3D visualization of the Galves–Löcherbach model for biological neural nets. This visualization is set for 4,000 neurons (4 layers with one population of inhibitory neurons and one population of excitatory neurons each) at 180 intervals of time.


Fig 4: High level block diagram of the receptor layer and neuron model by Nossenson & Messer. [ 72 ] [ 74 ]


Fig 5. The prediction for the firing rate in response to a pulse stimulus as given by the model by Nossenson & Messer. [ 72 ] [ 74 ]


Comparing the  artificial neural network  (A), the biological neuron (B), and the HTM neuron (C).


Fig. 6 The biological neural detection scheme as suggested by Nossenson et al. [ 74 ] [ 81 ]


Trace of modeled  oxytocin -sensitive  neuron  showing bursts  [ dubious  –  discuss ]


Compartmentalized Platform for Neuronal Cell Culture


Side view campenot chamber


Dissection of a human brain with labels showing the clear division between white and gray matter.


Diagram of the columns and of the course of the fibers in the spinal cord. Sensory synapses occur in the dorsal spinal cord (above in this image), and motor nerves leave through the ventral (as well as lateral) horns of the spinal cord as seen below in the image.


Different ways in which the CNS can be activated without engaging the cortex, and making us aware of the actions. The above example shows the process in which the pupil dilates during dim light, activating neurons in the spinal cord. The second example shows the constriction of the pupil as a result of the activation of the Eddinger-Westphal nucleus (a cerebral ganglion).


A map over the different structures of the nervous systems in the body, showing the CNS,  PNS ,  autonomic nervous system , and  enteric nervous system .


Activation variable as a function of time for the chaotic regime


Solution for the Chialvo map equations for the chaotic regime


Activation variable as a function of time for the excitable regime


Solution for the Chialvo map equations for the excitable regime


Example of spiral waves for the Two-dimensional Chialvo map in 100 x 100 lattice and parameters a=0.89, b=0.6, c= 0.26, and k=0.02.


Evolution of Potential X as a function of time in a 500x500 lattice for a chaotic regime with parameters a=0.89, b=0.18, c= 0.28, and k=0.026.


Example of spiral waves for the Two-dimensional Chialvo map in an annealed random network  starting from a 128 x 128 lattice with probability of rewiring

 p
 =
 0.25

 {\displaystyle p=0.25}

  and parameters a=0.89, b=0.6, c= 0.26, and k=0.02.


Evolution of

 x

 {\displaystyle x}

  as a function of parameter

 b

 {\displaystyle b}

  for a Chialvo map neuron. Parameters:

 a
 =
 0.89

 {\displaystyle a=0.89}

 ,

 c
 =
 0.28

 {\displaystyle c=0.28}

 ,

 k
 =
 0.026

 {\displaystyle k=0.026}

 , and

 b

 {\displaystyle b}

  from

 0.16

 {\displaystyle 0.16}

  to

 0.4

 {\displaystyle 0.4}

 .


GIF: Evolution of

 x

 {\displaystyle x}

  as a function of parameter

 b

 {\displaystyle b}

  for a Chialvo map neuron. Parameters:

 a
 =
 0.89

 {\displaystyle a=0.89}

 ,

 c
 =
 0.28

 {\displaystyle c=0.28}

 ,

 k
 =
 0.026

 {\displaystyle k=0.026}

 , and

 b

 {\displaystyle b}

  from

 0.16

 {\displaystyle 0.16}

  to

 0.4

 {\displaystyle 0.4}

 .


Overview, including some  physiological  parameters, of the human  circadian rhythm ("biological clock") .


Light enters the eye and hits the retinal pigmented epithelium (maroon). This excites rods (grey) and cones (blue/red). These cells synapse onto bipolar cells (pink), which stimulate ipRGCs (green) and RGCs (orange). Both RGCs and ipRGCs transmit information to the brain through the optic nerve. Furthermore, light can directly stimulate the ipRGCs through its melanopsin photopigment. The ipRGCs uniquely project to the superchiasmatic nucleus, allowing the organism to entrain to light-dark cycles.


a) Branched dendrites viewed as cylinders for modelling. b) Simple model with three compartments


Figure depicting three medial temporal lobe structures amygdala, entorhinal cortex and hippocampus with fiducial landmarks depicted as well embedded in the MRI background.


Triangulated mesh surfaces depicting subcortical structures amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, caudate, putamen, ventricles.The shapes are denoted

 m
 (
 u
 )
 ,
 u
 ∈
 U
 ⊂

 R

 1

 →

 R

 2

 {\displaystyle m(u),u\in U\subset {\mathbb {R} }^{1}\rightarrow {\mathbb {R} }^{2}}

  represented as triangulated meshes.


Showing an MRI section through a 3D brain representing a scalar image

 I
 (
 x
 )
 ,
 x
 ∈

 R

 2

 {\displaystyle I(x),x\in {\mathbb {R} }^{2}}

  based on T1-weighting.


Showing the Lagrangian flow of coordinates

 x
 ∈
 X

 {\displaystyle x\in X}

  with associated vector fields

 v

 t

 ,
 t
 ∈
 [
 0
 ,
 1
 ]

 {\displaystyle v_{t},t\in [0,1]}

  satisfying ordinary differential equation

 φ
 ˙

 t

 =

 v

 t

 (

 φ

 t

 )
 ,

 φ

 0

 =

 i
 d

 {\displaystyle {\dot {\varphi }}_{t}=v_{t}(\varphi _{t}),\varphi _{0}={\rm {id}}}

 .


Showing metric local flattening of coordinatized manifolds of shapes and forms. The local metric is given by the norm of the vector field

 ‖

 v

 0

 ‖

 V

 {\displaystyle \|v_{0}\|_{V}}

  of the geodesic mapping

 Exp

 i
 d

 (

 v

 0

 )
 ⋅
 m

 {\displaystyle \operatorname {Exp} _{\rm {id}}(v_{0})\cdot m}


Image showing a diffusion tensor image with three color levels depicting the orientations of the three eigenvectors of the matrix image

 I
 (
 x
 )
 ,
 x
 ∈

 R

 2

 {\displaystyle I(x),x\in {\mathbb {R} }^{2}}

 , matrix valued image; each of three colors represents a direction.


Demonstrating metamorphosis allowing both diffeomorphic change in coordinate transformation as well as change in image intensity as associated to early  Morphing technologies such as the  Michael Jackson video. Notice the insertion of tumor gray level intensity which does not exist in template.


Illustration of geodesic flow for one landmark, demonstrating diffeomorphic motion of background space.  Red arrow shows

 p

 0

 (
 1
 )

 {\displaystyle p_{0}(1)}

 , blue curve shows

 φ

 t

 (

 x

 1

 )

 {\displaystyle \varphi _{t}(x_{1})}

 , black grid shows

 φ

 t

 {\displaystyle \varphi _{t}}


Figure showing landmark matching with correspondence. Left and right panels depict two different kernel with solutions.


Orbits of brains associated to diffeomorphic group action on templates depicted via smooth flow associated to geodesic flows with random spray associated to random generation of initial tangent space vector field

 v

 0

 ∈
 V

 {\displaystyle v_{0}\in V}

 ; published in. [ 11 ]


Figure showing the random spray of synthesized subcortical structures laid out in the two-dimensional grid representing the variance of the eigenfunction used for the momentum for synthesis.


Source-channel model showing the source of images the deformable template

 I
 ≐
 φ
 ⋅

 I

 t
 e
 m
 p

 ∈

 I

 {\displaystyle I\doteq \varphi \cdot I_{\mathrm {temp} }\in {\mathcal {I}}}

  and channel output associated with MRI sensor

 I

 D

 ∈

 I

 D

 {\displaystyle I^{D}\in {\mathcal {I}}^{\mathcal {D}}}


Figure showing hundreds of sub-cortical structures embedded in two-dimensional momentum space generated from the first two eigenvectors of the empirical co-variance estimated from the population of shapes.


Depicting template estimation from multiplie subcortical surfaces in populations of MR images using the EM-algorithm solution of Ma. [ 136 ]


Diffusion magnetic resonance imaging is used to assess macroscale connectomics within the human brain. dMRI image series are used to map white matter tracts, and fMRI series are used to assess how blood flow correlates between connected gray matter areas.


A connectivity matrix assessing the functional connectivity between each brain region in the Default Mode Network (DMN). Here, shades of red indicate stronger coupling between two regions blood flow changes, and shades of blue indicate an anti-correlation between two regions.


Device used to perform CES


A demonstration of the crowding effect. Fixate on the "x" and attempt to identify the central (or single) letter appearing to the right. The presence of flankers should make the task more difficult.


An illustration of the standard Hodgkin–Huxley Na +  channel model


Transmembrane voltage response of a space-clamped mammalian  node of Ranvier


Diagram of a voltage-sensitive sodium channel α-subunit. G -  glycosylation , P -  phosphorylation , S - ion selectivity, I - inactivation, positive (+) charges in S4 are important for transmembrane voltage sensing.


Mean proportions of stimuli perceived as painful v. stimulus prepulse


Based upon the data presented in [ 2 ]


Diagram of lateralized visual pathways of the human brain


The Ecstasy of  St. Theresa  by  Gianlorenzo Bernini  (1652). Left transept of Santa Maria della Vittoria (17th century) in Rome.


St Filippo Neri in Ecstasy by Guido Reni


Ecstasy , by  Jean Benner  ( Strasbourg Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art )


Basic Concept of a Kalman Filter


Image of  femoral nerve  and its innervations of muscles


Image of peripheral nerve sheath tumor under microscope


Image showing nerve conduction study which can measure nerve conduction velocity of peripheral nerves


Structure of GCaMP, a genetically encoded calcium indicator commonly used in calcium imaging methods, such as fiber photometry, one- and two-photon microscopy.


Rat receiving optogenetic stimulation via a fiber optic implant. This method can be combined with fiber photometry to manipulate and measure population calcium dynamics within a neural circuit.


Diagram showing the relationship between the experimental input function, u(t), neuronal activity x(t), and the observed hemodynamic or electrophysiologic response, y(t).


fMRI was used to detect whether PTSD affects grey:white matter ratio in women with Borderline Personality Disorder.


Typical neural population code. Each color represents a separate, adjacent neuron arranged linearly. X axis shows stimulus, such as head position or sound frequency, and Y axis shows neural response. In a gain field these action potentials are taken recurrently with another relevant stimulus.


Example of the high-frequency oscillation burst recorded from the  brain .


Current source density   reconstruction (done with kCSD method, [ 24 ]  red and blue dots) of the example HFO burst recorded (6 channel setup - green dots) from rat's brain (grey dots).


Forward model of an arm movement. The motor command, u(t), of the arm movement is input to the plant and the predicted position of the body, x̃(t), is output.


Figure 1. The desired position of the body is the reference input to the hypothetical controller, which generates the necessary motor command. This motor command is sent to the plant to move the body and an efference copy of the motor command is sent to a forward model. The output from the forward model (predicted body position) is compared with the output from the plant (body position). Noise from the system or the environment may cause differences between the actual and predicted body positions. The error (difference) between the actual and predicted positions can provide feedback to improve the movement for the next iteration of the internal model.


Figure 2. Inverse model of a reaching task. The arm's desired trajectory, Xref(t), is input into the model, which generates the necessary motor commands, ũ(t), to control the arm.


Figure depicts LDMM dense image matching. Top row shows transport of the image under the flow

 I
 ∘

 ϕ

 t

 −
 1

 {\displaystyle I\circ \phi _{t}^{-1}}

 ; middle row shows sequence of vector fields

 v

 t

 ,

 {\displaystyle v_{t},}

 t=0,1/5,2/5,3/5,4/5,1; bottom row shows the sequence of grids under

 ϕ

 t

 .

 {\displaystyle \phi _{t}.}


Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a persistent increase in  synaptic strength  following high-frequency stimulation of a  chemical synapse . Studies of LTP are often carried out in slices of the  hippocampus , an important organ for learning and memory. In such studies, electrical recordings are made from cells and plotted in a graph such as this one. This graph compares the response to stimuli in synapses that have undergone LTP versus synapses that have not undergone LTP. Synapses that have undergone LTP tend to have stronger electrical responses to stimuli than other synapses. The term  long-term potentiation  comes from the fact that this increase in  synaptic strength , or  potentiation , lasts a very long time compared to other processes that affect synaptic strength. [ 1 ]


The 19th century neuroanatomist  Santiago Ramón y Cajal  proposed that memories might be stored across  synapses , the junctions between neurons that allow for their communication.


LTP was first discovered in the rabbit  hippocampus . In humans, the hippocampus is located in the medial  temporal lobe . This illustration of the underside of the  human brain  shows the hippocampus highlighted in red. The  frontal lobe  is at the top of the illustration and the  occipital lobe  is at the bottom.


A synapse is repeatedly stimulated.


More dendritic receptors.


More neurotransmitters.


A stronger link between neurons.


The early phase of LTP, one model of which is shown here, is independent of protein synthesis. [ 33 ]


Ca 2+ /calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) appears to be an important mediator of the early, protein synthesis-independent phase of LTP.


The early and late phases of LTP are thought to communicate via the  extracellular signal-regulated kinase  (ERK). [ 33 ]


The  Morris water maze  task has been used to demonstrate the necessity of NMDA receptors in establishing  spatial memories .


Misprocessing of  amyloid precursor protein  (APP) in  Alzheimer's disease  disrupts LTP and is thought to lead to early cognitive decline in individuals with the disease. [ 64 ]


Mindfulness Meditation


Anterior cingulate cortex


Gray matter & insula


The hippocampus regulates memory function.


London Taxicab


Human Brain


Meditation:attending to a flame


String around finger used as a memory aid


Memory clamp in use to remember a small child in the back seat of a car on a hot day.


Illustration of  mind–body dualism  by  René Descartes . Inputs are passed by the sensory organs to the  pineal gland , and from there to the immaterial  spirit .


The neuronal correlates of consciousness constitute the smallest set of neural events and structures sufficient for a given conscious percept or explicit memory. This case involves synchronized action potentials in  neocortical   pyramidal neurons . [ 11 ]


Midline structures in the brainstem and thalamus necessary to regulate the level of brain arousal. Small, bilateral lesions in many of these nuclei cause a global loss of consciousness. [ 22 ]


Different approaches toward resolving the mind–body problem


Converging empirical evidence indicates a functional equivalence between action execution and motor imagery.


Activation in the motor cortex during motor imagery amounts about 30 % of the level observed during actual performance; Roth et al., 1996.


Coactivation of  biceps  and  triceps . The biceps’ EMG is on top, while the triceps’ EMG is on the bottom.


Carpal Tunnel Syndrome, symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome and anatomical location of the affected region.


Emerging of low back pain due to the compression of the sciatic nerve.


Anatomical location of ulnar nerve, the affected area of the cubital tunnel syndrome.


Methods of neural backpropagation.  Left: action potential forms in axon and travels towards soma.  Right: Regular action potential generates an echo that backpropagates through the  dendritic tree .


This diagram displays how the dendritic voltage spike comes after the depolarization of the axon and soma.


Simulation of neural oscillations at 10  Hz . Upper panel shows spiking of individual neurons (with each dot representing an individual  action potential  within the population of neurons), and the lower panel the  local field potential  reflecting their summed activity. Figure illustrates how synchronized patterns of action potentials may result in macroscopic oscillations that can be measured outside the scalp. When these neural oscillation patterns of synchronization break down, a reduction of signal intensity occurs. [ 1 ]


Autocorrelations and spike raster plots of two single-units recorded from the secondary somatosensory cortex of a monkey. The top neuron is oscillating spontaneously at approximately 30 Hz. The bottom neuron is not oscillating. [ 2 ]


Tonic  firing pattern of single neuron showing rhythmic spiking activity


Simulation of a  Hindmarsh–Rose neuron  showing typical  bursting  behavior: a fast rhythm generated by individual spikes and a slower rhythm generated by the bursts.


Simulation of a neural mass model showing network spiking during the onset of a  seizure . [ 49 ]  As the gain A is increased the network starts to oscillate at 3Hz.


Handwriting of a person affected by  Parkinson's disease  showing rhythmic tremor activity in the strokes


Generalized 3 Hz spike and wave discharges reflecting  seizure  activity


Stages of neuronal development  in the fetal cerebral cortex


Model of mammalian neurogenesis [ 4 ]


Schematic illustration of digital tracing of a neuron's morphology


Synaptic vesicles containing neurotransmitters


Acetylcholine is cleaved in the synaptic cleft into acetic acid and choline.


CAPON binds nitric oxide synthase, regulating NMDA receptor–mediated glutamate neurotransmission


Multicolor fluorescence  image of a neuron. Neurotubules are stained in green and  mitochondria  are stained in red.


Structure of a neurotubule.


Formation of neurotubule


A kinesin "walking" on a neurotubule to transport cargoes.


One most well-studied MAP is the Tau protein, due to its clinical significance in Alzheimer's disease.


Neurotubule disintegration in Alzheimer's disease.


The characteristic "smooth brain" of an individual that suffers from lissencephaly, a defective neuronal migration disorder caused by mutations in neurotubule-related genes


Transmission electron micrograph  of calcium content in the nucleus (N) and  mitochondria  (M) of a  chondrocyte


The calcium indicator  GCaMP  in its calcium-bound (top) and calcium-free form (bottom). When Ca- calmodulin  (cyan) binds to M13, the conformation changes and the cpGFP barrel closes, enabling green fluorescence.


Fig 1.  Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) induces temporally precise blue light-driven activity in rat prelimbic prefrontal cortical neurons. a)  In vitro  schematic (left) showing blue light delivery and whole-cell patch-clamp recording of light-evoked activity from a fluorescent CaMKllα::ChR2-EYFP expressing pyramidal neuron (right) in an acute brain slice. b)  In vivo  schematic (left) showing blue light (473 nm) delivery and single-unit recording. (bottom left) Coronal brain slice showing expression of CaMKllα::ChR2-EYFP in the prelimbic region. Light blue arrow shows tip of the optical fiber; black arrow shows tip of the recording electrode (left). White bar, 100  μm . (bottom right)  In vivo  light recording of prefrontal cortical neuron in a transduced CaMKllα::ChR2-EYFP rat showing light-evoked spiking to 20 Hz delivery of blue light pulses (right). Inset, representative light-evoked single-unit response. [ 44 ]


Fig 2 . Halorhodopsin (NpHR) rapidly and reversibly silences spontaneous activity  in vivo  in rat prelimbic prefrontal cortex. (Top left) Schematic showing  in vivo  green (532 nm) light delivery and single- unit recording of a spontaneously active CaMKllα::eNpHR3.0- EYFP expressing pyramidal neuron. (Right) Example trace showing that continuous 532 nm illumination inhibits single-unit activity  in vivo . Inset, representative single unit event; Green bar, 10 seconds. [ 44 ]


Three primary components in the application of optogenetics are as follows  (A)  Identification or synthesis of a light-sensitive protein (opsin) such as channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), halorhodopsin (NpHR), etc...  (B)  The design of a system to introduce the genetic material containing the opsin into cells for protein expression such as application of Cre recombinase or an adeno-associated-virus  (C)  application of light emitting instruments. [ 67 ]


Cages for rat equipped with optogenetic LED commutators which permit  in vivo  study of animal behavior during optogenetic stimulations


3D Medical Animation still shot of Lumbosacral Plexus


Overview of the retina photoreceptors. ipRGCs labelled at the top-right.


An ipRGC, shown here as a complied image of the retina from proximal inner nuclear layer to the ganglion cell layer with fluorescent labeling of melanopsin


Spectral sensitivities of the photoreceptors in the human eye. [ 4 ]


Melanopsin structure


Synaptic inputs and outputs of ipRGCs and their corresponding location in the brain


Inputs and outputs to ipRGCs involved in the pupillary light reflex


1:posterior segment 2:ora serrata 3:ciliary muscle 4:ciliary zonules 5:Schlemm's canal 6:pupil 7:anterior chamber 8:cornea 9:iris 10:lens cortex 11:lens nucleus 12:ciliary process 13:conjunctiva 14:inferior oblique muscule 15:inferior rectus muscule 16:medial rectus muscle 17:retinal arteries and veins 18:optic disc 19:dura mater 20:central retinal artery 21:central retinal vein 22:optic nerve 23:vorticose vein 24:bulbar sheath 25:macula 26:fovea  27:sclera 28:choroid 29:superior rectus muscle 30:retina


Lesions in the brain as indicated by arrows.


An illustration depicting the differences between a  Western diet  and a Mediterranean diet.


Approximate location of Broca's and Wernicke's areas highlighted in white.


The slide describes the relationship between the key components of imagination: simple memory recall, mental synthesis, and spontaneous insight.


Robo-Slit Interactions and Axonal Midline Guidance


Image [ 3 ]  generated from a database of  segmented  leaves that simultaneously registers natural images (scene information) with the exact locations of leaf boundaries (information about the physical environment).  Such a database can be used to study across-domain statistics.


CT scan  slice of the brain showing a right- hemispheric   ischemic  stroke (left side of image).


The cortical homunculus, or the visual representation of how your brain sees your body, was discovered by Wilder Penfield


Facial view of an infant with macrocephaly


Diagram illustrating the theorized causes of NAA accumulation in spongy degeneration patients and its consequences


Small volume of amniotic fluid is extracted via  amniocentesis  with a  syringe .


Molecular view of gene therapy using an adenovirus vector


Eye patches may strengthen the weaker eye but fail to stimulate binocular vision and stereopsis, which may sometimes be recovered by different means.


Oliver Sacks  was the first to make the story of Susan Barry, whom he nicknamed "Stereo Sue", known to the general public.


Although stereoblind, Bridgeman used polarized glasses in a 3D cinema and could suddenly see in 3D.


Tetris  is a popular video game from the 1980s. A modified version of the game (not shown here) has been used for dichoptic training.


Prism lenses (here unusually thick) are used for pre-operative prism adaptation.


The above 256-grayscale-level images of the Arc result when the original is modified by the addition of noise and carrying out a nonlinear threshold operation; each panel shows a different level of noise variance, with a standard deviation of 10 grayscale levels in the top left, 50 levels in the top right, 100 in the bottom left and 150 in the bottom right. Different panels allow the best detection of different features; for example, the designs on the pillars are best seen in the top right, while the full outline of the arc is best seen in the bottom left. The appearance of features also changes with the size of the image as a result of averaging of the image; this can be observed by viewing the image at different distances.


The  Arc de Triomphe


A  Nigerian  man receives the  smallpox vaccine  in February 1969, as part of a global program that  successfully eradicated the disease  from the human population.


Graph of cosmic microwave background spectrum measured by the FIRAS instrument on the  COBE , the most precisely measured  black body  spectrum in nature. [ 18 ]  The  error bars  are too small to be seen even in an enlarged image, and it is impossible to distinguish the observed data from the theoretical curve.


Stimulation of the surround with the classical receptive field induces a response that is smaller than stimulation of the classical receptive field alone. Stimulation of the surround only has no effect.


Suppression often increases with stimulus size beyond the classical receptive field.


The differences between lateral, feedforward, and recurrent connections


Edge detection based on center (red) and off center (green) receptive fields


Synaptic stabilization by cell adhesion molecules


Temporal and spatial distribution of N-cadherin complexes in the developing and mature synapse


Neurexin-neuroligin interactions promote synapse stabilization. On the presynaptic side, neurexin associates with synaptotagmin, calcium channels. On the post-synaptic side, neuroligin PDZ domain interacts with scaffolding proteins that help cluster receptor channels.


Ephrin A3/EphA4 signaling initiates a cascade of events that results in that regulation of the actin cytoskeleton.


Sagittal view of cingulate region of human brain with a Talairach grid superimposed in accordance with standard locators.


A colorized image of the Brodmann areas.


Example of a PET scan.


Patient gets a "MEG".


Using the TetTag mouse for memory research. During fear conditioning, doxicycline is removed from the food to allow the interaction between tTA and the LacZ labeling system. Later memory retrieval activates another immediate early gene (Zif). In this example, two neurons carry the red and the nuclear green label, indicating that these neurons were active during memory storage (red) and again during retrieval (green). [ 1 ]


An example response of system to sine wave forcing function. Time axis in units of the time constant  τ . The response damps out to become a simple sine wave.


Frequency response of system vs. frequency in units of the bandwidth  f 3dB . The response is normalized to a zero frequency value of unity, and drops to 1/√2 at the bandwidth.


Step response of system for two different initial values  V 0 , one above the final value and one at zero. Long-time response is a constant,  V ∞ . Time axis in units of the time constant

 τ

 {\displaystyle \tau }

 .


Capacitor voltage step-response.


Inductor voltage step-response.


Primary Visual Cortex


Salience Map: represented by the map of maximum V1 neural responses to visual inputs, one maximum response per visual location


Masking of a salient border between two textures by adding a uniform texture


Gaze capture by an ocular singleton


FINST model of visual perception.


Pioneers of voltage-sensitive dyes: A. Grinvald, L.B. Cohen, K. Kamino, B.M. Salzberg, W.N. Ross; Tokyo, 2000


The  BRA-Santos Dumont  exoskeleton


Patient wearing the non-invasive BMI, 2014.


Feet of a patient using the exoskeleton


The picture shows three exemplary steps during white matter dissection. In the upper part, a left hemisphere has been prepared according to Klingler's technique. The arachnoidal layer and the blood vessels were previously removed. In the middle part of the picture the first step of white matter dissection with the exposure of short fibres (U-fibres) which are visible underneath the cerebral cortex. In the lower part, a deeper layer of anatomical dissection with white matter structures (associative and projection fibres) and basal ganglia (Putamen). [ 1 ]


Structural magnetic resonance imaging (structural MRI) of a head, from top to base of the skull


Sagittal MRI slice at the midline


Axial MRI slice at the level of the  basal ganglia , showing fMRI  BOLD  signal changes overlaid in red (increase) and blue (decrease) tones


Figure 1: AD progresses through the brain in a specific characteristic pattern  [ 20 ]


Figure 2: β-amyloid deposition.  This image shows a Pittsburgh compound B (PIB)-PET scan of a patient with Alzheimer's disease on the left and an elderly person with normal memory on the right. Areas of red and yellow show high concentrations of PiB in the brain and suggest high amounts of amyloid deposits in these areas.


Figure 3: PET scans showing differences in glucose metabolism in a normal brain on the left and the brain of a patient with AD on the right. Red/yellow corresponds to higher metabolism and blue/purple corresponds to lower metabolism, indicating damage to neurons.


Figure 4. Structural changes in the Alzheimer brain compared to the normal brain include thinning of the cortex, expansion of the ventricles, enlargement of the sulci, and general loss of brain volume.


Figure 5 . Network representation of brain connectivity. The thickness of the lines represent the strength of connection between different brain areas. Important 'hubs' are marked as circles. As Alzheimer's disease progresses, individual connections erode. [ 23 ]


MRI scans of the human brain, examples of ARIA highlighted in blue: Left: ARIA-E with sulcal effusion ( FLAIR sequence ) Middle: ARIA-H with multiple microbleeds ( T2* weighted ) Right: ARIA-H with superficial siderosis (T2* weighted)


NIH  Director Dr.  Francis Collins  and President  Barack Obama  announcing the BRAIN Initiative


Images obtained with PET (axial sections) that show the effects of chronic drug exposure on various proteins involved in dopamine (DA) neurotransmission and on brain function (as assessed by brain glucose metabolism). While some effects are common to many drugs of abuse,...others are more specific. These include the decrease...in brain monoamine oxidase B (...the enzyme involved in DA metabolism) in cigarette smokers. The rainbow scale was used to code the PET images; radiotracer concentration is displayed from higher to lower as red > yellow > green > blue. [ 3 ]


NeuroLF - a dedicated brain PET system. Photo courtesy of Positrigo AG, Switzerland


Three brainbows of mouse neurons from Lichtman and Sanes, 2008


A brainbow of mouse neurons from Smith, 2007


Three copies of the genetic construct allow for the expression of multiple fluorophore color combinations. Lawson Kurtz et al. / Duke University


The basic Brainbow1 genetic construct. Lawson Kurtz et al. / Duke University


A brainbow of neurons in a mouse embryo (b), as well as some  tractographical  images of similar neurons (Chédotal and Richards, 2010)


A 3-dimensional image taken via the CLARITY technique showing a 1 millimeter slice of mouse  hippocampus . The different colors represent proteins stained with fluorescent antibodies. Excitatory neurons are labeled in green, Inhibitory neurons in red, and  astrocytes  in blue.


Connectogram showing average connections and cortical measures of 110 normal, right-handed males, aged 25-36.


Legend for metadata presented in the various rings of the connectogram.


Brains colored according to the outer ring of the connectogram.


Connectogram, typical of those in clinical use, depicting estimated connection damage in  Phineas Gage , who in 1848 survived a large iron bar being propelled through his skull and brain. The connectogram shows only the connections that were estimated to be damaged.


A connectogram of a healthy control subject, and includes 5 additional nodal measures not included in the standard connectogram. From outside to inside, the rings represent the cortical region, grey matter volume, surface area, cortical thickness, curvature, degree of connectivity, node strength, betweenness centrality, eccentricity, nodal efficiency, and eigenvector centrality. Between degree of connectivity and node strength, a blank ring has been added as a placeholder.


Dr. Ryan D'Arcy and Iron Soldier Trevor Greene speak at TedXBearCreekPark


Striatum


Dopamine Pathways


Dopamine D2 receptors


Gamma-camera


ADC image of the same case of cerebral infarction as seen on DWI in section above


Visualization of DTI data with ellipsoids.


Tractographic reconstruction of neural connections via DTI


DTI of a healthy human brachial plexus. Taken from Wade et al., 2020. [ 44 ]


The neural model in DCM for fMRI. z1 and z2 are the mean levels of activity in each region. Parameters A are the effective connectivity, B is the modulation of connectivity by a specific experimental condition and C is the driving input.


Models of the cortical column used in EEG/MEG/LFP analysis. Self-connections on each population are present but not shown for clarity. Left: DCM for ERP. Right: Canonical Microcircuit (CMC). 1=spiny stellate cells (layer IV), 2=inhibitory interneurons, 3=(deep) pyramidal cells and 4=superficial pyramidal cells.


The  default mode network  above is one example of a brain network seen using steady state connectivity.  This network is fairly stable in time, but it has been shown to have a variable relationship with other networks, and to vary slightly in its own characteristics in time.


Full  EEG  caps like the one above are often used simultaneously with fMRI in order to capture information about the electrical signals underlying the BOLD signal.


Typical set-up for recording EPR spectra.  The user would be seated next to the RF generator, magnet, and controls for sample temperature. Bruker ELEXSYS E500 EPR instrument from NYU.


The field oscillates between B 1  and B 2  due to the superimposed modulation field at 100 kHz. This causes the absorption intensity to oscillate between I 1  and I 2 . The larger the difference the larger the intensity detected by the detector tuned to 100 kHz (note this can be negative or even 0). As the difference between the two intensities is detected the first derivative of the absorption is detected.


The shape of a powder-pattern EPR spectrum changes according to the distribution of the

 g

 {\displaystyle g}

  matrix principal values


Simulated EPR spectra of the methyl and methoxymethyl radicals


This low-temperature ESR- STM  in the  Center for Quantum Nanoscience  is one of the first STMs globally to measure electron spin resonance on single atoms.


Variation in the EPR spectrum of the  TEMPO  nitroxide radical as the microwave band (energy of excitation) changes. [ 32 ]  Note the improved resolution as frequency rises (neglecting the influence of  g  strain ).


3D model of a typical X-band CW-EPR spectrometer


"Current Clamp" is a common technique in electrophysiology. This is a whole-cell current clamp recording of a neuron firing due to its being depolarized by current injection


The voltage clamp uses a negative feedback mechanism. The membrane potential amplifier measures membrane voltage and sends output to the feedback amplifier. The feedback amplifier subtracts the membrane voltage from the command voltage, which it receives from the signal generator. This signal is amplified and returned into the cell via the recording electrode.


The cell-attached  patch clamp  uses a micropipette attached to the cell membrane to allow recording from a single ion channel.


A schematic diagram showing a field potential recording from rat hippocampus. At the left is a schematic diagram of a  presynaptic terminal  and postsynaptic neuron.  This is meant to represent a large population of synapses and neurons.  When the synapse releases glutamate onto the postsynaptic cell, it opens ionotropic glutamate receptor channels.  The net flow of current is inward, so a current sink is generated.  A nearby electrode (#2) detects this as a negativity.  An  intracellular  electrode placed inside the cell body (#1) records the change in membrane potential that the incoming current causes.


Whole-body PET scan using  18 F-FDG to show liver metastases of a colorectal tumor


Example FSL GUIs


Diffusion Tensor Schematic


A screen capture of the FreeView application included in FreeSurfer.


FreeSurfer morphs cortical surfaces onto spheres to aide in inter-subject comparisons.


Researcher checking fMRI images


Main brain functional imaging technique resolutions


Composite images from an fMRI scan


fMRI image of the brain of a participant in the  Personal Genome Project


These fMRI images are from a study showing parts of the brain lighting up on seeing houses and other parts on seeing faces. The 'r' values are correlations, with higher positive or negative values indicating a stronger relationship (i.e., a better match).


fNIRS with a Gowerlabs NTS system


Oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin


Absorption spectra for oxy-Hb and deoxy-Hb for near-infrared wavelengths


Hitachi ETG-4000


Measurement of brain oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin concentration changes at high alltitude induced hypoxia with a portable fNIRS device (PortaLite, Artinis Medical Systems)


10-20 system


Mobile and wireless fNIRS and EEG systems synchronized with all-in-one head mounted display (PhotonCap, Cortivision)


Functional magnetic resonance imaging  data


MRI scans showing hyperintensities


SPECT  DaTSCAN  showing normal Ioflupane ( 123 I) uptake in the striatum.


A 'Jedi' helmet, on display at the Science Museum:Medicine:The Wellcome Galleries


This axial T2-weighted (CSF white) MR scan shows a normal brain at the level of the lateral ventricles.


False color  MRI by applying red to T1, green to PD and blue to T2.  Click here to scroll through the stack, and for further description of the colors.


Dr. Cohen's shielded room at MIT, in which first MEG was measured with a SQUID


First MEG measured with SQUID, in Dr. Cohen's room at MIT


Origin of the brain's magnetic field. The electric current also produces the EEG signal.


Entrance to MSR, showing the separate shielding layers


Over 100 MEG systems are known to operate worldwide, with Japan possessing the greatest number of MEG systems per capita and the United States possessing the greatest overall number of MEG systems. A very small number of systems worldwide are designed for infant and/or fetal recordings.


Spinal nerve Sympathetic ganglion multilingual


Midline shift (arrow) is present in this brain after a  stroke  (infarct depicted in shaded area).


This  subdural hematoma / epidural hematoma  (arrows) is causing midline shift of the brain


fMRI data showing regions of activation


Benedikt Sundermann receives the 2018 OHBM Replication Award


The two image in the top row (the image on the left hand side is plotted on log scale and on the right hand side is plotted on linear scale) show the output of the spectral analysis showing its frequencies components grouped around three clusters, referred to as high, intermediate and low frequencies, supporting the assumption of three compartments in the Hawkins model corresponding to plasma, bone ECF and bone mineral compartment respectively. The image at the bottom row shows the IRF plotted using the frequency components obtained previously.


A bone TAC is modelled as a convolution of measured arterial input function with IRF. The estimates for IRF are obtained iteratively to minimise the differences between the bone curve and the convolution of estimated IRF with input function curve. The curve in green shows the initial estimates of the IRF and the blue curve is the final IRF which minimises the differences between the estimated bone curve and the true bone curve.  K i  is obtained from the intercept of the linear fit to the slow component of this exponential curve which is considered the plasma clearance to the bone mineral, i.e. were the red line cuts the y axis.


A diagrammatic view of the process of kinetic modelling using Hawkins model used to calculate the rate of bone metabolism at a skeletal site. C p  refers to the plasma concentration of the tracer, C e  refers to the tracer concentration in ECF compartment, C b  refers to the concentration of tracer in bone mineral compartment, M1 refers to mass of tracer in the C e  compartment, M2 refers to the mass of tracer in the C b  compartment, C T  is the total mass in the C e +C b , PVE refers to the partial volume correction, FA refers to the femoral artery, ROI refers to region of the interest, B-Exp refers to the bi-exponential, .


Patlak analysis where a linear regression is fitted between the data on y- and x-axis to obtain the estimates of the Ki, which is the slope of the fitted regression line.


A fully automated  radiosynthesis  interface of PET-radiotracers


A – CT image; B – PET image; C – Coregistered PET and CT images. The bright red/yellow masses show hypermetabolic areas of the  pelvis  with metastases of a previous, surgically removed  colon carcinoma  in a 69-yr-old woman.


Siemens Biograph PET-CT scanner


Whole-body PET scan using  18 F-FDG ( fluorodeoxyglucose ). The normal brain and kidneys are labeled, and radioactive urine from breakdown of the FDG is seen in the bladder. In addition, a large metastatic tumor mass from colon cancer is seen in the liver.


PET scan of the human brain


Schematic view of a detector block and ring of a PET scanner


Schema of a PET acquisition process


Complete body PET-CT fusion image


Brain PET-MRI fusion image


A PET scanner released in 2003


High resolution  99m Tc-MDP mouse scan acquired with a stationary SPECT system: animated image of rotating maximum intensity projections.


When pinhole imaging is used, the high magnification of the projection greatly reduces the resolution loss due to detector blurring


Animated maximum intensity projections of SPECT/CT mouse scans acquired after administration of 0.26 MBq of  111 In-labelled nanoparticles. Images illustrates  in vivo  biodistribution of the particles within the animal.


Fast pharmacokinetics: 15s-frame  99m Tc-MDP mouse SPECT scan acquired with a stationary SPECT system


The matrix of medical imaging and comparative performance of different imaging modalities


These fMRI images are from a study showing parts of the brain lighting up on seeing houses and other parts on seeing faces. The 'r' values are correlations, with higher positive or negative values indicating a better match.


Study showing four functional networks that were found to be highly consistent across subjects. These modules include the visual (yellow), sensory/motor (orange) and basal ganglia (red) cortices as well as the default mode network (posterior cingulate, inferior parietal lobes, and medial frontal gyrus; maroon).


This image is from a study using both fMRI and EEG acquisition at the resting state. The left row shows sagittal, coronal and horizontal slices of the ten RSNs. On the right side the covariance and t-maps for the 8 frequency bands are displayed.


SPECT image (bone tracer) of a mouse  MIP


Collimator used to collimate gamma rays (red arrows) in a gamma camera


A Siemens brand SPECT scanner, consisting of two gamma cameras.


SPECT machine performing a total body bone scan. The patient lies on a table that slides through the machine, while a pair of gamma cameras rotate around her.


SPECT  Sinogram


Brain activation from fMRI shown as patch of colour on MRI scan


SWI Image acquired at 4 Tesla showing the veins in the brain.


A phase mask sensitive to negative phase values with a linear (dashed line) and 4th power mapping (solid line)


Comparison of diffuse axonal injury imaged with conventional GRE (left) and SWI (right) at 1.5 T


Comparison of hemorrhage imaged with conventional GRE (left) and SWI (right) at 1.5 T


SWI venogram of a neonate with Sturge–Weber syndrome


Images of CAA collected at 1.5 T. Left, conventional T2* (TE=20 ms), center, SWI processed magnitude image (TE=40 ms) and right, SWI phase image (TE=40 ms)


Injected instrument response function and the reconstructed DTOF


Silicon photomultiplier


Example of a VBM analysis on patients who experience  cluster headaches .


Chemical structure  of DOPAL.


A gammatone impulse response


A coat hanger


Parameters in the Hille equation.


Lövheim cube of emotion


Illustration of the distribution of cone cells in the fovea of an individual with normal color vision (left), and a color blind (protanopic) retina. Note that the center of the fovea holds very few blue-sensitive cones.


Precentral gyrus sensory homunculus


STRF generated with  STRFPAK .


TNI is part of the  South Texas Medical Center .


Cross section of the  olfactory bulb  of a  rat ,  stained  in two different ways at the same time: one stain shows  neuronal cell bodies , the other shows receptors for the  neurotransmitter   GABA .


Neurons  generate  electrical signals  that travel along their  axons . When an electrical impulse reaches a junction called a  synapse , it causes a  neurotransmitter  to be released, which binds to  receptors  on other cells and thereby alters their electrical activity.


Nervous system of a generic bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front


Fruit flies ( Drosophila ) have been extensively studied to gain insight into the role of genes in brain development.


The brain of a  shark


The main subdivisions of the  embryonic  vertebrate brain (left), which later differentiate into structures of the adult brain (right)


The main anatomical regions of the vertebrate brain, shown for shark and human. The same parts are present, but they differ greatly in size and shape.


Anatomical comparison between the brain of a lizard (A and C) and the brain of a turkey (B and D). Abbreviations:  Olf, olfactory lobes; Hmp, cerebral hemispheres; Pn, pineal gland ; Mb, optic lobes of the middle brain ; Cb, cerebellum; MO, medulla oblongata; ii, optic nerves; iv and vi, nerves for the muscles of the eye; Py, pituitary body. Comparison of Vertebrate Brains: Mammalian, Reptilian, Amphibian, Teleost, and Ammocoetes.  CB., cerebellum; PT., pituitary body; PN., pineal body; C. STR., corpus striatum; G.H.R., right ganglion habenulæ. I., olfactory; II., optic nerves.


Brains of an  emu , a  kiwi , a  barn owl , and a  pigeon , with visual processing areas labelled


Brain of a human embryo in the sixth week of development


Brain electrical activity recorded from a human patient during an  epileptic seizure


Model of a neural circuit in the cerebellum, as proposed by  James S. Albus


Diagram of signal processing in the  auditory system


Cross-section of a human head, showing location of the  hypothalamus


Components of the basal ganglia, shown in two cross-sections of the human brain. Blue:  caudate nucleus  and  putamen . Green:  globus pallidus . Red:  subthalamic nucleus . Black:  substantia nigra .


The  Human Brain Project  is a large scientific research project, starting in 2013, which aims to simulate the complete human brain.


Design of an experiment in which brain activity from a monkey was used to control a robotic arm [ 126 ]


Illustration by  René Descartes  of how the brain implements a reflex response


Andreas Vesalius '  Fabrica , published in 1543, showing the base of the human brain, including  optic chiasma , cerebellum,  olfactory bulbs , etc.


Drawing by  Santiago Ramón y Cajal  of two types of Golgi-stained neurons from the cerebellum of a pigeon


Gulai otak ,  beef brain  curry from Indonesia


Human brain (sagittal section)


Major gyri and sulci on the lateral surface of the cortex


Lobes of the brain


Cortical folds and white matter in horizontal bisection of head


Human brain viewed from below, showing cerebellum and brainstem


Cerebrospinal fluid  circulates in spaces around and within the brain


Two circulations joining at the circle of Willis (inferior view)


Diagram showing features of cerebral  outer membranes  and supply of blood vessels


Neurulation and neural crest cells


Primary and secondary  vesicle  stages of development in the early embryo to the fifth week


Brain of a human embryo in the sixth week of development


Motor and sensory regions of the brain


Cortical areas


Routing of neural signals from the two eyes to the brain


Broca's area  and  Wernicke's area  are linked by the  arcuate fasciculus .


PET  image of the human brain showing energy consumption


FMRI of healthy human brain


CT scan  of a  cerebral hemorrhage , showing an  intraparenchymal bleed  (bottom arrow) with surrounding  edema  (top arrow)


The skull of  Phineas Gage , with the path of the iron rod that passed through it without killing him, but altering his cognition. The case helped to convince people that mental functions were localised in the brain. [ 208 ]


Phrenology  summarised in an 1883 chart


Hieroglyph  for the word "brain" ( c.  1700 BC )


Drawing of the base of the brain, from  Andreas Vesalius 's 1543 work  De humani corporis fabrica


One of  Leonardo da Vinci 's sketches of the human skull


Drawing by  Camillo Golgi  of vertical section of rabbit  hippocampus , from his "Sulla fina anatomia degli organi centrali del sistema nervoso", 1885


Drawing of cells in chick  cerebellum  by  Santiago Ramón y Cajal , from "Estructura de los centros nerviosos de las aves", Madrid, 1905


Side view of human brain


Human brain in the  sagittal plane


Ventricles of the brain


Tau protein  disorders cause  microtubule  destruction and formation of  neurofibrillary tangles .


Major dopamine pathways. As part of the  reward pathway , dopamine is manufactured in nerve cell bodies located within  VTA  and is released in the  nucleus accumbens  and the  prefrontal cortex . The motor functions of dopamine are linked to a separate pathway, with cell bodies in the  substantia nigra  that manufacture and release dopamine into the  striatum .


Dopamine and serotonin functions and pathways


Expression of  glutamate transporter 1  in  glial cell  facilitates reuptake of glutamate and decreases extracellular glutamate concentration


The cerebrospinal fluid circulates in the  subarachnoid space  around the brain and  spinal cord , and in the  ventricles  of the brain


Life expectancy in the USA by race [ 97 ]


Life expectancy in the USA by race and sex, with calculated sex gap [ 97 ]


Estimates of how much processing power is needed to emulate a human brain at various levels (from  Ray Kurzweil , and  Anders Sandberg  and  Nick Bostrom ), along with the fastest supercomputer from  TOP500  mapped by year


Part of a network of  capillaries  supplying brain cells


The astrocytes type 1 surrounding capillaries in the brain


Sketch showing constitution of blood vessels inside the brain


(left) Coralline ball, (center and right) proposed Brain balls, rightmost is heavily worn. From Conwell's  Discovery of the tomb of Ollamh Fodhla , p.62


Radionuclide scan: No intracranial blood flow. The  "hot-nose" sign  is shown.


Brain map  of the  C. elegans  roundworm 302 neurons, interconnected by 5000 synapses


Estimates of how much processing power is needed to emulate a human brain at various levels of detail, on a logarithmic scale. [ 9 ]


Modern human cranial size over the last 300 ka using data consolidated into 100-year means according to one 2022 study [ 6 ]


...and for the last 30 ka [ 6 ]


Trends in hominin brain size evolution [ 9 ]


Specimens of analysis on human brain size over 9.8-million-years shown in the image above [ 6 ]


Average brain weight for males and females over lifespan. From the study  Changes in brain weights during the span of human life.


Brain–body mass relationship for mammals  [ dubious  –  discuss ]


The  bony-eared assfish  has the smallest known brain–body mass ratio of all vertebrates [ 3 ]


Schematic representation of a Magnetic Resonance


Ct scan cone beam


Poles of cerebral hemispheres


Cerebral hemispheres of a human embryo at 8 weeks.


Micrograph  of  corpora amylacea  in benign  prostatic glands .  H&E stain .


Micrograph of corpora amylacea (purple spheres) in the brain of a person with  Alzheimer's disease . Combined  Periodic acid-Schiff  and silver stains. Bar = 50 microns (0.05 millimeters).


Interaction between dorsal and  ventral attention  networks enables dynamic control of attention in relation to top-down goals and bottom-up sensory stimulation. [ 1 ]


Animated  nicotine  structure.


The reinforcing effects of  drugs of abuse , such as  nicotine , are associated with its ability to excite the  mesolimbic  and  dopaminergic  systems. [ 50 ] How does the nicotine in e-cigarettes affect the brain ? [ 6 ]  Until about age 25, the brain is still growing. [ 6 ]  Each time a new memory is created or a new skill is learned, stronger connections – or synapses – are built between brain cells. [ 6 ]  Young people's brains build synapses faster than adult brains. [ 6 ]  Because addiction is a form of learning, adolescents can get addicted more easily than adults. [ 6 ]  The nicotine in e-cigarettes and other tobacco products can also prime the adolescent brain for addiction to other drugs such as cocaine. [ 51 ]


Youth e-cigarette use is rising. [ 71 ]


Graphic from the 2019  US Surgeon General 's report entitled  Use of Two or More Tobacco Products . [ 92 ]


Effects of nicotine on the human brain. [ 5 ]


Health effects of using e-cigarettes. [ 114 ]


A sampling of some instruments used to remove the brain from a mummified Egyptian corpse.


Frontal lobe (red) of left cerebral hemisphere


The salience network is theorised to mediate switching between the  default mode network  and frontoparietal network (central executive network). [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


1848 edition of American Phrenological Journal published by Fowlers & Wells, New York City


Phineas Gage's accident


Trajectory of a rat through a square environment is shown in black. Red dots indicate locations at which a particular entorhinal grid cell fired.


Grid cells derive their name from the fact that connecting the centers of their firing fields gives a triangular grid.


Spatial autocorrelogram of the neuronal activity of the grid cell from the first figure.


A hexagonal lattice.


Gut–brain axis overview [ 1 ]


Gut-brain communication


Bifidobacterium adolescentis


Lactobacillus  sp 01


Diagram of one possible hologram setup.


A single hologram can store 3D information in a 2D way. Such properties may explain some of the brain's abilities, including the ability to recognize objects at different angles and sizes than in the original stored memory.


A few of the various types of synapses


Ray Kurzweil in 2008


Example of a  hidden Markov model


Exponential growth of computing


Simson Garfinkel thinks Kurzweil's "pattern recognition theory of mind" is not a theory.


Predicted growth curves for  Intelligence as process , crystallized intelligence, occupational knowledge, and avocational knowledge based on Ackerman's PPIK Theory [ citation needed ]


Measured results of the study


Score distribution chart for sample of 905 children tested on 1916 Stanford-Binet Test


The  human brain  with its  lobes  highlighted


Anatomical topographies of canonical large-scale networks


An example that identified 10 large-scale brain networks from  resting state fMRI  activity through  independent component analysis [ 15 ]


The human brain is divided into two  hemispheres –left and right. Scientists continue to explore how some cognitive functions tend to be dominated by one side or the other; that is, how they are  lateralized .    Right cerebral hemisphere    Left cerebral hemisphere


Lateral view of the Brain


Oversimplification of hemisphericity


Oversimplification of lateralization in pop psychology. This belief was widely held even in the scientific community for some years.


The  Brodmann areas  of a human brain


Most famous parts of the brain highlighted in different colours


Embryonic vertebrate subdivisions of the developing human brain


hindbrain  or  rhombencephalon  is a  developmental  categorization of portions of the  central nervous system  in  vertebrates . It includes the  medulla ,  pons , and  cerebellum .


Cross-section of the midbrain.


Diencephalon


Mouse brain, lateral view


Diagram of liposome showing a phospholipid bilayer surrounding an aqueous interior.


Diagram displays a solid lipid nanoparticle (SLN). There is only one phospholipid layer because the interior of the particle is solid. Molecules such as antibodies, targeting peptides, and drug molecules can be bound to the surface of the SLN.


Polymer Branch


This diagram shows several ways in which transport across the BBB works. For nanoparticle delivery across the BBB, the most common mechanisms are receptor-mediated transcytosis and adsorptive transcytosis


Paul Donald MacLean


A diagrammatic explanation of the mirror box. The patient places the intact limb into one side of the box (in this case the right hand) and the amputated limb into the other side. Due to the mirror, the patient sees a reflection of the intact hand where the missing limb would be (indicated in lower contrast). The patient thus receives artificial visual feedback that the "resurrected" limb is now moving when they move the good hand.


Maternal affection, by  Edward Hodges Baily


Skin-to-skin contact with a newborn helps to increase the mother's oxytocin [ 20 ]


Cross-section of lower pons, axons shown in blue, grey matter in light grey. Anterior is down and posterior is up


The salience network is theorized to mediate switching between the  default mode network  and  central executive network . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Interaction between the ventral (salience) and  dorsal attention  networks enables dynamic control of attention in relation to top-down goals and bottom-up sensory stimulation. [ 8 ]


Different sides of the brain specialize in different functions or processes.


The  corpus callosum , highlighted in red, is the main neural pathway between the two hemispheres.


The picture is about a normal brain and a person with a split brain


Animation showing the position of the human left temporal lobe


Human brain and skull


visual word form area3.jpg


The Yakovlevian torque in the cerebrum (exaggerated). Redrawn from Toga & Thompson (2003). [ 1 ]


Monkey operating a robotic arm with brain–computer interfacing (Schwartz lab, University of Pittsburgh)


Yang Dan and colleagues' recordings of cat vision using a BCI implanted in the  lateral geniculate nucleus  (top row: original image; bottom row: recording)


Diagram of the BCI developed by Miguel Nicolelis and colleagues for use on  rhesus monkeys


BCIs are a core focus of the  Carney Institute for Brain Science  at  Brown University .


Dummy unit illustrating the design of a  BrainGate  interface


Illustration of invasive and partially invasive BCIs: electrocorticography (ECoG), endovascular, and intracortical microelectrode.


Recordings of brainwaves produced by an  electroencephalogram


ATR Labs' reconstruction of human vision using  fMRI  (top row: original image; bottom row: reconstruction from mean of combined readings)


The world's first  neurochip , developed by  Caltech  researchers Jerome Pine and Michael Maher


Brain-computer interface


Source-channel model showing the source of images the deformable template

 I
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 φ
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 m
 p

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 I

 {\displaystyle I\doteq \varphi \cdot I_{\mathrm {temp} }\in {\mathcal {I}}}

  and channel output associated with MRI sensor

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Orbits of brains associated to diffeomorphic group action on templates depicted via smooth flow associated to geodesic flows with random spray associated to random generation of initial tangent space vector field

 v

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 ; published in.


Showing the Lagrangian flow of coordinates

 x
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  with associated vector fields

 v

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 t
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Figure showing the random spray of synthesized subcortical structures laid out in the two-dimensional grid representing the variance of the eigenfunction used for the momentum for synthesis.


A laboratory rat with a brain implant


Schematic of the "Utah" Electrode Array


Brain Awareness Week, 2014


Parastoo Hashemi


The neurotrophic electrode: teflon-coated gold wires extend from the back of the glass cone, while neurites (shown in blue) grow through it.


Shannon Plot


The Stentrode device


Typical neural implant electrode array


Elastic modulus of the polymer coating interface between the hard electrode and soft tissue surface


The figure on the left shows the original silicon surface with a contact angle of 27.3 degrees ± 1.4 degrees. The figure on the right shows the surface with the laminin that had a contact angle of 85.0 degrees ± 1.6 degrees. Angles can be measured with a contact angle goniometer.


Chemical structure of dexamethasone, a glucocorticoid that is used as an anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive agent


The properties of the release mechanism of the encapsulated DEX in the nanoparticles through the pore of the hydrogel network is pictured. Also, the amount of DEX that was loaded into the nano-particles is demonstrated as well as the particle size range (400–600 nm).


The wires of an implanted  deep brain stimulation  (DBS) device are visible as white lines in an  X-ray  of the skull. Large white areas around the  maxilla  and mandible are metal  dentures  and are unrelated to the DBS device.


Judea Pearl  at his poster at the 2013 Conference on Neural Information Processing Systems


Santiago Ramón y Cajal , the father of modern  neuroscience  and a  Spanish  neuroscientist, received the  Nobel Prize  in Medicine in 1906 for his discovery of  the neuron doctrine . He shared the prize with  Camillo Golgi , an  Italian  neuroscientist who was recognized for his staining technique that allowed neurons to be visualized.


Camillo Golgi  (1843–1926), Italian physician, neuroscientist, and namesake of the  Golgi apparatus


A dissected sheep brain


Hieroglyphic  stating the word, "brain", dated to 1700 BC. This work is considered a copy of an original writing as old as 3000 BC.


L-phenylalanine


May-Britt Moser , co-winner of 2014  Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine


Eric Kandel , co-winner of the 2000  Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine


Elizabeth Roboz Einstein (1904–1995), pioneering biochemist and neuroscientist from Hungary.


Riitta Hari, Finnish neuroscientist, at the Science Forum 2011 in Helsinki.


Nathalie Zand of Poland


Dr. Arthur P. Arnold


Dr Natalie Matosin in Munich after being named a Forbes 30 Under 30 Lister in Science and Healthcare in January, 2017. Photo:  https://www.illawarramercury.com.au/story/4417586/wollongong-neuroscientist-named-in-the-prestigious-forbes-30-under-30-list/


Classic ALS involves neurons in the brain and spinal cord ( upper motor neurons , highlighted red), as well as the  lower motor neurons , which go from the spinal cord to the muscles, highlighted teal. [ 23 ]


Illustration showing the range of upper and lower motor neuron involvement in the two most common types of ALS (top row) and three of the most common rare subtypes of ALS (bottom row)


This figure shows ten proposed disease mechanisms for ALS and the genes associated with them. [ 81 ]


An  MRI of the brain  (axial  FLAIR ) looking at a person as if from above that shows increased  T 2  signal as a small white region within the  posterior part of the internal capsule  around the center of the image, consistent with the diagnosis of ALS


An  MRI of the brain  looking at a person from side-on that shows  increased T2 signal  as a white region in the posterior part of the  internal capsule  that can be tracked to the  motor cortex , consistent with the diagnosis of ALS


A person with late-stage ALS with a range of assistive technologies to support movement (power wheelchair), breathing (invasive ventilation), and communication (eye tracker and computer)


Chemical structure of  riluzole , a medication that prolongs survival by 2–3 months [ 102 ]


Non-invasive ventilation  supports breathing with a face or nasal mask connected to a ventilator.


A man with ALS communicates by pointing to letters and words using a head-mounted laser pointer.


A  gastrostomy  tube is placed through the wall of the abdomen into the stomach.


Estimated prevalence of ALS in the United States by age group, 2012–2015 [ 122 ]


The French neurologist  Jean-Martin Charcot  coined the term  amyotrophic lateral sclerosis  in 1874. [ 20 ]


American baseball player  Lou Gehrig . In some countries, especially the United States, ALS is called "Lou Gehrig's disease". [ 126 ]


Stages of  atrophy  in Alzheimer's


A normal brain on the left and a late-stage Alzheimer's brain on the right


Tau protein abnormalities in neurons may contribute to onset of Alzheimer's disease


Histopathologic  images of Alzheimer's disease, in the  CA3 area of the hippocampus , showing an amyloid plaque (top right), neurofibrillary tangles (bottom left), and  granulovacuolar degeneration bodies  (bottom center)


PET scan  of the brain of a person with Alzheimer's disease showing a loss of function in the temporal lobe


Cognitive tests  such as the mini–mental state examination (MMSE) can help in the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease. In this test instructions are given to copy drawings like the one shown, remember some words, read, and subtract numbers serially.


Intellectual activities such as playing  chess  or regular social interaction have been linked to a reduced risk of Alzheimer's disease in epidemiological studies, although no causal relationship has been found.


Three-dimensional  molecular model  of  donepezil , an  acetylcholinesterase inhibitor  used in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease symptoms


Molecular structure of  memantine , a medication approved for advanced Alzheimer's disease symptoms


Deaths per million persons in 2012 due to dementias including Alzheimer's disease       0–4      5–8      9–10      11–13      14–17      18–24      25–45      46–114      115–375      376–1266


Alois Alzheimer's patient  Auguste Deter  in 1902. Hers was the first described case of what became known as Alzheimer's disease.


Focused attention


Flow chart depicting the role of  apomorphine  in Alzheimer's disease.


Production of the  corticosteroid  hormone  cortisol  is increased after a person awakes in the morning


Sample  flowchart  representing a decision process when confronted with a lamp that fails to light


Encephalitis lethargica. Its  sequelae  and treatment  – Constantin von Economo, 1931: front page


L-DOPA


Idiogram  of chromosome 20 showing gene  PRP  location


Hypnogram comparing the sleep pattern of a healthy control with five FFI patients, who display decreased sleep efficiency and disrupted sleep cycles.  [W: wake; R: REM; N1-3: NREM sleep stages].


Timeline of an FFI patient (same as the one above this one)


The line processes to make information memory


Lateral view of the hippocampus which is located in the medial temporal lobe


The  dorsal stream  (green) runs through the  parietal lobe , and the  ventral stream  (purple) runs through the  temporal lobe . Both streams originate in the  occipital lobe  (blue) located posteriorly.


The "redness" of red is a commonly used example of a quale.


Inverted qualia


Thomas Nagel  argues that while a human might be able to imagine what it is like to be a  bat  by taking "the bat's point of view", it would still be impossible "to know what it is like for a bat to be a bat." ( Townsend's big-eared bat  pictured ).


Vilayanur S. Ramachandran


Daniel Dennett


Marvin Minsky


Michael Tye


Sleeping Girl ,  Domenico Fetti ,  c.  1615


"The Awakening", an illustration to writing by  Leo Tolstoy


The human " biological clock "


Man napping in San Cristobal,  Peru


This condition is inherited as an autosomal dominant trait.


Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) recommendations for the amount of sleep needed decrease with age. [ 68 ]


The main health effects of  sleep deprivation , [ 69 ]  indicating impairment of normal maintenance by sleep


Bronze statue of  Eros  sleeping, 3rd century BC–early 1st century AD


World War II poster issued by the US government


Dreams often feel like waking life, yet with added surrealism.


The Land of Cockaigne  by  Pieter Bruegel the Elder , 1567


Medieval  manuscript illumination  from the  Menologion of Basil II  (985 AD), showing the  Seven Sleepers of Ephesus  sleeping in their cave


The Thinker  by  Auguste Rodin  (1840–1917) in the garden of the  Musée Rodin , Paris


Man thinking on a train journey


Forager honey bee flying back to the hive with pollen and nectar


A young house sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) exhibits unihemispheric slow-wave sleep.


Polysomnogram demonstrating slow-wave sleep. High amplitude EEG is highlighted in red.


Common swift


Schematics and images of types of limb proprioceptor neurons in mammals (top) and insects (bottom) [ 1 ]


Schematic diagram of the experimental set-up in the rubber hand illusion task. LH = left hand; part = partition; RH = right hand; Ru = rubber hand.


Mammalian tendon organ showing typical position in a muscle (left), neuronal connections in spinal cord (middle) and expanded schematic (right). The tendon organ is a stretch receptor that signals the force developed by the muscle. The sensory endings of the Ib afferent are entwined amongst the musculotendinous strands of 10-20 extrafusal muscle fibers. [ A ] [ 3 ]  See an  animated version .


Kinaesthetics-founders Lenny Maietta and Frank Hatch (2011)


Side view of handgun point shooting position


Front view of handgun point shooting position


Side view of shoulder weapon point shooting position


The proper method of sighting to hit aerial targets with the sightless  BB gun


US Navy sailor practices reflexive firing during a periodic weapons assessment


Somatic educator  Moshe Feldenkrais  in 1978, teaching how to rise from a chair


Mary Wigman , who studied with  Rudolf von Laban , was among the choreographers whose body-centric innovations influenced the early development of somatics. [ 6 ]


Yoga combines physical and mental exercises


Contact improvisation  is a somatic style of  postmodern dance


Equilibrium test being administered to prospective pilot, via  Bárány chair


Inner ear


Lift (L) and weight/gravity (w) forces acting on an aircraft making a banked or coordinated turn


Standard set of  flight instruments , including  attitude indicator  (top center) and  turn and slip indicator  (bottom left)


Inner ear  with semicircular canals shown, likening them to the roll, pitch and yaw axis of an aircraft


Graveyard spiral and graveyard spin


A  cognitive model , as illustrated by  Robert Fludd  (1619) [ 1 ]


When the mind makes a generalization such as the  concept  of  tree , it extracts similarities from numerous examples; the simplification enables higher-level thinking (abstract thinking).


Metacognition and self directed learning


Expression of the Emotions Figure 6


This illustration of feline behaviour is an example of an expression of fear and aggression in "The expression of the emotions in man and animals" by Charles Darwin.


Clever Hans


Puzzle box


Animal behaviour, curiosity and play between species.


Female Toque macaque with baby - (Harmony of Life)


Elephant Study 2 (6987533977)


Jane Goodall, primatologist, environmentalist, prominent researcher in chimpanzee behaviour while at Gombe National Park, Tanzania. Jane Goodall is holding her toy monkey "Mr. H", a regular companion during her travels.


Plato's  Allegory of the Cave  including the  analogy of the Sun .


An application of Anschauung as experience is the perception of fire and immediately recognizing it as fire.


A representation of how people with differing visualization abilities might picture an apple in their mind. The first image is bright and photographic, levels 2 through 4 show increasingly simpler and more faded images, and the last—representing complete aphantasia—shows no image at all.


The  eponym  of the effect,  Benjamin Franklin


Transmissions from the  SOC , in the  pons  of the  brainstem , travel along the  lateral lemniscus  to the  IC , located in the  midbrain . Signals are then relayed to the  thalamus  and further ascending auditory pathway.


Cover of  The Hot Soldier and Other Stories  by  Gustav Meyrink


Schematic of a hierarchical sequential structure with three levels. The lowest level could be a linear representation, while intermediate levels denote chunk nodes. The highest level is the entire sequence.


The Cognitive Bias Codex


The relation between cognitive bias, habit and social convention is still an important issue.


After performing dissonant behavior ( lying ) a person might find external, consonant elements. Therefore, a  snake oil  salesman might find a psychological self-justification (great profit) for promoting medical falsehoods, but, otherwise, might need to change his beliefs about the falsehoods.


In the fable of "The Fox and the Grapes", by  Aesop , on failing to reach the desired bunch of grapes, the fox then decides he does not truly want the fruit because it is sour. The fox's act of  rationalization (justification)  reduced his  anxiety  over the cognitive dissonance from the desire he cannot realise.


Dissonant self-perception: A lawyer can experience cognitive dissonance if he must defend as innocent a client he thinks is guilty. From the perspective of  The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: A Current Perspective  (1969), the lawyer might experience cognitive dissonance if his false statement about his guilty client contradicts his identity as a lawyer and an honest man.


The biomechanics of cognitive dissonance: MRI evidence indicates that the greater the psychological conflict signalled by the  anterior cingulate cortex , the greater the magnitude of the cognitive dissonance experienced by the person.


" Front and lateral view of the cranium, representing the direction in which the iron traversed its cavity... " [ 2 ]


Broca's area and Wernicke's area.


Most of Molaison's hippocampus was removed bilaterally.


The Working Memory Model (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974, updated-2000)


Broca's and Wernicke's areas of the brain, which are critical in language


Graph demonstrating the decreasing of response time observed in Thorndike's "puzzle-box" experiments


Apparatus of the operant conditioning chamber, or "Skinner box", as designed by B.F. Skinner


Bee "waggle dance" indicating direction and distance of nearby food source, as observed by Karl von Frisch


The "three As" Computational Thinking Process describes computational thinking as a set of three steps: abstraction, automation, and analysis.


Conflict continuum:  competition  short of conflict,  conflict  itself, and the  return  to  competition , [ 16 ] : 10   possibly via  deterrence  —Gen.  David G. Perkins


Simultaneous contrast


Metacontrast and paracontrast


The checker shadow illusion


A picture of an  incandescent light bulb  is symbolically associated with the formation of an idea, an example of creativity.


Greek philosophers like Plato rejected the concept of creativity, preferring to see art as a form of discovery. Asked in  The Republic , "Will we say, of a painter, that he makes something?", Plato answers, "Certainly not, he merely  imitates ." [ 13 ]


Distributed functional brain network associated with divergent thinking


Training meeting in an eco-design stainless steel company in  Brazil . The leaders among other things wish to cheer and encourage the workers in order to achieve a higher level of creativity.


The three levels of  complexity  of the global workspace model: the  integrate-and-fire  neuron, the thalamo-cortical bundle and the long-range connexion. The authors provide the legend: "Shown are the constituents of the simulation (upper diagrams) and typical patterns of spontaneous activity that they can produce (lower tracings). We simulated a nested architecture in which spiking neurons (A) are incorporated within thalamocortical columns (B), which are themselves interconnected hierarchically by local and long-distance cortical connections (C) (see  Materials and methods  for details). While single neurons may generate sustained oscillations of  membrane potentials  (A), only the column and network levels generate complex waxing-and-waning  EEG -like oscillations (B) and  metastable  global states of sustained firing (C)." [ 9 ]


Sample  flowchart  representing the  decision process  to add a new article to Wikipedia.


Elsie the cat is sitting on a mat


Alpha Graphs


Leibniz's diagrammatic reasoning.


Basic elements of Leibniz's pictograms.


Researcher conducting  Functional magnetic resonance imaging  test.


Example of the  Wason selection task .


Lab coats


Side view of the brain, illustrating dorsolateral prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex


Location of the Fusiform Face Area


An adult male's face with make-up


Bruce & Young Model of Face Recognition, 1986


Examples of various emotions


A computer-enhanced fMRI scan of a person who has been asked to look at faces


A 'greeble' (nonsense figure used in face recognition experiments)


Three-layer model of self-cognition developed by Motoaki Sugiura


A human male and female


Sample of real and edited white and Asian faces used in study of the cross-race effect [ 115 ]


A child with autism


Schizophrenia , by William A. Ursprung


The stages of feature integration theory


The stimuli resembling a carrot, lake and tire, respectively. Treisman et al.(1986).


Candle box problem diagram


Artistic representation of a  Turing machine


A player announces her loss of The Game at  San Diego Comic-Con  in July 2008.


A woman holding up a sign reading "You Lose The Game"


In a  maze , one can get lost on a voluntary basis


Plato , one of the first philosophers to discuss ideas in detail. Aristotle claims that many of Plato's views were  Pythagorean  in origin.


"Modern Book Printing" from the  Walk of Ideas


A picture of a  lightbulb  is often used to represent a person having a  bright   idea .


Idea Network


Example of associations between graphemes and colors that are described more accurately as ideasthesia than as synesthesia


A drawing by a synesthete which illustrates  time unit-space synesthesia /ideasthesia. The months in a year are organized into a circle surrounding the synesthete's body, each month having a fixed location in space and a unique color.


Which one would be called Bouba and which Kiki? Responses are highly consistent among people. This is an example of ideasthesia as the conceptualization of the stimulus plays an important role.


A man assembling an Ikea  Poäng  chair


Olin Levi Warner ,  Imagination  (1896). Library of Congress  Thomas Jefferson Building , Washington, D.C.


Medieval paintings of imaginary creatures, as seen in frescos and manuscripts, often combined body parts of different animals, and even humans.


Don Quixote , engrossed in reading books of chivalry.


Phylogenesis and ontogenesis of various components of imagination


Schematic diagram of information integration theory


Representation of the  pitch class  circle with respect to tone height


The framed line test


An  AI art  rendering of something between an aqueduct and a swimming pool


A phrenological  mapping [ 1 ]  of the  brain  –  phrenology  was among the first attempts to correlate mental functions with specific parts of the brain.


Wilhelm von Humboldt


Franz Boas


Edward Sapir


Whorf's illustration of the difference between the English and Shawnee gestalt construction of cleaning a gun with a ramrod. From the article "Science and Linguistics", originally published in the  MIT Technology Review , 1940.


Listening in conversation.


A healing ritual (the  laying on of hands )


Memberships of a graded class


The pruning process is shown in this clip that was constructed from  MRI scans  of healthy children and teens. The time-lapse animation compresses 15 years of brain development (ages 5-20) into just a few seconds. Red indicates more gray matter, blue less gray matter. The changes in color from yellow/red to blue show the pruning process (source:  NIMH ).


Intellectually disabled patients with  1- and 2-year-old mental ages


A 78-year-old intellectually disabled woman whose " mental condition has always been that of a child 5 or 6 years of age "


Representation of the stages of processing in a typical reaction time paradigm


Illustration of the pain pathway in René Descartes' Traite de l'homme (Treatise of Man) 1664. The long fiber running from the foot to the cavity in the head is pulled by the heat and releases a fluid that makes the muscles contract.


An early apparatus constructed for measuring reaction time via the "personal equation" [ 9 ]


Density plot and central tendencies of reaction time (ms) trials on a two-choice task demonstrating the right skewed distribution typical to RT data


Data from W. E. Hick (1952) demonstrating Hick's Law: The relationship between reaction time and number of response options across two participants (red and blue).


Graphical representation of drift-diffusion rate used to model reaction times in two-choice tasks


A virtual rendering of a Jensen box. The home button is depicted in the lower center of the array. Participants are told to move their finger from the home button to one of eight additional response buttons when specific LED lights illuminate. This produces several measures of participant response time (RT).


Regions of the Brain Involved in a Number Comparison Task Derived from EEG and fMRI Studies. The regions represented correspond to those showing effects of notation used for the numbers (pink and hatched), distance from the test number (orange), choice of hand (red), and errors (purple). Picture from the article: "Timing the Brain: Mental Chronometry as a Tool in Neuroscience".


Example of the Sternberg memory-scanning task (figure adapted from Plomin & Spinath, 2002) [ 57 ]


Example of mental rotation task stimuli


Example of the Posner letter-matching task (figure adapted from Plomin & Spinath, 2002) [ 57 ]


Visual representation of the hypothesized stages of a reaction time task and each stage's association with diffusion model parameters.  T er , the non-decision reaction time component, consists of the sum of encoding time  T e  (first panel) and response output time  T r  (third panel), such that  T er  =  T e  +  T r .


The differences between polytropism and monotropism


Monotropic way of teaching


Typical classroom activity requires lot of polytropic processing of stimuli


Different information filtering mechanism in autistic people may be due to difference in cognitive components.  a hypothetical radar plot of spikey cognitive profile. Similar details can be found in Nancy Doyle's paper  Neurodiversity at work: a biopsychosocial model and the impact on working adults. . [ 5 ]


The  dorsal stream  (green) and  ventral stream  (purple) are shown.  They originate from a common source in visual cortex.  The dorsal stream is responsible for detection of location and motion.


Example of  Beta movement , often confused with  phi phenomenon , in which a succession of still images gives the illusion of a moving ball [ 5 ]


Demonstration of phi phenomenon using two black bars ( SOA  = 102 ms,  ISI  = −51 ms)


The aperture problem. The  grating  appears to be moving down and to the right,  perpendicular  to the orientation of the bars. But it could be moving in many other directions, such as only down, or only to the right. It is impossible to determine unless the ends of the bars become visible in the aperture.


Reichardt model


Intrinsic motivation arises from internal factors, like enjoying an activity. Extrinsic motivation is based on external factors, like rewards obtained by completing an activity.


Unconscious motivation plays a central role in  Sigmund Freud 's  psychoanalysis .


Amotivation is an absence of interest and is sometimes described as  acedia  when it manifests in relation to spiritual practices.


Maslow's hierarchy of needs is often visualized as a pyramid in which the more basic needs at the bottom form the foundation for higher needs.


Motivation affects students' participation in classroom activities and  academic success .


Initially, the person picks out the red pen and therefore it is the  prime  target while the remaining pens in the holder are considered to be prime distractors. When the person wants to use the blue pen ( probe  target) instead, negative priming effects are observed as the blue pen was previously ignored as the prime distractor.


Distractor inhibition model  with selective attention and encoding process.


Episode retrieval model  with the retrieval of "do-not-respond" tag.


Houghton–Tipper model  with inhibition occurring during encoding and retrieval.


Example of Stroop color–word task with control, prime and probe trials.


Anatomy of a  multipolar neuron


From "Texture of the Nervous System of Man and the Vertebrates" by  Santiago Ramón y Cajal . The figure illustrates the diversity of neuronal morphologies in the  auditory cortex .


Proposed organization of motor-semantic neural circuits for action language comprehension. Gray dots represent areas of language comprehension, creating a network for comprehending all language. The semantic circuit of the motor system, particularly the motor representation of the legs (yellow dots), is incorporated when leg-related words are comprehended. Adapted from Shebani et al. (2013)


Model of a neural circuit in the  cerebellum


The neuronal correlates of  consciousness  (NCC) constitute the smallest set of neural events and structures sufficient for a given conscious percept or explicit memory. This case involves synchronized action potentials in  neocortical  pyramidal neurons. [ 1 ]


The Necker Cube: The left line drawing can be perceived in one of two distinct depth configurations shown on the right. Without any other cue, the visual system flips back and forth between these two interpretations. [ 15 ]


Midline structures in the brainstem and thalamus necessary to regulate the level of brain arousal. Small, bilateral lesions in many of these nuclei cause a global loss of consciousness. [ 25 ]


Diagram of the  hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal axis


An example of the numerosity adaptation effect


Example video frames and their object co-segmentation annotations (ground truth) in the Noisy-ViDiSeg [ 1 ]  dataset. Object segments are depicted by the red edge.


The inference process of the two coupled dynamic Markov networks to obtain the joint video object discovery and segmentation [ 1 ]


A joint object discover and co-segmentation framework based on coupled dynamic Markov Networks [ 1 ] .


Overview of the coarse-to-fine temporal action localization in. [ 7 ]  (a) Coarse localization. Given an untrimmed video, we first generate saliency-aware video clips via variable-length sliding windows. The proposal network decides whether a video clip contains any actions (so the clip is added to the candidate set) or pure background (so the clip is directly discarded). The subsequent classification network predicts the specific action class for each candidate clip and outputs the classification scores and action labels. (b) Fine localization. With the classification scores and action labels from prior coarse localization, further prediction of the video category is carried out and its starting and ending frames are obtained.


Flowchart of the spatio-temporal action localization detector segment-tube. [ 7 ]  As the input, an untrimmed video contains multiple frames of actions ( e.g. , all actions in a pair figure skating video), with only a portion of these frames belonging to a relevant category ( e.g. , the DeathSpirals). There are usually irrelevant preceding and subsequent actions (background). The Segment-tube detector alternates the optimization of temporal localization and spatial segmentation iteratively. The final output is a sequence of per-frame segmentation masks with precise starting/ending frames denoted with the red chunk at the bottom, while the background are marked with green chunks at the bottom.


Peek-a-boo  is a prime example of an object permanence test. [ 6 ]


Observing the air traffic in  Rõuge ,  Estonia


Kuhn used the  duck-rabbit optical illusion , made famous by  Wittgenstein , to demonstrate the way in which a paradigm shift could cause one to see the same information in an entirely different way. [ 3 ]


Image showing the breakdown of common geometric shapes (geons)


A simple seriation task involving arranging shapes by size


Brain animation highlighting the fusiform face area, thought to be where facial processing and recognition takes place


Whale ,  submarine  or  sheep ?


Architecture students draw a ball and scaffolding. Everyone sees its shapes from a different perspective


Plato and Aristotle used predication to address the  Problem of Universals .


The Predication of Saint Paul


Marble Boat  on  Kunming Lake  near Beijing


Temple bell at  Hōkō-ji


Inscription on bell at Hokoji in Kyoto


This image shows a priming web built from different types of priming. The lines in this web indicate associations that an individual might have. If two words are more closely linked in the web, then they are more likely to be more quickly recognized when primed with a nearby word. The dotted lines indicate morpheme primes, or primes from words that sound similar to each other, while the straight lines indicate semantic primes or words that have meanings or associations that relate to each other.


The  extrastriate cortex  (shown in orange and red) is believed to be involved in perceptual priming.


Boethius  teaching his students


William of Ockham


James McKeen Cattell , the first psychologist in the  United States


Wilhelm Wundt  (seated), a German psychologist, with colleagues in his psychological laboratory, the first of its kind,  c.  1880


One of the dogs used in Russian psychologist  Ivan Pavlov 's experiment with a surgically implanted  cannula  to measure  saliva ,  preserved  in the Pavlov Museum in  Ryazan , Russia


False-color representations of  cerebral fiber  pathways affected, per Van Horn et al. [V] : 3


Skinner's  teaching machine , a mechanical invention to automate the task of  programmed instruction


Baddeley's model of working memory


The  Müller–Lyer illusion . Psychologists make inferences about mental processes from shared phenomena such as optical illusions.


Front row:  Sigmund Freud , G. Stanley Hall,  Carl Jung ]. Back row:  Abraham A. Brill ,  Ernest Jones ,  Sándor Ferenczi  at  Clark University  in 1909.


Psychologist  Abraham Maslow  in 1943 posited that humans have a hierarchy of needs, and it makes sense to fulfill the basic needs first before higher-order needs can be met. [ 131 ]


Developmental psychologists engage a child with a book and then make observations based on how the child interacts with the object.


Francis Galton , a pioneer of the experimental psychology field


An item from a cognitive abilities test used in  educational psychology


Flowchart of the four phases, enrollment, intervention allocation, follow-up, and data analysis, of a parallel randomized trial of two groups modified from the  CONSORT 2010 Statement [ 255 ]


The experimenter (E) orders the teacher (T), the subject of the experiment, to give what the latter believes are painful electric shocks to a learner (L), who is actually an actor and  confederate . The subject believes that for each wrong answer, the learner was receiving actual electric shocks, though in reality there were no such punishments. Being separated from the subject, the confederate set up a tape recorder integrated with the electro-shock generator, which played pre-recorded sounds for each shock level etc. [ 256 ]


An  EEG  recording setup


Artificial neural network  with two layers, an interconnected group of nodes, akin to the vast network of neurons in the human brain


A rat undergoing a  Morris water navigation test  used in  behavioral neuroscience  to study the role of the  hippocampus  in  spatial learning  and memory


Phineas P. Gage  survived an accident in which a large iron rod was driven completely through his head, destroying much of his brain's left frontal lobe, but the injury altered his personality and behavior. [ 269 ]


Breakdown of objects into geons


René Descartes , in  De homine  (1662), claimed that non-human animals could be explained reductively as  automata ; meaning essentially as more mechanically complex versions of this  Digesting Duck .


Schematic of implied motion trial. Rectangle appears for 250 ms, followed by a blank screen for 250 ms (here slightly transparent so previous rectangle is visible). Subsequent orientations are rotated by 17°, with test probes rotations sampled between 0 and up to ±8°. Task is to determine whether third and fourth orientations were identical. People typically incorrectly identify forward probes as being identical, suggesting they have continued the implied motion of the rectangle.


Rubik's cube puzzle involving mental rotation


Triadic Causation Model


Figure 1: Spectrograms of syllables "dee" (top), "dah" (middle), and "doo" (bottom) showing how the onset  formant transitions  that define perceptually the consonant  [d]  differ depending on the identity of the following vowel. ( Formants  are highlighted by red dotted lines; transitions are the bending beginnings of the formant trajectories.)


Figure 2: A spectrogram of the phrase "I owe you". There are no clearly distinguishable boundaries between speech sounds.


Figure 3: The left panel shows the 3 peripheral American English vowels  /i/ ,  /ɑ/ , and  /u/  in a standard F1 by F2 plot (in Hz). The mismatch between male, female, and child values is apparent. In the right panel formant distances (in  Bark ) rather than absolute values are plotted using the normalization procedure proposed by Syrdal and Gopal in 1986. [ 11 ]  Formant values are taken from Hillenbrand et al. (1995) [ 8 ]


Figure 4: Example identification (red) and discrimination (blue) functions


Frequency detection by the  basilar membrane


Mobile phone  use while driving


Émile Durkheim


Herbert Spencer


Situations often arise wherein a decision must be made when the results of each possible choice are uncertain.


A taxonomy of uncertainty


Bird with earthworm: Shepard gives example of bird using "generalization," based on experience with one previous worm, to decide if another worm is edible.


Video frames of the  Parallel Bars  action category in the UCF-101 dataset [ 1 ]  (a) The highest ranking four frames in  video temporal attention  weights,  in which the athlete is performing on the parallel bars; (b) The lowest ranking four frames in  video temporal attention  weights, in which the athlete is standing on the ground. All weights are predicted by the ATW CNN algorithm. [ 2 ]  The highly weighted video frames generally captures the most distinctive movements relevant to the action category.


ATW CNN architecture. [ 4 ]  Three CNN streams are used to process spatial RGB images, temporal optical flow images, and temporal warped optical flow images, respectively. An attention model is employed to assign temporal weights between snippets for each stream/modality. Weighted sum is used to fuse predictions from the three streams/modalities.


VISUAL THINKING : poster in  Turin


VVIQ correlations with Bilateral Hippocampal Volume, Amygdala Volume, Volume of the Primary Motor Cortex, of the Primary Visual Cortex and of the Fusiform Gyrus. [ 6 ]


Each card has a number on one side and color on the other. Which card or cards must be turned over to test the idea that if a card shows an even number on one face, then its opposite face is blue?


Each card has an age on one side and a drink on the other. Which card(s) must be turned over to test the idea that if you are drinking alcohol, then you must be over 18?


A sticker in  German  warning that the reader is being "video monitored". Even just the presence of an eye symbol on a sticker can be enough to change a person's behavior.


Diversity of neuronal morphologies in the  auditory cortex


IBRO Neuroscience Reports Journal cover


The main portico of  University College London


A  crab-eating macaque  using a stone


Adriaen van Ostade , "Analysis" (1666)


A clinical chemistry analyzer


The  cerebral cortex  is responsible for analytical thinking in the human brain.


Doctor using abductive reasoning to diagnose a man with diabetes


Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. providing a speech to 250,000 people during the Civil Rights March in Washington D.C. exemplifies verbal communication


Dancing is a common expressionist form of human non-verbal communication.


Example of sales forecasting, a form of predictive analysis


Areas of the brain that stimulated during actions of creativity


Raymond B. Cattell : British-American psychologist


John Leonard Horn: American psychologist


Carroll's Three Stratum Model of Human Intelligence:  General intelligence (g) fluid intelligence (Gf), crystallized intelligence (Gc), general memory and learning (Gy), broad visual perception (Gv), broad auditory perception (Gu), broad retrieval ability (Gr), broad cognitive speediness (Gs), and processing speed (Gt).


Samuel Reshevsky  playing chess with  Douglas Fairbanks , as  Charlie Chaplin  watches them during filming of the American silent film  The Three Musketeers , 1921


13-year-old  Magnus Carlsen  formally playing against 35-year-old  Ivan Sokolov , 2004


Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart , a well-known child prodigy, started composing at the age of five.


Note: Illustrative graph only – not based on actual data points, but representative of established research on the relationship between IQ and Bipolar Disorders. Please refer to Gale [ 31 ]  for further information.


Note: Illustrative graph only – not based on actual data points, but accurate to trends previously established between alcohol consumption and national IQ. For actual data points please refer to Belasen and Hafer 2013 publication. [ 51 ]


Cognitive process subtests in the CAS battery


Declarative knowledge can be expressed using declarative sentences stored in books.


The main components traditionally associated with knowledge are belief, truth, and justification.


Foundationalism, coherentism, and infinitism are theories about how justification arises. The black arrows symbolize how one belief supports another belief.


The thought experiments by Edmund Gettier influenced many epistemologists to seek additional components of declarative knowledge.


Knowing how to play the guitar is one form of non-declarative knowledge.


Familiarity with the flavor of chocolate is one example of knowledge by acquaintance, which belongs to non-declarative knowledge.