Diversity of neuronal morphologies in the  auditory cortex


White matter structure of  human brain  (taken by  MRI ). Anterior on the right.


Trepanned skull from  Edinburgh


World Academy of Neurological Surgery's conference


Histopathology  specimen of  Angiocentric glioma , higher magnification, HE stain


The location of the amygdala in the human brain


The stereotaxic apparatus used for clinical amygdalotomy


Base of the skull. Inferior surface,  attachment of muscles  marked in red.


Exobasis


Endobasis-resistances beams


Endobasis-resistances nodes


The foramina in the base of the skull are exit and entry points for veins, arteries and  cranial nerves .


The cranial nerves as they exit through various foramina.


The  carotid artery  is the large vertical artery in red. The blood supply to the  common carotid artery  starts at the arch of the  aorta  (left) or the  subclavian artery  (right). The common carotid artery divides into the  internal carotid artery  and the  external carotid artery . Plaque often builds up at that division, and a carotid endarterectomy cuts open the artery and removes the plaque.


Illustration depicting a Carotid Endarterectomy


Diagram of cerebral aneurysm.


The most common sites of intracranial saccular aneurysms


CT angiography showing aneurysm measuring 2.6 mm in diameter at the ACOM (anterior communicating artery).


A selection of  Mayfield  and  Drake  aneurysm clips ready for implantation.


Here is the arm of the ROSA One


Illustration depicting a surgical discectomy


Spinal reflections and folds


This picture shows important anatomy involved in endoscopic endonasal surgery. The pituitary gland sits at the top of the picture behind the sphenoid sinus.


Resected middle cerebral artery aneurysm filled with multiple coils.


A 3D reconstruction of the  Circle of Willis  derived from a CT angiogram.


Spinal surgeons operating on a patient's back


CT scan showing markedly thickened  ligamentum flavum  (yellow ligament) causing  spinal stenosis  in the lumbar spine.


CT scan image of large herniated disc in the lumbar spine.


CT scan of laminectomy showing scar formation (highlighted in red)causing new stenosis.


Myelogram  showing typical findings of arachnoiditis in the lumbar spine.


CT scan showing post operative scarring and arachnoiditis.


CT scan showing two views of L4-5 disc herniation


Ultrasound of the optic nerve showing IIH [ 17 ]


A  lumbar puncture  in progress. A large area on the back has been washed with an  iodine -based disinfectant leaving brown colouration. In this image the person is seated upright, which can make the procedure easier to perform but makes any measurement of the opening pressure unreliable.


The number of new cases per year of IIH is strongly determined by sex and  body weight . The figures in females are in women between 20 and 45 years old. [ 5 ]


Graphic of lumbar laminectomy and two conditions it can address.


Human Vertebral Column


Vertebra Superior View


Vertebral Column: Lamina


US Navy Cmdr. Kenneth Kubis, director of surgical services aboard the Military Sealift Command hospital ship USNS Mercy uses an operating microscope


Featured: Ligamentum Flavum


MRI of the lumbar spine showing spinal stenosis


Advertisement for a Leucotome in the 1940s


A leucotome designed by Neurosurgeon John Crumbie,  Croydon Mental Hospital , 1955 [ 3 ]


Photo of Mathieu Jaboulay courtesy of Romain Rochefeuille


Magnetic Resonance Image of Lumbar Spine courtesy of Nevit Dilmen


Nerve block of cervical spine courtesy of PainDoctorUSA


Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex targeted using high definition MRI. The red sphere is the anterior inferior left DLPFC, the green sphere is the indicated coil location. Left DLPFC is stimulated for the treatment of depression and other conditions


3d printed transcranial magnetiс stimulation patient-specific guide based on MRI data capable to hold 2 Magventure MCF-B65 coils in selected regions on both frontal lobes.


CAD model of patient-specific TMS guide


1) Boron compound (b) is selectively absorbed by cancer cell(s). 2) Neutron beam (n) is aimed at cancer site. 3) Boron absorbs neutron. 4) Boron disintegrates emitting cancer-killing radiation.


Skull of the  tuatara  ( Sphenodon punctatus ), with the pineal foramen enclosed by the parietal bones


Surgical planning using  bone segment navigation  for the  osteotomy  of the jaw bones, based on models fixed into an  articulator  (registration based on infrared devices)


Schematic representation of the SSN system


Actual usage of the SSN system in the operating room


Micrograph  showing a primary CNS lymphoma with the characteristic perivascular distribution composed of large cells with prominent  nucleoli .  Brain biopsy .  HPS stain .


Planning  CT scan  with IV contrast in a patient with left cerebellopontine angle  vestibular schwannoma


A doctor performing Gamma Knife Radiosurgery


NRC  graphic of the Leksell Gamma Knife


Frame for Stereotactic Thalamotomy on display at the  Glenside Museum


Jorge Candia, Antonio Martos and Jorge Olivetti


The first surgery performed with Latin-American system was a Trigeminal Nucleotractothomy, performed by Jorge Schvartz.


Part of a stereotaxic atlas showing the human thalamus and nuclei


Circle of Willis with the most common locations of ruptured aneurysms marked


A  lumbar puncture  in progress. A large area on the back has been washed with an  iodine -based disinfectant, leaving brown coloration.


Xanthochromia  versus normal CSF


ECG changes resembling those of an STEMI in a woman who had an acute CNS injury from a subarachnoid hemorrhage


Arteriogram  showing a partially coiled aneurysm ( indicated by yellow arrows ) of the  posterior cerebral artery  with a residual aneurysmal sac. The person was a 34-year-old woman initially treated for a subarachnoid hemorrhage.


Autopsy  of a case with subarachnoid hemorrhage. The arachnoid mater is left in place on the exterior surface, containing extensive hemorrhage that also fills the sulci, as detailed in magnified image.


Average number of people with SAH per 100,000 person-years, broken down by age [ 90 ]


An arteriovenous graft serving as a fistula for hemodialysis access


The picture shows three exemplary steps during white matter dissection. In the upper part, a left hemisphere has been prepared according to Klingler's technique. The arachnoidal layer and the blood vessels were previously removed. In the middle part of the picture the first step of white matter dissection with the exposure of short fibres (U-fibres) which are visible underneath the cerebral cortex. In the lower part, a deeper layer of anatomical dissection with white matter structures (associative and projection fibres) and basal ganglia (Putamen). [ 1 ]


Polish  neurologist  Edward Flatau  greatly influenced the developing field of neurology. He published a human brain atlas in 1894 and wrote a fundamental book on migraines in 1912.


Jean-Martin Charcot  is considered one of the fathers of neurology. [ 8 ]


Axial section of the Brainstem (Pons) at the level of the Facial Colliculus


The Clivus


Limitation of  abduction  of the right eye. This individual tries to look to his right, but the right eye fails to turn to the side.


The accessory nerve supplies the  sternocleidomastoid  and  trapezius muscles


The nigrostriatal pathway (highlighted in blue) is crucial for dopamine production and transmission.


Location of the hypothalamus in the brain.


Dopamine pathways in the brain. The production of dopamine is concentrated in the Ventral Tegmental Area and the Substantia Nigra.


Brain anatomy


GABA-A receptor embedded in cell membrane


Parasagittal render of human brain with MRI


Man ready for EEG recording


Reactive astrocytes in a rat brain stained against GFAP.


Anatomy of the human ear (The length of the auditory canal is exaggerated in this image.).    Brown is  outer ear .      Red is  middle ear .      Purple is  inner ear .


Auditory ossicles from a deep dissection of the tympanic cavity


The  organ of Corti  located at the  scala media


Lateral lemniscus  in red, as it connects the  cochlear nucleus ,  superior olivary nucleus  and the  inferior colliculus , seen from behind


Dual stream connectivity between the auditory cortex and frontal lobe of monkeys and humans.  Top: The auditory cortex of the monkey (left) and human (right) is schematically depicted on the supratemporal plane and observed from above (with the parieto- frontal operculi removed). Bottom: The brain of the monkey (left) and human (right) is schematically depicted and displayed from the side. Orange frames mark the region of the auditory cortex, which is displayed in the top sub-figures. Top and Bottom: Blue colors mark regions affiliated with the ADS, and red colors mark regions affiliated with the AVS (dark red and blue regions mark the primary auditory fields). Abbreviations: AMYG-amygdala, HG-Heschl's gyrus, FEF-frontal eye field, IFG-inferior frontal gyrus, INS-insula, IPS-intra parietal sulcus, MTG-middle temporal gyrus, PC-pitch center, PMd-dorsal premotor cortex, PP-planum polare, PT-planum temporale, TP-temporal pole, Spt-sylvian parietal-temporal, pSTG/mSTG/aSTG-posterior/middle/anterior superior temporal gyrus, CL/ ML/AL/RTL-caudo-/middle-/antero-/rostrotemporal-lateral belt area, CPB/RPB-caudal/rostral parabelt fields. Used with permission from Poliva O. From where to what: a neuroanatomically based evolutionary model of the emergence of speech in humans.   Material was copied from this source, which is available under a  Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License .


Sagittal cross-section of the brain illustrating the dopaminergic pathway.


Benzodiazepines  are a type of tranquilizers used in the treatment of Bell's Mania that take effect by acting on   GABA  neurotransmitters in the brain. It helps in bringing extreme agitation and catatonia under control.


The use of Intramuscular Ketamine Injections is a popular method in the treatment of Bell's Mania.


Luther Vose Bell (1806-1862) was the first person to coin the term Bell's Mania.


Flow chart depicting the role of  apomorphine  in Alzheimer's disease.


An analog biothesiometer kit


A digital biothesiometer


Particulate exposure and increased risk of neurodegeneration [ 1 ]


Potential particle pathways as of 2018. [ 2 ]


A  scanning electron microscope  image of bundles of multiwalled  carbon nanotube  piercing an  alveolar epithelial cell .


Burning of downed vegetation, or " slash ".


Air-purifiers with air flow generated by  bladeless fan . Some models can act as heaters or  humidifiers  and may feature oscillation and adjustment of air flow angle.


First generation SALSCS (Solar-assisted Large Scale Cleaning System), Xi'an


Cerebrovascular system


The  ophthalmic artery  and its branches


The anterior and posterior circulations meet at the  circle of Willis , pictured here, which rests at the top of the  brainstem . Inferior view.


Dural venous sinuses  bordered by hard meninges (shown in blue) direct blood outflow from cerebral veins to the  internal jugular vein  at the  base of skull .


MRI showing pulsation of CSF


Distribution of CSF


Vials containing human cerebrospinal fluid


Coronal anterior section through anterior fontanelle of a one-year-old girl.


Mid sagittal section through anterior fontanelle of a one-year-old girl.


Striatum


Dopamine Pathways


Dopamine D2 receptors


Gamma-camera


An illustration of the standard Hodgkin–Huxley Na +  channel model


Transmembrane voltage response of a space-clamped mammalian  node of Ranvier


Diagram of a voltage-sensitive sodium channel α-subunit. G -  glycosylation , P -  phosphorylation , S - ion selectivity, I - inactivation, positive (+) charges in S4 are important for transmembrane voltage sensing.


Mean proportions of stimuli perceived as painful v. stimulus prepulse


Based upon the data presented in [ 2 ]


Referred pain : Conscious perception of visceral sensations is referred to specific regions of the body that are not sources of the sensations.  Some referred pain due to visceral sensations refer to dermatomes that send fibers to the same level of spinal cord.


Dermatomes of the lower limb (modified, from Fender, after Foerster)


Discoid lateral meniscus


Photograph of a congenital discoid menisci specimen from the University of Cape Town Pathology Learning Centre teaching collection.


Discoid meniscus on coronal proton-density weighted MRI


FOV both eyes


Vertical FOV


Angle of view  can be measured horizontally, vertically, or diagonally.


In  computed tomography  ( abdominal CT  pictured), the field of view (FOV) multiplied by  scan range  creates a volume of  voxels .


Field of view diameter in microscopy


Frontal lobe (red) of left cerebral hemisphere


Trajectory of a rat through a square environment is shown in black. Red dots indicate locations at which a particular entorhinal grid cell fired.


Grid cells derive their name from the fact that connecting the centers of their firing fields gives a triangular grid.


Spatial autocorrelogram of the neuronal activity of the grid cell from the first figure.


A hexagonal lattice.


In heterosynaptic plasticity, synaptic pathways that are not specifically stimulated undergo changes (synaptic plasticity) in addition to those who are specifically stimulated.


In modulatory input-dependent plasticity, Neuron C acts as an interneuron, releasing neuromodulators, which changes synaptic strength between Neuron A and Neuron B.


In  Aplysia californica,  modulatory interneurons release serotonin, triggering synaptic plasticity in motor neurons.


Schematic image of the hypoglossal nerve and innervation targets.


An injured hypoglossal nerve will cause the tongue to  waste away  and the tongue will not be able to stick out straight. The injury here occurred because of  branchial cyst  surgery.  [ 18 ]


Midline shift (arrow) is present in this brain after a  stroke  (infarct depicted in shaded area).


This  subdural hematoma / epidural hematoma  (arrows) is causing midline shift of the brain


Converging empirical evidence indicates a functional equivalence between action execution and motor imagery.


Activation in the motor cortex during motor imagery amounts about 30 % of the level observed during actual performance; Roth et al., 1996.


People have a conversation in a social setting


Depiction of  smooth muscle  contraction


Types of muscle contractions


In vertebrate animals, there are three types of muscle tissues: 1) skeletal, 2) smooth, and 3) cardiac


Organization of skeletal muscle


Structure of neuromuscular junction.


Picture showing the different interactions within the ECC pathway


Sliding filament theory: A sarcomere in relaxed (above) and contracted (below) positions


Cross-bridge cycle


Muscle length versus isometric force


Force–velocity relationship: right of the vertical axis concentric contractions (the muscle is shortening), left of the axis eccentric contractions (the muscle is lengthened under load); power developed by the muscle in red. Since power is equal to force times velocity, the muscle generates no power at either isometric force (due to zero velocity) or maximal velocity (due to zero force). The optimal shortening velocity for power generation is approximately one-third of maximum shortening velocity.


Swellings called varicosities belonging to an autonomic neuron innervate the smooth muscle cells.


Cardiac muscle


Key proteins involved in cardiac calcium cycling and excitation-contraction coupling


A simplified image showing earthworm movement via peristalsis


Asynchronous muscles power flight in most insect species. a: Wings b: Wing joint c: Dorsoventral muscles power the upstroke d: Dorsolongitudinal muscles (DLM) power the downstroke. The DLMs are oriented out of the page.


Electrodes touch a frog, and the legs twitch into the upward position [ 48 ]


This figure illustrates how glioblastoma affects brain tissue.


This diagram shows the myelin sheath around axons of healthy neurons looks like, and the result of demyelination of neurons in Multiple Sclerosis.


Edelman giving a lecture, September 30, 2010


Illustration of disulfide bridges (red) linking the light (L, green) and heavy (H, purple) chains of Immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibody. The variable (V) regions are located at the antigen-binding end; and, the constant (C) domains form the primary frame of the IgG molecule.  Another disulfide bridge holds the two symmetrical units made up of a light chain (V L +C L ) and a heavy chain (V H +C H 1+C H 2+C H 3) together to form the completed antibody. [ a ]


Clonal selection theory  (CST):  hematopoietic stem cells  (1) differentiate and undergo genetic rearrangement to produce a population of cells possessing a wide range of pre-existing diversity with respect to antibody expression (2).  Lymphocytes expressing antibodies that would lead to autoimmunity are filtered from the population (3), while the rest of the population represents a degenerate pool of diversity (4) where antigen-selected variants (5) can be differentially amplified in response (6).  Once the antigen has been cleared, the responding population will decrease, but not by as much as it was amplified, leaving behind a boosted capacity to respond to future incursions by the antigen – a form of enhanced recognition and memory within the system.


The degeneracy of the genetic code buffers biological systems from the effects of random  mutation . The ingenuous 1964  Nirenberg and Leder experiment  would identify the  mRNA   codons , a triplet sequence of  ribonucleotides , that coded for each  amino acid ; thus elucidating the  universal genetic code  within the  DNA  when the  transcription  process was taken into account. Changes in the third position of the codon, the  wobble position , often result in the same amino acid, and oftentimes the choice comes down to  purine  or  pyrimidine  only when a choice must be made.  Similar, but variant, codon sequences tend to yield similar classes of amino acid –  polar  to polar,  non-polar  to non-polar,  acidic  to acidic, and  basic  to basic residues.


The four major classes of biological amino acids – polar (hydrophilic), nonpolar (hydrophobic), acidic, and basic side chain residues.  The amino acid backbone is  amino  group linked to an  alpha carbon , on which resides the side chain residue and a hydrogen atom, that is connected to a terminal  carboxylate  group. Aside from the disulfide bridge, there are quite a number of degenerate combinations of sidechain residues that make up the  tertiary structure  ( H-bonding ,  hydrophobic , and  ionic bridges ) in the determination of protein structure.


Relationships between degeneracy, complexity, robustness, and evolvability – 1) degeneracy is the source of robustness. 2) degeneracy is positively correlated with complexity. 3) degeneracy increases evolvability. 4) evolvability is a prerequisite for complexity. 5) complexity increases to improve robustness. 6) evolvability emerges from robustness.


Mesenchymal-epithelial transitions – epithelia to mesenchyme (EMT) and mesenchyme to epithelia (MET) transitions utilizing CAMs and SAMs to form epethelia; and, growth factors and inducers to mediate the transition to mesenchyme as the CAMs and SAMs are withdrawn or localized on the cell membrane.


Normal Brain Development (left), Microcephaly, a type of encephalopathy (right)


Human embryonic stem colonies (A), axonal outgrowths (B)


Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells (mESCs) embryoid bodies (EBs)


Human Central Nervous System


Neuromuscular junction. 1. Axon innervating muscle fibers; 2. Junction between axon and muscle fiber; 3. Muscle; 4. Muscle fiber


The initiation of neuroinflammation in the body. (Created with BioRender.com)


Role of neuroinflammation in the pathophysiology of TBI (created with BioRender.com)


Impairment of neuron LTP by activated  microglia  (created with BioRender.com)


The neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects of exercise on cognitive diseases.


Children's ward at Rancho Los Amigos Hospital in 1954, showing more than 100 persons being helped to breathe by the  Iron lung


Walter Edward Dandy  (April 6, 1886 – April 19, 1946) was an American  neurosurgeon  and scientist.


ICU Monitor (front)


Micrograph  of a  vasculitic neuropathy . Plastic embedded.  Toluidine blue stain .


A neuron observed under an optical microscope


X-ray image of  deep brain stimulation , an experimental procedure used to treat disorders such as  OCD  and  depression .


Drawing by  Santiago Ramón y Cajal  (1899) of  neurons  in the pigeon cerebellum


Illustration from  Gray's Anatomy  (1918) of a lateral view of the  human brain , featuring the  hippocampus  among other neuroanatomical features


The  Golgi stain  first allowed for the visualization of individual neurons.


3-D sensory and motor homunculus models at the  Natural History Museum, London


Human nervous system


Photograph of a  stained neuron  in a chicken embryo


Proposed organization of motor-semantic neural circuits for action language comprehension. Adapted from Shebani et al. (2013).


An  MRI  of a male's head showing  benign familial macrocephaly  (head circumference > 60 cm)


The neurotrophic electrode: teflon-coated gold wires extend from the back of the glass cone, while neurites (shown in blue) grow through it.


A schematic of the neurovascular unit (NVU), where  astrocyte  processes surround the  capillary   basement membrane  and  pericytes , creating the  glia limitans . Also, resident in the  perivascular space  are  antigen-presenting cells  (APCs) and border-associated  macrophages  (BAMs).


Plasticity in the brain affects the strength of neural connections and pathways.


The neuronal soma, axon, and dendrites are involved in nonsynaptic plasticity and affect the plasticity at the synapse


Neurons interact in complex networks that affect the generation of action potentials in other neurons.


Action potential propagation animation


A  fundus photograph  showing the back of the retina. The white circle is the beginning of the optic nerve.


Writing and drawing performed by a child with dyslexia, displaying common behavioral symptoms.


Archaic Chinese logograms


Insertion of electrode during  deep brain stimulation  surgery using a  stereotactic frame


Myelin sheath  of a healthy  neuron  in the  central nervous system


Myelin sheath damage  in multiple sclerosis


Illustration of the four different types of glial cells found in the central nervous system: ependymal cells, astrocytes, microglial cells, and oligodendrocytes


Cross-section of lower pons, axons shown in blue, grey matter in light grey. Anterior is down and posterior is up


Chart showing symptoms of long COVID


Cells infected with  Epstein–Barr virus , one of the viruses implicated in PAISs


ME/CFS has many competing definitions.


A circuit diagram of postsynaptic inhibition (A, B) and presynaptic inhibition (C). Excitation is shown in green and inhibition is shown in red.


Claude Bernard, the father of modern physiology, with his pupils


Bust of Hans Selye at  Selye János University ,  Komárno , Slovakia


Babinski sign


Myelin Sheaths in the CNS.


The  homunculi  showing which parts of the body are controlled by the  sensory cortex  and  motor cortex . Taub's research on the Silver Spring monkeys challenged the  paradigm  that brain functions are fixed in certain locations.


Synaptic plasticity rule for gradient estimation by dynamic perturbation of conductances


Animation showing the position of the human left temporal lobe


Dermatome  distribution of the trigeminal nerve


Dermatome distribution of the trigeminal nerve


C = Cervical segment, S = Sacral segment, VPL =  Ventral posterolateral nucleus , SI =  Primary somatosensory cortex , VM =  Ventromedial prefrontal cortex , MD =  Medial dorsal thalamic nucleus , IL =  Intralaminar nucleus , VPM =  Ventral posteromedial nucleus , Main V =  Main trigeminal nucleus , Spinal V =  Spinal trigeminal nucleus


Brainstem nuclei: Red = Motor; Blue = Sensory; Dark blue = Trigeminal nucleus


Onion-skin distribution of the trigeminal nerve


Cortical homunculus


Tripartite Synapse: Presynaptic neuron, Postsynaptic neuron, and Glial cells


Presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron


The Cavernous Sinus


Parasympathetic nervous system mediated by vagal innervation


Visual field-tubular vision


Visual field-central scotoma


Visual field-bitemporal hemianopia


Visual field-binasal hemianopia


Visual field-homonymous hemianopia


Visual field-right superior quadrantanopia


Location of brain regions related to vitamin D


The brain of a normal adult compared to that of a patient with Alzheimer's disease


This image depicts the circuits of the basal ganglia in patients with Parkinson's disease. Pay close attention to the role of the  substantia nigra  and the dopaminergic neurons


The prevalence of MS is associated with latitude. In this image, red indicates a high prevalence of MS while yellow indicates a lower prevalence


Map of deficits in  neural tissue  throughout the human brain in a patient with schizophrenia. The most deficient areas are magenta, while the least deficient areas are blue.


A Wartenberg wheel


Heart-nosed bat ( Cardioderma cor ) in Samburu National Reserve, Kenya.


Pictomicrograph shows the barrel field in layer IV of the rat somatosensory cortex. Each barrel receives input from one whisker. The tissue in the image has been stained with cytochrome oxidase and is 50μm thick.


Pictomicrograph shows the posteromedial barrel subfield in layer IV of the rat somatosensory cortex. Barrels in the PMBSF are particularly large and distinct. The tissue in the image has been stained with cytochrome oxidase and is 50μm thick.


Sensory information flows in parallel pathways from whiskers to cortex.


A diagram of a hypothetical ancestral mollusc with its nerve ring shown on the left side of the image


A bottle of veterinary pharmaceutical  potassium bromide  oral solution used in dogs, primarily as an  antiepileptic  (to stop seizures) [ 3 ]


The HVC in the context of the song-learning pathway in birds. [ 1 ]


Two neighboring  Eigenmannia  perform the jamming avoidance response: When two fish with around the same  frequency  meet, one fish shifts its frequency upward and the other shifts its frequency downward.


The  African knifefish  also has a jamming avoidance response,  evolved convergently .


Eigenmannia  sensory coding for jamming avoidance response. The fish avoids interference with its electrolocation signal by changing its frequency when a jamming signal is detected. This is mediated by a T-unit  tuberous receptor  which fires at the signal frequency, and a P-unit tuberous receptor which fires fastest near the peak of the  beat cycle  caused by the interference of two signals with similar frequencies.


Putative neural crest gene-regulatory network functioning at the neural plate border in vertebrates. Red arrows represent proven direct regulatory interactions.  Black arrows show genetic interactions based on loss-of-function and gain-of-functions studies.  Gray lines denote repression.  Adapted from Bronner-Fraser 2004


Delamination of neural crest cells during development. Downregulation of CAMs and tight junction proteins is followed by secretion of MMPs and subsequent delamination.


Migration of neural crest cells during development. Grey arrows indicate the direction of the paths crest cells migrate. (R=Rostral, C=Caudal)


Surface anatomy of the floor of the  Fourth ventricle , with the nucleus incertus labeled


A  monarch butterfly  ( Danaus plexippus ) caterpillar


Internal anatomy of a spider, showing the central nervous system in blue


The octopus  Amphioctopus marginatus


Medicinal leech,  Hirudo medicinalis


A sea hare


The crayfish  Procambarus clarkii


Tobacco hornworm larva,  Manduca sexta


Wasp  stinger , with droplet of  venom


Movement of wild-type  C. elegans


Helix pomatia , a species of land snail


Experiments suggest that  bees  can strategically avoid threats or harmful situations unless the reward is significant, suggesting that harm-avoidance is not merely an unconscious reflex. [ 78 ]


Hermit crabs fighting over a shell


A drone bee


Underside of a snail climbing a blade of grass, showing the muscular foot


Drosophila melanogaster


Atta colombica  workers transporting leaves


Diagram of the main components of the basal ganglia and their interconnections.  GPe =  External globus pallidus  GPi =  Internal globus pallidus  STN =  Subthalamic nucleus  SNpr =  Pars reticulata  SNpc =  Pars compacta  Glutamatergic pathways are red, dopaminergic pathways are magenta and GABAergic pathways are blue.


Micrograph of neurons containing neuromelanin (arrows) in the substantia nigra of a rhesus monkey. Nissl stain (blue). Scale bar = 30 microns (0.03 millimeters).


The photo shows the  stomatogastric ganglion  (STG) of a Jonah crab ( Cancer borealis ), taken by Marie Suver (California Institute of Technology; with permission) during the Neural Systems & Behavior course at the Marine Biological Laboratory in Woods Hole, MA. The STG contains the somata of 26 neurons that belong to two central pattern generating neural circuits (gastric mill and pyloric circuit)


This photo shows the pyloric dilator neuron, a  pacemaker neuron  in the STG that was stained via intracellular injection of a  fluorescent dye . The inset shows a recording of the rhythmic oscillations of the PD membrane potential. The recordings were taken by Christopher Goldsmith in the lab of  Wolfgang Stein at Illinois State University .


Typical recording of a Bereitschaftspotential


Depiction of the current theories on the degree of overlap between cognitive (C) and action-perception (A) processes. Action-oriented models of cognition propose that cognitive processes stem from action (bottom, red), thereby necessitating sensorimotor systems for higher cognitive processes like language comprehension. Adapted from Kilner et al. (2016).


Change in relative phase shift (RPS), indicating movement coordination, as a function of language stimuli. Subjects exhibited a significant change in RPS only when presented with performable sentences. Adapted from Olmstead et al. (2009).


Proposed organization of motor-semantic neural circuits for action language comprehension. Gray dots represent areas of language comprehension, creating a network for comprehending all language. The semantic circuit of the motor system, particularly the motor representation of the legs (yellow dots), is incorporated when leg-related words are comprehended. Adapted from Shebani et al. (2013).


Page of one of the first works of Biomechanics ( De Motu Animalium  of  Giovanni Alfonso Borelli ) in the 17th century


Red blood cells


Chinstrap penguin  leaping over water


A  ribosome  is a  biological machine  that utilizes  protein dynamics


A portrait of Henry Head, the pioneering English neurologist who first defined and used the term "body schema".


Rhesus macaques are able to be trained to use rudimentary tools, but have never been proven to use tools spontaneously in the wild. [ 9 ]


The foot of an escalator


Intrinsic properties of CPG neurons. Adapted from Marder and Bucher (2001). [ 12 ]


Mechanisms of rhythm generation in CPGs. Adapted from Marder and Bucher (2001). [ 12 ]


Fig. 1. Schematic of the locomotor central pattern generator in the mammalian nervous system. A command signal specifying increasing body velocity descends from deep brain nuclei via the MLR to the spinal cord and drives the timing element of the spinal locomotor CPG to generate cycles of increasing cadence. Extensor phase durations change more than flexor phase durations. The command signal also drives the pattern formation layer to generate cyclical activation of flexor and extensor motoneurons.  Loading of the activated muscles (e.g. supporting the moving body mass) is resisted by the muscles' intrinsic spring-like properties. This is equivalent to displacement feedback.  Force and displacement sensed by  muscle spindle  and  Golgi tendon organ  afferents reflexly activate motoneurons. A key role of these afferents is to adjust the timing of phase transitions, presumably by influencing or overriding the CPG timer. Modified from  [ 82 ]


Robert Dahlander


Dahlander motor wiring for low speed ( delta connection ) and high speed (double  star connection )


Cat hindlimb musculoskeletal model with redundant degrees of freedom at muscles (red lines) and joints


Depicted are parts of the basal ganglia and their interconnections as revealed by diffusion spectrum imaging based on thirty subjects from the human connectome project (HCP MGH). Direct, indirect and hyperdirect pathways are visualized in different colors (see legend). Subcortical structures are rendered based on the Harvard-Oxford subcortical (Thalamus) as well as the Atlasing of the Basal Ganglia atlas (other structures). Rendering was generated using TrackVis software.


Side view of the brain, illustrating dorsolateral prefrontal and orbitofrontal cortex


A piano trio comprising a pianist, violinist and cellist. Chamber groups traditionally perform publicly from score rather than from memory.


An excerpt from one of JS Bach's compositions for keyboard: a player's scanpath across such a score will be a complex pattern of horizontal and vertical movement.


Caravaggio 's  Rest on the Flight into Egypt  (1594–96)


WA Mozart meets violinist Thomas Linley in 1770, anon. French painting, 18th century


Seven of Souter's (2001:139) nine participants clustered around the equal-contribution point


Leonardo da Vinci: The eye has a central line and everything that reaches the eye through this central line can be seen distinctly.


Horizontal eye movement in reading. Left-to-right movement may be seen as "upstairs", and right-to-left saccades are clear.


A diagram demonstrating the  acuity  of foveal vision in reading


A Parisian street scene painted by  Jean Béraud .  A fashionable beauty reads the posters on the kiosk while two gentlemen surreptitiously ogle her.


Writing  is a fine motor skill as it requires subtle motions of the hand and fingers.


Infant displaying the  palmar grasp reflex


Writing abilities are a major fine motor skill.


Dexterity is helpful in working with  knitting needles .


Fitts's law: draft of target size W and distance to target D


Fitts task from the original experiment


Graph of the linear relationship of Fitts's law parameters


Reciprocal Tapping Task in a 2D context


Magic corners in  Microsoft Windows


Radial menu


Approximate location of the solar plexus


Playground structures often help children to develop gross motor skills such as climbing and balancing.


Physicist Niels Bohr is credited with creating the theory.


Diagram of possible illusions of self-motions (vections). Adapted from  [ 1 ]


Depicted are parts of the basal ganglia and their interconnections as revealed by diffusion spectrum imaging based on thirty subjects from the human connectome project (HCP MGH). Direct, indirect and hyperdirect pathways are visualized in different colors (see legend). Subcortical structures are rendered based on the Harvard-Oxford subcortical (Thalamus) as well as the Atlasing of the Basal Ganglia atlas (other structures). Rendering was generated using TrackVis software.


Forward model of an arm movement. The motor command, u(t), of the arm movement is input to the plant and the predicted position of the body, x̃(t), is output.


Figure 1. The desired position of the body is the reference input to the hypothetical controller, which generates the necessary motor command. This motor command is sent to the plant to move the body and an efference copy of the motor command is sent to a forward model. The output from the forward model (predicted body position) is compared with the output from the plant (body position). Noise from the system or the environment may cause differences between the actual and predicted body positions. The error (difference) between the actual and predicted positions can provide feedback to improve the movement for the next iteration of the internal model.


Figure 2. Inverse model of a reaching task. The arm's desired trajectory, Xref(t), is input into the model, which generates the necessary motor commands, ũ(t), to control the arm.


A series of images that represent research (left) and practice (right) in the field of academic kinesiology


Summary of long-term adaptations to regular aerobic and anaerobic exercise. Aerobic exercise can cause several central cardiovascular adaptations, including an increase in  stroke volume  (SV) [ 5 ]  and maximal aerobic capacity ( VO 2  max ), [ 5 ] [ 6 ]  as well as a decrease in  resting heart rate  (RHR). [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ]  Long-term adaptations to resistance training, the most common form of anaerobic exercise, include  muscular hypertrophy , [ 10 ] [ 11 ]  an increase in the  physiological cross-sectional area  (PCSA) of muscle(s), and an increase in  neural drive , [ 12 ] [ 13 ]  both of which lead to increased  muscular strength . [ 14 ]  Neural adaptations begin more quickly and plateau prior to the hypertrophic response. [ 15 ] [ 16 ]


Adaptive plasticity along with practice in three levels. In behavior level, performance (e.g., successful rate, accuracy) improved after practice. [ 31 ] [ 32 ]  In cortical level, motor representation areas of the acting muscles enlarged; functional connectivity between primary motor cortex (M1) and supplementary motor area (SMA) is strengthened. [ 33 ] [ 34 ] [ 35 ] [ 36 ] [ 37 ] [ 38 ] [ 39 ]  In neuronal level, the number of dendrites and neurotransmitter increase with practice. [ 34 ] [ 40 ] [ 41 ]


Animation illustrating the concept of motor redundancy: the motor action of bringing the finger in contact with a point in space can be achieved using a wide variety of limb configurations.


The analysis of recorded human movement, as pioneered by  Eadweard Muybridge , figures prominently in kinesiology.


In 1886, Swedish baron Nils Posse (1862–1895) introduced the term Kinesiology in the US, 1894 he wrote the book "The Special Kinesiology of Educational Gymnastics". Nils Posse was a graduate of the Royal Gymnastic Central Institute in Stockholm, Sweden and founder of the Posse Gymnasium, Boston, MA.


The image represents the practice activity in the field of Adapted Physical Activity (APA).


The image represents research activity in the field of Adapted Physical Activity (APA)


Professor David Legg current President of the International Federation of Adapted Physical Activity (IFAPA)


European Journal of Adapted Physical Activity


The image represents activities with students with disabilities associated to the Adapted Physical Education field


Para-archery athlete competing


Adapted Physical Activity in the rehabilitation process of people with disabilities


Oscar Pistorius  running during the  2011 World Championships in Athletics  in  Daegu , South Korea


Pistorius wearing  Flex-Foot Cheetah  blades


Pistorius running in Iceland in 2007.


Pistorius running in the first round of the 400m at the  2012 Summer Olympics  in London


Neonatal  (newborn)  macaque  imitating facial expressions


Diagram of the brain, showing the locations of the frontal and parietal lobes of the  cerebrum , viewed from the left. The inferior frontal lobe is the lower part of the blue area, and the superior parietal lobe is the upper part of the yellow area.


The mirror neurons can be activated only after the goal of the observed action has been attributed by other brain structures.


A woman exercising.


Reaction Time


General depiction of a motor unit, consisting of a motor neuron innervating a group of muscle fibers.


One second sample of an  EEG   alpha oscillations  . This rhythm occurs at  frequencies  similar to the mu rhythm, although alpha oscillations are detected over a different part of the brain.


The left  motor cortex , or  BA4 , is highlighted in green on this left  lateral  view of the brain. This is the area over which mu rhythms are detected  bilaterally .


A man juggling five balls


A boy with a diabolo


A combination of pen spinning tricks.


Ball speeds of 105 miles per hour (169 km/h) have been recorded in  baseball . [ 1 ]


The  Striatum ; part of the  basal ganglia ; neural pathways between the striatum and the  frontal lobe  have been implicated in planning function.


Animation of a four disc version of the  Tower of Hanoi .


Screenshot of the  PEBL  psychology software running the Tower of London test


Apparatus. Refreshable Braille cells are embedded in an inclined surface (left). A sliding potentiometer supports two semicylindrical cradles forming a guide that can be relocated on a Velcro surface to accommodate the participants' anatomical differences.


SMR waves


Scott Feldman  throws a sidearm pitch.


For right handed people, the majority of speech production activity occurs in the left cerebral hemisphere.


Examples of speech errors. The target is what the speaker intended to say. The error is what the speaker actually said. These mistakes have been studied to learn about the structure of speech production.


This is an interpretation of the Dell's model. The  words at the top represent the semantic category. The second level represents the words that denote the semantic category. The third level represents the phonemes (syllabic information including onset, vowels, and codas).


Human vocal apparatus used to produce speech


Children  copy with their own  mouths  the words spoken by the mouths of those around them. That enables them to learn the  pronunciation  of words not already in their  vocabulary .


Chad Bradford  delivers a pitch with a submarine motion.


Shunsuke Watanabe


Sign in German stating that sure-footedness ( Trittsicherheit ) is needed on this hiking trail


A crossing of the west flank of the  Heiligkreuzkofel  in the  South Tyrol  requires sure-footedness in several places


Alpine ibex  standing on cliff in winter.


The cupula is the onion-shaped structure surrounded by endolymph in the ampulla.


The middle ear


The outer ear receives sound, transmitted through the  ossicles  of the middle ear to the  inner ear , where it is converted to a nervous signal in the  cochlear  and transmitted along the  vestibulocochlear nerve .


The  otic placode  on a developing embryo (about four weeks old)


The ear develops in the lower neck region and moves upwards as the  mandible  develops (six weeks).


Stretching of the earlobe and various cartilage piercings


Primate  ears Human and  crab-eating macaque ( Darwin's tubercle  highlighted)


Pinnae of  bats


Half-Lop Rabbit Illustration by Charles Darwin, 1868


Eye of a  European bison


Human eye , a refractive  cornea  type eye.


The eyes of a mantis shrimp (here  Odontodactylus scyllarus ) are considered the most complex in the whole animal kingdom.


A refractive cornea type eye of a human. The cornea is the clear domed part covering the  anterior chamber of the eye .


Eyelids  and  eyelashes  are a unique characteristic of most mammalian eyes, both of which are evolutionary features to protect the eye.


An image of a house fly compound eye surface by using  scanning electron microscope


Anatomy of the compound eye of an insect


Arthropods such as this  blue bottle fly  have compound eyes.


Evolution of the  mollusc eye


The eye of a  red-tailed hawk


Arizona Eye Model. "A" is accommodation in diopters.


A detailed medical illustration of the eye


MRI  scan of the human eye


Schematic diagram of the human eye. It shows a horizontal section through the right eye.


The outer parts of the eye


Side-view of the human eye, viewed approximately 90° temporal, illustrating how the iris and pupil appear rotated towards the viewer due to the optical properties of the cornea and the aqueous humour


The pupil of the human eye can range in size from 2 mm to over 8 mm to  adapt  to the environment


Dilation and constriction of the pupil


The light circle is the  optic disc  where the optic nerve exits the retina


The two eyes converge to point to the same object.


A brown iris


A light brown iris with limbal ring


Amber eye


Hazel eye


Blue eye


Gray eye Northern Italy


Conjunctival infection, or redness of the sclera surrounding the iris and pupil


Diagram of a  human eye  ( horizontal section  of the right eye)  1.  Lens , 2.  Zonule of Zinn or Ciliary zonule , 3.  Posterior chamber  and 4.  Anterior chamber  with 5.  Aqueous humour  flow; 6.  Pupil , 7.  Corneosclera or Fibrous tunic  with 8.  Cornea , 9.  Trabecular meshwork  and  Schlemm's canal . 10.  Corneal limbus  and 11.  Sclera ; 12.  Conjunctiva , 13.  Uvea  with 14.  Iris , 15.  Ciliary body  (with a:  pars plicata  and b:  pars plana ) and 16.  Choroid ); 17.  Ora serrata , 18.  Vitreous humor  with 19.  Hyaloid canal/(old artery) , 20.  Retina  with 21.  Macula or macula lutea , 22.  Fovea  and 23.  Optic disc  →  blind spot ;  24.  Visual axis (line of sight) . 25.  Optical axis . 26.  Optic nerve  with 27.  Dural  sheath, 28.  Tenon's capsule or bulbar sheath , 29. Tendon.  30.  Anterior segment , 31.  Posterior segment .  32.  Ophthalmic artery , 33.   Artery  and  central retinal vein  → 36. Blood vessels of the retina;  Ciliary arteries  (34.  Short posterior ones , 35.  Long posterior ones  and 37.  Anterior ones ), 38.  Lacrimal artery , 39.  Ophthalmic vein , 40.  Vorticose vein .  41.  Ethmoid bone , 42.  Medial rectus muscle , 43.  Lateral rectus muscle , 44.  Sphenoid bone .


Bones of the nose and septal cartilage


Roof of the mouth showing position of palatine bones making up the floor of the nose, and forming the  posterior nasal spine  for the attachment of the  musculus uvulae .


Nasal cartilages


Anatomy of the nasal cavity.  Nasal-associated lymphoid tissue  labelled NALT


Paranasal sinuses


Nose shapes used in  Topinard's  nasal index.


Carotid arteries


Multiple arteries supply blood to the nose; the nasal septum, shown here is supplied by the anterior and posterior ethmoidal arteries at top; the sphenopalantine artery at the back, and the anterior ethoidal artery and the superior labial artery over the cartilage. These arteries join at  Kiesselbach's plexus .


The  developing head  at about four weeks. The olfactory pit can be seen at the top.


Air enters the upper respiratory tract through the nose. The nasal conchae can be seen in this image.


The cells lining the nose involved in smell ( olfaction ) are shown here


Saddle nose  ( congenital syphilis )


Prosthetic nose  from 17th century Europe.


posterior segment ora serrata ciliary muscle ciliary zonules Schlemm's canal pupil anterior chamber cornea iris lens cortex lens nucleus ciliary process conjunctiva inferior oblique muscle inferior rectus muscle medial rectus muscle retinal arteries and veins optic disc dura mater central retinal artery central retinal vein optic nerve vorticose vein bulbar sheath macula fovea sclera choroid superior rectus muscle retina


Diagram of a human eye; note that not all eyes have the same anatomy as a human eye.


Eyelids and eyelashes are a unique feature of mammalian eyes, and primarily serve to protect the eyes. However, the lids also play a role in nonverbal communication, and the lashes in human culture and sexuality.


Light from a single point of a distant object and light from a single point of a near object being brought to a focus on the retina


Nasal cavity anatomy


CT scan  in the  coronal plane , showing the ostiomeatal complex (green area)


The underside of a human tongue, showing its rich blood supply.


Foramen cecum and terminal sulcus labelled above


Features of the tongue surface


Lateral view of the tongue, with extrinsic muscles highlighted


Coronal section of tongue, showing intrinsic muscles


Blood supply of the tongue


Section through the human tongue; stained  H&E


Floor of pharynx at about 26 days showing lateral swellings at first pharyngeal arch (mandibular arch).


Giraffe's tongue


Extended proboscis of a long tongued  Macroglossum   moth


A circular tympanum near the eye of a male North  American bullfrog .


Structure of a typical  neuron  with  Schwann cells  in the  peripheral nervous system


Diagram showing the major divisions of the vertebrate nervous system


Horizontal section of the head of an adult female human, showing skin, skull, and brain with  gray matter  (brown in this image) and underlying  white matter


Nervous system of a bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front


Area of the human body surface innervated by each spinal nerve


Earthworm nervous system.  Top:  side view of the front of the worm.  Bottom:  nervous system in isolation, viewed from above


Internal anatomy of a spider, showing the nervous system in blue


Simplified diagram of the mollusc nervous system


Major elements in synaptic transmission. An electrochemical wave called an  action potential  travels along the  axon  of a  neuron . When the wave reaches a  synapse , it provokes release of a small amount of  neurotransmitter  molecules, which bind to chemical receptor molecules in the membrane of the target cell.


Illustration of pain pathway, from  René Descartes 's  Treatise of Man


Simplified schema of basic nervous system function: signals are picked up by sensory receptors and sent to the spinal cord and brain, where processing occurs that results in signals sent back to the spinal cord and then out to motor neurons


Human embryo, showing neural groove


Four stages in the development of the neural tube in the human embryo


Layers protecting the brain and spinal cord


Right chorda tympani nerve, viewed from lateral side


Binocular geometry. The absolute disparity is the angle between visual lines that intersect at a given point. The relative disparity is the difference between the absolute disparity of 2 points. The Vieth–Müller circle, or horizontal geometrical horopter, is the set of points that have 0-relative disparity to fixation (thus the same absolute disparity as fixation). Geometrically this is a circle passing through the nodal point of the 2 eyes and through fixation. The empirical horopter, measured according to a given criterion such as identical visual directions in the 2 eyes, does not fall on the geometrical horopter. It is concave as short fixation distances, flat at the abathic distance and then convex.


Motor nerves wrapped in endoneurium


Neural stem cells seen in green


Coactivation of  biceps  and  triceps . The biceps’ EMG is on top, while the triceps’ EMG is on the bottom.


Neuroanatomy is the study of the  anatomy  and organisation of the nervous system. Pictured here is a cross-section showing the  gross anatomy  of the  human brain .


J. M. Bourgery 's anatomy of the brain, brainstem, and upper spinal column


Para-sagittal  MRI  of the head in a patient with benign familial  macrocephaly


Nervous system of a generic bilaterian animal, in the form of a nerve cord with segmental enlargements, and a "brain" at the front


Vagus nerve


H&E stained  fibers of the vagus nerve (bottom right) innervate the  sinoatrial node  tissue (middle left)


Visual cycle


Representation of molecular steps in photoactivation (modified from Leskov et al., 2000 [ 4 ] ). Depicted is an outer membrane disk in a rod.  Step 1 : Incident photon (hν) is absorbed and activates a  rhodopsin  (likewise  photopsin ) by conformational change in the disk membrane to R*.  Step 2 : Next, R* makes repeated contacts with transducin molecules, catalyzing its activation to G* by the release of bound GDP in exchange for cytoplasmic GTP, which expels its β and γ subunits.  Step 3 : G* binds inhibitory γ subunits of the phosphodiesterase (PDE) activating its α and β subunits.  Step 4 : Activated PDE hydrolyzes cGMP.  Step 5 : Guanylyl cyclase (GC) synthesizes cGMP, the second messenger in the phototransduction cascade. Reduced levels of cytosolic cGMP cause cyclic nucleotide gated channels to close preventing further influx of Na +  and Ca 2+ .


The absorption of light leads to an isomeric change in the retinal molecule.


Trepanned skull from  Edinburgh


World Academy of Neurological Surgery's conference


Histopathology  specimen of  Angiocentric glioma , higher magnification, HE stain


The location of the amygdala in the human brain


The stereotaxic apparatus used for clinical amygdalotomy


The  trigeminal nerve .


Base of the skull. Inferior surface,  attachment of muscles  marked in red.


Exobasis


Endobasis-resistances beams


Endobasis-resistances nodes


The foramina in the base of the skull are exit and entry points for veins, arteries and  cranial nerves .


The cranial nerves as they exit through various foramina.


The  carotid artery  is the large vertical artery in red. The blood supply to the  common carotid artery  starts at the arch of the  aorta  (left) or the  subclavian artery  (right). The common carotid artery divides into the  internal carotid artery  and the  external carotid artery . Plaque often builds up at that division, and a carotid endarterectomy cuts open the artery and removes the plaque.


Illustration depicting a Carotid Endarterectomy


Diagram of cerebral aneurysm.


The most common sites of intracranial saccular aneurysms


CT angiography showing aneurysm measuring 2.6 mm in diameter at the ACOM (anterior communicating artery).


A selection of  Mayfield  and  Drake  aneurysm clips ready for implantation.


Here is the arm of the ROSA One


Illustration depicting a surgical discectomy


Spinal reflections and folds


This picture shows important anatomy involved in endoscopic endonasal surgery. The pituitary gland sits at the top of the picture behind the sphenoid sinus.


Resected middle cerebral artery aneurysm filled with multiple coils.


A 3D reconstruction of the  Circle of Willis  derived from a CT angiogram.


Spinal surgeons operating on a patient's back


CT scan showing markedly thickened  ligamentum flavum  (yellow ligament) causing  spinal stenosis  in the lumbar spine.


CT scan image of large herniated disc in the lumbar spine.


CT scan of laminectomy showing scar formation (highlighted in red)causing new stenosis.


Myelogram  showing typical findings of arachnoiditis in the lumbar spine.


CT scan showing post operative scarring and arachnoiditis.


CT scan showing two views of L4-5 disc herniation


Ultrasound of the optic nerve showing IIH [ 17 ]


A  lumbar puncture  in progress. A large area on the back has been washed with an  iodine -based disinfectant leaving brown colouration. In this image the person is seated upright, which can make the procedure easier to perform but makes any measurement of the opening pressure unreliable.


The number of new cases per year of IIH is strongly determined by sex and  body weight . The figures in females are in women between 20 and 45 years old. [ 5 ]


Graphic of lumbar laminectomy and two conditions it can address.


Human Vertebral Column


Vertebra Superior View


Vertebral Column: Lamina


US Navy Cmdr. Kenneth Kubis, director of surgical services aboard the Military Sealift Command hospital ship USNS Mercy uses an operating microscope


Featured: Ligamentum Flavum


MRI of the lumbar spine showing spinal stenosis


Advertisement for a Leucotome in the 1940s


A leucotome designed by Neurosurgeon John Crumbie,  Croydon Mental Hospital , 1955 [ 3 ]


NF-2 may be inherited in an  autosomal dominant  fashion, as well as through random mutation.


Micrograph  of a  schwannoma , a tumor seen in neurofibromatosis type II.  HPS stain .


Schwannoma of the N. Vestibularis


Meningiomas in a person with NFII


NF-2 Locus


Photo of Mathieu Jaboulay courtesy of Romain Rochefeuille


Magnetic Resonance Image of Lumbar Spine courtesy of Nevit Dilmen


Nerve block of cervical spine courtesy of PainDoctorUSA


Left Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex targeted using high definition MRI. The red sphere is the anterior inferior left DLPFC, the green sphere is the indicated coil location. Left DLPFC is stimulated for the treatment of depression and other conditions


3d printed transcranial magnetiс stimulation patient-specific guide based on MRI data capable to hold 2 Magventure MCF-B65 coils in selected regions on both frontal lobes.


CAD model of patient-specific TMS guide


1) Boron compound (b) is selectively absorbed by cancer cell(s). 2) Neutron beam (n) is aimed at cancer site. 3) Boron absorbs neutron. 4) Boron disintegrates emitting cancer-killing radiation.


Skull of the  tuatara  ( Sphenodon punctatus ), with the pineal foramen enclosed by the parietal bones


Surgical planning using  bone segment navigation  for the  osteotomy  of the jaw bones, based on models fixed into an  articulator  (registration based on infrared devices)


Schematic representation of the SSN system


Actual usage of the SSN system in the operating room


Micrograph  showing a primary CNS lymphoma with the characteristic perivascular distribution composed of large cells with prominent  nucleoli .  Brain biopsy .  HPS stain .


Planning  CT scan  with IV contrast in a patient with left cerebellopontine angle  vestibular schwannoma


A doctor performing Gamma Knife Radiosurgery


NRC  graphic of the Leksell Gamma Knife


Frame for Stereotactic Thalamotomy on display at the  Glenside Museum


Jorge Candia, Antonio Martos and Jorge Olivetti


The first surgery performed with Latin-American system was a Trigeminal Nucleotractothomy, performed by Jorge Schvartz.


Part of a stereotaxic atlas showing the human thalamus and nuclei


Circle of Willis with the most common locations of ruptured aneurysms marked


A  lumbar puncture  in progress. A large area on the back has been washed with an  iodine -based disinfectant, leaving brown coloration.


Xanthochromia  versus normal CSF


ECG changes resembling those of an STEMI in a woman who had an acute CNS injury from a subarachnoid hemorrhage


Arteriogram  showing a partially coiled aneurysm ( indicated by yellow arrows ) of the  posterior cerebral artery  with a residual aneurysmal sac. The person was a 34-year-old woman initially treated for a subarachnoid hemorrhage.


Autopsy  of a case with subarachnoid hemorrhage. The arachnoid mater is left in place on the exterior surface, containing extensive hemorrhage that also fills the sulci, as detailed in magnified image.


Average number of people with SAH per 100,000 person-years, broken down by age [ 90 ]


An arteriovenous graft serving as a fistula for hemodialysis access


The picture shows three exemplary steps during white matter dissection. In the upper part, a left hemisphere has been prepared according to Klingler's technique. The arachnoidal layer and the blood vessels were previously removed. In the middle part of the picture the first step of white matter dissection with the exposure of short fibres (U-fibres) which are visible underneath the cerebral cortex. In the lower part, a deeper layer of anatomical dissection with white matter structures (associative and projection fibres) and basal ganglia (Putamen). [ 1 ]


An implanted  neurostimulator , sometimes called a 'brain pacemaker, in an adult male as part of ablative brain surgery.


Anterior cervical discectomy


CT scan of a patient after 2-level anterior cervical discectomy & fusion (ACDF) with allograft.


Simplistic representation of a stereotactic brain biopsy


A ventriculoperitoneal shunt running from a brain ventricle to the abdominal cavity.  CT scan  of the head, 2016.


X-ray  of a ventriculoperitoneal shunt


Corpus callosum


Scar remained from a cranioplasty


A trepanned skull


Portrait of Gabriele Fallopius


Sir William Macewen, who reported a case of successful autograft cranioplasty in 1885


Diagram of the elements of a craniotomy.


An adult male undergoing pre-op preparation for deep brain stimulation


Insertion of electrode during surgery using a  stereotactic frame


Arteriogram of the arterial supply that can hemorrhage during DBS implantation


A custom made operating thoracoscope, used for the endoscopic thoracic sympathectomy procedure.


A thermal image of an ETS patient 2 years after surgery.


Insulin shock therapy  administered in  Helsinki  in the 1950s.


The Swiss psychiatrist  Gottlieb Burckhardt  (1836–1907)


The Estonian neurosurgeon  Ludvig Puusepp  c. 1920


The pioneer of lobotomies, the Portuguese neurologist and Nobel Laureate  António Egas Moniz


Brain  animation: left  frontal lobe  highlighted in red. Moniz targeted the frontal lobes in the leucotomy procedure he first conceived in 1933.


Site of borehole for the standard pre-frontal lobotomy/leucotomy operation as developed by Freeman and Watts


Scalp of a patient with an Ommaya reservoir.


Dr. Ommaya handling his reservoir.


Herniated disc pressing on spinal nerves.


Anterior approach to cervical spine.


X-ray of Transforaminal Lumbar Interbody Fusion (TLIF)


Stabilization rods used after spinal fusion surgery.


Different sides of the brain specialize in different functions or processes.


The  corpus callosum , highlighted in red, is the main neural pathway between the two hemispheres.


The picture is about a normal brain and a person with a split brain


Frame for stereotactic thalamotomy on display at the  Glenside Museum


Detail from  The Extraction of the Stone of Madness , a painting by  Hieronymus Bosch  depicting trepanation ( c.  1488–1516 )


The perimeter of the hole in this trepanated  Neolithic  skull is rounded off by ingrowth of new bony tissue, indicating that the patient survived the operation.


Skulls from the  Bronze Age  exhibited at the Musée archéologique de Saint-Raphaël (Archeological Museum of  Saint-Raphaël ), found in  Comps-sur-Artuby  (France). The subjects survived operations.


Dr. John Clarke  trepanning a skull,  c.  1664 , in one of the earliest American portraits. Clarke is alleged to have been the first physician to have performed the operation in the  New England Colonies .


Trepanation instruments, 18th century; Germanic National Museum in Nuremberg


Attendees at the first meeting of the Harvey Cushing Society in Boston, 1932.


Melissa Sue Anderson , known for her role on the NBC series  Little House on the Prairie , was cast as the film's lead character.


First edition (publ.  Little, Brown ) Cover artist: Wendell Minor


cover of the Wesleyan University Press paperback reprint edition