKA Twigs tells E! News that the stars "have been taking ti... QAnon conspiracy nuts are finding clues in Adam Sandler's Murder Mystery Murder Mystery, Adam Sandler’s latest film for Netflix, isn’t too terrible. It’s on the affably goofy (rather than obnoxiously crude) end of the Happ... io9 The Mystery of Star Wars Legend Willrow Hood Has Finally Been Revealed \| Jalopnik What It Was Li io9 The Mystery of Star Wars Legend Willrow Hood Has Finally Been Revealed \| Jalopnik What It Was Like Towing a Free Jeep Grand Wagoneer With the 202... 4 things we learned from Netflix's record-breaking 'Murder Mystery' viewership data Netflix's decision to share viewership data from "Murder Mystery" reveals several things about the company's strategy going forward as well... Earther Scientists Have Pinpointed the Mystery Source of an Ozone-Destroying Chemical \| Jalopnik You Earther Scientists Have Pinpointed the Mystery Source of an Ozone-Destroying Chemical \| Jalopnik You Can Now Get the 6.2-Liter V8 in More, Cheaper Ch... Voynich manuscript mystery continues as experts question whether 'alien' code has really been cracked Controversy is swirling around a 15th-century manuscript described as the “world’s most mysterious text” that has long baffled experts but was report... ‘Murder Mystery’ kills Adam Sandler and Jennifer Aniston’s star appeal Even with a title this generic, there’s less to “Murder Mystery” than meets the eye. The Netflix comedy reunites Jennifer Aniston and Adam Sandler, w... Mystery Tour in prospect as rivals set sights on Froome-less Ineos \| William Fotheringham Anything could happen at this year’s Tour de France as Astana look to capitalise against Geraint Thomas’s weakened teamThere are few sports events of... Caravaggio painting found in French attic sold to mystery foreign buyer A mystery foreign buyer has snapped up a painting by Italian master Caravaggio that was discovered five years ago in a French attic before it could b... Stanley Cup Final: Dates, TV, fast facts about Boston Bruins-St. Louis Blues series The St. Louis Blues, who last appeared in the Stanley Cup Final since 1970, seek their first title. The Boston Bruins look for their first since 2011... Boston Bruins' Matt Grzelcyk leaves Game 2 of Stanley Cup Final after hard hit The Boston Bruins' Matt Grzelcyk is evaluated at hospital after his head slams into the glass during a check by the St. Louis Blues' Oskar ... Blues vs Bruins live stream: how to watch Game 7 of NHL Stanley Cup Final 2019 online from anywhere Well it all comes down to this. After a long hard NHL season and a tremendously exciting Stanley Cup finals series, the whole thing boils down to one... Watch: St. Louis Blues' Ryan O'Reilly scores 43 seconds into Game 4 against Boston Bruins St. Louis Blues forward Ryan O'Reilly notched a goal 43 seconds into the first period during Game 4 of the Stanley Cup Final against the Boston Bruin... Watch: Boston Bruins' David Backes delivers crushing hit on Blues' Sammy Blais Boston Bruins forward David Backes delivered a huge hit on St. Louis Blues winger Sammy Blais during the second period in Game 2 of the Stanley Cup F... Stanley Cup Final: Carl Gunnarsson lifts Blues past Bruins in overtime of Game 2 Carl Gunnarsson scores his first career playoff goal in overtime as St. Louis Blues beat Boston Bruins 3-2 in Game 2 to tie Stanley Cup Final. ... Stanley Cup Final: Who's on the Mount Rushmore as the all-time best for the Boston Bruins and St. Louis Blues? Bobby Orr vs. Brett Hull. Al MacInnis vs. Ray Bourque. Who lands on the all-time Mount Rushmores for the Boston Bruins and Blues? We break it down. ... Watch: Bruins' David Krejci makes miraculous save to rob Alex Pietrangelo of sure goal Boston Bruins forward David Krejci sprawled to prevent a sure goal from St. Louis Blues defenseman Alex Pietrangelo in Game 5 of the Stanley Cup Fina... Bruins vs Blues live stream: how to watch Game 6 of NHL Stanley Cup Final 2019 online from anywhere Well this is a turn up for the books - the St. Louis Blues have the chance to beat the mighty Boston Bruins at the Scottrade Center tonight and walk ... Watch: Boston Bruins' Brad Marchand buries rocket one-timer on power play Boston Bruins forward Brad Marchand opened the scoring in Game 6 of the Stanley Cup Final with a rocket one-timer past St. Louis Blues goalie Jordan ... The Bruins’ potent depth is giving the Blues fits, and the Stanley Cup finals are tilting Boston’s way Boston has proved to be the deepest team in the NHL's postseason, and that quality was on full display in a 7-2 thrashing of St. Louis in Game 3 that... Jennifer Aniston Slays at Murder Mystery Premiere: All the Times She's Killed the Fashion Game Jennifer Aniston continues to kill the fashion game. The 50-year-old actress attended the Los Angeles premiere of her new movie, Murder Mystery, on... That mystery reunion Bryan Cranston and Aaron Paul have been teasing for weeks is actually just some artisanal booze Over the last few weeks, Bryan Cranston and Aaron Paul have been teasing a mysterious project that reunites the Breaking Bad co-stars. Given what we ... Cueva Pintada: Painted Cave of Gran Canaria Reveals Mystery of Ancient Inhabitants In 1862, in the center of the Spanish town of Galdar, an incredible archaeological discovery was made while agricultural work was being undertaken. ... Mystery Sony phone with six rear cameras gets totally bonkers imaging specs rumored All pictures shown are for illustration purpose onlyWhile Sony has been expected to throw in the smartphone towel for a good couple of years now, wit... A financial expert and bestselling author says the best money advice he can give isn't a mystery or magic — it's just math Courtesy of Ramit Sethi Ramit Sethi is the author of the New York Times bestseller, "I Will Teach You To Be Rich." Sethi believes anyone can learn t... Murder Mystery review – Adam Sandler and Jennifer Aniston buoy fun Netflix comedy Old-fashioned movie star charm lifts a goofy, likable film that puts a New York couple in the middle of a European whodunnitAdam Sandler’s monstrous ... Flood Threats Remains This Weekend Things will not improve much, thanks to a cut-off low hanging around the Mississippi and Ohio River Valleys this weekend. Periods of light to heavy r... Olympic Boxing Remains In Crisis The Olympics are a bureaucratic rat’s nest, with national governing bodies, international governing bodies, host cities, various Olympic committees, ... Ortiz remains in 'guarded' condition in ICU Red Sox legend David Ortiz remained in guarded condition in the surgical intensive care unit at a Boston hospital Thursday morning, his wife, Tiffany... Why IFM Investors remains 'optimistic' on US infrastructure Brett Himbury of IFM Investors says he is optimistic that, over time, there will be policy in the U.S. that invests "more substantially" in the infra... 9/11 victim’s remains identified nearly 18 years later NEW YORK (AP) — Authorities have identified the remains of a 9/11 victim found at the World Trade Center. The New York City medical examiners’ ... Micky Mills remains unbeaten Micky Mills overcomes Chaudhry on a busy sporting day, writes Phil Sharkey from ringside The post Micky Mills remains unbeaten appeared first on Boxi... Desegregation remains an issue in many US schools CLEVELAND, Miss. — This small Mississippi Delta town serves as a reminder that fierce debates over the integration of black and white students are no... Doc Emrick to call 45th NHL Game 7 of illustrious career tonight in Bruins-Blues Stanley Cup Final Legendary hockey voice Doc Emrick will remember his 45th NHL Game 7 just as he has his first: with fond memories. ... Adam Sandler and Jennifer Aniston's 'Murder Mystery' marks Netflix's biggest opening weekend ever “Murder Mystery,” the latest Adam Sandler film to debut on Netflix, broke viewing records on the streaming service, the company revealed Tuesday. The... Koepka remains in command halfway through third round at PGA "American Brooks Koepka moved inexorably closer to his fourth major title, maintaining a seven-stroke lead halfway through the third round at the PGA... Dumpster diving remains illegal in Germany Justice ministers from Germany's federal states have rejected proposals to legalize taking discarded food from supermarket garbage containers. Millio... Trump says he's had 'one very brief meeting' about UFOs but remains skeptical Reuters Amid a recent increase in speculation about unidentified flying objects, President Donald Trump has admitted to at least one meeting about t... April Consumer Spending Remains Solid U.S. households spent at a slower but still solid pace in April, suggesting consumers can help extend an already decadelong expansion amid signs econ... Unemployment rate in Arizona remains unchanged in May TUCSON – The seasonally adjusted unemployment rate for Arizona, which adjusts for seasonal fluctuations in the labor force, has remained unchan... U.S. Inflation Continues Recovery but Remains Below Fed Target Inflation continued to recover in May from a sharp slowdown earlier this year, a trend that could ease the Federal Reserve’s worries about weak price... Italy demolishes remains of Genoa bridge The remaining towers of the bridge in Genoa that collapsed nearly a year ago killing 43 people were demolished. ... Arizona wildfire danger remains high TUCSON – The 4th of July holiday weekend proved to be busy for crews fighting dozens of wildfires across Arizona. According to the Arizona Depa... Celtics star Jayson Tatum chided on social media after his beloved Blues beat Bruins in Stanley Cup Boston Celtics star Jayson Tatum celebrated the St. Louis Blues’ Stanley Cup win over the Boston Bruins on Wednesday on social media and immediately ... Brexit news latest: No-deal 'fraught with risks' and everyone should be worried, warns former Brexit chief A no-deal Brexit is "fraught with risks" and is something everyone should be worried about, the former permanent secretary at the Brexit department h... Jennifer Aniston teased Adam Sandler with countdown texts leading up to 'Murder Mystery' kissing scene When Jennifer Aniston found out she would be sharing an on-screen kiss with her longtime pal Adam Sandler, she couldn't help but tease her co-star ah... Archeological Mystery Solved with Modern Genetics: Y Chromosomes Reveal Population Boom and Bust in Ancient Japan The current thinking on the origins of the Japanese population holds that the original inhabitants, the Jomon people, were met about 2,500 years ago ... The Unsolved Murder of Tupac Shakur: Untangling the Epic Layers of Mystery Surrounding the Complicated Rapper's Death In 1996, Tupac Shakur was the crown prince of West Coast rap. Traveling the road paved by hip-hop pioneers like Dr. Dre, Ice Cube, Snoop Dogg and Ic... Education remains an impossible dream for many refugees and migrants The older refugee and migrant children get, the less likely it is that they will get a quality education: less than a quarter of the world’s refugees... U.S. remains outlier as G20 split over tackling climate change After much wrangling, the Group of 20 major economies on Saturday agreed to disagree on fighting climate change, with the United States dissenting fr... Remains found in suitcase along Georgia highway identified LAWRENCEVILLE, Ga. (AP) — Police say human remains found in a suitcase along a Georgia interstate nearly three years ago were those of a missing woma... Indianapolis police: Suitcase found containing human remains INDIANAPOLIS (AP) — Police say a suitcase containing human remains has been found near a creek in Indianapolis. Department spokeswoman Officer Genae ... The Latest: Sheriff: Child’s remains found in Arkansas HOUSTON (AP) — The Latest on the search for a 4-year-old Texas girl reported missing in early May (all times local): 5:30 p.m. Houston police say the... Inside the abandoned remains of Chernobyl's 'exclusion zone' When photographer David McMillan first visited the city of Pripyat in 1994, he expected his movements to be restricted. Just eight years prior, a rea... Froome remains hospitalized in France with multiple injuries Chris Froome remained hospitalized in France after the high-speed crash that left him with multiple fractures and shattered his hopes of securing a r... Italy blows up remains of collapsed Genoa bridge The two remaining towers from the Genoa bridge collapse that killed 43 people in August 2018 have been demolished. The Italian government has said th... Indiana fetal remains law could boost costs for abortions INDIANAPOLIS (AP) — Planned Parenthood officials expect greater expenses for abortions in Indiana following a U.S. Supreme Court ruling upholding a s... Remains of Colorado man killed at Pearl Harbor identified LOVELAND, Colo. (AP) — The remains of a sailor killed during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 have been identified as a 23-year-old Colora... Serena remains America's best hope at French Open Serena Williams represents the United States' best chance to hoist the French Open trophy this year but questions loom about her fitness after she wa... Despite Facebook's struggles, one important contingent remains loyal The number of small businesses who buy Facebook ads remains unchanged, meaning the company's struggles and the threat of government regulation h... Archbishop Sheen’s remains moved to Illinois from NY church PEORIA, Ill. (AP) — The remains of Archbishop Fulton J. Sheen have been removed from St. Patrick’s Cathedral in New York and are on their way t... Archdiocese of New York gives up fight over Bishop Sheen’s remains The Archdiocese of New York has finally caved in its long-running legal tug-of-war over the remains of 1950s radio and TV preacher Archbishop Fulton ... US aircraft carrier deployed over Iran remains outside Gulf ABOARD THE USS ABRAHAM LINCOLN (AP) — A U.S. aircraft carrier the White House ordered to the Mideast over a perceived threat from Iran remains outsid... Kazakhstan Gets New Leader, but Old System’s Grip on Power Remains After quashing protests, the government said that President Nazarbayev’s handpicked successor had won a lopsided vote. Observers cast doubt on the of... Boeing 737 program manager is retiring as Max jet remains grounded Lindblad's retirement comes as Boeing copes with the fallout of two crashes that killed 346 people. Its 737 Max jet has has been grounded since ... One that got away for Maradona and Napoli remains wrapped in suspicion \| Tim Lewis Late-season collapse was accompanied by strange events off the field as Napoli sought a second successive title in 1987-88When Napoli beat Juventus 1... Remains of US sailor who died at Pearl Harbor accounted for BOSTON (AP) — The remains of a sailor from Massachusetts lost during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor have been accounted for. The Defense POW/MIA... Morton remains unbeaten, Lowe homers as Rays top A’s 6-2 ST. PETERSBURG, Fla. (AP) — Charlie Morton remained unbeaten with Tampa Bay, pitching seven shutout innings en route to a 6-2 victory over the Oaklan... Remains of Holocaust victims laid to rest in Belarus The remains of more than 1,000 Holocaust victims have been laid to rest in a Belarusian city on the border with Poland after the discovery of a mass ... Campbell tops Quinnipiac 9-8, remains perfect in NCAAs GREENVILLE, N.C. (AP) — Zach Minnick’s sacrifice fly in the bottom of the ninth brought home the winning run, and third-seeded Campbell advance... Kentuckian Remains Vigilant During Dominican Republic Trip (LEX 18) – The recent string of tourist deaths in the Dominican Republic has heightened fears about visiting that country. Some people here in ... Skeletal remains found south of Kitt Peak TUCSON – Pima County Sheriff’s Department responded to a call of skeletal remains found near Elkhorn Ranch, south of Kitt Peak on Monday.... Mississippi officer accused of murder remains jailed OXFORD, Miss. (AP) — A Mississippi police officer charged with murder will remain jailed while prosecutors and defense lawyers negotiate over a bail ... F1 remains confident in US Grand Prix future in Texas Formula One official says series expects to race the U.S. Grand Prix at the Circuit of the Americas in Texas for many years to come ... Sheriff: Remains of missing 83-year-old hiker found TUCSON – Authorities identified what they believe are the remains of an 83-year-old hiker Wednesday morning. According to Santa Cruz County Sheriff T... Ryanair risks loss if Boeing 737 MAX remains grounded Ryanair's chief executive has said the airline could suffer losses if Boeing's embattled 737 MAX planes don't become operational by November. The jet... Remains of 1,200 Holocaust victims laid to rest in Belarus The remains of 1,200 Holocaust victims were buried after being unearthed earlier this year. Jewish community leaders criticized Belarusian authoritie... Remains found in Arkansas identified as Maleah Davis HOUSTON (AP) — Authorities say the remains found in Arkansas last week have been identified as those of a missing 4-year-old Texas girl. The Harris C... WWII veteran’s remains finally return home TUCSON –The public is invited to attend the memorial services for an Arizona soldier who was killed during World War II almost 80 years ago. The rema... Tropical Storm Barry: What to know about Barry's path, hurricane status, timeline and more Some 14 trillion gallons of rainwater are forecast to fall on Louisiana, Mississippi and Arkansas during Barry. Three million people may be impacted.... Ross Perot's pop culture ubiquity remains hilarious and weird Ross Perot, the Texas billionaire who twice ran for president as a third-party candidate, has died, the Dallas News reports. The verbose, aphorism-sp... How Iran's 'filmfarsi' remains the biggest secret in cinema history For many Iranians, the oft-forgotten films are a souvenir of a lost past, painting a picture of life before the 1979 revolutionShortly after the 1979... HP's Q2 revenue remains flat with drop in PC units and printers sold While sales of desktop units were up slightly year-over-year, HP still saw an overall drop in the number of PCs sold due to the decline in Notebooks ... Remains of former 'Mickey Mouse Club' actor found in Oregon The body of former actor Dennis Day, who was a member of popular 1950s television show "The Mickey Mouse Club," has been identified in Oregon almost ... Oldest human remains outside Africa found in Europe: researchers More than 200,000 years old, skull fragments found in Greece show Homo sapiens reached Europe from Africa much earlier than previously known. The fin... India hands over remains of British climbers who died in Himalayas The bodies of three climbers from the UK who died while trying to reach the top of an unscaled Himalayan peak have been handed over to the British hi... Saudi airline switches to Airbus as Boeing's Max remains grounded Saudi Arabian budget airline Flyadeal will operate an all-Airbus fleet after canceling its $5.9 billion provisional order with Boeing for its trouble... Remains of one of Napoleon’s 1812 generals believed found in Russia General Charles Etienne Gudin, whose name is inscribed on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, died aged 44 on August 22, 1812, after being hit by a cannon ... Kevin Durant playing in Game 4 remains possibility for Warriors OAKLAND, Calif. — Steve Kerr took the podium 90 minutes before tipoff Wednesday and still didn’t know whether his training staff would clear Klay Tho... German economy minister remains hopeful on U.S. auto tariffs German Economy Minister Peter Altmaier said he sees a 50-50 chance of averting U.S. tariffs on vehicles and automotive parts from Europe, adding that...	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1496
__label__wiki	0.875166	0.875166	Greatest golf ever played: An oral history of Tiger Woods' dominant win at 2000 U.S. Open In the 100th edition of the U.S. Open, in his 100th tournament as a professional, Tiger Woods delivered a tour de force in 2000. ... The greatest golf ever played: Tiger Woods and the 2000 U.S. Open Tiger Woods reflects on his win at the 2000 U.S. Open at Pebble Beach. Woods destroyed the competition winning by a record-setting 15 shots. &... Down to his last ball, Tiger avoided disaster and still won the 2000 U.S. Open by 15 He won by 15 shots. It was mind-blowing then. The legend of it has only grown since. But there's a secret about that tournament even Tiger didn't kno... At Pebble Beach, Tiger Woods returns to scene of his prime: The 2000 U.S. Open Historic 15-shot win broke a record that had stood for 138 years. ‘It was an amazing walk,’ recalls runner-up Ernie Els, who played with Woods that S... An oral history of substance use and recovery in plants Two UAW officials and a postdoctoral researcher spoke with Staff Reporter Jackie Charniga about how previous epidemics shaped workplace policies on s... Enjoy the craziest quotes from Rolling Stone's oral history of Santana and Rob Thomas' "Smooth" A little less than 20 years ago today, the music industry was oh-so-gently rocked by the syrupy tones of Matchbox Twenty’s Rob Thomas imploring the w... Golf: American Daly not allowed to use golf cart at British Open British Open organisers have denied former champion John Daly's request to use a golf cart at this month's major championship at Royal Portrush, Nort... How timeless Tiger Woods masterminded the greatest sporting miracle of them all "Tiger Woods winning a 15th Major title at the US Masters after multiple career-saving back surgeries will be celebrated as one of the most remarkabl... Golf industry upturn is more Trump than Tiger Tiger Woods' Masters' triumph last month was an epic comeback for the former world number one after an 11-year major title drought, but it is Donald ... My Game: Tiger Woods unveiled - ‘A golf lesson none of you have had before.' "Tiger Woods, GOLFTV and Golf Digest invite you to step inside the mind of the 15-time major championship winner, in a new, exclusive 12-episode seri... Emulating Tiger Woods has Brooks Koepka on top of golf Meet the new boss in golf. Not same as the old boss. Brooks Koepka is setting the new standard in golf now, and everyone had better follow along as c... My Game: Tiger Woods unveiled - ‘A golf lesson none of you have had before "Tiger Woods, GOLFTV and Golf Digest invite you to step inside the mind of the 15-time major championship winner, in a new, exclusive 12-episode seri... Tiger Woods' comeback is great for the golf business When Tiger Woods won the Masters in April, it solidified a stunning comeback for the golf legend — and it made the sellers of clubs, balls and other ... Arizona city played critical role in moon exploration history When people think about space missions and moon landings, it's usually Cape Canaveral, Fla., and Houston, Texas, that comes to mind. But Flagstaff, A... President Trump Played a Key Role in the Central Park Five Case. Here’s the Real History Behind When They See Us The newspaper ad shows up in the second episode of Ava DuVernay’s new Netflix drama When They See Us. It’s a full-page proclamation, head... Eminem's 'Slim Shady LP' turns 20: An oral history of the album that created a superstar Eminem's 'The Slim Shady LP' breakout album is marking its 20th anniversary. Here's the inside story from those who were there. ... Rory McIlroy finishes with 61 for dominant RBC Canadian Open victory Rory McIlroy closed with a 22-under 258 for the week to set the record for lowest score in Canadian Open history. &#... Tiger Woods's Old Swing Coach Gets Real Shitty About Women's Golf On His Radio Show Hank Haney is an old golf fogey who is best known for at one point being Tiger Woods’s swing coach. He now hosts his own radio show about golf, and d... Opinion: World Cup puts U.S. women, families in touch with history, our Greatest Generation Six months after U.S. women tour Omaha Beach with 99-year-old World War II veteran Steve Melnikoff, their families get a similar opportunity. ... Cody Bellinger, having the greatest season in Dodgers history, wants World Series rings like his dad Cody Bellinger, who is having the greatest season in Dodgers history, wants to match his dad with a World Series ring. ... Golf commentator Hank Haney blasts Tiger Woods for his comments about radio show suspension Tiger Woods said Hank Haney got what he deserved with radio suspension. Haney now calls Tiger "moral authority on issues pertaining to women." ... Tony Romo is the greatest in his sport. That sport being celebrity golf, of course. The CBS analyst and former Cowboys quarterback wins his second straight American Century Championship, saying this one was a much less stressful vict... Brooks Koepka’s greatest asset betrayed him at the US Open PEBBLE BEACH, Calif. — His strength has been one the biggest assets for Brooks Koepka as he won four of the previous eight major championships he pla... John Daly wishes Tiger Woods had known 'all the facts' before criticizing him over golf cart John Daly, who struggles with arthritis, said his Type 2 diabetes is another reason he'll use a cart at the PGA Championship this week. &... How Tiger hit it all over the place, still got himself in the U.S. Open mix Tiger Woods' iron game deserted him. His putter showed up out of nowhere. His first round at the U.S. Open was solid, even if it made little sense. W... Is Tiger ready for the U.S. Open? Done with competition for now, Woods will work on his game before heading to Pebble Beach. We go through the checklist to evaluate the state of his g... Tiger Woods is talking like he can win this US Open PEBBLE BEACH, Calif. — There are certain “tells” with Tiger Woods during big tournament weeks, specifically at major championships. In April, Woods h... Tiger 'a little hot' after poor finish to Open round Tiger Woods was "a little hot" after bogeying his final two holes -- after going 29 holes without one -- at the U.S. Open at Pebble Beach. "Not a goo... Tiger says Masters took toll as he crams for Open Tiger Woods says that his win at Augusta National in April exacted a toll, and that the state of his game entering The Open at Royal Portrush is not ... Tiger Woods finishes strong at U.S. Open Tiger Woods rebounded from a disastrous start and eventually carded his best score of the week Sunday in the final round of the U.S. Open. ... Golf: Suspended Haney says he was right about 'Lee' win at U.S. Open Tiger Woods's former instructor Hank Haney, who was suspended from a golf radio slot last week, has said Lee Jeong-eun's U.S. Open victory had backed... Fox’s US Open coverage gave us everything but golf So which came first, the chicken or the egg salad? Are we treated like morons because there’s a pre-production presumption that we’re morons? Or beca... US Open tee times: A look at Tiger, Phil and Koepka’s pairings PEBBLE BEACH, Calif. — Tiger Woods, Jordan Spieth and Justin Rose — all U.S. Open champions — will be playing the opening two rounds together at the ... US Open title threats the ‘Tiger bettors’ will ignore LAS VEGAS — Life is not all fairways and greens. Sand traps, trees and water hazards sometimes get in the way of a good time. Tiger Woods knows all a... Tiger Woods grinds it out to remain in the hunt at US Open PEBBLE BEACH, Calif. — Nineteen years ago, Tiger Woods made golf look easy when the U.S. Open was played at Pebble Beach. On Thursday, it was a grind... Jason Day hoping ex-Tiger Woods’ sidekick is US Open key PEBBLE BEACH, Calif. — Jason Day of Australia has hired former Tiger Woods caddie Steve Williams to carry his bag full-time, starting with this weeke... How Tiger Woods plans to move on from his US Open struggles PEBBLE BEACH, Calif. — The look on Tiger Woods’ face for the four hours he lumbered around Pebble Beach on Sunday in his U.S. Open final round said i... Tiger Woods gets first look at Royal Portrush for British Open Tiger Woods took in all 18 holes at Royal Portrush, which will play host to the British Open for the first time since 1951, for a practice round. &... British Open: Tiger leads chase for the Claret Jug Top shots from the 2019 the Open Championship at Royal Portrush Golf Club in County Antrim, Northern Ireland. ... Tiger Woods: Ever the Grinder and Perhaps a ‘Sleeping Giant’ at the U.S. Open Woods is certainly not the dominant 2000 model, yet as he headed into the weekend nine strokes back, a competitor called him “a little bit of a sleep... Golf: 'The Rink' scores big at the Canadian Open "He shoots, he scores," took on a whole new meaning at the Canadian Open this week as the PGA Tour event embraced its inner-Canuck and the country's ... iTunes’ greatest hits: the app’s greatest successes (and failures) Apple’s worldwide developer conference (WWDC 2019) was unusually busy this year, with an impressive array of new products and technologies on ... On fire Woodland takes U.S. Open lead, Tiger fumes Gary Woodland shot out of the U.S. Open woodwork with an error-free six-under 65 to steal the halfway lead from Justin Rose on Friday, while a fuming... Tiger Woods grinds to opening-round 70 without his best stuff at U.S. Open Woods couldn't match playing partner and first-round leader Justin Rose, but he played admirably and put himself in position to contend. ... Tiger Woods adamant lack of pre-Open practice is not a problem • Woods has not played a tournament in four weeks• Padraig Harrington: ‘You’ve got to be playing before the Open’After an Open Championship buildup t... Tiger Woods may skip next tournament to prepare for British Open Tiger Woods suggested he will skip his next few tournaments, including the Travelers Championship and two new events, to instead prepare for the Brit... Golf: Lee6 stands alone as U.S. Women's Open champion Lee Jeong-eun had a '6' added to her surname on the Korean women's golf tour to differentiate her from the five others that joined the circuit before... Runaway golf cart injures U.S. Open spectators A box fell on a golf cart's accelerator, causing it to drive in large circles until someone jumped in and knocked the box off. A spinal injury and a ... In photos: Gary Woodland wins golf's U.S. Open Professional golfers from around the world competed in the U.S. Open in Pebble Beach, Calif., from June 13-16, 2019. Gary Woodland of the U.S. won th... Golf: Molinari takes a hike but still U.S. Open contention They come from around the world to play Pebble Beach and enjoy the seaside layout's spectacular vistas but Italy's Francesco Molinari saw far more th... Golf: Hidden rake surprises Spieth at U.S. Open Jordan Spieth recovered from a surprise encounter with a rake to stay on the edge of contention, six strokes behind clubhouse leader Justin Rose afte... Golf: Recovering Wie withdraws from next week's U.S. Women's Open Former U.S. Women's Open champion Michelle Wie has pulled out of next week's major tournament because of continuing wrist problems, she said on Frida... Padraig Harrington questions Tiger Woods’ British Open strategy Padraig Harrington doesn’t think much of Tiger Woods’ British Open chances. Woods traveled to Thailand with his kids and girlfriend Erica... Tiger Woods falls out of U.S. Open contention after shooting 71 at Pebble Beach Tiger Woods closed with a tap-in birdie for a respectable 71, but he's officially out of the mix after Round 3 of the U.S. Open at Pebble Beach.... Tiger Woods’ insane early-morning British Open preparation Tiger Woods’ British Open prep doesn’t include playing any tune-up tournaments, but it does include 1 a.m. wakeups. In a video posted on ... Tiger Woods’ ‘flawless’ showing kick starts U.S. Open hype DUBLIN, Ohio — Tiger Woods was never going to win the Memorial Tournament on Sunday. He began the final round too far from the lead. But Woods had th... Tiger Woods grouped with Jordan Spieth and Justin Rose at US Open Three former US Open champions have been paired together for next week's first two rounds with Tiger Woods, Jordan Spieth and Justin Rose grouped tog... Woods defends his lack of golf ahead of British Open Tiger Woods has shrugged off concerns about his lack of golf heading into this week's British Open, saying he needs to carefully manage the remaining... John Daly prohibited from using golf cart at Open Championship John Daly will not be allowed to use a golf cart when he plays the Open Championship in Northern Ireland later this month, the tournament’s organizer... Freak golf cart accident results in five injuries at US Open PEBBLE BEACH, Calif. — Five people were injured Friday at the U.S. Open when one of several boxes being loaded onto a golf cart fell onto the acceler... Golf: Wiesberger two shots clear after 54 holes at Scottish Open Resurgent Bernd Wiesberger set his sights on a sixth European Tour title when he took a two-shot lead over South African Erik van Rooyen after the th... Golf: South Korea's Lee6 wins U.S. Women's Open Lee Jeong-eun became the ninth South Korean to win the U.S. Women's Open on Sunday, holding her nerve while her rivals faltered in South Carolina to ... Golf: Mickelson eager to redefine career with U.S. Open triumph Phil Mickelson does not need a U.S. Open triumph to cement his legacy as one of golf's all-time greats but he will arrive at Pebble Beach this week l... John Daly opts out of Open after R&A refuse to allow him to use golf cart • Former champion withdraws from event at Portrush• Daly has degenerative arthritis in his right kneeThe former champion John Daly has withdrawn from... 2019 Women's US Open golf: final round – live! Hole-by-hole coverage of the action at CharlestonOfficial live USGA leaderboardAny comments? Feel free to email Scott Murray 7.36pm BST Boutier’s sec... Golf: McDowell qualifies for home town British Open Graeme McDowell achieved a season-long goal when he qualified for next month's British Open, which will be held in his home town of Portrush, when he... Brooks Koepka, Tiger Woods paint a sharp contrast in second round of U.S. Open The four-time major champion is in his prime and a threat to the leaders; the 15-time major winner is frustrated after a late slip has him in the mid... Rise and shine: Tiger Woods gets up at 1 a.m. to prepare for Open Championship at Royal Portrush In an effort to adjust to the time-zone change, the 15-time major champion has been waking up at 1 a.m., or 6 a.m. local time in Northern Ireland. &... British Open: Tiger Woods tees off with Patrick Reed and Matt Wallace Tiger Woods won the British Open in 2000, 2005 and 2006. It will be his first action since finishing in a tie for 21st at U.S. Open. ... U.S. Open: Tiger Woods aiming for Jack Nicklaus' major record in next 10 years Ahead of the U.S. Open at Pebble Beach, 15-time major champion Tiger Woods aimed at eclipsing Jack Nicklaus' majors record of 18 over the next 10 yea... U.S. Open fallout: Woodland's big win, Koepka's close call and Tiger's weird week What's next for Brooks Koepka after just missing out on another major? Will Tiger's game round back into form? We ask our experts the big questions c... Tiger Woods plays Pebble Beach practice round as he prepares for US Open Tiger Woods announced this week that he would be playing the Memorial Tournament in preparation for the US Open next month, but that hasn't stopped t... 'I've heard nothing': Tiger Woods laughs off Brooks Koepka's snub at the Open – video Tiger Woods has shrugged off concerns about his lack of golf heading into the Open this week, saying he needs to carefully manage the remaining years... Tiger Woods shifts focus to U.S. Open with late run final round at Memorial With the championship hardware out of reach at the Memorial, Tiger Woods turned his eye toward the U.S. Open. He liked what he saw. ... Runaway golf cart hits 5 people near 16th hole at US Open PEBBLE BEACH, Calif. (AP) — Five people were injured at the U.S. Open when one of several boxes being loaded onto a golf cart fell onto the accelerat... Brooks Koepka, Seeking a 3rd Straight U.S. Open Title, Could Be the Star Golf Needs Unpackaged, unemotional and unabashedly himself, Koepka has become the game’s dominant player, with four major titles in two years. Yet he is also it... Report: Jason Day hiring Tiger Woods' former caddie Steve Williams for U.S. Open Jason Day is working with Tiger Woods' former longtime caddie, Steve Williams, according to Golf Channel. They will team up for next week's... Andrea Lee juggles Stanford studies and golf, opens with a 69 at U.S. Women's Open Andrea Lee was granted an extension on her Stanford essay so she could play in the U.S. Women's Open; her opening 69 has her 4 shots off the lea... Golf: South Africa's Lombard surges into halfway lead at Irish Open South Africa's Zander Lombard carded a solid three-under-par 67 in the Irish Open second round on Friday to take a one-shot lead over England's Eddie... Golf: England's Rock grabs Irish Open lead with record round of 60 England's Robert Rock surged to a one-shot lead in the Irish Open third round with a record-breaking 10-under-par 60 on Saturday, the lowest round in... Runaway golf cart injures 5 people in freak accident at US Open; two sent to hospital A vendor was loading his golf cart at Pebble Beach when a box fell onto the vehicle's accelerator and propelled the cart into a group of people.... Tiger Woods jokes Brooks Koepka hasn't been so helpful for British Open prep Tiger Woods joked he was snubbed by Brooks Koepka when he asked the world No. 1 for player to play a practice round at British Open. ... US Open live stream: how to watch 2019 Pebble Beach golf coverage online from anywhere Can Brooks Koepka be stopped? After winning the last two editions of the US Open and coming off the back of an impressive PGA Championship victory, K... Golf: Matt Wallace and Rory McIlroy search for winning form with The Open looming • Wallace bids to overtake Jon Rahm in European order of merit• Bernd Wiesberger leads Scottish Open as McIlroy aims for top 10Matt Wallace appears t... Golf: Ikeda tames 8000-yard monster in Japan, qualifies for British Open Yuta Ikeda qualified for next month's British Open by winning the Japan Tour's Mizuno Open on Sunday, a tournament where the monster length of the co... Runaway Golf Cart At Pebble Beach Crashes Into Crowd, Hospitalizes Two U.S. Open Spectators A group of spectators close to the 16th hole of Pebble Beach Golf Links were treated to a scary surprise on Friday when a runaway golf cart made its ... US Open: Henrik Stenson takes part in unusual photo op after hitting fan with golf ball Henrik Stenson made up for hitting a fan in the head with a golf ball by posing for pictures with him -- lying on the ground at the U.S. Open. ... Open Championship 2019: Odds, betting tips and picks as Tiger Woods, Rory McIlroy and more vie for glory Francesco Molinari will look to defend his first Major title as the Open Championship returns to Northern Ireland for the first time in more than hal... Royal & Ancient Golf Club boosts Women's British Open purse by 40% for next 5 years The Royal and Ancient Golf Club of St Andrew announced a sizable boost in the purse for golf's AIG Women's British Open next month. ... US Open 2019 live stream: how to watch Pebble Beach final round golf online from anywhere We just don't know which way the 2019 US Open is going to turn next. Gary Woodland tops the leaderboard going in to Round 4, but there are some ... Chance to caddie for Tiger Woods brings in huge winning bid at Tiger Jam Tiger Woods' annual fundraising event, the Tiger Jam, in Las Vegas featured a Janet Jackson concert and charity auction. ... Djokovic has tennis history within grasp at the French Open Novak Djokovic is poised to become only the second man in history to hold all four major titles at once on two separate occasions ... U.S. Open history beckons but Koepka still chasing respect Brooks Koepka could this week become the first player in over a century to win three consecutive U.S. Opens yet was feeling like golf's forgotten man... Brooks Koepka will have to win a dogfight to make US Open history PEBBLE BEACH, Calif. — The 2019 PGA Championship was pretty much over after the opening round, when Brooks Koepka shot a course-record 63 and began h... Tiger Woods 'trending in the right direction' ahead of U.S. Open Tiger Woods did not play a practice round Tuesday, calling it a "rest day." But he still got some work in at Pebble Beach. &... Tiger Woods fights off another 'crappy' start, finishes on a high note at U.S. Open Tiger Woods shot a 2-under-par 69, his best round of the tournament, to close out the U.S. Open at Pebble Beach on a high note. &#... Watch: Brooks Koepka makes history in U.S. Open's second round Top-ranked Brooks Koepka remains in pursuit of his third consecutive U.S. Open title after moving within three shots of leader Justin Rose at Pebble ... Brandt Snedeker makes history with second-round 60 at RBC Canadian Open Brandt Snedeker, who shot a 60 at RBC Canadian Open on Friday, is first player since 1983 to record at least one round of 59, 60 and 61 on PGA Tour. ... US Open: Brooks Koepka is in position to make history despite three bogeys Brooks Koepka shot a 2-under-par 69 at Pebble Beach to place himself well within range of winning a third consecutive U.S. Open. &... US Open: Tiger Woods 'a little hot' after second-round 72 Tiger Woods' round left him seven shots back. If he is to make a run at his 16th major and fourth U.S. Open title, he must pick his spots better... Chips on shoulder drive Brooks Koepka’s shot at US Open history A third consecutive title is within reach at Pebble Beach – thanks in part to the 29-year-old’s sense of grievanceRory McIlroy’s quartet of major tri... Rafael Nadal makes history with 12th French Open title Rafael Nadal downed Dominic Thiem at French Open to claim his 18th Grand Slam and become the only man or woman to win the same tournament 12 times. ... Karlovic and Lopez serve up oldest match in French Open history "Croatia\u0027s Ivo Karlovic became the first man in his 40s to compete in a Grand Slam singles match for 27 years when he beat fellow veteran Felici... Winged Foot’s US Open history means plenty of 2020 intrigue PEBBLE BEACH, Calif. — Tickets are already on sale for the 2020 U.S. Open at Winged Foot Golf Club in Mamaroneck, and they probably won’t last long. ... US Open: Pebble Beach divers to clear 'five million' golf balls from sea bed From Rory McIlroy to the average weekend hacker, no golfer needs reminding that they should avoid water. Yet that is how the Pebble Beach Golf Compan... UA women’s golf falls just short of NCAA golf championship TUCSON – After stunning golf powerhouse USC to advance to the NCAA Final Four, the Arizona Wildcat women’s golf team fell short of advanc... Man Killed By Tiger In Corbett Tiger Reserve A daily wage labourer, patrolling the Kalagarh area of the Corbett Tiger Reserve along with forest guards, was mauled to death by a tiger that attack... Rogerer Federer makes French Open history as oldest man to reach fourth round Roger Federer eased past Norway's Casper Ruud 6-3 6-1 7-6(10-8) on Friday to become the oldest male player to reach the fourth round at the French Op... What STDs can you get from oral sex? There are many sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) that people can get as a result of having oral sex, including gonorrhea, syphilis, and chlamydia.... Love It or Hate It, Fenty Has Made History: The First Luxury Line by a Black Woman Is Officially Open for Business In the days since Rihanna teased us with first looks at Fenty Maison, her luxury fashion collaboration with LVMH, excitement has been high—but review... Teacher ’asked to perform oral sex on boy, 14, and called him scaredy-cat when he said no' A TEACHER allegedly asked a 14-year-old boy if she could perform oral sex on him after driving into an empty car park then called him a “scaredy-cat”... Vivian Perlis, Oral Historian of American Music, Dies at 91 She was the founding director of a Yale project that preserved the voices of Duke Ellington, Aaron Copland and many more. It has been called “incompa... Oral arguments to occur in Trump fight over bank subpoenas NEW YORK (AP) — A judge is poised to hear oral arguments Wednesday over President Donald Trump’s effort to block congressional subpoenas seekin... Oral Roberts University settles U.S. claim it violated admissions incentive ban Oral Roberts University agreed to pay $303,502 to resolve allegations it illegally compensated a recruiter with a share of tuition the school receive... Louisiana Deputy Fired, Arrested for Forcing Mother to Perform Oral Sex on Infant Son Ibervielle Parish Sheriff’s Deputy Shaderick Jones, 42, forced 26-year-old mother Iyeseha Todd to perform oral sex on her infant son while he recorde... Oral Novo Nordisk diabetes drug poses no more heart risk than placebo: study An experimental oral form of a Novo Nordisk drug for type 2 diabetes posed no greater risk of serious heart problems or death than a placebo in pati... CORRECTED-Oral Novo Nordisk diabetes drug poses no more heart risk than placebo -study An experimental oral form of a Novo Nordisk drug for type 2 diabetes posed no greater risk of serious heart problems or death than a placebo in pati... Unlikely track day stars: top picks for under £2000 An old Mercedes S-Class really could be your ideal track day weapon You don’t need vintage metal or a flash new supercar to be a track-day star, ... At $5,300, Could This 2000 Toyota Celica GT-S Prove a Point? Despite their having just brought back the Supra, it’s still unlikely that Toyota will resurrect the once venerable Celica. With cars like today’s Ni... Glacial melt rates in the Himalayas have more than doubled since 2000 Global warming is shrinking the glaciers in the Himalayas. According to a new survey, glaciers in the region have lost roughly a vertical foot and ha... New Ford scrappage scheme offers £2000 for old cars Scheme applies to all models registered before 31 December 2012, regardless of make Deal applies to commercial and passenger vehicles; will run unt... Zambia to kill 2000 hippos because they might spread anthrax Over the next five years 2000 hippos are to be culled in Zambia, supposedly to stop them giving people anthrax, but the cull may inadvertently fuel t... Measles Outbreak Infects 695, Highest Number Since 2000 The outbreak, linked to skepticism about vaccines, has led to extraordinary measures, including $1,000 fines and bans on unvaccinated children in pub... Woods chasing major No 16 at scene of remarkable 2000 triumph "Tiger Woods targets a 16th major when the US Open gets under way on Thursday, and his close friend Rob McNamara spoke to GOLFTV about the American’s... Himalayan glacier melting doubled since 2000, scientists reveal Ice losses indicate ‘devastating’ future for region and 1 billion people who depend on it for waterThe melting of Himalayan glaciers has doubled sinc... Suicide rates among young people reach their highest level since 2000 Suicide rates among young people are rising, reaching the highest levels since 2000, a study published Tuesday finds. But most alarming, the research... Ryu dominant again, Dodgers blank Mets 2-0 Hyun-Jin Ryu pitched four-hit ball into the eighth inning of his latest dominant outing, leading the Los Angeles Dodgers to a 2-0 win over the New Yo... How did Novak Djokovic become so dominant at Wimbledon? Growing up in Serbia, Novak Djokovic never played on grass courts. Now he's threatening Roger Federer's claim as the world's best player on the surfa... Mercedes Has Moved From Dominant to Invincible The Formula One team just won’t lose and its drivers have finished one-two in every grand prix this season. Some drivers think it’s made the sport “n... Virtual reality or no, a round of golf is still just a round of golf Every Friday, A.V. Club staffers kick off our weekly open thread for the discussion of gaming plans and recent gaming glories, but of course, the rea... Librarian helps ID cold case murder victims killed between 1985-2000 A research librarian who conducted some missing person investigation outside of work, has helped to uncover the identites of three missing people kil... Air Force Signs Rs 300 Crore Deal To Procure SPICE-2000 Bombs From Israel The Indian Air Force has signed a Rs 300 crore deal with a Israeli defence firm to procure a batch of SPICE 2000 guided bombs, official sources said ... BS6 Compliant Eicher Pro 2000 Series Light-Duty Trucks Launched In India The new BS6 compliant Eicher Pro 2000 Series will be made available by the end of this year and get a newly developed cabin and two new engines based... Wife Of Pilot Killed In Bengaluru's Mirage 2000 Crash To Join Air Force Garima Abrol, wife of Squadron Leader Samir Abrol who was killed earlier this year while test flying a Mirage 2000 fighter jet in Bengaluru, has clea... CBOE Releases Study On Russell 2000 Options-Based Benchmark Indexes CHICAGO, IL – February 11, 2016 -- The Chicago Board Options Exchange® (CBOE®) today announced the release of a new study that examines six b... Lloyd leads dominant U.S. past Chile into last 16 Veteran striker Carli Lloyd scored twice as the United States beat Chile 3-0 on Sunday, sending the current holders into the last 16 at the Women's W... How dominant City could help England to World Cup glory "Jen Offord went to Manchester City to investigate how the Women\u0027s Super League club’s commitment to excellence could propel the Lionesses to Wo... Ethridge dominant as Mississippi beats Jacksonville St 16-2 OXFORD, Miss. (AP) — Tyler Keenan, Anthony Servideo and Thomas Dillard hit homers, Will Ethridge threw seven dominant innings and Mississippi powered... A look at Serena Williams' dominant career Unless you've been living under a rock the past two decades, you know that Serena Williams has carved out a legendary tennis career. But, if you... Dominant Mercedes brush aside invincibility thoughts "The dominance of Mercedes has some people asking already, with 16 races to go, whether the Formula One world champions could do the unthinkable and ... Gay History Is Black History: These 10 Icons Prove It LGBTQ African Americans have always been here. (Drag) Kings and Queens, dykes, homos, gender nonconforming, same-gender loving, queer and trans folk ... CBOE Russell 2000 Volatility Index Futures And Options Launch Dates Announced CHICAGO, Nov. 12, 2013 /PRNewswire/ -- CBOE Holdings, Inc. (NASDAQ: CBOE) today announced it will launch futures and options on the CBOE Russell 2000... Dominant England crush Afghanistan in World Cup warm-up "England cruised to a nine-wicket win over Afghanistan in their final World Cup warm-up at The Oval on Monday after a Jofra Archer-led bowling attack... Road America IndyCar: Rossi leads every lap to take dominant win Alexander Rossi dominated IndyCar's Road America race to take his second win of the season, ending a run of three second places from the last four ra... Former Yankee Kirby Yates is dominant closer for Padres The pitcher who is fast becoming the best closer in the National League — if he’s not already — was once a Yankee. Kirby Yates — who picked up ... Ex-Yankees starter Sonny Gray shows how dominant he can be CINCINNATI — Sonny Gray didn’t want to leave the game — not with another starring performance by Yasiel Puig putting him in position to beat th... Jimmy First takes dominant points win over Ibrar Riyaz Bill-topping status sees Jimmy First beat Ibrar Riyaz, writes Jacob Kilbride at ringside The post Jimmy First takes dominant points win over Ibrar Ri... Five stats that show how dominant the United States was this World Cup The USWNT cruised past opponents en route to their fourth World Cup title. Here's five facts that prove just how dominate the Americans were &#... How Verstappen and Red Bull ended Mercedes dominant run of victories Laurence Edmondson looks at how Max Verstappen's thrilling win in Austria unfolded and why Mercedes was unable to replicate its dominant form from th... Still dominant at 37, Roger Federer eyes another Wimbledon title The numbers are staggering and it's a bit surreal, even for his opponents, that the Swiss tennis star is still going strong &... A quick look at Serena Williams' dominant career Unless you've been living under a rock the past two decades, you know that Serena Williams has carved out a legendary tennis career. But, if yo... Brutal Barty hungry to extend dominant run at Wimbledon "Having dropped only two sets in her last 15 matches, Ash Barty\u0027s opponents are getting used to her exhibiting a streak of near fiendish brutali... CBOE Introduces Five New Options-Based Strategy Performance Benchmark Indexes Tied to Russell 2000 CHICAGO, IL -- November 23, 2015 -- The Chicago Board Options Exchange® (CBOE®) today announced that it has created five new options-based strategy p... Dominant ‘Jeopardy!’ champion James Holzhauer returns Monday James Holzhauer is back at the buzzer. Regular “Jeopardy!” broadcasts resume Monday following a more than two-week hiatus during which th... Nissan Might Have Played Itself There is continued fallout from Fiat Chrysler and Renault’s merger plan, Model 3s in China probably won’t be $35,000, Ford is good, and more in The M... Opinion: Believe the hype. France shows why it's a World Cup favorite with dominant win France is trying to become the first country to hold both men's and women's World Cup titles. Friday's win over South Korea showed tha... Dominant Dodgers Reliever Russell Martin Threw His First Career Strikeout Some MLB managers might believe that, when the team is down 8-2 and the bullpen is drained, it’s time to give up and send out a position player to pi... Probe By Regulator Finds Monsanto Abused Dominant Position: Report Fair trade regulator CCI in 2016 ordered the unit to carry out the probe after the agriculture ministry and some local seed companies complained that... Dominant Karl Kauffman leads Michigan past top seed UCLA 3-2 LOS ANGELES (AP) — Karl Kauffman and Jeff Criswell combined on a four-hitter, helping Michigan beat No. 1 national seed UCLA 3-2 Friday night in the ... What we played in May: 'Sekiro' and 'Diablo 3' Welcome back to Engadget's Gaming IRL, a monthly segment where we run down what our editors are playing. For the most part, we've been carv... How many Stradivarius violins are still being played? The long-running series in which readers answer other readers’ questions on subjects ranging from trivial flights of fancy to profound scientific con... Italy's dominant Salvini is small town phenomenon, polling data shows Matteo Salvini's far-right League scored a crushing victory in Italy's European parliament elections, but a breakdown of polling data showed its domi... Opinion: With dominant World Cup win over Sweden, USWNT puts the rest of the field on notice With 2-0 World Cup victory over Sweden that clinched top of Group F and avenged most embarrassing loss in team history, USWNT put everyone on notice.... Shazam can now ID tracks played through your headphones Apple's music ID app Shazam has always been a handy tool to have on your phone, but it has one small inconvenience - it can only identify music ... I Played Doom Eternal on a Chromebook There’s a lot we still don’t know about Google’s forthcoming streaming game service Stadia, and we won’t know some of it until it’s available in the ... How the Oman tanker attack played out The attack on two tankers in a vital Gulf of Oman waterway Thursday comes at a time of heightened tensions between the United States and Iran in the ... Mazda Breaks IMSA Bad Luck Streak With Dominant Watkins Glen 6-hour Victory On Sunday, after 6 hours of battling in the Colosseum that is Watkins Glen International, the #55 team of Olivier Pla, Jonathan Bomarito, and Harry T... Dominant Lewis Hamilton wins the French Grand Prix as Vettel slips back • Mercedes seal another one-two finish in France• Charles Leclerc finishes third with Sebastian Vettel fifthWith a winning edge honed over 12 seasons... I played all the way through Judgment in Japanese earlier this year. I played all the way through Judgment in Japanese earlier this year. Now it’s time to play its Western release on our Twitch channel, and judge the q... Bernadette Peters: 'Every role I've played, I've thought – that's me!' The Broadway powerhouse talks about trusting Sondheim, hearing others sing her songs and waiting to be taken seriouslyCafe Luxembourg, the closet-siz... 2021 MLB All-Star Game to be played in Atlanta ATLANTA (AP) — Major League Baseball’s 2021 All-Star Game will be played at Atlanta in what could be the first national showcase for SunTrust P... Eight great board games we played at PAX Unplugged Welcome to Ars Cardboard, our weekend look at tabletop games! Check out our complete board gaming coverage at cardboard.arstechnica.com. PAX U... The Fastest Damn Racing Game I've Ever Played When I was young, I remember being enraptured by the stark vector graphics of tank-shooter Battlezone. The green hues and blocky shapes approximated ... Andy Murray and Serena Williams begin Wimbledon mixed-doubles campaign with dominant victory Wimbledon's new power couple showed they mean business as Andy Murray and Serena Williams got their eagerly-awaited mixed-doubles pairing off to a fl... Jared Lorenzen, former Kentucky quarterback who played in the NFL, dies at 38 Lorenzen enjoyed a successful college career at Kentucky before his NFL career included earning a Super Bowl ring as a backup to Eli Manning on the G... Opinion: Has Kevin Durant played his last game with the Warriors? Several questions surround Kevin Durant's absence with a strained calf. Are the Warriors better without him? What does this mean for his future... Which footballers have also played tennis to a professional level? \| The Knowledge Plus: fruity surnames and lining up with your club for your country. Mail us or tweet @TheKnowledge_GU“Any professional tennis players that played as... How insects have played a role in the world’s most significant creations When Naoko Takahashi won the gold medal in women’s marathon running at the 2000 Summer Olympics, she had assistance from an unexpected source: hornet... Ed Sheeran is UK's most-played artist of 2018 despite not releasing any music Ed Sheeran tops chart for second year running, with Britons making up nine of top 10 most-played artistsEd Sheeran was the most-played artist in the ... There’s a new Minecraft game coming, and it’s played entirely in augmented reality You'll be able to build structures and worlds on your table with friends... [credit: Microsoft ... Iowa official who played in NFL faces gun, alcohol charges FOREST CITY, Iowa (AP) — A former NFL defensive lineman who is now a county supervisor in Iowa faces misdemeanor charges after police say he showed u... Female nurse who played crucial role in IVF ignored on plaque Despite a senior colleague’s protests, Jean Purdy’s name was not included on memorialThe name of a female nurse and embryologist who played a crucial... Here's what it's like to play Final Fantasy 7 Remake if you never played the original Final Fantasy is a pretty big deal. Well, that’s what I’ve gathered. 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CBOE to List Options on CBOE Russell 2000 Volatility Index Beginning December 3 CHICAGO, IL, November 26, 2013 - Chicago Board Options Exchange, Incorporated® (CBOE ) today announced that it will list options on the CBOE Russell ... New Study Finds Russell 2000 Index Options Benchmarks and Options-Based Funds Less Volatile Chicago, IL and County Wicklow, Ireland -- September 27, 2016 -- Chicago Board Options Exchange® (CBOE®) and Fund Evaluation Group, LLC (FEG)... The Greatest What We Do in the Shadows Moments (So Far) The only thing I didn’t like about What We Do in the Shadows’ first season? The commercial breaks! Rude interruptions aside, the FX series based on T... Coco Gauff: 'I want to be the greatest' Youth took center stage at Wimbledon on the opening day -- yet it was the youngest of them all who bettered three others tipped for longer stays at t... Holy Toledo, Batman! Actors who have played the Caped Crusader Ben Affleck has vacated the role of Bruce Wayne in "The Batman," making way for a new Caped Crusader. Who else has worn the cowl? ... John Wick Hex is the best, most creative licensed game we've played in years Mike Bithell and Good Shepherd Entertainment's collaborative John Wick game blew us away at E3 - it's honestly unlike anything we've ever played befo... Nintendo E3 2019: every game shown, teased and played at the show Nintendo had a very strong showing at E3 2019 – somehow without even being at the expo. Thanks to its hugely popular Nintendo Direct livestrea... Opening WSL games to be played at Etihad Stadium and Stamford Bridge • Manchester City and Chelsea announce games at main stadiums• City v United Manchester derby opens season on 7 SeptemberManchester City and Chelsea ... Sophie Turner Knows You Want Her to Live Happily Ever After With Maisie Williams. Here’s How She Played Along. 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Men are better than women at reading maps because they played with Lego as kids, scientist claims The stereotype that men are better than women at reading maps is true, a brain expert has claimed, but only because they played with Lego as children... Even the ‘Game of Thrones’ star who played Cersei wanted Arya to kill her The Game of Thrones finale is the worst rated episode in the show’s entire history, and season 8 is was the success HBO dreamed it would be. Th... Trust in single power line played role in Argentine outage Overconfidence in the capacity of a single transmission line may have played a role in a massive power outage that left Argentina and parts of Urugua... Rafael Nadal Played Some Heroic Points Before Roger Federer Wrapped It Up The match was glowing white-hot for hours, but in the fourth set, the Wimbledon semifinal between Roger Federer and Rafael Nadal began to cool off. F... UFC 239 tests the greatest male and female fighters Light heavyweight champion Jon Jones puts his belt on the line in the main event of UFC 239 on Saturday, and Amanda Nunes defends her bantamweight ti... Home Run Derby's greatest moments The annual Home Run Derby visits Progressive Field in Cleveland in 2019. A look back at the greatest moments since 1985. ... Trump Tells D-Day Veterans They’re ‘Among Very Greatest Americans’ (COLLEVILLE-SUR-MER, France) — President Donald Trump on Thursday lauded the heroism of American and Allied service members who participated in... Trump tells D-Day veterans they’re among greatest Americans President Donald Trump is lauding the heroism of American and allied service members who participated in the D-Day invasion that changed the fortunes... Winamp’s woes: How the greatest MP3 player undid itself Tens of millions of Winamp users are still out there. (credit: Flickr user uzi978) As many of us are busy crafting the perfect playlist for grilling... Humans have interfered with most of the world's greatest rivers Long free-flowing rivers are incredibly biodiverse, but they have become increasingly rare and confined to remote regions in the Arctic, Amazon and t... The Greatest Showman – Tyson Fury in Las Vegas Tyson Fury puts on the style in and out of the ring as he crushes Schwarz. Declan Taylor reports from Las Vegas The post The Greatest Showman –... Ken Buchanan is the greatest British boxer of all-time On Ken Buchanan's birthday, Mickey Vann names the lightweight great ahead of Lennox Lewis as the best British fighter in history The post Ken Buchana... Girl, 15, beats Venus and declares: I want to be the greatest Coco Gauff, 15, proclaimed she wanted to be the 'greatest' after beating Venus Williams at Wimbledon but three other younger players with big reputat... What Is the Greatest Farmers' Market Stand in Your City? It’s prime season for farmers’ markets: local tomatoes, avocados, blueberries, corn, all the best produce in the Northern Hemisphere. But my favorite... The Simple Idea Behind Einstein’s Greatest Discoveries Einstein’s theory of gravity and modern particle physics both rely on the idea of symmetry. But physicists are now wondering if symmetry has much mor... Djokovic will not ease up in quest to be greatest: Becker Novak Djokovic has already established himself as one of the best ever to play the game but the Serb, who clinched his 16th Grand Slam at Wimbledon o... ‘The world’s greatest email app’ is a privacy nightmare Superhuman bills itself as the world’s greatest email client. It should, given how much it costs; users of the app pay $30 a month for a subscription... Serena Williams' greatest rivals Serena Williams has a winning record against everyone who has played her multiple times except for two players. And Venus has been her top rival. &#... Race played role in shooting of off-duty cop by fellow officer, lawsuit claims An off-duty St. Louis cop who was shot by a fellow officer is suing the city, alleging he would’ve been treated differently by department officials i... Jony Ive, the Apple design chief who played key role in iPhone’s creation, to depart after 30 years Apple announced the senior executive’s departure Thursday, saying he will leave later this year to form an independent design company that will count... The Jumanji: The Next Level trailer answers the question, "What if Dwayne Johnson played Danny DeVito?" The surprising success of Jumanji: Welcome To The Jungle created a path for a weirdly viable franchise, yet it was hard to picture just how they plan... Cardi B Snatches Her Own Wig Onstage and Tosses It: "The Greatest Move in Hip Hop" Cardi B is out there snatching wigs and giving them away...her own, that is. The rapper took off her long, black hairpiece while performing onstage ... On This Day: Ezzard Charles, one of the greatest fighters of all-time, was born Historian Bob Mee looks back on the glorious career the legendary Ezzard Charles who was born on July 7, 1921 The post On This Day: Ezzard Charles, o... Sorcerer’s greatest trick? Shrinking a CCG experience into a single box Enlarge / From the animist deck. I hope you like spiders... Welcome to Ars Cardboard, our weekend look at tabletop games! Check out our complete bo... Woods primed for return to site of greatest performance Tiger Woods returns to the scene of his greatest performance for this week's U.S. Open at Pebble Beach, no longer necessarily the man to beat but a d... From Gentleman Jack to Killing Eve: who are TV's greatest lesbian icons? TV fans have been spoiled for women-on-women scenes on our screens of late. We celebrate with a rundown of the characters ‘whose impact on the world ... Language wars: the 19 greatest linguistic spats of all time Words are ever evolving – but not without controversy. From creative applications of an apostrophe to the overuse of literally, what makes you rage?W... Does the Greatest Macedonian Rest In the Royal Necropolis at Aigai? Aigai (known today as Vergina) is an archaeological site situated in northern Greece, not far from the city of Thessaloniki. This was the first capit... \| Trump calls D-Day veterans 'among greatest Americans who will ever live' US President Donald Trump called veterans of D-Day "among the greatest Americans who will ever live" as he spoke at a ceremony marking the 75th anniv... Akiem Hicks sees step forward for Bears in 2019: 'We can be as dominant as we want to be' Pro Bowl defensive tackle Akiem Hicks of the Bears said he's expecting Chicago to take a step forward this year under a new defensive coordinato... Sports world celebrates USWNT's dominant World Cup win Somehow, the USWNT exceeded ridiculous expectations with its 2-0 win over the Netherlands in the World Cup final and the sports world loved it. ... Republican ‘Redistricting Expert’ Reportedly Played a Part in Developing 2020 Census Citizenship Question (NEW YORK) — A longtime Republican redistricting expert played a key role in adding a citizenship question to the 2020 census, according to cou... Creator claims Lenovo stole foldable Moto Razr video it played at a press event Khan's Moto Razr render. [credit: Waqar Khan ] ... From saving Chrysler to buying Jeep, here are Iacocca's greatest achievements Lee Iacocca transformed the auto industry during a legendary career that stretched from the birth of the Ford Mustang through the death of American M... Lewis Hamilton says British GP win is greatest moment for any home driver • Hamilton thanks fans after record sixth British Grand Prix win• ‘It’s been single most incredible feeling,’ says Mercedes driverLewis Hamilton cele... Trump calls America’s story ‘the greatest political journey’ President Donald Trump speaks during an Independence Day celebration in front of the Lincoln Memorial, Thursday, July 4, 2019, in Washington. (AP Pho... The U.S. World Cup team’s greatest challenge: Rising European powers After major investments, England and France have joined Germany and the United States at the top of the international rankings and brought greater pa... The latest Toy Story 4 trailer gives us this year's greatest rescue mission In the last teaser for Toy Story 4 Pixar introduced us to Duke Caboom, the spirited Canadian stuntman voiced by Keanu Reeves. For its latest trailer,... ‘World’s Greatest Grandpa’ spends $10K to build epic treehouse Somebody get this man his “World’s Greatest Grandpa” mug. Terry Meredith of Uley, Gloucestershire, UK, has built an epic tree house... Greatest Fund Manager Update: Stick With Delaware Healthcare And 3 Others Three of the four mutual fund managers I recommended beat the S&P 500 in June. Only the Oppenheimer Global Opportunities fund lost money. What happen... Best headphones 2019: Your definitive guide to the latest and greatest audio The best headphones of 2019: Welcome to TechRadar's round-up of the best headphones available to buy right now in every style and at every price... These items give Americans the greatest post-purchase rush Have you ever bought something just to feel that sudden rush of post-purchase happiness? According to new research, 66 percent of Americans have boug... 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Racing lines: Why Niki Lauda was sport's greatest 'comeback king' The man's incredible determination will have a lasting impact on more than just Formula One Tiger Woods was rightly lauded for his Masters victory l... See the Greatest BET Awards Looks Ever: From Lil' Kim's Colorful Bikini Ensemble to Beyoncé's Blinding Gown It's that time of year when celebs serve bawdy and face! The biggest and brightest stars will make their way to the 2019 BET Awards on Sunday, June ... Opinion: Is coach Steve Kerr one of NBA's greatest? He will be if Warriors win this title With all the headwinds facing the Warriors now, winning this title may be enough to put Steve Kerr on the same tier as the best who’ve ever don... The Greatest Leap, part 1: How the Apollo fire propelled NASA to the Moon Video shot by Joshua Ballinger, edited and produced by Jing Niu and David Minick. Click here for transcript. Seated in Mission Control, Chris Kraf... The Ice Bowl and beyond: Packers legend Bart Starr's six greatest games There’s no disputing that winning the Ice Bowl was the pinnacle of Bart Starr’s career. Here are the top five other highlights from QB&rs... Valentina Vezzali: Six-time Olympic champion… but this bronze was her greatest moment "We revisit Valentina Vezzali’s bronze medal match from London 2012 – a bout that proved you should never give up. Head to the Olympic Channel to wat... Eleven Years After The Greatest Match Ever: A Federer-Nadal Wimbledon Liveblog Novak Djokovic awaits in the final. Either Roger Federer or Rafael Nadal will join him after today’s semifinal. GOATs are grazing everywhere the eye ... Katherine Schwarzenegger Proves That Chris Pratt Is Already the Greatest Instagram Husband Chris Pratt is adding a new profession to his already impressive resume: Instagram husband! The Jurassic World star snapped a stunning photo of wife... Quentin Tarantino lauds Sergio Leone as “the greatest of all Italy’s filmmakers” in new essay Perhaps more than any other director working today, Quentin Tarantino owes his success to the filmmaking greats who came before him. The years he spe... 'Biggest compliment yet': Greta Thunberg welcomes oil chief's 'greatest threat' label Activists say comments by Opec head prove world opinion is turning against fossil fuelsGreta Thunberg and other climate activists have said it is a b... The real story behind The Greatest Showman is one of exploitation. It’s time we told it \| Rhoda Roberts New First Nations cabaret Natives Go Wild will reveal the shocking true history of Indigenous people and the circus – through song, dance and humourT... 'The greatest game of all time' : Celebrations continue for England's World Cup triumph – video The celebrations continued after a dramatic and tantalisingly close final saw England crowned Cricket World Cup champions by beating New Zealand.Spea... Major Disappointment: These Parents Played Their Baby Classical Music In The Womb And He Was Born With A Long White Beard But Is Still Dumb As Hell All new parents worry about finding ways to give their children every possible advantage in life, but despite the purest of intentions, sometimes thi... Greatest day in motor sports: Ranking the Monaco Grand Prix, Indy 500 and Coca-Cola 600 There are three huge and iconic motor sports races on Sunday. For the Win ranked the crown jewels from best to worst. ... Anthony Joshua will watch Madison Square Garden’s greatest fights before going out to defend his titles Madison Square Garden’s proud boxing history is not lost on Anthony Joshua The post Anthony Joshua will watch Madison Square Garden’s greatest ... Jon Voight declares Trump 'greatest president since Abraham Lincoln' in late-night video Actor Jon Voight expressed his support for President Trump, declaring him "the greatest president since Abraham Lincoln" in a two-part video message ... A New Toni Morrison Documentary Gives the World’s Greatest Living Writer Her Flowers, and Plants New Seeds Toni Morrison had to figure out a way to talk to Muhammad Ali. It was the mid-’70s and at the time, she was his editor, tasked with bringing his auto... Lewis Hamilton wins F1 Monaco Grand Prix to kick of motor sports' greatest day Lewis Hamilton won the Monaco Grand Prix on Sunday to extend his championship lead over Mercedes teammate Valtteri Bottas. &... 'He is going to blow my brains out.' How a highway standoff played out on Facebook Live A woman who livestreamed a police standoff earlier this week had an on-again, off-again romantic relationship with the man driving the van. &#... Women's Super League fixtures could be played as double-headers at Premier League stadiums A number of Women's Super League matches could be played as double-headers alongside Premier League fixtures next season, according to one of the mos... Tiger's career by the numbers It was never meant to happen. And yet, it did. It was the major victory many had long since accepted would never happen again -- 3,955 days after his... Pebble Beach doors open again to duffers after U.S. Open For a week Pebble Beach Golf Links belonged to the world's best but on Monday the famous seaside layout on every golfer's bucket list was returned to... Tiger Woods misses cut at PGA Championship Tiger Woods' run at Bethpage Black is over as he failed to make the cut of 4-over at the 101st PGA Championship. ... Tiger Woods is in a much better place for Memorial than he was at PGA Tiger Woods, who won the Memorial a record five times, has put back on most of the weight he lost from an illness before the PGA Championship. ... A Tolerable Redemption for Tiger Woods His journey back has been morally and medically arduous. But here he is, basking in adulation, smiling with President Trump, defying his sport’s and ... Tiger Woods: Caddyshack and oatmeal Tiger Woods is no stranger to great golfing days, but what exactly does it take to make Tiger's perfect day? Living Golf's Shane O'Donoghue finds out... Tiger Woods: I am very lucky to be playing again "Tiger Woods produced one of sport’s all-time great comebacks on Sunday to win a first major since 2008 by winning the Masters but revealed afterward... Man splurges $75,000 to be Tiger Woods’ caddie for one day What would you pay to be Tiger Woods’ caddie for a day? Dave Gilbert, founder and CEO of National Funding, bid $75,000 over the weekend at Woods’ ann... Tiger Woods and understanding the new normal If for some reason you haven't noticed, Tiger Woods isn't 24 anymore. So looking stiff in cold conditions or taking long layoffs between events shoul... Tiger Woods fuming after failing to make a run PEBBLE BEACH, Calif. — The expression on Tiger Woods’ face when his U.S. Open second round was complete Friday at Pebble Beach told you exactly how h... Judith Kerr, Author of The Tiger Who Came to Tea, Dies at 95 (LONDON) — Judith Kerr, author and illustrator of the bestselling “The Tiger Who Came to Tea” and other beloved children’s bo... Topeka Zoo: Protocols weren’t followed before tiger attack KANSAS CITY, Mo. (AP) — The Topeka zoo says a tiger attacked a zookeeper after protocols for handling potentially dangerous animals were not followed... Tiger Woods’ comeback not as amazing as this PGA Tour pro’s DUBLIN, Ohio — Nobody in the Memorial field this week — not Tiger Woods, not anyone — has come further from a harrowing journey in the past year than... Tiger's 10-year plan to surpass Nicklaus Tiger Woods returns to the scene of arguably his greatest victory this week, intent on proving that his recent Masters win was the beginning of a maj... ‘The Tiger Who Came to Tea’ author Judith Kerr dies at 95 Judith Kerr, author and illustrator of The Tiger Who Came to Tea and other beloved children’s books has died at the age of 95. HarperCollins chief ex... Tiger Woods practices ahead of PGA Championship "Tiger Woods proved many doubters wrong with his triumph at last month\u0027s Masters, where he not only completed a comeback story for the ages but ... No More ''VIP Stay'' At Corbett Tiger Reserve: Officials Corbett Tiger Reserve authorities have decided that it will not entertain references from VIPs requesting stay and safari facilities among others eit... Haney response to Tiger's critique: #glasshouses Hank Haney, whose radio show has been suspended after comments he made prior to the U.S. Women's Open, said it's "amazing" how Tiger Woods "has now b... McIlroy targets US Open after Canadian Open win "Rory McIlroy threatened to shoot 59 but fell just short as he made his Canadian Open debut a great one by clinching a seven-stroke victory in Ontari... Big guns could be spiked at wide-open U.S. Open A premium iron player will likely win this week's U.S. Open at Pebble Beach, where Zach Johnson has almost as good a chance of prevailing as Dustin J... 'I want to be the Federer of women's golf' With imprecision punished by a ball landing in the lava fields, Icelandic golfers have an extra incentive to make the fairways. Some courses lie insi... Golf's not-so-secret fascination with CBD oil What was once taboo is becoming wildly popular. From gum to eye droppers, CBD oil is becoming as common in professional golf bags as tees and ball ma... Scott Disick Declares He's "the Greatest Leader That's Ever Lived" in New Flip It Like Disick Promo Scott Disick has a real passion for real estate. In fact, fans will get to witness this passion firsthand when Flip It Like Disick premieres Sunday,... Tiger shrugs off injury scare to sit one off the lead at the Masters "Tiger Woods was so determined to claw his way up the Masters leaderboard on Friday that not even a security guard who nearly knocked him over when h... Tiger commits to play in next week's Memorial Tournament Tiger Woods, who missed the cut at last week's PGA Championship after an extended break, on Thursday committed to playing in next week's Memorial Tou... Tiger tales: Memories of majors' biggest win ever US OPEN '19: Tiger Woods produced 'some of the best golf we'll ever see by any player' ... 'Tiger Who Came to Tea' author Judith Kerr dies aged 95 Author Judith Kerr, who enchanted generations of children with simply illustrated tales such as "The Tiger Who Came to Tea" and "Mog the Forgetful Ca... ‘Tiger Mom’s’ daughter to clerk for Kavanaugh after claiming she wouldn’t The daughter of “Tiger Mom” may have protested too much. Sophia Chua-Rubenfeld, daughter of Yale Law School professor Amy Chua, will cler... Baby tiger sharks eat common backyard birds To better understand the diets of baby tiger sharks, scientists have been catching young shark specimens and making them throw up. Analysis of DNA in... Tiger to return to Japan at Zozo Championship in October "Tiger Woods will return to Japan for the first time since 2006 to compete in the inaugural Zozo Championship in October, the Masters champion said o... Controversial Tiger Woods biography set to become TV mini-series The life of Tiger Woods is set to be depicted on the small screen after a deal was struck up to turn a controversial biography of the 15-time Major c... Tiger Woods within striking distance of fifth Green Jacket "Tiger Woods shot his best score at Augusta National since 2011, a five-under-par 67 that lifted him within two strokes of leader Francesco Molinari ... Man Saved By His Dog During Tiger Attack In Madhya Pradesh Forest A man was saved by his dog after a tiger attacked him in Seoni district of Madhya Pradesh today. Pancham Gajba, 22, and his brother were returning fr... Tiger Woods plays better than his score indicates in Round 3 at the Memorial Tiger Woods was doing well early in Round 3 at the Memorial, but as he did in Friday's second round, he lost his momentum and finished the day w... Tiger sharks feast on songbirds, study shows Tiger sharks are among the most dangerous shark species for us humans. A new study shows that songbirds are far more likely to fall victim to the pre... Now Hank Haney is taking shots at Tiger Woods Woods, who was coached by Haney from 2004 to 2010, had said that Haney deserved to be suspended from his SiriusXM PGA Tour radio show for his comment... Daughter of ‘tiger mom’ Chua picked as Kavanaugh law clerk Justice Brett Kavanaugh has hired the daughter of Yale Law School professor and “tiger mom” Amy Chua, who praised Kavanaugh as a mentor to women afte... Bubba Watson on Tiger Woods' 2019 Masters win Two-time Masters champion Bubba Watson chats with CNN's Don Riddell about Tiger Woods' incredible Masters win in 2019 and his comeback to top-level g... Opinion: The Tiger from the Masters goes missing during first round of PGA Championship The Masters this was not. Tiger Woods' dream of winning a second consecutive major title is not officially over, but it’s not exactly aliv... Breaking down Tiger Woods' 19 PGA Championship performances Tiger Woods has won the PGA Championship four times in 19 appearances, claiming victory in 1999, 2000, 2006 and 2007. ... Tiger Woods roasts bettor who tried to capitalize on his Masters win Tiger Woods’ win at the 2019 Masters was inspiring. His follow-up at the PGA Championship, less so. And give him credit: he knew better. The sa... Tiger Woods, Peyton Manning have mastered their second acts DUBLIN, Ohio — Peyton Manning knows a thing or three about second acts to careers that already were defined by brilliance in Act 1. Perhaps that’s wh... 22 moments that have shaped Tiger Woods' career Tiger Woods collects 80th PGA Tour win in style, winning the Tour Championship by two shots. The 14-time major winner got his first win since 2013. ... Motor racing: Castroneves has Tiger in his tank for Indy 500 If Tiger Woods can get back in the winners' circle Helio Castroneves says he sees no reason he cannot return to Victory Lane at the Indianapolis 500 ... \| Tokyo or bust as Tiger eyes Olympic dream Tiger Woods is setting his sights on next year's Olympic games, driven on by the knowledge that he may not get many more chances to add a gold medal ... 'Just didn't quite have it': Tiger Woods reacts to missing the cut at US PGA – video Tiger Woods shot a 73 on Friday to fall to five over par and miss the cut at the 101st PGA Championship. 'I didn't do all the little things I need to... No extended delay again: Tiger Woods to play in Memorial Tiger Woods is not taking another long break between majors. The Masters winner announced Thursday he will play in next week's Memorial. ... Art of playing Opens keeps Tiger Woods confident about his chances Woods is short of tournament practice but, with three Open wins, he knows he can work his way around Royal PortrushAccording to the nice lady at the ... \| Greatest story ever sold: Media rush to tell Thai cave story The appetite for the dramatic story of the Thai cave rescue remains insatiable ahead of the one-year anniversary of the incredible mission to extract... Jake Gyllenhaal lauds sister Maggie as "The Greatest Gyllenhaal" during Whitney Houston song parody Did you know “love” is actually synonymous with “Gyllenhaal”? Because, fun fact, it is. And James Corden wants you all to know with this Whitney Hous... Woods: My children associated golf with pain – until now "Tiger Woods has spoken exclusively to GOLFTV about the immense pride he felt in sharing the joy of a Masters win with his children, and insists he w... Wie to take rest of year off from competitive golf Michelle Wie, who has battled a number of injuries during her career, said on Friday she will not play competitively for the rest of the year in a bi... After Sumo And Golf, Trump And Abe Get Down To Business After a fun-filled weekend of golf and sumo US President Donald Trump and Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe are set to hold formal talks Monday, wit... Volkswagen Golf R M52 2019 UK review The hottest Volkswagen Golf is made even hotter by a performance upgrade from Mountune and Fifteen52 It would be an unlikely occurrence that, after... Arkansas man, 81, scores two holes-in-one at golf course A recreational golfer getting through 18 holes is a feat in itself but scoring two holes-in-one during your round is a remarkable feat and it was acc... Used car buying guide: Volkswagen Golf R (Mk6) The Golf R’s 2.0-litre engine produces 267bhp and 258lb ft VW’s potent but perfectly usable four-wheel-drive take on the ubiquitous Golf is a solid... Man Pledges To Do 100 Holes Of Golf A Day For Charity LEXINGTON, Ky. (LEX 18) — Bradley Sutherland has set a goal of 100 holes of golf in a day to raise money for the Larry Gilbert-Dave Bunnell Fou... Late run saves Tiger Woods’ opening round at the Memorial DUBLIN, Ohio — Tiger Woods wanted more out of his opening round at the Memorial on Thursday, but he still posted a 2-under-par 70 in his first compet... Tiger Woods responds to Hank Haney’s comments, SiriusXM ban DUBLIN, Ohio — Tiger Woods usually avoids taking a public stance on any controversial topics the way he tries to avoid water hazards on the golf cour... Tiger Woods: I've always thought reaching Nicklaus' major record was possible "Tiger Woods was speaking to GOLFTV in his role as an exclusive content partner for the new digital destination for golf fans all over the globe. Vis... California woman killed by 3 tiger sharks in the Bahamas, report Tragedy in the Bahamas after a 21-year-old was mauled to death by 3 tiger sharks while she was snorkeling with her family. Veuer’s Nick Cardona... Two Rare White Tiger Cubs Find New Home In Nicaragua Two white tiger cubs have been taken to their new home at the Nicaragua National Zoo, where the playful pair will join a menagerie of rare big cat sp... Eurosport to show highlights of Tiger Woods’ Masters triumph "Fans across Europe can relive Tiger Woods’ remarkable 15th major victory on Eurosport and GOLFTV this week. The historic win completed what many are... Trump to award Tiger Woods the Presidential Medal of Freedom "US president Donald Trump on Monday said he would award Tiger Woods the Presidential Medal of Freedom after the golfer won the Masters for the fifth... PGA Championship 2019: Dates, Tiger Woods odds and tee times After Tiger Woods claimed a historic 15th major championship at The Masters, the new PGA Tour schedule brings to a much earlier but eagerly anticipat... Baby tiger sharks chow down on sparrows and doves: scientists Baby tiger sharks aren’t only eating seafood — they’re also chowing down on songbirds, scientists have found. In a paper published Tuesday in the jou... Tiger Woods is 5 shots back as his group gets put on the clock at Memorial Tiger Woods, who missed the cut two weeks ago at PGA Championship, didn't have a dreadful round at the Memorial. It just wasn't a round to ... Wimbledon: Serena Williams using Tiger Woods' Masters win as inspiration Tennis superstar Serena Williams said Tiger Woods' win at the 2019 Masters is at the top of her mind as she tries to win a record-tying 24th Grand Sl... Tiger Woods, children, girlfriend spotted traveling together in Thailand After Tiger Woods finished the U.S. Open with a closing 69, he, his girlfriend Erica Herman and his two children were spotted traveling in Thailand. ... Tiger Woods on Kevin Durant injury: ‘It’s an awful feeling, no one can help you’ PEBBLE BEACH, Calif. — Tiger Woods called the Achilles injury Kevin Durant suffered in Monday night’s NBA Final “sad’’ to see. “As athletes, we’ve al... Tiger Woods shoots 2-under 70 in solid opening round at the Memorial Tiger Woods made back-to-back birdies late and closed with a par to shoot 2-under 70 Thursday morning in Round 1 of the Memorial Tournament. &... Tiger Woods’ amazing Masters celebration from every angle Tiger Woods celebrated after sinking his putt on the 18th green to win his fifth Masters on April 14, 2019 in Augusta, Ga. &... Tiger Woods has special round turn into Memorial disaster DUBLIN, Ohio — Something special was brewing at Muirfield Village on Saturday. Until it wasn’t. Tiger Woods teased fans during the third round of the... Tiger muskies released into remote Arizona lake on purpose PHOENIX (AP) — About 450 sardine-sized fish with a mouthful of sharp teeth have been intentionally released in a remote lake in north-central Arizona... Boris Johnson vows to make Britain 'greatest place on Earth' if he wins battle for Number 10 Boris Johnson has vowed to make Britain the "greatest place on Earth" if he gains the keys to Number 10 as he said he will united the country by deli... Opinion: Gay men are nearly invisible in golf, but we’re not non-existent Someday a PGA Tour golfer will come out to the pleasant realization that what was to him a seismic announcement is barely worth the noting. &#... New 2020 Volkswagen Golf GTI hits the Nurburgring VW's next-generation hot hatch is seen again in disguise being driven hard on the world's most formidable circuit Volkswagen's answer to the new Fo... Joe Buck: Fox has voices you just don’t hear in the golf world Fox play-by-play man Joe Buck talks with The Post’s Justin Terranova about the network’s U.S. Open coverage as it enters its fifth year broadcasting ... New 2020 Volkswagen Golf GTI spied for the first time News 9 Jul, 2019 The next-generation Volkswagen Golf GTI has been caught on camera sporting heavy camouflage, ahead of its launch in 20... The Latest: Abe drives Trump around golf course near Tokyo TOKYO (AP) — The Latest on President Donald Trump’s trip to Japan (all times local): 9:45 a.m. Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe drove Preside... New Volkswagen Golf GTI: 2020 hot hatch seen for first time Volkswagen's Mk8 variant of the Golf is spotted in Ford Focus ST-rivalling GTI form, and will get more power than ever Volkswagen will naturally fol... ‘Tiger Mom’ Amy Chua’s Daughter Is Brett Kavanaugh’s Next Supreme Court Law Clerk (WASHINGTON) — The daughter of Yale Law School professor and “tiger mom” Amy Chua, who praised Justice Brett Kavanaugh as a mentor ... 'Tiger Mom' Amy Chua Defended Justice Brett Kavanaugh. Now, Her Daughter Is Going to be His Law Clerk Yale Law School professor and self-proclaimed “tiger mom” Amy Chua didn’t just publicly defend Justice Brett Kavanaugh during his sexual assault alle... Tiger Woods gives himself 10 years to break Jack Nicklaus’s 18 majors record • Woods reckons he has 40 majors left to top Nicklaus• Brooks Koepka miffed at perceived lack of respect from FoxTiger Woods has set himself a target... Jack Nicklaus says his record 18 majors is in play again with Tiger Woods chasing While Nicklaus said he "found lightning in a bottle," to win his sixth green jacket in the magical 1986 Masters, he appreciated the journey Woods too... Maya Gateway to the World Below: Balankanchè Cave, Throne of the Tiger Priest Caves are central to the cosmologies of many world cultures, used by humans from the dawn of time. ... "Great guy" Tiger Woods accepts Medal of Freedom at White House "Tiger Woods, who stunned the sports world when he won his fifth Masters title last month, received his country\u0027s highest civilian honour, the P... Tiger Woods takes shot at John Daly for using cart at PGA Championship Tiger Woods, who once won a major while hobbling on one good leg, isn't impressed with John Daly using a cart for PGA Championship. ... Michelle Wie blasts ex-Tiger coach Hank Haney over racist comments LPGA golfer Michelle Wie blasted Hank Haney on Wednesday after the famed instructor made racist and sexist comments about South Korean golfers on his... Tiger Woods survives train wreck on 15, has work to do over the weekend at Memorial All looked good in the world of Tiger Woods in Friday's second round of the Memorial at Muirfield Village. And then it didn't. ... Watch: Tiger Woods shoots best first round at Memorial Tournament since 2012 Tiger Woods holed back-to-back birdies at the end of the first round to card a 70 on Thursday at the Memorial Tournament, handing in his best first r... Tiger Woods loses poker duel to Russell Westbrook in worst way Tigers Woods’ good fortune appears to be running thin. 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__label__wiki	0.676098	0.676098	Tag: Crossness Engines Trust The Royal Arsenal Canal today Looking from the former canal entrance, across the coal pier, towards the Woolwich free ferry, the Thames Barrier, Canary Wharf and Central London. The flats on the extreme right are built on land where the Woolwich class narrow boats were once built. A look at the waterway The canal is… History of the Royal Arsenal Railway (The following section on the railway was kindly written for London Canals by Ian Bull of the Crossness Engines Trust) The Royal Arsenal’s railways began in 1824 with a horse drawn plateway that was regarded as complete by 1840 when it had reached 15 miles in length. It’s likely that… The Royal Arsenal Canal – The waterway serving the Woolwich military complex The Royal Arsenal (or Woolwich Arsenal) canal was designed by Lietunant Colonel Pilkington and built between 1812-14, and extended again by 1816. It had a dual purpose – one was to deliver materials into the heart of the Royal Arsenal military complex and the other was to create a defence…	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1498
__label__cc	0.729872	0.270128	LoneSwimmer The World's Best Guide To Cold & Open Water Swimming About LoneSwimmer Cold Water Swimming Channel & Marathon Swimming Articles Swimming Links Swimming Around Hook Head LoneSwimmer / September 23, 2014 Though it sits at the tip of the Hook peninsula, the historic Hook Head lighthouse is almost more remote than some of the Irish offshore lighthouses. The Tower of Hook, as it’s known locally, is the world’s second oldest operational lighthouse, and it’s said locally that the phrase “by Hook or by Crook” arose because when indicating his intention to attack the city of Waterford (Ireland’s oldest city, and one of the largest Viking cities), Oliver Cromwell said he would invade by Hook (Head) or by Crook (village), which is on the opposite side of the estuary. It’s location and strategic importance have given the promontory a long place in Irish history. Hook Head is a regular year round afternoon destination for us. Exposed, and located as it is on Ireland’s south-east tip sitting out into the Atlantic, it catches a lot of wind and rough water. The peninsula is low and almost treeless and it’s an attraction for a photographer, as it can be shot at dawn or sunset at different times of the year. Tower of Hook stormy sunset – (one of the photos when I finally knew I was starting to get better as a photographer) An open water swimmer cannot but visit it and think about swimming around the tip, despite the wrecks that dot the sea-floor (which attract a lot of scuba divers), and the many tragedies that have happened and continue to occur in these dangerous waters. It was another unplanned Sunday, when the late summer weather warmed up after a cool August, the sky was clear and the Hook west webcam showed calm water. Well, it’s another local swim I’d been meaning to do, so why not today? A few weekends before, while we still had a loan of Owen O’Keeffe’s kayak, we’d finally, finally completed an eight kilometre swim around Black Rock in Dungarvan bay starting from the east end of Clonea. It was another challenging swim that had long eluded me, as the Rock sits out in the navigation channel and is subject to strong off-shore and cross currents I’ve encountered previously and which isn’t safe for a single unaccompanied swimmer (I do actually have safety standards). But we’d had no camera that day to illustrate a post. Hook is about an hour’s drive away, crossing over on the brief Passage East car ferry, by early afternoon we had parked outside the lighthouse and walked the three kilometres around the coast to the tiny eastern fishing harbour of Slade, barely protected from the prevailing south-westerlies inside the eastern side of the peninsula. Because of the extreme weather here, the small harbour is split by a double wall to give further protection, while above the village of a few house stands the ruin of another castle keep. After a quick chat with a couple of local retired fishermen inquiring if there was anything I needed to be aware of (“be careful around the Hook, the currents are very dangerous there“), I changed and climbed down the ladder to the silted up corner of the low-tide harbour and waded out past the first mooring before setting off. My orange cap. Always an orange cap! The water in Slade Harbour was, by a long shot, the most foul, rank and putrid tasting water I’ve ever had the misfortune to encounter. But it was only about 75 metres before I reached the entrance and headed out into fresher tasting open sea, swinging right and south by the coast, carefully avoiding many hidden reefs, while Dee and the Doglet were silhouetted on the coastal path. The tip of Hook is a mix of rocks but mostly terraced Old Red Sandstone that slopes into the sea and is a popular destination for geology students on field trips. On a sunny afternoon the terraces provided an excellent base for many shore anglers chasing bass and the late summer mackerel so I had to stay far enough out to avoid cast lines. As the coast varied I was from about 100 metres to 50 metres out. Just after leaving Slade. Remember that rule, the water is always rougher than it looks? The whitecaps are an indicator of a Force Three wind. The breeze was Force Three from the south-east, so initially as I left Slade it was into my face and the waves were bouncing and reflecting from the shore and inside reefs before I could move around the nearby rocks. People who say you should swim very close to shore have little experience of how waves can reflect back onto a swimmer and can double the rough surface caused by the wind as amplitudes collide and add up unpredictably. Once I moved south-west from the first outcrop 200 metres from the harbour, from my low vantage point the next way point was a low outcrop about a kilometre distant, and about 1200 metres from the harbour exit, but as I moved more south then south-west, it became obvious from my slow progress that I was swimming into a slight westerly current. As so often happens, Dee afterwards told me I was accompanied by a couple of grey seals which I didn’t see at the time. The number of shore anglers was lessening as I moved west and the chop moved to my left. Progress was indeed slow and I didn’t reach the seven or eight metre height of the south-east side, 1200 metres from the start until forty minutes had passed, having taken twice as long as I’d expect to travel the distance unimpeded. Swimming directly west after that point, I could see finally the tip of the light-house and occasional glimpse of Dee and the Doglet watching me and taking photo’s. Approaching the south-east tip of Hook Head. I reached the extensive rock terraces in front of the light-house before an hour has passed and the breeze and chop shifted to behind me and slackened. I stayed clear of the reefs and hoped to catch a glimpse of one of the submerged wreck but such didn’t happen. I passed the light-house on my right as I started to progress north-west and the water completely flattened, protected from the south-easterly breeze while I could see the many visitors on the Hook and an occasional person taking the tour to the top of the light-house. The water calms in the foreground as I round the headland, rougher water visible outside the current Regardless of weather, even in the calmest conditions some small waves will break on the Hooks south-west tip and I could see the small white breakers below the Tower. And I could see the small white breakers below the Tower. I wasn’t moving forward at all. It must have taken a couple of minutes before I realised that despite the now flat water and incoming tide and even south-east breeze, there was a strong north-west current. Up on land my stall was immediately obvious to Dee and to a woman whom she said was watching and who declaimed that I “must have someone watching over me from the lighthouse“. Stuck in the current and sprinting hard. In the far distance is Powerstown Head on the east side of Tramore Bay, my usual haunt with the Copper Coast a blue layer beyond. I mentally and subconsciously reviewed my options and went for Plan A – Swim Harder. I went for a maximum sprint. Of course, that’s an open water swimmers sprint, more like a pool 400 metre effort, not something that you can swim for 50 or 100 metres that you can’t maintain at that pace. A minute, 90 seconds, two minutes, I was swimming flat out. Very, very slowly the small white breakers moved. It took me about ten minutes to cover 80 metres. Had that not worked, I’d have next tried Plan B, Swim In a Different Direction and swum away from the Hook but my subconsciousness told me that risked being either pushed south as I swum out, or finding I’d have to swim a long way up into the estuary to be able to get back in across the current, while being swept back to possibly to where I’d been almost stopped. I also had Plan F – Get Out, in reserve, and I could have reversed direction and likely got out on the reefs. Finally through the worst of the current. Dunmore east is visible across the estuary with a cruise ship moored off the fishing harbour. The current lessened but didn’t disappear I continued along to my target finish destination about 500 metres along the west side at the tiny beach formerly used for launching inshore fishing craft many decades ago. The swim was a mere 3500 metres, but it took me 90 minutes to finish, 30 minutes longer than expected. Hook Head, like Kilmore Quay, is a challenging and potentially dangerous swimming location. It’s certainly not for beginners and should be approached with caution and only if you have a range of speeds and sufficient real confidence from prior experience and not over-confidence. Swimming into the tiny cove with the Tower of Hook behind and directly south. As always, this mini swimming adventure was facilitated by my wonderful and long-suffering partner and the Doglet. September 23, 2014 in Open Water swimming. Tags: Hook head, Hook lighthouse, Locations, mini-adventure, Open Water swimming, Plan A, Plan B, Sandstone, Slade, Swim Reports, swimming adventures, swimming around Hook Head, swimming into current, Tower of Hook, Wexford A visit to Hook Head Pictorial review of the 2014 swimming year – II Pictorial review of the 2014 swimming year – I ← Dark Night of the Soul Swimming for beginning open water swimmers and triathletes is like planting a tree. Twenty common beginner triathlete questions answered. → 8 thoughts on “Swimming Around Hook Head” Pingback: Pictorial review of the 2014 swimming year – II \| LoneSwimmer michael walsh says: Hi Donal, Congratulations on winning the Blog Award for Best Sport and Recreation again. Have been reading your blog for some years now and have swam nearly all your locations thanks to the insights, knowledge, and experience you have shared on loneswimmer. Thank you. Just have a question that I hope doesn’t seem pedantic. You describe the current you encountered as a westerly that slowed your progress but you were swimming westerly so surely it would have speeded up your progress. Just wondered if you meant easterly? LoneSwimmer says: Thanks Michael. Glad these swim reports are useful to you. The details are correct. Yes I was swimming into the west and then northwest, but currents, like winds are described by the direction from which they originate. So a westerly current flows to the east as an easterly wind blows from the east. Hope this clarifies. Donal Colfer says: Hi. I’m from Slade village and I’ve been open water swimming for a good while with Templeogue Masters, mainly in Dublin. Have been doing a few mile swims around the bay at Slade but never around the Hook. Let me know the next time you’re planning this. I’d love to join in. Swam from Saltee islands to Kilmore last year. Was great! Hi Donal, thanks for the comment.This is the kind of ad-hoc swim I tend to do during the summer with little planning or notice, if any. I can’t foresee doing it again this year, but maybe next year. One swim is entirely insufficient to understand the currents around the Hook, strong as they proved to be. I’d need to swim it on different tides even on a calm day to get a better idea, before I’d risk anyone else’s safety. I forgot to add the total time and map to the first post so they are attached now, 1 Hr 30 mins to swim 3500 metres is 30 minutes longer that the distance should take in neutral currents. samkrohn says: By Hook or By Crook Donal the toolbox was taken out on this one! This post for me highlights two things. Trained and Untrained. I can tell you I won’t be swimming around the Hook any time soon before first increasing endurance and speed maybe next summer who knows….. Hey Sam, I didn’t include the map and timings in the first post of this, which I’ll add after this. 1 hr 30m to swim 3500m is a speed reduction of 50% for me, which is a huge drop. The big question over the location for me is understanding the currents around the Head and this only possible with repeated swimming of the location at different tides, but probably not in any worse conditions, something I have no current plans to do. Maybe next summer though, as you say. Hi Donal, although small by comparison I can relate to strong currents experienced just outside Dunmore East and we had been swimming that location all summer. Like you we sprinted but it was the first real experience of the treadmill for me and one which we did not expect. Plan B was to exit onto the base of the cliffs with an easy enough traverse back to the cove but we stuck with plan A instead. Its a big enough estuary the river system surely dominates here with the mixing of freshwater and saltwater which is bound to effect the water flow and speed of currents. Having seen the water column in Tramore Bay separate once I can at least picture the effect that saline content has on liquid. Freshwater will run faster over the saltwater creating treadmill like conditions. What do you think? Leave a Reply to LoneSwimmer Cancel reply Donate to LoneSwimmer.com The Bible of Cold Water Swimming - Index A Short List of Open Water Swimming-related Fears How To understand and choose between the different types of swimming googles How To: Understand Lane Swimming etiquette (with INFOGRAPHIC) How To: "What does 965hPA mean?" Enter your email address to subscribe to LoneSwimmer.com and receive notifications of new posts by email. LoneSwimmer’s Twitter Feed For all the use this will do, there are Lion's Mane jellies in Tramore Bay today. 6 days ago @smcgui Sorry for delay replying, only logged in 2day. Lot of change in last week. 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__label__wiki	0.666283	0.666283	MacCutcheon whisky MacCutcheon {{{Caption}}} First introduced "Flashes Before Your Eyes" "Happily Ever After" Anthony Cooper, Charles Widmore, unknown passenger of Flight 815 Sawyer, from the wreckage; Charlie, from Sawyer's stash Widmore, Hurley, Charlie, Desmond, Cooper, Sayid, Ilana, Margo MacCutcheon is the name of a fictional brand of expensive Scotch whisky prominently featured throughout the series. Off the Island When Desmond met with Charles Widmore to ask for his daughter's hand in marriage, Widmore took out two glasses and a bottle of MacCutcheon 60-year whisky, and poured some into one glass while describing the many achievements of Admiral Anderson MacCutcheon. He said the whisky was the Admiral's crowning achievement, and one swallow is worth more than what Desmond would make in a month. He left the other glass empty, claiming Desmond, unlike the Admiral, would never be great, and was therefore unworthy of drinking his whisky or marrying Penelope. Desmond also saw a bottle of the whisky behind the bar in the pub. ("Flashes Before Your Eyes") Anthony Cooper prefers MacCutcheon. Locke's father, Anthony Cooper, also poured him a glass of this whisky before he threw him out of an eight story window. ("The Man from Tallahassee") In 2005, Widmore had taken to sleeping with a bottle of MacCutcheon next to his bed. ("The Shape of Things to Come") Before returning to the Island, Sayid drank MacCutcheon in a U.S. bar, where it was said to cost $120 USD a glass. He met Ilana at the bar, who agreed to tell him about herself if he also bought her a glass. ("He's Our You") Charlie found a bottle in Sawyer's stash and planned to use it to get Desmond drunk enough to reveal his secrets. Desmond refused to drink until he saw what brand it was. MacCutcheon Scotch whisky had become a symbol to him of his unworthiness in Widmore's eyes, and so the opportunity to obtain and drink it when presented to him by Charlie was irresistible. ("Flashes Before Your Eyes") Charlie finds a bottle of MacCutcheon in Sawyer's stash. While Jack and his mother searched for Christian's Last Will and Testament, Margo went over to the bar where there was a bottle of MacCutcheon visible. ("Lighthouse") When Desmond met his boss, Widmore, in his L.A. offices, they enjoyed a couple of glasses of a 60 year old MacCutcheon whisky to celebrate Desmond's indispensability and that nothing was too good for Desmond. ("Happily Ever After") Admiral MacCutcheon is the name of a character in a television remake film of the classic story, 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (by Jules Verne). In this remake, Adewale Akinnuoye-Agbaje plays the character Cabe Attucks. In chess, the "MacCutcheon" is a variation of the French Defense opening [1][2] [3]. Related books include Remember the MacCutcheon by James Eade, as well as numerous New In Chess yearbooks. Outside the US, scotch is sold in 700ml (23.67 fl.oz.) bottles. Assuming Desmond would have made 930 AUD (750 USD) a week working in the administrative department and that "a swallow" was about 1.5 oz, the bottle of 60-year-old would cost more than 63,800 AUD (51,500 USD). Per shot it would cost over 4,040 AUD (3,260 USD). In the US, scotch is sold in 750 ml (25.36 fl.oz.) bottles, and standard shots are 1.5 fl.oz. At $120 a glass, a bottle would cost $2,030. Of course scotch is available in different ages, and a bottle of say 15-year-old, would cost much much less than a bottle of 60-year-old. Currently, the worlds most expensive Scotch is a $75,000 1926 Macallan. According to the link, the bottle in question was sold to a business man in South Korea, which is where the Paik family is from. It should be noted that Scotches with ages above 50 years generally have a price point well in the thousands of dollars per 700-750ml bottle. It could be that characters refer to the Scotch being much more expensive as a means to demean other characters (such as when Widmore is talking to Hume) and that bars also have mark-up that makes the Scotch much more expensive than if you were to buy a bottle (such as when Sayid was in the bar). It's not unheard of to find $200 glasses of Scotch in finer bars and restaurants. In the television show Fringe the season 3 episode "Lysergic Acid Diethylamide" William Bell pours a glass of MacCutcheon whisky In the episode "The Shepherd" on the ABC television show Once Upon a Time, Emma pours Mary Margaret a glass of 60-year MacCutcheon. Alan Dale starred in this episode. In the episode "The Apprentice" in season 4 of ABC's Once Upon a Time, Emilie de Ravin's character (Belle) finds Will Scarlet passed out drunk on the floor of the Storybrook library next to an open and near empty bottle of MacCutcheon 60-year Scotch. A bottle is also clearly seen during S4E14 from which David/Prince Charming has been pouring and drinking glasses to try and sleep. Portrayed by Henry Ian Cusick "Live Together, Die Alone" • "Flashes Before Your Eyes" • "Catch-22" • "The Constant" • "Jughead" • "Happily Ever After" "Everybody Loves Hugo" • "What They Died For" • "The End" Auctioneer • Barista • Bartender • Billy • Pierre Chang • Brother Campbell • David • Delivery man • Derek • Donovan • Eloise • Daniel Faraday • Eloise Hawking • Charlie Hume • Penelope Hume • Kelvin Inman • Jimmy Lennon • Man wearing red shoes • Brother Martin • Master Sergeant • Charlie Pace • Partridge • Photographer • Physics student • Receptionist • Ruth • Efren Salonga • Sergeant • Libby Smith • Soldier • Suited guard • Charles Widmore • Abigail Spencer • Theresa Spencer Assistant • Kate Austen • Arnie Bocklin • Clipboard guy • Ana Lucia Cortez • Doctor • Doyle • Stephanie Leifer • Lawyer • Sayid Jarrah • Benjamin Linus • Claire Littleton • John Locke • Mary Markey • Penelope Milton • George Minkowski • MRI tech • Charlie Pace • Nicholas Pepper • Hugo Reyes • Rhodes • Jack Shephard • Nurse Tyra • Ilana Verdansky • Charles Widmore • Daniel Widmore • Eloise Widmore Letters (Desmond) • Elizabeth • Letter (Penny) • Lightning rod • MacCutcheon whisky • Our Mutual Friend (book) • Photograph • Satellite phone • Our Mutual Friend (sailboat) Retrieved from "https://lostpedia.fandom.com/wiki/MacCutcheon_whisky?oldid=1112709"	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1503
__label__cc	0.728464	0.271536	Could rosemary scent boost brain performance? by SAGE Publications Hailed since ancient times for its medicinal properties, we still have a lot to learn about the effects of rosemary. Now researchers writing in Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology, published by SAGE, have shown for the first time that blood levels of a rosemary oil component correlate with improved cognitive performance. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) is one of many traditional medicinal plants that yield essential oils. But exactly how such plants affect human behaviour is still unclear. Mark Moss and Lorraine Oliver, working at the Brain, Performance and Nutrition Research Centre at Northumbria University, UK designed an experiment to investigate the pharmacology of 1,8-cineole (1,3,3-trimethyl-2-oxabicyclo[2,2,2]octane), one of rosemary's main chemical components. The investigators tested cognitive performance and mood in a cohort of 20 subjects, who were exposed to varying levels of the rosemary aroma. Using blood samples to detect the amount of 1,8-cineole participants had absorbed, the researchers applied speed and accuracy tests, and mood assessments, to judge the rosemary oil's affects. Results indicate for the first time in human subjects that concentration of 1,8-cineole in the blood is related to an individual's cognitive performance with higher concentrations resulting in improved performance. Both speed and accuracy were improved, suggesting that the relationship is not describing a speedaccuracy trade off. Meanwhile, although less pronounced, the chemical also had an effect on mood. However, this was a negative correlation between changes in contentment levels and blood levels of 1,8-cineole, which is particularly interesting because it suggests that compounds given off by the rosemary essential oil affect subjective state and cognitive performance through different neurochemical pathways. The oil did not appear to improve attention or alertness, however. Terpenes like 1,8-cineole can enter the blood stream via the nasal or lung mucosa. As small, fat-soluble organic molecules, terpenes can easily cross the bloodbrain barrier. Volatile 1,8-cineole is found in many aromatic plants, including eucalyptus, bay, wormwood and sage in addition to rosemary, and has already been the subject of a number of studies, including research that suggests it inhibits acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase enzymes, important in brain and central nervous system neurochemistry: rosemary components may prevent the breakdown of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. "Only contentedness possessed a significant relationship with 1,8-cineole levels, and interestingly to some of the cognitive performance outcomes, leading to the intriguing proposal that positive mood can improve performance whereas aroused mood cannot," said Moss. Typically comprising 35-45% by volume of rosemary essential oil, 1,8-cineole may possess direct pharmacological properties. However, it is also possible that detected blood levels simply serve as a marker for relative levels of other active compounds present in rosemary oil, such as rosmarinic acid and ursolic acid, which are present at much lower concentrations. Rosemary chicken protects your brain from free radicals More information: Plasma 1,8-cineole correlates with cognitive performance following exposure to rosemary essential oil aroma by Mark Moss and Lorraine Oliver is published today, 24th February in Therapeutic Advances in Psychopharmacology. Provided by SAGE Publications Citation: Could rosemary scent boost brain performance? (2012, February 24) retrieved 16 July 2019 from https://medicalxpress.com/news/2012-02-rosemary-scent-boost-brain.html Using wastewater to enhance mint production Fish oil supplements boost mental performance: study Spicing the Meat Also Cuts the Cancer Risk Physical activity, school performance may be linked: study Vitamin D found in fish boosts brain power Can videogames promote emotional intelligence in teenagers? Increases in social media use and television viewing associated with increases in teen depression Working memory in psychotic disorders Coping strategy therapy for family dementia carers works long-term Birthmark Isaacsname I love Rosemary, I love it so much, I wish I could smoke it too. ...o,O wait....this would mean aromatherapy has some merit ? whowouldathunkit ? Reproduction: a new venue for studying function of adult neurogenesis? Lau BW, Yau SY, So KF. Cell Transplant. 2011;20(1):21-35. Epub 2010 Sep 30. Review. The authors of the article cited above posit that it is the effect of pheromones on luteinizing hormone that leads to increased hippocampal neurogenesis which is linked to learning, memory, and behavior. Members of another group have applied for a patent to use pheromones (social odors) for treatment of Alzheimer's disease rather than the more invasive neural stem cell transplants. Perhaps plant odors will turn out to be as effective as pheromones in treatment of age-related neurodegenerative diseases because they act on the same neurophysiological pathways, as detailed in my forthcoming article to appear in Socioaffective Neuroscience & Psychology.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1510
__label__wiki	0.832815	0.832815	Post-run ice baths not beneficial for strength, soreness, researchers say by University of New Hampshire Naomi Crystal '11G conducts research on the effectiveness of post-exercise ice baths in UNH's Robert Kertzer Exercise Physiology Laboratory. Credit: Amy Davies Dunking in a tub of ice water after exercise – a surprisingly popular post-workout regimen used by athletes to reduce inflammation and speed recovery – is time consuming and bone-achingly painful. New research from the University of New Hampshire finds that it may not be effective, either. In a study published in the European Journal of Applied Physiology, researchers report that research subjects who engaged in post-exercise cryotheraphy, or ice baths, showed no mitigation of post-exercise strength loss or decreased soreness compared to a control group. "It doesn't help you feel better and it doesn't help you perform better," says lead researcher Naomi Crystal '11G. "Ice baths are very popular as a treatment, but the research is really mixed as to whether they're beneficial. They're miserable. If it doesn't work, you don't want to waste your time." The study was Crystal's master's degree thesis; co-authors are UNH associate professor of kinesiology Dain LaRoche, assistant professor of kinesiology Summer Cook, and associate professor of molecular, cellular and biomedical sciences Dave Townson. For the study, the researchers recruited 20 recreationally active college-age men to run for 40 minutes downhill at a grade of -10 percent. Half the subjects then submitted to a 20-minute ice bath, standing in a tall recycling bin filled with thigh-high ice water cooled to a chilly five degrees Celsius (40 degrees Fahrenheit). "That's really cold," Crystal admits. "I had some guys close to tears." This image shows a chilly subject in a study on the effectiveness of post-exercise ice baths. Credit: Amy Davies Crystal was interested in the ice bath's effect on soreness, strength, swelling and inflammation. The researchers conducted three post-exercise measures taken at intervals from one hour to three days: they measured the subjects' perceived soreness while walking down stairs; tested quadriceps strength on a resistance machine; measured thigh circumference; and looked at the concentration of plasma chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2), a marker for inflammation, in blood samples. The researchers found no difference in strength or perceived soreness between the subjects who took ice baths and the control group. Thigh circumference did not change significantly for any of the subjects after the run. Difference between the two groups' CCL2 concentrations, while not statistically significant, showed a trend toward lower concentrations in the cryotherapy subjects, although this measure varied greatly between the subjects. "The study suggested that there might have been a mild reduction in inflammation, but it wasn't conclusive," says LaRoche, who was Crystal's advisor. The lack of difference between the control and the cryotherapy group surprised the researchers. "I expected to see an improvement in soreness, an improvement in strength with the ice bath," says Crystal. She notes that research on ice baths has produced a range of results, in part because there's no standard protocol for the treatment. LaRoche commends Crystal's study design for using biochemical, physical, and subjective measures, an approach that crossed departmental lines to involve co-authors from her department as well as Townson, from the College of Life Sciences and Agriculture. "It had a variety of ways of looking at whether ice baths were effective or not," he says. While the researchers state that their study does not support the use of cryotherapy for recovery from exercise, Crystal's personal view is more moderated. "I'm not convinced that it doesn't help at all," she says. "Use them sparingly. Use them in tournament situations, use them with an athlete who has done something extraordinary. But for day-to-day athletes, I wouldn't recommend them. They're painful, and they're time consuming." Cold water baths reduce muscle soreness but evidence lacking on safety More information: The article, "Effect of cryotherapy on muscle recovery and inflammation following a bout of damaging exercise," is available online in the European Journal of Applied Physiology. link.springer.com/article/10.1 … 07/s00421-013-2693-9 Journal information: European Journal of Applied Physiology Provided by University of New Hampshire Citation: Post-run ice baths not beneficial for strength, soreness, researchers say (2013, August 19) retrieved 16 July 2019 from https://medicalxpress.com/news/2013-08-post-run-ice-beneficial-strength-soreness.html Watermelon juice relieves post-exercise muscle soreness Extreme cold good for exercise recovery Partnering with a pharmacist may decrease burnout among primary care providers Fewer than half of US adults exposed to court-ordered anti-smoking advertisements Study examines association between care management and outcomes in Medicare ACOs #BeatEngland, beat sunburn	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1511
__label__cc	0.710071	0.289929	Reversing severe bone loss by Tohoku University A computed tomography image shows more bone breakdown in the femur of a mouse with Fbw7 gene knocked out similar to people with Hadju-Cheney syndrome (right) compared to control mice (left). Credit: Hidefumi Fukushima A possible first-line treatment for a rare bone loss disease has been identified by a research team led by Tohoku University in Japan. The research findings, published in the journal Molecular Cell, could also provide insight into treating age-related osteoporosis. Hajdu-Cheney syndrome is a rare genetic disease that leads to severe osteoporosis and developmental defects, including the reabsorption of bones in the hands and feet. The disease is associated with mutations in a particular gene, called NOTCH2, which codes for proteins involved with bone maintenance. The NOTCH2 proteins usually help balance destruction and construction essential for bone maintenance and repair. Mutations associated with Hajdu-Cheney syndrome upset that balance, but the exact mechanisms causing bone resorption have not been well understood. Now, through a series of detailed tests, molecular biologist Hiroyuki Inuzuka and his colleagues have worked out the specific molecular pathway that results in Hajdu-Cheney syndrome. They found that this particular NOTCH2 mutation does not maintain normal NOTCH2 protein abundance, with the help of another protein, called FBW7. To discover this, the researchers knocked out the gene for Fbw7 in the bones of mice. Without the gene and resulting protein, the mice had severe osteoporosis, much like people with Hajdu-Cheney syndrome—indicating that FBW7 is the primary regulator of this system. They further determined that in humans with Hajdu-Cheney syndrome, the FBW7 protein was unable to bind to NOTCH2 proteins because the binding spot is missing in osteoclasts. This mutation allows the osteoclasts to over-operate, breaking down too much bone tissue. The researchers were able to reverse bone loss in the knock-out mice with the elevated NOTCH2 by giving them a medication that blocks osteoclast formation. They tried several different treatments, including a chemical compound called DAPT that was particularly effective. DAPT has been shown to help with osteoarthritis by inhibiting function of NOTCH proteins in other studies. Using DAPT as well as Zoledronic acid, a common medication for osteoporosis, "may become a first-line treatment for Hadju-Cheney syndrome," the researchers conclude in their study. "By clearly identifying the relationship between FBW7 and NOTCH2 proteins, we have identified potential therapeutic targets for patients with rare bone diseases as well as much more widespread age-related osteoporosis," said Inuzuka. Researchers show gene variant causes Hajdu-Cheney syndrome, may illuminate bone loss more generally More information: Hidefumi Fukushima et al, NOTCH2 Hajdu-Cheney Mutations Escape SCF FBW7 -Dependent Proteolysis to Promote Osteoporosis, Molecular Cell (2017). DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2017.10.018 Journal information: Molecular Cell Provided by Tohoku University Citation: Reversing severe bone loss (2018, February 7) retrieved 16 July 2019 from https://medicalxpress.com/news/2018-02-reversing-severe-bone-loss.html Choloroquine reduces formation of bone resorbing cells in murine osteoporosis Researchers discover gene that slows bone loss and promotes bone formation Study offers new hope for treatment of osteoporosis Research identifies how master regulator, bone-building protein can be used for therapy Helping transplanted stem cells stick around and do their jobs Loose RNA molecules rejuvenate skin, researchers discover Can magnetic stem cells improve cartilage repair?	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1512
__label__wiki	0.78996	0.78996	News tagged with vaccine safety Top global public health scientists launch new challenge to anti-vaxxers Search engines and social media organizations must do more to prevent the spread of inaccurate information on childhood vaccination, and governments must better support mandatory immunization programs, says an international ... Pathogen engineered to self-destruct underlies cancer vaccine platform A team of investigators has developed a cancer vaccine technology using live, attenuated pathogens as vectors. A feature of the vaccine causes these bacteria to self-destruct once they've done their job, making it safe for ... 45% of American adults doubt vaccine safety, according to survey A recent online survey of more than 2,000 U.S. adults, conducted by The Harris Poll on behalf of the American Osteopathic Association, revealed that more than two in five American adults (45%) say something has caused them ... Experts discuss measles outbreak and the peril of anti-vax misinformation Measles was declared eliminated in the U.S. in 2000, but by early June, the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention reported 1,022 cases in 28 states, the most since 1992. Anti-vaxxers appear to be losing ground in the online vaccine debate As measles outbreaks spread across the U.S., our new look at how information about vaccine safety and reliability spreads online suggests that the tide may be turning against the anti-vaccination movement. Vaccine developed to treat osteoarthritic pain by blocking nerve growth factor In a collaborative effort between the Jenner Institute and the Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology at the University of Oxford, with colleagues in the University of Bern, and the Latvian Biomedical Research & Study Centre, ... How to talk to anti-vaxxers When Rachel Alter started off as a graduate student, she expected to investigate epidemics, bioterrorism and disease eradication. But her focus started to shift after she began chatting with anti-vaxxers—people opposed ... CDC examines safety of recombinant zoster vaccine (HealthDay)—During the first eight months of recombinant zoster vaccine (RZV) use, there were reports of 4,381 adverse events, 3 percent of which were serious, according to research published in the Feb. 1 issue of the ... Searching for a vaccine against mistrust All of the following happened during a three-week stretch in August: The cancer-preventing HPV vaccine a dozen years on: Progress, fear and loathing A dozen years after the debut of the HPV vaccine, its track record of warding off infections that cause cervical cancer and other malignancies keeps getting better.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1513
__label__wiki	0.628274	0.628274	And We Stay by Jenny Hubbard I was intrigued by the synopsis for And We Stay immediately – it had a mysterious, almost ghosty feel to it, plus I liked the idea of incorporating Emily Dickinson along with a character named Emily who writes poetry. It’s like an English major and YA fanatic’s dream come true. There were several things I liked about this story. One, Emily Beam is an interesting protagonist. In the beginning I almost had a feeling like I couldn’t trust her, but then I figured out she was just as confused as I was. She was clearly trying to get over something tragic, and watching her work through it using her poetry and her blooming friendship with K.T. was fascinating. That leads me to the poetry. Emily’s poetry really was Dickins-esque. I loved every word related to the two Emilys and the way their poetry was woven into the story. Emily Beam’s poetry grows and develops throughout the novel, and since it’s written in third person instead of first person, the poetry gives us valuable insight into Emily Beam’s thought process. Really, really, superbly, well done. There’s a great cast of supporting characters here. From Emily Beam’s old English teacher to her ex-boyfriend’s sister to her French teacher, her roommate, and other students at Amherst School for Girls. They’re all believable. Flawed, not stereotypical, and perfect for this story. At several points throughout the story I wanted to find and strangle Emily’s parents, but beyond that, the characters were great. And what a setting… I mean, you can’t get more fun and sort of creepy than Emily Dickinson’s old stomping grounds. The facts that were woven into this were interesting and added so much to the story. I also respect the way Jenny Hubbard handled some very heavy topics. From a shooting in a high school library to teen pregnancy to abortion, Hubbard never treats the heavy topics like they’re no big deal. And, as a woman who is whole-heartedly pro-life, I actually appreciate the real, raw, brutally honest way that Hubbard treats abortion. I almost stopped reading when it became clear that Emily Beam had an abortion after Paul died, but I kept reading because of how realistically she portrayed the emotional torment that results from an abortion. There were a few things that kept me from giving And We Stay my total and complete backing, most of which has to do with personal preference, honestly. For example, I really have a strong preference for first person narratives. I love getting to hear every thought of the protagonist. It makes me feel connected to them in a way that a third person narrative can’t do for me. Another thing was the quick verb tense shifts. While this led, in part, to the mysterious sort of confusing in a good way feel to the book, Emily’s story would shift from past to present so subtly that you had to really pay attention to make sure you didn’t miss anything important. Most importantly, while I know and understand that Emily Dickinson’s Christianity remains up for debate based on various poems and letters and statements and actions, I wish Hubbard hadn’t hit the religion so hard in this. It didn’t feel like it was left with a very hopeful tone faith-wise, so I wish it hadn’t been there quite so much. Maybe it hit me more significantly because I’m very sensitive to that, especially in YA titles, but I felt like the whole story would have been even better with less emphasis on the faith crisis, both of Emily Beam and Emily Dickinson. All of that being said, I really enjoyed And We Stay. Especially for anyone interested in seeing a literary figure like Emily Dickinson explored as the background for a modern day story, I highly recommend this! Find it here on Amazon or at your local retailer. February 4, 2014 Melissa Carpenter and we stay, emily dickinson, jenny hubbard, new release, poetry, reading, teen fiction, YA, young adult	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1515
__label__wiki	0.896611	0.896611	Ultraforce members (Earth-93060), Public Identity, Male Characters, Earth-93060 Characters Len Strazewski/Creator Norm Breyfogle/Creator Gerard Jones/Creator Kevin Green (Earth-93060)/Quotes Superhuman Speed Phoenix Force Spider-Verse participants Spider-Army members (Multiverse) Human/Spider Hybrids Gross Babies Kevin Green (Earth-93060) Kevin Green Rogue-Prime, Phoenix-Prime, Spider-Prime Editorial Names Formerly Sensational Spider-Prime Russell Green (father), Ruth Green (mother), Judy Glick (aunt), Primevil (discard husk) Ultraforce; formerly Spider-Army Washington, D.C., Earth-93060; formerly New York City, New York; Canoga Park, Los Angeles, California Student; Adventurer 5' 4" (Kevin); 7'6" Variable (Prime) 100 lbs (45 kg) (Kevin); 700 lbs (375 kg) (Prime) Can change appearance, unrealistically muscular adult. Canoga Park, Los Angeles, California Len Strazewski, Norm Breyfogle, Gerard Jones Prime #1 (June, 1993) “It’s Prime Time !” -- Prime src Russel Green was working in a top secret military research department under Colonel Samuels. He and his wife, Ruth, experienced problems conceiving their first child. They had all but abandoned the idea of having a child of their own when Russel sought out Dr. Vincent Gross. Gross was a leading scientist within the American government’s classified Super-Soldier program. Gross' experiments were designed to grow ultra-powered soldiers in the bodies of ordinary women by implanting fast-mutating genes--using their babies as a catalyst. Gross agreed to use his experimental techniques to help the Greens in conceiving a baby. Russell happily signed all wavers. Ruth went through a number of treatments, and many samples were taken from Russell, but finally they conceived a son; Gross was excited about the special baby, a prime specimen. Kevin Green was born, a seemingly normal baby boy. Gross told them to come back for frequent check-ups, and he also instructed Russell that he must never let another doctor examine Kevin, because some of the techniques he had used were not legal. After a Senator threatened an investigation on Gross, he was forced to destroy many of his records, and he lost touch with those he had mutated. Kevin was a great kid and was genuinely happy. He never got sick no doctor ever gave him more than a preschool check-up, and he did well in school. Everything was perfect … until Kevin hit his 13th year. Becoming Prime Kevin's first transformation into Prime. Kevin began to experience intense stomach aches, and have some issues with the children in his school. One night burning with fever, Kevin was put to bed by his mother, while he was asleep, the pain grew in intensity to the point where he felt he might burst. With a sudden explosion of pain, Kevin transformed into a giant Adonis-like form for the first time while half asleep. Suddenly he returned to normal inside the giant body, which had decayed into a liquid that was drowning him. Forcing himself to go back to sleep, he thought he had dreamed it all until he found the empty skin on his bedroom floor. Panicked, he tore free from the body then disposed of its remains. Prime Time! After a night spend dreaming of himself as a monster, Kevin went to school and saw coach Meyer apparently grab Kelly Cantrell. Kevin was furious both at this action and at his own inability to do anything about it, but he then transformed into Prime. Excited, he flew into the air and accidentally hit a jet, knocking off one of its wings. He caught the plane and helped it land safely then flew back to school to teach Meyer a lesson. At John F. Kennedy Junior High School in Canoga Park, California, Prime made his first public appearance, confronting coach Meyer, telling him he knew what he had been doing to the girls he coached, assaulting and threatening him to force him to stop. When Meyer tried to fight back, Prime inadvertently broke his left arm. Before he left, Prime told Kelly that he was her protector. Prime smashed through the roof of a drug dealer's house, telling them not to deal in his neighborhood or anywhere else. The dealers attacked him with various firearm, but Prime defeated them all. The head dealer obtained a small sample of the liquid that leaked from Prime after he had been shot. [1] Kevin tearing his way out of the Prime skin. Doc Gross and Duey interviewed Coach Meyer and the drug dealer, getting the details on their encounters with Prime. Upon learning the dealer had a sample of Prime, Gross had the dealer slain so he could take the sample for himself.[citation needed] While Gross watched a TV report, Prime flew to the rebel-held relief station near Baigane, Solmalia and assisted the United Nation troops against terrorists. Prime was standing up to everything the terrorists threw at him, but then his body began to dissolve. Panicking, he flew back home, barely making it to crash through a window into an empty room, at which point the body died and Kevin began to drown. He tore his way out of the Prime skin and then threw up.[citation needed] Naked, exhausted, and covered in slime, Kevin returned home and collapsed in front of his mother. His parents took him to the hospital, where he was diagnosed with fatigue and dehydration, and he pretended to not remember what had happened to him. Upon returning to school, Kevin tried to talk to Kelly, but she tried to avoid him until he asked her about Prime.[citation needed] Meanwhile, a cleaning crew looked at their shattered window and the decaying slime on their floor. They were waiting for the police to get their samples when Organism 8 appeared, sniffed the slime, and then tracked it to Kevin at his school. At the same time, Kevin began to transform into Prime and had to run out class. Prime later met with Kelly, taking her for a ride as he flew through the sky, but they were assaulted in mid-air by Organism 8, and Prime barely caught Kelly before she hit the ground. Prime fought Organism 8 savagely, ultimately decapitating it, but after he left it simply grew a new head in its chest and came after him again. Organism 8 engulfed and captured Prime.[citation needed] Organism 8 brought Prime to Doc Gross, who chained him up and electrically shocked him when he tried to escape. Gross told Prime something of his origins, but when he tried to take further samples, Prime broke free and attacked him. Gross' lab assistant, Duey, transformed into Organism 8 to protect his creator and to obtain the samples Gross wanted. As they fought, the refreshed Organism 8 repeatedly injured Prime, even tearing off his cape, which was part of his body. Frightened and enraged, Prime hurled Organism 8 into the computer banks, causing an explosion that electrified both Gross and Organism 8 and then set the laboratory on fire. [citation needed] Hearing reports of the massive flooding in Des Moines, Iowa, Prime flew out to help and encountered Prototype, Hardcase, and Zip-Zap. As Prime stacked sandbags to hold back the waters, the sentient nanotech that had infected Leann Butler -- who had unwittingly caused the flooding -- then took physical form as a giant water monster. The monster grabbed Prime and Hardcase, holding them tightly while they could not harm its watery form. Zip-Zap formed a vortex around the water monster, draining the power from Leann and causing the water monster to weaken. The heroes broke free, and Prototype and Hardcase used Prime's cape to catch the shrinking water monster, then super-heated it, turning it into steam. Pained by the use of his cape, Prime threatened to attack Prototype due to an earlier altercation, but backed up when Prototype picked up Leann and flew to the hospital.[citation needed] Birth of a New Prime Russell Green contacted Colonel Samuels who met him at his house and became quite intrigued upon learning that Kevin was Prime. Prime just collapsed after a battle with "Maxi-Man", having completely exhausted himself, and he began to melt right in front of Kelly. Samuels and his men arrived, threw Prime in the back of a truck and took him away. Using epidermal stabilizer, injecting his fluid component with antibiotics to avoid putrefaction, and pumping oxygen into his chest cavity, they restored Prime. When he began to awake, however, they sedated him and took him back to their base.[citation needed] Prime underwent a number of virtual reality simulations in Col. Samuel's laboratory. While he proved successful against giant dinosaurs and other foes, every time he was sent into space he passed out from lack of oxygen and his Prime body inflated and exploded in the vacuum. Upon recovering, Prime initially assaulted Samuels, but the Colonel convinced Prime that he was an enemy of Doc Gross. [citation needed] Col. Samuels then explained to Prime that he would be going to the moon to investigate a series of energy blasts released from there that had empowered a number of beings. Samuels also told Prime that the world would be told that Prime himself had been mutated by one of these energy blasts (jumpstarts). When Samuels told Prime that after the mission he'd be sent back home he agreed to go. Despite training and scientific instruction, Prime was unable to adapt his body for space. Kevin grew discouraged, but Samuels then used a doctored video of Russell Green to convince him to continue to obey Samuels. Around the same time, Samuels overheard Russell Green starting to share some of the truth with Ruth Green, and he spoke to him through a speaker phone, instructing him to stop. Samuels' scientists designed a failsafe suit-canister for Kevin if his Prime body began to dissolve, and they outfitted him with oxygen tanks and then used bio-implants to develop a space worthy form for him.[citation needed] Break Thru Wearing a belt to track the energies of the Entity releasing the energy blast, Prime flew to the moon. There the entity began to assault him, growing giant stalagmites from the moon's surface, firing lasers, and creating doppelgangers of his family, Col. Samuels, and Kelly Cantrell from the moondust. Overcoming the attacks and recognizing the entity's duplicity, Prime confronted the entity itself, and it shared memories of its observations of Earth with him. As their minds touched, Prime fell under the entity's sway.[citation needed] Protecting the entity, Prime attacked Gate's approaching saucer and a battle ensued. However, Mantra, in an effort to survive on the lifeless moon, tapped into Prime's life energy, tipping the scales against Prime, although the Strangers, Choice and Prototype stepped in to help Prime. Hardcase leapt for the entity's cave, but was stopped by a weakened Prime. Hardcase punched him hard, penetrating Prime's hardened skin causing the green Prime body fluids to drift away. Prime left scared but was rescued by Mantra; reverting back to Kevin Green, he then told Mantra what he knew of the entity. Mantra, revitalized by Kevin's Prime energy, then left him safe in an oxygen cocoon as she left to fight for the entity. Rex Mundi's agents attacked again and Kevin sought his Prime power to be returned from Mantra, and he blasted out in his space-modified Prime body. Mundi's agents teleported away just before the entity exploded, but the heroes' minds had been linked by magic and they saw multiple incredible worlds. The explosion destroyed the entity's physical form and the ultras were left on the moon, but had discovered their purpose as heroes[citation needed] Return to Earth Prime attempted to help Prototype return to Earth, but his weakened Prime-body was unable to withstand the heat of re-entry and it began to melt. Prototype's armor melted into a fused position and he crashed in the ocean, but a fishing ship retrieved him in their nets. Recalling the cloth given to him by Mantra, he touched it and thought of her, and she helped guide him to crash into a pool, which softened the impact enough for him to survive. Mantra saved the dazed Kevin from drowning and took him back to her house, but Samuels agents traced his arrival and headed out to re-collect him. An organism planted in Samuels base by Dr. Gross then contacted Gross (in superhuman form), and he headed out after Prime as well.[citation needed] Kelly was surprised to find Kevin at Eden Blake (Mantra's host)'s house when she came to collect her babysitting money, but Eden sent her away. Eden tried and failed to convince Kevin that Samuels was not to be trusted, but Kevin stuck to his vow to the president. When Samuels showed up at her door shortly thereafter, Kevin went with him willingly, but then Gross assaulted Samuels' truck (and Kelly was struck by a piece of debris from the truck). Mantra arrived to help Kevin, but Gross then summoned three agents, including Organism 8 to stop her. Mantra sent power into Kevin, but she was too weakened by the effort, and Gross knocked her out. Gross--who failed to realize that Kevin/Prime was almost within his grasp, and who also mistakenly assumed that Mantra was one of his creations--took Mantra and escaped along with agents. Kevin turned into Prime, and when Samuels threatened his parents to try to force him to stay, Prime flipped out; he threatened to kill Samuels if he even touched them. Prime then headed out to try to save Mantra. Prime tore open the top of Gross' van and joined Mantra against Gross and his agents, and Mantra took control of the van but crashed it off a bridge. Gross then drugged Mantra and took her hostage but she gave Prime one of her rings before she passed out. Prime forced Samuels to flee, but Gross escaped with Mantra. Prime eventually figured out how to turn Mantra's ring into the Sword of Fangs, and he used it to track her to Gross' lab and free Mantra. She defeated Duey and fought another tentacled creature, but Prime began to breakdown in mid-battle with Gross. When the two were briefly separated, Mantra grabbed Kevin and flew him home, where he revealed that he knew she was Eden Blake. Asking him to keep her secret, she gave him a kiss on the cheek before flying off.[citation needed] Drafted into service Mantra dropped Kevin off back at his home, but after she left, Kevin was ambushed by Samuels' men, who attached a control collar to him. When Samuels confronted Kevin, he tried to turn into Prime, but the collar delivered an electric shock that shorted out his biogenetic powers. Samuels then forced Kevin to accompany him back to his base. Samuels had the President give Prime further instructions over a radio transmission, and then he allowed Kevin to turn into Prime and sent him to break up a group of terrorists taking over the Los Verdes nuclear base. In reality there was a peaceful demonstration at the abandoned base, but Samuels had previously hidden a stockpile of nuclear weapons there; further Samuels commented that he had expected that the demonstrators might have tripped the proximity sensors that might arm the bombs--and he wanted to frame Prime for causing the explosion to avoid the blame. Prime arrived at Los Verdes but found the demonstrators to be peaceful nuclear protestors; and after Prime heard Pres. Clinton speaking on television about appeasing the protestors he realized that he was being deceived. The protestors discovered the nuclear bombs, which had indeed been activated, and he flew into the nuclear arsenal. Prime grabbed the detonator and flew it deep into the Earth, but before he could escape, the detonator went off. Glowing with radiation from the detonator explosion, Prime flew into the air, bellowing with rage. Still glowing and enraged, Prime burst into Samuels' base, but Samuels simply flattened him with the control collar and then bound him in chains.[citation needed] Going rogue Meanwhile, Russell Green contacted private investigator Firearm to find his kidnapped son before informing him that his son is actually Prime. Firearm then identified that it was Col. Samuels who kidnapped Kevin and stealthily crept into the Samuels' military compound. Along the way, he saw the figure of Prime fly overhead. Later, deep inside the military compound, Firearm came across Prime strapped down with chains. Firearm shot the device powering Prime's shackles. Prime broke free, but Samuels then shot him repeatedly; weakened by the control collar, Prime's body began to degenerate. Firearm swung down, grabbed Kevin, and escaped with him. Firearm defended Kevin from Samuel's soldiers, and Kevin was astounded that a man with no powers could accomplish so much. Firearm told him that it isn't the powers that count, it's the man. The soldiers eventually managed to restrain Firearm and hold guns to his head, and the desperate Kevin--inspired by Firearm--managed to overcome the control collar. Kevin transformed into Prime, but in a new, more rogue form (complete with a scar over his right eye to match Firearm's). Samuels activated the collar again, but Firearm encouraged Prime to resist, and Prime reached into his own neck and tore out the collar. Firearm shot the two soldiers, and Prime charged Samuels, shrugging off his bullets. As Prime cornered Samuels, Samuels pulled out a knife and slit his throat. Firearm acknowledged that Prime had learned several of life's lessons. His experiences had left him bitter, petulant and angry. He was somewhat unstable before, but at this point he began to pick unnecessary fights with the people who surrounded him and destroyed public property because he could. He even fought with other Ultra-Humans to simply prove he was stronger. Returning home one morning, he turned back into Kevin and shoved his degenerated Prime body into a bag he took from some construction equipment. Ruth Green was full of questions, but Kevin blew her off and went to sleep. Ruth and Russell Green argued, and Russell agreed to temporarily move out while he investigated the people who had assaulted them and their house. When Russell met with Kevin, Kevin dumped his decayed Prime body on the floor to shock him. Russell explained their past with Doc Gross and Col. Samuels, after which Russell moved out. Kevin blew off his mom again in the morning as he daydreamed about becoming Prime forever. Ultraforce After hearing Ultra icon Hardcase (after rescuing Ghoul from a mob) comment on television that only Ultras would be able to police Ultras, Prime was inspired to form a team of Ultras. This same idea was separately pursued by Prototype (Jimmy Ruiz) and Contrary with her young ward Pixx. Around the same time, Atalon, leader of the Fire People, launched an attack on the surface world that drew the attention of all of the above. Prime made an announcement on national TV promoting a new police force by ultras for ultras. While Contrary sought to recruit Hardcase and Ghoul to her side, the teenage Prime and Prototype fought over who could form a better group, and who could do it first. Meanwhile, Atalon continued his invasion.[citation needed]Topaz, one of the three queens of Gwendor, somehow arrived on Earth and went on a rampage until being recruited by Contrary, whom she trusted because she was a woman. Prime and Prototype went after Atalon; Prime smashed a tunnel down into the realm of the Fire People and flew down to confront Atalon, who splattered his head with a single punch. Prototype, too, was nearly killed. Hardcase arrived in time to save them, and he, Contrary, Ghoul, Pixx, Prime, Prototype, and Topaz joined together as Ultraforce, with Hardcase as leader.[citation needed] Ultraforce received official government sanction from President Bill Clinton, and they had a press conference announcing their goals, the first of which was to stop Atalon and the Fire People. The group split up to try to recruit aid from Mantra, Night Man, and/or the Strangers. Prime sought out Mantra to recruit her into Ultraforce, surprising her in meditation and receiving an energy blast in the face. She refused his invitation, telling him that she didn't have time to join some club just because a little boy wanted her to. Contrary tried and failed to recruit the Freex, she then regathered Prime, Prototype, and Hardcase, pulling them away from their previous negotiations, to inform them that the Fire People were assaulting a nuclear weapons base in Russia. As Hardcase tried to formulate a plan, Contrary's manipulations of the younger males in the team caused Prime to lash out at him, and a fight erupted, that ended with Prime leaving the team. Prime brought in a man who physically abused his own son, but was then overwhelmed by reporters questioning him about his interests in kids, especially when they brought up his backpack which contained a young boy's clothing. Frustrated, Prime shouted out that he was a hero, trying to do some good in the world, as he shattered the sidewalk with his fist. He then took out a police helicopter that tried to arrest him, but was then assaulted by the super-fast Turbocharge, who ran circles around him and tricked him into crashing into an electronics store. Further frustrated upon hearing Hardcase discuss Prime's actions and allegations on television, followed by a report of Debbie Cantrell filing a restraining order against Prime, Prime flew out and secretly met with Kelly, taking her to where they could speak privately. Kelly revealed her dreams that Kevin was Prime, but she also revealed that she was uncomfortable with the idea of an adult liking her. Prime then kissed Kelly and prepared to reveal the truth, but then Turbocharge zipped in and grabbed Kelly, taking her away while asking her how he could get in good with Prime. Kelly punched him and made him let her go. Turbocharge then crashed into Prime head-on, knocking Prime on his butt, and then introduced himself as his new partner. Prime then took Kelly and flew her home, where he found a "Prime Gang" (radical Prime supporters) had grabbed Debbie Cantrell and were trying to harass her into saying she had been lying about Prime. Prime swatted his supporters and raged how no one understood him. When Kelly told him she never wanted to see him again he began to lose his confidence and fall apart, so he flew home. Feeling betrayed by Prime, the Prime Gang left. Falling apart as he crashed into his own lawn, Kevin sneaked into his house, but his mom heard him and told him to pack, because they were moving to New York to leave all of their current problems behind. Kevin vowed to make Al Baker pay for besmirching his image before they left. Gross & Disgusting Doc Gross and Duey took hostage the comatose body of Linda Warren (formerly Starburst), forcing Hardcase to obey their command to capture Prime for them; Gross further sent his flying monster poodle Fifi to follow Hardcase and transmit events back to Gross to prevent Hardcase from tipping Prime off on what was going on. Hardcase attracted Prime's attention by draping a giant "PRIME" label over the Hollywood sign, and then ambushed him. Prime fought back, initially ignoring Hardcase's efforts to get him far from Fifi so he could tell him the truth, but ultimately Prime listened and faked being choked into submission. Hardcase brought Prime back to Gross, and Gross trapped Prime within Organism 8. Gross' entire office building was revealed to be another mutate, and it spit out Hardcase and Linda before flying away, but then "Linda" decomposed, revealing itself to be yet another unstable mutate. With Prime held in improved nullification electrodes, Gross explained his plan to breed Prime with Linda to make a race of mutates. Prime refused to cooperate, but Gross began showing him holographic images of beautiful women to test his...capabilities. After Gross left, Prime forced his Prime body to collapse, enabling him to escape the manacles. Organism 39 altered Gross of this occurrence, and Duey chased after Prime, but Hardcase arrived to help him (having followed an injured Fifi there). Rebirth of a hero Hardcase did his best to battle the mutated twosome but was grossly outmatched in raw strength. Despite this, he refused to yield and kept fighting. Hardcase’s heroism inspired Kevin and touched something deep within him. Kevin found himself pondering his actions of the previous weeks and felt shame creeping into his soul. Angry at himself and his actions, Kevin resolved from that day forward to be more than what he had been. Kevin transformed into his Final Prime form. With a single thought, he willed his transformation to take place and a new Prime stood before the battling trio once more. Kevin’s body now closely resembled his original one, but still had traces of the one inspired by Firearm. Kevin threw himself at both Gross and Duey. With his awesome “Primal Power” managed to fight them to a standstill. As it turned out, Gross' mutated body was unstable, and unable to withstand Kevin’s assault. Even as the tunnel they had been fighting in collapsed about them, Gross’ mutated form melted away. Duey found Gross' still living remains and then absorbed them into himself, taking control of Gross and his own destiny. As Kevin and Hardcase escaped the collapse of Gross’ lair with Starburst, Duey disappeared into the darkness. Hardcase and Kevin eventually emerged into the sunlight, and exchanged a brief handshake before parting ways. What Hardcase could not know, was that Kevin had promised himself that from that point on, no one would be saying Prime was childish or monstrous, or anything else. Instead, he vowed from that point on, the only thing people would say was that Prime was a hero. Assault on the Fire People The rest of Ultraforce (minus Prime) headed out after the Fire People. Atalon raised an entire new island for the Fire People, and Ultraforce engaged them there. They initially took the advantage of surprise, but Atalon captured Ghoul, nearly killed Pixx and Contrary, and sent Prototype out to stop a missile he had launched. Prototype stopped the missile, and the timely return of Prime saved Pixx and Contrary. However, Atalon detonated a nuke on the surface of his island, making it too inhospitable for any of them to return to continue the fight. As the rest of Ultraforce regrouped and began to plan a new strategy against the massive power of Atalon, an unidentified plague began to spread across the USA. Prime comforted Prototype over his frustration in having allowed Atalon to capture Ghoul. Prime also reached out to Pixx, telling her that it was natural to feel insecure, even when you're...an adult. Realizing her mistakes in causing strife, Contrary made efforts to use her influence to unite the group. Pixx announced her plan to have the others distract Atalon while she would diffuse his arsenal. Prime tried to empathize with Pixx for her lack of control of her powers, but she shut him out. Contrary, Hardcase, Prime, Prototype, and Topaz distracted Atalon and the Fire People, while Pixx snuck into the chamber where he had stockpiled a massive nuclear arsenal. She succeeded in disabling the entire arsenal, and refused to heed Ghoul's pleading for her to stop when her radiation suit was damaged. By the time the others arrived, Pixx was dead from the radiation present from the previous explosion. Ultraforce teamed up against Atalon, driving him back, but he then collapsed the entire chamber on them. Realizing that his plans were falling to pieces, Atalon unleashed his full power into the Earth, causing powerful waves of gravity that would destroy the entire planet. Contrary teleported him into her ship and negotiated with him to grant him his own island nation for the Fire People if he would declare a truce against the world. Prime was furious that they were letting the bad guy get away with what he'd done, but Hardcase told him that this wasn't a comic book, and that they had to accept the best they could get. Move to New York Atalon's raising of an island from floor of the Atlantic Ocean released a giant sea monster that traveled to New York and went on a rampage. Ruth Green showed Kevin around New York, and when they arrived in Staten Island to see the Statue of Liberty they saw the monster, so Kevin sneaked away, became Prime and fought it. Prime underestimated the monster, which swallowed him whole. Upon seeing the bodies of other people the monster had eaten, Prime tore his way out of the monster's stomach and abdomen, after which he knocked the monster back into the water, and it sank beneath the surface. Prime then was met by reporters, and he told them he had moved to New York. He also explained his changing appearances, admitting his mistakes and that celebrity had gone to his head. Prime promised not to let the public down again, but then Joe Blades from Ultra Update confronted him with the young boy's clothes that had been found in Prime's knapsack. Prime was unable to respond, but then Turbocharge arrived, claiming that the clothes were his because he was Prime's partner. Ruth Green was none to happy to encounter Prime in New York, because he was part of the problem she had left California to escape. She also recognized the clothes as being Kevin's. After the crowd accepted Turbocharge's explanation, Prime flew away with him, thanked him for his help, but refused to accept a partner. Upon returning home, Ruth Green was suspicious of Kevin's disappearance, change of clothes, and fishy odor. Turbocharge told his father, Dr. Hardaway, about his proposed partnership with Prime, and his father approved. Later, government officials gave (Turbocharge's father) a file on Kevin Green salvaged from Col. Samuels office. Prime was tracked by the Manhattan Project, a robot designed to neutralize ultras for public safety, and when it stopped the subway Kevin was taking, he turned into Prime and fought it. As the fight moved to the sky above Manhattan, Dr. Hardaway was notified of Prime's battle, and he had his son informed. The Manhattan Project absorbed Prime's power as they fought, and Prime was unable to defeat it. Turbo then arrived and kicked the Manhattan Project, which unintentionally absorbed his speed power and launched into space. After some thought, Prime agreed to accept Turbocharge as his partner, hoping to find a friend with which to share his problems. A Kevin from an alternate universe that remained Spider-Prime later joined the Spider-Army to oppose the Inheritors on Earth-001. Protoplasmic Form: Kevin Green can transform into Prime by projecting an organic 'liquid flesh' material from his torso. The liquid flesh then shapes itself into a tall man with exceptionally large and defined muscular development. Prime can revert to his teenage form by destabilizing the outer body into a mess of protein goo, either consciously or when his Prime-body's energy reserves run out. When this happens, Kevin must pull himself out of the body's remains or risk suffocating from lack of oxygen. Superhuman Strength: As Prime, Kevin possesses tremendous strength with unknown limits and has once lifted an entire outdoor gym with relative ease. Superhuman Speed: As Prime, Kevin is capable of running and moving at speeds much greater than even the finest human athlete. Superhuman Stamina: As Prime, Kevin's musculature generates less fatigue toxins during physical activity than the musculature of a human being. Hardcase can physically exert himself at peak capacity for several hours before fatigue begins to impair him. Superhuman Agility: As Prime, Kevin's agility, balance, and bodily coordination are enhanced to levels that are beyond the natural physical limits of even the finest human athlete. Superhuman Reflexes: As Prime, Kevin's reaction time is similarly enhanced, enabling him to react at a level that is beyond the natural physical limits of the finest human athlete. Superhuman Durability: As Prime, Kevin's bodily tissues are much harder and more resistant to injury than those of a human. He is capable of withstanding tremendous impact forces, falls from great heights, exposure to temperature and pressure extremes, the vacuum of space, and powerful energy blasts without sustaining injury. His body is also specially adapted to withstand the physiologically debilitating effects of moving and running at high rates of speed without sustaining injury. His durability is also nigh immeasurable having survived a close proximity explosion of several nuclear warheads. Regenerative Healing Factor:: As Prime, Kevin's possesses a regenerative healing factor, allowing him to regenerate from what would normally be considered life-threatening wounds in a matter of moments. But if the shell is to damaged it will disperse and in time he is able to form a new Prime body Flight: Prime can also take to flight at a Mach-level of velocity. Energy Beams: Prime is capable of firing highly concentrated beams of energy from his hands. These beams are capable of reaching extremely high temperatures. The maximum temperature his beams can reach is unknown but were shown able to burn through Hulk's skin. The temperature level of his heat beams depends on his confidence. Shape-shifting: Prime-body is formed mostly by Kevin's subconscious. Many of the features of the Prime-body are taken from Kevin's role models such as action stars and comic book superheroes. Another Ultraverse character who shares a similar origin, Elven is a fan of "Elfquest" comics and creates a body for herself that is a mishmash of various Tolkienesque fantasy elements. The face of Prime also bears a striking resemblance to Kevin's own father, Russell Green. First Prime: A Prime-body obviously inspired by comic book superheroes, as well as local body builders from Kevin's home state. As the first Prime-body, it defines the visual template for the other Prime-bodies. The body possesses extremely developed muscles and prominent veins. The costume is made up of a large red cape, red pants, gold gauntlets, calf guards and chest plate and features the trademark stylized “P” both the cape and the chest plate. Space Prime: Prime-body meant to withstand to harsh conditions of outer space. This design was force fed into Kevin's subconscious by military scientists working for Colonel Samuels. The epidermal layer has been transformed into a hardened shell resembling some kind of metallic alloy, designed to prevent the body from expanding in the vacuum of space. A set of air-tanks exist in the sub dermal layer. The gold gauntlets, calf guard and chest plate remain as well as the 'P' insignia on his chest, but the cape is absent. Rogue Prime: A Prime-body inspired by rugged individualistic heroes such as the gun-toting anti-hero Firearm. The body also sports a series of gold chains around the waist, and a set of spiked armbands and headgear. Tattoos and piercings are also notable, as well as a scar on the right eye. The color scheme is radically different, with the 'P' insignia being black on gold, and the vest being dark blue rather than gold and leather gloves replace the gauntlets. Final Prime: A Prime-body that reconciles the values of Rogue Prime with the inspirations of the First Prime. The visual appearance is closer to that of the First Prime than the Rogue Prime --- cape, gauntlets and all --- but sections of the cape and pants mix blue and red. Hints of the Rogue Prime exist in the form of tattoos, albeit much fewer in number than in the Rogue Prime. There is a slight amount of arm-hair, also a residual element from the Rogue Prime. Spider-Prime: A Prime-body inspired in part by Spider-Man. When Kevin was trapped in the Marvel Universe, he only had half of his power. When he tried to become "primed up," he became a mass of slime and unable to control himself. When he tried to help Spider-Man fight the Lizard, he changed into Spider-Prime. This form was a smaller version of Prime with a face mask and gave him six arms. Kevin transformed twice more into a variant version of Spider-Prime, however this body he claimed was 'not Spider-Man's anymore', indicating that somehow the first Spider-Prime may have been a direct imprint on Spider-Man. The second Spider-Prime, like the first, had a red and blue color-scheme much like Spider-Man, along with a mask with red around the eyes, but it also included gauntlets and a massive golden spider on the chest, along with boots to match the gauntlets. The second Spider-Prime had no extra arms except for a singular use in battle with the primary Prime body, which was a one time thing[clarification needed]. Both of the second Spider-Prime transformations enabled Kevin to use webbing. Phoenix-Prime Strength level Prime possesses Class 100 superhuman strength, enabling him to lift (press) far beyond 100 tons. Protoplasmic Form Stability: The energy that animates and empowers Kevin’s Prime “shell” is drawn from Kevin’s true body. It thus has limits. When fully rested, Kevin can maintain a Prime shell for several hours. The longest he has maintained a shell has been approximately 48 hours. As this energy fades, it becomes harder for Kevin to maintain his shell. It begins to break down. Should his Prime form fall apart Kevin will revert back to his child form and be rendered powerless. Kevin has mastered the ability to summon his Prime shell or cancel it at will, but if he does so when not fully rested, the transformation itself is intensely painful. Adolescent Mind: Even though he is one of the most powerful Ultra's his mind is still that of a teenage boy. He is easily tricked and mislead by more mature heroes and villains. His personality and immature nature confuses a lot of his allies who are not aware of his true identity. He is frequently placed in adult situations and circumstances he may not be mature enough to deal with. Confidence: As Prime, Kevin's powers, especially his strength, stamina, and resistance to physical injury, are affected by his level of confidence. If his confidence in himself wavers, he has been known to weaken substantially. Causing the liquid flesh to dissolve. A Kevin from an alternate universe was recruited into the Spider-Army the reason why is unknown, Peter Parker could've recall him and recruited him or Kevin could in fact be a Spider-Totem hence how he was found and drafted into the army. 135 Appearances of Kevin Green (Earth-93060) 4 Minor Appearances of Kevin Green (Earth-93060) Media Kevin Green (Earth-93060) was Mentioned in 75 Images featuring Kevin Green (Earth-93060) 10 Quotations by or about Kevin Green (Earth-93060) Character Gallery: Kevin Green (Earth-93060) Writeups.org - in-depth character profiles from comics, games, movies The Appendix to the Handbook of the Marvel Universe Search this site for: Kevin Green (Earth-93060) ↑ Prime #1 Retrieved from "https://marvel.fandom.com/wiki/Kevin_Green_(Earth-93060)?oldid=4965701" Ultraforce members (Earth-93060) Articles Needing Citation	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1525
__label__cc	0.529496	0.470504	Tag: Billy Samson The £250, semi-psychedelic musical made in Amsterdam, London and Knockentiber In 2012, I had been asked to contribute a chapter to the book World Film Locations: Glasgow on underground filmmaking in the city, of which whatever there was was not particularly well documented. Luckily, Billy Samson, who died last week, had just co-directed, with Gavin Mitchell, Death Of The Mod Dream. In the book, I likened their film to “a Scottish no-wave film directed by Roy Andersson,” but really there’s not much like it. Purportedly based on a 1980 novella – Death Of The Mod Dream, by Edna Barnstaple – Billy and Gavin’s film concerns “a young man out of time who considers himself to be the last Mod on Earth. He lives in the City Of Scotland, a depressed, paranoid, curfew-controlled community with his mother and sister, who all fail to understand each other.” The synopsis continues: “One day, this humdrum existence is disrupted when he uncovers what he has been led to believe is a mysterious ‘Mod time capsule’ buried on the beach. He takes it home, hoping for at best a wallow through a glorious mythical past he never knew. Little does he know the contents of the capsule are not what they seem and his reality is about to be turned upside down…” Anyone will tell you making a feature-length film is a very particular achievement, requiring equal measures of talent, inspiration and determination. To make an episodic, blackly comic, semi-psychedelic musical in Scotland, for £250, also takes admirable perversity. Death Of The Mod Dream, like Billy, is a little extraordinary. The questions I asked Billy in 2012, via Facebook message, were mostly for background research. This interview is published here for the first time, unedited. RIP Billy x How much and what was shot in Glasgow/where? All of the indoor scenes at the mod’s house were shot between 2 friends’ flats in Glasgow. The indoor parts of the dream/horror sequences were shot in Glasgow or Knockentiber, depending on where the actor lived, with black bin-liners/green screens taped to the ceiling to give it continuity. The beginning and climactic scenes at the beach were filmed between Irvine beach and an embankment in Crosshouse (for the scooter plummet). The cop sequences were done in a pub in Kilmarnock that was halfway through being redecorated. Extra bits were filmed by ourselves and others in Edinburgh, London and Amsterdam. All the special effects/animation sequences were done at home. How did you go about picking the locations and did you have any problem getting permission to film/did you even have to ask? Just had to ask to use people’s houses, which was handiest for all concerned so they all agreed to it. The beach stuff we just turned up and filmed. Only minor problem was concealing the camera so passers-by didn’t keep jumping in front of it. Can you give me some technical details – budget, casting, equipment used, how long the production took? Budget worked out at around £250 (probably), which mostly went towards transport costs and endless AA batteries swallowed up by the camera. All actors and contributors gave their services for free, on the condition they’d get something out if it in the event it went global 😉. The bulk of the film was shot on a 1st generation Flip camera a friend ‘borrowed’ from her work. When that had to be discreetly returned, the last few bits were filmed on actors’ own cameras. Casting was straightforward- Adam Smith was such an obvious choice to play the main character we barely had to think about it! Most roles were like that, didn’t have the time or budget to train up ‘proper’ actors (and didn’t it want to seem ‘stagey’) so just used friends for their obvious attributes that would suit the role. Although we did chop and change between cast and crew- some actors were originally to be soundtrackers/effects people and vice versa. Filming started early June and the final edit was around early October. The editing + effects (and waiting for other parties’ contributions) took substantially longer than the live-action filming. Did you have any support or advice from institutions/individuals or funding at all? We never approached anyone for funding, mostly through not knowing how to go about it, but also because we thought it probably wouldn’t be necessary (and a worry it may involve compromises to get access to that funding) considering it would always be low-budget (we had no intention of casting any megastars, or real actors come to that). Various people advised us on certain effects, for example my dad suggested filming a glass of Resolve in close-up for the underwater sequences. Ended up using it for blood cells and cloudy wispiness in the horror + dream sequences (by utilising different filters) too. What was the inspiration to make the film and do you see it as part of any kind of continuum in Scottish/contemporary filmmaking? It arose from a drunken night with Gav, the co-creator. We imagined a film billed as the ultimate mod sci-fi experience, but with loads of Phil Daniels/Leslie Ash types storming out the cinema when they discovered all it involved was 3 boring hours of a guy playing My Generation at every speed on his record player then jumping off his bed. But other ideas arose, and gradually we realised the story had a deeper resonance which we could flesh out. Once we took it seriously, it rapidly began writing itself. While of course, remaining faithful to Edna Barnstaple’s original novel 😉. I’m not sure where it fits in, historically. I liked the idea of an ambiguous story which the viewer could interpret as merely having been a figment of the central character’s warped imagination, like Once Upon A Time In America or JG Ballards’ Unlimited Dream Company (the Keith Moon/Rolls Royce/fish tank sequence was subconsciously inspired by the cover of my edition of that book). Plus of course it’s a musical where no-one literally bursts into song, like Dirty Dancing! Have you heard about any similar projects taking place? I.e. other independent or DIY features getting made? Heard about quite a few short films, which friends and friends-of-friends have been involved in. I read something about a feature length film in Scotland recently, looking to attract some big names, but I can’t remember much about it. What’s the plan for releasing and distributing it? I honestly don’t have much of a clue! There’ll be a premiere at the Old Hairdressers on 3rd Feb, and it’ll probably be made available online at some point. Still to work out how one goes about having it on iTunes and suchlike. Promotion will probably be just the usual haphazard spammy way I plug any records I’ve been involved with! Will you do another and what if any are your plans? No plans as such, I never consciously set out to be a director of feature-length films, this one just kind of ‘demanded’ to be made. Particularly once we recruited Adam in the lead role, he insisted we should start ASAP and it rapidly grew legs from there, interrupting a Paraffins promo video I’d half-filmed and have still to resume! But who knows, I’ve had plenty other addled conversations with friends about imaginary films, so there’s every chance another one might demand to be made 🙂. Sean Welsh Buy or rent Death Of The Mod Dream on Amazon here (or watch it on YouTube below) Brothers In Arms Scotland offer support to men in Scotland, of any age, who are down or in crisis and empower them to ask for help when they need it, without feeling a failure if they do. Author SMWPosted on April 11, 2019 Categories ArticleTags 2012, Billy Samson, Cinema, Death Of The Mod Dream, Enda Barnstaple, Film, Filmmaking, Glasgow, Independent Film, Knockentiber, Mod, Movie, Movies, No Budget Filmmaking, Paraffins, Scotland, Scottish Filmmaking, UKLeave a comment on Death of the Mod Dream	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1527
__label__wiki	0.638142	0.638142	David William Lovett1,2 M, #28145, b. 2 August 1870, d. 27 August 1958 Name Variation � David William Lovett was also known as William.3� Birth* 2 August 1870� He was born on 2 August 1870 at Milford Township, LaGrange County, Indiana, son of Wesley Lovett and Mary Menely.1,2� Marriage* 8 September 1895� He married Alberta Maybee, daughter of George E. Maybee and Calista E. Wilkinson, on 8 September 1895 at Noble County, Indiana.4� Census* 1900� David William Lovett and Alberta Maybee appeared on the census of 1900 at Kendallville, Noble County, Indiana. David W Lovett, Head, W, M, Aug 1869, 30, M, 4, Indiana, Ohio, Indiana, Carpenter, owns mortgaged home Alberta Lovett, Wife, W, F, Dec 1874, 25, M, 4, no children, Indiana, New York, New York.1� Death* 27 August 1958� David William Lovett died on 27 August 1958 at Kendallville, Noble County, Indiana, at age 88.3� Alberta Maybee b. Dec 1874, d. 1909 [S90] 1900 United States Census, online ancestry.com, Kendallville, Noble, Indiana; Roll: T623 395; Page: 20A; Enumeration District: 95. [S1] Ancestry.com, Indiana, Select Births and Christenings, 1773-1933. [S1] Ancestry.com, Indiana, Death Certificates, 1899-2011. [S1] Ancestry.com, Indiana Marriage Collection, 1800-1941, Noble County, Indiana, Marriage Records Books 1 - 7 1859 - 1899. Ernest Eugene Clapp1 M, #28146, b. 28 May 1883, d. 1924 Father* Anson Clapp2 b. 16 Jan 1859, d. 1885 Mother* Alberta Celia Mabee2 b. 30 Jun 1862, d. 1909 Birth* 28 May 1883� Ernest Eugene Clapp was born on 28 May 1883 at Athol Township, Prince Edward County, Ontario, Canada.2� Anecdote* 12 September 1918� Ernest Eugene Clapp of 3825 Perry Street, Denver, Colorado, born 28 May 1883, registered for the draft on September 12, 1918, at Denver, Colorado. He was a fireman for the City and County of Denver, House #19, in Denver. His nearest living relative was Marian Clapp, at the above address. He was white, of medium height and build, with light blue eyes and dark brown hair.3� Death* 1924� He died in 1924 at Denver, Colorado.1� Burial* � He was buried at Crown Hill Cemetery, Denver, Colorado.1� [S241] Emails from Barbara Millar, from http://www.leavittfamilies.org/cgi-leavittfamilies/… [S1] Ancestry.com, Ontario, Canada Births, 1869-1909. [S338] World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917-1918, online http://www.ancestry.com/search/rectype/default.aspx?rt=39, Roll: 1544482, Draft Board 1. Lillian Clapp1 F, #28147, b. 1884, d. 20 May 1973 Married Name � Her married name was Frisbie.� Birth* 1884� Lillian Clapp was born in 1884 at Ontario, Canada.1� Death* 20 May 1973� She died on 20 May 1973 at Denver, Colorado.1� Burial* � She was buried at Crown Hill Cemetery, Denver, Colorado.1� Abraham Mabee M, #28148, b. between 1760 and 1774 Father* John Mabee1 b. 7 Feb 1740, d. b 1815 Mother* Abigale (?) b. b 1755, d. b 1830 Reference 5-9-5-1 Birth* between 1760 and 1774� Abraham Mabee was born between 1760 and 1774.2� (Witness) Census 1790� Abraham Mabee appeared on the census of 1790 in the household of John Mabee and Abigale (?) at Frederickstown, Dutchess County, New York, ; John Maybee - Three free white males over 16, three free white males under 16, and four free white females.3� Census* 1800� Abraham Mabee appeared on the census of 1800 at Delhi, Delaware County, New York. Abraham Mabee, one man and one woman 26-46, one man 16-26, and one boy and one girl under 10.4� Benjamin A. Mabee+ b. 2 Feb 1794, d. 20 Apr 1873 [S22] Steve Mabie, Mabie/Maybee/Mabee/Mabey Family Records, online http://maybeesociety.org/steve/steve.html, 1790-1800 censuses. [S22] Steve Mabie, Mabie/Maybee/Mabee/Mabey Family Records, online http://maybeesociety.org/steve/steve.html, 1790 and 1800 censuses. [S22] Steve Mabie, Mabie/Maybee/Mabee/Mabey Family Records, online http://maybeesociety.org/steve/steve.html, 1790 census. Ross Maybee1 M, #28149, b. 26 April 1893, d. 1 October 1916 Father* Jacob Maybee1 b. 12 Feb 1856, d. 19 Jul 1934 Mother* Alice Abrams1 b. 22 Feb 1864, d. 18 Aug 1935 Birth* 26 April 1893� Ross Maybee was born on 26 April 1893 at Bluffton, Wells County, Indiana.1,2� (Witness) Census 21 April 1910� Ross Maybee appeared on the census of 21 April 1910 in the household of Jacob Maybee and Alice Abrams at 235 W. Marion Street, Bluffton, Wells County, Indiana, ; Jacob Maybe, Head, M, W, 54, M1, 22, Indiana, Indiana, Indiana, Laborer, Saw Mill Alice Maybe, Wife, F, W, 44, M1, 22, one child born and living, Indiana, Indiana, Indiana, none Ross Maybe, Son, M, W, 16, S, Indiana, Indiana, Indiana, attended school.3� Death* 1 October 1916� Ross Maybee died on 1 October 1916 at Bluffton, Wells County, Indiana, at age 23.4� Burial* � He was buried at Fairview Cemetery, Bluffton, Wells County, Indiana. Inscription "Ross son of Jacob & Alice Mabee; 1896-1916."5� [S90] 1900 United States Census, online ancestry.com, Harrison Twp, Wells, Indiana; Roll: T623 413; Page: 23A; Enumeration District: 142. [S76] 1910 United States Census, online ancestry.com, Bluffton Ward 1, Wells, Indiana; Roll: T624_388; Page: 6A; Enumeration District: 0157; Image: 605; FHL Number: 1374401. [S1] Ancestry.com, Indiana Deaths, 1882-1920. Hazel Muriel Hillis F, #28150, b. 14 January 1896, d. 11 January 1967 Father* Benjamin Franklin Hillis1 b. 22 Dec 1858, d. 10 Jan 1935 Mother* Lovina Abigail Mabee1 b. 1864, d. 11 Mar 1950 Married Name � Her married name was Tuttle.� Birth* 14 January 1896� Hazel Muriel Hillis was born on 14 January 1896 at Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada.1,2� (Witness) Census 1901� Hazel Muriel Hillis appeared on the census of 1901 in the household of Benjamin Franklin Hillis at Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, ; 1 59 Hillies Benjamin F. M Head M Dec 22 1858 42 b. Ont. 2 59 Hillies Olivana F. Mother M Apr 29 1837 63 b. Ont. 3 59 Hillies Hazel M..F. Daughter S Jan 14 1895 5 b. Man. 4 59 McLachlan Chas.? M Boarder W Oct 21 1852 48.1� (Mentioned) oObit 11 January 1935� Hazel Muriel Hillis was mentioned in the obituary of Benjamin Franklin Hillis on 11 January 1935 at Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada; B. F. HILLIS, FORMER LOCAL PRINTER, DIES Formerly composing room foremen for The Winnipeg Tribune, B. F. Hillis, aged about. 70 years, died Thursday evening at Cleveland, Ohio, after an illness of four days. Born at Dresden; Ont., Mr. Hlllis was educated at Chatham. Entering the printing trade In his youth he was employed with the Cleveland Leader for some time. In the early 80 s he moved to Winnipeg where he became composing room foreman for the old Telegram, a position which he later held with The Tribune. Some 30 years ago he returned 1 to Cleveland, where he again was employed by the Leader. While in Winnipeg he married Lovina Mabee. If he had lived, the couple would have celebrated their golden wedding anniversary in April. Besides his widow he is survived by a daughter, Hazel, a registered nurse in Cleveland, and a son, Milton, a printer in Philadelphia. Mrs. J. F. McIntyre, of Winnipeg, is a sister of Mrs. Hillis.3� Marriage* 27 July 1936� Hazel Muriel Hillis married Frank O Tuttle Junior on 27 July 1936 at Cuyahoga County, Ohio.4� Marriage* 27 July 1936� She married Frank Osborn Tuttle on 27 July 1936 at Lakewood, Cuyahoga County, Ohio.5,6� Naturalization* 1 March 1943� Hazel Muriel Hillis was naturalized on 1 March 1943 at Cleveland, Cuyahoga County, Ohio.7� Residence* 1967� She lived in 1967 at Cleveland, Cuyahoga County, Ohio.8� Death* 11 January 1967� She died on 11 January 1967 at Holmes County, Ohio, at age 70.8� Frank Osborn Tuttle b. 18 Jun 1895, d. 15 Aug 1940 [S241] Emails from Barbara Millar, 1901 Census of Canada. Manitoba, Winnipeg (City/Cité) (#12), Subdistrict: Ward/Quartier No. 5 E-8 Page 7, Family 59, Schedule 1 Microfilm T-6439. [S1] Ancestry.com, Web: Manitoba, Canada, Birth Index, 1870-1917. [S241] Emails from Barbara Millar, Obit in the Winnipeg Tribune, Friday, January 11, 1935 – Page 16. [S1] Ancestry.com, Ohio, Naturalization Petition and Record Books, 1888-1946 of Hazel Muriel Hillis Tuttle, dtd 1 Mar 1943. [S1] Ancestry.com, Ohio, County Marriage Records, 1774-1993 & Cuyahoga County, Ohio, Marriage Records and Indexes, 1810-1973. [S1] Ancestry.com, Ohio, Naturalization Petition and Record Books, 1888-1946. [S2] Social SecurityDeath Index, online http://ssdi.genealogy.rootsweb.com/, and Ohio, Death Records, 1908-1932, 1938-2007. Hale Frederick William Quandt M, #28151, b. 30 May 1903, d. 30 June 1968 Birth* 30 May 1903� Hale Frederick William Quandt was born on 30 May 1903 at Marion, Wisconsin.1,2� Marriage* 3 December 1927� He married Florence Rose Maybee, daughter of Louis John Maybee and Nellie Shepard, on 3 December 1927 at Cuba City, Wisconsin.3� Death* 30 June 1968� Hale Frederick William Quandt died on 30 June 1968 at Stevens Point, Portage County, Wisconsin, at age 65.2,3� Florence Rose Maybee b. 15 Feb 1904, d. 20 Feb 2000 [S1] Ancestry.com, Public Member Trees, Bellis Family Tree. [S2] Social SecurityDeath Index, online http://ssdi.genealogy.rootsweb.com/ [S241] Emails from Barbara Millar, Florence's obit by Nickel Funeral Home, Morrison assisted the family. Eldoras Alfred Martin1 M, #28152, b. 23 May 1919, d. 8 March 2002 Father* Ernie Martin1 b. 16 Sep 1890, d. 15 Jan 1952 Mother* Lillie Permelia Maybee1 b. 10 Feb 1895, d. 21 Sep 1993 Name Variation � Eldoras Alfred Martin was also known as Al.� Birth* 23 May 1919� He was born on 23 May 1919 at Soldiers Grove, Crawford County, Wisconsin.1� (Witness) Census 17 April 1930� Eldoras Alfred Martin appeared on the census of 17 April 1930 in the household of Ernie Martin and Lillie Permelia Maybee at Clayton Township, Crawford County, Wisconsin, ; Ernie was a truckdriver.2� Marriage* 7 May 1945� Eldoras Alfred Martin married Jeannette Willment Quick on 7 May 1945 at Manchester Registration District, England.3� Death* 8 March 2002� Eldoras Alfred Martin died on 8 March 2002 at Riverdale Health Care Center, Muscoda, Grant County, Wisconsin, at age 82.1� oObit* March 2002� In March 2002 Eldoras's obituary read: Eldoras 'Al' Martin, 82, Muscoda died Fri day, March 8, 2002, at the Riverdale Health Care Center in Muscoda. He was born May 23, 1919, in Soldiers Grove, son of Ernie and Lillie (Maybee) Martin. He served in the U.S. Army during WW II. He worked as a logger and a carpenter for many years. Surviving are two sons, Rex (Linda) of Orlando, Fla. and Kevin (Cindy) of Highland; two brothers, Larry (Eileen) of Minneapolis, Minn. and Basil of La Crosse; three sisters, Eleanor (Elmer) Moon, Darlene (Bob Horsfall) Kapinus and Hazel (Louis Degenhardt) all of Prairie du Chien; three grandchildren and three great-grandchildren. He was preceded in death by his parents, one daughter, Carol, two brothers, Theodore an Virgil and one sister Thelma Tippery. Services were Monday at the Garrity Funeral Home Chapel, in Prairie du Chien. Military rites were accorded immediately following by the Prairie du Chien Honor Guard. Graveside services are Tuesday at 11 a.m. at the Forest Hills Cemetery in Madison. Preceded in death by her parents and two brothers.4� Burial � He was buried at Forest Hill Cemetery, Madison, Dane County, Wisconsin. Inscription "Eldoras A Martin; PFC US Army World War II; May 23 1919 - Mar 8 2002."5� Jeannette Willment Quick b. 11 Oct 1925, d. 15 Mar 1997 [S241] Emails from Barbara Millar, his obituary. [S303] 1930 United States Census, online ancestry.com, Clayton Township, Crawford, Wisconsin; Roll: 2565; Page: 6A; Enumeration District: 0003; FHL microfilm: 2342299. [S1] Ancestry.com, England & Wales, Marriage Index, 1916-2005. [S241] Emails from Barbara Millar, from Courier Press 132 South Beaumont Road Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin. [S1] Ancestry.com, U.S. Veterans' Gravesites, ca.1775-2006. James Schweiger1 M, #28153, b. 11 July 1904, d. 6 September 1967 Father* Joseph Schweiger1 b. Mar 1856 Mother* Elizabeth Mabie1 b. 15 Nov 1877, d. Nov 1970 Birth* 11 July 1904� James Schweiger was born on 11 July 1904 at Loyal, Wisconsin.1� (Witness) Residence circa 1915� He lived with Joseph Schweiger and Elizabeth Mabie circa 1915 at Tillamook, Tillamook County, Oregon.2� Death* 6 September 1967� James Schweiger died on 6 September 1967 at Tillamook, Tillamook County, Oregon, at age 63.1� [S241] Emails from Barbara Millar, Tillamook , Or. Pioneer Museum Obituary Index 1955 - 2004. [S10] Royal A Mabee's notebook. Helen Maybee1 F, #28154, b. circa 1902, d. 15 March 1909 Father* George Edwin Maybee1 b. 27 May 1874, d. 25 Jul 1928 Mother* Edna Delia Welch1 b. 28 Jul 1874, d. 27 Apr 1940 Birth* circa 1902� Helen Maybee was born circa 1902.2� Death* 15 March 1909� She died on 15 March 1909 at Santa Paula, Ventura County, California.3� [S241] Emails from Barbara Millar, Ventura County Obituaries. [S241] Emails from Barbara Millar, 19-Mar-1909 issue Ventura Daily Democrat. Norman E. Anderson M, #28155, b. 13 June 1888, d. November 1967 Birth* 13 June 1888� Norman E. Anderson was born on 13 June 1888 at Candor, Tioga County, New York.1� Marriage* � He married Lucy Rebecca Mabee, daughter of Clarence T. Mabee and Dora A. Williams.2� Anecdote* 5 June 1917� Norman E Anderson of Candor, NY, born 13 Jun 1888 in Candor, NY registered for the Draft on June 5, 1917 at Candor, Tioga County, New York. He worked as Railroad Labor for the D L & W Rail Road in Candor. He has a wife and child depending on him for support. He is married, a Caucasian, with no military service. He is described as tall, of medium build, with blue eyes and brown hair.3� Death* November 1967� Norman E. Anderson died in November 1967 at Johnson City, Broome County, New York, at age 79.4� Lucy Rebecca Mabee b. 17 Jun 1888, d. 7 Oct 1918 Clarence N. Anderson5 b. 1913 [S338] World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917-1918, online http://www.ancestry.com/search/rectype/default.aspx?rt=39, World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917-1918, Roll:1819047. [S206] Email sent to John MayBee the MayBee Society database coordinator:from Melody Stirling e-mail address, 20 Feb 2006. [S338] World War I Draft Registration Cards, 1917-1918, online http://www.ancestry.com/search/rectype/default.aspx?rt=39, Roll:1819047. [S304] 1920 United States Census, online ancestry.com, Candor, Tioga, New York; Roll: T625_1270; Page: 8A; Enumeration District: 155; Image: 179. Viola Huffer1 Name Variation � Viola Huffer was also known as Martha Viola.� Birth* 1867� She was born in 1867 at Indiana, daughter of Jacobl Huffer and Eliza Ann King.1,3� Marriage* 1 October 1924� She married Albert Maybee, son of Lyman Thomas Maybee and Martha Frantz, on 1 October 1924 at Red Oak, Montgomery County, Iowa.4,3� Census 1 January 1925� Viola Huffer and Albert Maybee appeared on the census of 1 January 1925 at Red Oak, Montgomery County, Iowa. Albert Maybee, Head, Male, White, 70, Mar, born in Pennsylvania, Parents: Leyman T Maybe, Pennsylvania, and Martha France, Pennsylvania, married in Pennsylvania Viola Maybee, Wife, White, Female, 59, Mar, born in Indiana parents: Jacob Huffer, born in Indiana, and Eliza King, born in Indiana, parents married in Indiana Keneth Rubenking , grandson, M, W, 9, S, born in Iowa, parents Fred Rubenking, 33, born in Illinois, and Blanch England, 26, born in Red Oak, Iowa, parents married in Glenwood Iowa.4� Albert Maybee b. 28 Sep 1855, d. 20 Feb 1934 [S375] Iowa State Census Collection, 1836-1925, online ancestry.com, Iowa State Census Collection, 1925, Red Oak, Montgomery, Iowa, Lines 16-18, Roll IA1925_1859. [S304] 1920 United States Census, online ancestry.com, Quincy, Adams, Iowa; Roll: T625_476; Page: 17B; Enumeration District: 11; Image: 804. [S1] Ancestry.com, Iowa, Marriage Records, 1880-1937. [S375] Iowa State Census Collection, 1836-1925, online ancestry.com, 1925 Iowa State Census, Red Oak, Montgomery, Iowa, Lines 16-18, Roll IA1925_1859. Herbert William Ratcliff Davis1 M, #28157, b. 1881 Birth* 1881� Herbert William Ratcliff Davis was born in 1881 at Wilmington, Kent, England, son of Sydney Herbert Davis and Rosina Ratcliff.2� Census* 2 April 1911� Herbert William Ratcliff Davis and Grace Dorothy Mabey appeared on the census of 2 April 1911 at Hazlewood, Wilmington, Dartford, Kent, England. Sydney Herbert Davis, Head, M, 65, Married, Estate Means, born in Marnhull, Dorset Rosina Davis, Wife, F, 51, Married 32 years, 5 children born and living, born in Canonbury, London Herbert William Ratcliff Davis, Son, M, 30, Single, Solicitor, own account, born in Wilmington, Kent [will marry Grace Mabey next year] Leonis Gladys Kathleen Davis, Daughter, F, 23, Single, born in Wilmington, Kent Edwin Henry Davis, Brother, M, 67, Single, Retired Carpet Agent, born in Marnhull, Dorset Jack Edward Lloyd, Grangson, M, 2, Single, born in Bexeley, Kent Mary Ann Day, Companion, F, 52, Single, Companion, born in Birkhall, Scotland Grace Dorothy Mabey, Visitor, F, 25, Single, born in Bexeley, Kent and two servants.3� Marriage* 6 July 1912� Herbert William Ratcliff Davis married Grace Dorothy Mabey, daughter of Joseph Charles Mabey and Ada Doublet, on 6 July 1912 at St Mary the Virgin Church, Bexley, Kent, England.1� Grace Dorothy Mabey b. 6 Jan 1886, d. c Mar 1982 Doreen E Davis2 b. c Feb 1915 [S1] Ancestry.com, Bexley, Kent, England, Marriages and Banns, 1754-1935. [S206] Email sent to John MayBee the MayBee Society database coordinator:from Julia Newman, e-mail address, 19 Feb 2006. [S451] 1911 England, Wales, Isle of Man and Channel Islands Censuses, online ancestry.com, Dartford, Kent, Class: RG14; Piece: 3790; Schedule Number: 124. Doreen E Davis1 F, #28158, b. circa February 1915 Father* Herbert William Ratcliff Davis1 b. 1881 Mother* Grace Dorothy Mabey1 b. 6 Jan 1886, d. c Mar 1982 Birth* circa February 1915� Doreen E Davis was born circa February 1915 at Lewisham, Kent, England.1,2� Margaret Van Horn1 F, #28159, b. 24 May 1787, d. 17 January 1835 Married Name � Her married name was Eckerson.2� Birth* 24 May 1787� Margaret Van Horn was born on 24 May 1787 at New Jersey.2� Marriage* 7 March 1807� She married David D. Eckerson on 7 March 1807 at Bergenfield, Bergen County, New Jersey.2,1� Death* 17 January 1835� Margaret Van Horn died on 17 January 1835 at New Jersey at age 47.2� Burial* � She and David D. Eckerson were buried at Saddle River Low Dutch Reformed Cemetery, Upper Saddle River, Bergen County, New Jersey.3� David D. Eckerson b. 18 Oct 1781, d. 23 Jan 1862 Christian D Eckerson2 b. 9 Sep 1815, d. 17 Jul 1899 [S1] Ancestry.com, New Jersey, Marriage Records, 1670-1965. [S337] GEDCOM from Andrea Nowlin on Mabie-Eckerson-Peek line. Maria Haring1 F, #28160, b. 1705, d. circa 1728 Birth* 1705� Maria Haring was born in 1705.1� Marriage* 7 December 1723� She married Cornelis Eckerson on 7 December 1723 at Tappan, New York.1� Death* circa 1728� Maria Haring died circa 1728.1� Cornelis Eckerson b. 12 Jan 1701, d. 27 Mar 1773 Willlemptje Eckerson+1 b. 6 Feb 1728, d. 6 Aug 1813 Rachel Zabriskie F, #28161, b. 19 March 1725, d. 16 April 1813 Father* Joost Zaboriscoo1 b. c 1690, d. 30 Jul 1756 Mother* Christina Mabie1 b. 30 May 1692, d. 1733 Married Name � Her married name was Demarest.� Birth* 19 March 1725� Rachel Zabriskie was born on 19 March 1725.1� Marriage* 7 March 1744� She married Johannes Demarest on 7 March 1744 at New York City, New York.1� Death* 16 April 1813� Rachel Zabriskie died on 16 April 1813 at age 88.1� Johannes Demarest b. 20 Aug 1720, d. 1 Feb 1783 Jacob Lozier M, #28162, b. 24 May 1719, d. 13 July 1803 Baptism* 24 May 1719� Jacob Lozier was baptized on 24 May 1719 at New Jersey.1,2� Marriage* 6 June 1739� He married Feytie Zaboriscoo, daughter of Joost Zaboriscoo and Christina Mabie, on 6 June 1739 at Schraalenburgh, Bergen County, New Jersey.1� Death* 13 July 1803� Jacob Lozier died on 13 July 1803 at Teaneck, New Jersey, at age 84.1� Feytie Zaboriscoo b. 26 Mar 1722, d. 1764 [S1] Ancestry.com, New Jersey, Births and Christenings Index, 1660-1931. Catherine Van Wagenen F, #28163, b. 8 December 1722 Married Name � Her married name was Zabriskie.� Birth* 8 December 1722� Catherine Van Wagenen was born on 8 December 1722.1� Marriage* 20 April 1747� She married Casparus Zabriskie, son of Joost Zaboriscoo and Christina Mabie, on 20 April 1747 at Passaic, New Jersey.1,2� Casparus Zabriskie b. 7 Apr 1717 Christine Zabriskie Married Name � Her married name was Waldron.� Birth* 1713� Christine Zabriskie was born in 1713.1� Marriage* � She married Adolph Waldron.1� Adolph Waldron b. 1710 Johannes Demarest M, #28165, b. 20 August 1720, d. 1 February 1783 Birth* 20 August 1720� Johannes Demarest was born on 20 August 1720.1� Marriage* 7 March 1744� He married Rachel Zabriskie, daughter of Joost Zaboriscoo and Christina Mabie, on 7 March 1744 at New York City, New York.1� Death* 1 February 1783� Johannes Demarest died on 1 February 1783 at age 62.1� Rachel Zabriskie b. 19 Mar 1725, d. 16 Apr 1813 Birth* 1725� Stephen Baldwin was born in 1725.1� Marriage* � He married Antje Zabriskie, daughter of Joost Zaboriscoo and Christina Mabie.1� Antje Zabriskie b. 30 May 1723 Adolph Waldron Birth* 1710� Adolph Waldron was born in 1710.1� Marriage* � He married Christine Zabriskie, daughter of Joost Zaboriscoo and Christina Mabie.1� Christine Zabriskie b. 1713 Geertje Westervelt F, #28168, b. 27 December 1730, d. 17 September 1785 Birth* 27 December 1730� Geertje Westervelt was born on 27 December 1730.1� Marriage* 8 October 1751� She married Albert Zabriskie, son of Joost Zaboriscoo and Christina Mabie, on 8 October 1751.1� Death* 17 September 1785� Geertje Westervelt died on 17 September 1785 at age 54.1� Albert Zabriskie b. 25 Apr 1730, d. 17 Sep 1785 Jacobus Garrison M, #28169, b. 6 December 1803, d. 1853 Birth* 6 December 1803� Jacobus Garrison was born on 6 December 1803.1� Marriage* � He married Margaret Bogert, daughter of Cornelius G Bogert and Sarah Mabie.1� Death* 1853� Jacobus Garrison died in 1853.1� Margaret Bogert b. 12 Oct 1800, d. 1850 Olive Francisco Name Variation � Olive Francisco was also known as Alida Olive.1� Married Name � Her married name was Peek.� Birth* 1 September 1780� She was born on 1 September 1780 at Schaghticoke, Rensselaer County, New York.2,1� Marriage* 1806� She married Harmanus Peek, son of Jacobus Vedder Peek and Catarina Mabie, in 1806.2� Death* 21 November 1859� Olive Francisco died on 21 November 1859 at Glenville, Schenectady County, New York, at age 79.3,1� Burial* � She and Harmanus Peek were buried at Old Methodist Cemetery, West Glenville, Schenectady County, New York.4� Harmanus Peek b. 9 Nov 1786, d. 1834 [S382] Find A Grave, online http://www.findagrave.com/, Memorial ID 185202258. [S1] Ancestry.com, New York, U.S. Census Mortality Schedules, 1850-1880. [S382] Find A Grave, online http://www.findagrave.com/, Memorial ID 185202258 & 88982177.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1533
__label__wiki	0.777575	0.777575	Why Kyrgios must be taken to Rio BenGibson Junior Columnist The name Nick Kyrgios sparks emotion in any Australian sports fan, and with the Olympic Games approaching, everyone wants to have their say as to whether the troubled twenty-one-year-old should be on the plane over to Rio come August. Should the Australian Olympic Committee be offering him a green and gold guernsey? It’s a no brainer. In the year 2000, Australia reportedly spent a total of $6.6 billion in hosting the Sydney Olympics, with the two-week world wide phenomenon signalling national pride to the rest of the globe. Countries spend extraordinary amounts of time and money to get their athletes in supreme condition, in order to achieve the ultimate success and win gold medals. Australia has a rich Olympic history, as one of just six nations to have been represented at every modern Games, and have won medals at each one barring St Louis in 1904. After failing to take home a gold medal at Montreal in 1976, the Australian Sports Commission emphasised the importance of elite sporting excellence, and we as a country have been dominant ever since. If Australia wants to take a backwards step in 2016, then sure, leave Nick Kyrgios at home. However, if the nation is legitimate in it’s highly set standards and wants to remain a genuine Olympic threat, Kyrgios must take his place in Rio and help bring home a treasured medallion. Kyrgios is by far Australia’s greatest tennis talent, as reflected by his ranking which places him 19th in the world, and the excitement machine has what it takes to win the prized gold medal. The bubbly character has had notable moments of controversy, with vicious sledges, abusive slurs and childish behaviour on the court. As a result of his somewhat cringe-worthy acts, there have been conflicted opinions from onlookers. There are some who find his acts disgraceful, and others who can not help but smile when the star struts his stuff. At the end of the day, it is impossible to please all, and an athlete must be judged on their pure sporting ability, not their personal attributes. With the equally troubled Bernard Tomic already withdrawing his potential spot in the Olympics, the Aussies must allow Kygios to blossom in Rio and make the money spent on participation worth it. Australian Olympic Committee’s chef de Kitty Chiller recently threatened Kyrgios’ spot on the Olympic team. She stated that “Kyrgios doesn’t really understand what it means to be an Australian Olympian,” and that he was “on watch.” With his position clearly in jeopardy, Kyrgios laughed off her remarks, and responded with a typical witty response. He said “if you don’t want two of the best players in Australia to represent your country, so be it,” playing hard to get and putting the pressure back on Chiller, wanting her to beg him to participate. Chiller shares the same view as many Australian’s, stating it is “not [the sort of] behaviour that [she] would want any team member … to exhibit.” So the question is, what is of greater importance to our nation, having likeable athletes or dominant ones? Do we want to be represented by the humorous character in Nick Kyrgios, or the good bloke in Sam Groth? As they say, nice guys finish last. Why tip an entire nations salary into an event if you’re not willing to play your best available competitors? Kyrgios has had an electric start to 2016, winning the Marseille title in France and tallying an impressive twenty-one victories from his twenty-eight matches thus far. This year alone has included a number of remarkable upset defeats against the highly ranked likes of Stan Wawrinka, Milos Raonic, Tomas Berdych, Marin Cilic and Richard Gasquet, just to name a few. Throw in his greatest scalp of Rafael Nadal at Wimbledon in 2014, it seems the big serving machine can match it with anyone in the world. So if Australia are serious about adding to their gold medal tally with a big tennis win, look no further than Nicholas Kyrgios. ‘King Kyrgios’ is the king for a reason. His on court humour makes him irresistible to watch, gluing eyes to the television when he takes centre stage. He provides talent, spark and joy to those who are willing to embrace his erratic approach to sport, and his sheer brilliance with racket in hand cements his spot at Rio for the 2016 Olympics.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1534
__label__wiki	0.852052	0.852052	blog • Press What the Popularity of ‘Fortnite’ Has in Common With the 20th Century Pinball Craze \| Innovation This summer time, a British agency that processes divorce filings discovered a startling reality. Of the 4,665 petitions for divorce they’d acquired in 2018, 2 hundred of them claimed the marriage had been destroyed because one of the partners had grow to be hooked on video video games like Fortnite. Or to place it another method, Fortnite and its ilk have been chargeable for absolutely 5 % of all divorces the firm was seeing. Fortnite, for many who haven’t heard the news, is the wildly widespread recreation du jour. Launched in 2017, by this summer time it had already amassed 125 million users, all of whom love its hottest mode: You play as one of 100 combatants dropped on a bucolic island, the place you scavenge for weapons and attempt to kill the others before they kill you. The last one standing wins. It sounds grim, however the recreation’s aesthetic could be very cartoony—there’s no blood or gore—so it’s arguably closer to paintball than, say, The Starvation Games. Both followers and critics agree on one thing: It’s remarkably compulsive. “I work with a lot of kids who sneak down at 3 in the morning to play,” says Jennifer Powell-Lunder, a medical psychologist. Twitter is afire with mother and father complaining about their glaze-eyed youngsters: “Addicted to it like a drug. Had to take the Xbox away for a few days,” one mom posted. Faculties have banned it after discovering youngsters enjoying underneath their desks on their telephones. The addictiveness of video video games is now squarely in the public highlight. For years, critics fearful the video games would breed a era of hyperviolent youngsters, a worry that by no means panned out. However now the panic has shifted to how the video games are designed to get youngsters hooked—notably provided that game-laden smartphones are with youngsters all day long. In mid-2018, the World Health Organization began officially recognizing “gaming disorder,” characterised by “impaired control over gaming.” As with violence, these fears are in all probability overblown, as psychologists like Powell-Lunder observe. The good majority of youngsters study to self-regulate, and recognize when mother and father assist set limits, she says. Plus, Fortnite has many advantages, she notes: “It’s enormously social—it’s a really good connector,” attracting many ladies and other youngsters who normally don’t play video games. So Fortnite gained’t turn youngsters into zombies. Nevertheless it’s fascinating that so many worry it’s going to. There’s one thing about newfangled video games, it seems, that deeply unsettles us—as we will spy by wanting back 100 years, when a brand new type of play rocked the nation, impressed inflamed headlines, after which was truly banned in many cities for decades. That dread recreation? Pinball. Pinball originally emerged from bagatelle, a 19th-century pastime that was like billiards, besides players propelled the ball by way of a collection of pegs towards a target. The boozy, decadent courtesans of the French king beloved it. “They’d play these games, and they’d go off and have sex,” as Michael Schiess, founder and artistic director of the Pacific Pinball Museum, describes the common air of courtly excess. “Then they’d drink more and they’d play this game.” Not long after, the recreation arrived in American bars, and native inventors began tweaking it. In 1871, the British immigrant Montague Redgrave patented Enhancements in Bagatelles: He increased the tilt of the board, and the participant shot the ball upward with a plunger, making an attempt to land it in scoring areas while bouncing via the thicket of pins—therefore, “pinball.” Redgrave turned the recreation right into a tango of physics, “combining gravity with muscular power to act as antagonistical forces,” he boasted. Quickly, coin-operated variations unfold all over the nation. But pinball wasn’t a real phenomenon until the Nice Melancholy. Legions of out-of-work People have been in search of quick and low cost leisure, so the manufacturing agency Gottlieb created Baffle Ball, the first pinball recreation to turn into successful. The corporate began making 400 a day, and ultimately bought 50,000, making it one of the best-selling pinball cupboards ever. Pinball producers shortly began making an attempt to one-up one another by introducing new accouterments that made the recreation more dynamic. They added spherical bumpers that may bounce the ball round chaotically, bells and lights and automated score-counters. As pinball exploded in reputation, although, it began to develop a status for encouraging laziness and vice. Some of this was propelled by a puritan disdain for unemployed Melancholy victims daring to spend a coin on some leisure. “There was this angst of, are these people ever going to be productive?” says Karen Sternheimer, professor of sociology at the College of Southern California and writer of Pop Culture Panics. Enjoying pinball was a symptom of their boredom from lack of work, nevertheless it was learn as the cause of it: “An adult spending their hard-earned money watching a ball bounce around instead of buying food for their family,” notes Adam Ruben, writer of Pinball Wizards. Pinball Wizards: Jackpots, Drains, and the Cult of the Silver Ball Pinball’s history is America’s historical past, from playing and war-themed machines to the arcade revolution and, finally, the decline of the want to go away your home. By some means, in right now’s iPhone world, a three-hundred-pound monstrosity of wooden and cables has survived to take pleasure in yet one more renaissance. And lots of fearful that youngsters have been notably in danger. “The machines hold a special fascination for children,” as Perry Githens, the writer of Common Science, wrote. New York Mayor Fiorello La Guardia fulminated about pinball in numerous interviews, blaming it for “robbing the public” and the “pockets of school children in the form of nickels and dimes given to them as lunch money.” The operators of the machines themselves? “Slimy crews of tinhorns, well-dressed and living in luxury on penny thievery.” Plus, pinball again then was typically considered a type of gambling. This wasn’t completely fallacious: In these early, cruder games, all you did was pull again the plunger and see the place the ball went, making it principally a recreation of probability. Many pinball lounges egged on gamers by handing out prizes—like bins of cigarettes or silk stockings—for lucky excessive scores, which made them appear to be casinos. Worst of all, the mob favored pinball: It was a cash enterprise, good for laundering cash, so gangsters financed pinball-making companies. “It was the Depression,” Schiess notes, “so if you wanted to open a factory and manufacture pinball, the only people who had the money, who would lend you the money, is the mob.” By the late 1930s, La Guardia had enough. He began commanding the police to seize pinball machines, smash them to items and dump them in the Hudson River, ultimately destroying absolutely 11,000. (Though first the officers eliminated the picket legs, 2,000 of which have been refashioned as billy clubs.) The mayor himself lustily swung an enormous sledgehammer and, in press photographs, wore a white go well with whereas tipping a machine over to its destruction. Soon, pinball existed in a curious state: Many towns and cities banned it outright—Los Angeles and Oakland, California, adopted New York’s lead—whereas others permitted pinball parlors to exist, or allowed bars and bowling alleys to have a couple of machines. In 1947, pinball changed dramatically when Gottlieb debuted Humpty Dumpty, a recreation with a delightful new function: electro-mechanical flippers. All of the sudden pinball was not purely about luck—it really was a struggle towards gravity, with the participant balletically timing the flippers to keep the ball in play. Enjoying a single recreation for a very long time turned a mark of cool sophistication. Teenagers liked it—and, in the postwar period of affluence, “adolescence” turned a period of relative freedom and leisure for youth. Pinball was their meme tradition. Designers would make video games themed off scorching developments—every little thing from browsing to blockbuster films to main pop acts (one 1967 machine referred to as “Beat Time” was themed off the Beatles, depicting four mop-topped musicians named the Bootles). However pinball nonetheless hadn’t lost its sketchy popularity; indeed, the artists who adorned machines typically leaned into it, creating cupboards full of scantily clad ladies and sexual innuendo. The ethical rot now wasn’t about gambling—it was about teenage delinquency. “Pinball was being played by rock ’n’ rollers—they were going to trash your house,” jokes Schiess. Mother and father’ fears ran wild. “They’re in public spaces meeting with other people, but it’s not really social in a productive way because it’s congregating around degenerate activity,” says Daniel Reynolds, an assistant professor of movie and media studies at Emory College. Higher Houses and Gardens in 1957 warned mother and father to “act now to keep your child from being victimized” by the debased pastime. In sheer financial terms, pinball turned a pillar of American entertainment: Between 1955 and 1970, it drew in extra money than Hollywood, based on NPR. And over the years, the libel towards the recreation started to erode. Part of what rehabilitated pinball’s fame? That 1947 improvement of flippers. Once pinball rewarded talent, even some grumpy politicians had to agree it wasn’t a type of playing. By 1976 in New York City, some City Council members have been advocating to end their now decades-long ban; in any case, licensing pinball machines and imposing charges would convey in dough for the cash-strapped metropolis. So the pro-pinball pols decided to prove it was a recreation of talent. Enter Roger Sharpe, a journalist who’d written about pinball for GQ and the New York Occasions. He’d discovered the recreation while a scholar at the University of Wisconsin—the place types of pinball have been legal—then moved to New York, the place the only place he might play, illicitly, was in an adult-book retailer that contained a number of of the banned, samizdat machines. On April 1, 1976, Sharpe showed up at a courtroom in Lower Manhattan, where one councilor guided him to the Gottlieb machine Financial institution Shot. TV cameras peered over his shoulder as he played, capturing the ball with a flipper—“cradling” it—earlier than capturing it off to precisely the location he’d described. “I cradled, and called shots left and right,” Sharpe says. “I said, ‘This target over here, I’m going to aim and hit it.’” Then he did one last, audacious show of talent: He pointed out that he might even control the ball with the plunger. “If I pull this back the right way, it’s going to go down the middle lane,” he advised them. “And it went in a beautiful arc, and went right down the center lane, nothing but net.” Even the council member who was most hostile to pinball was satisfied. The council voted unanimously to end the ban; it was a recreation of talent. “He single-handedly saved pinball,” Schiess says. Pinball was the iPhone of its age—doubtless the first place where individuals repeatedly encountered electrical energy used in a recreation, says Pinball Wizards writer Adam Ruben. Pinball didn’t turn anybody right into a delinquent—certainly, with the passage of time, the recreation now feels positively healthful. Its sheer tactility looks like a bracing respite from youngsters observing screens all day. “There’s a lot of nostalgia for pinball, because it does seem simpler,” the sociologist Sternheimer tells me. “You’re not going to get so swept up the way you would with an online game. It’s physically restricted, because the machines are so big—it’s not something you carry with you all the time like a phone.” Many psychologists suspect the panic over Fortnite—and the horrors of online game habit—will dissipate in an analogous style. It’s definitely true that some youngsters (and, again, adults) play in a compulsive means that interferes with their lives. However as Andrew Przybylski, director of research of the Oxford Web Institute, has found, “the circumstances that lead you to play a game in an obsessive way probably have more to do with your situation than the game.” There are indeed features of gaming culture that increase considerations, although—and paradoxically, they’re just like the ones that originally doomed pinball: the specter of gambling. Many video games in the final decade have advanced a “free to play” economics, where the recreation costs nothing upfront, however it later encourages the player to purchase “loot boxes” that have a random probability of containing a uncommon “power-up” or item. Gamers thus wind up maniacally shopping for loot bins—and blowing cash in a style that’s indistinguishable from spending wildly on lottery scratch tickets. But Fortnite, the recreation of the day, has comparatively few loot dynamics in its “battle royale” mode: It’s very much just a check of talent, as the psychologist Jennifer Powell-Lunder notes. Perhaps video video games like Fortnite will in the future evolve, in the cultural creativeness, the means pinball did. Perhaps 30 years from now, at this time’s youngsters shall be taking a look at their very own youngsters—jacked into their neural implant, and gazing blank-eyed at a newfangled recreation blasted straight into their cerebral cortex—and need nostalgically that everybody might return in time, to play one thing that teaches persistence and teamwork, with the good previous physical expertise of using an actual joystick. Fortnite, they’ll sigh. Black TechME • blog • Business • Culture • Digital Media • Economic empowerment • Entrepreneurship • episode 35 • GHOGH • inequality • Investing • isa watson • Jamarlin Martin • markets • Podcast • PodcastsME • politics • Software • Squad by Envested • Staff Reports • tech • VC • Venture Capital blog • Statements by PR Automotive • blog • Car Accessories & Parts • Jeep Wrangler • Jeeps • Soft Tops Might and Magic 6 – Playing through the Temple of Baa How to Use Emoji Characters with Facebook & Twitter on a PC	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1536
__label__wiki	0.756977	0.756977	We're no longer maintaining this page. For the latest business news and markets data, please visit CNN Business Ryan Lochte endorsements could be in trouble by Ahiza Garcia @ahiza_garcia August 19, 2016: 9:39 AM ET Brazilian police: US Olympic swimmers not robbed Talk about bad timing. Right about now, gold medalist and swimmer Ryan Lochte could be capitalizing on the endorsement deals and publicity that typically greet Olympians when they return to the U.S. Instead, the 32-year-old is embroiled in a potential scandal about being robbed at gunpoint in Rio, and possibly lying about it. If he did lie, that could hurt his ability to land new sponsorships. Related: Brazil police: Swimmers were vandals, not robbery victims Even without a scandal, Lochte went to Rio with fewer sponsors than he had in London, when he was endorsed by companies like Gatorade, Nissan, (NSANF) Mutual of Omaha and P&G (PG). The 12-time Olympic medalist is currently sponsored by Speedo, Airweave and Polo Ralph Lauren. Speedo released this statement about Lochte: "Speedo is a sponsor of Ryan Lochte (USA). Speedo is following the situation, and has a policy not to comment on ongoing legal investigations. We suggest you contact his team for additional information." Polo said it was working closely with the U.S. Olympic Committee and would review the situation. Airweave has yet to comment on the incident. Lochte's endorsement deals may have been hurt by the fact that his teammate Michael Phelps stole some of his thunder when he came out of retirement to go to Rio and hinted that this could be his last Olympics. If Phelps really is done, now would be the time for Lochte to step into the spotlight and win new sponsors as one of the top swimmers on the U.S. men's team. Related: Ryan Lochte, US Swimming and Rio: What's at stake But this scandal could make that transition a lot harder for Lochte to pull off, since one of the most important things potential sponsors look for is a clean public image. For Lochte, picking up endorsements isn't just about prestige -- sponsor funding will be key if he wants to compete at the 2020 Tokyo Olympics. Even if he decides to retire, a scandal could hurt his ability to market himself outside of the pool. What's key for Lochte now is whether he responds to this incident with remorse or defiance -- advertisers will of course want to see him as nothing but contrite. His teammate Phelps was in a similar spot when a photo of him smoking a bong surfaced and he was then charged with DUI. He initially lost sponsors, but he won new ones after going to rehab and appearing sorry for his actions. CNNMoney (New York) First published August 18, 2016: 2:11 PM ET	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1537
__label__wiki	0.54081	0.54081	MOORLACH UPDATE — Seeking Independence — July 3, 2015 July 3, 2015 July 3, 2015 John Moorlach Allow me to wish you a Happy Independence Day! I hope your 4th of July weekend is a relaxing one and that you have time to reflect on our nation’s 239th birthday and the supposed freedoms that we enjoy. Freedom is a very precious asset to acquire and hold on to. Being subject to a king or ruling force is not a pleasant thought. Unfortunately, when I became an elected official, it did not take very long to realize that we are not entirely free. In a democracy, we are subject to those who are in the majority. I have found, as a general rule, that local and state governing agencies are run by public employee unions through the candidates they have backed. Public employee unions are the ATM machine for Democrat candidates in California (see MOORLACH UPDATE — SB 128 — June 4, 2015 June 4, 2015 John Moorlach; MOORLACH UPDATE — Senator Steve Glazer — May 29, 2015 May 29, 2015May 29, 2015 John Moorlach; and MOORLACH UPDATE — New Political Split — April 24, 2015 April 24, 2015 John Moorlach). On my first day as a County Supervisor, I insisted on having the ability for the County to read and review the annual audited financial statements for the Association of Orange County Deputy Sheriffs’ Insurance Trust. This simple request, and one requiring changes to their retiree medical plan, started our tense relationship. AOCDS did not want me to become a County Supervisor and spent plenty for my opponent in the 2006 campaign with their independent expenditures. AOCDS and the other county bargaining units want control, have garnered it through the electoral process, thus insuring that Orange County residents are not truly free. So, today’s headlines should not be a shock. The Voice of OC and the OC Register (which may print tomorrow or Sunday), respectively, provide the news that the Public Employment Relations Board (PERB) Chief Administrative Law Judge ruled against Civic Openness in Negotiations (COIN). As the old line from the movie "Casablanca" goes, "I’m shocked." A union judge is opposed. Really? Especially with his history of trying to obstruct other similar reforms around the state? I believe the Administrative Judge is wrong. The next story will be whether the new Board of Supervisors will appeal. I have my doubts. Two of the new members were the beneficiaries of $150,000 each in AOCDS independent expenditures. The current Chair bends over backwards to assist AOCDS. So much so, that a recent Orange County Grand Jury report addresses the blatant nonsense of kowtowing to AOCDS. This Grand Jury report, titled"ORANGE COUNTY SHERIFF MEDICAL INSURANCE: COUNTY FAILURES IN NEGOTIATION, DOCUMENTATION, OVERSIGHT, AND TRANSPARENCY," does a scholarly job of addressing the joys of negotiating in closed session and the virtues of COIN (also see MOORLACH UPDATE — Butt Out — June 13, 2015 June 13, 2015June 13, 2015 John Moorlach; MOORLACH UPDATE — COIN Modifications — July 18, 2014 July 18, 2014July 18, 2014 John Moorlach; MOORLACH UPDATE — Minting New COIN — June 25, 2014 June 25, 2014June 25, 2014 John Moorlach; MOORLACH UPDATE — COIN and VBM — June 23, 2014 June 23, 2014June 23, 2014 John Moorlach; and MOORLACH UPDATE — Maximus COIN — June 17, 2014 June 17, 2014June 17, 2014 John Moorlach). I voted against the AOCDS MOU last year for the reasons cited in the report (see MOORLACH UPDATE — Pythons’ Tightening Grips — July 15, 2014 July 15, 2014July 15, 2014 John Moorlach and MOORLACH UPDATE — Homeless Shelter, et al — July 16, 2014 July 16, 2014July 16, 2014 John Moorlach). And I proposed COIN as a necessary method of stopping the nonsense that occurs behind closed doors. The Grand Jury report can be read at: http://www.ocgrandjury.org/pdfs/2014_2015_GJreport/Sheriff_Med_Website.pdf Allow me to provide you with a few selected portions of the report, which concludes with recommendations that are in COIN. You’ve got to love the ironies. ". . . a lack of transparency that sometimes serves to undermine the collective bargaining process." The 2012-2016 MOU adopted by the Board of Supervisors (at Section 8.E), potentially exempts some of those County employees included in the "55 safety formula" (e.g., Sheriff employees) from having to pay any ARC contribution as of July 1, 2015. Their ARC would, over time, be reduced from 3.6% of their base salary to as low as zero. As of July 1, 2015, County employees who are not "55 safety formula" employees will essentially be paying the entire cost of the monthly County retiree contributions paid to the AOCDS Trust for Sheriff employee medical coverage. This change clearly results in a significant difference between what is required of Sheriff employees and those who are not Sheriff employees. The Grand Jury was informed that the MOU provisions leading to the elimination of the ARC for Sheriff employees was added to the MOU in a closed session of the Board of Supervisors. This session was held after the formal negotiations had been concluded by the negotiating teams representing the County and AOCDS, and effectively prevented review and comment by either of the negotiating teams before it was ultimately adopted by the Board of Supervisors. One observer of this closed session indicated that as soon as the proposal was made, two other Board members almost immediately concurred with the proposal that would place on the County significant additional long-term financial responsibilities for retired health care coverage for Sheriff employees. It was further reported to the Grand Jury that the ensuing discussion of the matter was "brief" and no further study of the potential implications of the new proposal was considered by the Board before a vote was held on an MOU containing the new proposal. Had the County just decided to negotiate against itself? After all, had not all five Supervisors agreed in April to go to mediation to avoid this exact outcome? What had happened in the intervening two months? It was reported to the Grand Jury, based on the dialogue observed between the five Supervisors, that the manner in which the new provisions were proposed resulted in two Supervisors opposing final approval of the MOU. The MOU, containing these terms, was ultimately approved by a 3-2 vote of the Supervisors at the regularly scheduled Board of Supervisors meeting on July 15, 2014. Therefore, based on the information provided to the Grand Jury, the Grand Jury has concluded that greater transparency is called for in the MOU negotiation process. Something positive may actually have come as a result of all of this. Following Costa Mesa’s lead, one of the two Supervisors who had opposed the new AOCDS MOU proposed adoption of a County ordinance that would require transparency for employee contract negotiations. The ordinance (Sec. 1-3-12.), titled "Civic Openness in Negotiations" (COIN), was adopted by a 5-0 vote in August 2014. Adoption of the COIN ordinance appears to be a very positive development. However, COIN is only an ordinance, which is always subject to repeal or sunsetting by a majority of the Supervisors. As a matter of fact, during the debate on whether to first adopt the COIN ordinance, one of the Supervisors proposed that the ordinance sunset in 2016, the year the current AOCDS MOU will expire. The proposed sunsetting provision was rejected. If COIN remains intact, the Supervisors and the public will certainly have an opportunity, in the next year, to assess whether the ordinance is having its intended effect, as the current County-AOCDS MOU expires on June 30, 2016. R.1. The County should retain a qualified, experienced, and independent negotiator to assist in the next negotiations between Orange County and the Association of Orange County Deputy Sheriffs and require that entity to prepare an internally consistent Memorandum of Understanding that, for example, makes it clear whether the Orange County contributions are to be used only for active employees. (F.1.) R.2. The County should retain a qualified, experienced, and independent negotiator to incorporate clear terms in the Memorandum Of Understanding that define limitations on the use of Orange County contributions that become reserve funds, specify how to deal with over-funding, and resolve what is to become of the funds in the Premium Stabilization Fund if the Trust’s agreement with Blue Cross is terminated. (F.2.) R.9. The County should support and take full advantage of Orange County’s Civic Openness in Negotiations – "COIN" ordinance in future Orange County and Association of Orange County Deputy Sheriff’s Memorandum of Understanding negotiations and approval processes. (F.9.) I am not deterred and will continue to fight for the taxpayers of Orange County and the state of California. We must be diligent in obtaining true freedom and not continue paying tribute to public employee unions who can obtain amazing salaries and benefits from those they put into office on both sides of the aisle. We must continually seek independence. BONUS: You are invited to enjoy a beach fire ring experience with my staff on July 20th (see MOORLACH UPDATE — Fire Rings — April 24, 2013 April 24, 2013April 24, 2013 John Moorlach). The event is free. There may be a cost for parking. The flyer is provided below. State Rules County Violated Labor Laws When Passing COIN By Nick Gerda A state agency has ruled that top Orange County officials violated labor laws last year by imposing new requirements on employee negotiations, without giving unions a chance to negotiate about the changes ahead of time. In a proposed decision by the state’s Public Employment Relations Board, the county was determined to have violated state law when supervisors passed the Civic Openness in Negotiations ordinance, known as COIN. “The County is found to have adopted a proposed ordinance, COIN, without prior notice to [the Orange County Employees Association], [Orange County Attorneys Association], and [International Union of Operating Engineers Local 501], and affording them an opportunity to meet and confer over the decision or effects of the proposed ordinance. Such a violation constitutes an unlawful unilateral change and a refusal to bargain in good faith,” states the June 16 ruling by Chief Administrative Law Judge Shawn B. Cloughesy. If the ruling stands, the county would have to repeal four key sections of COIN, including public reporting of offers and counteroffers, disclosure of what took place during labor negotiation sessions, a 30-day non-negotiations period before supervisors consider opening proposals to labor groups. The county would also have to put up notices for 30 days telling employees the county broke the law and is required to meet and confer with unions before making changes that affect their representation. The notices would also have to be emailed to county employees. The county has until next week to appeal the ruling to the full labor board. County spokeswoman Jean Pasco declined to comment on the ruling, other than to note that supervisors took no reportable action on the litigation during their closed session last week. Meanwhile, the Orange County Employees Association, which represents two-thirds of the county workforce, applauded the ruling. “We’re really happy that the administrative law judge recognized and upheld worker rights in his proposed decision,” said Jennifer Muir, the union’s assistant general manager. Muir went on to say it shows the need to apply transparency across the board at the county, not just to employee contracts. She pointed to recent cost overruns and network outages stemming from the county’s contract with Xerox Corp. "There’s just example after example after example about how that type of public scrutiny on those private contracts is just critical for the public,” she said. Among other things, COIN requires public disclosure of offers and counter-offers on labor contracts, a more detailed financial analysis of proposed agreements and the posting of proposed agreements 30 days in advance of voting on their approval. It was brought forward to the county last year by then-Supervisor John Moorlach, who argued that it will give residents a better chance to weigh in on proposed labor agreements. Supporters, such as the conservative Lincoln Club of Orange County, also suggested the ordinance would help prevent labor costs from escalating due to benefit increases. Labor groups, meanwhile, argued that COIN triggers a requirement to meet and confer with employees under the Meyers-Milias-Brown Act, which mandates certain types of communication between government agencies and employee groups regarding labor negotiations. They also criticized supervisors for not having the ordinance cover all government contracting, especially with private companies that finance the supervisors’ political campaigns and account for more than half of the county’s spending. In reaction to COIN, OCEA is spearheading state legislation that would require any local government that implements COIN to also follow a similar process for contracts with private vendors over $50,000. That legislation, known as CRONEY, was passed by the Senate in May and was approved by the Assembly’s local government committee on Wednesday. You can contact Nick Gerda at ngerda, and follow him on Twitter: @nicholasgerda. State attorney finds OC supervisors acted illegally in approving ‘COIN’ labor ordinance By MEGHANN M. CUNIFF / STAFF WRITER Orange County leaders acted illegally when they failed to let unions try to negotiate new requirements imposed last year on county contract-negotiation processes, an attorney for a state agency has ruled. The proposed ruling by an administrative law judge for the Public Employment Relations Board, issued June 16, could force the county to repeal key parts of the Civic Openness in Negotiations ordinance, dubbed COIN, which requires offers and counter-offers on labor contracts be publicized and requires more detailed analysis of the financial effects of proposed labor agreements, among other things. The Board of Supervisors has not yet voted on whether to appeal the ruling. If it doesn’t appeal and the ruling becomes final, not only would the ordinance be dismantled, but the county would be required to place notices that tell employees the county broke the law. The notices are to be displayed for 30 days, and each county employee is to receive one through email. The ruling was prompted by an unfair labor practice filed last year by the Orange County Employees Association, the county’s biggest union. County and union officials were not available for comment late Thursday. The ordinance was introduced last year by state Sen. John Moorlach when he was a supervisor. A similar ordinance exists in Costa Mesa and is being considered in other cities. Labor leaders cried foul when Moorlach introduced the ordinance, but Moorlach said the changes didn’t affect wages, hours and employment conditions so they weren’t subject to negotiation. Human Resources Director Steve Danley agreed, saying the new law did not have a “significant and adverse” impact on wages or hours, according to the ruling. The attorney for the labor board, however, disagreed and pointed to a list of past cases in which state officials established that ground rules for negotiations are a mandatory subject of bargaining. “While the ground rules used during negotiations do not, on their face, directly affect employees’ wages, hours, or working conditions, the application of ground rules through the bargaining process would have a significant and adverse effect on wages, hours and working conditions,” according to the ruling, written by Chief Administrative Law Judge Shawn B. Cloughesy. “If a public agency is able to exercise overall control over the ground rules of bargaining, it can short circuit and frustrate bargaining to the point it ceases to be a bilateral process.” The ruling will become final unless a party appeals within 20 days of service, according to the ruling. Contact the writer: mcuniff or 949-492-5122. Twitter: @meghanncuniff. This e-mail has been sent by California State Senator John M. W. Moorlach, 37th District. If you no longer wish to subscribe, just let me know by responding with the request to do so. ← MOORLACH UPDATE — Totalitarianism — July 1, 2015 MOORLACH UPDATE — AB 718 — July 8, 2015 →	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1540
__label__cc	0.592328	0.407672	A SAMPLE FROM A CHAPTER OF MY BEDBUGS NOVEL... The bugs returned to the surface, listening out for the slightest of vibrations as they teleported from street-to-street. They sensed someone was nearby, their speed picking up as the dark cloud easily floated across the cold wind, but the person closing in found the weather to be a struggle. Peter Thornton was eighteen years old, a skinny teenager who was returning from a house party. He felt his bones freeze each time the wind touched him, a reminder that he should have stayed where he was until the morning, but his drunken state made him act like a fool. He wanted to impress his friends but ended up getting booted out of the house for puking over the host and fighting with her boyfriend. Now he was all alone and too drunk to know where he was. The wind was so strong that it almost turned him around like a human weathervane, his coat held against his chin as he tried mapping out the direction to his home from within his mind, but it wasn’t working and he was way off course. The bugs watched him struggle to walk in a straight line, the shadow keeping out of sight as they began to circle him. They moved across the snow like they were floating on it, the circle keeping Peter inside as he kept moving. He swayed across the street as it tightened, wandering away from the houses to end up at an old abandoned play area. He never saw them upon staggering towards a swing, almost slumping to the ground before gripping onto it, but the circle remained tight to close in even more. He sat on the swing to squash the layer of snow resting on it, his body swaying as his jeans became wet, but Peter didn’t seem bothered by it. He choked upon leaning over to spit on the ground, his vision blurred as he stared at the bugs, giggling because he thought the drugs being passed around at the party were sending him on a strange trip. He laughed out loud and spat at them, but the bugs reformed into the shadow to leave his mind lost with what to think. He knew he was way out of it. He laughed again, watching the shadow change shape, his eyes adjusting as it rocked from side-to-side to hypnotise him. He stared the shadow up and down, still not taking it seriously, spitting once more before starting to sing. He pushed the swing back-and-forth, his croaking voice slurring out words from a song dated back to the eighties, the noise echoing out of the play area to drift towards a house across the street. Peter coughed up vomit, wiping a hand across his mouth to the sound of someone shouting at him, his head turning to see an elderly man lean out of a window acting furious for being woken up. Peter waved in the man’s direction before singing the song again. “Hoy! Keep that fucking noise down!” the man bellowed. Peter stopped singing and rubbed his eyes, the words surprising him as he stared hard at the man. “Can you see me, you dumb fuck?” the man said, now feeling more annoyed for letting the cold into his home. “Shut up. You’re just jealous because I can sing.” Peter shouted back. The man’s face was raging now as he said, “If you don’t stop that awful racket then I’ll come down and make you.” Peter laughed harder and louder than before as the sound of the window slamming down caught his attention. He noticed the man was gone, his mouth producing a smile because he thought he’d won the battle, but, as he attempted to leave the swing, his smile quickly faded. Peter couldn’t move his legs. He tried and tried but they felt like logs stuck in the ground, his movements coming to nothing as he panted for air. He laughed nervously upon glancing at his feet, his shoes covered with bugs to hide them from him. He felt the insects crawl up his legs, his eyes welling up after he still couldn’t move them. He opened his mouth to produce a silent scream, slobbering before swiftly being dragged off the swing, his hands digging into the snow to slow himself down. But his body tightened to leave him in a state of panic, his scared eyes now watching the bugs pull him along the ground. Peter’s legs were now covered with bugs, their strength too much for him to fight back. He shed a tear as they reached his stomach, his body disappearing in a flash to leave just a line in the snow. The elderly man appeared in the distance, his walking stick preventing him from falling over as he neared the swing. He searched for the teenager, noticing he was gone, his stick now held in the air in victory. “You better run, you fucker,” he said, as he rotated to look around him. “Don’t come back here if you know what’s good for you.” He smiled, thinking he was Rocky Balboa, the teenager fleeing because he had scared him off. He waved the stick above his head but quickly brought it back to the ground after slipping on the ice, his legs wobbling as he turned to walk home. Reviews for Bedbugs - A horror novel that will make you check your bed before going to sleep By Dean Lappi Format:Kindle Edition\|Amazon Verified PurchaseI read Bedbugs by Mr. Taylor and I have to say that it was a great horror novel in the tradition of Stephen King. His way of writing about the 'bedbugs' will make your skin crawl, and that is a good thing! I look forward to many more of Mr. Taylor's books, as he has a very promising future! Best wishes. Dean Lappi 4.0 out of 5 stars Bedbugs, they love a restrained victim., 7 April 2012 By Jarrak "Welcome... to the real world" (UK) - This review is from: Bedbugs (Kindle Edition) My mother used to quote the Bedbug phrase to me and my sister when she had finished tucking us in at night and yes it was more terrifying than comforting and you do wonder why such a farewell ever came into play. I feel I am on safe ground saying it wasn't due to an alien race of creatures which could move in the shadows and make mincemeat of any organic substance for their own sustenance and that of their hive queen but who knows. Using this seemingly innocent phrase as the core of a scifi/horror story may seem a stretch but Lee pulls it off with Bedbugs and his decision to set the story in the non too distance future allows the use of some more advanced technology but retains all the flaws of our own society. Now don't get me wrong Bedbugs isn't a high concept story nor is it intended to get the reader asking the important questions of life it's an out and out easy to read horror/slash tale of malevolent aliens who slaughter their way through a small English town and the in over their heads police force who have to face the onslaught. I used to be a big fan of Dean R Koontz's story telling but as he developed his style his writing got more complex and darker and that's not what I really wanted from him and Bedbugs has strong echoes of the early work from Dean which is probably why despite a very visceral reaction to the first killing in the book I kept reading and got my reward via some fun, stupid, daft, brave and unexpected characters in bizarre and over the top situations. Bedbugs is not a work of classic scifi/horror fiction by any means but come on look at the cover and read the blurb, you will certainly get plenty of what they promise and that is all you can ever ask for in a book or a movie, go in expecting a bit of blood and gore with a dose of humour and you'll be happy. 5.0 out of 5 stars A pretty fun book, 4 April 2012 Blackbird - I downloaded it for free a while back and wasn't expecting much. To my surprise however this was a very fun read. I highly recommend it. The plot is fun and fast-paced with plenty of twists and turns and the characters are likeable. Feedback for the 1st chapter of Bedbugs This is a hard chapter to read, from an emotional sense. I realized something had happened, but the death of her son is still a shock. You have some well-chosen details, and the pace is terrific. Death of children is always hard to deal with in fiction, even though it seems to be a more common theme. I'll want to read more. Ray. "Excellent A very scary first chapter you have here. This held me from start to finish. ...The writing is clear and easy to understand. The descriptive is very good at portraying the scene, especially when the dad finds his son."	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1541
__label__wiki	0.588243	0.588243	Browse Projects > Media « Back to Projects Project 2737: S. Hand, R. Beck, M. Archer, N. B. Simmons, G. F. Gunnell, R. P. Scofield, A. J. D. Tennyson, V. L. De Pietri, S. Salisbury, T. Worthy. 2018. A new, large-bodied omnivorous bat (Noctilionoidea: Mystacinidae) reveals lost morphological and ecological diversity since the Miocene in New Zealand. Scientific Reports. 8:235. Views for Media » Zoom » Download Morphobank media number † Icaronycteris index † Icaronycteris index (YPM/VP:18150) Holotype Dentition upper Media loaded by Nancy Simmons Person loading media owns copyright and grants permission for use of media on MorphoBank Occlusal view of right upper tooth row. Media loaded on November 19 2008 at 10:33:07 This media file was first entered in MorphoBank as M24705 in P220. It has also been used in: P891 as M173568. This media record has been viewed 57 times About MorphoBank Terms of Use & Privacy Policy API Documention This website was prepared by the MorphoBank project, in part, under an award from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce. The statements, findings, conclusions, and recommendations are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration or the Department of Commerce. Web hosting provided by Stony Brook University and Department of Information Technology, and by the American Museum of Natural History. MorphoBank Version 3.0a; © The MorphoBank Project, 2012 [2.9631s/2.00M]	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1542
__label__cc	0.739368	0.260632	ComedyFamilySport Nacho Libre is a 2006 American sports comedy film directed by Jared Hess with music by Danny Elfman and written by Jared and Jerusha Hess and Mike White. It was loosely based on the story of Fray Tormenta ("Friar Storm"), aka Rev. Sergio Gutiérrez Benítez, a real-life Mexican Catholic priest who had a 23-year career as a masked luchador. He competed in order to support the orphanage he directed. The producers are Jack Black, David Klawans, Julia Pistor and Mike White. The film stars Jack Black, Troy Gentile, Ana de la Reguera, Hector Jimenez, Peter Stormare, Carla Jimenez, Richard Montoya, César González, Moisés Arias, Donald Chambers, Darius Rose, Diego Eduardo Gomez and Craig Williams. The film received mixed reviews from critics. The film was theatrically released on June 16, 2006 by Paramount Pictures. Jack BlackAna de la RegueraH?ctor Jim?nezHéctor JiménezDarius Rose Jared HessJerusha Hess Jerusha Hess You can see "Nacho Libre" on the VOD website: "Nacho Libre" is movie produced at 2006. See what information about this film we collected at our service. You can also check other movies in the same genres by click at genre name. If you are interests movies released at 2006 you can click at year. You can also check other movies with the same cas or with the same writer and director. This is very simple, just click at the name. You can also find posters, still photos and trailers connected whith this production.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1544
__label__cc	0.599626	0.400374	Read for FREE with Kindle Unlimited or buy from Amazon. Also available in print and coming soon in audio. Shop now at: Categories: Nancy Corrigan, Royal-Kagan, Shifter World Sometimes taking a chance is the only choice. As the public face of Kagan Industries, Sean Reynolds has no interest in pack politics or leadership. But when the rightful next in line wolf shifter abandons the pack, the void becomes an opportunity of a lifetime—in his wolf’s eyes, anyway. Not in Sean’s eyes. But with the influence of the full moon revving up his primal drives, resisting the lure of power is draining. He needs a distraction. Drinking at the human bar gives it to him…until a sultry blonde captures his attention. And when she abruptly disappears, his choice is made. She is not getting away. Ever. Download today and get lost in a quickie, hot romance that binds two rival packs and introduces the Alexander pride’s single shifter neighbors. “It has a great storyline. I can’t wait for more from this author.” Reader Review A wonderful New take on shifters, and the sorry is told really well.” “I LOVE these books!!” “Just can’t wait to see what happens next!” “kept me engrossed from start to finish” “I loved the chemistry between the characters“ “I’m so glad I was introduced to this series.” Copyright © 2016 by Nancy Corrigan All Rights Are Reserved. Sean made another loop around the Kagan Industries’ office and cursed. Pacing wasn’t helping. Nothing he’d tried since sundown had. He hurt, plain and simple. His skin itched, and his bones ached. The sensation of claws raking the inside of his chest made it worse, but it wasn’t the pain gripping him that left him angry. It was the obstinate wolf he housed. The separate entity he’d been born with had its own wants and goals. At the moment, they conflicted with Sean’s plans for the evening. Since he was ultimately in charge, the animal would just have to suck it up. His wolf’s pissed-off snarl echoed within him. No doubt it disagreed. Not his problem. His wolf wasn’t the only stubborn one, and Sean refused to allow his primal side to rule him. He would not make the same mistake his friend Nic had. Sean was too damn young to fall in love. Or in lust. Both could seal a shifter’s fate. Hands fisted, he strode for the window. As much as he wanted to ignore the full moon, he needed the strength it offered. He shoved the lace curtain aside and stepped into the swatch of moonlight. Warmth infused him, and his wolf calmed. Momentarily, at least. Still, he’d take the brief reprieve. He had a long night ahead of him. He leaned against the window frame and surveyed the little slice of West Virginia that had served as the Kagan pack’s home since the early seventeen hundreds. Stone paths wove through gardens and around the large, man-made pond. Beyond the still water, a fountain and a gazebo offered a place to sit and relax. Farther out, trees marked the separation of the humans’ town and their territory. Their communal land was beautiful. He loved every inch of it, but at the moment, he wanted to run as far and as fast as he could away from it. “Greeting the full moon all alone again, huh?” Noah’s voice cut through the silence of the night. Sean peered over his shoulder at his cousin. Protective instincts flared. “What are you doing here? Tanner males aren’t allowed on Kagan pack lands.” “Worried about me?” “Yes.” As a member of their rival pack, Noah’s presence could be constituted as a threat depending on who saw him. Sean knew better. Noah would give his life if it meant saving one of them. Sean would do the same for a member of Noah’s pack. Noah shut the door behind him. With his dark blond hair in a short ponytail and a white T-shirt stretched over his muscled chest, he garnered the attention of males and females alike. One glance into his deadened green eyes, however, and most people steered clear of him. Guilt, anger, and loneliness gave him a don’t-fuck-with-me vibe that was hard to miss. Losing a female days after mating her would do that to any male. It gave Sean yet another reason to avoid their women. “Technically, I’m not on your pack’s lands. The Kagan office sits a few hundred feet inside the humans’ town. As for why I’m here?” Noah leaned against the opposite side of the window. “Your alpha asked me to try to talk some sense into you.” About Sean’s refusal to shift. Everyone in his pack had been on his ass about it. Their lectures had gotten old. “You’re wasting your time. I’m fine. My wolf’s fine. End of discussion.” “Is it?” Noah raised a brow. “You’re not getting edgy? Irritable? Or feel like you’re going to come out of your skin?” If Noah considered insomnia and the new holes Sean had punched into his bedroom walls as fitting those criteria, then the answer would be yes. He shrugged. “Nothing I can’t handle.” Noah made a noncommittal sound, then glanced out the window, scanning the property the way Sean had. “Any word on Nic? Is he coming home soon?” “What? No warnings or long speeches about how I’ll go insane if I don’t let my wolf out?” “Nope. You’re not stupid. You’re just an idiot.” Sean laughed. “Yeah? What’s the difference?” “You know the facts. You’re just choosing to ignore them.” Noah had a point. Sean wouldn’t deny that. He grunted and turned his attention to the backyard. “I’m not shifting until I’m sure I have control over my instincts.” “And when’s that going to be?” “Soon.” Or not. Silence descended in the room while his wolf’s growls reverberated within him, building the pressure behind his eyes. Finally, Noah sighed, breaking the tense moment. “Well?” “Well, what?” “Nic? Any word from him?” “He called this morning.” Actually, Nic called every day with the same question—how’s Riley? The human female Nic had fallen in love with and tried to mate had ruined him, but it wasn’t her fault or his that she’d been born the wrong species. Fate had screwed them both and guaranteed neither would be happy. “Did he say when he’s coming home?” “Not until it’s time for his dad to pass on our pack spirit. He wants to enjoy life before he has to pick a shifter female to mate. He’s in no rush to be saddled with a breeding partner.” “Saddled? Well, that’s a shitty way to look at it. Being mated is a wonderful experience.” “How would you know? Yours—” Sean groaned and dropped his head against the cool glass. “I’m sorry. That was uncalled for.” “And completely out of character for you.” No anger darkened Noah’s voice, only understanding. He laid a comforting hand on Sean’s shoulder. “It’s going to get worse. You need to shift and accept what you are. Fighting it is only going to make all your moods stronger, from ones of aggression to passion.” “You think I don’t know that? It’s why I’ve been fighting to get my wolf to obey me. Without Nic here…” He shook his head, disgusted by his instincts. “Without Nic here to claim the spirit wolf from his aging father, you’re driven to secure your position in the pack, so you can take over as alpha.” Noah voiced the truth that had plagued Sean since Nic took off. In Sean’s wolf’s eyes, Nic’s absence offered Sean the opportunity to seize the most revered role a shifter could hold. His wolf didn’t care that Sean had no desire to be alpha or that the official challenge would claim the life of Nic’s father, if Nicholas Kagan didn’t willingly pass the spirit wolf on. It wanted the power the top spot offered. Nothing else mattered. “I’m newly matured, and I’m horny. I know that’s normal, but every unmated female I come across stirs me. I don’t know if my interest is purely physical or if, subconsciously, I’m shopping for a mate.” Because without a mate to birth him an heir, he’d never be able to hold on to the alpha spot. Noah dropped his hand. “Stop fighting your wolf and trust yourself. That’s the best advice I can give. There’re no guarantees in life or in love. Remember that. You make a choice, then live with it.” Sean raised a brow. “Speaking from experience?” “Yeah.” Noah spun on his heel and walked toward the door. “Call if you need me. It’s not like I have anything better to do with my life.” The front door banged shut behind him. Sean stared at it for a minute, then grabbed his wallet. “Well, I do, and it involves me, some whiskey, and maybe a few beers.” And a bar where he’d be sure not to stumble across any shifter females.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1548
__label__wiki	0.71384	0.71384	Need for health public policy stressed KARACHI - Public health remains a neglected science in Pakistan with the major focus on curative rather than preventive healthcare resulting in deep cuts in the healthcare budget as well as pockets of private patients, experts observed at the ‘CHS Research Day 2013’ held at Aga Khan University on Friday. This year’s theme ‘Generating Actions from Knowledge’ was geared to make policy makers understand that public health is a multidisciplinary approach and must be treated as a significant piece of the whole system rather than approached in isolation. “There needs to be a direct link between research evidence and informed policy making,” said Dr Imtiaz Jehan, Associate Professor, Department of Community Health Sciences, AKU. Over 100 abstracts were submitted based on four main research themes: health systems and public healthcare development, women’s health and empowerment, environmental and occupational health, and chronic disease and nutrition. The keynote speaker, Dr Abdul Ghaffar, Executive director, Alliance for Health Systems and Policy Research urged for a combined effort by policy makers and researchers in academia to identify research priorities and information gaps that need to be addressed through research. On the one hand, ownership of research by policy makers and practitioners is needed and on the other researchers need to be sensitised to gauge the success of their research by the degree to which their findings are used to inform policy and practice. “We want policy makers to review the present healthcare system and make the required changes based on systems research rather than clinical research, which centres on biomedical and biotechnical domains,” Dr Jehan added. In successfully achieving such a balance the cost of healthcare can be significantly decreased while offering a high yield of healthcare services. Meanwhile, Dr Fauziah Rabbani, Chair, CHS, AKU commented that one of a country’s most important resources is its population, and a healthy population directly impacts the country’s economic and social determinants. “However, access to healthcare [in Pakistan] is dismal with no coherent or concise healthcare policy,” she said. Recognising the need for a more basic system to integrate the population the Urban Health Programme was initiated in 1985 at AKU as a community campus partnership model to develop primary healthcare prototypes. In a recent study UHP has tested integrated models of health and development in 17 different urban squatter settlements. It was awarded the MacJannet prize by Telloires Network in 2009 for its impact. Dr Agha Xaher Gul, a researcher at the UHP, explained the sensitive transition from a ‘dependency syndrome’ on healthcare systems to people becoming aware that they are responsible for their health. “Every day we have more and more people migrating to cities but this mass urbanisation has not come without its share of problems,” he said. According to Dr Gul cities are becoming inundated with people without education, proper skill set and infrastructure. “What many migrants do bring is an unhygienic lifestyle and a rural mindset with regards to healthcare, especially for women and children.” Seconding his assertions Dr Rabbani told the audience that the rapid and disorganised rise in urban population does not bode well for already weak healthcare systems. “For example in a city as heavily populated as Karachi 45 per cent of the people are living in squatter settlements,” she stressed. “By 2020 the percentage is expected to rise to 55 if not 60 per cent.” Presently stunted growth or ‘stunting’ in Pakistan is at 18 per cent, in Sindh it is at 25 per cent. These figures should have already sounded alarms as the World Health Organisation declares an emergency at 15 per cent. “The whole system is interdependent, be it dealing with malnutrition and food security, economic policy or other areas. As a result of ignoring this we are now looking at a whole generation who will grow up with impaired cognition (due to stunting),” Dr Gul said. SBP increases policy rate to 13.25pc Trump‘s climate change policy; A malicious deception Policy being worked out to tap gas, oil potential Necessity is the mother of all inventions Samson Simon Sharaf Pakistan’s unsung hero Managing terrorism and coming elections Dr Zafar Nawaz Jaspal Pakistan’s nuclear weapons safety and security Reiterating what is right Downright scandalous Daring but correct decision Stop drone strikes! Bedraggled beggars assail the city Metro bus service Separation at the eleventh hour Balochistan’s darkest hour Why we hate them A widespread misunderstanding	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1549
__label__wiki	0.623413	0.623413	Catch-22 (TV Tie-in) Autor HELLER, Joseph Editura Vintage AS SEEN ON HBO GO Discover Joseph Heller's hilarious and tragic satire on military madness, and the tale of one man's efforts to survive it. It’s the closing months of World War II and Yossarian has never been closer to death. Stationed in an American bomber squadron off the coast of Italy, each flight mission introduces him to thousands of people determined to kill him. But the enemy above is not Yossarian’s problem – it is his own army intent on keeping him airborne, and the maddening ‘Catch-22’ that allows for no possibility of escape. ‘The greatest satirical work in the English language’ Observer " Wildly original, brutally gruesome, a dazzling performance that will outrage as many readers as it delights. Vulgarly, bitterly funny, it will not be forgotten by those who can take it" (New York Times) "Blessedly, monstrously, bloatedly, cynically funny and fantastically unique. No one has ever written a book like this" (Financial Times) "The greatest satirical work in the English language" (Philip Toynbee, Observer) "Blessedly, monstrously, bloatedly, cynically funny, and fantastically unique. No one has ever written a book like this" (Financial Times) "An apocalyptic masterpiece" (Chicago Times) Etichete: heller joseph	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1551
__label__wiki	0.761095	0.761095	New York City, NY NearSay Home > NY > New York City, NY > Manhattan > Upper West Side Stand Up NY Stand Up NY: Top Comedy Every Night of the Week July 22, 2015 Upper West Side, Manhattan Hey comedy fan! Running a comedy club is hard work. When you’re running around picking up drink orders, keeping your social media game on point, and making sure every caller gets their reservation in, sometimes we don’t give our fans as many updates as we’d like to. But lately, we’ve gotten back on track, and we’ve got awesome news to share. First off, let’s talk about our show scene this past week. We had a ton of special guests. Last Tuesday night, we had actor and comic Godfrey grace our stage. Godfrey has appeared on BET, VH1, Comedy Central, and feature films like "Soul Plane" & "Zoolander." We also had comedian and actress Jessica Kirson, whose television appearances include NBC’s "Last Comic Standing," "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno," and “The View." We also welcomed Emmy-award winning writer and producer Judy Gold and America’s Got Talent runner-up Tom Cotter. Monday and Saturday night we were lucky to have actor and stand-up comic Judah Friedlander as a special guest, who you probably recognize as the writer with the funny hats from 30 Rock. We’re excited for Judah’s new book, “If the Raindrops United: Drawings and Cartoons.” It doesn’t come out until October (Aw man!) but you can pre-order it on Amazon. Oh, and Amy Schumer stopped by July 6th for a star-studded show with Judah Friedlander and Greer Barnes. Amy’s first feature film, Trainwreck, comes out THIS Friday! So, if you need us, we’ll be at the movies. Yes, all day! Genius needs time to settle in (at least, that’s what we’ll tell our bosses.) So that was our night-life. As for the daytime, when we haven’t been running around making sure the club looks spiffy and beautiful for our nightly shows, we’ve had two groups of NYC camp kids & counselors come in for comedy workshops. Kids got to try out their joke-telling skills on our stage before getting the chance to see Comedian Neko White do a private performance. Neko, for his part, proved himself if he hasn’t already - if you can handle kid hecklers, you can do it all. So that’s us - we’re busy, busy, busy! But what about you? We love hearing from fans. Don’t forget to hit us up on Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, & Google Plus. If you’re not already following us on Instagram, make sure you check out the #instacontest we just unveiled - just a few simple steps and you could be on your way to winning two FREE tickets… and drinks! The Stand Up NY Team For more information about ticketing and reservations visit us online at www.standupny.com Other Announcements, Events and Deals from Stand Up NY 4 Reasons Your Summer Plans Should Include Visiting a Comedy Club For a fun and exciting night out this summer, there’s no better stop than your local comedy club. Stand Up NY, New York City’s raved-about comedy club, proves that watching New York’...read more 3 Ways to Prepare for a Laugh-Producing Open-Mic Night Performing a stand-up routine at an open-mic night can be thrilling and daunting, even for those who have been doing it for years. Stand Up NY, a comedy club on Manhattan’s Upper Wes...read more Join Us For a Special Fundraiser In Support of The Orlando Victims June 29, 2016 10:00PM - June 29, 2016 11:30PM Only a couple of weeks ago, Orlando was witness to a horrific act of violence and hatred, one that is almost beyond comprehension or understanding. And yet in such bleak times, there...read more Introducing BRING IT: New Talent Showcase! Here's How To Sign Up... Do you have dreams of becoming a Stand-Up Comedian? If you answered yes, then come “Bring It”. Stand UP NY has the perfect opportunity for up and coming comics to stand up and show...read more Great Deals on The Best Stand Up Comedy Shows With SPECIAL OFFERS What You Missed: This past weekend we celebrated Memorial Day with killer performances from New York’s best comics, such as the outrageously funny Christian Finnegan and the one a...read more Review us on Yelp Enter your email to subscribe to the Stand Up NY newsletter A. Stand Up NY Sunday: 7:00 pm-12:00 am Monday: 5:00 pm-12:00 am Tuesday: 5:00 pm-12:00 am Wednesday: 5:00 pm-12:00 am Thursday: 5:00 pm-12:00 am Friday: 5:00 pm-2:00 am Saturday: 4:00 pm-2:00 am Battery Park City Central Harlem Flatiron District Kips Bay NoHo Randalls-Wards Island Stuyvesant Town - Peter Cooper Village Two Bridges Washington Heights West Harlem Top Categories in Upper West Side	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1552
__label__cc	0.646681	0.353319	Niklas Aman - Film Music Catalog Passion For Music I’m a Stockholm based music maker, having produced instrumental music for about 35 years and find great joy in composing, playing, recording and mixing. On top of it having people enjoying my songs, studying to my music or using them in films, tv and radio shows - that’s just fantastic! I feel very privileged, thankful, honoured and happy to be able to do what I do, living my dream. What's Behind the Music I'm putting sound to daily experiences and surroundings, the life here in Stockholm, news and thoughts around the world that caught my attention, but some of it is also just about playful experimentation with forms and numbers. Being a guitarist, but also playing other instruments like piano, synth, bass, ukulele, mandolin and percussion, most of my music is performed and realtime recorded rather than sample based or written in MIDI. I like the human element in there, the fluctuations in timing and intonation. I'm quite fond of illusionary patterns and polyrhythmic beds, so that is a common element in my songs. Doing atmospheric effects on the electric guitars instead of synths has been a favourite for long. Also lately has been a lot about using less drums, letting the other instruments speak rhythmically instead. My wife has been there as the greatest inspiration and support for more than 23 years now - what a journey! I can’t thank her enough! I’m also a very happy and proud father of now two grown ups and one adorable grandkid! All this have a fundamental part in the work I do. Greater Values From time to time I’ve asked myself if I contribute enough to the world just by making music and simply feel good about it? Sure I’ve influenced the nearest and dearest a bit, and those music students in the past as well, but the best answer to this came back in 2010 when I started my own music catalogue and label. It has been an eye opener to experience how my songs are being used films, documentaries and promos to send a message. Furthermore I’m very grateful for all the playlist inclusions on Spotify and Apple Music, that my songs are being used for focus, study, relax, yoga, sleep - that’s just awesome! Finally the feedback from people all over the globe on the work I do has been and is... simply amazing! Means the world to me! Biography >> Check out my music on: Spotify, iTunes/Apple Music, Amazon, Google Play, Deezer and Tidal. Cue Sheet & PRO info For broadcast/theatrical releases and cue-sheet reports please provide the airing station/producer with the following info: Composer: Niklas Kurt Åman (100% STIM). The following English aka’s also works fine: Niklas Kurt AAman (100% STIM) or Niklas Kurt Aman (100% STIM). Publisher: Brusbox Music (100% STIM). Film/TV Cred Terms/Policy ©2019 Niklas Aman. All Rights Reserved.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1562
__label__cc	0.643036	0.356964	Has a Death Occurred? We Are Available 24/7 (920) 397-5579 Live Chat Call Us Live Chat Personal Touch Option ShareLife Veterans Specialists Designing a Life Celebration In Casket Resting Places Nancy Ruth Van Valkenberg Share this Tribute: Tribute Links Send Flowers Add Memory Light Candle Add Gesture Add Condolence Obituary of Nancy Ruth Van Valkenberg Nancy Ruth Van Valkenberg, 94, Cambridge, passed away peacefully on September 5, 2018 at Home Again Assisted Living. Nancy was born on September 4, 1924 in Delavan, WI to Arthur and Helen (Lillibridge) Schumacher. At age seven she moved with her family to Mineral Point where her parents owned and operated the movie theater in the Mineral Point Opera House. Nancy graduated from Mineral Point High School in 1942. A patriotic American woman, on her 18th birthday in 1942 instead of going to college as planned, she began work machining anti-aircraft guns for the Navy at a defense factory in Milwaukee. She was a proud Rosie the Riveter. Nancy later attended the University of Wisconsin in Madison for a year, before leaving to raise a family. Nancy was a devoted life-long Wisconsin Badgers fan, as her famous red shoes attested to. Nancy married William “Van” Van Valkenberg in 1944. In 1953, they moved with their growing family to Cambridge where they owned and operated Van’s Shoe Store for 33 years. Together, they raised six children: Philip Van Valkenberg (Georgia Kaftan) of Cambridge; Helen Carol Van Valkenberg of Stoughton; Charles Van Valkenberg; Thomas Van Valkenberg; Jane (Don) Woods of Franklin, TN; and Laura Van Valkenberg (Gary Meister) of Eagle River. They were delighted to include in their family 11 grandchildren, Geoff Van Valkenberg, Holly Van Valkenberg Davidson, Gabriel Van Valkenberg, Jessica Woods Bunce, Emily Van Valkenberg, Kree Woods Dawson, Kayla Van Valkenberg, Sophia Lorent, Alison Woods, Rosa Van Valkenberg, and Lily Van Valkenberg, plus 13 great-grandchildren. Nancy was preceded in death by her parents Art and Helen; husband Van; brother Don; and two sons, Chuck and Tom. Nancy loved swimming and, in her youth, was a lifeguard at the Mineral Point Community Pool. In her teens she swam competitively, winning several gold medals in regional competitions. She had hoped to swim for the UW but at that time, the only water sport for women was synchronized swimming (which wasn’t her jam). Nancy and Van spent many happy hours together enjoying their screened in porch listening to birds and the early morning quiet. After Van passed away in 1996, Nancy took up quilting and soon became an accomplished textile artist. Nancy always found comfort and joy in the many beloved neighbors and friends she met in her exercise and quilting classes. She once said she had so much fun in her 80s after starting her art quilts and meeting for coffee and donuts with her friends at the bakery. Friends are invited to a Celebration of Life which will be held on September 29, 2018 from 12-2pm at the Amundson Center, 200 Spring Street, Cambridge, WI. As an expression of sympathy, please consider a donation in her memory to the Cambridge EMS and Fire Department, or the Cambridge Library. A special thank you to all the staff at Home Again for the great care and affection they gave Nancy, to Agrace Hospice, and to Ruthie and Terry Johnson for always helping and keeping an eye out for her. Nitardyfuneralhome.com Admin Login \| Website powered by FuneralTech	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1565
__label__cc	0.715074	0.284926	"Florida" Clothing and dress 2 Fraternal organizations 2 White supremacy movements 2 Rural life 1 Costume (mode of fashion) 1 Ensembles (costume) 1 Robes (main garments) 1 Fernandina Beach 2 Nassau County 2 Citrus County 1 Duval County 1 Ku Klux Klan, 2nd 2 Davis, George 1 Havens, O. Pierre 1 Liebrecht, Dieudonné 1 Robertson, Albert 1 Rousseau, Richard M. 1 Wilds, Phineas Miller 1 Williams, Jerry 1 Williams, Willie 1 Ku Klux Klan robe and hood worn by Phineas Miller Wilds Wilds, Phineas Miller, American, 1850 - 1930 Ku Klux Klan, 2nd, American, 1915 - 1944 Rousseau, Richard M., American synthetic fiber with rayon ensembles (costume) Fernandina Beach, Nassau County, Florida, United States, North and Central America An ensemble comprised of a red Ku Klux Klan (KKK) robe and hood. Clothing and dress White supremacy movements Collection of the Smithsonian National Museum of African American History and Culture, Gift of the Wilds Family Descendants of Nassau County, Florida Clothing-Historical Ku Klux Klan robe from the Wilds Family Plantation synthetic fiber and metal snaps H x W (flat): 51 1/4 × 34 in. (130.2 × 86.4 cm) H x W (flat): 29 1/4 × 43 3/4 in. (74.3 × 111.1 cm) A Ku Klux Klan (KKK) robe worn by a member of an undetermined rank. The calf-length robe is made from ivory synthetic satin and has full-length sleeves that are slightly flared near the cuff. The robe has a neckband that is lined with red satin and that closes with two sets of snap fasteners. Seven (7) snap fasteners run almost the full length of the button band at the center front. The robe has bands of red, white and blue ribbon sewn near the bottom of the robe approximately five (5) inches from the hem. There are single red ribbon bands at the cuff of each sleeve and running down the proper left and right sides of the button bands. The robe is not lined and there is a single, center back vent measuring 20.75 inches from the hem. There are ivory satin belt loops on each side of the waist. Sewn over the proper left breast is a machine embroidered patch with an ivory satin cross outlined in black against a red satin background with a “blood drop,” embroidered in red, oriented vertically in the center of the cross. The black lines on the patch form a cross with a black diamond in the middle of the cross. The design is typically referred to as the "Mystic Insignia of a Klansman" (MIOAK). The robe has an attached ivory synthetic satin semi-circular half cape with red synthetic satin lining. The half cape has a snap closure sewn to either side of the bottom, front corners. Photograph of the lynched bodies of four men Liebrecht, Dieudonné, Belgian, born 1840 Williams, Jerry, American, died 1892 Davis, George, American, died 1892 Williams, Willie, American, died 1892 Robertson, Albert, American, died 1892 silver and photographic gelatin on photographic paper H x W: 6 3/8 x 4 5/16 in. (16.2 x 11 cm) gelatin silver prints Inverness, Citrus County, Florida, United States, North and Central America 1892; printed ca. 1901 These four men, Jerry Williams, George Davis, Willie Williams, and Albert Robertson, were lynched in Iverness, Florida on April 19, 1892 after being implicated in the murders of two men, identified as Paymaster Stevenson and Mail Carrier Payne, bosses at the phosphate mine where the men were employed. According to a newspaper report from the St. Paul Daily Globe, "A mob surrounded the jail, overpowered the sheriff and hanged the men to trees nearby." A silver gelatin print of the lynched bodies ofJerry Williams, George Davis, Willie Williams, and Albert Robertson. The bodies are pictured hanging by their necks from a tree in a wooded area; two bodies on the left side of the tree and two on the right. The photograph is matted in a light grey cardboard frame with a delicate scroll design around the edge of the photograph. An inscription on the verso, written by hand in ink, reads: ["A necktie party" in Florida (1901)]. Folks At Home Havens, O. Pierre, American, 1838 - 1912 Unidentified Child or Children H x W (Image): 4 3/4 × 7 7/8 in. (12.1 × 20 cm) H x W (Sheet): 5 3/16 × 8 3/8 in. (13.2 × 21.3 cm) Jacksonville, Duval County, Florida, United States, North and Central America A cabinet card with an albumen print of three (3) unidentified women and seven (7) unidentified children posed on the porch of a wooden house. The women all sit in chairs, with one woman seated at the right background alone. The other two women are surrounded by the children who are seated and standing, with one young child in the lap of one of the women. The building is surrounded by a swept yard and a rough-hewn fence. The title "Folks Al [sic] Home" is imprinted in the lower left facing side of the image. The photographer's name and address are printed in black ink on the reverse of the gray card mount, with an additional handwritten inscription on the back with the name Herman Barthmaier.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1566
__label__cc	0.530527	0.469473	by Bill Scher \| Apr 16, 2015 \| Uncategorized Clinton Doesn’t Rattle Wall Street Wall Streeters shrug off Clinton’s populist rhetoric. Politico: “It’s ‘just politics,’ said one major Democratic donor on Wall Street, explaining that some of her Wall Street supporters doubt she would push hard for closing the carried interest loophole as president, a policy she promoted when she last ran in 2008.” Sen. Bernie Sanders says Clinton won’t take on 1%. Bloomberg: “‘It’s not what she says, it’s what she does,’ Sanders said … He said he’ll be making a decision ‘shortly’ on whether to launch a presidential campaign ‘Is Hillary Clinton, are other candidates, prepared to take on the billionaire class?’ Sanders said. ‘Based on her record, I don’t’ think so, he said.” W. Post’s Harold Meyerson offers a populist agenda for Clinton: “… raising the tax on capital income to that imposed on income derived from work, and the tax on short-term investments to levels well above that … linking CEOs’ pay not to their companies’ stock prices but rather to the median income of their employees … mandating corporate restructuring policies that would make employees a more powerful influence on a company’s conduct than wealthy in-and-out shareholders…” Hillary Clinton writes Elizabeth Warren’s entry for Time’s “100 Most Influential People”: “…she never hesitates to hold powerful people’s feet to the fire: bankers, lobbyists, senior government officials and, yes, even presidential aspirants.” And indicates support for Fight for $15 strikers in tweet: “Every American deserves a fair shot at success. Fast food & child care workers shouldn’t have to march in streets for living wages.” But also tells Iowa small business owners there are too many “unnecessary regulations.” Des Moines Register: “American business startups and small business creation is down … Clinton told the business leaders … ‘Slowly over time it’s become more difficult — more expensive, more red tape, unnecessary regulations that have really put a damper’ …” Fast-Track Bill Looms Fast-track deal may be near. Reuters: “U.S. Senate Finance Committee Chairman Orrin Hatch said on Wednesday he was working with the panel’s top Democrat, Ron Wyden, to get a deal … ‘It’s a work in progress,’ Hatch, a Republican, told reporters … [A Democratic] aide said the bill would add a new step by requiring the House of Representatives and Senate committees responsible for trade to vote to certify trade agreements meet the objectives set by Congress before going to a yes-or-no floor vote.” Unions, progressives unmoved by WH TPP push. Politico: “Organized labor’s unified message against the President Barack Obama’s free trade agenda is simple: No thanks, we’ve been here before … [Worker rights] requirements haven’t dampened labor’s vociferous opposition to the deal … Previous side deals to protect workers’ rights in a raft of trade agreements simply haven’t worked…” Breakfast Sides Court battle over Obama’s climate regs begins. NYT: “In the two cases, Murray Energy v. E.P.A. and West Virginia v. E.P.A., the plaintiffs contend that the E.P.A. lacks the authority to issue the rule in the first place, and so should stop working on the rule before making it final … it is also possible that the judges could throw the case out, since the rule has only been proposed and thus contains language that could change when released in the final form.” Senate Dems push gas tax hike, tied to refunds. USA Today: “Democrats, contractors and unions are pressing Congress to raise the gas tax to fund the Highway Trust Fund despite opposition from key Republicans that makes any increase unlikely … At a Wednesday news conference on the Capitol lawn, Boxer outlined a proposal to be introduced later this week that would reduce the effect of a tax increase by providing gas tax refunds to middle-income households.”	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1577
__label__wiki	0.606206	0.606206	FundedByMe FundedByMe AB (publ) is as of 8th of March a listed company on NGM Nordic MTF. FundedByMe AB (publ) is a parent company consisting of FundedByMe.com and Feminvest - probably the largest female network of investors in the North. Laika Consulting AB is a fully owned subsidiary that offers Investor Relations as well as marketing and financial communication. The company also has 6 joint ventures in Finland, Malaysia, Dubai/UAE, Poland, The Netherlands and Singapore. The company holds a business license in Malaysia (equity and P2P/P2B) and in Dubai/UAE (an equity crowdfunding license as well as a license to uphold client accounts). Together the group reaches over 269.000 registered investment members globally. Daniel Daboczy FundedByMe AB (publ) Mäster Samuelsgatan 36 111 57 Stockholm Sweden https://www.fundedbyme.com daniel@fundedbyme.com Michaela Berglund http://www.fundedbyme.com michaela@fundedbyme.com The consultant market is growing rapidly, both in Sweden and globally. Being an entirely new market it needs an entirely new platform for cooperation and Brainville is that platform. Manuel de Verdier CEO of Brainville Continuous spread of antibiotic resistant bacterias is a known threat to public health and we are glad to develop a product that will enable a drastic decrease in antibiotic use. Something that can diminish the threat. Igor Lokot CEO of FarmPharma Mockberg is run by a strong community with a passion for design. We would like to make our customers a part of the company, and we would also like to grow globally, so equity crowdfunding is a great tool in order to do so. Our goal is to nurture those who wear our watches. Daniel Eriksson CEO and co-founder of Mockberg I like the combination of form and function. Mockberg was born with the goal to create a watch that is the definition of Scandinavian design. It is increbibly exciting that we can expand together with our costumers. Elvira Eriksson Creative director and co-founder of Mockerg Tobias Berglund has been in the Laika Consulting management team since the start in 2014, thereby he has firsthand insight of the changes that have occured in the world of finance. His experience as an entrepreneur in addition to his years of strategy in raising capital as well as financial communication will be essential for FundedByMe’s further growth. Daniel Daboczy CEO of FundedByMe We believe that we have the perfect circumstances for further growth since an increasing amount of people are interested in investing, which is the perfect conditions for crowdfunding. At the same time, the standards are high for those seeking investments - both regarding the legislative demands from authorities but also the demands of experienced investors. I am convinced that a consolidation of Laika's expertise in investor relations services alongside FundedByMe digital presence and strong brand, will create a synergy made to benefit our customers and network of investors. Tobias Berglund new COO of FundedByMe We believe that the Blinkee team is world class, their execution is brilliant. They are growing very fast, from 0 to 600 scooters over the first 1,5 year without external investments. And what is worth mentioning - they are already profitable at this stage. Being both disruptive and eco-friendly, we are really optimistic about FundedByMe Poland’s first campaign aiming for Blinkee’s expansion into the Nordic countries. Maciej Gajewski, CEO at FundedByMe Poland Poland has a very exciting market and the team running the Polish office are enormously driven and well connected. We are extra excited to see that the first case launched is for electric vehicles as this is the future and we at FundedByMe are especially good at crowdfunding electric vehicle companies. If the first case is this cool, imagine the rest of the cases to be launched. Cool cases and a huge market of investors create a very good combination. Daniel Daboczy, CEO och co-founder of FundedByMe Our first round was a great success and it has enabled the launch of our online shop. It has also empowered our team. We are now prepared for what the future has in store for us. Johannes Cullberg founder and CEO We find crowdfunding to be a way of inviting the public, previous visitors, and existing advertisers at ATTITUDE STHLM, to become a part of the future of advertising for both the Scandinavian market but also the British market. We are building an ad-tech platform scalable for the global market from the start. Nicholie Rehnlund, CEO and in charge of the A-CIRQ Our vision is to digitalise the agency and convert knowledge, relationships and the amount of trust we already have into a successful and sustainable business model. A model that will not only run a few days a year, but all year around. When we are finished with the development of our digital marketplace together with the A-CIRQ, we will have reached our goal of becoming a unique omni-channel media business - where the industry can meet the consumer all year around. Our app helps companies and individuals to increase their safety. The idea is built on the ability to share information in smart networks combined with traditional safety devices such as alarms and cameras. The solution is a cloud-based global emergency centre. We offer everyone a service free of charge, where they can create their own local solutions and communicate with others in private or public networks based on the situation. Tony Fahlström CEO of Intrasenze. Our hope is that many people want to join our team in creating a safe and secure society by becoming a partner or investor in Intrasenze. Food is something that engages people, you not only invest in the products, you also recommend them to your friends and by doing so help the producers. Food is something that always unify people, therefore gathering people through crowdfunding comes naturally. We are convinced that the next generation of leading food companies will be run through crowdfunding, a sort of capitalistic corporation. Johan Jörgensen, founder of Sweden FoodTech and chairman of FundedByMe The team at FundedByMe is very proud to be a part of the collaboration with FoodTech village and Sweden FoodTech. We find the synergy between food and crowdfunding intriguing and we have seen many food companies locate investors through FundedByMe then grown accordingly. Michala Berglund, CMO at FundedByMe Within the first year, we want to show the most innovative startups with great potential, which are ready to expand globally. We want to build a bridge between the experienced Swedish investment market and Polish startups and investors. Maciej Gajewski, CEO and co-founder of FundedByMe Poland We believe in cross-border investments helping innovative startups expand across all borders more easily. Polish entrepreneurs have a reputation of being diligent, meticulous and executive. Lovisa Strömsholm, Responsible for Investor Relations and International Growth Laika Consulting was one of the first companies in Sweden to work with crowdfunding when we established the brand in 2004. I look forward to follow the company's growth closely. A combination of Laika's expertise in listed companies, together with FundedByMe with its international and digital presence, can create new opportunities for growth. Ingmar Rentzhog, Laika Consulting's founder and previous CEO Laika is a particularly well-managed company that we have partnered with since 2012 and we have seen over the years that we have similar ambitions, visions and attitudes; namely to improve and change parts of the old inefficient financial world. In our company's growth, we look at this acquisition as a very interesting step, and we estimate that the consolidation will be beneficial and feasible and lead to synergies that can be measured through cash flow, efficiency and growth. Daniel Daboczy CEO and co-founder at FundedByMe. The aim of our platform is to connect individual investors and entrepreneurs. In Poland, we are looking for the most innovative startups that are targeting international markets and seeking to raise €100,000 to €900,000 in Sweden and other countries. We are going to help Polish companies reach the Nordic market, as well as build the community of individual investors in Poland and connect them with the Scandinavian ones CEO FundedByMe Poland Maciej Gajewski I think this sounds silly to say but crowdfunding is a dream coming true to me! When we presented this project almost three years ago to the investors and the group of people involved, we had, on the last page of the agenda: when we reach a certain level, we're gonna go on a crowdfunding campaign to build true ambassadors, people who love the project, so that we can find people to talk about us, because if people are engaged financially and product-wise and in the concept, they're gonna talk about us - they're gonna be our missionaries out, so this is a huge day, and the fact that we can get this going Mikael Söderlindh, co-founder of The Cords & Co. We are very proud to present this unique opportunity together with The Cords & Co. With the awesome journey they have behind Happy Socks, it will be exciting to follow their new venture. With crowdfunding we are convinced that the opportunities for establishing passionate brand ambassadors will increase. Joachim Dworén, Sales Manager at FundedByMe It's good to finally have the Ministry of Finance's proposal written down on 549 pages, where they clearly take a stand on crowdfunding. The ministry also see community benefits with crowdfunding and wants to strengthen its marketplace, something that is very good for FundedByMe. Of course, the challenge is to see how quickly the proposal can go to referral, taking into account the newly proposed EU regulations. FundedByMe has been self-regulated in the last 5 years and now we can deal with very clear directives. We are very pleased that the report has been presented and it is seen as beneficial for our business. Daniel Daboczy, CEO and co-founder of FundedByMe. It was also of value to hear the Minister of Financial Markets raise the value of crowdfunding at a time when more entrepreneurs seek crowdfunding as a financial option. The low interest rate has furthermore contributed to a high increase of private individuals looking for alternative investments in startups, Michaela Berglund, CMO, FundedByMe. Never in our wild dreams could we have imagined we would reach these numbers. Given that it took us a whole year to raise the first million, it's humbling and amazing to see the execution of our team, network and technology that we’ve built. This is still just the beginning of our journey that changes and improves the financial world and reaching this number motivates us even more to work even harder co-founder and CEO Daniel Daboczy I am overwhelmed and proud of what we have achieved as a team in recent years. Fintech with scalable global technology enables more people to gain access to capital. It offers a large group of people opportunities to look at and consider whether they want to be a part of entrepreneurs journeys. Arno Smit, co-founder of FundedByMe FundedByMe offers something new to private investors and the 500 million raised show that it is a high demand for our services. FundedByMe is a pioneer, which gives the company a unique position, but also an obligation to be responsibly shape the future market for unlisted companies. We want to make investing in unlisted companies an option for everyone, in other words, available to both women and men in a wide range of ages. We already see that female entrepreneurs and investors dare to take more space with us than in other traditional financial investments Michaela Berglund, CMO FundedByMe We have a disruptive approach to everything we do and besides raising funds for our journey ahead, we also see crowdfunding as an opportunity to grow our business by engaging with passionate people who truly believe in our mission and wants to be part of our community. We believe that is the only way to build brands these days. You cannot do it all on your own. You need to create lasting relationships with people who are as passionate about your brand as you are, who can be fully committed brand ambassadors. By giving corduroy enthusiasts worldwide a possibility to own a piece of cords and become a part of The Cords & Co family, there are no limitations to what we can achieve. We will build this brand together Mikael Söderlindh Co-Founder and initiator of The Cords & Co The team behind this company are an inspiration for many of us on how to build greatness out of great ideas. We hope that many of our members will join the prominent investors on the path ahead on something that has enormous potential to become The Next Big Thing. Daniel Daboczy, CEO FundedByMe I can announce that in Paradiset we have 69% female owners. / proud minority. Johannes Cullberg, founder of the Paradiset Food Market We originally built FundedByMe to ensure that good entrepreneurs, who are not necessarily stereotypes such as women, would also have access to a stable and healthy source of funding. What drives me forward is mainly when I see that my daughter, despite being born in one of the world's most modernised countries, will not have the same access to capital if she chooses to become an entrepreneur. Daniel Daboczy, co-founder and CEO FundedByMe We see that women invest more heavily than previously in unlisted companies. By 2016, 22% of investors were women and by 2017, it has grown to be 27% of investors. Our goal is to irrespective of gender, engage all Swedes to look at unlisted companies as the gold mine that could potentially be. For both entrepreneurs and investors, nationally and internationally. Michaela Berglund, CMO FundedByMe. For us, this is really interesting, partly because we stubbornly believe in the digital transformation of health care, but also for the incredibly exciting data collection we can do. When the service scales in terms of users, we will be able to track how the most common diseases are spread and in real time be able to tell how to avoid getting infected. This will provide us with the tools needed for achieving Qurant's vision of reducing sick leave by 50%. Viktor Lundqvist, CEO and founder of Nordic Tech House We share the philosophy behind Isabella Löwengrip's Nordic Tech House and have been looking forward to present the first case together. The team behind Qurant operates in a very exciting market with high potential for growth, one that is also in need of innovation. This is the first partnership of many between Nordic Tech House and FundedByMe. Daniel Daboczy CEO and Founder of FundedByMe During our years in the industry, we have seen a clear need to change traditional occupational healthcare. Surveys show that sick leave increased during 2017 and more importantly that 40% of it can be avoided through quick access and the right targeted efforts. At the same time, 1.5 million Swedes are without occupational health care. Qurant, Sweden's first innovative digital business health, intends to take a significant part of that market. Maria Schützer Funk, CEO and founder of Qurant states: FundedByMe has often used FrontOffice as a success story to show how a smart and dynamic company can use crowdfunding to raising equity. We were part of something unique back in 2016 and we are now once again aiming for something unique in the industry. This feels wonderful and interesting. Daniel Daboczy, CEO, FundedByMe We have reached the maximum goal of 20 million SEK and we would like to thank all participants for the enormous interest, dedication and their will to invest in us. We have, of course, created a waiting list for those who didn’t make it in time. Now our work really starts and to show what we can achieve by making FundedByMe a common household name alongside a FundedByMe stock, that the general public can embrace as their own. Further on we have to focus on our international expansion and continue to capture strategic beach fronts with selected partners. This is just the beginning, we feel rejuvenated, with a motivated and hungry team, plus that we feel that we have complete support from our investors. The markets situation is very interesting and we look forward to leading the way in changing the world of finance. We were early out in identifying the trends to what today is known as the sharing-economy and are today common strategies for all type of companies, to say: engaging and involving their owners directly. We stood by our vision and delivered on it. Not only did we create a global company, we created a whole new market segment. Coming years look very promising and we keep identifying new trends that we are acting on. Daniel Daboczy, CEO, FundedByMe. We have identified FundedByMe, the fastest-growing crowdfunding platform in the Nordics, as a strategic partner to join forces with us in the UAE to provide a platform that will empower investors and enable entrepreneurs to unleash innovation and spur growth across the region. Samer Toukan, managing partner, FundedByMe Dubai We are honoured to have been voted nr 1 and excited to be invited to pitch at the prestigious European FinTech Awards. Daniel Daboczy, CEO and Co-founder, FundedByMe Our team has always been good at identifying and acting on macro trends. We saw a paradigm shift that led a whole new group of individuals to look for new ways to invest and engage with companies. Then when we realized that crowdfunding could only work long-term if it is a global phenomenon. And now we are seeing that, from a customer perspective, consolidation of the market is necessary. Our new partner in FundedByMe Mexico is well connected and shares our passion that every entrepreneur should have the best chance ever to become The Next Big Thing and everyone should be able to invest in that potential next Unicorn. We bring a pool of global investors to the table that are looking for exciting new opportunities to invest. We are super excited to have two such experienced individuals joining our already experienced board. With three Johan’s (Chairman Johan Jörgenson was the first), myself and Choon-Seng Tan in Singapore comprising the FundedByMe board the future is looking global. The traction we are seeing at this stage of the FundedByMe lifecycle is incredible – we have launched twelve new crowdfunding campaigns over the past ten days and FundedByMe is the premier destination for growing companies that are in search of funding, fans and marketing exposure! The year has been a turnaround year for FundedByMe where we have focused on international growth and development of the product, driving sales that will take the company to break-even and future profitability. We chose FundedByMe because we believe that the platform's global presence and previous rate in creating success stories fits well with our ambition to build a big and successful global brand where we aim to make Droshi the leading brand in drop shipping in Europe. Jonas Salminen, CEO, Droshi The extensively prepared Finnish crowdfunding act builds on existing local crowdfunding legislations in the EU and could create a benchmark for future EU crowdfunding regulations. We embrace this new law as it helps set the standard for equity crowdfunding on a global scale. We have had a lot of feedback from our 78,000 members regarding this first version of the trading platform and will continue fine-tuning the offering to offer a product that will be used and loved by both buyers and sellers. I am very pleased that such a professional investor like Aggregate chooses to invest in NOA as I have seen how they have contributed to the success of great companies like Mathem, Storytel, Babyshop and others. This investment enables us to increase our growth rate substantially Noa Fridmark, CEO and founder, NOA Potions AB We’ve been thinking about how to make shopping more innovative, effective and cheaper for people to start a cafe or retail in general. Maria De La Croix, CEO, Wheelys AllPress releasesStoriesFinancial reportsMedia Pick a time period - Tags ( Active) Valega Capital helps prevent illegal activities in blocktech now launches crowdfunding campaign with FundedByMe Tue, Mar 26, 2019 11:35 CET The company has today launched a crowdfunding campaign with FundedByMe.com to raise funding for future growth and to increase their ownership. Valega Capital has acknowledged an increased need for safer regulations regarding digital transactions through blockchain, a trading form that previously has lacked transparency. With support from the Finish government’s innovation program, the company offer their clients a tool where they can analyze transactions within different blockchains. The tool will allow customers (businesses and private) to search for a specific transaction or address to FundedByMe granted in-principle approval to operate the first DFSA regulated and DIFC incorporated Equity Crowdfunding Platform Tue, Dec 18, 2018 07:45 CET Following the strategic growth of FundedByMe, aiming at becoming the most global crowdfunding platform, today the platform announces final steps to launch its operations in Dubai for the UAE and the MENA region. An in-principle license has been granted conditional to completing the setup of the local entity. Operations will commence early in 2019. FundedByMe, founded in Sweden in 2011, is the fastest growing crowdfunding platform in Scandinavia with offices in Sweden, Finland, Poland, The Netherlands, Singapore and Malaysia. Now entering Dubai as the region’s first equity crowdfunding FundedByMe launches operations in the Netherlands FundedByMe will open a new office in the Netherlands, as the company’s latest international venture. Together with their new partner Mikael Royson, FundedByMe hopes to expand the company’s international position on the European market. "The Netherlands is just right for us, perfectly in line with our growth strategy. The market has a high potential and we're confident that our local partner, Mikael, will make the best of this opportunity for FundedByMe. We're very happy to offer our current members the possibility to keep up with the Dutch startups and at the same time create UNITI becomes the first Swedish equity crowdfunding unicorn Thu, Dec 06, 2018 14:00 CET UNITI becomes the first official FundedByMe unicorn after being valued at over a billion SEK in their latest round of funding. In October 2016 UNITI, the innovative electric vehicle company, launched their equity crowdfunding campaign on FundedByMe. The campaign was a roaring success straight from its launch, reaching their crowdfunding goal within 36 hours. The campaign raised over EUR 1,200,000 from 570 investors from 29 different countries. UNITI have now expanded their production facilities to Silverstone UK. They state that the purpose of the move is to learn from the iconic F1 FundedByMe presents their semi-annual-report on August 29th. Increases revenue with 495% Wed, Aug 29, 2018 16:05 CET The numbers for the first 6 months of 2018 were presented on August 29th. The company looks back at a very successful first 6 months, with a continued growth and a strong demand from entrepreneurs and investors. The grassroot investigation rendered by the Minister of Finance and Labor, Per Bolund in March 2018, have also provided a positive confirmation. During the first 6 months the company also decided to acquire Laika Consulting AB. On August 29th 2018 FundedByMe released the company’s semi-annual-report for 2018, January - June. Already the company is able to communicate that they Ingmar Rentzhog joins the FundedByMe board During FundedByMe’s extraordinary shareholding meeting on August 22nd, Ingmar Rentzhog was voted in to join the FundedByMe board. Ingmar’s prior experiences from Laika Consulting AB and the finance industry, as well as from his latest venture WeDon’tHaveTime, that crowdfunded through FundedByMe, will act as a great complement to the already very established FundedByMe board. “I look forward to being able to contribute, to draw the map and to democratize the process of procuring capital. Through crowdfunding everyone is given access to where only a few had the opportunity before, to be an The biggest Nordic platform for consultants wants to raise capital via FundedByMe Thu, Jun 21, 2018 07:15 CET Brainville is the biggest platform and marketplace for consultants in the Nordic countries. The service helps thousands of customers and the platform is a valuable tool in order to develop the personal brand as a consultant. Now Brainville wants to raise capital via the crowdfunding platform FundedByMe.— The consultant market is growing rapidly, both in Sweden and globally. Being an entirely new market it needs an entirely new platform for cooperation and Brainville is that platform, says Manuel de Verdier CEO of Brainville. Brainville was founded in 2013 and is used by around 13.000 FundedByMe launches its first Polish crowdfunding campaign Tue, Jun 12, 2018 07:00 CET FundedByMe has had an office in Poland since April this year. This summer they are launching their first Polish crowdfunding case, Blinkee.city. The app has been up and running in 8 Polish cities as well as in Budapest, now they want to offer scooters for rent in Stockholm.FundedByMe has had an office in Poland since April this year. This summer they are launching their first Polish crowdfunding case, Blinkee.city. The app has been up and running in 8 Polish cities as well as in Budapest, now they want to offer scooters for rent in Stockholm. — We believe that the Blinkee team is world Challenger of traditional media groups - looks for investors on FundedByMe The A-CIRQ is a growing competitor for traditional media groups. Together with ATTITUDE STHLM, the leading public fashion- and lifestyle fair in Scandinavia, the ad-tech platform want to find investors on FundedByMe. Their crowdfunding campaign is launched the 8th of June and they are hoping that more people will realize that the future of advertising is letting brands meet their target audience on a digital marketplace.The A-CIRQ is a growing competitor for traditional media groups. Together with ATTITUDE STHLM, the leading public fashion- and lifestyle fair in Scandinavia, the ad-tech Intrasenze enables investments in local and global safety at FundedByMe Mon, Jun 04, 2018 07:00 CET Intrasenze is the innovation company behind the personal safety app UAN-safe. Now they are launching their crowdfunding campaign at FundedByMe. Anyone can now invest in intrasenze - the company with a vision to build a safer and more resource efficient society.— Our hope is that many people want to join our team in creating a safe and secure society by becoming a partner or investor in Intrasenze, says Tony Fahlström CEO of Intrasenze. United action Network™ and the related app UAN-safe is a safety-community that has been under development over the last three years. In April 2018 the app FundedByMe launches a new collaboration with Foodtech Village Tue, May 29, 2018 08:26 CET FundedByMe enters into a collaboration with FoodTech Village and Sweden FoodTech. Their main focus is to foster the growing startup scene within food technologies. The program CrowdFood Accelerator combines the business expertise of Sweden FoodTech with FundedByMe’s crowdfunding investors.— The team at FundedByMe is very proud to be a part of the collaboration with Foodtech Village and Sweden FoodTech. We find the synergy between food and crowdfunding intriguing and we have seen many food companies locate investors through FundedByMe then grown accordingly, says Michala Berglund at Swedish crowdfunding platform FundedByMe will attract foreign investors for Polish startups Thu, Apr 19, 2018 07:47 CET One of the fastest-growing crowdfunding giants, FundedByMe sets up their newest branch in Poland. The platform had successfully collected more than €50 million for some 470 companies from 25 different countries. The launch of the Polish office was announced on 17 April at Google Campus in Warsaw marking the fifth time that FundedByMe has expanded to an international location. In Poland, it is the first foreign platform that offers capital through equity crowdfunding from an expanding network of more than 110.000 investors. "Within the first year, we want to show the most innovative FundedByMe acquires Laika Consulting Wed, Apr 18, 2018 11:55 CET FundedByMe today announced that they acquire 100% of the shares in the established financial company Laika Consulting AB, a leading communications agency in financial communications. As a result, the company doubles its investment network to close to 250,000 members, making it the largest in the Nordic region. The acquisition is a strategic step to further strengthen FundedByMe's range of financial services. "Laika is a particularly well-managed company that we have partnered with since 2012 and we have seen over the years that we have similar ambitions, visions and attitudes; namely to The launch of FundedByMe in Poland will take place on 17 April at Google Campus in Warsaw. Mon, Apr 09, 2018 08:22 CET FundedByMe, the fastest growing equity crowdfunding platform in Scandinavia, with a network of 110,000 investors, is expanding into Poland. The launch of FundedByMe in Poland will take place on 17 April at Google Campus in Warsaw. The new office in Poland is the fifth international market location beyond Sweden where the platform is headquartered. FundedByMe Poland will be headed by Maciej Gajewski."The aim of our platform is to connect individual investors and entrepreneurs. In Poland, we are looking for the most innovative startups that are targeting international markets and The Cords & Co have launched their crowdfunding campaign, “a dream coming true” for the founders, all shareholders receive a discount for life. On March 28th, The Cords & Co launched their crowdfunding campaign together with FundedByMe. An initiative that has been a dream for the founders already from the beginning. The campaign is a strategic part of the company's ambition to give everyone a chance to become an owner in a global fashion company. "I think this sounds silly to say but crowdfunding is a dream coming true to me! When we presented this project almost three years ago to the investors and the group of people involved, we had, on the last page of the agenda: when we reach a certain level, we're gonna go on a Happy Socks founders are back in business. Wed, Mar 14, 2018 09:04 CET The Cords & Co is the world's first premium corduroy brand and is partly owned by Viktor Tell and Mikael Söderlindh, the founders who previously turned Happy Socks into a 85 million euro business. Now they are launching a crowdfunding campaign in collaboration with FundedByMe on March 28th as a part of their mission to become the alternative to denim in the fashion world and furthermore take the democratisation of fashion further with global investors. ‘We have a disruptive approach to everything we do and besides raising funds for our journey ahead, we also see crowdfunding as an More women than ever are investing through crowdfunding. FundedByMe wants to highlight that woman are self-evident in the financial world, every day of the year. In 2017, women accounted for 27% of the accumulated capital invested for entrepreneurs through FundedByMes. The corresponding number for January and February in 2018 shows an increase of 32% being invested by women. FundedByMe also sees that over 45% of all transactions for the entire period mentioned were made by women, which means that they invest almost as often in unlisted companies as men, but with smaller amounts each time. The traditional financial industry is continuously FrontOffice Nordic AB (publ) in unique collaboration with FundedByMe. Tue, Feb 06, 2018 09:28 CET FrontOffice Nordic AB (publ) (FrontOffice) that recently announced an equity financing round collaborates with the crowdfunding platform FundedByMe enabling further reach to new investors. Between the 1st and 23rd of February, FrontOffice is raising capital to finance further turnaroundinvestments. The purpose is also to marketing their turnaround consulting services and broadening their investor base. The offer will also be provided through FundedByMe in order to reach new investors and clients. “We have a very interesting history together, where FundedByMe were responsible for the FundedByMe and Nord Fondkommission are entering a strategic partnership. Tue, Oct 31, 2017 13:00 CET Nords platform is aiming to provide the markets best solutions for investment and savings. Nord has a broad network of collaborating partners. Among these, 750 management & investment companies with 50 000 investment funds. Nord also has agreements with over ten banks for offering structured banking products and bond & share issuers. FundedByMe is Northern Europe’s primary crowdfunding platform with 6 offices worldwide. FundedByMe has a database of almost 100,000 registered investors. The investors have contributed more than 400 MSEK (€ 41.5M) for hundreds of companies. With these FundedByMe announces a new round of equity crowdfunding for own further expansion. Unicorns are real and anyone can own one. Thu, Oct 19, 2017 13:00 CET FundedByMe, now represented in 6 countries, has seen an impressive journey since its introduction to equity crowdfunding in 2012. The company is now preparing for its next phase which is in line with a fast global expansion. An initial public offering (IPO/stock listing) is in the pipeline for 2018 with the focus on market consolidation. Proving that they can create both a market and a brand with its successful method. Closing books of 2016 show a near 100% increase in sales, continuous growth and heavy cuts in costs. On the 10th of November, FundedByMe will open for a new FundedByMe is launching operations in Dubai and the UAE. FundedByMe has had an ambition to be a true global player in the crowdfunding for investments (equity crowdfunding) scene. Since 2014 it has held multiple beachheads with the clear strategy to be the strongest player in the Nordics with a clear connection to APAC and LatAm. Recently the company announced start of operations in LatAm via it’s beachhead in Mexico and also announced a partnership with its competitor AROUND/Privanet in Finland thus doubling in size and becoming (by far) the biggest operator in Northern Europe. "FundedByMe has always been about enabling international FundedByMe wins popular vote, is nr 1 Alternative Finance company in the European FinTech awards. Today it was announced that FundedByMe grabbed the top spot in the Alternative Finance category in the First Round of the European Fintech Awards 2017. The public and a panel of judges have chosen FundedByMe as one of most promising European FinTech companies. “We are honoured to have been voted nr 1 and excited to be invited to pitch at the prestigious European FinTech Awards.” says Daniel Daboczy, CEO and Co-founder of FundedByMe. FundedByMe will be pitching on stage at the second round of the European FinTech Awards, held in Brussels on September 27th. FundedByMe and Privanet are joining forces to become the biggest player in crowdfunding. FundedByMe announced today that they are entering a strategic partnership with Privanet, owner of Finnish crowdfunding platform AROUND. Privanet has acquired a 33,4 % in FundedByMe Finland OY through a private placement offering. Privanet is licensed by the Finnish Financial Supervisory Authority to offer financial services. The partnership will enable FundedByMe to broaden its offering to both investors and entrepreneurs. "As part of our ambition to becoming the largest European player, we are now launching a strategic partnership with the licensed Privanet / AROUND and together There are no items matching the current filter There are no more items matching the current filter	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1582
__label__cc	0.574343	0.425657	Partnering with publishers for a better journalism experience (firefox.com) 224 points by jrwiegand 12 days ago \| hide \| past \| web \| favorite \| 180 comments rchaud 12 days ago It's about time somebody tried this. $5/mo. is fair; I don't need a million sites to be in the catalog, but I would like a bit more variety eventually. People who complain about "modern journalism", take note. If this takes off, publications will be less incentivized to post those godawful clickbait articles that have soured the Internet reading experience. I'll read the Atlantic and Vox, but Buzzfeed is a no-no, unless it's Buzzfeed News. And they should really consider changing the name as a serious news site on a subscription format shouldn't be associated with the ad hell that is the regular Bfeed. mavsman 12 days ago I am tempted to visit buzzfeednews sometimes but can't bring myself to do it based on my disdain for buzzfeed as a whole. jimktrains2 12 days ago > It's about time somebody tried this. I mean , isn't this essentially the idea behind patreon? You batch the micropayments payments into single transactions on the credit card network to reduce the marginal cost of the fixed fees? Didn't Google already do something similar with new subscriptions? Didn't flattr do this a decade ago? It's not a new idea, and as I ranted elsewhere, is only even required because of the fixed fees on credit card transactions. I've never heard of Flattr, whereas I think most people know Mozilla or at least have heard of them through Firefox. I'd expect Mozilla to be more invested in the "pay with $, not ads" approach compared to Google. Mozilla owns Pocket, which has been relatively good at finding longreads type material on the net and rendering it in a reader-mode view, so I think they're a better cultural/philosophical fit. I don't use Patreon. IIUC, you need to sign up to support different content providers individually. That's not what I want. > I don't use Patreon. IIUC, you need to sign up to support different content providers individually. That's not what I want. Well, isn't the the same thing in the end? Both you and the person you want to pay need to have ths same platform? If someone uses chrome, won't they need to go and "find" the site using Firefox to pay. What you want is to be able to pay for something once you've found it? I get that, and it's a slightly different model than patreon, but in the end it is the same problem: micropayments are expensive and currently require someone to batch them. The bigger problem is that requires another shared middle man that some people may not like fot whatever reason. quest88 12 days ago I believe Google tried something like this and then shut it down. d2wa 8 days ago Contributor was a micro-payments subscription thing were you could buy a subscription and actively participate in the regular ad-exchanges. The idea was that you could support websites by outbidding crappy advertising on Google’s platform and see pictures of cats (or whitespace) instead. It doesn’t take much money to outbid just about every advertising you’d see in a normal month. https://www.ctrl.blog/entry/google-contributor.html They’ve repurposed it as an “ad removal pass” service were you pay way more money per month per website that you want to remove ads on. It’s limited to large publishers only. https://www.ctrl.blog/entry/google-contributor-twopointoh.ht... AznHisoka 12 days ago Buzzfeed news doesnt seem to be all serious: https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/danvergano/what-color-a... dewey 12 days ago In case you are also wondering how that works and what's supported. Based on https://blog.mozilla.org/futurereleases/2019/02/25/exploring... it looks like it's a collaboration with https://scroll.com/ and supports sites like: - Vox - The Atlantic - Buzzfeed - Gizmodo - Slate jfk13 12 days ago In principle, I could be interested in this, but they'll need a much better range of partners than what currently shows up on https://scroll.com/ before it looks worthwhile to me. Less of the celebrity/pop-culture gossip, and more real news, please. alkonaut 12 days ago Yeah as a non-American I'd love to see WaPo/NyT as part of a $4.99 deal, but I can imagine that they are reluctant to sell access in their home market at that price. combatentropy 12 days ago This is the second project I've seen by Mozilla whose page is light on details, with no obvious way to find out more. The first was Firefox Lockwise, https://lockwise.firefox.com/ There's just a button to get it. Well, I want to learn more before I commit to something, and I think others would too. swebs 12 days ago Wow, all of those are considered far left sources according to mediabiasfactcheck.com, except for The Atlantic, which is only center left. I don't want to pay $5 a month to only hear one side of the story. pjc50 12 days ago And who is this mediabiasfactcheck.com? Is it bias all the way down? It appears to be some guy called Dave Van Zandt. https://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Media_Bias/Fact_Check > "Until October 2018 MBFC rated China's Xinhua News Agency as "least biased",[205] but the rating has since changed to the somewhat more reasonable "left-center bias".[206] Xinhua has been criticized by Reporters Without Borders as being the "world's biggest propaganda agency",[207][208] and is regarded by Wikipedia as a source "to treat carefully"" Are you sure that Buzzfeed is to the left of the Communist Party official outlet? belorn 12 days ago Do you prefer the study from harvard? https://cyber.harvard.edu/publications/2017/08/mediacloud They define buzzfeed as center-left. krastanov 12 days ago "Left" and "far left" are usually considered two different things... And this website rates them simply as left. But the rest of your comment is very pertinent, I do hope they include a wider variety of sources. What's up with all these comments pointing out that "they are all far left sources" suddenly? Did this thread get posted in some other community and there's an influx of these users now? malvosenior 12 days ago The user you're responding to has been on HN since 2013. A lot of people are just really tired of the single point of view that's so prevalent (and pushed so aggressively) in our industry. neves 12 days ago Any non american sites? Where can I find a complete list? achingtooth 12 days ago [flagged] cglace 12 days ago Well, my guess is they aren’t going to support a website with whom 99.99% of their users probably find reprehensible. And yet Buzzfeed and a Gawker site are on that list... kabwj 12 days ago If you’re implying 99.99% of users of Firefox are leftists, you’ll have to prove it. krapp 12 days ago If you're implying only leftists would object to The Daily Stormer, you'll have to prove it. The guy is obviously being facetious bringing up Daily Stormer, but I agree that it’s odd (or maybe not so much) that Mozilla only went with leftist outlets. I don't see anything in the linked article showing that Mozilla only went with leftist outlets, much less an intention on their part to exclude non-leftist content as a matter of policy. What I do see here is an assumption of a political agenda based on what may not even be an exhaustive list of Scroll's list of publisher sites, likely based on a single graphic on their frontpage which contains 12 logos, of which four companies were mentioned here. Their about page[0] shows 24. Are all of these "leftist" outlets? Is their only relevant commonality left-wing political ideology? Show me some evidence of non-crazy non-leftist publishers being rejected by this partnership due to their ideology and I'll agree it's odd. Until then it just looks like confirmation bias to me. [0]https://scroll.com/about I’ve looked at the list and literally all of them are leftist outlets. (Half of them belong to the Gizmodo family.) They are also all US-based. There’s a clear bias and, honestly, trying to pretend it’s not there is doing a disservice. Whether that’s because Scroll is not interested in serving right-wing customers or because right-wing outlets are not interested in participating in Scroll, that’s going to remain a mystery I guess. People believe that all forms of media, including all social media, are controlled by a leftist agenda now. What does "literally leftist" even mean in this context? How is Fatherly[0] a "literally leftist outlet?" The fact that so many of them are Gizmodo sites only tells me that Gizmodo joined the platform and all of the others came as a package deal. That's not furthering an agenda, it's good business, given Gizmodo's popularity. [0]https://www.fatherly.com/ sequoia 12 days ago > Seems like a bunch of publishers that have a leftist bias. Fair point. This is unlikely to appeal to anyone without left-leaning politics. > The Daily Stormer Very bad example of "the other side" which derails the point you're making. Better: "I wonder if they'll give The Federalist, National Review, Quillette etc. ..." There are examples of conservative (or just heterodox, in Quillette's case) media outlets that don't endorse genocide. driverdan 12 days ago Let's hope they don't support Neo-Nazis. dbspin 12 days ago Gonna go out on a limb and guess that Firefox isn't that interesting in funding holocaust denial. zamadatix 12 days ago I find it unlikely as well and don't blame them (they have a huge brand identity to protect) but I don't think this sort of concept really works unless it's available everywhere ad revenue is. The unique value to the end user is "an ad free web" not "a web content curator". AlexandrB 12 days ago The Daily Stormer? Really? No, I suspect that Mozilla won’t be partnering with self-identified Nazis. Why aren't there rightwing outlets you can recommend that aren't overtly racist? gdhbcc 12 days ago Because the best way to tell if someone is being true to their stance, is to see if they apply it to those they hate as they do to those they love. mateuszf 12 days ago What if their stance is about not being racist? This is a ridiculous strawman argument. Sure, they should include right-wing media. But "The Daily Stormer" is not right wing media, rather it is a neo-nazi conspiracy hell hole. It has no place on a list of journalistic outlets. orf 12 days ago You're saying that not wanting to support Nazis and wanting a better funding model for content on the internet are mutually exclusive? r3bl 12 days ago Because your average HN reader understands that "unbiased journalism" is an oxymoron. Water is wet, and pointing that out brings absolutely nothing of value to the discussion. achingtooth 12 days ago [flagged] My point was never that journalism is not unbiased, I was pointing out that Mozilla has a leftist bias. "Water is wet, and pointing that out brings absolutely nothing of value to the discussion." That's most of the comments on HN, the only reason I browse this place is because the rest of the internet is even worse. r3bl 12 days ago [flagged] Nah dude, reality has a leftist bias. dang 12 days ago Please don't do this here. Please provide me with a way of deleting my account. hestefisk 12 days ago In what way is neoliberalism leftist? SanchoPanda 12 days ago I got the following when I tried the link to subscribe: Thank you for your interest in Firefox Ad-free Internet! This product isn't available yet, but we're working on it. Would you please click the Next button to take a short survey to tell us what you think? At the end of the survey we'll get your (optional!) e-mail address so that we can let you know when the Firefox Ad-free Internet beta launches. If you don't want to give feedback, click here to skip to the sign-up page. Click the 'Next' button to take the survey. lol768 12 days ago If you skip the survey you end up on scroll.com: > Thank you for participating in this survey! We would like to invite you to a free trial of Firefox Ad-free Internet, a name we used in this survey for a partnership with our friends at Scroll. You can sign up today at www.scroll.com Thank you very much for helping to make the internet a better place! That clarifies it quite a bit for me, thank you. rusk 12 days ago must be a geo-ip thing ... I got a page offering me this service for $4.99 a month EDIT never mind, once you click through to subscribe it's that survey. This whole thing seems a bit disingenuous ... SamWhited 12 days ago It's one of their trial site things; I doubt they expect people to go directly to it from HN, they expect people to know that these products don't actually exist yet. It literally says ”Sign up now!” Yes, because it's one of their trial sites. It's supposed to look exactly like the real deal, but not actually work. Normally you'd get to it from a blog post or landing page explaining this. have you got a link to such a page? No, I can't actually find one for this product. I don't know how they announced it, however. It does seem to be the same kind of trial thing they've done in the past though. rusk 7 days ago > I can't actually find one for this I found one for you [0] [0] https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=20353752 SamWhited 6 days ago I didn't get that, was it supposed to be a joke? That's not a Mozilla page. It's normally a blog post or something, but it could have been an email newsletter too or similar. It's a Kite, plain and simple https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=20354115 Touche 12 days ago This is sort of unfortunate news to me, as I take this as a sign that they won't do adblocking by default. I think this is a mistake; users want ads to be blocked. Especially on mobile, where it's more important from a perf perspective. Brave has ads blocked, Opera has ads blocked. If Firefox wants to follow the lead and be a privacy focused company like they say, then they need to block ads. detritus 12 days ago I don't necessarily want ads blocked, especially on sites that I regularly enjoy that I don't pay for with money. I do want to block the underlying tracking/fingerprinting/profiling etc. This is why I'm very much against Brave - I don't really see why they have the right to edit or censor other people's revenue models and replace them with their own. That seems.. unethical. jetrink 12 days ago It is the users who are censoring the pages by choosing to use an ad blocking browser. I don't think the fact that Brave is offering an alternative revenue stream taints their browser's ad blocking capabilities. It is a feature that is available on almost all other browsers, natively or through a plugin. brians 12 days ago They don’t. You, the end user, do. They’re selling you a tool to do that. They provide an entire replacement economy from which they profit 5% of transactions, I don't see them as being innocent bystanders here. Touche 8 days ago "Innocent" implies there is an injustice / crime of some sort taking place, but there is not in this case. detritus 6 days ago I didn't mean to imply 'crime' but I'll accept 'injustice' in the context of the post I was responding to. What's the injustice? speg 12 days ago I may be in the minority, but I've never used an ad blocker. Content makers need to make a living and cutting off their ad revenue seems sleazy. That said, they may have gone too far with tracking and other excessive bloat that I might just start using one. smt88 12 days ago "Other excessive bloat" often includes malware. Less seriously, it also includes autoplay video and scams. If ads were safe (i.e. text-only, no JavaScript, no video) and the publishers actually vetted the products, I wouldn't block them. I don't care that a physical NYT has ads. It's the algorithmic sale and distribution of ads that broke the model. ddalex 12 days ago > publishers actually vetted the products I work in ad technology for a publisher. We put in a lot of effort to make the tech fast, lightweight and secure for our visitors - we hate bad ads too. We screen our partners, use whitelists and monitor what JS is running on the site. This being said - things sometimes slip through the cracks. Somebody with a browser-based 0-day will pay huge CPMs to insert their ad and own thousands of machines. We can't prevent this - if you have any ideas on how, I'd love to hear it. I don't think reviewing code for malware scales, especially in a competitive industry like online ads. You have to automate it, and automation isn't foolproof. You can either: 1) disable JS in ads entirely, or 2) give all users an option to pay for an ad-free site. Since few publishers do either, I'll continue to use my adblocker and simultaneously pay the publishers I think we can't do without (e.g. ProPublica). I agree that getting directly payed by users is a much better outcome. But the reality is that people don't want to pay us directly (in the US markets; we charge directly in other markets and it's working beautifully) aznumeric 12 days ago Perhaps Javascript ads should be banned by law. It would be easier to enforce compared to investigating what the corporation actually does with the info that it collected from the user. dwild 12 days ago > often includes malware. Can you define often? It seems quite rare actually for a malware to be distributed online without user intervention, with the recent Firefox 0-day being one of theses cases and only touched a small proportion of people. The web is quite secure already and sure ads network is a good vector but so is Hacker News, Reddit and Facebook, which nobody cares about (have you ever not clicked on a link on any of theses platforms and looked at the URL first?). I seriously hate that argument of security, it's just wrong. Tomte 12 days ago When you visit a serious web site, like t-online.de or spiegel.de, with an up-to-date iPad and you're getting popups with porn or gambling offers that cannot be closed (they can, but reopen instantly), when you cannot use the back button anymore, and the only way to regain control of your browser is to either reboot the iPad (that's what many normal people do) or you force-close Safari... then you've caught malware from a big ad network that t-online.de or spiegel.de use. Happened regularly about a year or two ago, certainly more often than every month, haven't seen it since, though. > have you ever not clicked on a link on any of theses platforms and looked at the URL first? That's not what happens. > I seriously hate that argument of security, it's just wrong. Maybe you should contemplate the possibility that you're wrong. > to regain control of your browser is to either reboot the iPad (that's what many normal people do) or you force-close Safari... That's seems more like a browser issue, but none the less, any links on Hacker News could do the same. I don't consider that malware to have to close an application, just like I don't consider a malware a link that rick roll me (which still force me to close a tab ;) unless I want to stay on Youtube). > That's not what happens. Aren't we talking about running malicious JS? Any link you click can contains malicious JS, yet you click on that link without thinking about it, but when it's an ad that may contains malicious JS, you block it altogether. I don't understands really what you means by not what happens. > Maybe you should contemplate the possibility that you're wrong. I contemplate each time I'm discussing with someone about it. I still haven't got any evidence about it. Each time I ask someone that does it for "security purpose", when they don't answer by "do your own research" (which I always try when they say that even if it's absurd to have nothing to defends yourself), the best example they always have is either link to some report with stats that doesn't define malware, or the Forbes case of when one of their ad was a fake Java update. If that's malware, then here we go, HN now serve malware too: Click on that URL to update Java: https://forbes.com If we were arguing blocking Javascript for security purpose, now that does make sense (still pretty unlikely, but based on news, it seems to happen much more). With ad networks you didn't click on some shady link. You just get the malware Javascript served. Without clicking or visiting anything shady. Reputable sites deliver malware through their embedding of ads. That's not theoretical (like your "but HN could deliver malware, too), that's reality. > You just get the malware Javascript served. Which happens on any link you click on Reddit, Hacker News or Facebook. Unless you don't click on them and only visit website that you consider trustworthy, you get the exact same risk. Actually even if you may feel that a link is trustworthy, it doesn't even means it actually is, like it happened for the past Firefox 0-day exploit. This guy nearly got it by trusting that [0]. [0] https://robertheaton.com/2019/06/24/i-was-7-words-away-from-... > That's not theoretical (like your "but HN could deliver malware, too), that's reality. My textual example was to discredit the Forbe example. I have an hard time understanding your point about it being theoretical. Are you actually refering to my other example about links from HN that could contains malicious Javascript? That's to know if you check links or you click on them arbitrarily with all the risk that come with it. My point is that malicious Javascript is extremely rare and when it does happen, it's targeted and doesn't use ad network. Theses vulnerabilities are gold mine and it makes no sense to put it on an ad network and hope that you'll get enough out of it before it get caught and removed/fixed. Selling it to the highest bidder or targeting a specific group of people make much more sense. If you have any example of where an actual malware was spread using ads, I would be happy to learn about it. I'm also curious to know if you block Javascript and if you do, why do you block ads on top of that? Tomte 12 days ago [flagged] > If you have any example of where an actual malware was spread using ads, I would be happy to learn about it. I just gave you a first-hand account of exactly that happening, and you keep dismissing that, claiming that it does not happen. If you don't believe me, google for it. There have been plenty of articles about ad networks as malware services. I find your behaviour here very dishonest, and for me it's EOD. We've warned you many times about not crossing into personal attack on HN. I don't want to ban you, but you need to do your part as well, by editing such bits out of your comments here. https://news.ycombinator.com/newsguidelines.html > I just gave you a first-hand account of exactly that happening, and you keep dismissing that, claiming that it does not happen. You means the popup that force you to force-close your iPhone browser app? I already answered that: > That's seems more like a browser issue [...] I don't consider that malware to have to close an application, just like I don't consider a malware a link that rick roll me (which still force me to close a tab ;) unless I want to stay on Youtube). I did get theses kinds of ads on some sketchy website on my Android phone, I can't do back but closing the tab is alright. To me closing an annoying tab isn't much of a malware. If none of my information were at risk, that's not a malware. > If you don't believe me, google for it. There have been plenty of articles about ad networks as malware services. You do this after I even mentioned this happening all the time. > Each time I ask someone that does it for "security purpose", when they don't answer by "do your own research" (which I always try when they say that even if it's absurd to have nothing to defends yourself), the best example they always have is either link to some report with stats that doesn't define malware, or the Forbes case of when one of their ad was a fake Java update. If that's malware, then here we go, HN now serve malware too: Click on that URL to update Java: https://forbes.com I'll google with you then: ad network malware Result 1: > Hackers Abuse Google Ad Network To Spread Malware That Mines Cryptocurrency > https://www.forbes.com/sites/leemathews/2018/01/26/hackers-a... You may not want cryptominers in your ads, but that's not really a malware again, your information are safe. There's nothing dangerous there. Result 2: > Malvertising - Wikipedia > https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malvertising It does contains an interesting history, which push toward my theory. > advertisements telling them their systems were infected and trying to trick them into installing rogue security software > drive-by download So theses malware get installed if you download it and run it voluntarily... > The attack infected users' machines with the ransomware, ‘Cryptowall’, a type of malware that extorts money from users by encrypting their data and placing a ransom of up to $1000 in bitcoins, to be paid in 7 days, to decrypt the data. That's an interesting case, but doesn't mentions how the payload was delivered, could be drive-by download like always. > In 2014 there were major malvertising campaigns on the DoubleClick and Zedo ad networks. [...] As in previous attacks the cybercrime involved Cryptowall as the malware infection. This spate of malvertising was believed to have brought over $1 million of ransom money in by infecting over 600,000 computers. That one is not directly interesting because the source say that: >through aggressive distribution using a variety of tactics that included spam emails with malicious links or attachments, drive-by-download attacks from sites infected with exploit kits and through installations by other malware programs already running on compromised computers Again, either by running it directly voluntarily, or by other malware already running.... However after more research from this case, I found another article [0], which said that: > now millions of computers have likely been exposed to Zemot, although only those with outdated antivirus protection were actually infected. So an actual case of infection! Caused by outdated antivirus though and worse than that: > Zemot is focused on computers running Windows XP, For something in 2014... Windows XP stopped being supported at all in April 2014. Don't use an outdated system... I would go into each result, but they are mostly definitions and I already lost enough time. The last result of the page is interesting and probably the first case that I see. > Malicious code hidden in advert images cost ad networks $1.13bn this year > https://www.zdnet.com/article/malicious-code-hidden-in-adver... > "In this instance, the malicious code was an auto-redirect to a phishing site targeting US users." So that's interesting, usually I wouldn't call phishing a malware mostly because you should always check the URL, but in this case considering it was doing it on the website itself, I would consider it as essentially one. First case I found! Adblock would then make sense on website where you put personal information. I hope browsers/ad-network will fix this auto-redirect issue quick though. > I find your behaviour here very dishonest, and for me it's EOD. What's dishonest about my behaviour? [0] https://www.theverge.com/2014/9/19/6537511/google-ad-network... > Can you define often? It doesn't matter. It could be 1 out of every million hits, but it's still a source of malware. Most of us don't upgrade to the latest browser version the minute it's released, which makes us vulnerable. > ads network is a good vector but so is Hacker News Uhh... what are you talking about? HN has minimal JS, and they wrote it. Some ad networks are injecting JavaScript into your browser that they have never seen before and didn't write themselves. I may trust, let's say, NYT not to serve me malware with code they wrote in their offices, but NYT is not the entity that wrote the JavaScript delivered in their ads. You seem to be arguing that hyperlinks are an attack vector, which assumes such a broad interpretation of "attack vector" that the word becomes meaningless. It's like saying that an airplane is an attack vector because it can fly you into a war zone. Yes, it can... but I get to choose where I'm going. Regarding that choice: these platforms show you the domain you're clicking through to, so you have a chance to bail. And with an ad blocker, you don't have to be as afraid to visit a malicious site. I have JS and ad blocking on by default, and I whitelist a site when it seems trustworthy enough. > It doesn't matter. It does matter, you used the word often, that word has a meaning. > Uhh... what are you talking about? HN has minimal JS, and they wrote it. Some ad networks are injecting JavaScript into your browser that they have never seen before and didn't write themselves. You never click on the article link? That page can be anything, thus include any JS. > I get to choose where I'm going. Thus you check every link before clicking on it? I feel like that's not the case, but I would applaud you to be consistent if you do. > And with an ad blocker, you don't have to be as afraid to visit a malicious site. Ad blockers only block ads, not malicious JS. If you visit a website which include malicious JS, it's just as bad as an ad that contains malicious JS. > I have JS and ad blocking on by default Blocking JS that's a good way to stop malicious JS. Blocking ads then is redundant, what does it give you more? luckylion 12 days ago I consider ad blockers a security issue: too many ad servers in recent history have been used as malware distributors, including Google Adsense. Since publishers don't secure their systems (Google's vulnerability here is known for years and they don't fix it but instead opted to kick out malicious advertisers if/when they catch them), adblockers offer protection. Same for me, if your website cause excessive bloat with their ads, then I'll just avoid it (unless that content is worth the excessive bloat, like Youtube ads). As soon as I can pay for the content instead, I do it. Ads is just another way to pay... if it's too bloated (thus too expensive) you just don't get it, or go find something less bloated (aka less expensive), that's it. CannisterFlux 12 days ago I use an ad-blocker on Firefox but I think if Firefox started blocking adverts by default it could find itself in a dangerous situation. A lot of sites would feel justified blocking Firefox in that case, which would do more damage to the already-shrinking user base. I know many sites have "turn off your ad-blocker" currently and I usually just leave at that point, but I could imagine a movement to more actively crush Firefox if it had ad-blocking baked in. Although maybe long term this will happen anyway, so Mozilla has nothing to lose. I mean Chrome will have its ad-tech-friendly blocking-lite, Firefox will be the only real ad-blocking available, and sites will start to make moves to directly discourage Firefox use ("I see you're using Firefox, switch to Chrome to view our crappy site"). sergiosgc 12 days ago Successful ad blocking would kill the advertisement revenue stream. This revenue stream is what pays for the content you enjoy, so ad blocking kills content. I like content, and I don't mind paying for it. I'd prefer to pay with money, not via ads. Give me that option. Further, I don't want a subscription. I want to pay as I go, at the rates ads pay. 50¢ per thousand pages sounds ok to me. C4stor 12 days ago Ads pay a lot more than that on quality websites such as the Scroll ones. 50c per thousand page is so low I can't see how you find it fair. We're talking lets say 1000h of work, and your fair price is 50c ? stevenwliao 12 days ago If they read 3 articles a day, they've decided that quality journalism across multiple publishers should cost 50 cents a year. > I want to pay as I go, at the rates ads pay. 50¢ per thousand pages sounds ok to me. You often get a ecpm of 50 cents? That seems quite awful, even more so from the US. It should be closer to 10x that. Scoundreller 12 days ago In my experience, US$5/CPM is about right for general content focused on an industrialized market, but: 1) it’s based on page views where ads are rendered. So ad-blocked users aren’t in the denominator. 2) most of that revenue is driven by clicks, not ad views. So users like me, that rarely click on ads, ever, probably earn publishers about 50cents/cpm. Sure but that price that you suggest is for everyone, not only ad-block users or people that doesn't click on ads. At the end of the day, if it cost them more than an ecpm of 0.50$ to produce that content (and I'm pretty sure it does, because most ad-based website never made ton of profit and that was the case even before adblocking became popular), than that just doesn't make sense either to have a price that low. I'm happy to pay by seeing ads or by paying money. I'm not happy to have my personal info floating around on the servers of the ad-industry in order to deliver targeted ads. Subscriptions risk making silos. Once you have paid $5 for site-group-A (one million sites) it's annoying to find that the site you are reading belongs to site-group-B which belongs to some other subscription. This is the HBO-vs-Netflix problem. Keep in mind that Firefox is a "user agent", their job is not to make websites happy, it's to make their users happy. Ad-blocking is a lot like using a DVR, or a VCR. Someone sends you data and you have the right to not view all of that data. The company has the right not to send you the data if you don't pay for it, but they don't have the right to tell you that you must view all of it. faissaloo 12 days ago >This revenue stream is what pays for the content you enjoy, so ad blocking kills content. Content that is funded by ads is often not content I particularly care about. If it matters enough people will be willing to fund it, if not, let it die. Seriously? You never use StackOverflow? You never enjoyed anything on Youtube? You are definitely in a tiny minority if that's actually the case. I don't mind ads on SO so much since they're not trying to get you to buy stuff. I might enjoy YouTube but it's definitely overrated as a platform. abainbridge 12 days ago I agree, but the problem here is that not all pages are of equal value. The Guardian ought to be able to charge me more per page if it was written by one of their full time employees. I can't see how Mozilla will ever be able to figure out how to apportion the money, without just exposing my "balance" and the cost of visiting each page. AnIdiotOnTheNet 12 days ago People once said the same thing about pop-up blockers. nerdwaller 12 days ago This is just a data gathering link for Mozilla to validate some ideas for added revenue sources, they are also doing a VPN one. Clicking the button brings you to a survey where they seem to indicate the intent is to be ad free: > You clicked a button to possibly subscribe to Firefox Ad-Free Internet for $4.99 tomp 12 days ago I take it as a sign they're exploring other options. If this takes off, I would expect them to more seriously consider including adblocking as a default. outime 12 days ago Note the following: * This is yet not available. * It's not "Ad-Free Internet" but more like "a dozen websites ad-free". * They expect a monthly payment - which is fine, but the first thing I imagined from the title was a built-in blocker in the browser but this is quite different. SimeVidas 11 days ago Firefox already has built-in tracking protection, which blocks trackers and by extension most ads. dreen 12 days ago This looks like it's a bundling of Scroll into Firefox, probably with different UX. It seems dishonest to me if you're gonna say "Ad-Free Internet" and "We share your payment directly with the sites you read" and really only do that for 12 domains. The internet is much bigger than that. Find a way to do this for ALL sites! SmellyGeekBoy 12 days ago To be fair to them, they have to start somewhere. If they had to get every single site on the internet onboard as a prerequisite (as you seem to be suggesting) they'd never launch anything. Yes I agree, it's impossible to cut a deal with every website. So a completely different solution is needed. edit: maybe I am being too harsh... maybe this is a starting point to something bigger. Let's hope! gowthamgts12 12 days ago It looks like if you're a publisher you've partner up with Mozilla for this. Isn't this becoming a little dependent on Mozilla? Publishers are already dependent on Google and if Google wants to screw them over, they can. How is this different from that? islon 12 days ago It's not perfect, but I'd rather trust mozilla than google. robertAngst 12 days ago I'm the other way, google is probably the best company in my lifetime. Its recent Apple exploit 0day, I'm a bit skeptical of the programming. Google has the resources to make better products. dangerface 12 days ago > Google has the resources to make better products. True but for the past 5 years or so they have been interested in making more money not better products. And yet I've had to switch all my Lubuntu devices to using Chrome because Firefox can't seem to manage to remain open without eventually locking up the entire system. eyeundersand 12 days ago I've had this problem too. Although I'd rather live with it than switch back to Chrome myself. glenneroo 12 days ago Did you try filing a bug report? If I had filed a bug report I would have then had to gather logs and other such things to get the developers whatever information they need to fix it, and frankly I just don't care about helping them fix it enough to bother with that. I didn't choose it for these devices it was just the default. For my purposes it was just much easier to switch to a browser that wouldn't hang the system if it was left open for a few hours. Edit: I appreciate the downvotes, as though answering this question with honesty is undesirable behavior. Keep up the good work /r/svwebdev! Downvotes can be frustrating but everyone gets them. Please don't let them trigger you into breaking the site guidelines yourself. That only makes this place even worse, and guarantees more downvotes. For the record I didn't downvote you, and I agree being honest doesn't deserve this response, but I would guess it's related to the high amount of devs here who are probably upset that you took the time to complain, yet don't want to take the time to at least check if a bug report exists. In some respects I agree, in that, if we want change the world and fight the "good fight" against the near-monopoly Google has on browsing, we need to band together and everyone do their part. "All my Lubuntu devices" makes it sound like you have a lot of devices, thus increasing the likelihood of being easy to reproduce. There might even already exist a bug report which you could contribute to. It seems so easy to reproduce, just install Lubuntu and run the Twitch dashboard for a few hours. I'd be surprised if there wasn't already a bug report, a cursory search of bugzilla shows several hundred bugs containing the words like "hang" and "freeze". And, again being frank, I don't care enough to bother with scouring that for one that seems related enough to add to it, and then again reproducing the problem and collecting the appropriate logs and etc. And if experience is any indicator it'll just languish in their bug database for months or years anyway. I've got shit to do man, so I'll just use a product that works, thanks. It is not my responsibility to fix yours. And I only brought it up because someone mentioned how much "better" a product Firefox is and my experience differed. ing33k 12 days ago Publishers work with multiple ad networks to diversify their revenues, but the most they can diversify is around 30%. heinrichhartman 12 days ago I welcome this effort! Enabling alternative revenue streams for web content will be critical to make the place less abusive. Unfortunately, the big successful players seem to make pretty good $$ by selling customer data, so they have little incentive to change this. Mozilla/Firefox is in a unique position to launch an effort like this, since it controls a decent browsing platform with a significant user base. I'll sign up the moment this becomes available in the EU. err4nt 12 days ago Mozilla's userbase isn't really that significant, <5% is like ~2/50 people, where Chrome for example is 2/3 of all people using the internet by comparison: https://caniuse.com/usage-table Those stats are from StatCounter. Literally the second sentence in their FAQ: > Our tracking code is installed on more than 2 million sites globally. Having a low number there is a feature. asadotzler 11 days ago Mozilla has about 300 million users across desktop and mobile. I'll let you decide if that's significant or not. pointillistic 12 days ago I think this is a re-branding of Pocket that they own. Same price https://getpocket.com/premium?ep=1 kzrdude 12 days ago Sounds like a good idea since they never did communicate effectively about what pocket is and why I should get it. Even the website is vague, I'm not looking for an "ad-free space", not sure what that even means. I'm not interested in renting a room. I don't understand why credit card networks (and banks in general) haven't stepped up their game with regards to micropayments (say, under $5). The marginal cost of any transaction is insignificant, and would be outweighed even by penny fees. Even if it required some extra steps for the vendor to become authorized to accept micropayments, and even with strict requirements around the number or total value of transactions a single card can be used with a single vendor during a time period, I think it could still work in everyone's favour. One of the biggest fees on micropayments are the fixed transaction fees. Stripe is currently 27‰ + 5¢, which on a $1 transaction is nearly 8%! If those fixed fees could be made to go away for low-cost transactions, micropayments would work within the current system. Most people can accept 3% overhead, but most won't accept 8%. It just seems like the entire problem is manufactured and not really an issue that can be solved until the banking systems just decided to solve it by changing their policies. I'm not even proposing a technical fix, it really seems to be a problem entirely with the current policies. Edit: yes, I understand that Stripe is a gateway and processor, not an issuer or network, and that banks are often issures, but not the network. Yes, I understand that cards each have their own interchange rates, but many gateways like stripe have been just "averaging" them to provide low-volume retailers a fixed, predicable coat per transaction. I'm just saying that if the networks. E.g. Visa or MasterCard (or even discover or Amex despite being much smaller) could change their policies and requirements regarding fees for low volume transactions to remove fixed fees, and the vast majority of the issue with micropayments would be solved. I trust that the major payment gateways and browsers could work out a protocol to make use credit-card based micropayments very quickly and in a way that doesn't require additional third parties, beyond the payment gateway chosen by the person accepting the micropayment. petulla 12 days ago Hear.. hear.. This was one of the original features Marc wanted to add to Mosaic. We're so far past that moment and it's still not to be found. fimdomeio 12 days ago Unless this is expanded to enable any site to join the system, one might argue it's creating a special web for a few choosen giant media sites which I guess it's not what mozilla wants for the web. jbverschoor 12 days ago Yeah nice and all.. But it'll be like tv: Even though you pay for the tv service, after a while they will simply put in ads again. The incentives for publishers are simply too tempting. This is not for me. jelv 12 days ago So a browser with a build in Flattr / Patreon / Liberapay option. Sounds like a good option. silon42 12 days ago Personally, I don't necessarily mind ads, unless intrusive. I mind: - tracking - javascript being used everywhere (IMO, for pure viewing, javascript should be optional). mgbmtl 12 days ago That's why I like Adblock Plus, even if many find their position to be highly controversial. i.e. to charge advertisers to be whitelisted as "acceptable ads" if they respect certain criteria. When left unchecked, advertisers are to websites what kittens are to furniture. rglullis 12 days ago You should review your position regarding Adblock Plus. There is nothing on Acceptable Ads that tries to cover if the ad publisher is tracking the user or not. If you’re interested in this, make sure to check out Flattr and install their extension. It tracks your browsing over the course of a month, splits your monthly contribution among participating creators you’ve visited, and then deletes the collected data. Works for YouTube, domains, Twitter, GitHub, Twitch, and more. You set the monthly budget. https://flattr.com/contributors matt_morgan 12 days ago Mozilla has to do this to show they're trying. They're not just about getting everything free. It will be good if it works, but it also works for them if a) no publishers sign up b) no customers sign up (as long as they try hard to make it happen). curt15 12 days ago Anyone remember Google Contributor back in the day? How does this compare? nottorp 12 days ago This is a nice idea, but how do you expand it to global scale? Something automated perhaps, but the complexity is overwhelming. I have no interest in Firefox's initial selection, but I'd gladly pay a monthly subscription to a collection of my local news sites. How do we go from 5 american "online magazines" to a global network? I don't know. MrGilbert 12 days ago I wonder what an average user generates in terms of ad-revenue per month. You know, the mix of your-favourite-media-provider, your-favourite-news-sites, your-favourite-social-media. If that's more or less than $14.99, I'd be willing to pay it for an "ad-free" internet. This will never happen, I guess, but just thinking about it... camgunz 12 days ago I'm super into this, and I was tempted to sign up immediately. But then I realized I have privacy/tracking concerns; does anyone have a line on what Scroll/Mozilla say on this? I couldn't find anything after a (very shallow) search. I did go to sign up immediately, only to discover this is pure vaporware! Wow it's just a survey. That's so non obvious. Boooo, kind of. WAHa_06x36 12 days ago That survey they throw at you if you try to sign up is just complete and utter garbage, and asks you questions that both contradict each other, are in the wrong order, and ask you things you can't possibly have a good answer for at this stage. This won’t do much good for all the small publishers you visit every day, though. It’s only for a select few large publishers. eitland 12 days ago Signed up. That said, this is a practical implementation of some patterns that belongs on https://userinyerface.com/game.html ;-) Did you sign up to be notified or were you able to subscribe to the paid service? To be notified. Kuinox 12 days ago How did you signed up if no one can yet ? buboard 12 days ago Everybody is talking about journalists but what about the rest of the web? I regularly read the best opinions and tidbits on forums like hn and blogs. Who is going to fund those? tshanmu 12 days ago this would be great if it works as advertised! :D steve_taylor 12 days ago It’s an MVP. It doesn’t have to work. It's not MVP it's a Kite [0]. Minimum Viable Product is an actual "thing you can use", not mere concept. It's more than a prototype. The term implies it's something you can actually ship to customers. [0] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trial_balloon assafmo 12 days ago So what does viable mean? dpwm 12 days ago It's conceptually viable; it's just not materially viable yet. In all seriousness, I seem to remember that there was a practice of testing for viability using very similar means – basically, are people interested enough to click through, then collect emails. So perhaps this is a path to demonstrate viability by questionnaire. idiocratic 12 days ago An MVP should consist of the minimum work required to test an hypothesis. In this case the hypothesis is: "People would buy a browser if it offers an ad-free experience". So it's viable according to that idea. Viable doesn't mean useful though :) so Firefox will play the gatekeeper role now ? juliushuijnk 12 days ago Alternative: https://launch.blendle.com hereme888 12 days ago If they offer free trials so I can evaluate its worth to me personally, maybe I'd try it. Otherwise I'll keep fighting every website I visit with my massive list of ad-blockers and privacy tools. At least the latter option is free. And if it doesn't remove EVERY clickbait and dark pattern in said sites, I won't do it. maccard 12 days ago > At least the latter option is free. This is _exactly_ why websites are as bad as they are right now. > And if it doesn't remove EVERY clickbait and dark pattern in said sites, I won't do it. Don't let perfect be the enemy of good. If you want to support an alternative source of funding for content, then this appears to be a great positive step towards an internet without tracking and invasive advertisements, promoted by the only alternative to Google in the browser market. If you want to take a philosophical stance, you should reject the tracker and leave websites that don't adhere to your strict criteria. Ya I guess my statements were extreme. Probably written late at night. mikkelam 12 days ago If the same service could be used for paywalled news sites as well, this could be great iamnotacrook 12 days ago Isn't there a danger it'll end up like streaming tv where you have to pay netflix, apple, disney, amazon etc etc because it's not all in one place? stenioaraujo 12 days ago I don't know how viable it maybe be for you, but that is one of the goals for Apple News Plus, to bundle newspaper subscriptions in one place. 4.99 would not even cover the NY Times or WSJ alone. mirimir 12 days ago That's because their prices are ridiculously high. Sure, I want access to NY Times. But maybe I'll read 1-2 articles per day. Not the whole damn paper. Same for any other site. Blendle has been offering this service for years, though I believe they recently are backing away from it. I used it for a while several years ago, but I found using small transactions frequently to be very uncomfortable (as in off-putting, not so much inconvenient). I vaguely recall Blendle. And checking, they want ~€2 per article, which is way too much. Consider that a digital subscription to The NY Times costs $250-$500 per year.[0] That's 365 days, with numerous articles published per day. But for argument sake, divide by 5000. That's just $0.05-$0.10 per article. 0) https://dannysullivan.com/new-york-times-subscription-3480 It was in the range of US$0.25-0.75, when I used it, but wouldn't you expect an a la cart offering to be more expensive than a bundle? The advantage is you dont have to pay that larger full year fee. war1025 12 days ago They already track how many times you've viewed the site in order to decide when the paywall goes up. Doesn't seem like it would be that hard to track what articles you view and charge x cents / article. I enjoy reading the WSJ Opinion section, but last time I looked at the price, it was way too high to justify based on the number of articles I read. but it's more than they're getting off the people that currently pay nothing ... OrgNet 12 days ago Are you going to get a report each month of where the money went? trqx 12 days ago > This app works best with JavaScript enabled. At least the page seems ad-free. carapace 12 days ago > This app works best with JavaScript enabled. jasode 12 days ago As others stated, the submitted title of "Ad-Free Internet by Firefox" overstates what this actually is: pay $4.99/month for ad-free experience on a handful of media publishers' websites[1]. (I.e. it's not a universal ad blocker that lets you avoid ads on Youtube.) The Firefox webpage itself doesn't oversell the feature as "ad-free internet" so not sure why writing a misleading title for HN was necessary. [1] https://scroll.com/sites (Edit to also mention Scroll doesn't have some popular news sites such as NYT, Washington Post, WSJ, etc -- probably because getting a fraction of $4.99/month is not enough money for them and it competes with their direct digital subscriptions.) > the submitted title of "Ad-Free Internet by Firefox" overstates what this actually is it's not even that! it's not even something that they have! go on click the link to subscribe and see what happens. Fernicia 12 days ago It's surely fair to use the page title as the HN link title. Ok, fair enough. Before I wrote my comment, I did perform a "view source" to search for "ad-free internet" and it wasn't found. However, if one uses F12 Developer Tools to inspect the DOM, it does have: "<title>Ad-free Internet by Firefox</title>" It's interesting that that phrase is not visibly used and the big bold text people actually see just says "Support the sites you love, avoid the ads you hate". EDIT to the replies: Yep got it. I can't see the title text on any tabs because they're too narrow when I have 50 tabs open. It's used in the tab / window heading which is pretty visible I'd say. It's the page title. It appears e.g. in the tab heading (but yours may be very small). Mine are also very narrow, but yeah, it's weird that they only set it with JS. <title data-react-helmet="true"></title> is in the source. mariushn 12 days ago In this case, I think Firefox is disingenuous. In fact the official guidelines here actually urge people to do so. Yes but the HN guidelines also lets the submitter use some judgement if the title is misleading: >Otherwise please use the original title, unless it is misleading or linkbait; don't editorialize. But I'm not going to nitpick this thread's title. If "Ad-free internet" is the best representation for HN readers because Mozilla itself used it, that's fine too. > Scroll doesn't have some popular news sites such as NYT The NYT is one of the co-sponsors that started Scroll, so I'm sure that they'll be on board eventually if they're actually not already. ThinkBeat 12 days ago I dont want this interated into Firefox. It should remain a neutral platform. The only way to make this work is to track your id across many properties. (I assume) I do welcome this effort, which is similar to the Apple News (or whatever they named it, I think) but it would need a lot more content before I am interested. ekc 12 days ago If only they'd check their pages for typos before posting. (No ending punctuation on the last block of text.)	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1584
__label__wiki	0.964627	0.964627	(AP Photo/Brynn Anderson) Deputy Who Did Not Go Into Florida School During Shooting Refuses To Testify About School Massacre Deputy now receiving a $100,000 annual pension November 17, 2018 - 6:41 am By TERRY SPENCER and DAVID FISCHER , Associated Press SUNRISE, Fla. (AP) — For months, members of the panel investigating Florida's high school massacre have called the sheriff's deputy assigned to guard the campus "a coward" for hiding and not rushing inside in an attempt to stop the shooter. Given an opportunity to confront his critics Thursday, now-retired Broward Sheriff's Deputy Scot Peterson sent his attorney instead before the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School Public Safety Commission. Attorney Joseph DiRuzzo III told the 14-member panel he had filed a lawsuit hours earlier attempting to block their subpoena. DiRuzzo dropped a copy on the lectern and then walked away. Fred Guttenberg, whose child Jaime died along with 16 others, said to DiRuzzo as he passed: "He didn't do his job. My daughter should be alive." Peterson, the longtime deputy assigned to Stoneman Douglas, has become the second-most vilified person surrounding the Feb. 14 shooting after suspect Nikolas Cruz. Security video shows Peterson arrived outside the three-story building where the killings happened shortly after the shooting began, about the same time the gunman finished slaying 11 people on the first-floor. Peterson drew his handgun, but retreated to cover next to the neighboring building. The video shows Peterson never left that spot for 50 minutes, even after other deputies and police officers arrived on campus and went inside. Panel members have said they believe Peterson's inaction allowed Cruz to climb to the third floor, where five students, including Jamie Guttenberg, and one teacher were killed. They believe if Peterson, 55, had confronted Cruz, who authorities say was armed with an AR-15 semi-automatic rifle, and engaged him in a shootout he could have killed him or given others more time to reach safety. "Other than the person sitting in a jail cell right now for murdering my daughter, the only other person who comes close to pissing me off as much is Peterson because Peterson could have saved my daughter. My daughter was the second-to-last to be shot ... a few more seconds and she would be alive," Fred Guttenberg told The Associated Press after DiRuzzo left. Peterson, a decorated 32-year veteran of the sheriff's office, retired shortly after the shooting rather than accept a suspension while his actions were investigated. He is now receiving a $100,000 annual pension. There had been speculation Peterson might attend the meeting but invoke the Fifth Amendment, as a criminal investigation of law enforcement's response continues. Pinellas County Sheriff Bob Gualtieri, the panel's chairman, said Thursday he wanted to ask Peterson, "Why the hell did he go hide and run away and not do his job?" Peterson told investigators shortly after the shooting and reporters last spring from the "Today" show and The Washington Post that he heard only two or three shots and didn't know whether they were coming from inside the building. That is contradicted by radio calls in which he correctly identifies the building as the shooter's location. Bullets also came out a window almost directly above where he took cover. About 150 shots were fired and were heard by others a quarter-mile away. Cruz, a 20-year-old former Stoneman Douglas student, is charged with the slayings. He has pleaded not guilty, but his attorneys have said he would plead guilty in exchange for a life sentence. Prosecutors are seeking the death penalty. The panel also heard Thursday from two other Broward County officials criticized for their actions before and after the shooting: Sheriff Scott Israel and school Superintendent Robert Runcie. Israel, whose triplet sons graduated from Stoneman Douglas a few years ago, was asked why his agency's policy on engaging an active shooter says a deputy "may" confront a shooter rather than "shall." The sheriff said deputies are trained to engage immediately, but "I want an effective tactical response, not a suicide response." Israel said a different policy wouldn't have prompted Peterson to rush into the building, saying "you can't train courage." Runcie said he's focusing on the recovery and well-being of students, improving school safety and holding administrators accountable. Runcie outlined security improvements, including single points of entry and armed guardians or police officers at all schools, and expanded mental health resources for students. Commission members then grilled Runcie on the district's communication with law enforcement and procedures for dealing with active shooters. Several pointed out that the district still hadn't created a policy mandating the marking of "hard corners," areas in a classroom a shooter can't hit from the door's window. The panel has been meeting periodically since April. It's required to file a report by Jan. 1 to Florida Gov. Rick Scott on its findings on the shooting's causes and recommendations for avoiding future school massacres. The panel includes law enforcement, education and mental health officials, a legislator and the fathers of two dead students. All contents © copyright 2018 Associated Press. All rights reserved. Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School Broward Sheriff's Deputy Scot Peterson	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1588
__label__cc	0.715659	0.284341	ID 108202811 © Alexey Novikov \| Dreamstime.com Fans Face Long Lines Leaving Atlanta Super Bowl's "Mass Exodus Monday." February 04, 2019 - 12:54 pm ATLANTA (AP) — Travelers heading home from the Super Bowl were enduring waits of more than an hour to get through airport security on what city officials have called "Mass Exodus Monday." The airport's general manager, John Selden, tells The Atlanta Journal-Constitution wait times were about an hour-and-a-half Monday morning. City officials say they expected around 110,000 passengers to be screened Monday at Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport — well over the 60,000 to 80,000 on a typical day. The city is hoping to avoid the chaotic scene at the airport on a recent Monday — Jan. 14 — when many passengers waited more than an hour to be screened in lines that stretched into the baggage claim area.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1589
__label__wiki	0.560863	0.560863	El Nino Ventures Inc. (ELNOF: OTCQX International) \| El Niño Ventures Inc. Announces Closing of Private Placement and New Control Person October 04, 2013 RSS FEED No comments VANCOUVER, Oct. 4, 2013 /CNW/ – El Niño Ventures Inc. (“ELN” and the “Company”) (TSXV: ELN) (Frankfurt: E7Q) (OTCQX: ELNOF) announces that, further to its August 26, 2013 and September 12, 2013 news releases, it has completed its final tranche of a non-brokered flow-through and non flow-through private placement of 13,150,000 units for proceeds of $263,000. In aggregate, the private placement has been subscribed for a combined 15,850,000 units for gross proceeds of Each non flow-through unit (“NFT Unit”) consists of one common share and one-half of one non-transferable share purchase warrant (“Warrant”) at a price of $0.02 per NFT Unit. Each Warrant will entitle the holder thereof to purchase one additional common share of the Company for a period of 24 months from the closing date at a price of $0.05 per share during the first year and $0.10 per share during the second year. Each flow-through unit (“FT Unit”) consists of one common share and one-half of one non flow-through, non-transferable share purchase warrant (“Warrant”) at a price of $0.02 per FT Unit. Each Warrant will entitle the holder thereof to purchase one additional non flow-through common share of the Company for a period of 24 months from the closing date at a price of $0.05 per share during the first year and $0.10 per share during the second year. Harry Barr, Chairman, Chief Executive Officer (“CEO”) and a director of the Company, purchased 7,500,000 common shares and Warrants to purchase up to further 3,750,000 common shares in the capital stock of the Company for $150,000. In addition, Mr. Barr is also Chairman, CEO and a director of Pacific North West Capital Corp. (“PFN”) which holds 8,558,776 common shares of the Company. While Mr. Barr does not have sole control over the common shares held by PFN, he participates with both management and directors in the decision-making with respect to PFN’s shares and so is deemed to have control over a total of 19,754,652 common shares representing 21.5% of the issued and outstanding common shares in the capital stock of the Company, thus Mr. Barr has become a New Control Person (as defined by the policies of the TSX Venture Exchange (“Exchange”) and holds a sufficient number of voting shares of the Company to materially affect the control of the The Company will also experience a Change of Control as that term is defined by the policies of the Exchange. Disinterested shareholder approval of the private placement, Mr. Barr’s investment in this private placement, the creation of a New Control Person and the resulting Change of Control of the Company, was approved at the Company’s Annual General and Special Meeting held September 25, 2013. The common shares and warrants were purchased by Mr. Barr for investment purposes and these security holdings will be evaluated by him and the investment increased or decreased from time to time at his discretion. The private placement is in reliance on the temporary relief measures established by the TSX Venture Exchange (the “Exchange”), and is being conducted in accordance with the temporary relief criteria set out in the Exchange’s bulletin of April 12, 2013, in relation to the extension and modification of temporary relief from certain pricing requirements (the “Temporary Relief Measures”). The Company has paid $5,390.00 and 269,500 warrants in finder’s fees in connection with this final tranche Closing. This private placement has been approved by the Company’s board of directors, excluding those directors that may have a direct interest in the private placement. The proceeds from the sale of the final tranche of FT and NFT Units will be used as follows: Maintain 35% earned interest in Murray Brook project: $98,000 Office Lease: $60,000 Insurance: $20,000 Audit: $15,000 Legal Costs: $70,000 Total: $263,000 The Company confirms that no funds raised as part of the private placement will be used to pay any liabilities owed to any related parties in this Closing. The shares issued with respect to the Offering will be subject to a four-month hold period in accordance with applicable Canadian Securities Laws. Completion of the Offering and any finder’s fees payable is subject to regulatory approvals, including approval of the Exchange under Temporary Relief Measures. About El Niño Ventures Inc. Bathurst Projects El Niño Ventures Inc. has two active projects in the Bathurst Mining Camp: 1. Murray Brook Project The Murray Brook Project is located 60 km west of Bathurst, in the northwest part of the Bathurst Mining Camp. The Murray Brook deposit is a zinc-lead-copper-silver massive sulphide which is the subject of a recently completed Preliminary Economic Assessment. The project is supported by excellent infrastructure including paved roads, grid electricity and communities to provide goods, services and skilled labour. ELN and VMC currently own 100% of the Murray Brook Project and VMC is the operator. VMC controls 65% and ELN controls 35%. To date, more than 28,000 metres of drilling has been completed on the Murray Brook Project. The first NI43-101 mineral resource estimation and the first metallurgical results were published in press releases dated February 2012 and January 2013, respectively. On June 5, 2013 a positive Preliminary Economic Assessment was announced (see news release). The results of the PEA demonstrate the potential technical and economic viability of establishing a new mine and mill complex on the Murray Brook property. The projected cash flows indicate an after-tax NPV at a 5% discount rate of $96.4 million, an IRR of 11.4%, and a payback period of 5.4 years. The NI43-101 Technical Report is now filed on SEDAR and is also available on the ELN website (see http://www.elninoventures.com). 2. Bathurst Option Joint Venture The BOJV project is a Tri?Party Agreement with Glencore Canada Corporation and VMC covering much of the area of the Bathurst Mining Camp in northeastern New Brunswick. The project commenced in July 2009. VMC can earn 50% by spending $10 million over 5 years. VMC can further increase its interest to 70% by spending an additional $10 million over 2 more years. Exploration expenditures to date by VMC total about $6.7 million. A $2 million dollar drill program was announced on September 10, 2013. (see news release). BOJV project originally consisted of 4712 claims owned 50% ELN and 50% Glencore Canada Corporation and 2907 claims owned 100% by Glencore Canada Corporation, together with an Area of Interest in which ELN and Glencore Canada Corporation hold equal interest. Due to the Area of Interest, the BOJV generates new projects for ELN at no initial cost. An example of such project generation for ELN is the Murray Brook Votorantim Metals Canada Inc. Statement Technical details in this news release were provided by VMC whose professional geologists conduct operations consistent with mineral industry best practices. VMC accepts no responsibility for this news release or any inferences made from the technical details provided About Votorantim Metals Canada Inc. VMC is a subsidiary of Votorantim Metais a company that is part of the Votorantim Group that was founded in Brazil in 1918. The Votorantim Group operates in twenty countries and has over 40,000 employees. Votorantim Metais is the largest electrolytic nickel producer in Latin America and one of the world’s leaders in the production of zinc, aluminum and nickel. VMC in conjunction with Glencore Canada Corporation and El Nino Ventures is operator of the Bathurst Option and Joint Venture which is actively exploring for base metal deposits within the Bathurst Mining Camp. About El Nino Ventures Inc. El Niño Ventures Inc. is an international exploration company, focused on exploring for zinc, lead, copper, silver and gold in New Brunswick, Canada and copper in the Democratic Republic of Congo (“DRC”). This news release is being disseminated as required by National Instrument 62-103 The Early Warning System and Related Take-Over Bid and Insider Reporting Issues in connection with the filing of an early warning report (“Early Warning Report“) regarding the acquisition by Harry Barr, Chairman, CEO and a director of El Niño Ventures Inc. (“El Niño“), c/o 650 – 555 West 12th Avenue, Vancouver, BC V5Z 2X7. A copy of the Early Warning Report may be requested from the Company and may also be found in El Niño’s continuous disclosure record at www.sedar.com. (signed) Harry Barr Chairman CEO, El Niño Ventures Inc. Neither the TSX Venture Exchange nor its Regulation Services Provider (as that term is defined in the policies of the TSX Venture Exchange) accepts responsibility for the adequacy or accuracy of this release. Cautionary Note Regarding Forward Looking Statements. Note: This release contains forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties. These statements may differ materially from actual future events or results and are based on current expectations or beliefs. For this purpose, statements of historical fact may be deemed to be forward-looking statements. In addition, forward-looking statements include statements in which the Company uses words such as “continue”, “efforts”, “expect”, “believe”, “anticipate”, “confident”, “intend”, “strategy”, “plan”, “will”, “estimate”, “project”, “goal”, “target”, “prospects”, “optimistic” or similar expressions. These statements by their nature involve risks and uncertainties, and actual results may differ materially depending on a variety of important factors, including, among others, the Company’s ability and continuation of efforts to timely and completely make available adequate current public information, additional or different regulatory and legal requirements and restrictions that may be imposed, and other factors as may be discussed in the documents filed by the Company on SEDAR (www.sedar.com), including the most recent reports that identify important risk factors that could cause actual results to differ from those contained in the forward-looking statements. The Company does not undertake any obligation to review or confirm analysts’ expectations or estimates or to release publicly any revisions to any forward-looking statements to reflect events or circumstances after the date hereof or to reflect the occurrence of unanticipated events. Investors should not place undue reliance on forward-looking statements. SOURCE El Nino Ventures Inc. Article source: http://www.otcmarkets.com/stock/ELNOF/news?id=69500 Posted in: OTC	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1590
__label__wiki	0.515919	0.515919	Four CMCH doctors drawing salaries despite being absent RATODERO: Four lady doctors of Chandka Medical College Hospital (CMCH) Larkana are absent from their duties since long time but they continue to draw their salaries. According to letters sent to Health Secretary by Medical Superintendent (MS) of CMCH, Dr Saweeta Kumari daughter of Shawak Ram Bhambhari, Woman Medical Officer (WMO) BS-17, has remained absent since 14 October 2012 at the hospital and has now been transferred to Civil Hospital Dadu. Dr Reena Kumari daughter of Hola Ram Kundnani, WMO, is also continuously on earned and ex-Pakistan leave since 6 April 2009 though her extra ordinary leave period expired on 05 April 2011 but she has not so far resumed her duties, which shows that she is out of Pakistan. Dr Rozina Begum daughter of Ghulam Ali Shaikh, WMO, applied for 12 months earned leave on 18 November 2009, which was regretted by the health department vide its letter dated 22 December 2009 but she already proceeded on self-granted leave and is absent since then from government duty. Dr Saima daughter of Inayatullah Shaikh, WMO, is proceeded on 30 days earned leave from 01 March 2011 to 30 March 2011, but has not so far reported back for government duty. Hence, she is also absent. Copies of these letters have also been sent to District Accounts Officer, Larkana, with the request to stop their salaries immediately but in vain as their salaries continue to be disbursed because these WMOs are very influential. It may be pointed out here that doctors keep on proceeding earned leave for various reasons or for doing postgraduate studies but do not return back even after expiry of their requite leave or training period but they keep on extending their leaves due to their influence in the health department. They draw their monthly salaries which is unjustified act. The health department must prepare a list of such doctors and initiate disciplinary proceedings against all of them as acute shortage of doctors is being faced in every hospital of Sindh. Tags: Chandka Medical College Hospital, CMCH, WMO	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1609
__label__cc	0.676612	0.323388	Parallel Novels Empire of Souls Empire of Souls: Volume 1 Emperor! He can see stats!? Otherworld Nation Founding Chronicles Porter of Two Worlds Eternal God Emperor Chapter 44: A night to remember (4) The continent of Erlithan was one of the newly developed continents in the God Nexus. The Nexus itself had many continents spanning their world some of which were larger than others. The origin of these continents was the essence of the assimilated worlds that the God Nexus incorporated into their sphere of influence. As such, among the many continents, Erlithan was the least developed and had only been settled for a few thousand years. This allowed many civilizations to rise but overall their strength and development was inferior to the other continents who had a much longer history. Because of their relatively shallow history, the power levels of the citizens who lived on Erlithan were as a whole below that of other continents and the number of beings who rose beyond advanced was far less. There were of course still numerous beings above the advanced class but the number was small in comparison. This meant that the continent of Erlithan was ripe for the gods and their ilk to harvest. Tihr, the god of Justice, had a lot of influence on the continent of Erlithan and for as long as anyone remembered it had always been this way. His cathedrals and churches were spread out throughout many cities and while he didn’t have a presence everywhere, his presence was one of the strongest on the continent. Despite this, there was no end to the competition and rivalry among the gods of different pantheons and even within their own for the souls of worshippers. With Tihr’s influence within the republics, it was a common sight to see the Knights of Tihr throughout the city of Andor’s Edge as well as the other city states belonging to the Federation. There were a number of orders which were like sub organizations within the Church of Tihr. These orders were all united under the church but might have their own individual philosophy or purpose that conformed with the guidelines of the church. In times of trouble, these orders would be placed under the command of a Marshall. In a more developed region, those chosen to be Marshalls would normally be at least of Master class. However, while the Church of Tihr had a number of Master class beings and even a few Legendary beings, they were currently stationed along the border with the Imperium. Many of their elite knights had also been sent there. On the surface, the conflict between the two nations may seem to be secular in nature but in reality most wars on the continent were heavily influenced by the gods and even devils. With a lack of manpower, Paladin Arcurio was placed in charge of the church forces in Andor’s Edge. Even though he hadn’t yet advanced to a master class, he was a Nephilim who was a peak Paladin of extraordinary strength. Even against an opponent with a master class, he may still come out victorious. He was also well respected among his subordinates and had a knack for command so it was only natural for him to be placed in that role with the current situation. Paladin Arcurio wasn’t actually a native of Erlithan and had requested to be stationed there due to discrimination he faced among the upper echelons of the Church of Tihr because of his mixed blood. He was looked down on by full blooded angels and had no real hope of advancement and so he left for Erlithan with the hope of proving himself. He had strived for a long time to grow in power and was very close to advancing after many years of hard work and faith. The only blight on his near perfect career on Erlithan was the heretic which had almost taken his life. “This time he will die for sure! I will not be careless.” Paladin Arcurio gritted his teeth with determination as he rode his horse through the darkened streets of the commercial district leading towards the warehouses located at the riverfront. The district proper was well lit with many magically lit lamps but the area where the warehouses were located did not have as good coverage. This particular area didn’t see much traffic at night and so it wasn’t necessary to build as many lamps and for the sake of cutting costs not many had been built. “Don’t worry. We have brought an entire company of Knights and there are even ten of us Knight Lords present, how could the heretic possibly escape?” Arcurio only shook his head, “Sir Kith, you must not underestimate that evil being. I underestimated him the last time and it almost cost me my life. You may think it is overkill to bring this many Knights with us but we must complete this mission. It was not easy baiting the heretic to come to this city and if not for the looming war, it never would have even gotten to this point. What rotten luck he has.” “You were placed in command so I will trust your judgement. Let us hurry then and finish this mess so we can return to the Cathedral. The stink of this place is almost unbearable.” Arcurio snorted at his comment. Many of the Knights disdained walking through certain parts of the city and spent most of their days in the more pleasant areas. They had long since considered themselves above the peasants. Arcurio suddenly came to a halt, “Something is strange. Until a moment ago I could feel the influence of Cyric, but now it’s gone. Ah! It’s him! I can feel the heretic’s presence, we must hurry!” Arcurio motioned and the knights picked up their pace. Arcurio rode at their head and led the company of knights deeper into the district where light was beginning to become even more scarce. The ten Knight Lords rode directly behind him with the knights following closely behind. Even though they picked up their pace, they still had to ride carefully and soon the only light was the light of their own torches. A scream broke out among the knights in the rear which startled those up front. Arcurio pulled on the reins of his horse and shouted, “We’re under attack!” Before he could say another word a figure flashed past him and struck Sir Kith knocking him off his horse. “Dammit! Assassins! Quickly dismount! Shields up!” Arcurio jumped down off his horse and immediately emanated a holy aura of power which spread to the knights around him empowering them. The knights quickly assembled and raised their shields as loud clanging sounds reverberated throughout the area. They were under attack by a hail of crossbow bolts from multiple directions. Arcurio rushed over to Sir Kith in order to help him to his feet. “Are you okay?” “Bastard got me pretty good. Pierced right through the side of my armor.” “Hold on, let me heal you.” Arcurio pressed his hand on Sir Kith and a light glow sprung forth from his hand healing some of Sir Kith’s vitality. “Lay on hands is sure useful, I should have become a Paladin myself.” “Enough with the talk, we need to quickly handle this situation. Take a squad of knights in that direction and ferret the assassins out.” Sir Kith ordered a squad of Knights to follow him and rushed off in one of the directions the bolts came from. Arcurio then ordered two more of the Knight Lords to each take a squad and head in different directions. “Where the hell did these assassins come from? That heretic has more tricks up his sleeves than anyone else. The rest of you, follow me now! Shields up! Don’t let any of those bolts get through!” With the threat of ranged attack, the knights followed the lead of Arcurio as they marched with their shields at the ready closer to the warehouse that he had sensed the heretic from. The attack from the assassins had lessened but there was still the occasional bolt flying from random directions keeping the knights from being too careless. It wasn’t long before the column of advancing knights reached the warehouse where two solitary figures were currently standing side by side waiting for their arrival. “Sir, there are two people up ahead.” “That’s the bastard, we will kill him this time for sure! Men Charge!” The knights no longer hesitated and charged straight towards Aleks who was calmly standing in the open night air. Lenia moved to the front of Aleks and raised her sword and shield as if a wall standing in front of Aleks to protect him. “Come! Come to your deaths! ‘Soul Marionette!’” Aleks suddenly shouted raising his arms. His body began to fluctuate with a strange power that one could only feel but not see. Only Aleks could see the ethereal and vibrating strings that burst out of his body extending into hundreds of tendril like arms which whipped towards the charging knights. The strings immediately grasped on to the intermediate class knights causing them to spasm briefly before their eyes dimmed and they no longer had their own consciousness. The Knight Lords weren’t affected by this and they continued to rush straight towards Lenia unaware of what had happened to the knights following them. Lenia stood firmly in front of her master, her determination firm. “Warlord’s Aura! Knight’s Aura!” Her two aura’s burst forth filling her with increased PHY ATK and PHY DEF. She readied her shield in front of her and rested her longsword on top of the shield facing the incoming enemies. Her eyes were filled with her intent to kill. Welcome to another world!	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1613
__label__wiki	0.673365	0.673365	POTAGER D'INTERIEUR EDEN PACK POTS EN BATYLINE POTS EN GEOTEXTILES ODYSEED WEBSITE PRIVACY POLICY Last Updated: This Privacy Policy was last updated on November 15th, 2017. This is the Privacy Policy (“Privacy Policy”) of Odyseed – Alteximex SA (“Odyseed”, “us” or “we”). This Privacy Policy explains how we collect, use and store the information we obtain from our website, www.odyseed.com (“Website”). This Privacy Policy is not a contract and does not create any legal rights or obligations. By using the Website, you accept the Privacy Policy and you expressly consent to our collection, storage, use and disclosure of your information as described in this Privacy Policy. 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We may store information you provide us, or information that is generated or collected automatically, for as long as is necessary to provide the Website. Odyseed and our service providers implement security measures designed to protect your information from unauthorized access, disclosure or accidental loss or destruction of Non-Personal Information and Personal Information. We utilize appropriate physical, technical and managerial safeguards designed to protect the information we collect from or about our users. Odyseed’s physical infrastructure is hosted and managed within OVH Web Services Security. We may occasionally update this Privacy Policy. When we do update this Privacy Policy, we will also revise the “Last Updated” date at the top of the Privacy Policy. If we make changes to this Privacy Policy that, in our discretion, we consider significant, we will post the updated Privacy Policy on the Website and we may also send e-mails to our users who have created an Account containing a link to the revised Privacy Policy. Please review this Privacy Policy periodically to stay informed about how we are protecting the Personal Information we collect. If you continue to use Odyseed, the Website after we post an update to this Privacy Policy, you indicate your acceptance of the updated Privacy Policy. If you wish to access, delete or correct your information, please send us an email to contact@odyseed.com. If you have any questions regarding this Privacy Policy or the practices of the Odyseed, the Website please contact us by sending an email to contact@odyseed.com. © 2019, Odyseed Commerce électronique propulsé par Shopify	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1617
__label__wiki	0.580418	0.580418	Sovereign nation Poncles Dragonians Stray Beads Celestial Plain (Accessible via the Ark of Yamato) Moon (Accessible via the Ark of Yamato or Kaguya's rocket) Both Ōkami and Ōkamiden take place in Nippon, a fictionalized version of real life Japan. The name itself is derived from (「日本」?; Nippon; Land of the Rising Sun). The parallels between both the real-life and fictional versions of Japan are strong, with many locations in-game being based off of or borrowing names from actual places that can be found somewhere in Japan. The Japanese name of this land, however, is not Nippon. Rather it is nakatsukuni (「ナカツクニ」?; nakatsukuni; central land), which itself is a shortened version of ashihara no nakatsukuni (「葦原の中津國」?; ashihara no nakatsukuni; Central Land of Reed Plains). This term refers to an ancient Japan, when earth kami and humans freely roamed the pure, lush landscape, and sky kami ruled from the heavens, in an attempt to purify the world below. Even with the similarity in naming, Nippon does not have a clear placement within Japan’s history. Many attributes suggest a connection to the Kamiyo era, yet the dates for births and deaths of historical figures do not line up, nor have major cultural pieces been fully developed or imported during this time. Other parts of the world suggest that the stories both take place during a highly idealized Edo Period, but in truth, the exact timeline is irrelevant. Nippon is meant to represent the best parts of Japan throughout all of the ancient eras, making attempts to tie down the stories to one era a fruitless effort. Regardless, Nippon shares many of Japan’s natural beauties, such as lush forests, mountains that kiss the skies, and rivers that slice through the island nation, all protected by miles and miles of deep blue oceans. The countries Amaterasu and Chibiterasu explore are largely defined by three regions: East and West Nippon, and the Northern Lands of Kamui. Eastern Nippon Edit Eastern Nippon (「ナカツクニ東部」?; Nakatsukuni tōbu; Eastern Nippon) is home to Nippon’s many towers of stone covered in endless numbers of trees, shrubs, flowers, and vines for the lupine gods to explore. The northern half of Eastern Nippon contains Kamiki Village and Shinshu Field, home to many of the region’s inhabitants and legends, including both Shiranui and Nagi, the duo who sealed away the terrible demon Orochi. Regions Edit Main article: River of the Heavens The River of the Heavens--based on the real world (「天の川」?; Amanogawa; Milky Way)—is the first accessible location to Amaterasu upon her rebirth into the mortal world. It is a vast landscape that appears to hang in the sky, featuring a river of stars, Yomigami’s constellation, and a small forest near the Cave of Nagi, which sports several pools of water and a small creek running through everything. The hidden secret floating among the stars perpetually remains night, even if Amaterasu uses Sunrise. The moon will remain hung in the sky regardless of any divine intervention. Use of Sunrise, however, will still create a glowing red sun, but its effects will not be felt here. Main article: Cave of Nagi The Cave of Nagi is a small shrine hidden within a cavern, bearing a statue of the legendary man raising the summoner of the moon, Tsukuyomi. Here, Amaterasu regains one of her foregone powers. Main article: Konohana tree Konohana is the tree belonging to the spirit Sakuya, acting as her corporeal form in the mortal realm. She, in union with the tree itself, protects the village of Kamiki and its outlying neighbors. Even disaster strikes, the tree acts as a guardian, but not without taking some damage itself. In order to restore it to its former glory, Amaterasu embarks on a journey to heal the offshoots of Konohana, known as Guardian Saplings. Main article: Kamiki Village Kamiki Village is the home of the annual Kamiki Festival, legendary heroes Shiranui and Nagi, and Konohana. Normally, the town is a sleepy agricultural landscape, hidden between two mountains and guarded by the sea. However, the defeat and reawakening of Orochi more than shook up the tiny town, leaving them fearing for their lives during a festival meant to celebrate their success over the last year. Main article: Shinshu Field Shinshu Field is one of the larger landscapes that Amaterasu and Chibiterasu are able to explore during their journeys. The area is vastly wide and painted with green grass, dotted with rolling hills and faces the extensive lake that is Lake Harami. Here, connections to Yakushi Village, Hana Valley, Agata Forest, and Lake Harami can be found and accessed at one point or another. This massive field is also home to Tama, Mika, Nameless Man, and Onigiri-Sensei. Main article: Hana Valley Wander too far near the edge of the fields and Amaterasu will find herself facing a rocky mouth that leads to Hana Valley, home to the first of many Saplings. The valley is hidden between two mountains and features a wooden bridge hung over a river that feeds a majestic waterfall, in addition to a fire to get warm by set before a tunnel of stone leading up to the grand tree. Main article: Lake Harami Lake Harami is a vast body of crystal clear waters veiled by a magic only the divine and their believers can see. This is also one of the few locations sporting a silver torii, which typically is used to signify locations that only Amaterasu can see and access. The lake bears a small island in the middle, which can be accessed during low tide. Main article: Agata Forest Dark and dream-like is the foliage of Agata Forest. Soaring, peacock-colored trees cloud the skies, only allowing hints of sunlight to speckles the emerald floor. Main article: Hitoshio Spring High above the forest green sits Hitoshio Spring, a cold, crystalline pool of water, perfect for use in the creation of sake. The spring boasts an unobstructed view of the bright blue sky and a withered tree that still stands as proudly in death as it had in life, even promising some of the spring’s deliciously cool waters itself. Main article: Tsuta Ruins Carved into a cliff wall hides the massive gates to Tsuta Ruins, an ancient structure that appears to be long forgotten. The lack of care and upkeep has allowed for an infestation of demons that has begun to plague the forest it resides in. The ruins themselves, however, are a complex network of bridges and ledges that continue in a maddening manner. However, the further one ventures into the ruins, the more one can find how nature ultimately reclaims her right to rule. A grand waterfall spills over the edges of a water-filled chamber back into a hall where an old, beaten statute still proudly stands, looming over the rest of the mysterious place. Main article: Taka Pass Covered in bamboo and weary with travelers, Taka Pass stands between the border of Eastern and Western Nippon, providing access to nearly all of its key economic districts. The skies are always a crystal clear blue during daylight hours, rarely obstructed by anything but trees, which can be surpassed by climbing up one of the numerous jagged cliffs or sitting atop any one of the endless mountain peaks. Traveler’s paths are marked on dirt roads, and journeying has even been made easier with the installation of bridges and establishment of tucked away resorts for rest and recuperation and tea shops where visitors can obtain a small treat and some company for a short time before pressing on.. Main article: Sasa Sanctuary Perhaps Taka Pass’ best kept secret is a little onsen-slash-hotel run by the Sparrow Clan known as Sasa Sanctuary. This little place for rest and recovery is only accessible to those who are pure of heart and otherwise tucked away behind cliff-covered walls of stone and in between scores of bamboo stalks in what can only be called a forest. Adding to the avian-inhabited home are its many mysteries, one of which has ties to the mysterious people of the moon. Main article: Kusa Village Atop the highest peak lies the windy city on a hill, Kusa Village. This town is heavily dependent on constant blowing breezes for both energy and day-to-day functions, given how many of the citizens structures and businesses take advantage of this natural powerhouse. The village is home the Gale Shrine, dedicated to the god of the winds, and its guardians: former priest Yatsu, his beautiful wife and current priestess Princess Fuse, and their Canine Warriors. Main article: Gale Shrine Situated where the winds blow the best and the strongest lies the Gale Shrine dedicated to Kazegami. The shrine itself is an elaborate maze of passages leading outward to a massive windmill constructed from bamboo and Washi that elegantly captures the powerful gusts of air bustling about high in the sky. Main article: Moon Cave The Moon Cave is perhaps one of the most confusing and still intriguing areas in Eastern Nippon. The cave itself is inaccessible to mere mortals, but gaining entrance is not difficult feat for those bearing the ability to see the dark mountain and the Serpent Crystal needed for easy access. A legion of demons and their terrible leader make their home here, having built base-like structures and a terrifyingly regal throne room in which an eight-headed snake resides. Geography Edit Eastern Nippon, as mentioned before, is primarily covered in mountain ranges and other rocky natural structures, much like eastern parts of Japan. The landscape bears few opportunities for easy farming, and flatter fields often bear insufficient soils, making cultivation difficult or impossible. Even in spite of the total refusal to be tamed by man, the East maintains a regal emerald beauty. Many lush landscapes are sliced at by gentle and raging waters alike, each of which laps at the edges of solid shores. Nearly two hundred years before, the peaceful fields of Eastern Nippon were caught up in the affairs of the heavens and dragged into a slew of tragedy and demonic curses that plague the land for 100 years to come. The demon they face is one seeking to become an eternal force of wicked evil by devouring the souls of its 100 victims. The goddess who dragged the beast to the mortal realm must wait, guided by the word of a prophet, with the hopes that the Chosen One will be born before it’s too late. However, despite having nothing but the best intentions for the people plagued by this demon, they mistake her for its familiar, fearing and despising her, for they believe she chooses the demon’s next victim. During the annual Kamiki Festival, at the peak of the Chosen One’s maturity, the goddess and the swordsman unite to slay the eight-headed terror, but even this powerful duo’s punch lacks the force it needs. The goddess, weakened by the demon’s venom, summons the light of the moon from the darkness of night in a last attempt to defeat the beast. Her efforts are somewhat effective, allowing the Chosen One to seal the demon away in its lair but costing the goddess her life in the process. The villagers, now made aware of their unfounded fears, lay the mighty warrior to rest and erect a statue in her honor. In the century that follows, the land is blessed with peace, and the people are well. However, 100 years after the demon is sealed away, it mysteriously reawakens and lays a curse over the whole of Nippon, Threatening to destroy the beauty and nature of the land, the tree spirit of Konohana throws her life on the line to protect the village she inhabits while calling upon the goddess to help restore peace once more to the land. Thus begins the journey of a wolf and her flea-like companions. Politics Edit Despite being merely the eastern half of a larger country, this region has a noticeable lack of larger political institutions and influence from the West. Rather, this region is left to govern itself without significant regard to many of the assumed established rules. The people of these areas depend upon their own skills or the combined skills of their communities to survive and maintain their day-to-day lives. What this also means is that any loss of even one person can destroy the society entirely. Even in spite of the rigid social structure, each community has a leader of sorts, with more closely packed villages having more definitive leaders. For example, the leader of Kamiki Village is none other than the wise old Mr. Orange, often consulted during major events that affect all members of the village. In Kusa Village, this responsibility is handed to the head of the shrine, formerly Yatsu and now Princess Fuse. These communities all, however, maintain a unique independence. The power rests in a single set of hands, yet the people are largely permitted to do what they see fit within their existing social structure. Culture Edit Contrary to the hustle and bustle of the West, Eastern Nippon is more in tune with nature and relaxed. Though faith in the gods has long since been abandoned, the people still perform god-related traditions and rituals, such as the construction and maintenance of various shrines and prayer to gods in times of need or struggle. In this way, they have not completely forgotten the ways of their ancestors, but rather have found difference occupations to fill their time. The average diet of a citizen dwelling within the East typically consists of whatever that person is able to grow with their own hands or obtain from their neighbors. Trade is slow and can be dangerous, making imports expensive and exports even more unlikely. However, foods are typically vegetarian in nature, containing Japanese staples such as rice, seaweed, and anko—a red bean paste used in many traditional foods—in addition to fish meats as additives for extra flavor or sustenance. The general attire of the people in the East is more practical, generally reflecting one’s specific profession or career within a community. Clothing is simple, plain, and usually not adorned with any jewelry or elaborate patterns, giving the impression that the people do not have much money, and what little they do possess goes into the funding of their various tools of the trade, whether those are seeds for planting, plows for tilling, or axes for cutting down stalks of bamboo. The few Merchants found here purchase the completed wares and sell them in the West if the craftsman doesn’t do so themselves. Western Nippon Edit Western Nippon (「ナカツクニ西部」?; Nakatsukuni seibu; Western Nippon) is all of the regions contained in the lower half of the island nation. The climate is warmer, and more landscapes are dotted with fewer trees and painted with sandy beaches running alongside a crystal turquoise ocean. The region has a more notable presence of economic and governmental centers, being home to both the capital and largest fishing industries in all of Nippon. Main article: City Checkpoint The crimson bridge straddling across a mighty chasm and a rushing river is none other than the City Checkpoint, separating East and West Nippon, in addition to serving as a protective barrier or false border. Strangely enough, only the entrance to the West is heavily guarded and only its travelers much be vouched for before being granted passage. The entrance to the East has no obvious monitorization, suggesting that the checkpoint is a one-way passage. Below the bridge are docks where boats can be found tied to the docks, presumably following the river’s current out to sea, where travelers could meet a larger ship and return to their home or sellers in the East. Main article: Ryoshima Coast Where mountains meet sands and white sparkles meet blue waters, one can find Ryoshima Coast. An unstructured fishing society, Ryoshima takes on the role of helping to feed the hungry people in the capital and act as a first layer of defense in the event of an attack. Main article: Ankoku Temple One of the few Buddhist relics in an predominantly Shintoist world, Ankoku Temple stands as a proud testament of the dedication of Zen Buddhism’s many followers in pursuit of access to a divine realm. The head priestess is a beautiful woman name Rao, often called upon by the ruler of the nation from her palace in Sei'an City. Although he is never seen here, Komuso is one who would find himself very much at home in a place like this, surrounded by the majestic manufactured beauty that comes with the decorative temples of Japan. Main article: Sei'an City The gleaming, bustling capital of Nippon, center of all trade, commerce, and craftsmanship, Sei’an City stands proud and tall atop a massive lake, whose waters serve as guardians should the capital be invaded. The city itself is divided into two major centers of activity: the home of the common man, where all exchanges take place, and across the puzzle bridge hovering over the lake, the quiet quarters belonging to the exclusive and wealthy elite. Main article: Lake Beewa In addition to being the largest source of freshwater in all of Nippon, Lake Beewa's grand body of water is home to the capitol of Nippon, providing fresh fish and water for the many water canals used for travel by the everyday people. Main article: Sei'an City (Commoner's Quarter) Shorter buildings and less complex designs dot the soil and walls of the Commoner’s Quarters in Sei’an City. Here, the people travel about on foot when necessary, but typically, a ferry runs through the network of canals found throughout this part of the city. This grants easy access to citizens and visitors alike. This part of the city also features many local businesses, such as a kimono shop, woodworking business, run-down bank, weaponry store, apothecary’s, and a local restaurant, run by the talented Yama. Each of these buildings blends in with the homes where people take residence. However, no one seems to take too much notice to the island hiding way up in the sky, the base for all Tao Trooper activity, run by their often unaccounted leader. Main article: Sei'an City (Aristocratic Quarter) Though common citizens have no true business in the neighborhood of elites known as the Aristocratic Quarter, many still make the journey across the bridge over Lake Beewa to seek out spiritual advice from Rao if she is not away caring for her home temple of Ankoku. Beyond her Buddhist center of worship, however, lies the many, seemingly endless towers where the royals and elite make their home. Here, one can find twin palaces and many zen gardens, suspected to be well-kept by their owners. Main article: Imperial Palace One of two palaces found within Sei’an’s walls, the Imperial Palace is home to none other than Emperor Takara, a man concerned not so much with the affairs of the nation so much as his personal desire to have a vast collection of Demon Fangs. The palace overlooks the edge of the city walls, demonstrating the beauty of nature beyond the border, featuring lush mountainsides and picturesque skies. This palace is also the smaller of the two in Sei’an, being that it is meant purely to serve as a living quarters for the Emperor, rather than as a center of government. Main article: Himiko's Palace The second and more luxurious of the twin palaces in Sei’an City, Himiko’s Palace is one of grand beauty, meant to tower over the buildings and people she ultimately rules over and protects. The palace itself is structured somewhat like a shrine, with the first level elevated off of the ground featuring two wings, one of which bears a secret passage connecting Ankoku Temple to the palace itself. Behind the palace, one can relax and gaze out at the depths of Lake Beewa’s waters, all while admiring the smooth, stone towers that protrude from the deep blue waters. Inside the main building, one can find an elevator that will take Amaterasu and friends up to a lake of fire, which when successfully navigated, will grant access to Queen Himiko’s temple-like throne room from where she watches over and rules all of Nippon. The placement and style of the room suggests a parallel between the role of the heavens and Himiko’s particular style of leadership. Main article: Lunar Lagoon A rare sight to see is the Lunar Lagoon when blessed by divine moonlight. The waves part to form a perfect circular ring around which Amaterasu can run around on the ocean floor unobstructed and explore the sunken wonders of the underwater world. Main article: Sunken Ship During the terrifying reign of the Water Dragon, a ship carrying many valuable goods to the shores of Nippon was torn away from the surface and dragged down into the depths of the churning, murky waters. Only when divine moonlight blesses the lagoon it sleeps in can anyone have hopes of exploring and retrieving goods from below. However, at dawn, the spell is broken and the ocean reclaims its quarry. Main article: North Ryoshima Coast Home to the West’s central seaside fishing community, North Ryoshima Coast over looks the sea from towering cliffs speckled with light beach-side foliage. The majority of North Ryoshima consists of various islands erupting from the surface of the sea, with a hidden palace beneath the sea. Towards the gates leading back to central Ryoshima, one can find ruins of an ancient structure, appearing to be Greek in origin and promising views of the Whirlpool Galaxy and a gateway to the heavens. Main article: Catcall Tower Somewhere far out at sea lies an island of tiny feline creatures, climbing all over and around Catcall Tower. According to legend, a lonely at climbed way up in the sky and turned to stone in order to watch over the world below. The top of this tower features a massive stone cat, causing one to wonder whether legends are merely tales we tell ourselves or history long-forgotten. Main article: Watcher's Cape Situated atop one of the lower cliffs of North Ryoshima is the time-forgotten, weary gates of Watcher’s Cape. Here, Amaterasu can clearly see the beauty of the night sky and guide others to help reveal the Whirlpool Galaxy, a spiraling swirl of purple and pink stars dancing in the sky. Main article: Whirlpool Galaxy Way up in the night sky are tiny glittering shards of pink and purple diamonds swirled around a blanket of black velvet forming the Whirlpool Galaxy. Swirling the stars around with a brush reveals its earthly twin below and the gates to an underwater world whose beauty knows no rival. Main article: Dragon Palace Placed precisely in a pearlescent sea shell, the Dragon Palace, home to the Dragonians sits beneath the churning waves of North Ryoshima Coast. The palace resembles more of a mansion adorned with colorful coral and sparkling pearls, all surrounded by the natural beauty of life beneath the sea. As soon one turns to face the doors, the crest of the royals can be seen, greeting all visitors before entering this regal marvel of architecture. Once through the round entrance, one finds that the rooms are illuminated by glowing spheres of light, resembling the biolumescent tips of underwater creatures. To the left, one finds the garden of the Water Dragon, a place for rest and recovery before returning to protect its people. To the right, Amaterasu can find the Mermaid spring and the Palace’s maiden dancers, practicing for their next performance. However, one will almost certainly be drawn towards the grand staircase and into the box hung by a wire that will pull the lupine goddess up into the throne room to face the leader of the Dragonian people, Otohime. Main article: Oni Island Keeping up the facade of a terrible demonic face looking back at the land, Oni Island is the impenetrable fortress of demons ruled over by a fox that fancies itself as a god. The inner workings of this dark lair are powered by the dazzling bolts of lightning stolen from the eternally surrounding storm clouds. A labyrinth of confusion, frustration, and torture, this island is meant to be a hell on earth for its wicked inhabitants. Its position changes daily, making locating it a pointless effort. Western Nippon, unlike its Eastern sister, is speckled with more bodies of water, both fresh and salt. This region is also the center of trade for the entire nation, causing nearly every civilization to be built somewhere along the coast or near another body of water. However, the majestic mountains of the East are not forgotten in another land, rather they find their end, much like a rainbow finds its own. Mountains disappear into tall and jagged cliffs, rolling hills, and everything in between, still bearing the regal greens seen in other regions. While the history of the west is a little more difficult to trace as far back as the east, it is known that the Tao Troopers were established nearly 200 years ago, leaving one to assume that the capitol—or at the very least, the foundations of such—were already set into place but not immediately present elsewhere. With the founding of such a protective and investigative organization, one can only assume that there was some approval or alliance between the current leaders of the time that permitted them to do so. Beyond the capitol city’s walls lies the ruins atop Watcher's Cape, once said to have been a gateway to return to the heavens. Whether this referenced the heavens a divine wolf and prophet had come to call home is unknown, but highly likely. What caused the destruction of this location is also unknown, but often speculated to have had some relation to events taking place around the time of the divine wolf’s descent to earth. During this catastrophe, a powerful evil was dragged along with her, causing many local landscapes to become permanently altered. However, at the time of this demon’s defeat, the entire nation of Nippon experienced an era of peace, only broken by the curse of the same demon’s release 100 years after. Such brought on a toxic cloud that slowly tried to poison and kill innocent civilians in the capital, stole the life of a local priestess, and released an evil that manifested itself as both a menacing island and a fox that fancied itself as a god. From its impregnable fortress, it would continue to wreck havoc on the people both on land and at sea and cause the sea people’s god to slice through ships, churn the once calm waters, and terrorize the people both above and below the waters. Only the gentle stroke of a divine wolf’s brush could restore the long-beloved peace to this land. In the West, both a stronger presence of religion and monarchy can be felt right from the start. The region itself has notable Buddhist influences in its architecture, and a more organized flow to its layout. Every place has something, and something is always in its place. Here, the capitol of Nippon can be found in Sei’an City, from where the empress resides over the land atop her palace tower. The emperor is notably more lazy and concerned with different, more personal affairs, so much so that he has passed along his rights to rule to his wife, who does a astronomically better job than he ever could. Her style of leadership is one of an absolute monarchy, but she is is not a tyrant. Instead, she employs common people and those with ties to the temples scattered throughout the landscape to hear the voices of her people and make decisions that are in everyone’s best interest. The empress herself even has a strong connection to the religion her people believe in. She often prays for their well-being, and openly accepts assistance from divine beings who show promise in restoring peace to her home. Also notable, is her lack of formal attire. The empress chooses to clothe herself much like a temple maiden, bearing none of the decorative and extravagant attire of her husband and elite peers. However, following the death of the empress, the nation continues to run, leaving one to assume that there are unseen levels of government in place. It is also assumed that the emperor resumed his former role of leader, but it is also possible that he simply passed it along to another person, allowing the government to, again, be placed in better hands. Being at the center of everything, the West is blessed with wealth and all its spoils. Imports and exports flow through the seaside ports on a daily basis, allowing even the importation of the religion that would eventually become Zen Buddhism. Popular with the royals and elites, eventually this new religion spread to even the most common of people, allowing them all to practice their own ideals in their own right. Temples, while not a terribly common sight, dot the countryside, adorned with only the finest tiles, jewels, and elaborate architecture. The people themselves, enjoying the wealth of their home, sport more complex patterns upon finer made silks. Even the most common of people appear to be more affluence than those in the east. In addition to finer attire, the professions required in a land such as this are more diverse and produce a larger pool to draw from. The loss of a single person is not quite as devastating as it would be in the smaller communities of the east, especially given how versatile each person’s skill sets are. The people here are more educated overall, being much more readily able to read and write and understand ancient religious scripts or a menu at a local restaurant. As far as industry goes, however, the West returns more to its roots. Industries primarily rely on fishing and trade to both feed the people and draw in wealth to the island nation. Rare goods are transported to the West, while exported goods start their lives in the East before completing them at the ports of large trade vessels, such as the ship that lays out past the harbor, unable to return home ever again. Fishing communities are more loosely organized, resembling the agricultural ones of their Eastern neighbors, yet these are again, less likely to collapse should one person die or leave. Fishing is an industry very much in demand, as feeding half a nation is a difficult task. Even providing raw materials alone is not enough, though. Many local chefs have devoted themselves and enlisted their skill sets to help produce some finer cuisine in addition to providing some much need relaxation for those who would otherwise cook for themselves after a long day’s labor. These tiny shops are far and few between and primarily visited by the common people. Elites and royals alike share the concept of an in-home chef to produce all of their elaborate meals. The Northern Lands Edit The Northern Lands (「北方の国」?; Hoppō no kuni; Northern Lands) refers to the island nation of Kamui, inhabited and protected by the Oina, who have known this land as their home for generations. Though it may be covered in ice and snow, the hearts and spirits of its people are fiery and bright, always prepared to defend themselves and survive in this harsh, ever-lasting winter. Main article: Kamui Kamui is the main island of the Northern region. Others appear to exist but are never explored. The region itself is susceptable to bouts of icestorms and blizzards. However, the inhabitants manage to keep warm through reliance on their unique traditions. The region itsels is cut off from mainland Nippon, leaving it feeling more like a separate nation rather than a soon-to-be-annexed island off the coast of Honshu. Main article: Wep'keer Wep’keer, the village of legends in Kamui, is home to the majority of the native people living in the reason and acts as the center or community and culture for all of Kamui. Many structures are built out of wood as much as they are from ice and snow, each sporting a chimney to allow for the easy release of smoke. Many of the people do not venture far from the village or even leave at all, leaving them all the more uncertain and wary of outsiders. Main article: Ezofuji Ezofuji is the name used to refer to the twin volcanoes that the native people of Kamui view as their guardian deities, or kaskamuy. The peaks are home to the Twin Demons Lechku & Nechku, who have laid at rest for longer than anyone alive can recall, even through legend. Every year, the member of the tribe possessing the most spiritual power is trained and sent to perform a special ritual at the alter placed near the base of the twin peaks. This allows for immediate flow of life-giving lava, responsible for helping to keep the natives from freezing to death during the harsh winters. Main article: Laochi Lake Laochi Lake, meaning “the lake of rainbows” in its native language of Itak, is a body of water guarded by mountains and perpetually covered in thick sheets of ice, never fully thawing even during the warmer months. In the center of the murky waters lies a steel ship that is said to have fallen from the heavens. However, the rest of the story has been lost to time. Main article: Kamui (Ezofuji) Kamui (Ezofuji) refers to the area surrounding Laochi Lake and reaching up towards the mighty gates of Wawku Shrine, sitting in the valley of the twin Ezofuji mountains. Tuskle’s smaller shrine placed beside the gates of Wawku Shrine and overlooks both the steel ship in the lake below and the alter at which offerings to the twin demons can be offered or rituals performed. Main article: Yoshpet A winding maze of trees and confusing spores leave visitors to the forest of Yoshpet helplessly lost as they freeze in the winds that almost seem to blow stronger here. It’s no use looking to the starts or even the sun for guidance, for the thick canopy of evergreen needles block all light. Stick to the paths carved out in the snow by those who have lost their lives marking them, and place faith in the gods with the hope that you’ll come out alive, Main article: Ponc'tan The warm village of Ponc’tan is concealed within the remains of a wooden tower. Home to the miniature, glowing Poncles, many homes and structures are fashioned from leaves, twigs, flowers, berries, mushrooms, bugs, and other smaller items found scattered throughout the forest. The people are somewhat reclusive, barely daring to wander too far into the forest of Yoshpet, lest they too find themselves lost in a freezing maze with no hope of escape. Main article: Spirit Gate The Spirit Gate, found only after navigating through Yoshpet’s daunting and confusing maze-like woods, promises a unique journey to all those who dare to venture through the gate. Its origins and purpose are unknown, yet it bears a striking resemblance to other pieces of Moon Tribe technology. Main article: Kamiki Village (100 years ago) A century before the return of Amaterasu, she lived on as a white wolf known to the horrified villagers of a young Kamiki Village. Its people were plighted with disaster, year after year, during a time in which they were meant to be celebrating their success, rather than mourning their beloveds. The height of their festival evokes a terrible sense of dread and great dependence upon their deities for guidance and protection from the terrible demon that seeks to consume their souls. Main article: Shinshu Field (100 years ago) In the century before, Shinshu Fields was a largely different place. Paths to Agata Forest and Hana Valley had not yet been carved out of stone, nor had its present residents’ ancestors yet taken up residence in the vast plain. Lake Harami, however, still sits proud and grand, looming over the neighboring village with its dark shadow. Main article: Wawku Shrine The temple, built on layers of ice and snow to enshrine the Twin Demons who sleep atop the twin peaks of Ezofuji, is none other than Wawku Shrine. Despite the neighboring village being more simple in design and construction, this temple is a labyrinth of ice, gates, gears, and flurries infested with cold-loving demons. The top of the temple boasts a towering platform upon which worship to the Twin Demons may be pursued. However, the infestation of demonic bodies suggests that this temple has long been sealed off from common use and remains a relic of the people, not to be forgotten but not to be employed. Main article: Ark of Yamato Buried beneath a layer of ice, the Ark of Yamato remains a cold, steel-y coffin for the people of the heavens. This rescue boat serves as the point of origins for all the demons scattered throughout Nippon. Deep within the bowels of the ship lies an unimaginable, indescribable evil that threatens to destroy everything when the sun is unable to shine. Much like its sister to the south, the Northern Lands—better refered to as Kamui—are freckled with mountains and rolling hills. However, the region is in a constant state of winter, with very little time spent in what resembles spring. The island itself consistently rises upwards away from the shore and cuts off at the twin peaks of Ezofuji, an object of worship for many generations among the native Oina. Surrounding the edges of the island is the vast sea separating the north from the south. The ocean is deep and wide enough that travel across it is as much difficult as it is dangerous for a native people who do not typically engage in warfare nor possess large ships for trade or other forms of commerce. The sea and jagged mountains encircling the island also act as its barrier, helping to discourage invasion from other sovereign nations or particularly, the people of Nippon. How the people of this land came to be is unknown, but for as long as anyone alive can remember, this island has belonged to the Oina and always will. Some nearly 200 years ago, a great steel ship fell from the sky and planted itself into Laochi Lake's thick layer of ice. From there, demons began to sprout, including the twin demons who now lay at rest atop their alters on Ezofuji. However, this eruption of demonic activity made a harsh landscape's winters even more frigid and threatened to freeze over the land entirely, effectively killing its people. Through both faith and fear, the people of Kamui with the strongest connection to their inner spirits and the gods were able to discover a ritual that when performed, guaranteed the eruption of Ezofuji's twin volcanic peaks and the subsequent warming of the landscape as a whole. In the south, after the great demon was laid to rest alongside its opponent, the Northern Lands too experienced an era of peace and prosperity right up until its reawakening 100 years after its defeat. The people of Kamui—both small and large—have a society set up around there being a village elder who acts in the best interest of the community as a whole. Age alone would appear to be the determining factor, but as seen when Kemu's life was in a questionable status, a strong and independent person like Samickle can take over the role. In the immediately lower ranks of both Oina and Poncle societies are the warriors, people trained to protect and defend the village, such as Oki of the Oina tribe and the guard surrounding Ishaku in Ponc'tan. These are people who are typically adorned to some extent in armor and bear various weapons—usually swords. Mostly on par with the warriors are the spiritually gifted, a rank that appears to exist only within Oina society. These people often double as leaders to better be able to protect the village, while still relying on the warriors to defend the village as a whole and scare off intruders. However, some like Lika and Tuskle are part of this class yet do not bear any further special statuses. Instead, they are both responsible for aiding their leader in the protection of their village. The most common class for both the Oina and Poncle races, however, is the middle class, made up exclusively of common folk who hold no extra special role in society. However, the bulk of the workforce is made up of this class. Many of these people hunt, fish, create goods, perform services, and generally assist their fellow villagers in day-to-day life. Both societies have a notable lack of agriculture due the soil being insufficient for such. This makes both societies extremely dependent on trade. The lifeblood and amazingly least valuable rank to fall under is that of a merchant. Merchants are those who take all of the raw materials and finished goods produced by the people and sell them at ports in mainland Nippon. However, because these people willingly choose to leave society and often are influenced by outside cultures, they are shunned to primarily maintain cultural purity. The culture of the Oina and Poncle communities shares some similarities, having been developed relatively near one another and within the same landscape. Both are spiritual people, with the Oina holding faith in their protective spirits, whereas the Poncles place their trust with gods such as Amaterasu from the southern nation. Within the Oina community, outsiders are largely unwelcome, yet can be adopted into society gradually. This is seen with the permission of both Kokari and Onigiri-Sensei, who have made their homes outside of the central village of Kamui. However, this does not mean that they are allowed to roam freely. Onigiri-Sensei is largely kept to his own home, and Kokari is only permitted to fish in a specified location. Even then, the two are watched over carefully by the strongest warrior of the village, Oki. This is not the case with the Poncle community. Rather than discouraging the idea of travel altogether, it is largely encouraged as a method of pilgrimage and an opportunity to better one's artistic abilities. Regardless of differing ideals in regards to immigration, both tribes shares a similar clothing style, often resembling stylized variations of Ainu clothing. The attire of the Oina tends to be more complex, with embroidered fabrics bearing a striking resemblance both to Ainu clothing and a standard kimono, in addition to featuring both a family crest and other decorative patterns. Within Poncle society, however, clothing is more simple and tends to resemble a single-layered robe. Both have an affinity for both jewelry and animals. The Oina, for reasons unknown, wear a mask that represents their innermost personality and spirit. The mask entirely obscures their face, leaving one to wonder what they truly look like. The Poncles, being a smaller race, wear bugs as hats—butterflies and moths for women, and beetles for men. Use of insects in their clothing is nearly as common as the same usage in architecutre. Many bridges and stairwells in Ponc'tan are constructed from fully extended insects. Their homes are often carved right into shoots growing through the protective walls of the tree stump, but occasionally can be mushrooms as well. The village itself is rather small and easy to navigate. However, guardrails and other barriers do not exist despite the obvious danger of falling, further demonstrating the durability of this tiny tribe. In contrast with the Poncles, the Oina build smaller, single-story structures from wood and use the wealth of Kamui's ice and snow to create an outer layer around the house to help keep heat inside. Each home also bears a chimney to aid in the removal of smoke from the eternally burning fires. Within some homes, one can find textiles, dried meats, and other raw goods. The Oina, having little to no natural resources to draw upon, make do with what they have, that being an endless supply of snow and a massive forest from which trees can be felled. Despite many of the cultural ties to the forest, it has been at the very least somewhat altered to create an artificial entrance to the forest in addition to the barrier requiring a special key. The Oina, also being a shape-shifting people, use both their skills as humans and wolves to hunt for the meats they dry in their homes and gather the plant matter used in medicine, general construction, and dyeing of fabrics. The Poncles, however, are believed to struggle with the manipulation of their natural habitat, and instead require others to do so for them or must use smaller resources unknown the the significantly larger humans of the world. Celestial Plain Takamagahara Moon Turret Retrieved from "https://okami.fandom.com/wiki/Nippon?oldid=46192"	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1620
__label__wiki	0.78924	0.78924	The Ones: 5 Best New Rap Songs From Sheck Wes, GMGB Daidough, Styles P, Key!, and Lil Tracy Sheck Wes. Photo by Lisa Lake/Getty Images for Roc Nation. by Alphonse Pierre With artists releasing songs at a fast and furious pace it’s difficult for the average hip-hop head to keep track of it all—no matter how tapped in they are. That’s why we created The Ones, a daily roundup of the best new rap tracks you need to hear curated by the Levels team. We sort through all the new songs—across all the platforms and subgenres—so you don’t have to. Thank us later. GMGB Daidough - “Wop 4 Wop” GMGB Daidough is about to go from a six-month jail bid directly to the top of an emerging New Jersey rap scene with “Wop 4 Wop.” This is how all “First Day Out”-style tracks should be: come back with a bang and make sure nobody forgets you again. On “Wop 4 Wop” the high-energy spitter is ready to elevate his career: he speaks on being free (“2018 I was gone for six months but I’m back in the motherfuckin’ trenches though”), his second chances (“They let me get one more chance so no, no, I cannot fuck this chance up”), and he’s still as reckless as ever (“Fuck the opps I got beef with the DEA”). Sheck Wes - “Jiggy on the Shits” Sheck Wes brings the sound of Harlem’s underground to the mainstream when he raps over the haunting melodies of East Harlem producer Lunchbox. If you think Sheck Wes’ raps have no substance you are wrong, as on “Jiggy on the Shits” Sheck speaks on the days when his parents sent him away to a Senegalese religious school: “17 years old/I’m in this country alone/I got no ID or passport/I’m the only livin’ John Doe.” It’s the reality Sheck had to face and his ability to turn that dark, lonely time in his life into another New York mosh pit starter is an accomplishment in itself. Styles P and Dave East - “Do You Know What Time It Is” Dave East and Styles P hooked up for a collab album titled Beloved and on “Do You Know What Time It Is” gave us the old-head New Yorker bars we came for: “It’s 12 a.m./I’m up late watching ‘Power.’” As they watch hip-hop’s favorite 50 Cent-helmed soap opera at what would normally be a typical time of night for most rappers. It’s ridiculous and detailed but what more could anyone want from Styles P and Dave East? Key! and Kenny Beats - “Time of My Life” [ft. DRAM] Earlier in the year Atlanta’s Key! and producer Kenny Beats established themselves as one of hip-hop’s strongest rapper/producer duos and they keep that hot streak going on “Time of My Life.” The track is brighter than most of the tracks on their collab album 777 as DRAM lightens the mood. It’ll be fascinating to see how the two expand their sound as they continue to garner praise as a duo. Lil Tracy - “Alex McQueen” Lil Tracy celebrates turning 23 (“I’m 23 now/Got racks in my account”) by grabbing a beat from the prolific Richie Souf on “Alex McQueen.” Tracy on the track is at his most accessible, giving fans the melodic vocals and bouncy production that they want. It’s refreshing to see Tracy not run away from sounds that could set him on the path towards blowing up as he often does. Check out Friday’s Ones, and listen to new rap from Sheck Wes, GMGB Daidough, Styles P, and more on our Spotify playlist, Apple Music playlist, and SoundCloud playlist. Styles P Key! Lil Tracy	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1623
__label__wiki	0.989984	0.989984	New York ends religious exemption to vaccine mandates Posted 4:45 PM, June 13, 2019, by Associated Press, Updated at 10:15PM, June 13, 2019 ALBANY — New York eliminated a religious exemption to vaccine requirements for schoolchildren Thursday, following a trend of states trying to clamp down on opt-outs in the face of its worst measles outbreak in decades . The Democrat-led Senate and Assembly voted Thursday to repeal the exemption, which allows parents of children to cite their religious beliefs to opt a child out of the vaccines required for school enrollment. Soon after, Gov. Andrew Cuomo, a Democrat, signed the measure. Similar exemptions are allowed in 46 states, though lawmakers in several of them are also considering the elimination of the waiver. "We are facing an unprecedented public health crisis," said Sen. Brad Hoylman, D-Manhattan and the sponsor of the legislation in the Senate. "The atrocious peddlers of junk science and fraudulent medicine who we know as anti-vaxxers have spent years sowing unwarranted doubt and fear, but it is time for legislators to confront them head on." Hundreds of parents of unvaccinated children gathered at New York's Capitol before the vote to protest what several called an assault on religious freedom. "People came to this country to get away from exactly this kind of stuff," said Stan Yung, a Long Island attorney who has three children. Yung, who is Russian Orthodox, said he has religious views and health concerns that will prevent him from vaccinating his three young children. His family, he said, may consider leaving the state if the bill is signed into law. Supporters of the bill say religious beliefs about vaccines shouldn't eclipse scientific evidence that they work, noting the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in 1905 that states have the right to enforce compulsory vaccination laws. During the Assembly's floor debate, supporters brought up scourges of the past that were defeated in the U.S. through vaccines. "I'm old enough to have been around when polio was a real threat," said Assemblywoman Deborah Glick, D-Manhattan. "I believe in science.... Your personal opinions, which may be based on junk science, do not trump the greater good." Supporters also suggest some parents may be claiming the religious exemption for their children even though their opposition is actually based on misguided claims about scientifically discredited dangers of vaccines. The bill would not change an existing state exemption given to children who cannot have vaccines for medical reasons, such as a weakened immune system. Once signed, the law will take effect immediately but will give unvaccinated students up to 30 days after they enter a school to show they've had the first dose of each required immunization. Cuomo supports eliminating the exemption, saying public health is at risk. "I understand freedom of religion," he told reporters Wednesday. "I have heard the anti-vaxxers' theory, but I believe both are overwhelmed by the public health risk." Federal health officials said last week that this year's U.S. measles epidemic has surpassed 1,000 illnesses, the highest in 27 years. The majority of cases are from outbreaks in New York in Orthodox Jewish communities. The nation last saw this many cases in 1992, when more than 2,200 were reported. Legislation is pending in several state capitols to eliminate their version of the religious exemption. California removed personal belief vaccine exemptions for children in both public and private schools in 2015, after a measles outbreak at Disneyland sickened 147 people and spread across the U.S. and into Canada. Maine ended its religious exemption earlier this year. Mississippi and West Virginia also do not allow religious exemptions. Once common in the U.S., measles became rare after vaccination campaigns that started in the 1960s. A decade ago, there were fewer than 100 cases a year. Filed in: Local Stories, Nation/World, News Judge finds Abel Cedeno guilty on all counts in Bronx classroom stabbing death Boy, 3, dies after falling into upstate New York Tim Hortons restaurant grease trap Man shot in the head, killed in double shooting at East Harlem housing project Woman lived with her mother’s decaying corpse for the past three years Queens woman’s building hasn’t has gas service in a month Girl, 6, struck and killed by father’s golf ball Local Stories Nation/World News NY ends religious exemption to vaccine mandates; city closes 2 schools in Williamsburg for violating orders NY judge won’t block ban on religious vaccine exemption Summer camps are requiring children get vaccinated amid measles fears News Northern Suburbs NY lawmakers call for eliminating religious exemptions for vaccinations Rockland County issues third state of emergency as measles crisis grows Rockland County executive, health commissioner to call for end to religious vaccination exemptions Local Stories Midday with Muller Midday with Muller: Call to end vaccine loophole Brooklyn News Community reacts to NY banning religious exemptions for vaccines Local Stories News NY senator calls to end religious exemptions for measles vaccines NY officials issue fines, close schools in measles fight Brooklyn News Northern Suburbs US measles cases top 700, with many illnesses among kids Nancy Pelosi says House will pass Senate version of border funding bill Nasty flu was even too tough for vaccine: CDC	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1624
__label__wiki	0.910191	0.910191	Seals & Emblems Military Emblems & Seals Custom Seal & Emblem Plaques State Seals Government Seals University & College Emblems Custom Military Seals & Emblems Anchor Plaques Badge Plaques BSA Plaques Insignia Plaques Deployment Plaques Submarine Plaques Office Plaques Set Door Nameplates & Signs Military Shadow Boxes Custom Designed Shadow Boxes Air Force Shadow Boxes Army Shadow Boxes Navy Shadow Boxes Marine Corps Shadow Boxes Coast Guard (USCG) Shadow Boxes Police & Fire Dept. Shadow Boxes Wooden Wings Tail Flashes Award Display Cases President Range US Air Forces In Europe Emblem Home/Air Force Plaques & Seals, Air Force Desk Nameplates, US Air Force, Custom Military Seals & Emblems/US Air Forces In Europe Emblem Select an option... 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United States Air Forces In Europe U.S. Air Forces in Europe, with headquarters at Ramstein Air Base, Germany, is a major command of the U.S. Air Force. It is also the air component of the U.S. European Command, a Department of Defense unified command. As the air component for U.S. EUCOM, USAFE directs air operations in a theater spanning three continents, covering more than 20 million square miles, containing 91 countries, and possessing one-fourth of the world’s population and about one-third of the world’s Gross Domestic Product. During the Cold War, USAFE was a fight-in-place force postured for a large-scale conflict. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, it has transitioned to an Air Expeditionary Force with a mobile and deployable mix of people and resources that can simultaneously operate in multiple locations. Its role in Europe and Africa has included warfighting as well as humanitarian and peacekeeping operations, and other non-traditional contingencies throughout its area of responsibility. In peacetime, USAFE trains and equips U.S. Air Force units pledged to NATO. In fulfilling its NATO responsibilities, USAFE maintains combat-ready wings based from Great Britain to Turkey. USAFE plans, conducts, controls, coordinates and supports air and space operations in Europe, parts of Asia and Africa to achieve U.S. national and NATO objectives based on taskings by the U.S. EUCOM commander. In support of national and NATO requirements, USAFE assets stand ready to perform close air support, air interdiction, air defense, in-flight refueling, long-range transport and support of maritime operations. USAFE remains a formidable force despite a rapid drawdown that saw its main operating bases cut by 67 percent following the end of the Cold War. As witnessed in the command’s support of contingency and humanitarian operations throughout Europe and parts of Africa, USAFE remains a highly responsive and capable combat force. Personnel and Resources More than 41,000 active-duty, Reserve and civilian employees are assigned to USAFE. Equipment assets include about 220 fighter, attack, tanker and transport aircraft, and a full complement of conventional weapons. USAFE consists of five main operating bases along with 80 geographically separated locations. The main operating bases are: RAF Lakenheath and Mildenhall in England; Ramstein and Spangdahlem Air Bases in Germany and Aviano AB in Italy. These bases report to Air Command Europe, ACEUR-USAFE’s Management Headquarters, located at Ramstein AB during day-to-day operations. During contingency operations 16th Air Force, also located at Ramstein, is USAFE’s Warfighting Headquarters, and commands attached forces. USAFE originated as the 8th Air Force in 1942 and flew heavy bombardment missions over the European continent during World War II. In August 1945, the command was given its current name, U.S. Air Forces in Europe. At that time, USAFE had 17,000 airplanes and 450,000 people. During the Berlin Airlift in 1948 to 1949, USAFE airlifted more than 1.6 million tons of food, fuel and medical supplies to the blockaded city. With the formation of NATO in 1949, the United States was committed to help defend Western Europe against aggression from the Soviet Union, a mission that continued until the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. In March 1973, Headquarters USAFE transferred from Lindsey Air Station, Wiesbaden, West Germany, to Ramstein Air Base. In the mid-1980s, USAFE maintained and operated 25 main bases and more than 400 geographically separated units in 190 different locations. These bases supported about 850 aircraft. The community stood at more than 140,000: 60,000 active-duty airmen, 10,000 civilian workers, and almost 70,000 family members. Beginning in late 1990, USAFE mobilized and moved more than 180 aircraft and 5,400 people to the Persian Gulf area in support of operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm. In addition, 100 aircraft and 2,600 personnel deployed to Turkey for Operation Proven Force, which denied the Iraqis a safe haven for their military forces in northern Iraq. USAFE also activated aeromedical staging facilities and contingency hospitals. More than 9,000 patients, mostly suffering from noncombat-related illnesses and injuries, were evacuated to Europe and more than 3,000 were treated at USAFE medical facilities. After Desert Storm, USAFE provided emergency relief to Kurdish refugees fleeing Iraqi forces and enforced a no-fly zone over Northern Iraq. This mission, known first as Operation Provide Comfort and later Operation Northern Watch, continued until March 2004. Since 1990, USAFE has handled more than 70 contingencies?more than twice as many in the 1970s and 1980s combined. For example, the command took part in Operation Provide Hope I and II, which airlifted food and medical supplies to the people of the former Soviet Union, and Provide Promise, the airlifting of supplies into war-torn Yugoslavia from July 1992 until December 1995. USAFE also provided air protection over the skies of Bosnia-Herzegovina in Operation Deny Flight. Along with allies from NATO countries, USAFE aircrews applied airpower in Operation Deliberate Force, the bombing campaign that paved the way for the Dayton Peace Agreement. USAFE then helped deploy Peace Implementation Forces and equipment to Bosnia for Operation Joint Endeavor and sustained them by airlift. USAFE forces again mobilized in March 1999 when NATO intervened in Kosovo to stop Serb repression of the province’s ethnic Albanian majority. Efforts to find a diplomatic solution collapsed, resulting in Operation Allied Force ? the NATO-led air war over Kosovo. The 78-day operation ended June 20, culminating in the withdrawal of Serb forces from Kosovo and the eventual return of refugees to their homeland. USAFE’s 3rd Air Force led Joint Task Force Shining Hope, established to assist the hundreds of thousands of refugees expelled from Kosovo by Serb soldiers and paramilitaries. USAFE continues to contribute to NATO-led forces promoting peace and stability in Kosovo. In February 2000, USAFE forces again responded to a humanitarian crisis, this time in southern Africa. Joint Task Force Atlas Response was established to airlift aid to victims of massive floods in Mozambique and other nearby South African countries. Working with international relief agencies, U.S. forces assisted with a variety of humanitarian-related activities, including the airlift of food and medical supplies, aerial surveillance and rescue operations in the region. USAFE has been in the front lines of the Global War on Terrorism since Sept. 11, 2001. During Operation Enduring Freedom, it supported an air bridge from Europe to Asia that delivered 3,300 tons of humanitarian daily rations to northern Afghanistan, opened a base in Kyrgystan for coalition forces, and established a medical evacuation network that moved nearly 4,000 patients. USAFE deployed 24 fighter aircraft, eight KC-135 tankers and nearly 2,400 people in Operation Iraqi Freedom. It opened an important airfield in northern Iraq and provided critical en route support to deploying forces, not to mention vital logistical and medical support to forward-deployed forces. Today, USAFE airmen are engaged in a wide range of active U.S. military efforts in Europe and Africa, including realistic U.S. and NATO exercises and the Global War on Terrorism. The command also plays a major role in furthering democracy in the former Eastern Bloc, as USAFE people take part in Partnership for Peace exercises and Military-to-Military contact programs. Air Force Link Be the first to review “US Air Forces In Europe Emblem” Cancel reply US Air Force E9 Retirement/Shadow Box Natural Dark US Air Force E7 Retirement/Shadow Box Colored Air Force (USAF) Seal PRODUCTS BY UNITS Marines Plaques & Seals Marine Shadow Boxes Marines Desk Nameplates Army Plaques & Seals Army Desk NamePlates Army Insignia & Wings Navy Plaques & Seals Navy Desk Nameplates Navy Insignia & Wings USCG Plaques & Seals USCG Shadow Boxes USCG Desk Nameplates Air Force Plaques & Seals Air Force Desk Nameplates Air Force Insignia & Wings US National Guard National Guard Plaques & Seals National Guard Desk Nameplates President Seal Police Seals & Plaques Police Shadow Boxes Police Desk Nameplates FBI Seals & Plaques FBI Desk Nameplates Custom Plaques Recognition Award Display Cases Copyright © 2018 Plaques and Patches \| All Rights Reserved. Website Designed by Ashwoth East Website Design & Marketing	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1628
__label__cc	0.729005	0.270995	Keyshia Cole Pays Over $100K In Assault Case Singer Keshia Cole has to cough up some cash after she allegedly assaulted a woman at a condo in Los Angeles three years ago. BET reports that Sabrina Mercadel took Cole to court in July and asked for $4 million for attacking her. The incident took place at Birdman’s house who Cole was dating at the time. The attack is believed to have come from Cole seeing another woman in the rappers house which angered her. Cole allegedly pulled Mercadel’s hair, scratched her face and left bruises on her body. Cole was later arrested for battery and reckless driving warrant that she had at the time. Mercadel says she lost the use of a finger and initially asked for $4 million. However, $100, 635 was what Mercadel received after the court case. Mike Tyson goes into marijuana business Trump starts the new year with angry tweets	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1631
__label__wiki	0.554331	0.554331	Category: Reviews (Books & DVD) Who’s Who in Cultural Intelligence: Scott Atran 5 Star, Alpha A-D, Cultural Intelligence, Culture, Research, Worth A Look Research and teaching interests are centered in the following areas: Cognitive and linguistic anthropology, ethnobiology, environmental decision making, categorization and reasoning, evolutionary psychology, anthropology of science (history and philosophy of natural history and natural philosophy); Middle East ethnography and political economy; natural history of Lowland Maya, cognitive and commitment theories of religion, terrorism and foreign affairs. Review: THE NINE PILLARS OF HISTORY–ALSO A GUIDE FOR PEACE 5 Star, Culture, Research, Economics, History, Peace, Poverty, & Middle Class Gunnar Sevelius Need the link for a new book. Review in a few days. Certain to be very favorable, this is precisely the kind of synthesis we need more of. Contrasts with the nine pillars of peace used within the UN which are more functional, will compare and contrast shortly. Review: Red Sky in the Morning–The secret history of two men who got away – and one who didn’t. (Paperback) 5 Star, Atrocities & Genocide, Crime (Government), Insurgency & Revolution, Intelligence (Government/Secret), Misinformation & Propaganda True Story, Part of the “Made in USA” Atrocities r’ US Sterling and Peggy Seagrave I first met the authors after reviewing Gold Warriors: America’s Secret Recovery of Yamashita’s Gold and then traveling to Europe to interview them–they are in self-imposed exile–for a DVD that was shown at one of my earlier international conferences. [My rendition of this review at Phi Beta Iota, the Public Intelligence Blog, has live links Amazon does not allow here.] They are among the most serious and talented investigative journalists I know, easily ranking with John Pilger Freedom Next Time: Resisting the Empire, Robert KaplanThe Coming Anarchy: Shattering the Dreams of the Post Cold War; and my special favorite, Robert Young Pelton Robert Young Pelton’s The World’s Most Dangerous Places: 5th Edition (Robert Young Pelton the World’s Most Dangerous Places). This is a great read. I attended boarding school and later served as a Marine Corps infantry officer passing in and out of the Philippines; I have been inside Japanese tunnels and have a great regard for the Filipino people. Because the US has been so asidious in writing (and fabricating) the history of the Cold War, few know that the Huks were originally a loyal resistance to the Japanese occupiers–the US, despite its tolerance for out of control atrocity mongers like Landsdale, has managed to “occupy” with a softer touch, but one no less detrimental. As a former spy–a recovering spy–for the Central Intelligence Agency I would certify that 90% of the CIA is good people trapped in a bad system with no blood on their hands. Our problem is the 10% that does renditions, tortures, helps train and arm those who would do genocide and atrocities (including the Israelis, who now teach us rather than learn from us). RED SKY has no endnotes, but is based on solid evidence. [I provide others supporting references at Phi Beta Iota the Public Intelligence Blog, as live links within this review there.] I consider Gold Warriors (with its CD containing 60,000 pages of maps and supporting documentation) to be the better book, but for some readers, this book will be much more fun and memorable. Here are the highlights from this most truthful account + Landsdale was never in combat–he spent WWII in San Francisco writing propaganda for the OSS. + When Truman closed down the OSS (he later regretted every starting the CIA) OSS people were scattered around to hide them, Lansdale was sent to Manile to work a desk for Army G-2. + Landsdale’s bright shining moment came when he recognized the value of a captured driver (Major Kojima Kashi) to General Yamashita, and bribed him to reveal treasure locations. That treasure became the basis for the USA’s covert post-war Black Eagle and Golden Lily slush funds used to restore Nazis in Germany and fascists in Italy and Japan, and to do those things Congress would never agree to pay for. + Santa Romana, a Vatican agent and member of Opus Dei, was Landsdale’s co-conspirator (fast forward to the Opus Dei penetration of the US Government today, every bit as good as the Mossad’s sayonim and the Mormon network). + Landsdale–the model for the book The Ugly American and also featured in Edward Lansdale’s Cold War (Culture, Politics, and the Cold War)–became a “big shot” in OSS-CIA circles because of this success at finding and secretly harvesting the Japanese thefts from China and all across Asia that were hidden in the Philippines when US dominance of the seas prevented onward passage to Japan. + Landsale–whom all the books I’ve seen describe as an opportunist and con artist at heart–saw that anti-communism was the wave of the future in Washington circles (even then CIA was busy importing 100 Nazis a year), and he came up with the idea of demonizing the Huk’s, who were freedom fighters, as part of the “Communist Menace.” + The book also covers the Chinese diaspora that the US Government has never understood and never taken seriously. The Chinese “High Cabal” is easily as powerful as the European “High Cabal,” they just work more discreetly and make better use of local fronts. + Landsdale needed to invent evidence of Russian support for the Huks, so he focused on Russian exiles living in Manila or enroute through the Philippines to other locations including the US. + The heart of the story is how Landsale personally destroyed one innocent person and their family, ultimately making the person disappear after five years of surveillance, prison, and torture were brought to an end by a crusading attorney. Some sources have suggested that Landsdale ordered the murder of his trumped up Russian spy, who is believed to have been thrown from a helicopter into the South China Sea. + The book ends with Landsdale being rewarded by being sent to Viet-Nam to support Diem (a Catholic mandarin hated by the Buddhists, with a sister that makes Idi Amin look like a wimp) and I have seen other reports that suggest that Landsdale led an effort to plant bombs in the 1950’s and early 1960’s to achieve the US end of creating a local civil war that would demand US intervention. There is also a happy ending, despite all the ills that befall the patsy, the source of much of the information in this book escapes and lived happily every after. I still believe in America the Beautiful and the righteousness of The Average American: The Extraordinary Search for the Nation’s Most Ordinary Citizen but I am disgusted and alienated by all that has been done “in our name” over the years, ultimately impoverishing the many to benefit the few. I earnestly believe that the public is a populist power that cannot be suppressed, and that information and communications technologies have changed the balance of power to favor the possibility of creating a prosperous world at peace. This book is one of the many nails in the coffin of Cold War “irrational exhuberance” that has clearly been repeated in the failure to keep capitalism moral and the failure to keep government honest at home and abroad. We can do better. Rather than provide links here, see the 98 categories of Reviews at Phi Beta Iota the Public Intelligence Blog. The authors provided us with the following additional supporting reference: Reference: James Gibney Review of Landsdale Book Review: Edward Lansdale’s Cold War (Culture, Politics, and the Cold War) (Paperback) Reference: US Responsibility for Atrocities in Indonesia Reference: Instruments of Statecraft 5 Star, Atrocities & Genocide, Crime (Government), Intelligence (Government/Secret), Military & Pentagon Power, Misinformation & Propaganda, Power (Pathologies & Utilization), Secrecy & Politics of Secrecy Highly Recommended by James Gibney Jonathan Nashel James Gibney, one of my most respected sources for common- sense and integrity, posted a review of this book on 15 January 2006 in the New York Times. At Phi Beta Iota, the Public Intelligence Blog, I have posted that three-page review along with some other original references on “Colonel” Landsdale, a journalism drop-out from UCLA and former advertising person, that document the role he played in making genocide and atrocities part of the “Made in USA” Cold War tool-kit. “The truth at any cost reduces all other costs.” Ten other recommended books: War is a Racket: The Antiwar Classic by America’s Most Decorated Soldier Legacy of Ashes: The History of the CIA The Sorrows of Empire: Militarism, Secrecy, and the End of the Republic (The American Empire Project) The Fifty-Year Wound: How America’s Cold War Victory Has Shaped Our World Overthrow: America’s Century of Regime Change from Hawaii to Iraq Killing Hope: U.S. Military and C.I.A. Interventions Since World War II-Updated Through 2003 Why the Rest Hates the West: Understanding the Roots of Global Rage The Eagle’s Shadow: Why America Fascinates and Infuriates the World Confessions of an Economic Hit Man The Global Class War: How America’s Bipartisan Elite Lost Our Future – and What It Will Take to Win It Back At Phi Beta Iota the Public Intelligence Blog it is possible to access all of my reviews via any of 98 categories 9e.g. Intelligence, Secret; or Pathology of Power; or Empire, etcetera, something Amazon has refused to make possible since I began suggesting it years ago. Review (Guest): Integrity–Good People, Bad Choices, and Life Lessons from the White House 5 Star, Biography & Memoirs, Consciousness & Social IQ, Corruption, Crime (Government), Executive (Partisan Failure, Reform), Justice (Failure, Reform), Politics, Power (Pathologies & Utilization) REVIEW BY Russell J. Geoffrey (East Greenwich, RI) 14 of 14 people found the following review helpful: 5.0 out of 5 stars INTEGRITY: easy to lose, hard to restore He was a Navy officer serving on the USS Yorktown by the age of 22, in law school at 26, a staff assistant to the counsel to the president at 29, and Undersecretary of Transportation at 33. At 34, he was in jail. How could this happen to a man raised in a highly moral family, with an excellent education, with Christian Middle American values and a strong sense of patriotism? Yet here was Egil “Bud” Krogh at 33, starting a prison sentence for violating the civil rights of Dr. Lewis Fielding, a California psychiatrist. Bud says the principal cause was the collapse of integrity of those members of the White House’s Special Investigative Unit (SIU) who conspired, ordered and carried the break-in of the doctor who had been consulted by Dr. Daniel Ellsburg, the “leaker” of the Pentagon Papers” to the New York Times in early 1971. Continue reading “Review (Guest): Integrity–Good People, Bad Choices, and Life Lessons from the White House” Review: The Occupation of Iraq: Winning the War, Losing the Peace 5 Star, Atrocities & Genocide, Complexity & Catastrophe, Congress (Failure, Reform), Corruption, Crime (Government), Crime (Organized, Transnational), Culture, Research, Diplomacy, Economics, Empire, Sorrows, Hubris, Blowback, Executive (Partisan Failure, Reform), Force Structure (Military), History, Insurgency & Revolution, Intelligence (Government/Secret), Intelligence (Public), Iraq, Justice (Failure, Reform), Peace, Poverty, & Middle Class, Politics, Power (Pathologies & Utilization), Priorities, Public Administration, Religion & Politics of Religion, Security (Including Immigration), Stabilization & Reconstruction, Terrorism & Jihad, Threats (Emerging & Perennial), True Cost & Toxicity, Truth & Reconciliation, Voices Lost (Indigenous, Gender, Poor, Marginalized), War & Face of Battle, Water, Energy, Oil, Scarcity Phenomenal–Ref A Relevant to Everywhere Else Ali A. Allawi The author has achieved extraordinary synthesis and summation, with gifted straight-forward language.This book is not only a capstone reference, but demonstrates why we need to LISTEN–none of us could learn–in a lifetime–all that this author has in his head. That’s why multinational engagement is a non-negotiable first step toward the future. Key notes and quotes: + Bush Senior should not have left Saddam Hussein off the hook in Gulf I, should have finished off the regime while we had enough troops on the ground to make the peace. + US blew Gulf II from the moment of victory onward. “Incoherent” is a word the author uses frequently in describing virtually every aspect of US operations in Iraq. The one element that gets high marks from him is the U.S. Agency for International Development (AID) but the fact that the bulk of the “reconstruction” money was mis-managed by the Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) makes AID’s excellent a footnote in this sorry tale. + Book covers 2003-2006; the author was Minister of Defense and then Minister of Finance during the reconstruction period. + “Too few Americans actually cared.” Fred Smith (parent agency not clear) gets high marks from the author for caring and competence as the CPA-appointed advisor to the Ministry of Defense in the 2004 timeframe. Continue reading “Review: The Occupation of Iraq: Winning the War, Losing the Peace” Review: A Question of Command: Counterinsurgency from the Civil War to Iraq (Yale Library of Military History) (Hardcover) 4 Star, Insurgency & Revolution, Leadership, Stabilization & Reconstruction Brilliant but Narrow, Simplifies A Bridge Too Far Mark Moyar EDIT of 21 Feb 2010: A colleague in COINSOC has pointed out that I missed one key aspect of this book and I hasten to add it: “Moyar’s point that we are applying peacetime personnel policies by putting people in place based on factors other than their leadership ability and continuing to allow poor leaders even after their capabilities are apparent is a good one though. It’s kind of like we are the Titanic and the inertia is too much.” It is an important point. It takes two years to weed out the unfit leaders in a real war, but first you have to admit you are in a real war, and the USA has still not gotten to that point so we are damned on both sides: not taking the fight seriously, and leaving the home front wide open to attack (see my review of Charles Faddis’s two books, one on CIA and one on DHS). I first encountered the author when I read and reviewed Triumph Forsaken: The Vietnam War, 1954-1965, but in ordering this book, took no notice of who the author was, I rarely do, and thus was surprised to discover this is the second work by the author, now at the Marine Corps University where I served as Adjunct Faculty once upon a time. This book is brilliant and unique in its chosen focus, but I have to leave it at four stars because it simplifies in a manner that is almost neo-conservative in its sharpness. The single most important insight is that the single most important intelligence quesiton as we get into any insurgency or counter-insurgency is this: who are the elites on either side of the confrontation, how good are they, do they have the special character (that this book helps define), and what does this mean to us? The problem I have with this book is that it dismisses legitimacy and morality, does not recognize the futility of being on the wrong side of the conflict (as we were in Viet-Nam and have been on hundreds of occasions) or on having ideological traitors or blatantly corrupt self-serving partisan hacks in the White House making decisions that are grounds for impeachment if our flag officers had more character and could remember they swore an oath to uphold the Constitution against all enemies domestic and foreign, not an oath to be blindly loyal to the craven and the corrupt. Continue reading “Review: A Question of Command: Counterinsurgency from the Civil War to Iraq (Yale Library of Military History) (Hardcover)” Review: Guiding Principles for Stabilization and Reconstruction (Paperback) 6 Star Special, Military, Stabilization, Stabilization & Reconstruction, UN/NGO Utterly Brilliant Synthesis, Vital First Step–US Violates Every Single Principle United States Institute of Peace This book is a six-star special and will be so rated at Phi Beta Iota, the Public Intelligence Blog, where I cluster like non-fictions books in 98 categories, one of which is Stabilization & Reconstruction. At its most fundamental this is without question the most extraordinary sensible and useful synthesis of all possible documents devoted to the subject, offering up a truly remarkable–just an amazing–framework for study and for planning. The publisher failed to make full use of the Amazon tools for showing the Table of Contents at a minimum, and this error should be corrected immediately. Inside the Book is also recommended. I would normally reduce the book to four stars for its failure include all those outside the “traditional” national security community; for its lack of an index, and for its ignorance of most relevant books outside the narrow circle of stabilization & reconstruction groupies. However, this is such an incredibly gifted, intelligent, and meticulous presentation of vitally important information that I leave it at six star special, beyond five stars. Still, to not be able to see in an index every page for key words like “water” or “intelligence” is infuriating. First, an overview of the contents, vastly more simple than the complex array of information presented in sub-sets of conditions, guidance, approach, and then elements. + Introduction + Strategic Framework for Stabilization and Reconstruction + Cross-Cutting Principles + High-Level Trade-Offs, Gaps, and Challenges + Fundamentals of a Comprehensive Approach + End States —Safe and Secure Environment —Stable Governance —Social Well-Being + Appendices A. Resources List B. Participants in Review Process C. Summary of Strategic Frameworks Surveyed D. Snapshot of COmpoments from Overarching Resources E. Acronyms and Glossary of Selected Key Terms (incomplete, another annoyance that needs to be corrected) Continue reading “Review: Guiding Principles for Stabilization and Reconstruction (Paperback)” Review: The Compassionate Instinct–The Science of Human Goodness 5 Star, Civil Society, Communications, Complexity & Resilience, Consciousness & Social IQ, Democracy, Education (General), Values, Ethics, Sustainable Evolution Extraordinary Collection, Unique, Timely, No Notes Dacher Keltner, Jason March, Jeremy Adam Smith This is a truly extraordinary collection of essays from the magazine Greater Good, a magazine I had no idea existed. The editors have done a tremendous job in selecting 35 essays (click on the cover above to see the Table of Contents and over all I am hugely impressed. Multiple literatures are in convergences, from the consciousness side to the global brain side to the waging peace side. I arrived at this book from the “beyond genes to culture” side, and list ten other recommended books spanning those literatures at the end of this review. + 33 authors, 35 essays, drawn from the 2004-2009 timeframe as published in Greater Good, a magazine + Herb Alpert Foundation helped make this book possible + Three parts to the book: scientific roots; cultivating local goodness; cultivating goodness in society and politics + Science stories include evolutionary studies on peacemaking; neuroscientific experiments; and research into hormones like oxytocin that promote trust and generosity, meaning that kindness really is its own reward and that it is contagious Continue reading “Review: The Compassionate Instinct–The Science of Human Goodness” Review: Diet for a Small Planet 5 Star, Nature, Diet, Memetics, Design Extraordinary Value, Genius in a Small Package Frances Lappe Moore March 18, 2007 is when I bought this book here at Amazon, and I would have reviewed it within the week. Amazon appears to have destroyed my original review, one more in a long line of errors by Amazon that finally forced me to mirror all of my reviews at Phi Beta Iota the Public Intelligence Blog. Amazon has BLOWN IT in terms of really being useful to the Earth, while I was invited to speak to their Developer’s Conference 2007, and had a standing room only audience, Jeff Bezos is a geek, not a thinker, and could never wrap his mind around a World Brain as digital contents remixable at the paragraph level. This particular book was my introduction to Francis Lappe Moore, and along with Barbara Marx Hubbard and Barbara Ehrenreich, whose books I link to below, I consider her one of the most sensible, intelligent, good-hearted citizen leaders in America, and certainly equal to many non-American emergent leaders I do not know. The growth of livestock on land (and also in the sea) is poisoning the earth and accelerating the migration of animal diseases to humans. There is now evidence that Alzheimer’s Disease is in fact Mad Cow disease badly diagnosed all these years. I strongly recommend this book for a simple grounding in basic Earth common-sense, and as a gift to others. This is a timeless work. Other books to consider: Getting a Grip: Clarity, Creativity, and Courage in a World Gone Mad Low Carbon Diet: A 30 Day Program to Lose 5000 Pounds–Be Part of the Global Warming Solution! The Omnivore’s Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals Nickel and Dimed: On (Not) Getting By in America Review DVD: Angels & Demons Religion & Politics of Religion, Reviews (DVD Only) Surprised Me, Not a Typical Sequel Tom Hanks, Ron Howard Although I tend to shy away from sequels, I broke down and bought this at Giant to pass time away while completing a tediuous task. It was GREAT. There is zero babe factor in this movie, which was a disappointment, it could have been scripted much more engagingly, but three things really blew me away throughout: 1) The staging or the access to ostensible Vatican inside and underground areas–presumably not actually within the Vatican, this was all done superbly 2) The twists and turns and the ending were great. I actually had tears of surprise at the end and will not spoil it. 3) Finally, Tom Hanks and the historical allusions still fascinate me. It would be great if history could be taught so ably, but more deeply and more thoroughly. Absolutely recommended. To browse all 86 of the DVDs that I recommend, visit Phi Beta Iota the Public Intelligence Blog, each links back to their respective Amazon page but only there can you see JUST my DVD reviews. [Use Reviews (DVD Only) (86)]	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1634
__label__wiki	0.726602	0.726602	1 Dead, Dozens Hurt After Tour Bus, Pickup Truck Collide NORTHUMBERLAND COUNTY, Pa. (CBS/AP) — A deadly crash involving a tour bus and pickup truck in Northumberland County has left one person dead. 1 Dead, 1 Hurt In Crash After Women Stopped To Check On Animal In Royersford The accident happened Friday afternoon on Route 147 near Montandon. State police say a black pickup truck crossed the double yellow lines, hit a red pickup truck, then slammed into a tour bus. The driver of the black pickup truck died, according to officials. The bus was carrying 40 people, a majority of whom were from New Zealand and Australia. More than 30 of them were treated for minor injuries. 33 individuals from today's bus incident were transported to the Hospital. Those needing treatment were mostly minor injuries. The majority of the patients will be or have been discharged. — Evangelical Hospital (@EvanComHospital) October 19, 2018 2 Critical After Man Shoots Attempted Robber Outside Bar In Feltonville: Police Evangelical Community Hospital in Lewisburg tweeted that it received 33 people from the crash. Hospital officials say the patients mostly had minor injuries. An additional six passengers were taken to a Danville hospital. A passenger says the tour started in Niagara Falls and was headed south to Lancaster County. (© Copyright 2018 CBS Broadcasting Inc. All Rights Reserved. The Associated Press contributed to this report.)	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1635
__label__cc	0.73976	0.26024	…and Here's Tom With the Weather Random mutterings and ramblings ATP Curated by Deerhunter: Day 2 ~ The Seven Seas of Rye → ATP Curated by Deerhunter: Day 1 ~ A Voyage into the unknown Posted by philipgreenland [Writing soundtrack: James Brown] There is something deeply depressing when you finally find a festival which lives up to your expectations, only to find out that it is coming to an end. My first All Tomorrow’s Parties experience was last years Jeff Mangum curated love fest at Minehead; a weekend which still lingers long in the memory as my favourite ever festival experience. So it was a toss up between TV on The Radio and Deerhunter; eventually plumping for Deerhunter despite being unfamiliar with the band, or indeed much of the line-up. So it was a real journey into the unknown as we put peddle to the metal and headed southbound to Camber Sands. After a relatively painless five hour drive we arrived at Pontins Camber Sands, and made our way to the friendly if somewhat shambolic check in. We were giving the chalet share option a whirl, so were a little concerned we may end up with cannibal serial killers, or even worse skinny jeaned hipsters. As it turned out they had given our chalet to somebody else. Not to worry though, new digs were quickly sorted and we found ourselves with a spacious 4 berth chalet and no annoying chalet mates: result! Cell Block H – Escape Committee convened In typical fashion bags were quickly dumped and we headed straight to the pub, where the longstanding tradition of over doing it a bit on the first day was adhered to. After few ciders and a wander round the penny arcade (i now want a Tuppeny Falls machine installed in my kitchen) we head upstairs to catch the first act of the day, Atlas Sound. This was my first sighting of the gangly Lazarus Churchyard-like presence of Bradford Cox… the first of many on Day 1. He was charm personified as he welcomed us all to his party and then proceeded to play a solo set of weird, ethereal, downbeat electronica. I had never heard any Atlas Sound before and, if I’m being honest, found the strange soundscapes interesting rather than truly loveable. Not to demean it any way, interesting can be a good thing; exposure to new sounds is all part of the ATP experience. Atlas Sound – Bradford Cox We left shortly before the end to head downstairs to watch The Blue Orchids, Martin Bramah’s seminal 80s post-Fall combo. Bringing a healthy dose of Manc snarkiness and patented brand of organ driven garage-indie. They hurtled through Bed Education, Disney Boys, A Year With No Head… Being a simple soul at heart this is the stuff I love, simply arranged arsey pop music and their brilliant early evening set brought a big smile to my face. Following a bit of a mooch, and trip back to the chalet to check if, the at this point still expected cannibal serial killers, had arrived: they hadn’t. We also, grabbed a bite to eat in the Pontin’s Sand Dunes ‘restaurant’…note to self: don’t do that again. I think my body is still trying to process what was in the food, which was in now way natural. Full of mashed up roadkill and salmonella we headed back to Stage 1 to catch the end of Cavern of Anti-matter. Being Tim Gane from Stereolab’s band I kind of wish I’d made more of an effort to catch them from the start, as it was sounding good, and I must make an effort to listen to some of their stuff. Although, we arrived just in time as Laetitia Sadier ambled on stage for an impromptu, if not entirely unsurprising Stereolab reunion…the crowd goes wild. 8.30 TBC says the line-up. Whatever can that be. Intrigued, what seemed like the whole site trooped into Stage 2 to see what it was all about. Grabbing a decent spot, stage right we waited eagerly to see what would unfold. Bradford & Lockett from Deerhunter wander on stage setting up guitars and amps, and sound checking. Expectation rises. Tom Tom Club/Deerhuner – funk jam Then to my absolute delight Tina Weymouth and Chris Frantz from Tom Tom Club join the party. It is quite hard do justice to the next 40 minutes of mind-blowing musical thrills with the mere words ‘improvised funk jam’, but in essence that’s what it was. Bradford starts playing the kind of hot funk guitar rhythms which would give Sly Stone food for thought, while the tightest, funkiest rhythm section ever to come out of CBGBs laid down the groove. And on it went, relentlessly for 40 minutes as the sweat started to drip from the ceiling. The sideways ‘oh these kids’ glances Tina was giving to Chris, whenever Bradford went off on some weird musical tangent were priceless. At one point the Bradford Cox seemed to be having guitar sex with the bass player from freaking Talking Heads!!! Like I say, hard to put into words, but to say you had to be there would seem churlish. I wandered out completely deaf and grinning ear to ear…starting to feel like ATP now. A quick dash back to the chalet; still no serial killers. Unless they were really good at hiding. Or had been turned into mutant seagulls. Actually, its a more likely explanation that they were eaten by the mutant seagulls; they were bloody massive. Anyway, back at Pontins central command the Breeders were taking the stage to perform The Last Splash in full, and also Pod. We arrive just in time to catch the closing bars of Cannonball…the one we obviously wanted to hear. I don’t know if it was the muddy sound, the people talking loudly near us or the fact that i was still in awe of the set downstairs, but I was distinctly underwhelmed by The Breeders. Bradford popped on stage for his by now de rigeur cameo appearance, but it just wasn’t cutting it for me so we retired for a drink back at the chalet and prepared for Deerhunter’s first set of the weekend. Now at this point I should confess that prior to purchasing ATP tickets, Deerhunter were a band who had escaped my radar. I had probably heard the odd single on 6Music, but had never really given them a go. Their early material, tonight performing Cryptograms in full, was very much a foreign country to me. Bathed in blue light, Deerunter entered the fray. They are a strange looking group, Deerhunter. The band, and trusted right hand man Lockett Pundt in particular, look like a bunch of regular guys. It’s almost as if by some strange alchemy, Bradford Cox has managed to absorb all of their charisma and personality into himself, to become the force of nature that he is. Spindly effected guitar lines cut through the air over a heavy, dubby, motorik beat. Bradford wrapped around, a rather beautiful Vox Phantom, wailing impenetrable fuzzed up vocal cacophony into the night. Occasionally songs I had listened to as part of my pre-festival ‘revision’ began to swim into view; a swoony Octet, a dazzling Cryptograms, a sweetly ferocious Flourescent Grey. The band tight and well drilled, keeping their loose cannon front man on the right track. Utterly mesmerised, I found myself understanding just what the fuss was all about. Having mainly listened to the later stuff, i couldn’t help thinking as I wandered out into the cool Camber Sands air, that the weekend’s musical delights would only get better, and better. A suggestion that we should ‘go and find the sea’ was met by replies of, ‘don’t be so bloody stupid’, ‘it’s too dark’ and ‘I really can’t be arsed’, nevertheless, I still found myself attempting to climb a sand dune at 1am in the morning. I say climbing, more falling and landing on a handily placed timber death trap. Cue more bleating from me and a knackered ankle; i still have the bruises. Tired and emotional, limping back to a serial killer free chalet, to watch weird Tarkovsky movies on ATP TV until i finally fell asleep….just in time for the mutant gull dawn chorus to erupt like a thousand angry car alarms. [Blog ends]	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1636
__label__wiki	0.584334	0.584334	Archive Journals Literature Updates MarinLit You do not have JavaScript enabled. Please enable JavaScript to access the full features of the site or access our non-JavaScript page. Issue 12, 2017 From the journal: Organic Chemistry Frontiers Total synthesis of orientalol F via gold-catalyzed cycloisomerization of alkynediol Yueqing Gu,a Jun Huang,a Jianxian Gonga and Zhen Yangab * Corresponding authors a Laboratory of Chemical Genomics, School of Chemical Biology and Biotechnology, Peking University Shenzhen Graduate School, Shenzhen 518055, China b Key Laboratory of Bioorganic Chemistry and Molecular Engineering of Ministry of Education, Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Science, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, and Peking-Tsing hua Center for Life Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China E-mail: zyang@pku.edu.cn The total synthesis of orientalol F has been achieved starting from 1,4-dioxaspirodecan-8-one 11 in 13 steps. The key steps in this synthesis feature: (1) gold-catalyzed tandem cycloisomerization of alkynediol 10 for the formation of its seven-membered oxa-bridged bicyclic skeleton 9 of orientalol F, (2) visible-light-promoted organocatalytic aerobic oxidation of silyl enol ether 16 to enone 17, (3) Barbier-type butenylation for the diastereoselective synthesis of allylic alcohol 18 from enone 17, and (4) substrate-controlled Pd-catalyzed hydrogenation of 20 for the stereoselective installation of the C1 stereogenic center of 8. This article is part of the themed collection: Synthetic Approaches to Natural Products via Catalytic Processes You have access to this article Please wait while we load your content... Something went wrong. Try again? Back to tab navigation Download options Please wait... Supplementary files Supplementary information PDF (4333K) The article was received on 28 Jul 2017, accepted on 23 Aug 2017 and first published on 25 Aug 2017 DOI: 10.1039/C7QO00654C Download Citation: Org. Chem. Front., 2017,4, 2296-2300 BibTex EndNote MEDLINE ProCite ReferenceManager RefWorks RIS Y. Gu, J. Huang, J. Gong and Z. Yang, Org. Chem. Front., 2017, 4, 2296 If you are not the author of this article and you wish to reproduce material from it in a third party non-RSC publication you must formally request permission using Copyright Clearance Center. Go to our Instructions for using Copyright Clearance Center page for details. Authors contributing to RSC publications (journal articles, books or book chapters) do not need to formally request permission to reproduce material contained in this article provided that the correct acknowledgement is given with the reproduced material. Reproduced material should be attributed as follows: For reproduction of material from NJC: Reproduced from Ref. XX with permission from the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and The Royal Society of Chemistry. For reproduction of material from PCCP: Reproduced from Ref. XX with permission from the PCCP Owner Societies. For reproduction of material from PPS: Reproduced from Ref. XX with permission from the European Society for Photobiology, the European Photochemistry Association, and The Royal Society of Chemistry. For reproduction of material from all other RSC journals and books: Reproduced from Ref. XX with permission from The Royal Society of Chemistry. If the material has been adapted instead of reproduced from the original RSC publication "Reproduced from" can be substituted with "Adapted from". In all cases the Ref. XX is the XXth reference in the list of references. If you are the author of this article you do not need to formally request permission to reproduce figures, diagrams etc. contained in this article in third party publications or in a thesis or dissertation provided that the correct acknowledgement is given with the reproduced material. [Original citation] - Reproduced by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) on behalf of the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and the RSC [Original citation] - Reproduced by permission of the PCCP Owner Societies [Original citation] - Reproduced by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry (RSC) on behalf of the European Society for Photobiology, the European Photochemistry Association, and RSC For reproduction of material from all other RSC journals: [Original citation] - Reproduced by permission of The Royal Society of Chemistry If you are the author of this article you still need to obtain permission to reproduce the whole article in a third party publication with the exception of reproduction of the whole article in a thesis or dissertation. Information about reproducing material from RSC articles with different licences is available on our Permission Requests page. Search articles by author Yueqing Gu Jun Huang Jianxian Gong Zhen Yang Fetching data from CrossRef. This may take some time to load.	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1642
__label__wiki	0.73342	0.73342	Dig: A History Podcast Recorded History Podcast Network Four women historians, a world of history to unearth. Can you dig it? Secret Societies of Sapphos: Faro Ladies, Bluestockings, and Gendered Insults of Women’s Societies in 18th- and 19th-Century Britain Secret Societies & Clubs #4 of 4. London was a colorful place in the 1790s, full of vices that the Victorians took great pains to either criticize or euphemize in their histories of England: alcoholism, casual sex, venereal disease, child abandonment...Show More Fragile Masculinity, Playing Indian, and Mechanical Goats: Fraternal Orders in the 19th Century US 1:14:15 \| Jul 1st Secret Societies and Clubs. 3 of 4. The Odd Fellows, the Masons, the Knights of Pythias: all ancient, secret, solemn orders full of the pillars of the community, right? Then what do we make of some of the super weird stuff they did, like pushing e...Show More Who Else but the Illuminati? 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Following the example set by American eugeni...Show More Choice, Sterilization, and Eugenics in Twentieth Century Puerto Rico Eugenics 3 of 4. In 1968, researchers found that one-third of all Puerto Rican women of childbearing age were surgically sterilized. This ignited the U.S. reproductive rights movement and the political demand to end forced sterilization in Puerto Ric...Show More At the Crossroads of Modernity: Japan, the Blood-Type Fad, and Eugenic Science in the 20th Century 1:13:17 \| May 6th Eugenics #2 of 4. If you are stumbling on this episode because you are someone obsessed with Japanese culture, then you probably already know about the blood-type fad that leaves poor Type-Bs at the bottom of the dating pool. 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Today’s episode is part of our sex series 2.0 and a continuation of one of our earliest episodes, Selling Sex: 19th Century New York City Prostitution and Brothels. In that episode, Sarah and Elizabeth discussed the vibrant...Show More Rape and Race in Early America In the age of #MeToo, rape and sexual assault have been consistently in the news. Debates abound about what counts as rape, whose testimony we should believe, and too often, men with power and privilege get away with it. But though it feels pressing...Show More Locked Up and Poxxed: THE Venereal Disease and Women who Sold Sex in the Victorian British Empire 53:33 \| Mar 10th Sex Series #1 of 4. Have you been tested? Averill and Elizabeth take a look at the long history of Europeans blaming women for sexual transmitted diseases, and the gendered and racially charged British imperial policies for locking up women to protec...Show More Miscarriage in Nineteenth Century America Bodies Episode #4 of 4. Shannon Withycombe's <em>Lost: Miscarriage in Nineteenth-Century America</em> puts miscarriage at the center of the study of nineteenth-century science, medicine, and women’s experience with their reproductive bodies. You may ...Show More Skull Collectors: Race, Pseudoscience, and Native American Bodies 1:03:51 \| Feb 4th Bodies #3 of 4. In 1996, two college students stumbled upon some skeletal remains in the Columbia River in Washington. The body, it turns out, was the oldest ever found in North America. In order to understand the story and controversy of the Kennewi...Show More Syphilis: Origin Story. Or, Early Modern Europeans Don’t Know Where It Came From, Current Scholars Don’t Know Where It Came From, and a Lot of Poxy Penises and Vulvas Suffered in Between 1:10:14 \| Jan 27th Bodies Episode #2 of 4. From whence came the poxiest of poxes? Averill and Marissa dive into the debates surrounding the origin of syphilis, with historians, paleobiologists, forensic anthropologists, and Shakespeare all weighing in. Further Reading:...Show More “Walking Corpses”: Life as a Leper in Medieval Eurasia Bodies #1 of 4. In this week's episode, we are going medieval. Conventional narratives tell us that medieval lepers were pariahs who lived out their days as rejected invalids, rotting away in decrepit asylums, quarantined from society. Some of this i...Show More Hearts of Darkness: Victorian Imperialism and Travel of the African Continent Frontiers, Episodes #4 of 4. Find the transcript and complete show notes at digpodcast.org. Victorian-era European imperialism was facilitated by the thousands of missionaries, businessmen, soldiers, and private police forces employed by the religiou...Show More Black Cowboys: People of Color in the American West Frontiers #3 of 4. Black cowboys made up at least one third of the cowhands that drove cattle along the long trails from Texas to mid-western and northern points in the middle of the 19th century. But you’d never know that from the images of the “cow...Show More The Final Frontier: History, Science, and Space Exploration Frontiers Series, Episode #2 of 4. Is space the new frontier? What are the links between the so-called “age of exploration,” the conquering of the American West, and the United States space program? We will be covering those questions and others in t...Show More Fur Trading and Frontier Life in French Canada 56:57 \| Dec 2nd, 2018 Frontiers #1 of 4. Fur trading and frontier life in French Canada. As frontiers typically are, the story of the French Canadian wilderness has been a gendered one since its earliest iterations. If it ever existed in reality, this straightforward, mas...Show More Cannibalism, Frostbite, and The Quest for the Northwest Passage 1:15:38 \| Nov 5th, 2018 Creepy, Occult, and Otherworldly Episode #4 of 4. Get a complete transcript of this episode at digpodcast.org. Today we are discussing the bone-chilling fear that comes from knowing that all hope is gone, and your death – from the cold, or from a slo...Show More Haunted Slavery: The Lalaurie Mansion 1:01:25 \| Oct 29th, 2018 Creepy, Occult, and Otherworldly Episode #3 of 4. Get a complete transcript of this episode at digpodcast.org. The Lalaurie Mansion in New Orleans, Louisiana, is said to be one of the most haunted houses in the French Quarter. The extreme and shockin...Show More Witches Brew: How the Patriarchy Ruins Everything for Women, Even Beer Creepy, Occult, and Otherworldly Episode #2 of 4. Get a complete transcript and the show notes for this episode at digpodcast.org. An old woman with a pointy hat, cauldron, broom, cat, and smelly brew? Why, she must be a witch! This tableau has titil...Show More Forensic Pathology and the History of Death Investigation Creepy, Occult, and Otherworldly Episode #1 of 4. Get a complete transcript and sources for this episode at digpodcast.org. Instagram accounts like @Mrs_Angemi and @CrimeSceneCleanersInc boast hundreds of thousands of followers, all hoping to catch a...Show More Rebel Slaves and Resistance in the Revolutionary Caribbean 1:24:01 \| Sep 17th, 2018 Slavery #4 of 4. complicated story. Enslaved people in the Caribbean resorted to active resistance much more often than their North American and South American counterparts. Haiti (known then as St. Domingue), Jamaica, Barbados, and the Dutch Guianas...Show More Slavery and Freedom in New York City Slavery #3 of 4. Show Notes and a complete transcript available at digpodcast.org. Today, we’re really excited to have an extra special episode for you. We’re honored to present this episode in conjunction with the PBS series, Secrets of the Dead. Co...Show More Slave Codes, Black Codes & Jim Crow: Codifying the Color Line 55:17 \| Sep 3rd, 2018 Slavery #2 of 4. In today’s episode we are discussing some laws in the United States that governed the bodies and lives of enslaved people and follow how those laws changed, or didn’t change, through emancipation and into the late twentieth century. ...Show More Devşirme: The Tribute of Children, Slavery and the Ottoman Empire Slavery #1 of 4. Get the Show Notes or read the full transcript at digpodcast.org. Between 1522 and 1536, the second most powerful man in the Ottoman empire was Ibrahim Pasha.The most surprising thing about Ibrahim Pasha is not his diplomatic success...Show More The Age of Crime! Civil War Veterans and Crime in America 1:02:20 \| Aug 5th, 2018 Original Research #4 of 4. Get a complete transcript and see the show notes at digpodcast.org The nation first had to truly grapple with the extraordinary expenses of war was after the American Civil War. As part of our series highlighting our own re...Show More The United States Children's Bureau: An Attempt to Curb Infant Mortality The death of a young child was a very real and emotional experience for many families during the American Progressive Era. However, at the dawn of the twentieth century many Americans came to expect a better outcome in the life expectancy of their c...Show More Queer Politics: The Dublin Castle Scandal of 1884 44:52 \| Jul 22nd, 2018 Original Research #2 of 4. Get Show Notes and Transcripts at digpodcast.org. The case of the Dublin Castle Scandal was no ordinary trial, because this one included sex between men. Like most crimes, sodomy was usually a case of men caught in the act ...Show More Employment Agencies in 18c London... and Boobs 1:01:40 \| Jul 16th, 2018 Original Work #1 of 4. Employment agencies and classified job ads have a much longer history than you might think. Join us for a brief history of early modern employment agencies. Stick around for a preview of how Marissa is using this fascinating hi...Show More Underwear: A History of Intimate Apparel 1:01:29 \| Jun 25th, 2018 Fashion #4 of 4. Underwear, the unseen garments which sit in close proximity to genitals, skin, and all sorts of unmentionable orifices, are the most poorly-documented garments in history yet they shaped bodies, minds, and societies in complex and in...Show More Struggle for the Breeches: Pants, Women, and Power Fashion #3 of 4. Get Show Notes & a complete transcript at digpodcast.org. Who wears the pants in this relationship? If someone asks you this question, you probably understand what they mean. Who is the dominant one in the relationship? Who holds the...Show More Suit Up: Class, Economics, Manhood, and Menswear Fashion #2 of 4. The suit has been the standard of Western men’s fashion, with some slight alterations, since at least the late 1600s. Not only that, but since the 1970s, even women, when they need to signal their professionalism, are expected to we...Show More The Labor of Fashion: Shirtwaists and the Labor Movement in the Early 20th Century 53:27 \| Jun 4th, 2018 Fashion #1 of 4. The Triangle Shirtwaist Fire is one of the most horrendous industrial catastrophes in American history. In all, 146 people, mostly women and children, died in the fire. It shocked New York City and the nation and led to some of the m...Show More Tuberculean Chic: How White Plague Shaped Beauty Standards in the 18c & 19c Fashion Re-Release. Marissa and Sarah discuss Georgians’ and Victorians’ love affair with Tuberculosis and the tuberculean aesthetic in fashion and art. In Georgian London, some diseases started to seem fashionable, desirable even. Gambling was popul...Show More Trees that Fight Back: Shinto & the Environment in Japan Environmentalism #4 of 4. Shinto - In Japan, recognizing the spirit of all things - from trees to mountains to interestingly shaped rocks - is part of Shinto. Older than writing in Japan, Shinto is the root of Japanese values and ways of thinking. Sh...Show More Mt. Tambora & The Year Without a Summer Environmental history #3 of 4. The 1815 volcanic eruption of Mount Tambora changed history. The year following the eruption, 1816 was known in England as the “Year without a Summer,” in New England as 18-hundred-and-froze-to-death, and “L’annee de la...Show More National Parks in America: Health, Manhood, and Wilderness Environmental History, #2 of 4. Sarah and Elizabeth discuss the conservation movement and the creation of Americas National Parks in the late 19th and early 20th century.Find the Show Notes and a complete transcript at digpodcast.orgLearn more about ...Show More The Rise of Natural History Museums Environment #1 of 4. Many natural history museums, in America and in the western world, were developed during the nineteenth century. These museums are both places to view and understand nature, they are also places that have a history in themselves....Show More “No peace, No p*ssy”: Sex Strikes and the Recent History of Global Feminist Protest Womyn #4 of 4. Sex striking is a method of passive resistance, a form of peaceful protest, and something attempted by American Indians in the early modern era, First Wave feminists in Europe and America, Bolshevik women in the 1920s, Chinese women in...Show More Victoria Woodhull: Free Love, Feminism & Finance 1:27:23 \| Apr 8th, 2018 Womyn, #3 of 4. Victoria Woodhull was an advocate of free love, an outspoken advocate for women’s rights and suffrage, a Spiritualist medium, a stockbroker, maybe a sex worker, an all-around force of nature. She might be one of the most controversial...Show More Marriage in America: A Brief History 37:50 \| Apr 1st, 2018 Womyn, #2 of 4. Marriage - the word alone is loaded. Marriage is the butt of jokes, the “old ball and chain,” the end of fun. Marriage can also bring up images of fear, of abuse, of control. And marriage can invoke images of happy couples, of new beg...Show More King Ahebi Ugbabe: Sex, Gender, and Power in Colonial Nigeria Womyn, #1 of 4. King Ahebi Ugbabe was unique among the men of Igboland in colonial Nigeria. There weren’t many kings in Igboland at all. But the infrequency of kingship is not what set Ugbabe apart: more importantly, in a world dominated by councils...Show More Auburn System: Prisons & Punishment in 19c U.S. Law Series #4 of 4. Ever wonder how the modern prison system came to be? Join us for a discussion of 19th century prisons, their history, evolution and the intended reforms they were intended to produce. We take a deep dive into exploring the Auburn...Show More Nuremberg Laws and Nazi Discrimination against Jewish Germans Law Series #3 of 4. In Germany in the 1930s, the state passed law after law to isolate, disenfranchise, and break down Jewish Germans. It is shocking how easily the German parliamentary government chipped away at Jewish citizenship, attacking the liv...Show More Coverture: Married Women and Legal Personhood in Britain Law Series #2 of 4. The doctrine of coverture deprived married women of legal status, merging her legal personhood with her husband’s. Today we’ll get into the complex ways that the doctrine of coverture shaped the lives of married women in the Briti...Show More Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States Law Series #1 of 4. Studying the Fourteenth Amendment is like taking one thread of American history since the mid nineteenth century and following it through all of the major events of the period since then. It’s a great way to study history. So toda...Show More Jane Roe and The Pill Bonus Episode #6 of 20. In the third episode in our series on women's reproductive rights in America, Jane Roe & the Pill, we finally get to two of the most important turning points in our story: the invention of the hormonal birth control pill, ...Show More Suitcase Murder: Abortion, Mystery and Murder in 20th Century America 51:27 \| Feb 5th, 2018 True Crime Series #4 of 4. On September 21, 1905, a suitcase floated to the water’s surface in Winthrop Harbor, a shallow six-foot deep man-made channel, about three miles north of Boston Harbor. Stuffed inside the seemingly innocuous case was the to...Show More Celia, A Slave: The True Crime Case that Rocked the American Slave Power True Crime Series #3 of 4. Today, we’re talking about a very real murder that was committed by a very real woman who lived in Missouri in the 1850s. But while this murder had all the elements that make for a flashy and exciting true crime story – se...Show More Child Abuse, Murder & Execution in Georgian London: Case of Elizabeth Brownrigg 48:29 \| Jan 21st, 2018 True Crime Series #2 of 4. Most societies are fascinated by women murderers. On September 14, 1767, a massive crowd gathered round the road to Tyburn, thronging around the hangman’s cart, throwing vegetable peels and other refuse. They shouted profa...Show More Brutal Murder of Bridget Cleary in 1895 Ireland True Crime Series #1 of 4. After Michael Cleary murdered his wife Bridget Cleary, he wandered the Tipperary countryside in his best suit, telling everyone he met that he was going to reclaim her from the fairies. Three nights he waited for her to com...Show More Abortion and Birth Control before Roe v. Wade Bonus Episode #5 of 20. At the Women’s Marches across the U.S. on January 21st, 2017, there were hundreds—maybe thousands—of women in their 60s, 70s, and 80s who held up signs that conveyed their frustration with still needing to fight for rights lik...Show More Early American Family Limitation 55:17 \| Jan 1st, 2018 Bonus Episode #4 of 20. Birth control and abortion are constant flash points in contemporary politics, and they're often described as signs of a rapidly changing society. But women have always had ways (though not always quite as effective ones) to c...Show More Charles Dickens and Scary Winter Stories Winter Series #4 of 4. Charles Dickens may have capitalized on telling ghost stories at Christmas with A Christmas Carol, but this practice stretches well beyond the famous Victorian novelist. Join us as we explore the tradition of telling ghost stor...Show More Great White Hurricane of 1913 Winter Series #3 of 4. During the hey-day of Great Lakes shipping, when ships crossed these huge lakes loaded down with cargo, a fall storm could be – and often was - deadly. You might be familiar with one particular fall shipwreck, the 1977 sinking ...Show More Heating and Illuminating Homes in Victorian Britain Winter Series #2 of 4. The warmth - and light - of the houses of 19th century Britain were a characteristic of Victorian life. While open coal hearths continued to dominate home heating, the Victorian era was also the first to use radiant boiler-powe...Show More Little Ice Age: Weird Weather, Witchcraft, Famine & Fashion Winter Series #1 of 4. Today we are discussing the ways the theoretical Little Ice Age impacted the people who lived through it. The study of past climates is highly politicized. Historical climatologists argue bitterly, writing scathing critiques of...Show More Death, Religion, and Euro-Native Encounters Creepy, Occult & Spooky Series #4 of 4. People are often surprised to learn that yes, even death has a history. In fact, death can be a powerful tool for unlocking the ways that people thought about themselves, their world, and one another – both fo...Show More Cock Lane Ghost: 18c London’s Haunting Hoax 44:50 \| Nov 5th, 2017 Creepy, Occult & Spooky Series #3 of 4. There wasn’t a soul in London, much less the neighborhood of Smithfield market, who hadn’t heard of the Cock Lane ghost. In 1762, the narrow London street was crowded with throngs of onlookers and busy-bodies ...Show More Halloween, Samhain, and Moral Panics in the 1980s Creepy, Occult & Spooky Series #2 of 4. In 1978, John Carpenter created a horror film that would arguably change the genre, certainly led the way in slasher films, and all on a $325,000 budget, with a 21 day shoot and no big star names to speak of. ...Show More Photos of the Dead: Victorian Postmortem Photography and the Case of the Standing Corpse 46:08 \| Oct 22nd, 2017 Creepy, Occult & Spooky Series #1 of 4. We commemorate and document life through photographs, and have been doing so since the 19th century. But photography has also been used to document death. In this episode we are discussing Victorian postmortem ...Show More The Lost Cause: Texas Independence, Slavery and Historical Memory 1:34:45 \| Oct 8th, 2017 War, Conflict and Violence Series #4 of 4. Today’s discussion is about the creation of historical memory and how one war in particular, The Texas War of Independence, is remembered. But also how historical memory of that war is profoundly colored by ...Show More Guerrilla Warfare: The American Civil War and Irregular Soldiers 1:04:55 \| Oct 1st, 2017 War, Conflict and Violence Series #3 of 4. Dealing with the history behind why we have Confederate memorials and what they mean, but also talk about something fun: guerrilla warfare – the irregular forms of war that took place largely in the Western ...Show More Death, Mud & Guns II: Military Rev and Birth of Bureaucracy War, Conflict and Violence Series #2.5 of 4. The military revolution changed every detail of military service, provided a profession for sons who were not their fathers’ heirs, sparked concerns over hygiene, fashion, taxation, necessitated the develo...Show More Death, Mud & Guns I: Military Rev and Birth of Bureaucracy War, Conflict and Violence Series #2 of 4. In early modern Europe—that’s about 1500 to 1800—warfare changed dramatically, mostly due to the rise of gunpowder weapons. The introduction of artillery and shoulder arms to early modern European warfare ha...Show More George McGovern and the Elusive Christian Left War, Conflict and Violence Series #1 of 4. While today, press coverage treats Christianity’s alignment with political conservatism as a foregone conclusion, there is a larger milieu of liberal and progressive activism with Christian social justice. J...Show More Puritan Sex: The Surprising History of Puritans and Sexual Practices Sex Series, Episode #4 of 4. Get a complete transcript and bibliography at digpodcast.org. We have an image of puritans as cold, severe, hyper-strict and religious people, and while that’s not entirely false, it’s also not entirely true. From the ver...Show More Selling Sex in 19th C. NYC 56:46 \| Sep 4th, 2017 In 19th century New York City, sex was for sale and it wasn’t hard to find it. Commodified sex was everywhere and available for any price. The years between roughly 1850 to about 1910 were the years that commercialized sex and vice in New York City ...Show More Marie Stopes’ Sex Guide for Marital Bliss Sex Series, Episode #2 of 4. Marie Stopes was one of the most significant figures in the modern birth control movement. She founded 37 international family planning clinics and brought sexual knowledge and fulfillment to countless women around the wo...Show More Sadism, Sex & the French Rev Sex Series #1 of 4. The Marquis de Sade is a notorious figure in the history of the French Revolution. Some see him as a twisted, debauched lunatic who preyed on the bodies of women and children. Others see him as a literary genius who was a revoluti...Show More Vietnam Protest and the Buffalo 9 Buffalo NY Series, Episode #2 of 2. The late 1960s were a tumultuous time in United States history - major political assassinations, riots, protests, and a deeply controversial war all added up to a fractured and bruised society. Much of the action d...Show More Communism and Uteruses 46:21 \| Aug 21st, 2017 Bonus Episode #3 of 20. There is something fascinating about the history of reproductive rights, contraception, and abortion in every country and ideology that we've looked at in our women's reproductive rights series. This week we're turning to the ...Show More Black Athena and the Battle of Historians For Show Notes and Further Reading, and a complete transcript of the episode. visit https://digpodcast.org/2017/05/14/black-athena-controversy-battle-of-historians/ In 1987, a historian of modern China wrote a book that was way outside of his field -...Show More War of 1812 and the Burning of Buffalo For Show Notes and Further Reading, visit digpodcast.org/2017/08/12/war-1812 Most American history books devote a page at most to the War of 1812. It is often referred to as the forgotten war. However, scholarship on the war has exploded in recent y...Show More Founding of AIDS Project of the Ozarks For Show Notes and Further Reading, as well as a complete transcript, visit https://digpodcast.org/2017/08/13/aids-project-ozarks/ Averill and Sarah deliver a much-needed update and revision to an early episode about the founding of AIDS Project of t...Show More Bonus Episode #2 of 20. In 1987, a historian of modern China wrote a book that was way outside of his field - a historiographical work about the classical world, which argued that argued a racist and imperialist Europe had written Egyptian and Phoeni...Show More Buffalo NY Series, Episode #1 of 2. Most American history books devote a page at most to the War of 1812. It is often referred to as the forgotten war. However, scholarship on the war has exploded in recent years due to the 200th Anniversary of the b...Show More Bonus Episode #1 of 20. Averill and Sarah deliver a much-needed update and revision to an early episode about the founding of AIDS Project of the Ozarks (APO), an AIDS service organization that operates out of Springfield, MO and was incorporated in ...Show More	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1656
__label__wiki	0.826943	0.826943	Rockstar to Release Next-Gen Game in 2015 by James Gough in Articles, Video Games Earlier this week Take Two, publisher for the Grand Theft Auto and Borderlands series’ and other games under the Rockstar and 2K Games labels, announced their Quarter 4 2013 financial reports. The reports provided confirmation that GTA V has now shipped a colossal 33 million copies and reached more than $1 billion in sales as well as impressive sales figures for Borderlands 2 and Bioshock Infinite, shipping 9 million and 6 million units respectively. Take Two also confirmed its release slate for the current fiscal year which was mostly comprised of announced and expected games, although there was one rather large surprise involved – Rockstar Games, developers of the GTA series, will be releasing an as yet unannounced game on next-gen systems (PS4 and Xbox One) before the fiscal year is over. Several possibilities have cropped up, including repeated information regarding a GTA V port to the new generation of consoles, although it’s hard to image a new version of the game being released while the PS3 and Xbox 360 sales are still performing well. Other possible options would be a sequel to the highly rated 2010 game Red Dead Redemption – again, rumors have leaked suggesting the game is actively under development with the title Red Dead Rebellion being mentioned more than once. Given that the game will be Rockstar’s first release on the new gen consoles, it seems fairly likely they would build upon the current fan base of their Red Dead IP rather than release something new entirely. GTA V’s Agent Easter egg – a hint at their next-gen game? Never a company to play by the rules though, Rockstar could equally surprise everyone by finally revealing the 70s spy game Agent as the new release. Agent was originally announced way back at e3 in 2009, nearly five years ago and there’s been very little of the game mentioned since. However Rockstar are a company who like to tease fans with in-game Easter eggs and their most recent release, GTA V, included a high powered and weaponised car during one main story mission with the cars license plate reading 4G3NT. The financial report does state the mystery next-gen game is unannounced and although information is thing on the ground, Agent has technically been announced. Whichever game it is that the report refers to, it seems that neither Rockstar or Take Two are ready to comment yet and Rockstar have a history of not attending e3, making a reveal or announcement there highly unlikely. Whatever the next game is, Rockstar will tease fans and let us know when they feel comfortable, until then everything else is simply speculation or calculated guesswork. We’ll have more on the game as details become available to share, but until then let us know in the comments what you think the mystery game will be. Tags: agentgrand theft autoPS4red deadrockstar gamestake twoxbox oneXbox One	cc/2019-30/en_middle_0014.json.gz/line1660

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