Dissection of anterior aspect of vertebral column
										 Coccygeal region.
										The lower part of the dissection illustrated in the previous view is shown in this photograph. A plexus formed by the right lateral sacral artery (7) and the middle sacral artery (20) lies anterior to the coccyx. At the level of the endpiece of the coccyx the glomus coccygeum (24) is visible. The sympathetic trunks converge behind the artery slightly below the glomus. No ganglion impar is present, however.

														 1
						.
					 Filum terminale (right coccygeal nerve fused to posterior aspect of filum and not visible in view)  2
						.
					 Vertebral canal (pointer indicates interior surface of superficial dorsal sacrococcygeal ligament covering sacral hiatus)  3
						.
					 Sacral nerve V  4
						.
					 Rami communicantes  5
						.
					 Sacral nerve IV  6
						.
					 Nerve to levator ani muscle and coccygeus muscle  7
						.
					 Ramus lateral sacral artery  8
						.
					 Upper pointer: Sacral nerve V (visible through opening in tendon of coccygeus muscle) Lower pointer: Lateral branch sacral artery  9
						.
					 Coccygeus muscle  10
						.
					 Anococcygeal ligament  11
						.
					 Anal canal (remnant cut across close to pelvic diaphragm)  12
						.
					 Internal vertebral venous plexus  13
						.
					 Sacral nerve V  14
						.
					 Coccygeal nerve  15
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk (a ganglion lies just above pointer)  16
						.
					 Sacral nerve IV  17
						.
					 Coccyx (body partially removed)  18
						.
					 Sacral nerve V  19
						.
					 Periosteum on anterior surface of coccyx  20
						.
					 Median sacral artery  21
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk  22
						.
					 Coccygeus muscle (cut off)  23
						.
					 Ganglion of sympathetic trunk  24
						.
					 Upper pointer: Glomus coccygeum Lower pointer: Periosteum covering end piece of coccyx (fibers transversely banded)  25
						.
					 Coccyx (endpiece)


Dissection of anterior aspect of vertebral column
										 Sacral region.
										lumbosacral part of vertebral canal,opened and viewed from in front

														 1
						.
					 Intervertebral disc L. III-IV (pointer on anulus fibrosus)  2
						.
					 Anterior longitudinal ligament  3
						.
					 Body of vertebra L. III (partly resected)  4
						.
					 Anterior internal vertebral venous plexus  5
						.
					 Intervertebral disc L. IV - V (pointer on nucleus pulposus)  6
						.
					 Dura mater  7
						.
					 Fibrous attachment of dura to posterior longitudinal ligament (cut off)  8
						.
					 Sympathetic tnmk  9
						.
					 Upper pointer: Sacrum (body resected) Lower pointer: Remnant of intervertebral disc S. I - II  10
						.
					 Iliopsoas muscle  11
						.
					 Lateral sacral arteries  12
						.
					 Femoral nerve  13
						.
					 Sacral plexus  14
						.
					 External iliac artery  15
						.
					 Obturator nerve  16
						.
					 Coccygeus muscle (posterior border of pelvic diaphragm)  17
						.
					 Piriform muscle  18
						.
					 Internal vertebral venous plexus  19
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra L. IV  20
						.
					 Ligamentum flavum  21
						.
					 Pedicle (arch of vertebra) L. V (cut across)  22
						.
					 Upper pointer: Spinal ganglion lumbar nerve V Lower pointer: Spinal branch iliolumbar artery  23
						.
					 Lateral femoral cutaneus nerve  24
						.
					 Obturator nerve  25
						.
					 Femoral nerve  26
						.
					 Lateral part sacrum  27
						.
					 Lumbosacral trunk  28
						.
					 Sacral nerve I (in pelvic sacral foramen)  29
						.
					 Dural filum terminale (coccygeal nerves fused with this at lower level)  30
						.
					 Sacral nerve II  31
						.
					 Sacral canal (lined by periosteum)  32
						.
					 Sacral nerve III  33
						.
					 Sacral nerve IV  34
						.
					 Sacral nerve V  35
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk  36
						.
					 Coccygeal nerve  37
						.
					 Coccyx (covered by periosteum)


Dissection of anterior aspect of vertebral column
										 Sacral region.
										The right hip bone has been removed. The contents of the pelvic cavity have been removed or retracted to expose the pelvic surface of the sacrum, the sacral sympathetic trunks and the blood vessels of the sacrum

														 1
						.
					 Common iliac artery  2
						.
					 Intervertebral disc L. V - S. I  3
						.
					 Femoral nerve  4
						.
					 Obturator nerve  5
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk  6
						.
					 Pelvic surface sacrum  7
						.
					 Articular surface sacrum  8
						.
					 Sacral plexus (cut across)  9
						.
					 Piriform muscle (cut across)  10
						.
					 Ganglion of sympathetic trunk  11
						.
					 Pelvic sacral foramen II  12
						.
					 Sacral splanchnic nerve (sympathetic)  13
						.
					 Sacral nerve IV  14
						.
					 Superior diaphragmatic pelvic fascia  15
						.
					 Median sacral vein  16
						.
					 Median sacral artery  17
						.
					 Promontory  18
						.
					 Superior hypogastric plexus  19
						.
					 Internal iliac vein  20
						.
					 Internal iliac artery  21
						.
					 Ureter  22
						.
					 External iliac artery  23
						.
					 External iliac vein  24
						.
					 Obturator nerve  25
						.
					 Obturator artery  26
						.
					 Upper pointer: Lateral sacral artery Lower pointer: Ramus communicans (gray)  27
						.
					 Upper pointer: Sacral nerve I Lower pointer: Piriform muscle (covered by parietal pelvic fascia)  28
						.
					 Pelvic splanchnic nerve (from sacral nerve II)  29
						.
					 Pelvic splanchnic nerve (from sacral nerve III) 30. Vagina


Dissection of anterior aspect of vertebral column
										 Lumbar region.
										The specimen shown in the preceding view has been turned to expose the left lateral aspect of the vertebral column.

														 1
						.
					 Hemiazygos vein  2
						.
					 Rami communicantes  3
						.
					 Right crus of diaphragm  4
						.
					 Lumbar artery and vein III  5
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk  6
						.
					 Body of vertebra L. IV (pointer on anterior longitudinal ligament)  7
						.
					 Lumbar nerve IV (emerging through intervertebral foramen)  8
						.
					 Intervertebral disc L. IV - V  9
						.
					 Left common iliac vein (cut off)  10
						.
					 Obturator nerve  11
						.
					 Psoas major muscle (cut off)  12
						.
					 Quadratus lumborum muscle (cut off)  13
						.
					 Upper pointer: Iliohypogastric nerve Lower pointer: Ilioinguinal nerve  14
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra L. II  15
						.
					 Lumbar nerve II  16
						.
					 Ascending lumbar vein  17
						.
					 Intervertebral joint capsule  18
						.
					 Lumbar nerve III  19
						.
					 Mamillary process vertebra L. IV  20
						.
					 Upper pointer: Accessory process vertebra L. IV Lower pointer: Intertransverse ligament  21
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra L. IV  22
						.
					 Interspinous ligament  23
						.
					 Supraspinous ligament  24
						.
					 Interosseous sacroiliac ligament  25
						.
					 Femoral nerve  26
						.
					 Lumbosacral trunk


Dissection of anterior aspect of vertebral column
										 Lumbar region.
										The left hip bone,the psoas major and the quadratus lumborum muscles have been removed.

														 1
						.
					 Lumbar part of diaphragm  2
						.
					 Lateral arcuate ligament  3
						.
					 Rib XII  4
						.
					 Lumbar vein III  5
						.
					 Ganglion of sympathetic trunk  6
						.
					 Body of vertebra L. III (pointer on anterior longitudinal ligament)  7
						.
					 Intervertebral disc L. III - IV  8
						.
					 Lumbar artery IV  9
						.
					 Vena cava inferior (cut off)  10
						.
					 Psoas major muscle  11
						.
					 Iliacus muscle  12
						.
					 Iliac crest  13
						.
					 Genitofemoral nerve  14
						.
					 Common left iliac vein  15
						.
					 Promontory  16
						.
					 Median sacral artery  17
						.
					 Hemiazygos vein  18
						.
					 Psoas major muscle  19
						.
					 Ascending lumbar vein  20
						.
					 Ramus communicans  21
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk  22
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra L. III  23
						.
					 Lumbar plexus  24
						.
					 Obturator nerve  25
						.
					 Lateral femoral cutaneus nerve  26
						.
					 Femoral nerve  27
						.
					 Iliolumbar artery  28
						.
					 Lateral part sacrum  29
						.
					 Iliolumbar artery  30
						.
					 Lumbosacral trunk


Dissection of anterior aspect of vertebral column
										 Lumbar region.
										The left quadratus lumborum muscle (20) has been exposed. The muscle has been dissected to trace incoming branches from the lumbar nerves that supply it. The psoas major has been detached from its spinal origins but has not been deflected.

														 1
						.
					 Kidney right  2
						.
					 Right diaphragmatic crus  3
						.
					 Intervertebral disc L. II - III  4
						.
					 Lumbar veins  5
						.
					 Lumbar artery  6
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk (pointer on lumbar ganglion)  7
						.
					 Ramus communicans  8
						.
					 Body of vertebral IV (pointer on anterior longitudinal ligament)  9
						.
					 Abdominal aorta  10
						.
					 Branch of subcostal nerve to quadratus lumborum  11
						.
					 Subcostal nerve  12
						.
					 Rib XII  13
						.
					 Diaphragm  14
						.
					 Upper pointer: Iliohypogastric nerve (cut off) Lower pointer: Ilioinguinal nerve (cut off)  15
						.
					 Branch of 1st lumbar nerve to quadratus lumborum  16
						.
					 Upper pointer: Muscular branch of lumbar artery Lower pointer: Branch of 2nd lumbar nerve to quadratus lumborum  17
						.
					 Tip of 12th costal cartilage  18
						.
					 Location of transverse process of vertebra L. III  19
						.
					 Psoas major muscle  20
						.
					 Quadratus lumborum muscle  21
						.
					 Branch of 4th lumbar nerve to quadratus lumborum  22
						.
					 Lateral femoral cutaneus nerve  23
						.
					 Quadratus lumborum muscle (lowest fascicle)


Dissection of anterior aspect of vertebral column
										 Lumbar region.
										Parts of the lumbar vertebrae and the body of the sacrum have been cut away to expose the lower end of the dural sac. The entire iliopsoas muscle has been uncovered by removing surrounding soft tissues.

														 1
						.
					 Medial diaphragmatic arcuate ligament (medial lumbar arch)  2
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk  3
						.
					 Psoas major muscle  4
						.
					 Body of vertebra L. V (cut in saggital plane)  5
						.
					 Iliac crest  6
						.
					 Iliacus muscle  7
						.
					 Greater trochanter of femur  8
						.
					 Minor trochanter  9
						.
					 Anterior longitudinal ligament (joined above this level by right crus of diaphragm which has been cut off)  10
						.
					 Dura mater (lying within vertebral canal)  11
						.
					 Femoral nerve  12
						.
					 Sacrum  13
						.
					 Lumbosacral trunk  14
						.
					 Piriform muscle  15
						.
					 Pubic bone  16
						.
					 Obturator externus muscle


Dissection of anterior aspect of vertebral column
										 Thoracic region.
										anterior longitudinal ligament  sympathetic trunks

														 1
						.
					 Middle cervical ganglion (unusually large)  2
						.
					 Anterior scalene muscle (cut off)  3
						.
					 Brachial plexus  4
						.
					 Body of vertebra Th. I (covered by anterior longitudinal ligament)  5
						.
					 Right superior intercostal vein (cut off)  6
						.
					 Anterior longitudinal ligament (pointer on body of vertebra Th. IV)  7
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk  8
						.
					 Endothoracic fascia  9
						.
					 Intervertebral disc Th. IX - X  10
						.
					 Greater splanchnic nerve  11
						.
					 Upper pointer: Azygos vein Lower pointer: Inferior vena cava  12
						.
					 Longus colli muscle  13
						.
					 Stellate ganglion  14
						.
					 Middle scalene muscle  15
						.
					 Rib I (cut off)  16
						.
					 Rib III  17
						.
					 Costal pleura  18
						.
					 Posterior intercostal artery and vein VII  19
						.
					 Intercostal nerve VII  20
						.
					 Thoracic aorta


Dissection of anterior aspect of vertebral column
										 Thoracic region.
										The left tenth rib has been removed from the specimen with care to preserve the ligaments, joint capsules and articular surfaces of the costovertebral articulations. The view is directed inward from in front and to the left. Other dissections of the costotransverse joint are shown in views 214-4 and 219-1.

														 1
						.
					 Upper pointer: Intercostal nerve IX Lower pointer: Spinal ganglion (lying within intervertebral foramen)  2
						.
					 Costotransverse ligament (attached posteriorly to transverse process of vertebrae Th. X)  3
						.
					 Azygos vein  4
						.
					 Head of rib joint (pointers indicate facets on adjacent vertebral bodies, the cleft between being occupied by the delicate intraarticular ligament)  5
						.
					 Radiate ligament  6
						.
					 Anterior longitudinal ligament (pointer also indicates body of vertebra Th. X)  7
						.
					 Intervertebral disc Th. X - XI  8
						.
					 Hemiazygos vein (note small veins draining vertebral bodies at higher levels).  9
						.
					 Posterior intercostal vein VIII  10
						.
					 Posterior intercostal artery VIII  11
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk (cut off, also see 24)  12
						.
					 Joint at head of rib IX (intact)  13
						.
					 Intercostal nerve VIII  14
						.
					 Costal pleura  15
						.
					 Rib IX  16
						.
					 Superior costotransverse ligament (upper pointer, anterior division; lower pointer, posterior division)  17
						.
					 Branch of ninth intercostal nerve to levator costarum muscle  18
						.
					 Lateral costotransverse ligament  19
						.
					 Levator costarum muscle  20
						.
					 Borders of area occupied by tenth rib  21
						.
					 Transverse costal facet (covered with articular cartilage)  22
						.
					 Innermost intercostal muscle  23
						.
					 Intercostal nerve X (cut off)  24
						.
					 Left pointer: Sympathetic trunk (cut off, also see 1-1) Right pointer: Ramus communicans  25
						.
					 Ganglion of sympathetic trunk


Dissection of anterior aspect of vertebral column
										 Thoracic region.
										The specimen shown in the previous view has been turned to expose its left anterolateral aspect in this close-up view of the lower thoracic and upper lumbar part of the spine.

														 1
						.
					 Accessory hemiazygos vein  2
						.
					 Azygos vein  3
						.
					 Upper pointer: Body of vertebra Th. VIII (pointer on anterior longitudinal ligament) Lower pointer: Intervertebral disc Th. VII-IX  4
						.
					 Vein draining body of vertebra  5
						.
					 Posterior intercostal arteries IX and X  6
						.
					 Greater splanchnic nerve (lower pointer on splanchnic ganglion)  7
						.
					 Lesser splanchnic nerve  8
						.
					 Least splanchnic it  9
						.
					 Diaphragm (cut off)  10
						.
					 Lumbar part of diaphragm (upper pointer: left crus; lower pointer: right crus)  11
						.
					 Left pointer: Hemiazygos vein Right pointer: Posterior intercostal vein VIII  12
						.
					 Rib VIII  13
						.
					 Costal pleura  14
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk (lower pointer on ganglion of sympathetic trunk)  15
						.
					 Rami communicantes  16
						.
					 Intercostal nerve XI  17
						.
					 Head of rib XII  18
						.
					 Subcostal nerve (note large ramus communicans)  19
						.
					 Upper pointer: Quadratus lumborum muscle Lower pointer: Psoas major muscle  20
						.
					 Ascending lumbar vein  21
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra L. II  22
						.
					 Lumbar nerve I (passing downward to join lumbar plexus)


Dissection of anterior aspect of vertebral column
										 Thoracic region.
										In this specimen the thoracic viscera have been removed and the azygos system of veins has been dissected to show the relation of its parts to the intercostal arteries and nerves, the sympathetic trunks and the vertebral columns and ribs.

														 1
						.
					 Manubrium of sternum (cut across)  2
						.
					 Brachiocephalic veins  3
						.
					 Arch of aorta  4
						.
					 Superior vena cava  5
						.
					 Upper pointer: Trachea Lower pointer: Esophagus  6
						.
					 Azygos vein  7
						.
					 Costal pleura  8
						.
					 Posterior intercostal arteries  9
						.
					 Greater splanchnic nerve  10
						.
					 Diaphragm  11
						.
					 Rib I  12
						.
					 Axillary vein  13
						.
					 Left subclavian artery  14
						.
					 Left superior intercostal vein  15
						.
					 Accessory hemiazygos vein  16
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk  17
						.
					 Hemiazygos vein  18
						.
					 Upper pointer: Anterior longitudinal ligament Lower pointer: Intervertebral disc Th. X - XI  19
						.
					 Intercostal nerve XI  20
						.
					 Rib XII


Dissection of anterior aspect of vertebral column
										 Cervical region.
										The longus coli, rectus capitis anterior, rectus capitis lateralis, and some of the cervical intertransverse muscles have been cut away. In addition, the transverse processes of the atlas, the axis, and the fifth cervical vertebra have been cut so that the course of the vertebral artery (17) is visible. The artery did not pass through the transverse process of the sixth cervical vertebra in this specimen.

														 1
						.
					 Nasal cavity  2
						.
					 Area of insertion of longus capitis muscle  3
						.
					 Nasopharynx  4
						.
					 Longus colli muscle (transected close to insertion on anterior tubercle of atlas)  5
						.
					 Superior cervical ganglion  6
						.
					 Lingual nerve  7
						.
					 Areas of insertion of longus colli muscle on bodies of vertebra C. III - V  8
						.
					 Upper pointer: Position of intervertebral disc uniting vertebra C. IV - V Lower pointer: Body of vertebra C. V  9
						.
					 Internal carotid artery  10
						.
					 Hypoglossal nerve (XII) (emerging from hypoglossal canal)  11
						.
					 Atlanto-occipital joint  12
						.
					 Ventral branch cervical nerve I (branch communicating with hypoglossal nerve cut away)  13
						.
					 Posterior arch of atlas  14
						.
					 Lateral atlantoaxial joint  15
						.
					 Ventral branch cervical nerve II  16
						.
					 Rami communicantes (gray)  17
						.
					 Vertebral artery  18
						.
					 Cervical nerve III  19
						.
					 Anterior intertransverse muscle  20
						.
					 Dorsal branch cervical nerve IV  21
						.
					 Posterior intertransverse muscle  22
						.
					 Ventral branch cervical nerve IV  23
						.
					 Ramus communicans (gray)  24
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk  25
						.
					 Anterior tubercle vertebra C. V  26
						.
					 Cervical nerve VI


Dissection of anterior aspect of vertebral column
										 Cervical region.
										The longus capitis muscle has been divided close to its origins (15) from the transverse processes of the third to the sixth cervical vertebrae and also at its insertion (1) into the occipital bone. The removal of the belly of this muscle has exposed the longus colli muscle (13) and the anterior arch of the atlas (9).

														 1
						.
					 Area of insertion of longus capitis muscle  2
						.
					 Nasal cavity  3
						.
					 Nasopharynx  4
						.
					 Oropharynx  5
						.
					 Larynx  6
						.
					 Upper pointer: Internal carotid artery (within carotid canal, accompanied by internal carotid plexus) Lower pointer: Jugular foramen (opened)  7
						.
					 Lateral rectus capitis muscle  8
						.
					 Upper pointer: Hypoglossal nerve (XII) Lower pointer: Anterior rectus capitis muscle  9
						.
					 Upper pointer: Anterior atlantooccipital membrane Lower pointer: Anterior arch of atlas (covered by connective tissue)  10
						.
					 Transverse process of atlas  11
						.
					 Lateral atlantoaxial joint (pointer on joint capsule)  12
						.
					 Ventral branch cervical nerve II  13
						.
					 Longus colli muscle  14
						.
					 Superior cervical ganglion  15
						.
					 Origins of longus capitis muscle  16
						.
					 Ventral branch cervical nerve III  17
						.
					 Anterior intertransverse muscle  18
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk  19
						.
					 Anterior longitudinal ligament (partially covered by prevertebral fascia)  20
						.
					 Middle cervical ganglion  21
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra C. VII


Dissection of anterior aspect of vertebral column
										 Cervical region.
										The left half of the head has been previously dissected in connection with the anatomy of the head and neck .In this view, in which the tongue has been removed and the wall of the pharynx has been sectioned close to the midline, the cervical sympathetic trunk and the prevertebral muscles are visible in situ. The prevertebral layer of the cervical fascia has been removed to the left of the midline.

														 1
						.
					 Upper pointer: Rostrum of sphenoid Lower pointer: Nasopharynx  2
						.
					 Soft palate (cut in midline)  3
						.
					 Palatine tonsil  4
						.
					 Uvula  5
						.
					 Oropharynx  6
						.
					 Geniohyoid muscle  7
						.
					 Body hyoid bone (cut in midline)  8
						.
					 Thyroid cartilage (cut across)  9
						.
					 Anterior scalene muscle  10
						.
					 Upper pointer: Vagus nerve (X) Lower pointer: Common carotid artery  11
						.
					 Upper pointer: Internal carotid artery (in carotid canal) Lower pointer: Jugular foramen (opened)  12
						.
					 Lateral rectus capitis muscle  13
						.
					 Longus capitis muscle  14
						.
					 Accessory nerve (XI)  15
						.
					 Upper pointer: Inferior ganglion vagus nerve (nodose ganglion) Lower pointer: Hypoglossal nerve (XII)  16
						.
					 Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)  17
						.
					 Superior cervical ganglion  18
						.
					 Superior cardiac branch of vagus nerve  19
						.
					 Anterior longitudinal ligament  20
						.
					 Vagus nerve (X)  21
						.
					 Longus colli muscle  22
						.
					 Cervical prevertebral fascia  23
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk  24
						.
					 Epiglottis  25
						.
					 Origins of anterior scalene muscle  26
						.
					 Cervical nerve VI  27
						.
					 Middle scalene muscle  28
						.
					 Posterior scalene muscle  29
						.
					 Cervical nerve VIII  30
						.
					 Stellate ganglion  31
						.
					 Costocervical trunk


Lumbosacral meninges, spinal cord and nerve roots dissected from behind
										 Cauda equina, conus medullaris and filum terminale
										The lumbar part of the spinal cord has been exposed. The conus medullaris ends at the level of the arch of the second lumbar vertebra.

														 1
						.
					 Lateral cutaneous branch of dorsal branch thoracic nerve XII  2
						.
					 Medial intertransverse muscle  3
						.
					 Lamina (arch of vertebra) L. I (cut across)  4
						.
					 Lateral intertransversarius muscle  5
						.
					 Mamillary process vertebra L. II  6
						.
					 Dorsal branch lumbar nerve I  7
						.
					 Iliocostalis muscle  8
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra L. II (partly resected)  9
						.
					 Intervertebral joint capsule  10
						.
					 Dorsal roots thoracic nerve XII  11
						.
					 Denticulate ligament  12
						.
					 Intumescentia lumbalis  13
						.
					 Latissimus dorsi muscle (cut across)  14
						.
					 Cauda equina  15
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle  16
						.
					 Superior articular surface  17
						.
					 Conus medullaris  18
						.
					 Filum terminale


Lumbosacral meninges, spinal cord and nerve roots dissected from behind
										 Arachnoid membrane covering cauda equina
										The dura has been removed so that the arachnoid membrane remains intact. The filum terminale (15) appears as a white strand deep to the arachnoid. An extensive subarachnoid space surrounds the nerve roots which form the cauda equina.

														 1
						.
					 Mamillary process vertebra L. III  2
						.
					 Inferior articular process vertebra L. II  3
						.
					 Iliocostalis muscle  4
						.
					 Lamina (arch of vertebra) L. IV  5
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia  6
						.
					 Ligamentum flavum  7
						.
					 Epidural space and cut margin of dura  8
						.
					 Fibrous attachment of dura to sacrum  9
						.
					 Cystic enlargement of dura covering roots of second sacral nerve (note resorption of neighboring bone)  10
						.
					 Gluteus maximus muscle  11
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra L. II  12
						.
					 Branch of lumbar artery  13
						.
					 Dura mater  14
						.
					 Arachnoid  15
						.
					 Filum terminale (beneath arachnoid)  16
						.
					 Sacral nerve II  17
						.
					 Level at which spinal subarachnoid space terminates  18
						.
					 Dural filum terminale


Lumbosacral meninges, spinal cord and nerve roots dissected from behind
										 Dura mater in lumbar region
										The laminae of the third, fourth and fifth lumbar vertebrae and of the upper two sacral segments have been resected. Epidural fat has been removed to expose segmentally arranges veins (15). Several fibrous strands (10) pass from the lower part of the dura to the sacrum as part of the anchoring mechanism of the meninges.

														 1
						.
					 Lateral cutaneous branch of dorsal branch thoracic nerve XII  2
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra L. II  3
						.
					 Inferior articular process vertebra L. II  4
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle  5
						.
					 Iliocostalis muscle  6
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia  7
						.
					 Multifidus muscle (cut across near origin from mammillary process)  8
						.
					 Superficial fascia  9
						.
					 Dura mater  10
						.
					 Fibrous strands attaching dura to sacrum  11
						.
					 Gluteus maximus muscle  12
						.
					 Fascia of latissimus dorsi muscle  13
						.
					 Aponeurosis of latissimus dorsi muscle  14
						.
					 Layer of fascia beneath thoracolumbar fascia  15
						.
					 Posterior internal vertebral venous plexus  16
						.
					 Laminal arch of vertebra L. III (cut across)  17
						.
					 Laminal arch of vertebra L. IV (cut across)  18
						.
					 Laminal arch of vertebra L. V (cut across)  19
						.
					 Laminal arch of sacrum (cut across)  20
						.
					 Sacral nerve I  21
						.
					 Dural filum terminale (coccygeal nerve roots accompany this band)


Lumbosacral meninges, spinal cord and nerve roots dissected from behind
										 Contents of sacral canal, posterior view
										The laminae of the fifth lumbar vertebra have been cut away and the entire sacral canal has been opened to expose the meninges, nerve roots and blood vessels within the lower part of the vertebral canal. The paired coccygeal nerves are fused with the filum durae matris spinalis and as a consequence are not clearly visible.

														 1
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra L. IV  2
						.
					 Lamina (arch of vertebra) L. IV  3
						.
					 Intervertebral joint capsule L. IV - V  4
						.
					 Vertebral canal (pointer indicates epidural space from which veins and fat have been removed)  5
						.
					 Lamina (arch of vertebra) L. V (cut through)  6
						.
					 Intervertebral joint capsule L. V - S. I  7
						.
					 Posterior superior iliac spine  8
						.
					 Sacral nerve III (pointer on dural sheath of nerve roots)  9
						.
					 Posterior internal vertebral venous plexus  10
						.
					 Gluteus maximus muscle (partially cut away medially)  11
						.
					 Dural filum terminale (paired coccygeal nerve fused with filum and not clearly visible in this specimen)  12
						.
					 Sacral nerve V  13
						.
					 Margins of sacral hiatus  14
						.
					 Coccyx (covered by deep dorsal sacrococcygeal ligament)  15
						.
					 Ligamentum flavum  16
						.
					 Erector spinae muscle (cut across)  17
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia  18
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra L. V  19
						.
					 Upper pointer: Dura mater Lower pointer: Spinal ganglion  20
						.
					 Dorsal branch lateral sacral artery  21
						.
					 Lamina sacrum (cut through)  22
						.
					 Dorsal sacroiliac ligament  23
						.
					 Dorsal branch sacral nerve II  24
						.
					 Posterior sacral foramen III  25
						.
					 Lateral border of sacrum  26
						.
					 Sacral cornu (horn)  27
						.
					 Dorsal superficial sacrococcygeal ligament (partially removed)  28
						.
					 Coccygeal cornu (horn)


Thoracic meninges, spinal cord and nerve roots dissected in relation to vertebral column
										 Intrathoracic structures related to vertebral column, posterior view
										Ribs and vertebral bodies have been resected bilaterally between the second and ninth thoracic levels. The periosteum (6) which covered the inner surfaces of the ribs has been preserved in most areas. The anterior longitudinal ligament (23), with remnants of the intervertebral discs attached,has also been retained in part. The lungs have been inflated and are visible through the intact costal pleura. The proximal parts of the III-VII thoracic nerves have been positioned on the pleura in such a way that their dorsal and ventral roots, dorsal rami and communications with the sympathetic trunk are visible. These components are labeled for the left seventh thoracic nerve (8,9,10). The intercostal arteries and veins have been cut off in various ways.

														 1
						.
					 Rib II  2
						.
					 Intercostal nerve II  3
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk  4
						.
					 Costal pleura  5
						.
					 Rib III (cut off)  6
						.
					 Periosteum of sixth rib  7
						.
					 Thoracic aorta  8
						.
					 Left pointer: Intercostal. nerve VII Right pointer: Ramus communicans  9
						.
					 Dorsal branch thoracic nerve VII  10
						.
					 Left pointer: Spinal ganglion and dorsal roots Right pointer: Ventral root  11
						.
					 Innermost intercostal muscle  12
						.
					 Levator costarum brevis muscle  13
						.
					 Internal intercostal membrane  14
						.
					 External intercostal muscle  15
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra Th. II  16
						.
					 Inferior articular process  17
						.
					 Posterior longitudinal ligament  18
						.
					 Intervertebral disc Th. II - III  19
						.
					 Veins of third intervertebral foramen (bones removed)  20
						.
					 Vertebromediastinal suspensory ligament  21
						.
					 Anulus fibrosus intervertebral disc Th. V - VI  22
						.
					 Posterior intercostal artery and vein VI  23
						.
					 Anterior longitudinal ligament  24
						.
					 Radiate ligament (preserved with periosteum of rib)  25
						.
					 Spinal cord  26
						.
					 Rib IX


Thoracic meninges, spinal cord and nerve roots dissected in relation to vertebral column
										 Transverse section of body of eighth thoracic vertebra illustrating relations of blood vessels, nerves and ligaments
										The thoracic part of the spinal cord has been exposed by a laminectomy. The upper thoracic vertebra have been completely removed for this view, including the upper half of the body of the eighth vertebra. The interrelations of the internal and external vertebral venous plexuses and the basivertebral vein (5) are visible. The specimen is viewed from above.

														 1
						.
					 Dorsal roots thoracic nerve IX  2
						.
					 Spinal cord  3
						.
					 Dura mater and arachnoid  4
						.
					 Pedicle (arch of vertebra) Th. VIIl (partially removed)  5
						.
					 Upper pointer: Anterior internal vertebral venous plexus Lower pointer: Basivertebral vein  6
						.
					 Body of vertebra Th. VIII (partly cut away)  7
						.
					 Ganglion of sympathetic trunk  8
						.
					 Greater splanchnic nerve  9
						.
					 Anterior longitudinal ligament  10
						.
					 Intervertebral disc Th. VII- VIII (remnant)  11
						.
					 Denticulate ligament  12
						.
					 Superior articular process vertebra Th. IX  13
						.
					 Dorsal branch thoracic nerve VIII  14
						.
					 Spinal ganglion  15
						.
					 Ventral branch thoracic nerve VIII  16
						.
					 Intervertebral foramen  17
						.
					 Posterior intercostal vein  18
						.
					 Parietal pleura  19
						.
					 Posterior intercostal artery VII  20
						.
					 Hemiazygos vein


Thoracic meninges, spinal cord and nerve roots dissected in relation to vertebral column
										 Intervertebral course and meningeal branches of left fifth thoracic nerve
										The fifth rib has been removed from the left side. The vertebral canal has been opened by laminectomy and the pedicle of the fifth thoracic vertebra has been cut off on the left to expose the component parts of the corresponding spinal nerve. A plexus of vertebral branches (11) of this nerve, including meningeal filaments, can be seen to extend medially through the intervertebral foramen anterior to the nerve roots which have been elevated somewhat out of their usual position.

														 1
						.
					 Thoracic sympathetic ganglion  2
						.
					 Costal pleura  3
						.
					 Joint head of rib V (rib removed)  4
						.
					 Sympathetic trunk  5
						.
					 Pedicle (arch of vertebra) Th. V (cut off)  6
						.
					 Upper pointer: Dorsal branch thoracic nerve V Lower pointer: Spinal ganglion thoracic nerve V  7
						.
					 Rami communicantes  8
						.
					 Posterior intercostal veins  9
						.
					 Intercostal nerve V  10
						.
					 Posterior intercostal artery V  11
						.
					 Meningeal branch thoracic nerve V  12
						.
					 Neck of rib (superficial crest rib visible above pointer on upper margin of rib)  13
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra Th. VI  14
						.
					 Spinal cord  15
						.
					 Denticulate ligament  16
						.
					 Posterior internal vertebral venous plexus  17
						.
					 Left pointer: Ventral root thoracic nerve V Right pointer: Dorsal roots thoracic nerve V  18
						.
					 Dura mater  19
						.
					 Intervertebral foramen  20
						.
					 Superior articular surface


Thoracic meninges, spinal cord and nerve roots dissected in relation to vertebral column
										 Right tenth thoracic nerve within vertebral canal and intervertebral foramen
										The vertebral canal has been opened by laminectomy and the tenth intervertebral foramen (6) has been opened on the right side by excision of the inferior articular process of the tenth thoracic vertebra. The dorsal and ventral roots of the corresponding nerve have been exposed. The roots penetrate the dura separately in this specimen.

														 1
						.
					 Spinal cord  2
						.
					 Denticulate ligaments  3
						.
					 Upper pointer: Dorsal roots thoracic nerve X Lower pointer: Ventral root thoracic nerve X  4
						.
					 Spinal branch posterior intercostal artery  5
						.
					 Arachnoid and dura mater  6
						.
					 Intervertebral foramen (opened venous plexus partially resected)  7
						.
					 Posterior longitudinal ligament  8
						.
					 Articular surface  9
						.
					 Protrusion of intervertebral disc  10
						.
					 Anterior internal vertebral venous plexus  11
						.
					 Pedicle (arch of vertebra) Th. Xl  12
						.
					 Articular cavity of intervertebral joint  13
						.
					 Intertransverse thoracis muscle  14
						.
					 Left pointer: Longissimus thoracis muscle Right pointer: Iliocostalis muscle  15
						.
					 Upper pointer: Inferior articular process vertebra Th. IX Lower pointer: Superior articular process vertebra Th. IX  16
						.
					 Joint capsule  17
						.
					 Left pointer: Tranverse process vertebra Th. X Right pointer: Levator costarum brevis muscle  18
						.
					 Spinal ganglion thoracic nerve X  19
						.
					 Superior costotransverse ligament  20
						.
					 Upper pointer: Ramus communicans Lower pointer: Dorsal branch thoracic nerve X  21
						.
					 Intertransverse ligament  22
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle (tendon of insertion)


Thoracic meninges, spinal cord and nerve roots dissected in relation to vertebral column
										 Epidural space, dura mater and spinal cord in upper thoracic region
										A laminectomy has been performed and the epidural space has been cleared of adipose tissue to reveal the posterior part of the internal vertebral venous plexus lying against the dura mater. The area included in this close-up photograph may be visualized in relation to the entire back by reference to view 217-2 wherein such muscles as the semispinalis capitis and splenius cervicis (1 and 3 in the present view) may also be seen.

														 1
						.
					 Semispinalis capitis muscle (reflected)  2
						.
					 Dura mater  3
						.
					 Splenius cervicis muscle (reflected)  4
						.
					 Posterior internal vertebral venous plexus  5
						.
					 Rhomboid major muscle (cut across)  6
						.
					 Iliocostalis muscle  7
						.
					 Trapezius muscle (cut across)  8
						.
					 Posterior funiculus of spinal cord  9
						.
					 Dorsal roots cervical nerve VII  10
						.
					 Lamina (arch of vertebra) Th. I (cut across)  11
						.
					 Serratus posterior superior muscle  12
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle


Atlantooccipital  joint, atlantoaxial joint and cervical vertebrae dissected from behind
										 Hypoglossal, accessory and vagus nerves; ventral rami of cervical nerves; internal carotid artery; internal jugular vein
										The bodies of the first five cervical vertebrae have been sectioned in the median plane and their left halves removed. The cervical nerves have been retained approximately in their normal positions with the exception of the first nerve (16), which has been displaced superiorly. The anterior internal vertebral venous plexus (18) and the longus colli and longus capitis muscles has been preserved.

														 1
						.
					 Superior ganglion vagus nerve (X)  2
						.
					 Accessory nerve (XI)  3
						.
					 Branches of cervical nerves I - II to longus capitis and anterior rectus capitis muscles  4
						.
					 Occipital artery  5
						.
					 Hypoglossal nerve (XII)  6
						.
					 Posterior belly digastric muscle  7
						.
					 Inferior ganglion vagus nerve (X)  8
						.
					 Internal jugular vein  9
						.
					 Internal carotid artery  10
						.
					 Superior root ansa cervicalis  11
						.
					 Upper pointer: Lesser occipital nerve Lower pointer: Unnamed cutaneous nerve  12
						.
					 Cervical fascia (deep layer of superficial lamina)  13
						.
					 Accessory nerve (XI) (note communicating branches from second and third cervical nerves)  14
						.
					 Supraclavicular nerves  15
						.
					 Levator scapulae muscle (cut across)  16
						.
					 Ventral branch cervical nerve I  17
						.
					 Ganglion cervical nerve II (cut across)  18
						.
					 Upper pointer: Anterior rectus capitis muscle Lower pointer: Anterior external vertebral venous plexus  19
						.
					 Ganglion of cervical nerve III  20
						.
					 Upper pointer: Intervertebral disc C. II- llI Lower pointer: Body of vertebra C. III  21
						.
					 Ganglion cervical nerve IV  22
						.
					 Ganglion cervical nerve V (displaced slightly inferiorly)  23
						.
					 Superior articular surface vertebra C. VI  24
						.
					 Spinal cord


Atlantooccipital  joint, atlantoaxial joint and cervical vertebrae dissected from behind
										 Relations of left sternocleidomastoid muscle, internal jugular vein, cervical plexus and cervical vertebrae, viewed from behind
										The cervical fascia has been removed from the deep surface of the upper part of the sternocleidomastoid muscle and the muscle has been retracted slightly laterally. The levator scapulae (29) has been cut from its origins and retracted medially. Parts of the cervical plexus (19,24) and some of its branches (11,12) have been exposed by removing the prevertebral fascia. The carotid sheath has been resected to reveal the internal jugular vein lying anterior to the cervical plexus. The upper cervical vertebrae have been cut and exposed in various ways to demonstrate the relations of ligaments, joint cavities, nerves and blood vessels to these bones.

														 1
						.
					 Internal jugular vein (pointer at inferior margin of jugular foramen)  2
						.
					 Hypoglossal nerve (XII)  3
						.
					 Accessory nerve (XI)  4
						.
					 Tendon of insertion of longissimus capitis muscle (divided by occipital artery)  5
						.
					 Splenius capitis muscle (cut across)  6
						.
					 Ventral branch cervical nerve I  7
						.
					 Posterior belly of digastric muscle  8
						.
					 Levator scapulae muscle (cut across a similar, more inferior origin is visible medial to the third cervical nerve (24))  9
						.
					 Sternocleidomastoid muscle  10
						.
					 Ascending cervical artery  11
						.
					 Lesser occipital nerve  12
						.
					 Upper pointer: Greater auricular nerve and superficial transverse nerve Lower pointer: Supraclavicular nerves  13
						.
					 Fascia within posterior cervical triangle  14
						.
					 External jugular vein (cut across)  15
						.
					 Upper pointer: Foramen magnum (anterior margin) Lower pointer: Dens (axis)  16
						.
					 Alar ligament  17
						.
					 Median atlantoaxial joint  18
						.
					 Obliquus capitis inferior muscle (cut across)  19
						.
					 Cervical nerve II  20
						.
					 Upper pointer: Arch of axis Lower pointer: Roots of cervical nerve III  21
						.
					 Semispinalis capitis muscle  22
						.
					 Splenius capitis muscle  23
						.
					 Upper pointer: Basivertebral vein (cut off at junction with anterior internal vertebral venous plexus) Lower pointer: Body of vertebra C. III  24
						.
					 Cervical nerve III  25
						.
					 Intervertebral joint nerve III-IV  26
						.
					 Ganglion cervical nerve V  27
						.
					 Intervertebral disc C. IV - V  28
						.
					 Superior articular surface vertebra C. VI  29
						.
					 Levator scapulae muscle (also see 8 above)


Atlantooccipital joint, atlantoaxial joint and cervical vertebrae dissected from behind
										 Median atlantoaxial joint opened from behind
										The left half of the transverse ligament (21) has been divided to permit the cruciform ligament to be reflected posteriorly and to the right. The joint cavity between the dens and the cruciform ligament was thus opened. The considerable thickness of the transverse ligament and of the alar ligaments(18) is evident in the sectioned ends of these structures.

														 1
						.
					 Clivus  2
						.
					 Accessory nerve (XII)  3
						.
					 Upper pointer: Hypoglossal canal (opened) Lower pointer: Hypoglossal nerve (XII)  4
						.
					 Vagus nerve (X)  5
						.
					 Atlantooccipital joint cavity  6
						.
					 Vertebral artery  7
						.
					 Ventral branch cervical nerve I  8
						.
					 Posterior arch of atlas  9
						.
					 Lateral atlantoaxial joint cavity  10
						.
					 Ganglion cervical nerve II  11
						.
					 Dura mater  12
						.
					 Posterior longitudinal ligament  13
						.
					 Roots of hypoglossal nerve (XII)  14
						.
					 Tectorial membrane (cut edge)  15
						.
					 Cruciform ligament of atlas (divided, lower part retracted)  16
						.
					 Fibrous tissue and blood vessels in anterior part of foramen magnum (ligamentum apicis dentis not well defined)  17
						.
					 Vertebral artery (cut across)  18
						.
					 Alar ligament (divided on left)  19
						.
					 Dens (axis) (joint cavity between dens and transverse ligament opened)  20
						.
					 Tectorial membrane (cut across)  21
						.
					 Transverse ligament of atlas (divided)  22
						.
					 Lateral atlanto axial joint capsule (opened)  23
						.
					 Body of axis


Atlantooccipital joint, atlantoaxial joint and cervical vertebrae dissected from behind
										 Atlantooccipital and lateral atlantoaxial joints opened
										The capsule of the lateral atlantoaxial joint (22) has been partially resected. The opposing articular surfaces of this joint are incongruous as compared to those of the atlantooccipital joint above (6). The capsule of the latter joint has been cut off at the margin of the sectioned occipital bone. In addition, the articular cartilage on the upper surface of the atlas has been partly removed to permit a sectional view of the component parts of this joint. Near the midline a dense plexus of veins (16) occupies the area between the dens and the margin of the foramen magnum. An apical ligament of the dens was well defined in this specimen.

														 1
						.
					 Accessory nerve (XI)  2
						.
					 Hypoglossal nerve (XII) (within hypoglossal canal the nerve is obscured by fibrous tissue and veins)  3
						.
					 Vagus nerve (X)  4
						.
					 Internal jugular vein  5
						.
					 Occipital condyle (cut across)  6
						.
					 Atlantooccipital joint (opened)  7
						.
					 Superior articular facet of atlas (articular cartilage removed)  8
						.
					 Vertebral artery (cut across)  9
						.
					 Transverse process of atlas  10
						.
					 Upper pointer: Ventral branch cervical nerve I Lower pointer: Groove in atlas for vertebral artery  11
						.
					 Spinal ganglion cervical nerve II  12
						.
					 Ventral branch cervical nerve II  13
						.
					 Dorsal branch cervical nerve II  14
						.
					 Posterior longitudinal ligament (cut across)  15
						.
					 Cruciform ligament of atlas (cut across)  16
						.
					 Plexus of veins (ligamentum apicis dentis absent)  17
						.
					 Dens (axis) (covered by ligaments)  18
						.
					 Alar ligament (cut across)  19
						.
					 Transverse ligament of atlas (part of cruciform ligament)  20
						.
					 Tectorial membrane (cut across)  21
						.
					 Joint cavity  22
						.
					 Joint capsule lateralis (together 21 and 22 form lateral atlanto-occipital joint)  23
						.
					 Arch of axis (cut across)


Atlantooccipital joint, atlantoaxial joint and cervical vertebrae dissected from behind
										 Median atlantoaxial joint; cruciform ligament; alar ligaments
										The posterior longitudinal ligament and the tectorial membrane have been resected to reveal the cruciform ligament (22,26) and the alar ligaments (23). The anterior internal vertebral venous plexus has been partially removed from the left side of the dissection. The left half of the occipital bone had been cut back anteriorly to a plane that passes across the occipital condyle and opens into the hypoglossal canal (5) and the jugular foramen (3,4). Lower in the dissection the course of the first and second cervical nerves (10,12) is shown in relation to to the vertebral artery (9).

														 1
						.
					 Posterior semicircular canal  2
						.
					 Inferior petrosal sinus  3
						.
					 Upper pointer: Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX) Lower pointer: Vagus nerve (X)  4
						.
					 Superior jugular venous bulb (jugular foramen opened, vein emptied of latex, and its anterior wall dissected to show artery to superior ganglion of vagus nerve)  5
						.
					 Roots of hypoglossal nerve (XII) (hypoglossal canal opened to reveal veins and fibrous tissue enclosing nerve)  6
						.
					 Occipital bone (cut across)  7
						.
					 Cervical prevertebral fascia (exposed by removal of lateral rectus capitis muscle)  8
						.
					 Atlantooccipital joint cavity  9
						.
					 Vertebral artery (cut across)  10
						.
					 Upper pointer: Ventral branch cervical nerve I Lower pointer: Groove for vertebral artery of atlas  11
						.
					 Inferior oblique capitis muscle (cut across)  12
						.
					 Spinal ganglion cervical nerve II  13
						.
					 Tendinous slip of longissimus cervicis muscle (cut across)  14
						.
					 Arch of axis (cut across)  15
						.
					 Joint capsule  16
						.
					 Dorsal branch cervical nerve III  17
						.
					 Levator scapulae muscle  18
						.
					 Trigeminal nerve (V)  19
						.
					 Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)  20
						.
					 Clivus  21
						.
					 Dura mater (cut edge)  22
						.
					 Upper pointer: Posterior longitudinal ligament Lower pointer: Cruciform ligament of atlas (longitudinal fasciculi)  23
						.
					 Alar ligament (cut across on left)  24
						.
					 Position of dens (axis)  25
						.
					 Cut edge of tectorial membrane  26
						.
					 Transverse ligament of atlas (part of cruciform ligament)  27
						.
					 Dura mater


Atlantooccipital joint, atlantoaxial joint and cervical vertebrae dissected from behind
										 Tectorial membrane; atlantooccipital joint
										The brain and spinal cord have been removed and the dura  mater has been cut away from the left half of the specimen. The occipital bone had been cut across on the left side slightly posterior to the occipital condyle. The left atlantooccipital joint (4) has been opened. On the right side a flap of dura (15) has been reflected to expose the posterior longitudinal ligament (18). The latter has been excised to the left of the midline to reveal the tectorial membrane (20).

														 1
						.
					 Left pointer: Posterior semicircular canal (opened) Right pointer: Vestibulocochlear nerve (VIII)  2
						.
					 Left pointer: Transverse sinus (sigmoid portion) Right pointer: Internal jugular vein (in jugular foramen)  3
						.
					 Condylar emissary vein within condylar canal  4
						.
					 Atlanto-occipital joint  5
						.
					 Atlanto-occipital joint capsule  6
						.
					 Vertebral artery (cut across)  7
						.
					 Posterior arch of atlas  8
						.
					 Obliquus capitis inferior muscle (cut across)  9
						.
					 Posterior external vertebral venous plexus  10
						.
					 Dorsal branch cervical nerve II  11
						.
					 Arch of axis  12
						.
					 Dorsal branch cervical nerve III  13
						.
					 Longissimus capitis muscle  14
						.
					 Petrosal part temporal bone  15
						.
					 Dura mater (reflected)  16
						.
					 Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)  17
						.
					 Vagus nerve (X)  18
						.
					 Posterior longitudinal ligament (left half resected, cut end visible at upper pointer)  19
						.
					 Roots of hypoglossal nerve (XII)  20
						.
					 Tectorial membrane  21
						.
					 Roots of cervical nerve II  22
						.
					 Splenius capitis muscle  23
						.
					 Spinal branch vertebral artery  24
						.
					 Semispinalis capitis muscle  25
						.
					 Anterior internal vertebral venous plexus


Cervical meninges, spinal cord and nerve roots dissected from behind
										 Cervical spinal cord and nerve roots in relation to meninges, close-up view of fifth cervical nerve
										The spinal cord has been divided between the roots of the fifth and sixth cervical nerves. The arches of the fourth and fifth cervical vertebrae have been cut away to expose the roots, ganglion and dorsal ramus of the fifth cervical nerve. A branch of the right vertebral artery supplies the dura mater (17) and additional branches pass to the spinal cord with the dorsal and ventral roots.

														 1
						.
					 Upper pointer: Fasciculus gracilis Lower pointer: Posterior median sulcus  2
						.
					 Upper pointer: Cuneate fasciculus Lower pointer: Posterior intermediate sulcus  3
						.
					 Lateral funiculus  4
						.
					 Posterior internal vertebral venous plexus  5
						.
					 Gray matter column  6
						.
					 Upper pointer: Anterior spinal artery Lower pointer: Arachnoid  7
						.
					 Dura mater  8
						.
					 Dorsal roots cervical nerve V  9
						.
					 Ventral root cervical nerve V  10
						.
					 Posterior longitudinal ligament  11
						.
					 Anterior internal vertebral venous plexus  12
						.
					 Roots of cervical nerve VI (cut across)  13
						.
					 Denticulate ligament  14
						.
					 Arch of vertebra C. III (cut across)  15
						.
					 Inferior articular process  16
						.
					 Accessory filament of dorsal roots  17
						.
					 Artery within epidural space  18
						.
					 Pedicle (arch of vertebra) C. IV  19
						.
					 Anterior tubercle vertebra C. IV  20
						.
					 Vertebral artery (within transverse foramen)  21
						.
					 Posterior tubercle vertebra C. IV  22
						.
					 Spinal ganglion (note that dura fuses to nerve roots medial to the ganglion)  23
						.
					 Dorsal branch cervical nerve V  24
						.
					 Pedicle (arch of vertebra) C. V  25
						.
					 Synovial fold  26
						.
					 Superior articular surface vertebra C. VI


Cervical meninges, spinal cord and nerve roots dissected from behind
										 Cervical spinal cord and denticulate ligaments
										The arachnoid membrane has been cut away to expose the cervical part of the spinal cord in situ. The small nodules located along the spinal roots of the accessory nerves (19) were identified microscopically as fibromata.

														 1
						.
					 Cerebellar tonsil  2
						.
					 Medulla oblongata  3
						.
					 Margin of foramen magnum  4
						.
					 Upper pointer: Posterior inferior cerebellar artery Lower pointer: Vertebral artery  5
						.
					 Suboccipital nerve  6
						.
					 Posterior arch of atlas (cut across)  7
						.
					 Dorsal roots cervical nerve II  8
						.
					 Obliquus capitis inferior muscle  9
						.
					 Greater occipital nerve  10
						.
					 Third occipital nerve  11
						.
					 Muscular branch of cervical nerve III  12
						.
					 Splenius capitis muscle  13
						.
					 Posterior median sulcus  14
						.
					 Posterior intermediate sulcus  15
						.
					 Posterior lateral sulcus  16
						.
					 Dorsal roots cervical nerve VI  17
						.
					 Accessory filament of dorsal root which bifurcates to contribute to two cervical nerves  18
						.
					 Dura mater  19
						.
					 Spinal roots accessory nerve (XI)  20
						.
					 Major posterior rectus capitis muscle  21
						.
					 Posterior atlanto-occipital membrane (cut across)  22
						.
					 Posterior spinal artery  23
						.
					 Semispinalis capitis muscle (cut across)  24
						.
					 Denticulate ligament  25
						.
					 Upper pointer: Posterior internal vertebral venous plexus Lower pointer: Dura mater  26
						.
					 Arch of vertebra C. IV (cut across)  27
						.
					 Posterior external vertebral venous plexus  28
						.
					 Multifidus muscle (cut across)


Cervical meninges, spinal cord and nerve roots dissected from behind
										 Dura mater in cervical region and in posterior cranial fossa
										The dura has been cut away so that the transparent arachnoid membrane is exposed. The subarachnoid space increases in volume above the level of the second cervical dorsal roots forming part of the cerebellomedullary cistern (cisterna magna).

														 1
						.
					 Occipital bone (pointer at margin of foramen magnum)  2
						.
					 Mastoid emissary vein  3
						.
					 Dura mater  4
						.
					 Occipital artery  5
						.
					 Superior oblique capitis muscle  6
						.
					 Left vertebral artery  7
						.
					 Posterior arch of atlas (cut across)  8
						.
					 Inferior oblique capitis muscle  9
						.
					 Greater occipital nerve  10
						.
					 Arch of axis (cut across)  11
						.
					 Dura mater  12
						.
					 Splenius capitis muscle  13
						.
					 Nerve to semispinalis capitis muscle  14
						.
					 Posterior external vertebral venous plexus  15
						.
					 Occipital sinus and falx cerebelli  16
						.
					 Arachnoid covering cerebellar tonsil  17
						.
					 Cerebellomedullary cistern  18
						.
					 Dorsal roots cervical nerve II  19
						.
					 Spinal roots accessory nerve (XI)  20
						.
					 Deep cervical artery  21
						.
					 Posterior external vertebral venous plexus  22
						.
					 Dorsal roots cervical nerve VI  23
						.
					 Arch of vertebra C. VII


Cervical meninges, spinal cord and nerve roots dissected from behind
										 Dura mater in cervical region and in posterior cranial fossa
										The dura has been exposed by removing part of the occipital bone and the arches of the upper five cervical vertebrae. The cranial dura mater is continuous through the foramen magnum (15) with that which covers the spinal cord. The spinal dura is separated from the wall of the vertebral canal by the epidural space which contains fat and plexiform veins. In the cervical region this space is narrow and the veins are small. Below the foramen magnum the dura is fused with the posterior atlantooccipital membrane (16) so that above the level of the atlas no epidural space is present.

														 1
						.
					 Cerebellum (dura removed, arachnoid intact)  2
						.
					 Occipital artery  3
						.
					 Medulla oblongata visible through cerebellomedullary cistern (arachnoid intact)  4
						.
					 Vertebral artery (lying amidst venous plexus)  5
						.
					 Posterior arch of atlas (cut across)  6
						.
					 Greater occipital nerve  7
						.
					 Third occipital nerve  8
						.
					 Splenius capitis muscle (reflected)  9
						.
					 Posterior external vertebral venous plexus (between muscle layers)  10
						.
					 Semispinalis capitis muscle (reflected)  11
						.
					 Splenius cervicis muscle (reflected)  12
						.
					 Semispinalis cervicis muscle (cut across)  13
						.
					 Posterior meningeal artery  14
						.
					 Superior oblique capitis muscle (cut across)  15
						.
					 Occipital bone (pointer at margin of foramen magnum)  16
						.
					 Posterior atlanto-occipital membrane (atlas and the occipital bone to which this was attached have been removed)  17
						.
					 Dura mater  18
						.
					 Rotator muscle (cut near origin)  19
						.
					 Posterior external vertebral venous plexus (posterior to vertebral arches)  20
						.
					 Lamina (arch of vertebra) C. IV (cut across)  21
						.
					 Lamina (arch of vertebra) C. VI with attachment of ligamentum flavum visible along upper margin  22
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra C. VI  23
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra C. VII (vertebra prominens)  24
						.
					 Levator scapulae muscle


Cervical meninges, spinal cord and nerve roots dissected from behind
										 General view of spinal cord in situ
										The vertebral arches have been cut away with the exception of the left half of the second lumbar arch and spine (16). This spine serves as a landmark in the close-up studies of the lumbar region which follow (219-5,219-6,219-7)and is a guide to the location of the termination of the spinal cord.

														 1
						.
					 Cervical part spinal cord  2
						.
					 Spinal cord thoracic part  3
						.
					 Spinal cord lumbar part (lower pointer on conus medullaris)  4
						.
					 Dorsal roots cervical nerve II  5
						.
					 Semispinalis capitis muscle (reflected)  6
						.
					 Splenius capitis and cervicis muscles (reflected)  7
						.
					 Trapezius muscle (cut across)  8
						.
					 Levator scapulae muscle  9
						.
					 Medial margin of scapula  10
						.
					 Cut surface of vertebral arch  11
						.
					 Trapezius muscle (cut across)  12
						.
					 Levator costarum muscle  13
						.
					 Iliocostalis muscle  14
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle  15
						.
					 Latissimus dorsi muscle  16
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra L. II  17
						.
					 Cauda equina  18
						.
					 Parts of longissimus thoracis muscle  19
						.
					 Subarachnoid space (lumbar cistern)  20
						.
					 Filum terminale


Posterior cervical region and suboccipital muscles dissected from behind
										 Intervertebral joints opened; ligamenta flava
										The arches of the third, fourth and fifth cervical vertebrae have been divided. The cavities of the superior and inferior (12) intervertebral joints of the third cervical vertebra have been opened.

														 1
						.
					 Superior oblique capitis muscle (cut across)  2
						.
					 Major posterior rectus capitis muscle (cut across)  3
						.
					 Condylar emissary vein  4
						.
					 Atlanto-occipital joint capsule  5
						.
					 Vertebral artery and vein  6
						.
					 Posterior arch of atlas  7
						.
					 Transverse process of of atlas  8
						.
					 Styloid process  9
						.
					 Ventral branch of cervical nerve II (note relation to vertebral artery)  10
						.
					 Greater occipital nerve  11
						.
					 Arch of axis  12
						.
					 Articular cavity  13
						.
					 Joint capsule  14
						.
					 Middle scalene muscle  15
						.
					 Minor posterior rectus capitis muscle (cut across)  16
						.
					 Border of foramen magnum  17
						.
					 Dura mater  18
						.
					 Upper pointer: Posterior tubercle of atlas Lower pointer: Ligamentum flavum  19
						.
					 Spinous process axis  20
						.
					 Cut margins of arch of vertebra C. III (resected)  21
						.
					 Upper pointer: Ligamentum flavum Lower pointer: Interspinalis cervicis muscle  22
						.
					 Dura mater spinalis (epidural space absent at this level)


Posterior cervical region and suboccipital muscles dissected from behind
										 Intervertebral joints; vertebral arches and ligaments

														 1
						.
					 Superior oblique capitis muscle (cut across)  2
						.
					 Major posterior rectus capitis muscle (cut across)  3
						.
					 Branch of vertebral artery  4
						.
					 Posterior atlanto-occipItal membrane  5
						.
					 Upper pointer: Posterior arch of atlas Lower pointer: Inferior oblique capitis muscle (cut across)  6
						.
					 Posterior cervical plexus (deep portion)  7
						.
					 Greater occipital nerve  8
						.
					 Inferior oblique capitis muscle (cut across)  9
						.
					 Ligamentum flavum  10
						.
					 Dorsal branch cervical nerve V  11
						.
					 Intervertebral joint capsule (C. IV - V)  12
						.
					 Middle scalene muscle  13
						.
					 Rotator cervicis muscle  14
						.
					 Posterior scalene muscle  15
						.
					 Minor posterior rectus capitis muscle (cut across)  16
						.
					 Major posterior rectus capitis muscle (cut across)  17
						.
					 Interspinales cervices muscles  18
						.
					 Lamina (arch of vertebra) C. IV  19
						.
					 Trapezius muscle  20
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra C. VII (vertebra prominens)


Posterior cervical region and suboccipital muscles dissected from behind
										 Suboccipital muscles; suboccipital triangle, left posterolateral view

														 1
						.
					 Superior oblique capitis muscle  2
						.
					 Mastoid cells (dissected)  3
						.
					 Occipital artery  4
						.
					 Longissimus capitis muscle (cut across)  5
						.
					 Muscular branch occipital artery  6
						.
					 Facial nerve (VII)  7
						.
					 Digastric muscle (cut across)  8
						.
					 Posterior cervical plexus (of Cruveilhier)  9
						.
					 Transverse process of atlas  10
						.
					 Inferior oblique capitis muscle  11
						.
					 Hypoglossal nerve (XII)  12
						.
					 Posterior intertransverse muscle  13
						.
					 Intervertebral joint capsule (C. II- III)  14
						.
					 Vagus nerve (X)  15
						.
					 Dorsal branch cervical nerve IV  16
						.
					 Occipital bone  17
						.
					 Minor posterior rectus capitis muscle  18
						.
					 Major posterior rectus capitis muscle  19
						.
					 Nuchal ligament  20
						.
					 Suboccipital nerve (emerging through suboccipital triangle)  21
						.
					 Posterior arch of atlas  22
						.
					 Trapezius muscle  23
						.
					 Greater occipital nerve  24
						.
					 Spinous process axis  25
						.
					 Arch of axis  26
						.
					 Semispinalis cervicis muscle  27
						.
					 Multifidus muscle


Posterior cervical region and suboccipital muscles dissected from behind
										 Suboccipital muscles; semispinalis cervicis muscle; nerve supply to semispinalis capitis muscle
										The semispinalis capitis muscle has been reflected laterally. Dense fibrous connective tissue and fat have been removed from beneath the muscle.

														 1
						.
					 Area of insertion of semispinalis capitis muscle (cut across)  2
						.
					 Insertion of splenius capitis muscle (cut across)  3
						.
					 Occipital artery  4
						.
					 Superior oblique capitis muscle  5
						.
					 Muscular branch occipital artery  6
						.
					 Semispinalis capitis muscle (reflected laterally)  7
						.
					 Greater occipital nerve (reflected with above muscle)  8
						.
					 Dorsal branch cervical nerve II (note muscular branches)  9
						.
					 Upper pointer: Dorsal branch cervical nerve III (note muscular branches) Lower pointer: Third occipital nerve (reflected with muscle)  10
						.
					 Muscular branch of dorsal branch cervical nerve IV  11
						.
					 Dorsal cutaneous branch cervical nerve IV  12
						.
					 Tendon of origin of semispinalis capitis muscle (from transverse process of vertebra Th. II)  13
						.
					 Upper pointer: External intercostal muscle Lower pointer: Rib II  14
						.
					 Minor posterior rectus capitis muscle  15
						.
					 Muscular branch of suboccipital nerve  16
						.
					 Major posterior rectus capitis muscle  17
						.
					 Nuchal ligament  18
						.
					 Inferior oblique muscle  19
						.
					 Spinous process axis  20
						.
					 Posterior external vertebral venous plexus  21
						.
					 Interspinales cervices muscles  22
						.
					 Semispinalis cervicis muscle  23
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra C. VI  24
						.
					 Trapezius muscle


Posterior cervical region and suboccipital muscles dissected from behind
										 Semispinalis capitis and semispinalis cervicis muscles
										The splenius muscles have been cut away and the fascia has been completely removed from the semispinalis muscles.

														 1
						.
					 Occipital bone  2
						.
					 Remnant of insertion of splenius capitis muscle  3
						.
					 Occipital artery  4
						.
					 Third occipital nerve  5
						.
					 Mastoid process temporal bone (partially cut away laterally)  6
						.
					 Nuchal ligament  7
						.
					 Semispinalis capitis muscle  8
						.
					 Longissimus capitis muscle  9
						.
					 Middle scalene muscle  10
						.
					 Tendon of origin of levator scapulae muscle (cut across)  11
						.
					 Longissimus cervicis muscle  12
						.
					 Posterior scalene muscle  13
						.
					 Rib I  14
						.
					 External intercostal muscle  15
						.
					 Iliocostalis cervicis muscle  16
						.
					 Rib II  17
						.
					 Greater occipital nerve  18
						.
					 Lesser occipital nerve  19
						.
					 Sternocleidomastoid muscle  20
						.
					 Aponeurosis of origin of splenius capitis muscle  21
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra C. VI  22
						.
					 Interspinalis cervicis muscle  23
						.
					 Semispinalis cervicis muscle  24
						.
					 Trapezius muscle


Posterior cervical region and suboccipital muscles dissected from behind
										 Nerve supply to left splenius capitis and splenius cervicis muscles
										The muscles have been cut from their spinal origins (the splenius capitis muscle also cut near its cranial insertion) and reflected laterally. A portion of the fascia which covered the deep surface of the splenius capitis muscle has been preserved. The fascia (15) of the semispinalis capitis muscle (16) has been retained only in a small area.

														 1
						.
					 Occipital artery  2
						.
					 Mastoid process temporal bone  3
						.
					 Superior oblique capitis muscle  4
						.
					 Lymph node  5
						.
					 Splenius capitis muscle (reflected)  6
						.
					 Aberrant muscular slip from longissimus capitis muscle to semispinalis capitis muscle  7
						.
					 Descending branch occipital artery  8
						.
					 Muscular branch of dorsal branch cervical nerve II  9
						.
					 Longissimus capitis muscle  10
						.
					 Splenius cervicis muscle (reflected)  11
						.
					 Muscular branch of dorsal branch cervical nerve IV  12
						.
					 Longissimus cervicis muscle  13
						.
					 Greater occipital nerve  14
						.
					 Third occipital nerve right  15
						.
					 Fascia of semispinalis capitis muscle  16
						.
					 Semispinalis capitis muscle  17
						.
					 Third occipital nerve left  18
						.
					 Trapezius muscle right  19
						.
					 Nuchal ligament  20
						.
					 Aponeurosis of origin of splenius capitis muscle (cut across)  21
						.
					 Muscular branches of dorsal branch cervical nerve III  22
						.
					 Dorsal cutaneous branch cervical nerve IV


Posterior cervical region and suboccipital muscles dissected from behind
										 Left splenius muscles; right trapezius muscle
										The trapezius and rhomboid muscles have been removed from the left side of the body. The left scapula has been pulled laterally. The serratus posterior superior (5) has been reflected to expose underlying parts of the erector spinae and splenius muscles.

														 1
						.
					 Upper pointer: Fascia covering semispinalis capitis muscle Lower pointer: Greater occipital nerve  2
						.
					 Third occipital nerve  3
						.
					 Splenius capitis muscle  4
						.
					 Levator scapulae muscle  5
						.
					 Serratus posterior superior muscle (reflected laterally)  6
						.
					 Nerve supply to serratus posterior superior muscle  7
						.
					 Rib II  8
						.
					 Area of insertion of levator scapulae muscle  9
						.
					 Splenius cervicis muscle  10
						.
					 Rhomboid minor muscle (cut across)  11
						.
					 Iliocostalis cervicis muscle  12
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle  13
						.
					 Spinalis thoracis muscle  14
						.
					 Sternocleidomastoid muscle  15
						.
					 Trapezius muscle  16
						.
					 Nuchal ligament  17
						.
					 Band of thoracolumbar fascia (removed elsewhere)  18
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra Th. II  19
						.
					 Upper pointer: Spine of scapula Lower pointer: Deltoid muscle  20
						.
					 Trapezius muscle


Posterior cervical region and suboccipital muscles dissected from behind
										 Superficial structures of back of neck; cervical fascia; trapezius muscle
										On the side of the neck the superficial or investing layer of cervical fascia has been preserved together with the nerves, blood vessels and lymph nodes that lie external to it. On the right the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid muscles have been exposed by removing this fascia

														 1
						.
					 Occipital belly of occipitofrontal muscle  2
						.
					 Greater occipital nerve  3
						.
					 Third occipital nerve  4
						.
					 Lesser occipital nerve  5
						.
					 Retroauricular lymph node  6
						.
					 Occipital lymph node  7
						.
					 Sternocleidomastoid muscle (covered by cervical fascia)  8
						.
					 Medial branch of dorsal branch cervical nerve IV  9
						.
					 Third occipital nerve right  10
						.
					 Trapezius muscle (pointer near origin from superior nuchal line)  11
						.
					 Sternocleidomastoid muscle (pointer near insertion into superior nuchal line)  12
						.
					 Aberrant muscular slip  13
						.
					 Posterior cervical triangle  14
						.
					 Trapezius muscle (origin from nuchal ligament)  15
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra C. VII  16
						.
					 Dorsal branch cervical nerve VII


Ligaments and joints of lumbosacral spine and pelvic girdle
										 Sacroiliac joint opened; interosseous sacroiliac ligament, left lateral view
										The left ilium has been detached to display the auricular surface of the sacrum and the interosseous sacroiliac ligaments.

														 1
						.
					 Interosseous sacroiliac ligaments (pointer indicates only a small part of the area occupied by the numerous bands that comprise these ligaments which have been cut at their attachments to the ilium)  2
						.
					 Iliolumbar artery  3
						.
					 Femoral nerve  4
						.
					 Articular surface sacrum  5
						.
					 Ventral sacroiliac ligament  6
						.
					 Sacral nerve I  7
						.
					 Piriform muscle (cut across)  8
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra L. V  9
						.
					 Supraspinous ligament  10
						.
					 Interspinous ligament L. V - S. I (convex in shape due to compression by extension of vertebra on sacrum)  11
						.
					 Median sacral crest  12
						.
					 Dorsal sacroiliac ligament (cut across)  13
						.
					 Iliac branch of iliolumbar artery  14
						.
					 Area of articular surface in which fibrocartilage has been damaged (remainder of auricular surface intact)  15
						.
					 Joint capsule (lined internally by synovial membrane)


Ligaments and joints of lumbosacral spine and pelvic girdle
										 Sagittal section of lumbosacral spine; transverse section through sacroiliac joint
										The specimen shown in the preceding view (155-7) has been cut in the median plane and the right half subsequently has been cut in a plane transverse to the sacroiliac joint and approximately at right angles to the long axis of the sacrum. The sectioned parts have been separated from each other and are viewed from in front.

														 1
						.
					 Upper pointer: Intervertebral foramen Lower pointer: Posterior sacral foramen  2
						.
					 Interosseous sacroiliac ligament  3
						.
					 Sacroiliac joint (pointer on cavity and fibrocartilage covering articular surfaces of both bones)  4
						.
					 Body ilium (cut across)  5
						.
					 Anterior sacral (pelvic) foramina  6
						.
					 Greater sciatic foramen  7
						.
					 Body ischium  8
						.
					 Bony ridge at site of exit of tendon of obturator internus from pelvis (note other parallel ridges)  9
						.
					 Lesser sciatic foramen  10
						.
					 Ventral sacrococcygeal ligament  11
						.
					 Sacrococcygeal junction (articular cavity present in this specimen)  12
						.
					 Coccyx  13
						.
					 Sacrospinous ligament  14
						.
					 Ischial spine (pointer indicates facet for attachment of coccygeus muscle)  15
						.
					 Sacrotuberous ligament  16
						.
					 Supraspinous ligament  17
						.
					 Interspinous ligament  18
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra L. IV  19
						.
					 Arch of vertebra L. IV (facing vertebral canal)  20
						.
					 Ligamentum flavum  21
						.
					 Anulus fibrosus  22
						.
					 Body of vertebra L. V  23
						.
					 Anterior longitudinal ligament  24
						.
					 Nucleus pulposus  25
						.
					 Dura mater  26
						.
					 Promontory  27
						.
					 Lateral part sacrum  28
						.
					 Inferior limit of dural sac  29
						.
					 Sacroiliac joint (reinforced by ventral sacroiliac ligament)  30
						.
					 Transverse line sacrum (note remnant of intervertebral disk in cut section)  31
						.
					 Upper pointer: Sacral hiatus Lower pointer: Dorsal superficial sacrococcygeal ligament


Ligaments and joints of lumbosacral spine and pelvic girdle
										 Intervertebral articulations viewed from above and behind
										The third and fourth lumbar vertebrae have been separated by cutting the intervertebral disc and dividing the posterior joint capsules and the various ligaments connecting the two vertebrae.

														 1
						.
					 Anterior longitudinal ligament (cut across)  2
						.
					 Anulus fibrosus  3
						.
					 Nucleus pulposus (both 2 and 3 are part of the intervertebral disc)  4
						.
					 Vertebral canal (pointer on anterior internal vertebral venous plexus)  5
						.
					 Pedicle (arch of vertebra) L. IV  6
						.
					 Superior articular process (upper pointer, cut margin of joint capsule; lower pointer, superior articular surface)  7
						.
					 Lamina (arch of vertebra) L. IV  8
						.
					 Mamillary process  9
						.
					 Transverse process  10
						.
					 Inferior articular process vertebra L. IV  11
						.
					 Intervertebral joint capsule L. V - S. 1  12
						.
					 Dorsal sacroiliac ligament  13
						.
					 Superior vertebral incisure (note veins forming communications between internal and external vertebral venous plexuses)  14
						.
					 Ligamentum flavum (cut across)  15
						.
					 Interspinous ligament  16
						.
					 Iliolumbar ligament  17
						.
					 Lateral part sacrum  18
						.
					 Iliac crest  19
						.
					 Supraspinous ligament (overlying spinous process vertebra L. IV)


Ligaments and joints of lumbosacral spine and pelvic girdle
										 Ligaments of pelvic girdle, anterior view
										The pubic bones have been removed.

														 1
						.
					 Iliolumbar ligament  2
						.
					 Lateral part sacrum  3
						.
					 Promontory  4
						.
					 Pectineal ligament (ligament of Cooper)  5
						.
					 Superior ramus pubic bone (cut across)  6
						.
					 Joint capsule coxae (pointer overlies head of femur)  7
						.
					 Ischiofemoral ligament  8
						.
					 Ischial tuberosity  9
						.
					 Ramus ischium (cut across)  10
						.
					 Lateral sacrococcygeal ligament  11
						.
					 Coccyx  12
						.
					 Body of vertebra L. V  13
						.
					 Intervertebral disc L. V - S. I  14
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra L. V  15
						.
					 Iliac fossa  16
						.
					 Sacroiliac joint (covered by ventral sacroiliac ligament)  17
						.
					 Anterior sacral (pelvic) foramina  18
						.
					 Greater sciatic foramen  19
						.
					 Sacrospinous ligament  20
						.
					 Lesser sciatic foramen  21
						.
					 Obturator membrane (cut across)  22
						.
					 Sacrotuberous ligament


Ligaments and joints of lumbosacral spine and pelvic girdle
										 Ligaments of pelvic girdle, posterior view
										Muscles, blood vessels and nerves have been removed from this specimen of a young adult male.

														 1
						.
					 Supraspinous ligament  2
						.
					 Inferior articular process vertebra L. V  3
						.
					 Joint capsule  4
						.
					 Iliac crest  5
						.
					 Posterior superior iliac spine  6
						.
					 Median sacral crest  7
						.
					 Greater sciatic foramen  8
						.
					 Sacrotuberous ligament  9
						.
					 Sacrospinous ligament (at attachment to ischial spine)  10
						.
					 Lesser sciatic foramen  11
						.
					 Ischial tuberosity  12
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra L. IV  13
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra L. V  14
						.
					 Iliolumbar ligament  15
						.
					 Wing (ala) of ilium  16
						.
					 Dorsal sacroiliac ligament  17
						.
					 Body ilium  18
						.
					 Joint capsule coxae  19
						.
					 Sacral comu (horn)  20
						.
					 Dorsal superficial sacrococcygeal ligament  21
						.
					 Coccyx  22
						.
					 Lateral sacrococcygeal ligament


Ligaments and joints of lumbosacral spine and pelvic girdle
										 Ligaments of coccygeal region, close-up posterior view

														 1
						.
					 Dorsal branch coccygeal nerve  2
						.
					 Dorsal branch sacral nerve V  3
						.
					 Connecting ioop between fifth sacral nerve and coccygeal nerve  4
						.
					 Piriform muscle (transected)  5
						.
					 Sciatic nerve  6
						.
					 Lateral border of sacrum  7
						.
					 Inferior gluteal artery  8
						.
					 Internal pudendal vein (cut off)  9
						.
					 Upper pointer: Pudendal nerve Lower pointer: Internal pudendal artery  10
						.
					 Inferior rectal nerve  11
						.
					 Ischial spine (covered by fibers of coccygeus muscle)  12
						.
					 Coccygeus muscle (overlying sacrospinous ligament)  13
						.
					 Levator ani muscle (pointer on iliococcygeus muscle)  14
						.
					 Obturator internus muscle  15
						.
					 Upper pointer: Inferior rectal artery Lower pointer: Perineal artery  16
						.
					 Lunate fascia (reflected to expose perineal vessels and nerves in pudendal canal)  17
						.
					 Levator ani muscle (pointer on pubococcygeus muscle)  18
						.
					 Anococcygeal nerve  19
						.
					 Sacral cornu (horn)  20
						.
					 Coccygeal cornu (horn)  21
						.
					 Aperture for dorsal ramus of fifth sacral nerve  22
						.
					 Dorsal superficial sacrococcygeal ligament  23
						.
					 Upper pointer: Deep dorsal sacrococcygeal ligament Lower pointer: Sacrotuberous ligament  24
						.
					 Coccyx (terminal segment)  25
						.
					 Lunate fascia  26
						.
					 Inferior pelvic diaphragmatic fascia  27
						.
					 Anococcygeal ligament  28
						.
					 External anal sphincter muscle  29
						.
					 Anus


Ligaments and joints of lumbosacral spine and pelvic girdle
										 Ligaments of sacral region, posterior view
										The central area of the dissection shown in the preceding view is illustrated in this close-up photograph.

														 1
						.
					 Supraspinous ligament  2
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra L. V (periosteum removed)  3
						.
					 Iliolumbar ligament  4
						.
					 Iliac crest  5
						.
					 Posterior superior iliac spine  6
						.
					 Dorsal sacral foramina (partially obscured by ligamentous bands note vessels and nerves emerging between bands)  7
						.
					 Superior gluteal artery (cut off)  8
						.
					 Sciatic nerve (exposed by excision of piriform muscle)  9
						.
					 Inferior gluteal artery (cut off)  10
						.
					 Internal pudendal artery  11
						.
					 Sacrospinous ligament (blended with coccygeus m)  12
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra L. V  13
						.
					 Intervertebral joint capsule L. V - S. I  14
						.
					 Gluteus medius muscle  15
						.
					 Dorsal sacroiliac ligament  16
						.
					 Median sacral crest  17
						.
					 Piriform muscle  18
						.
					 Sacrotuberous ligament  19
						.
					 Sacral cornu (horn)  20
						.
					 Dorsal superficial sacrococcygeal ligament


Ligaments and joints of lumbosacral spine and pelvic girdle
										 Ligaments of lumbosacral region, posterior view
										The erector spinae and gluteus maximus muscles have been removed. On the left the gluteus medius has been cut away.

														 1
						.
					 Erector spinae muscle (cut across)  2
						.
					 Supraspinous ligament  3
						.
					 Intertransverse ligament  4
						.
					 Quadratus lumborum muscle (covered by middle layer of thoracolumbar fascia)  5
						.
					 Left kidney (faintly visible through thoracolumbar and renal fascia)  6
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra L. IV  7
						.
					 Latissimus dorsi muscle (cut edge)  8
						.
					 Iliolumbar ligament  9
						.
					 Iliac crest  10
						.
					 Area of origin of gluteus medius muscle  11
						.
					 Gluteus minimus muscle  12
						.
					 Piriform muscle (cut across)  13
						.
					 Sciatic nerve (emerging through greater sciatic foramen)  14
						.
					 Upper pointer: Internal pudendal artery Lower pointer: Pudendal nerve  15
						.
					 Obturator internus muscle (tendon of insertion)  16
						.
					 Greater trochanter of femur  17
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia (posterior layer, reflected)  18
						.
					 Intervertebral joint capsule L. IV-V  19
						.
					 Median sacral crest  20
						.
					 Posterior superior iliac spine  21
						.
					 Gluteus medius muscle  22
						.
					 Dorsal sacroiliac ligament  23
						.
					 Piriform muscle  24
						.
					 Sacrotuberous ligament  25
						.
					 Ischiorectal fossa  26
						.
					 Dorsal superficial sacrococcygeal ligament  27
						.
					 Coccyx


Dissection of thoracic and lumbosacral regions of back from a posterior approach
										 Quadratus lumborum muscle, posterior view
										The middle layer of thoracolumbar fascia has been removed from the posterior surface of the quadratus lumborum muscle (7). Small slips of origin join the quadratus lumborum from the transverse processes of the second and third lumbar vertebrae.

														 1
						.
					 Lumbocostal ligament  2
						.
					 Rib XII  3
						.
					 Subcostal nerve  4
						.
					 Left pointer: Dorsal branch lumbar artery II Right pointer: Dorsal branch lumbar nerve II  5
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra L. III  6
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia (anterior layer)  7
						.
					 Quadratus lumborum muscle  8
						.
					 Iliolumbar ligament  9
						.
					 Posterior superior iliac spine  10
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra Th. XII  11
						.
					 Supraspinous ligament  12
						.
					 Intertransverse muscles  13
						.
					 Dorsal branch lumbar nerve II  14
						.
					 Erector spinae muscle (covered by thoracolumbar fascia)  15
						.
					 Intervertebral joint capsule L. III-IV  16
						.
					 Lamina (arch of vertebra) L. V


Dissection of thoracic and lumbosacral regions of back from a posterior approach
										 Rotator, interspinal and intertransverse muscles in lumbar region
										The erector spinae and multifidus muscles have been nearly completely excised from the lumbar region.

														 1
						.
					 Medial intertransverse muscle  2
						.
					 Lateral intertransverse muscle (several fascicles present)  3
						.
					 Dorsal branch thoracic nerve XII  4
						.
					 Rib XII  5
						.
					 Aponeurosis transversus abdominis muscle  6
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia (upper pointer, middle layer; lower pointer, posterior layer, cut off)  7
						.
					 Transversus abdominis muscle  8
						.
					 Quadratus lumborum muscle (covered by thoracolumbar fascia)  9
						.
					 Upper pointer: Longissimus muscle Lower pointer: Iliocostalis lumborum muscle  10
						.
					 Iliac crest  11
						.
					 Superior cluneal nerves  12
						.
					 Gluteus medius muscle  13
						.
					 Gluteus maximus muscle  14
						.
					 Posterior superior iliac spine  15
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra L. II  16
						.
					 Intervertebral joint capsule  17
						.
					 Interspinalis lumborum muscle  18
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra L. IV  19
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia (posterior layer)  20
						.
					 Rotator muscles  21
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra L. V  22
						.
					 Upper pointer: Lamina (arch of vertebra) L. V Lower pointer: Intervertebral joint capsule L. V - S. I  23
						.
					 Arch sacrum


Dissection of thoracic and lumbosacral regions of back from a posterior approach
										 Ligaments of costotransverse articulations; dorsal rami of spinal nerves, posterior view
										The erector spinae and the transversospinal muscles have been cut away to permit dissection of the ligaments related to several of the costotransverse joints.

														 1
						.
					 External intercostal muscle  2
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle (tendon of insertion)  3
						.
					 Intertransverse ligament  4
						.
					 Levator costarum brevis muscle  5
						.
					 Superior costotransverse ligament (upper pointer on anterior division, lower pointer on posterior division)  6
						.
					 Tubercule of rib VI  7
						.
					 Angle of rib VI (pointer on tendon of insertion of one slip of iliocostalis muscle)  8
						.
					 Lateral costotransverse ligament  9
						.
					 Dorsal branch posterior intercostal artery V  10
						.
					 Dorsal branch thoracic nerve V  11
						.
					 Upper pointer: Neck of rib Lower pointer: Costotransverse ligament (occupying costotransverse foramen)  12
						.
					 Intervertebral joint capsule Th. V-VI  13
						.
					 Transverse process of vertebra Th. VI  14
						.
					 Lamina (arch of vertebra) Th. VI  15
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra Th. V  16
						.
					 Nerve to levator costarum brevis muscle (branch of dorsal ramus)  17
						.
					 Rotator brevis muscle


Dissection of thoracic and lumbosacral regions of back from a posterior approach
										 Multifidus and rotator muscles in mid-thoracic region
										The transversospinal group of muscles includes the semispinalis, multifidus and rotator muscles that extend obliquely upward from transverse processes to spinous processes of higher vertebrae. The semispinalis muscles, in general spanning five to six vertebrae, are shown in views 213-6, 216-4 and 216-5. Parts of the semispinalis have been cut away in this dissection to expose the more deeply placed multifidus (11) and rotator (13,14) muscles. The former span three or four vertebrae whereas the latter muscles extend across only one or two vertebrae.

														 1
						.
					 Serratus posterior superior muscle (insertions into fourth and fifth ribs)  2
						.
					 Lateral costotransverse ligament  3
						.
					 Levator costarum brevis muscle  4
						.
					 Iliocostalis muscle (one muscle slip preserved to illustrate manner in which muscle arises medial to insertion of lower portions of muscle)  5
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle (areas of insertion on rib and transverse process)  6
						.
					 Rib VI  7
						.
					 Dorsal branch thoracic nerve VII  8
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra Th. III  9
						.
					 Semispinalis thoracis muscle (cut across and elevated)  10
						.
					 Middle cutaneous branch of dorsal branch thoracic nerve III (note muscular branch to multifidus)  11
						.
					 Multifidus muscle  12
						.
					 Trapezius muscle  13
						.
					 Rotator longus muscle  14
						.
					 Rotator brevis muscle  15
						.
					 External vertebral venous plexus (posterior)  16
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle (origin, elevated and cut across)  17
						.
					 Supraspinous ligament  18
						.
					 Latissimus dorsi muscle  19
						.
					 Semispinalis and multifidus muscles (cut off)


Dissection of thoracic and lumbosacral regions of back from a posterior approach
										 Deep dissection of iliocostalis lumborum and longissimus thoracic muscles; multifidus muscle
										The upper parts of the iliocostalis and longissimus have been cut away to expose the lower fascicles of these muscles as they pass deeply. The iliocostalis lumborum has strong insertions on the angles of the lower ribs. The longissimus spreads somewhat to insert into ribs, transverse processes, and accessory processes of the lumbar vertebrae.

														 1
						.
					 Serratus posterior inferior muscle (insertions, cut off)  2
						.
					 Iliocostalis lumborum muscle  3
						.
					 Rib XII  4
						.
					 Transversus abdominis muscle  5
						.
					 Subcostal nerve  6
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia (cut off)  7
						.
					 Quadratus lumborum muscle  8
						.
					 Superior cluneal nerves  9
						.
					 Posterior superior iliac spine  10
						.
					 Spinalis thoracis muscle  11
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle  12
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra L. II  13
						.
					 Multifidus muscle  14
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia


Dissection of thoracic and lumbosacral regions of back from a posterior approach
										 Multifidus muscle in lumbar region
										The iliocostalis and longissimus muscles have been retracted laterally and dissected to demonstrate nerves and blood vessels entering the muscles. The multifidus (8) has been exposed in the sacral, lumbar and lower thoracic regions. It should be noted that this muscle is more massive in the lumbosacral region and that its fascicles become progressively more slender in the thoracic area.

														 1
						.
					 Rib X  2
						.
					 Iliocostalis lumborum muscle (dissected to expose nerve and vascular supply)  3
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle (dissected)  4
						.
					 Dorsal branches of lumbar arteries  5
						.
					 Internal oblique muscle  6
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia (cut off)  7
						.
					 Spinalis thoracis muscle  8
						.
					 Multifidus muscle  9
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia (posterior layer)  10
						.
					 Location of posterior superior iliac spine


Dissection of thoracic and lumbosacral regions of back from a posterior approach
										 Components of erector spinae muscle in lower thoracic and lumbar regions
										Details of the lower part of the specimen shown in view 213-5 are illustrated in this photograph. The lumbar part of the mulitfidus muscle (14) is large and has an extensive origin from the deep surface of the aponeurosis of the erector spinae muscle.

														 1
						.
					 Rib X  2
						.
					 External intercostal muscle  3
						.
					 Dorsal branch thoracic nerve XI (muscular and cutaneous branches)  4
						.
					 Iliocostalis lumborum muscle  5
						.
					 Rib XII  6
						.
					 Internal oblique muscle (cut across close to origin)  7
						.
					 Superior cluneal nerves  8
						.
					 Iliac crest  9
						.
					 Spinalis thoracis muscle  10
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle  11
						.
					 Latissimus dorsi muscle  12
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra L. II  13
						.
					 External oblique muscle  14
						.
					 Multifidus muscle


Dissection of thoracic and lumbosacral regions of back from a posterior approach
										 Components of erector spinae muscle in relation to semispinalis muscles in upper thoracic region
										This close-up view of the back of the thorax and lower part of the neck shows in more detail the relations of the iliocostalis, longissimus and spinalis muscles illustrated in the previous photograph. In addition, the semispinalis group of muscles (1, 10, 14) has been partially exposed and it can be seen that there is a close interrelation between this group and the longissimus and spinalis muscles.

														 1
						.
					 Semispinalis capitis muscle  2
						.
					 Longissimus capitis muscle  3
						.
					 Longissimus cervicis muscle  4
						.
					 Posterior scalene muscle  5
						.
					 Iliocostalis cervicis muscle  6
						.
					 Serratus posterior superior muscle (cut off near costal attachments)  7
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle  8
						.
					 Iliocostalis muscle  9
						.
					 Rib VI  10
						.
					 Semispinalis cervicis muscle  11
						.
					 Interspinalis cervicis muscle  12
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra C. VII (vertebra prominens)  13
						.
					 Trapezius muscle  14
						.
					 Semispinalis thoracis muscle (note muscular slips extending to longissimus muscle)  15
						.
					 Dorsal branch of posterior intercostal artery V  16
						.
					 Middle cutaneous branch of dorsal branch thoracic nerve V  17
						.
					 Spinalis thoracis muscle


Dissection of thoracic and lumbosacral regions of back from a posterior approach
										 Components of erector spinae muscle separated, general view
										The heavy aponeurosis of origin of the left erector spinae has been partially removed near the midline. This portion of the aponeurosis, form which the longissimus thoracic part arises, also serves to give attachment to portions of the underlying multifidus muscle (8). The iliocostalis (2, 6), longissimus (4) and spinalis (5) muscles have been separated from each other.

														 1
						.
					 Rib II  2
						.
					 Iliocostalis muscle  3
						.
					 Rib VI  4
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle  5
						.
					 Spinalis thoracis muscle  6
						.
					 Iliocostalis lumborum muscle  7
						.
					 Internal oblique muscle  8
						.
					 Multifidus muscle  9
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra Th. III  10
						.
					 Trapezius muscle  11
						.
					 Latissimus dorsi muscle  12
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra Th. XII  13
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia (posterior layer)  14
						.
					 Iliac crest  15
						.
					 Gluteus maximus muscle


Dissection of thoracic and lumbosacral regions of back from a posterior approach
										 Erector spinae muscle, close-up view of lumbosacral portion
										The posterior layer of thoracolumbar fascia (9)has been cut away on the left to reveal the erector spinae muscle.

														 1
						.
					 Iliocostalis lumborum muscle (insertion)  2
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle  3
						.
					 Spinalis thoracis muscle  4
						.
					 Serratus posterior inferior muscle (cut off near insertion into tenth rib)  5
						.
					 Lateral cutaneous branch of dorsal branch thoracic nerve X  6
						.
					 Rib XII  7
						.
					 Internal oblique muscle (reflected anteriorly)  8
						.
					 Transverse abdominis muscle (aponeurosis of origin)  9
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia (cut across)  10
						.
					 Erector spinae muscle  11
						.
					 Superior cluneal nerves  12
						.
					 Latissimus dorsi muscle  13
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia (posterior layer)  14
						.
					 External oblique muscle  15
						.
					 Lumbar triangle (Petit's)  16
						.
					 Iliac crest  17
						.
					 Gluteus medius muscle  18
						.
					 Gluteus maximus muscle


Dissection of thoracic and lumbosacral regions of back from a posterior approach
										 Erector spinae muscle, close-up view of thoracic portion
										In this close-up view of the upper part of the specimen shown in the preceding photograph of the iliocostalis (12), longissimus (13) and spinalis (14) divisions of the erector spinae are more clearly visible.

														 1
						.
					 Rib V  2
						.
					 Fascia of serratus anterior muscle  3
						.
					 Serratus anterior muscle  4
						.
					 Lateral cutaneous branch of dorsal branch thoracic nerve IX  5
						.
					 Serratus posterior inferior muscle (insertion into ninth rib)  6
						.
					 Scapula  7
						.
					 Serratus posterior superior muscle (reflected laterally)  8
						.
					 Iliocostalis cervicis muscle  9
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra Th. II  10
						.
					 Trapezius muscle  11
						.
					 Middle cutaneous branch of dorsal branch .thoracic nerve III  12
						.
					 Iliocostalis muscle  13
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle  14
						.
					 Spinalis thoracis muscle  15
						.
					 Latissimus dorsi


Dissection of thoracic and lumbosacral regions of back from a posterior approach
										 Erector spinae muscle, general view
										The trapezius and latissimus dorsi muscles have been preserved on the right side. These muscles have been removed on the left side and the left shoulder girdle has been pulled aside. The posterior serratus muscles have been cut away and the thoracolumbar fascia has been removed to display the left erector spinae muscles. The delicate, intrinsic fascia of the erector spinae has also been removed.

														 1
						.
					 Scapula (retracted laterally)  2
						.
					 Serratus posterior superior muscle (reflected)  3
						.
					 Serratys anterior muscle  4
						.
					 Fascia related to serratus anterior muscle  5
						.
					 External intercostal muscle  6
						.
					 Iliocostalis thoracis muscle  7
						.
					 Longissimus thoracis muscle  8
						.
					 Spinalis thoracis muscle (together 6, 7 and 8 make up the erector spinae muscle)  9
						.
					 Dorsal branch thoracic nerve X (lateral cutaneous branch)  10
						.
					 Rib XII  11
						.
					 Internal oblique muscle (reflected anteriorly)  12
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia (cut margin of layer which covered erector spinae)  13
						.
					 Spinous process vertebra Th. II  14
						.
					 Trapezius muscle  15
						.
					 Latissimus dorsi muscle  16
						.
					 Thoracolumbar fascia (intact)  17
						.
					 External oblique muscle  18
						.
					 Iliac crest