# Licensed to the Apache Software Foundation (ASF) under one
# or more contributor license agreements.  See the NOTICE file
# distributed with this work for additional information
# regarding copyright ownership.  The ASF licenses this file
# to you under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the
# "License"); you may not use this file except in compliance
# with the License.  You may obtain a copy of the License at
#
#   http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
#
# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing,
# software distributed under the License is distributed on an
# "AS IS" BASIS, WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY
# KIND, either express or implied.  See the License for the
# specific language governing permissions and limitations
# under the License.

import base64
import struct
from abc import ABC, abstractmethod
from enum import IntEnum
from functools import singledispatch
from typing import TYPE_CHECKING, Any, Callable, Generic, Optional, TypeVar
from typing import Literal as LiteralType
from uuid import UUID

import mmh3
from pydantic import Field, PositiveInt, PrivateAttr

from pyiceberg.expressions import (
    BoundEqualTo,
    BoundGreaterThan,
    BoundGreaterThanOrEqual,
    BoundIn,
    BoundLessThan,
    BoundLessThanOrEqual,
    BoundLiteralPredicate,
    BoundNotEqualTo,
    BoundNotIn,
    BoundNotStartsWith,
    BoundPredicate,
    BoundSetPredicate,
    BoundStartsWith,
    BoundTerm,
    BoundUnaryPredicate,
    EqualTo,
    GreaterThan,
    GreaterThanOrEqual,
    LessThan,
    LessThanOrEqual,
    NotEqualTo,
    NotStartsWith,
    Reference,
    StartsWith,
    UnboundPredicate,
)
from pyiceberg.expressions.literals import (
    DateLiteral,
    DecimalLiteral,
    Literal,
    LongLiteral,
    TimestampLiteral,
    literal,
)
from pyiceberg.typedef import IcebergRootModel, L
from pyiceberg.types import (
    BinaryType,
    DateType,
    DecimalType,
    FixedType,
    IcebergType,
    IntegerType,
    LongType,
    StringType,
    TimestampType,
    TimestamptzType,
    TimeType,
    UUIDType,
)
from pyiceberg.utils import datetime
from pyiceberg.utils.decimal import decimal_to_bytes, truncate_decimal
from pyiceberg.utils.parsing import ParseNumberFromBrackets
from pyiceberg.utils.singleton import Singleton

if TYPE_CHECKING:
    import pyarrow as pa

S = TypeVar("S")
T = TypeVar("T")

IDENTITY = "identity"
VOID = "void"
BUCKET = "bucket"
TRUNCATE = "truncate"
YEAR = "year"
MONTH = "month"
DAY = "day"
HOUR = "hour"

BUCKET_PARSER = ParseNumberFromBrackets(BUCKET)
TRUNCATE_PARSER = ParseNumberFromBrackets(TRUNCATE)


def _transform_literal(func: Callable[[L], L], lit: Literal[L]) -> Literal[L]:
    """Small helper to upwrap the value from the literal, and wrap it again."""
    return literal(func(lit.value))


def parse_transform(v: Any) -> Any:
    if isinstance(v, str):
        if v == IDENTITY:
            return IdentityTransform()
        elif v == VOID:
            return VoidTransform()
        elif v.startswith(BUCKET):
            return BucketTransform(num_buckets=BUCKET_PARSER.match(v))
        elif v.startswith(TRUNCATE):
            return TruncateTransform(width=TRUNCATE_PARSER.match(v))
        elif v == YEAR:
            return YearTransform()
        elif v == MONTH:
            return MonthTransform()
        elif v == DAY:
            return DayTransform()
        elif v == HOUR:
            return HourTransform()
        else:
            return UnknownTransform(transform=v)
    return v


class Transform(IcebergRootModel[str], ABC, Generic[S, T]):
    """Transform base class for concrete transforms.

    A base class to transform values and project predicates on partition values.
    This class is not used directly. Instead, use one of module method to create the child classes.
    """

    root: str = Field()

    @abstractmethod
    def transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> Callable[[Optional[S]], Optional[T]]: ...

    @abstractmethod
    def can_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> bool:
        return False

    @abstractmethod
    def result_type(self, source: IcebergType) -> IcebergType: ...

    @abstractmethod
    def project(self, name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[L]) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]: ...

    @abstractmethod
    def strict_project(self, name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[Any]) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]: ...

    @property
    def preserves_order(self) -> bool:
        return False

    def satisfies_order_of(self, other: Any) -> bool:
        return self == other

    def to_human_string(self, _: IcebergType, value: Optional[S]) -> str:
        return str(value) if value is not None else "null"

    @property
    def dedup_name(self) -> str:
        return self.__str__()

    def __str__(self) -> str:
        """Return the string representation of the Transform class."""
        return self.root

    def __eq__(self, other: Any) -> bool:
        """Return the equality of two instances of the Transform class."""
        if isinstance(other, Transform):
            return self.root == other.root
        return False

    @property
    def supports_pyarrow_transform(self) -> bool:
        return False

    @abstractmethod
    def pyarrow_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> "Callable[[pa.Array], pa.Array]": ...


class BucketTransform(Transform[S, int]):
    """Base Transform class to transform a value into a bucket partition value.

    Transforms are parameterized by a number of buckets. Bucket partition transforms use a 32-bit
    hash of the source value to produce a positive value by mod the bucket number.

    Args:
      num_buckets (int): The number of buckets.
    """

    root: str = Field()
    _num_buckets: PositiveInt = PrivateAttr()

    def __init__(self, num_buckets: int, **data: Any) -> None:
        self._num_buckets = num_buckets
        super().__init__(f"bucket[{num_buckets}]", **data)

    @property
    def num_buckets(self) -> int:
        return self._num_buckets

    def hash(self, value: S) -> int:
        raise NotImplementedError()

    def apply(self, value: Optional[S]) -> Optional[int]:
        return (self.hash(value) & IntegerType.max) % self._num_buckets if value else None

    def result_type(self, source: IcebergType) -> IcebergType:
        return IntegerType()

    def project(self, name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[L]) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
        transformer = self.transform(pred.term.ref().field.field_type)

        if isinstance(pred.term, BoundTransform):
            return _project_transform_predicate(self, name, pred)
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundUnaryPredicate):
            return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name))
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundEqualTo):
            return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transformer, pred.literal))
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundIn):  # NotIn can't be projected
            return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name), {_transform_literal(transformer, literal) for literal in pred.literals})
        else:
            # - Comparison predicates can't be projected, notEq can't be projected
            # - Small ranges can be projected:
            #   For example, (x > 0) and (x < 3) can be turned into in({1, 2}) and projected.
            return None

    def strict_project(self, name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[Any]) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
        transformer = self.transform(pred.term.ref().field.field_type)

        if isinstance(pred.term, BoundTransform):
            return _project_transform_predicate(self, name, pred)
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundUnaryPredicate):
            return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name))
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundNotEqualTo):
            return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transformer, pred.literal))
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundNotIn):
            return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name), {_transform_literal(transformer, literal) for literal in pred.literals})
        else:
            # no strict projection for comparison or equality
            return None

    def can_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> bool:
        return isinstance(
            source,
            (
                IntegerType,
                DateType,
                LongType,
                TimeType,
                TimestampType,
                TimestamptzType,
                DecimalType,
                StringType,
                FixedType,
                BinaryType,
                UUIDType,
            ),
        )

    def transform(self, source: IcebergType, bucket: bool = True) -> Callable[[Optional[Any]], Optional[int]]:
        if isinstance(source, (IntegerType, LongType, DateType, TimeType, TimestampType, TimestamptzType)):

            def hash_func(v: Any) -> int:
                return mmh3.hash(struct.pack("<q", v))

        elif isinstance(source, DecimalType):

            def hash_func(v: Any) -> int:
                return mmh3.hash(decimal_to_bytes(v))

        elif isinstance(source, (StringType, FixedType, BinaryType)):

            def hash_func(v: Any) -> int:
                return mmh3.hash(v)

        elif isinstance(source, UUIDType):

            def hash_func(v: Any) -> int:
                if isinstance(v, UUID):
                    return mmh3.hash(v.bytes)
                return mmh3.hash(v)

        else:
            raise ValueError(f"Unknown type {source}")

        if bucket:
            return lambda v: (hash_func(v) & IntegerType.max) % self._num_buckets if v is not None else None
        return hash_func

    def __repr__(self) -> str:
        """Return the string representation of the BucketTransform class."""
        return f"BucketTransform(num_buckets={self._num_buckets})"

    def pyarrow_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> "Callable[[pa.Array], pa.Array]":
        raise NotImplementedError()


class TimeResolution(IntEnum):
    YEAR = 6
    MONTH = 5
    WEEK = 4
    DAY = 3
    HOUR = 2
    MINUTE = 1
    SECOND = 0


class TimeTransform(Transform[S, int], Generic[S], Singleton):
    @property
    @abstractmethod
    def granularity(self) -> TimeResolution: ...

    def satisfies_order_of(self, other: Transform[S, T]) -> bool:
        return self.granularity <= other.granularity if hasattr(other, "granularity") else False

    def result_type(self, source: IcebergType) -> IntegerType:
        return IntegerType()

    @abstractmethod
    def transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> Callable[[Optional[Any]], Optional[int]]: ...

    def project(self, name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[L]) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
        transformer = self.transform(pred.term.ref().field.field_type)
        if isinstance(pred.term, BoundTransform):
            return _project_transform_predicate(self, name, pred)
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundUnaryPredicate):
            return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name))
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundLiteralPredicate):
            return _truncate_number(name, pred, transformer)
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundIn):  # NotIn can't be projected
            return _set_apply_transform(name, pred, transformer)
        else:
            return None

    def strict_project(self, name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[Any]) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
        transformer = self.transform(pred.term.ref().field.field_type)
        if isinstance(pred.term, BoundTransform):
            return _project_transform_predicate(self, name, pred)
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundUnaryPredicate):
            return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name))
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundLiteralPredicate):
            return _truncate_number_strict(name, pred, transformer)
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundNotIn):
            return _set_apply_transform(name, pred, transformer)
        else:
            return None

    @property
    def dedup_name(self) -> str:
        return "time"

    @property
    def preserves_order(self) -> bool:
        return True

    @property
    def supports_pyarrow_transform(self) -> bool:
        return True


class YearTransform(TimeTransform[S]):
    """Transforms a datetime value into a year value.

    Example:
        >>> transform = YearTransform()
        >>> transform.transform(TimestampType())(1512151975038194)
        47
    """

    root: LiteralType["year"] = Field(default="year")  # noqa: F821

    def transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> Callable[[Optional[S]], Optional[int]]:
        if isinstance(source, DateType):

            def year_func(v: Any) -> int:
                return datetime.days_to_years(v)

        elif isinstance(source, (TimestampType, TimestamptzType)):

            def year_func(v: Any) -> int:
                return datetime.micros_to_years(v)

        else:
            raise ValueError(f"Cannot apply year transform for type: {source}")

        return lambda v: year_func(v) if v is not None else None

    def can_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> bool:
        return isinstance(source, (DateType, TimestampType, TimestamptzType))

    @property
    def granularity(self) -> TimeResolution:
        return TimeResolution.YEAR

    def to_human_string(self, _: IcebergType, value: Optional[S]) -> str:
        return datetime.to_human_year(value) if isinstance(value, int) else "null"

    def __repr__(self) -> str:
        """Return the string representation of the YearTransform class."""
        return "YearTransform()"

    def pyarrow_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> "Callable[[pa.Array], pa.Array]":
        import pyarrow as pa
        import pyarrow.compute as pc

        if isinstance(source, DateType):
            epoch = datetime.EPOCH_DATE
        elif isinstance(source, TimestampType):
            epoch = datetime.EPOCH_TIMESTAMP
        elif isinstance(source, TimestamptzType):
            epoch = datetime.EPOCH_TIMESTAMPTZ
        else:
            raise ValueError(f"Cannot apply year transform for type: {source}")

        return lambda v: pc.years_between(pa.scalar(epoch), v) if v is not None else None


class MonthTransform(TimeTransform[S]):
    """Transforms a datetime value into a month value.

    Example:
        >>> transform = MonthTransform()
        >>> transform.transform(DateType())(17501)
        575
    """

    root: LiteralType["month"] = Field(default="month")  # noqa: F821

    def transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> Callable[[Optional[S]], Optional[int]]:
        if isinstance(source, DateType):

            def month_func(v: Any) -> int:
                return datetime.days_to_months(v)

        elif isinstance(source, (TimestampType, TimestamptzType)):

            def month_func(v: Any) -> int:
                return datetime.micros_to_months(v)

        else:
            raise ValueError(f"Cannot apply month transform for type: {source}")

        return lambda v: month_func(v) if v is not None else None

    def can_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> bool:
        return isinstance(source, (DateType, TimestampType, TimestamptzType))

    @property
    def granularity(self) -> TimeResolution:
        return TimeResolution.MONTH

    def to_human_string(self, _: IcebergType, value: Optional[S]) -> str:
        return datetime.to_human_month(value) if isinstance(value, int) else "null"

    def __repr__(self) -> str:
        """Return the string representation of the MonthTransform class."""
        return "MonthTransform()"

    def pyarrow_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> "Callable[[pa.Array], pa.Array]":
        import pyarrow as pa
        import pyarrow.compute as pc

        if isinstance(source, DateType):
            epoch = datetime.EPOCH_DATE
        elif isinstance(source, TimestampType):
            epoch = datetime.EPOCH_TIMESTAMP
        elif isinstance(source, TimestamptzType):
            epoch = datetime.EPOCH_TIMESTAMPTZ
        else:
            raise ValueError(f"Cannot apply month transform for type: {source}")

        def month_func(v: pa.Array) -> pa.Array:
            return pc.add(
                pc.multiply(pc.years_between(pa.scalar(epoch), v), pa.scalar(12)),
                pc.add(pc.month(v), pa.scalar(-1)),
            )

        return lambda v: month_func(v) if v is not None else None


class DayTransform(TimeTransform[S]):
    """Transforms a datetime value into a day value.

    Example:
        >>> transform = MonthTransform()
        >>> transform.transform(DateType())(17501)
        17501
    """

    root: LiteralType["day"] = Field(default="day")  # noqa: F821

    def transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> Callable[[Optional[S]], Optional[int]]:
        if isinstance(source, DateType):

            def day_func(v: Any) -> int:
                return v

        elif isinstance(source, (TimestampType, TimestamptzType)):

            def day_func(v: Any) -> int:
                return datetime.micros_to_days(v)

        else:
            raise ValueError(f"Cannot apply day transform for type: {source}")

        return lambda v: day_func(v) if v is not None else None

    def can_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> bool:
        return isinstance(source, (DateType, TimestampType, TimestamptzType))

    def result_type(self, source: IcebergType) -> IcebergType:
        return DateType()

    @property
    def granularity(self) -> TimeResolution:
        return TimeResolution.DAY

    def to_human_string(self, _: IcebergType, value: Optional[S]) -> str:
        return datetime.to_human_day(value) if isinstance(value, int) else "null"

    def __repr__(self) -> str:
        """Return the string representation of the DayTransform class."""
        return "DayTransform()"

    def pyarrow_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> "Callable[[pa.Array], pa.Array]":
        import pyarrow as pa
        import pyarrow.compute as pc

        if isinstance(source, DateType):
            epoch = datetime.EPOCH_DATE
        elif isinstance(source, TimestampType):
            epoch = datetime.EPOCH_TIMESTAMP
        elif isinstance(source, TimestamptzType):
            epoch = datetime.EPOCH_TIMESTAMPTZ
        else:
            raise ValueError(f"Cannot apply day transform for type: {source}")

        return lambda v: pc.days_between(pa.scalar(epoch), v) if v is not None else None


class HourTransform(TimeTransform[S]):
    """Transforms a datetime value into a hour value.

    Example:
        >>> transform = HourTransform()
        >>> transform.transform(TimestampType())(1512151975038194)
        420042
    """

    root: LiteralType["hour"] = Field(default="hour")  # noqa: F821

    def transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> Callable[[Optional[S]], Optional[int]]:
        if isinstance(source, (TimestampType, TimestamptzType)):

            def hour_func(v: Any) -> int:
                return datetime.micros_to_hours(v)

        else:
            raise ValueError(f"Cannot apply hour transform for type: {source}")

        return lambda v: hour_func(v) if v is not None else None

    def can_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> bool:
        return isinstance(source, (TimestampType, TimestamptzType))

    @property
    def granularity(self) -> TimeResolution:
        return TimeResolution.HOUR

    def to_human_string(self, _: IcebergType, value: Optional[S]) -> str:
        return datetime.to_human_hour(value) if isinstance(value, int) else "null"

    def __repr__(self) -> str:
        """Return the string representation of the HourTransform class."""
        return "HourTransform()"

    def pyarrow_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> "Callable[[pa.Array], pa.Array]":
        import pyarrow as pa
        import pyarrow.compute as pc

        if isinstance(source, TimestampType):
            epoch = datetime.EPOCH_TIMESTAMP
        elif isinstance(source, TimestamptzType):
            epoch = datetime.EPOCH_TIMESTAMPTZ
        else:
            raise ValueError(f"Cannot apply hour transform for type: {source}")

        return lambda v: pc.hours_between(pa.scalar(epoch), v) if v is not None else None


def _base64encode(buffer: bytes) -> str:
    """Convert bytes to base64 string."""
    return base64.b64encode(buffer).decode("ISO-8859-1")


class IdentityTransform(Transform[S, S]):
    """Transforms a value into itself.

    Example:
        >>> transform = IdentityTransform()
        >>> transform.transform(StringType())('hello-world')
        'hello-world'
    """

    root: LiteralType["identity"] = Field(default="identity")  # noqa: F821

    def __init__(self) -> None:
        super().__init__("identity")

    def transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> Callable[[Optional[S]], Optional[S]]:
        return lambda v: v

    def can_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> bool:
        return source.is_primitive

    def result_type(self, source: IcebergType) -> IcebergType:
        return source

    def project(self, name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[L]) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
        if isinstance(pred.term, BoundTransform):
            return _project_transform_predicate(self, name, pred)
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundUnaryPredicate):
            return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name))
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundLiteralPredicate):
            return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name), pred.literal)
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundSetPredicate):
            return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name), pred.literals)
        else:
            return None

    def strict_project(self, name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[Any]) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
        if isinstance(pred, BoundUnaryPredicate):
            return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name))
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundLiteralPredicate):
            return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name), pred.literal)
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundSetPredicate):
            return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name), pred.literals)
        else:
            return None

    @property
    def preserves_order(self) -> bool:
        return True

    def satisfies_order_of(self, other: Transform[S, T]) -> bool:
        """Ordering by value is the same as long as the other preserves order."""
        return other.preserves_order

    def to_human_string(self, source_type: IcebergType, value: Optional[S]) -> str:
        return _human_string(value, source_type) if value is not None else "null"

    def __str__(self) -> str:
        """Return the string representation of the IdentityTransform class."""
        return "identity"

    def __repr__(self) -> str:
        """Return the string representation of the IdentityTransform class."""
        return "IdentityTransform()"

    def pyarrow_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> "Callable[[pa.Array], pa.Array]":
        return lambda v: v

    @property
    def supports_pyarrow_transform(self) -> bool:
        return True


class TruncateTransform(Transform[S, S]):
    """A transform for truncating a value to a specified width.

    Args:
      width (int): The truncate width, should be positive.
    Raises:
      ValueError: If a type is provided that is incompatible with a Truncate transform.
    """

    root: str = Field()
    _source_type: IcebergType = PrivateAttr()
    _width: PositiveInt = PrivateAttr()

    def __init__(self, width: int, **data: Any):
        super().__init__(root=f"truncate[{width}]", **data)
        self._width = width

    def can_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> bool:
        return isinstance(source, (IntegerType, LongType, StringType, BinaryType, DecimalType))

    def result_type(self, source: IcebergType) -> IcebergType:
        return source

    @property
    def preserves_order(self) -> bool:
        return True

    @property
    def source_type(self) -> IcebergType:
        return self._source_type

    def project(self, name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[L]) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
        field_type = pred.term.ref().field.field_type

        if isinstance(pred.term, BoundTransform):
            return _project_transform_predicate(self, name, pred)

        if isinstance(pred, BoundUnaryPredicate):
            return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name))
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundIn):
            return _set_apply_transform(name, pred, self.transform(field_type))
        elif isinstance(field_type, (IntegerType, LongType, DecimalType)):
            if isinstance(pred, BoundLiteralPredicate):
                return _truncate_number(name, pred, self.transform(field_type))
        elif isinstance(field_type, (BinaryType, StringType)):
            if isinstance(pred, BoundLiteralPredicate):
                return _truncate_array(name, pred, self.transform(field_type))
        return None

    def strict_project(self, name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[Any]) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
        field_type = pred.term.ref().field.field_type

        if isinstance(pred.term, BoundTransform):
            return _project_transform_predicate(self, name, pred)

        if isinstance(field_type, (IntegerType, LongType, DecimalType)):
            if isinstance(pred, BoundUnaryPredicate):
                return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name))
            elif isinstance(pred, BoundLiteralPredicate):
                return _truncate_number_strict(name, pred, self.transform(field_type))
            elif isinstance(pred, BoundNotIn):
                return _set_apply_transform(name, pred, self.transform(field_type))
            else:
                return None

        if isinstance(pred, BoundLiteralPredicate):
            if isinstance(pred, BoundStartsWith):
                literal_width = len(pred.literal.value)
                if literal_width < self.width:
                    return pred.as_unbound(name, pred.literal.value)
                elif literal_width == self.width:
                    return EqualTo(name, pred.literal.value)
                else:
                    return None
            elif isinstance(pred, BoundNotStartsWith):
                literal_width = len(pred.literal.value)
                if literal_width < self.width:
                    return pred.as_unbound(name, pred.literal.value)
                elif literal_width == self.width:
                    return NotEqualTo(name, pred.literal.value)
                else:
                    return pred.as_unbound(name, self.transform(field_type)(pred.literal.value))
            else:
                # ProjectionUtil.truncateArrayStrict(name, pred, this);
                return _truncate_array_strict(name, pred, self.transform(field_type))
        elif isinstance(pred, BoundNotIn):
            return _set_apply_transform(name, pred, self.transform(field_type))
        else:
            return None

    @property
    def width(self) -> int:
        return self._width

    def transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> Callable[[Optional[S]], Optional[S]]:
        if isinstance(source, (IntegerType, LongType)):

            def truncate_func(v: Any) -> Any:
                return v - v % self._width

        elif isinstance(source, (StringType, BinaryType)):

            def truncate_func(v: Any) -> Any:
                return v[0 : min(self._width, len(v))]

        elif isinstance(source, DecimalType):

            def truncate_func(v: Any) -> Any:
                return truncate_decimal(v, self._width)

        else:
            raise ValueError(f"Cannot truncate for type: {source}")

        return lambda v: truncate_func(v) if v is not None else None

    def satisfies_order_of(self, other: Transform[S, T]) -> bool:
        if self == other:
            return True
        elif (
            isinstance(self.source_type, StringType)
            and isinstance(other, TruncateTransform)
            and isinstance(other.source_type, StringType)
        ):
            return self.width >= other.width

        return False

    def to_human_string(self, _: IcebergType, value: Optional[S]) -> str:
        if value is None:
            return "null"
        elif isinstance(value, bytes):
            return _base64encode(value)
        else:
            return str(value)

    def __repr__(self) -> str:
        """Return the string representation of the TruncateTransform class."""
        return f"TruncateTransform(width={self._width})"

    def pyarrow_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> "Callable[[pa.Array], pa.Array]":
        raise NotImplementedError()


@singledispatch
def _human_string(value: Any, _type: IcebergType) -> str:
    return str(value)


@_human_string.register(bytes)
def _(value: bytes, _type: IcebergType) -> str:
    return _base64encode(value)


@_human_string.register(int)
def _(value: int, _type: IcebergType) -> str:
    return _int_to_human_string(_type, value)


@_human_string.register(bool)
def _(value: bool, _type: IcebergType) -> str:
    return str(value).lower()


@singledispatch
def _int_to_human_string(_type: IcebergType, value: int) -> str:
    return str(value)


@_int_to_human_string.register(DateType)
def _(_type: IcebergType, value: int) -> str:
    return datetime.to_human_day(value)


@_int_to_human_string.register(TimeType)
def _(_type: IcebergType, value: int) -> str:
    return datetime.to_human_time(value)


@_int_to_human_string.register(TimestampType)
def _(_type: IcebergType, value: int) -> str:
    return datetime.to_human_timestamp(value)


@_int_to_human_string.register(TimestamptzType)
def _(_type: IcebergType, value: int) -> str:
    return datetime.to_human_timestamptz(value)


class UnknownTransform(Transform[S, T]):
    """A transform that represents when an unknown transform is provided.

    Args:
      transform (str): A string name of a transform.

    Keyword Args:
      source_type (IcebergType): An Iceberg `Type`.
    """

    root: LiteralType["unknown"] = Field(default="unknown")  # noqa: F821
    _transform: str = PrivateAttr()

    def __init__(self, transform: str, **data: Any):
        super().__init__(**data)
        self._transform = transform

    def transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> Callable[[Optional[S]], Optional[T]]:
        raise AttributeError(f"Cannot apply unsupported transform: {self}")

    def can_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> bool:
        return False

    def result_type(self, source: IcebergType) -> StringType:
        return StringType()

    def project(self, name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[L]) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
        return None

    def strict_project(self, name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[Any]) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
        return None

    def __repr__(self) -> str:
        """Return the string representation of the UnknownTransform class."""
        return f"UnknownTransform(transform={repr(self._transform)})"

    def pyarrow_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> "Callable[[pa.Array], pa.Array]":
        raise NotImplementedError()


class VoidTransform(Transform[S, None], Singleton):
    """A transform that always returns None."""

    root: str = "void"

    def transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> Callable[[Optional[S]], Optional[T]]:
        return lambda v: None

    def can_transform(self, _: IcebergType) -> bool:
        return True

    def result_type(self, source: IcebergType) -> IcebergType:
        return source

    def project(self, name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[L]) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
        return None

    def strict_project(self, name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[L]) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
        return None

    def to_human_string(self, _: IcebergType, value: Optional[S]) -> str:
        return "null"

    def __repr__(self) -> str:
        """Return the string representation of the VoidTransform class."""
        return "VoidTransform()"

    def pyarrow_transform(self, source: IcebergType) -> "Callable[[pa.Array], pa.Array]":
        raise NotImplementedError()


def _truncate_number(
    name: str, pred: BoundLiteralPredicate[L], transform: Callable[[Optional[L]], Optional[L]]
) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
    boundary = pred.literal

    if not isinstance(boundary, (LongLiteral, DecimalLiteral, DateLiteral, TimestampLiteral)):
        raise ValueError(f"Expected a numeric literal, got: {type(boundary)}")

    if isinstance(pred, BoundLessThan):
        return LessThanOrEqual(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary.decrement()))  # type: ignore
    elif isinstance(pred, BoundLessThanOrEqual):
        return LessThanOrEqual(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary))
    elif isinstance(pred, BoundGreaterThan):
        return GreaterThanOrEqual(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary.increment()))  # type: ignore
    elif isinstance(pred, BoundGreaterThanOrEqual):
        return GreaterThanOrEqual(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary))
    elif isinstance(pred, BoundEqualTo):
        return EqualTo(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary))
    else:
        return None


def _truncate_number_strict(
    name: str, pred: BoundLiteralPredicate[L], transform: Callable[[Optional[L]], Optional[L]]
) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
    boundary = pred.literal

    if not isinstance(boundary, (LongLiteral, DecimalLiteral, DateLiteral, TimestampLiteral)):
        raise ValueError(f"Expected a numeric literal, got: {type(boundary)}")

    if isinstance(pred, BoundLessThan):
        return LessThan(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary))
    elif isinstance(pred, BoundLessThanOrEqual):
        return LessThan(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary.increment()))  # type: ignore
    elif isinstance(pred, BoundGreaterThan):
        return GreaterThan(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary))
    elif isinstance(pred, BoundGreaterThanOrEqual):
        return GreaterThan(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary.decrement()))  # type: ignore
    elif isinstance(pred, BoundNotEqualTo):
        return EqualTo(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary))
    elif isinstance(pred, BoundEqualTo):
        # there is no predicate that guarantees equality because adjacent longs transform to the
        # same value
        return None
    else:
        return None


def _truncate_array_strict(
    name: str, pred: BoundLiteralPredicate[L], transform: Callable[[Optional[L]], Optional[L]]
) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
    boundary = pred.literal

    if isinstance(pred, (BoundLessThan, BoundLessThanOrEqual)):
        return LessThan(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary))
    elif isinstance(pred, (BoundGreaterThan, BoundGreaterThanOrEqual)):
        return GreaterThan(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary))
    if isinstance(pred, BoundNotEqualTo):
        return NotEqualTo(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary))
    else:
        return None


def _truncate_array(
    name: str, pred: BoundLiteralPredicate[L], transform: Callable[[Optional[L]], Optional[L]]
) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
    boundary = pred.literal

    if isinstance(pred, (BoundLessThan, BoundLessThanOrEqual)):
        return LessThanOrEqual(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary))
    elif isinstance(pred, (BoundGreaterThan, BoundGreaterThanOrEqual)):
        return GreaterThanOrEqual(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary))
    if isinstance(pred, BoundEqualTo):
        return EqualTo(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary))
    elif isinstance(pred, BoundStartsWith):
        return StartsWith(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary))
    elif isinstance(pred, BoundNotStartsWith):
        return NotStartsWith(Reference(name), _transform_literal(transform, boundary))
    else:
        return None


def _project_transform_predicate(
    transform: Transform[Any, Any], partition_name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[L]
) -> Optional[UnboundPredicate[Any]]:
    term = pred.term
    if isinstance(term, BoundTransform) and transform == term.transform:
        return _remove_transform(partition_name, pred)
    return None


def _remove_transform(partition_name: str, pred: BoundPredicate[L]) -> UnboundPredicate[Any]:
    if isinstance(pred, BoundUnaryPredicate):
        return pred.as_unbound(Reference(partition_name))
    elif isinstance(pred, BoundLiteralPredicate):
        return pred.as_unbound(Reference(partition_name), pred.literal)
    elif isinstance(pred, (BoundIn, BoundNotIn)):
        return pred.as_unbound(Reference(partition_name), pred.literals)
    else:
        raise ValueError(f"Cannot replace transform in unknown predicate: {pred}")


def _set_apply_transform(name: str, pred: BoundSetPredicate[L], transform: Callable[[L], L]) -> UnboundPredicate[Any]:
    literals = pred.literals
    if isinstance(pred, BoundSetPredicate):
        transformed_literals = {_transform_literal(transform, literal) for literal in literals}
        return pred.as_unbound(Reference(name=name), literals=transformed_literals)
    else:
        raise ValueError(f"Unknown BoundSetPredicate: {pred}")


class BoundTransform(BoundTerm[L]):
    """A transform expression."""

    transform: Transform[L, Any]

    def __init__(self, term: BoundTerm[L], transform: Transform[L, Any]):
        self.term: BoundTerm[L] = term
        self.transform = transform