Aganodine  is a  guanidine  that activates presynaptic  imidazoline receptors . [ 1 ]  Through its  agonism  at imidazoline receptors, aganodine inhibits the presynaptic release of  norepinephrine . [ 2 ]


An  agent study  is a part of a  clinical trial  that tests the  chemotherapeutic  properties of a specific substance. More specifically, an agent study is used to detect whether or not a substance can prevent or inhibit  cancer . [ 1 ]  In a clinical trial, researchers perform multiple studies in order to test the potential of new cancer drugs. An agent study helps determine the potential of a substance to inhibit cancer, before more studies are done in order to further knowledge of this potential.


Agent studies are used to determine whether a substance exhibits  cytotoxicity  or  cytostasis .  A cytotoxic agent will shrink a tumor, while, a cytostatic agent slows or stops tumor growth and  metastases . It is important to determine which of these effects an agent poses so that a proper clinical trial can be designed. For example, a study with a cytotoxic agent will look for tumor shrinkage vs. dose. It is much harder to develop a clinical trial for a cytostatic agent. [ 2 ]


Phase I trials are used to determine the  maximum tolerated dose  of an agent. This dose is then used in the Phase II trials. Maximum tolerated dose is based on the measured toxicity in cytotoxic agents. Cytostatic agents have been demonstrated to show biologic effects while also being nontoxic. It is recommended that cytostatic agent trials determine toxicity as well as evaluation of a biologic end point in response to different doses. [ 2 ]


Synonym:
Chemoprevention study


Ainuovirine  is a  non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor  (NNRTI) being developed by  Kainos Medicine  for the treatment of  HIV infections . [ 1 ]  Ainuovirine was approved in China in 2021 for the treatment of HIV-1 infection. [ 2 ]


Air polymer-type A , sold under the brand name  ExEm Foam , is a drug for the detection of  fallopian tube  patency (openness) in people with known or suspected  infertility . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  It was approved for use in the  United States  in November 2019. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Air polymer-type A is infused into the  uterus  to allow for visual assessment of fallopian tubes during an  ultrasound  examination called a  sonohysterosalpingography . [ 2 ]


The most common adverse reactions are  pelvic pain  and  abdominal pain ,  nausea  and  faintness  (caused by a nerve and blood vessel reaction called  vasovagal reaction ) and post-procedure spotting. [ 2 ]


The US  Food and Drug Administration  (FDA) approved air polymer-type A based on literature reports. [ 2 ]  To evaluate how well air polymer-type A works, the FDA primarily used data from two trials. [ 2 ]  Trial A [ 4 ]  was conducted at a site in  Italy  and Trial B [ 5 ]  at three sites in  Poland . [ 2 ]


Evaluation of side effects was based on multiple literature reports and collected safety reports from countries where air polymer-type A is already approved. [ 2 ]


Akbarieh  ( Persian :  اکبریه ), headquarters in  Tehran, Iran , is one of the oldest suppliers of pharmaceuticals and fine chemicals and importers to Iran. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  Established in 1890, the company is still operated by the Akbarieh family. Akbarieh customers are health professionals, and manufacturers of pharmaceuticals, food, cosmetic and feed industries. [ 3 ]


Akbarieh provides API  (Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient) , animal health and nutrition products, cosmetic raw materials and finished goods, and food additives. [ citation needed ]


Akbarieh Company was founded by Ali Akbar Akbarieh MD in 1890 in the city of  Tabriz , Iran to supply pharmaceutical products and modern medicine to the local population. The Company moved from Tabriz to the capital, Tehran in 1944. The business currently provides pharmaceutical products, ingredients, raw materials, laboratory and hospital equipment to the Iranian market.


This  Iranian corporation or company  article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


In medicine and pharmacology,  albondin  (gp60) is a cell receptor that binds  serum albumin . [ 1 ]  It seems to be expressed on endothelial cells and binding induces endocytosis. Not much is known about this protein, except for its approximate  molecular mass  of 60 kDa. [ 2 ]


ALC-0159  is a  PEG /lipid conjugate (i.e.  PEGylated  lipid), specifically, it is the  N,N -di myristyl amide of  2-hydroxyacetic acid , O-pegylated to a PEG chain mass of about 2 kilo daltons  (corresponding to about 45-46 ethylene oxide units per molecule of  N,N -dimyristyl hydroxyacetamide).  It is a  non-ionic surfactant  by its nature. It has been deployed in the  Pfizer - BioNTech   SARS-CoV-2   mRNA vaccine  (0.05 mg per dose) [ 1 ]  that contains the active ingredient  tozinameran . [ 2 ]


Aldafermin  is a  fibroblast growth factor 19  (FGF19) analogue developed for  non-alcoholic steatohepatitis . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Align Biopharma  is an initiative by six of the largest global  pharmaceutical companies  to create standards for physicians to access information on drugs. [ 1 ]


The companies participating include  Allergan ,  AstraZeneca ,  Biogen ,  GlaxoSmithKline ,  Novartis  and  Pfizer , and the software company Veeva Systems. The group is led by vice presidents and technology officers from each participating company. [ 2 ]


It was created to address the expansion of  personalized medicine  and specialized drugs, which are not frequently prescribed and tailored prescribing information is needed for each patient. The stated goals of Align are to allow physicians to use a single login to access pharmaceutical information for all six companies, and create a standard for consenting to receive information from pharmaceutical companies. [ 3 ]  Currently, companies individually verify the health care credentials of each provider before allowing them access to information. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


Alloclamide  ( Pectex ,  Tuselin ) is an  antitussive  and  antihistamine  drug marketed in Finland and Spain. It has never been marketed in the US.


It is sold as an oral solution, containing 6.25 mg/mL alloclamide. The recommended dosage for adults is 25 mg three to four times daily. Adverse effects include constipation and sedation. [ 1 ]


Allogeneic cultured keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts in murine collagen , sold under the brand name  Stratagraft , is a medical treatment used for thermal burns containing intact dermal elements. [ 1 ]


Common side effects include pruritus (itching), blisters, hypertrophic scar, and impaired healing (stalled healing process) at the treatment site. [ 3 ]


Stratagraft is produced from two kinds of human skin cells (keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts) grown together to make a bi-layered construct (a cellularized scaffold). [ 3 ]  Since the human keratinocyte cells were grown with mouse cells during initial stages of product development, Stratagraft is formally considered to be a xenotransplantation product (involving tissues or cells belonging to different species). [ 3 ]  Mouse cells are no longer used in the final manufacturing process. [ 3 ]  It was approved for medical use in the United States in June 2021. [ 3 ]


Stratagraft (allogeneic cultured keratinocytes and dermal fibroblasts in murine collagen-dsat) is  indicated  for the treatment of adults with thermal burns containing intact dermal elements for which surgical intervention is clinically indicated (deep partial-thickness burns). [ 1 ]


The US  Food and Drug Administration  (FDA) evaluated the effectiveness and safety of Stratagraft based on two randomized clinical studies involving a total of 101 adult participants with deep partial thickness thermal burns. [ 3 ]  In both studies, two deep partial-thickness burn wounds of comparable area and depth on each participant were identified and randomized to receive either a single topical application of Stratagraft or autograft. [ 3 ]  The effectiveness is demonstrated by the percentage of Stratagraft treatment sites that achieved a complete wound closure, and the significantly decreased need for autografts at the Stratagraft treatment sites. [ 3 ]


The FDA granted Stratagraft regenerative medicine advanced therapy,  priority review , and  orphan drug  designations for this indication. [ 3 ]  Stratagraft was developed in conjunction with the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services’ Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority. [ 3 ]  The FDA granted approval to Stratatech, a  Mallinckrodt  company. [ 3 ]


Allogeneic cultured keratinocytes and fibroblasts in bovine collagen , sold under the brand name  Gintuit , is a  cellular therapy  used for the treatment of mucogingival (the  oral mucosa  and  gingival  (gum) tissues of the mouth) conditions. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Common adverse reactions observed during clinical trials include sinusitis (sinus inflammation), nasopharyngitis (inflammation of the upper throat, upper respiratory tract infection, aphthous stomatitis (canker sores), and local surgery site reactions such as pain and redness. [ 2 ]


Allogeneic cultured keratinocytes and fibroblasts in bovine collagen is a cellular sheet that consists of two layers, an upper layer composed of living human keratinocytes (the primary cell type in the skin's outer layer) and a lower layer constructed of bovine-derived collagen, human  extracellular matrix proteins  (molecules that support and give structure to cells), and living human dermal fibroblasts (skin cells that generate connective tissues). [ 2 ]  It is the first cell-based product made from allogeneic (cells derived from a donor source that is unrelated to the intended recipient) human cells and bovine collagen approved by the US  Food and Drug Administration  (FDA). [ 2 ]  It was approved for medical use in the United States in March 2012. [ 1 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]


Allogeneic cultured keratinocytes and fibroblasts in bovine collagen is  indicated  for topical (non-submerged) application to a surgically created vascular wound bed in the treatment of mucogingival conditions in adults. [ 2 ]


The efficacy of allogeneic cultured keratinocytes and fibroblasts in bovine collagen (Gintuit) was evaluated in two clinical studies in adults with insufficient gingival tissue. [ 2 ]  In each of the two studies, Gintuit was associated with an increase of at least 2 mm of gingival tissue in at least 50% of the study subjects. The overall clinical trial safety data for Gintuit included 121 subjects from both studies. [ 2 ]


The  Allotrope Foundation  is a consortium of pharmaceutical companies, instrument vendors and software companies to simplify the exchange of scientific electronic data. It publishes the Allotrope Foundation Ontology (AFO) which is a  controlled vocabulary  to structure data, the Allotrope Data Models (ADM) and the Allotrope Data Format (ADF) based on  HDF5  which incorporates those for use in practice. Standardization aims at the goal of  FAIR data . [ 2 ]


Aloxistatin  ( loxistatin ,  E-64d ,  EST ) is a drug which acts as a  cysteine protease  inhibitor and has  anticoagulant  effects. It is a synthetic analogue of  E-64 , a natural product derived from fungi. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  It was researched for the treatment of  muscular dystrophy  but was not successful in human  clinical trials , [ 4 ]  though it has continued to be investigated for treatment of  spinal cord injury ,  stroke  and  Alzheimer's disease . [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ]


Aloxistatin also shows  antiviral  effects. [ 10 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ]  Studies have shown it can inhibit  cathepsin L , a protein believed to play a role in  SARS-CoV-2  cellular entry. In a laboratory study using SARS-CoV-2 pseudovirions, aloxistatin was able to reduce  viral entry  into cells by approximately 92%. [ 13 ] [ 14 ]


ALX-1393  is a  glycine reuptake inhibitor .


ALX-1393 works by inhibiting the action of  GLYT2 . [ 2 ]  This causes elevated levels of glycine, an inhibitory neurotransmitter.


ALX-1393 has been shown to have potential as an  analgesic . This is thought to be due to the elevated  glycine  levels reducing the transmission of the pain signals. [ 3 ]


Tests have shown that it was able to help reduce cancer pain in a potent way. [ 4 ]


AM-0902  is a drug which acts as a potent and selective  antagonist  for the  TRPA1  receptor, and has  analgesic  and  antiinflammatory  effects. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Amastatin , also known as  3-amino-2-hydroxy-5-methylhexanoyl- L -valyl- L -valyl- L -aspartic acid , is a  naturally occurring , competitive and reversible  aminopeptidase   inhibitor  that was isolated from  Streptomyces  sp. ME 98-M3 . [ 1 ]  It specifically inhibits  leucyl aminopeptidase ,  alanyl aminopeptidase  (aminopeptidase M/N),  bacterial leucyl aminopeptidase  ( Aeromonas proteolytica  aminopeptidase),  leucyl/cystinyl aminopeptidase  (oxytocinase/vasopressinase), [ 2 ]  and, to a lesser extent,  glutamyl aminopeptidase  (aminopeptidase A), [ 3 ]  as well as other aminopeptidases. [ 4 ]  It does not inhibit  arginyl aminopeptidase  (aminopeptidase B). [ 5 ] [ 6 ]  Amastatin has been found to potentiate the  central nervous system  effects of  oxytocin  and  vasopressin   in vivo . [ 7 ]  It also inhibits the degradation of  met-enkephalin ,  dynorphin A , and other  endogenous   peptides . [ 8 ]


Amcenestrant  is a novel oral  selective estrogen receptor degrader  (SERD) that is being evaluated for the treatment of  estrogen receptor -positive (ER+)  breast cancer . [ 1 ]


Phase III trial for breast cancer in Japan had started, but this trial has been discontinued. [ 2 ]


The  American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy  ( AACP ) is the national organization representing the interests of  pharmacy education . Founded in 1900, AACP comprises all  accredited colleges and schools  with  pharmacy degree  programs, including more than 6,400 faculty, 63,800 students enrolled in professional programs, and 4,800 individuals pursuing graduate study in the field of  pharmacy . [ 1 ]


AACP provides member services – including meetings and events, webinars, continuing education, publications, reports and searchable directories for faculty, speakers and grants. AACP also works to promote the profession of pharmacy and the value of pharmacy education to audiences beyond the academic community.


The  American College of Clinical Pharmacy  (ACCP) is a  pharmacy   professional association  representing the interests of clinical  pharmacists . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]   [ 3 ]  ACCP is the publisher of  Pharmacotherapy  and JACCP: Journal of the American College of Clinical Pharmacy.


According to the ACCP, its purpose is to advance human health by extending the frontiers of clinical pharmacy. [ 1 ]  It has more than 15,000 members.


American Society of Health-System Pharmacists (ASHP)  is a professional organization that represents  pharmacists  who serve as patient care providers in  hospitals ,  health systems ,  ambulatory clinics , and other healthcare settings. The organization's nearly 60,000 members include pharmacists, student pharmacists, and pharmacy technicians. [ 1 ]  ASHP maintains a national database on U.S. drug shortages that is published on their website.


The aim of the society is to support the professional practice of pharmacists in hospitals and health systems. In addition, the society advocates to government agencies, such as the  Food and Drug Administration  (FDA) and the  Centers for Disease Control and Prevention  (CDC) on public policy issues related to  medication  use and  public health .


The  American Society of Pharmacognosy  ( ASP ) is a scientific society that promotes the growth and development of  pharmacognosy  through presentation of research achievements and publication of meritorious research.


ASP was founded in 1959 as an outgrowth of the Plant Science Seminar established in 1923. ASP has over 1,100 active and associate members. [ 1 ]  Approximately 40 percent of the active members reside outside the U.S. and Canada in more than 60 countries. [ 4 ]


Pharmacognosy includes the study of the physical, chemical, biochemical and biological properties of drugs, drug substances, or potential drugs or drug substances of natural origin as well as the search for new drugs from natural sources. Research problems in pharmacognosy include studies in the areas of  phytochemistry ,  microbial chemistry ,  biosynthesis ,  biotransformation ,  chemotaxonomy  and other biological and chemical sciences.


ASP publishes the quarterly  ASP Newsletter  and co-publishes the  Journal of Natural Products  with the  American Chemical Society . [ 5 ] [ 1 ]


An ASP Fellow,  Satoshi Ōmura , was awarded the 2015  Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine  along with two other researchers for their work in researching therapies for roundworm parasite and malaria infections. Ōmura is also a past recipient of the ASP Norman R. Farnsworth Research Achievement Award (2013) for his work on novel bacterial strains, such as  Streptomyces avermitilis , and their bioactive constituents. [ 6 ]


AMG-333  is a drug which acts as a potent and selective blocker of the  TRPM8   ion channel , which is the main receptor responsible for the sensation of  cold . It was developed as a potential treatment for  migraine . [ 1 ]


AMG-517  is a drug which acts as a potent and selective blocker of the  TRPV1   ion channel . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  It was developed as a potential treatment for  chronic pain , but while it was an effective  analgesic  in animal studies it was dropped from human  clinical trials  at Phase I due to producing  hyperthermia  as a side effect, as well as poor water solubility. It is still used in scientific research into the function of the TRPV1 channel and its role in pain and  inflammation , and has been used as a template for the design of several newer analogues which have improved properties. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ]


AMG-9810  is a drug which acts as a potent and selective  antagonist  for the  TRPV1  receptor. [ 1 ]  It has  analgesic  and  antiinflammatory  effects and is used in scientific research, but has not been developed for medical use. It has high antagonist potency and good  bioavailability  and  pharmacokinetics , and so has been used to study the role of TRPV1 in areas other than pain perception, such as its roles in the brain. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]


Aminopeptidase A inhibitors   are a class of antihypertensive drugs that work by inhibiting the conversion of  angiotensin II  to  angiotensin III  by the  aminopeptidase A  enzyme. The first medication in this class is  firibastat . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  It is hypothesized that the drugs may be more effective in overweight people and those of African descent. [ 4 ]


Ammonia ( 13 N)  ( ammonia  with  radioisotope   nitrogen-13 ) is a medication for diagnostic  positron emission tomography  (PET) imaging of the  myocardium . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Amulirafusp alfa  (IMM0306) is a  cancer immunotherapy  that targets  CD20 -positive  B-cell malignancies . It is a fusion protein that combines a CD20  monoclonal antibody  with the  CD47  binding domain of  SIRPα , allowing it to simultaneously engage both CD20 and CD47 on cancer cells. [ 1 ]  Amulirafusp alfa has a dual mechanism of action that enhances both  macrophage -mediated  phagocytosis  and  natural killer cell  activation. [ 2 ]


Amurca  is the  Latin  name for the bitter-tasting, dark-colored, watery sediment that settles out of  unfiltered olive oil  over time. It has been known in English as "olive oil  lees " [ 1 ]  and recently as "olive mill waste water (OMWW)". [ 2 ]  Historically, amurca was used for numerous purposes, as first described by  Cato the Elder  in  De Agri Cultura , and later by  Pliny the Elder . [ 3 ]   Cato mentions its uses as a  building  material (128),  pesticide  (91, 92, 96, 98),   herbicide  (91, 129),  dietary supplement  for  oxen  (103) and trees (36, 93), food  preservative  (99, 101), as a maintenance product for leather (97),  bronze  vessel (98), and  vases  (100), and as a treatment for firewood in order to avoid smoke (130). [ 4 ]


This article incorporates text from a publication now in the  public domain :  Chambers, Ephraim , ed. (1728). "Amurca".  Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences  (1st ed.). James and John Knapton, et al.


This  toxicology -related article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


The  amylin receptors  (AMYRs) are  heterodimers  of the  calcitonin receptor  that are bound to by  amylin  with high affinity and consist of  AMY1 ,  AMY2 , and  AMY3 . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  Amylin mimetics that are  agonists  at the amylin receptors are being developed as therapies for  diabetes  and  obesity , and one,  pramlintide , has been FDA approved. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]  The AMY1 receptor may be activated by both amylin and the  calcitonin gene-related peptide  (CGRP) and could play a role in the effects of  CGRP receptor antagonists  developed for  migraine . [ 5 ] [ 6 ]  Dual agonists of the amylin and calcitonin receptors (DACRAs) are under development for obesity. [ 7 ]  Amylin and its receptors are believed to play a role in  Alzheimer's disease . [ 8 ] [ 9 ]


Anavip  (stylized as  ANAVIP ) is the trade name of a snake  antivenin  indicated for the management of adult and pediatric patients with  North American rattlesnake   envenomation . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  As defined by the  FDA , the proper name is  crotalidae  immune F(ab') 2  (equine) . [ 4 ]   It is manufactured by  Instituto Bioclon  for Rare Disease Therapeutics in the United States.


Anavip is a divalent  fragment antigen-binding  protein, F(ab') 2 , derived from the blood of  horses  immunized with the  venom  of the snakes  Bothrops asper  and  Crotalus durissus . The product is produced by  pepsin  digestion of horse  blood plasma  then purified resulting in a preparation containing >85% F(ab') 2 . [ 5 ]


Angel dusting  is the misleading  marketing  practice of including a minuscule amount of an  active ingredient  in a  cosmetic ,  cosmeceutical ,  dietary supplement ,  food  product, or  nutraceutical , insufficient to give any measurable benefit. The advertising materials may  claim  that the ingredient is helpful and that the ingredient is contained in the product, both of which are true.  However, no claim is made that the product contains enough of the active ingredient to have an effect – this is just assumed by the purchaser. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


This food  ingredient  article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


Annexin Pharmaceuticals  is a Swedish privately held  biotech  company [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  developing new therapeutic approaches for inflammatory  cardiovascular diseases . The concept for the therapy is based on the anti-inflammatory properties of  Annexin A5 , a body own protective protein that acts simultaneously against several key  pathogenic  mechanisms of cardiovascular diseases. The company is currently focusing on treatment of  peripheral artery disease  (PAD).


An  anti-α-synuclein drug , or an  α-synuclein inhibitor , is a  drug  which blocks or inhibits  α-synuclein . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  α-Synuclein is a  protein  which is thought to be involved in the development and progression of  α-synucleinopathies  including  Parkinson's disease ,  dementia with Lewy bodies , and  multiple system atrophy . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  Anti-α-synuclein drugs are under development for treatment of Parkinson's disease and other α-synuclein-related diseases. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  Examples include the  monoclonal antibodies   prasinezumab  and  cinpanemab , which both failed to show effectiveness in slowing the progression of Parkinson's disease in  phase 2   clinical trials . [ 1 ]  Other anti-α-synuclein drugs, like the monoclonal antibody  exidavnemab , the α-synuclein  vaccines   PD01A  and  PD03A , and the  small-molecule  α-synuclein misfolding and aggregation inhibitors  minzasolmin  and  emrusolmin , are also under development. [ 1 ] [ 3 ] [ 2 ] [ 4 ]   Memantine  is also being studied as a potential  disease-modifying treatment  for Parkinson's disease by inhibiting cell-to-cell transmission of α-synuclein and is in a  phase 3  trial for this purpose. [ 5 ] [ 6 ]


Antianalgesia  is the ability of some endogenous chemicals (notably  cholecystokinin  and  neuropeptide Y ) to counter the effects of exogenous  analgesics  (such as  morphine ) or endogenous pain inhibiting  neurotransmitters /modulators, such as the endogenous opioids. [ 1 ]  A learned form can be established using methods similar to the learning principle of  conditioned inhibition , and has been demonstrated in rats.


Anticachexia  (AN-tee-kuh-KEK-see-uh)  is a drug or effect that works against  cachexia  (loss of body weight and muscle mass).


AOH1996  is an experimental  anticancer medication  which acts as a  small molecule   inhibitor  of  proliferating cell nuclear antigen  (PCNA) and is in  Phase I   clinical trials  at  City of Hope  as of August 2023 for the treatment of  solid tumors . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


AOH1996 was created to target a  post-translationally modified  isoform of PCNA, termed caPCNA, which is preferentially found in  cancer cells . PCNA is crucial in the body for  DNA   repair , but targeting it is difficult because of its role in healthy cells. By selectively targeting caPCNA, it may be possible to kill cancer cells without affecting healthy tissues. [ 5 ]   In vitro  testing demonstrated that AOH1996 inhibited the growth and  induced cell cycle arrest  and  apoptotic cell death  in a wide variety of cancer cell lines, but had no effect on several normal, nonmalignant cell types. [ 6 ] [ 7 ]  In mouse and dog animal models, there were no observed side effects or toxicity even at six times the effective dose. [ 3 ]  It could be used either as a monotherapy (single drug regimen) or in combination with one or more other chemotherapy drugs.


Although the press described it as a "miracle drug" that would cure cancer, some experts have expressed skepticism. Prof Dorothy Bennett, Director of the Molecular and Clinical Sciences Research Institute, St George’s, University of London, critiqued the paper's cancer killing claim as actually a modest slowing of growth but, "there appears to be broad evidence here.... suggesting that this kind of approach deserves further development.” [ 8 ]


The substance was named after the initials and the birth year of Anna Olivia Healey, who died of  neuroblastoma  in 2006. The funds collected by her parents have helped support the development of the chemical compound. [ 6 ] [ 9 ]


Apafant  ( WEB-2086 ,  LSM-2613 ) is a drug which acts as a potent and selective inhibitor of the  phospholipid  mediator  platelet-activating factor  (PAF). It was developed by structural modification of the  thienotriazolodiazepine   sedative  drug  brotizolam  and demonstrated that PAF inhibitory actions could be separated from activity at the  benzodiazepine receptor . Apafant was investigated for several applications involving inflammatory responses such as  asthma  and  conjunctivitis  but was never adopted for medical use, however it continues to be used in pharmacology research. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Approvable letters , and the related  non-approvable letters  (alternately  not-approvable letters ), were notifications sent out by the  Food and Drug Administration  (FDA) to  drug manufacturers  alerting them to the approval prospects of their  drugs  under development. [ 1 ]  The letters were intended to let manufacturers know how much work is needed on their applications. [ 1 ]  Non-approval letters were rejections of a drug's application. [ 2 ]  Approvable and non-approvable letters were covered under  Title 21 of the Code of Federal Regulations , section 314.110. [ 3 ]


In 2018, the FDA replaced approvable letters with  Complete Response Letters  (CRL) to notify applicants when additional information is required before approval. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


Approvable letters were issued to applicants at the end of the FDA's review period to indicate that the application or abbreviated application is basically approvable providing certain issues are resolved. It was an indication that the application substantially met FDA requirements if specific conditions, such as labeling changes, are agreed to. The letter described what was required by the FDA. [ 3 ]


Applicants had 10 days after the date of the approvable letter to amend the application, notify of intent to file for an extension, withdraw the application, request a hearing or notify that they agreed to an extension. [ 3 ]


Aqua omnium florum  or  all-flower water   was water distilled from  cow-dung  in May, when the cows ate fresh grass with meadow flowers.  It was also known less euphemistically as  aqua stercoris vaccini stillatitia  (distilled water of cow dung). [ 1 ]  This was used as a medicine to treat a variety of ailments including  gout ,  rheumatism  and  tuberculosis . [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


The 17th century court physician  George Bate  favoured it and it appeared in the  Pharmacopœia Bateana  —  Bate's Dispensatory . [ 4 ]   Recipes included: [ 2 ]


cow dung, gathered in May, adding to it a third of white wine and then distilled


fresh cow-dung and snails with their shells bruised equal parts, mix and distill in a common still


Rx  Fresh cow dung gathered in the morning; spring or rain water; mix and digest twenty-four hours, let it settle, and then decant the clear brown tincture.


The latter prescription was used as a  panacea  by a female doctor in Bate's time.  Many incurable cases were brought to her which she treated in this way and she made a great fortune of £20,000 from this practice. [ 2 ]


Cow tea  or  urina vaccina  ( cow's urine ) was sometimes called  aqua omnium florum  too. [ 1 ]   This was used as a  purgative  for which the dosage would be "half a pint drank warm from the cow". [ 5 ]   It was drunk by women in May to clear their  complexion . [ 1 ]


Cow dung, urine and other bovine products are still used extensively in the traditional Hindu medicine,  Ayurveda . [ 6 ]


Arcarine  ( ORM-11984 ) is a  selective androgen receptor modulator  (SARM) developed by  Orion Corporation , a Finnish pharmaceutical company. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  It belongs to a class of drugs designed to have tissue-selective  androgenic  effects, potentially offering the benefits of androgens while minimizing unwanted side effects. [ 1 ]  Arcarine was investigated for the treatment of various conditions, including  benign prostatic hyperplasia ,  hypogonadism , and  osteoporosis . [ 4 ] [ 5 ]  The compound reached  Phase I clinical trials  before development was discontinued. [ 4 ]  Like other SARMs, Arcarine was developed to potentially provide  anabolic  effects in muscle and bone tissue while having reduced androgenic effects in other tissues, such as the  prostate . [ 4 ]


Arpraziquantel  ( ( R )-praziquantel ) is the  eutomer  (the biologically active  enantiomer ) of  praziquantel , and is a  medication  which is currently under investigation for the treatment of  schistosomiasis  in young children since it has less side effects than the usual  racemic mixture   formulation  of praziquantel. [ 1 ]


In December 2023, the  Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use  (CHMP) of the  European Medicines Agency  adopted a positive opinion in accordance with Article 58 of Regulation (EC) No 726/20041 for the medicinal product arpraziquantel, intended for the treatment of schistosomiasis in young children. [ 1 ]  The applicant for this medicinal product is Merck Europe B.V. [ 1 ]  It is intended exclusively for markets outside the European Union. [ 1 ]


Arpraziquantel is the  International nonproprietary name . [ 2 ]


Artificial intelligence in pharmacy  is the application of  artificial intelligence  (AI) [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  to the discovery, development, and the treatment of patients with  medications . [ 4 ]  AI in  pharmacy  practices has the potential to revolutionize all aspects of pharmaceutical research as well as to improve the clinical application of pharmaceuticals to prevent, treat, or cure disease. [ 5 ]  AI, a technology that enables machines to simulate  human intelligence , has found applications in  pharmaceutical research ,  drug manufacturing , drug delivery systems, clinical trial optimization, treatment plans, and patient-centered services. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ]


AI  algorithms  analyze vast  datasets  with greater speed and accuracy than traditional methods. [ 9 ] [ 10 ]  This has enabled the identification of potential  drug candidates , prediction of their  interactions , and optimization of formulations. [ 11 ]  AI-driven  simulations  and modeling assist researchers in understanding  molecular interactions , thus expediting the  drug development  timeline. [ 12 ] [ 13 ]


AI is revolutionizing the drug delivery systems. AI technology can assist in identifying biological targets for pharmaceuticals, evaluating the pharmacological profiles of potential drugs, and analyzing genetic information; in the future, this could lead to drugs personalized to an individual, targeted cancer treatments, and edible vaccines. [ 14 ] [ 15 ] [ 16 ]


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Substituted arylalkylamines , also alternatively known in many cases as  substituted arylethylamines , [ 1 ]  are a group of  chemical compounds . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]  These compounds are divided into two main categories: indolylalkylamines and phenylalkylamines. [ 2 ]


These compounds are related to  monoamine neurotransmitters , which are chemicals in the brain that transmit signals between nerve cells. Because of this, substituted arylalkylamines can have a wide range of effects on the body and mind. They are used in many medications, including:


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Asandeutertinib  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of cancer. It is an  epidermal growth factor receptor  (EGFR)  tyrosine kinase inhibitor  (TKI) with antineoplastic properties. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  Developed by TYK Medicines, this small molecule drug is currently being investigated for the treatment of  non-small cell lung cancer  (NSCLC), particularly in patients with EGFR mutations. [ 1 ] [ 3 ]


Asoxime chloride , or more commonly  HI-6 , is a  Hagedorn oxime  used in the treatment of  organophosphate poisoning . [ 1 ]


ASP2535  is an inhibitor of the  type 1 glycine transporter . [ 1 ]  It could potentially be used in treatment of  Alzheimer's disease  and  schizophrenia .


ASP2535 has been investigated for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia, it is able to inhibit the memory deficit induced by  scopolamine , an anticholinergic agent. [ 1 ]


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The  asymmetric membrane capsule  is an example of a single core  osmotic  delivery system, consisting of a drug-containing core surrounded by an asymmetric  membrane  made with a non disintegrating  polymer  ( cellulose acetate ,  ethylcellulose  etc.). [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


ATC code B   Blood and blood forming organs  is a section of the  Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System , a system of alphanumeric codes developed by the  World Health Organization  (WHO) for the classification of  drugs  and other medical products. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Codes for  veterinary  use ( ATCvet codes ) can be created by placing the letter Q in front of the human ATC code: for example,  QB . [ 5 ]   National issues of the ATC classification may include additional codes not present in this list, which follows the WHO version.


ATC code H04   Pancreatic hormones  is a therapeutic subgroup of the  Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System , a system of alphanumeric codes developed by the  World Health Organization  (WHO) for the classification of  drugs  and other medical products. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  Subgroup H04 is part of the anatomical group  H  Systemic hormonal preparations, excluding sex hormones and insulins . [ 4 ]


Codes for  veterinary  use ( ATCvet codes ) can be created by placing the letter Q in front of the human ATC code: for example,  QH04 . [ 5 ]   National issues of the ATC classification may include additional codes not present in this list, which follows the WHO version.


ATC code L   Antineoplastic and immunomodulating agents  is a section of the  Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System , a system of alphanumeric codes developed by the  World Health Organization  (WHO) for the classification of  drugs  and other medical products. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Codes for  veterinary  use ( ATCvet codes ) can be created by placing the letter Q in front of the human ATC code: for example,  QL . [ 5 ]   National issues of the ATC classification may include additional codes not present in this list, which follows the WHO version.


ATC code M   Musculo-skeletal system  is a section of the  Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System , a system of alphanumeric codes developed by the  World Health Organization  (WHO) for the classification of  drugs  and other medical products. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Codes for  veterinary  use ( ATCvet codes ) can be created by placing the letter Q in front of the human ATC code: for example,  QM . [ 5 ]   National issues of the ATC classification may include additional codes not present in this list, which follows the WHO version.


ATC code S   Sensory organs  is a section of the  Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System , a system of alphanumeric codes developed by the  World Health Organization  (WHO) for the classification of  drugs  and other medical products. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Codes for  veterinary  use ( ATCvet codes ) can be created by placing the letter Q in front of the human ATC code: for example,  QS . [ 5 ]   National issues of the ATC classification may include additional codes not present in this list, which follows the WHO version.


ATCvet code QI   Immunologicals  is a section of the  Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical Classification System for veterinary medicinal products , a system of alphanumeric codes developed by the  World Health Organization  (WHO) for the classification of  drugs  and other medical products for  veterinary  use. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


National issues of the ATC classification may include additional codes not present in this list, which follows the WHO version.


Ateganosine  is a  telomerase  inhibitor [ 1 ]  and  apoptosis  inducer currently under investigation for the treatment of various cancers, including  non-small cell lung cancer  (NSCLC). [ 2 ]


Atezolizumab/hyaluronidase , sold under the brand name  Tecentriq Hybreza , is a  fixed-dose combination  medication used for the treatment of non-small cell lung cancer, small cell lung cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, melanoma, and alveolar soft part sarcoma. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  It contains  atezolizumab , a programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) blocking monoclonal antibody; and  hyaluronidase  (human recombinant), an  endoglycosidase . [ 1 ]  It is taken by  subcutaneous injection . [ 1 ]


The most common adverse reactions include fatigue, musculoskeletal pain, cough, dyspnea, and decreased appetite. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Atezolizumab/hyaluronidase was approved for medical use in the United States in September 2024. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Atezolizumab/hyaluronidase is a subcutaneous injection version of atezolizumab for all the adult indications as the intravenous formulation of atezolizumab including non-small cell lung cancer, small cell lung cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, melanoma, and alveolar soft part sarcoma. [ 2 ]


The subcutaneous injection of atezolizumab and hyaluronidase was evaluated in IMscin001 (NCT03735121), an open-label, multi-center, international, randomized trial in adults with locally advanced or metastatic non-small cell lung cancer who were not previously exposed to cancer immunotherapy and who had disease progression following treatment with platinum-based chemotherapy. [ 2 ]  A total of 371 participants were randomized (2:1) to receive subcutaneous atezolizumab and hyaluronidase or intravenous atezolizumab until disease progression or unacceptable toxicity. [ 2 ]


Atumelnant  (developmental code name  CRN04894 ) is an  investigational new drug  developed by Crinetics Pharmaceuticals for the treatment of  adrenocorticotropic hormone  (ACTH)-dependent  endocrine disorders . It is a  selective   antagonist  of the  melanocortin type 2 receptor  (MC2R), also known as the ACTH receptor, which is primarily expressed in the  adrenal glands . [ 1 ]  Atumelnant is being evaluated to treat conditions such as  congenital adrenal hyperplasia  (CAH) and ACTH-dependent  Cushing's syndrome  caused for example by  pituitary adenomas . [ 2 ]


Aurea Alexandrina  was an ancient  opiate . It is called  Aurea  from the gold which enters its composition, and  Alexandrina  for the physician  Nicolaus Myresus Alexandrinus , who invented it. [ 1 ]  It was considered to be a good preservative against  colic  and  apoplexy . [ 2 ]


Aurolac  is an industrial adhesive sold in  Romania , designed for use in repairing terracotta stoves, which is commonly abused as an  inhalant . [ 1 ]  The law HG 767/2001 applies restrictions on where and how aurolac, which it uses as a generic term for a variety of substances containing  ethers ,  ketones ,  acetates , as well as  methanol  and  toluene , can be sold. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


In 2000, a child who had abused Aurolac was photographed while naked and crying in a tram station in Bucharest's Rahova district. The image was widely published and used to define social problems in Romania.  [ 3 ]  The 2001 documentary  Children Underground  also details the effects of Aurolac abuse amongst Bucharest's homeless children.


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An  Australian Approved Name  ( AAN ) is a  generic drug  name set by the  Therapeutic Goods Administration  (TGA) for use in Australia. [ 1 ]  In late 2016, the TGA changed several drug names to the corresponding  international nonproprietary name  (INN), or, in cases where an INN was not available (as with  asparaginase ), another established generic name, such as the  United States Adopted Name  (USAN). [ 2 ]


Australian Medicines Handbook  (AMH) is a peer-reviewed medicines prescribing guide for Australian health professionals. The handbook is available in paper and digital formats and is supplemented by the  AMH Aged Care Companion  and the  AMH Children's Dosing Companion .


It is included in the  Clinical Information Access Portal .


The AMH was first published in May 1998 driven by the need for a local, independent and up-to-date source of drug information to foster rational prescribing. Reflecting contemporary Australian clinical practice and adhering to the principles of the quality use of medicines, it is generally considered the Australian equivalent to the  British National Formulary  on which it was partly modelled.


AMH Pty Ltd, the publishing company created to develop and maintain the AMH content, is a professional partnership between three organisations: the Australasian Society of Clinical and Experimental Pharmacologists and Toxicologists, the  Pharmaceutical Society of Australia , and the  Royal Australian College of General Practitioners . [ 1 ]


Automatism , in  toxicology , refers to a tendency to take a drug over and over again, forgetting each time that one has already taken the dose. This can lead to a cumulative overdose. A particular example is  barbiturates  which were once commonly used as  hypnotic  (sleep inducing) drugs. Among the current hypnotics,  benzodiazepines , especially  midazolam  might show marked automatism, possibly through their intrinsic  anterograde amnesia  effect. Barbiturates are known to induce  hyperalgesia , i.e. aggravation of pain and for sleeplessness due to pain, if barbiturates are used, more pain and more disorientation would follow leading to drug automation and finally a "pseudo"suicide. Such reports dominated the medical literature of 1960s and 1970s; a reason replacing the barbiturates with benzodiazepines when they became available. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Avacincaptad pegol , sold under the brand name  Izervay , is a medication used for the treatment of  age-related macular degeneration . [ 1 ]  Avacincaptad pegol is a  complement  inhibitor. [ 1 ]


Avacincaptad pegol was approved for medical use in the United States in August 2023. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Avacincaptad pegol is  indicated  for the treatment of  geographic atrophy  secondary to age-related macular degeneration. [ 5 ]


Avacincaptad pegol is the  international nonproprietary name . [ 6 ]


Average daily quantity  ( ADQ ) is similar to the World Health Organization's  defined daily dose , but is adjusted to reflect how medications are used in  England . [ 1 ]


Azagly-nafarelin , sold under the brand name  Gonazon , is a  gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist  (GnRH agonist) medication which is used in  veterinary medicine  in  Europe . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  It is a  GnRH analogue  and a  synthetic   peptide , specifically a  decapeptide . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  The medication has been approved in Europe as a solid  silicone -based matrix  implant  for use as a  contraceptive  in animals such as male dogs, cats, and others, but is no longer or was never commercially available. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]  The medication has also been used to treat  benign prostatic hyperplasia  in animals. [ 6 ] [ 7 ]  In addition to its use in mammals, azagly-nafarelin has been approved for use in  aquaculture   fish , specifically to control  ovulation  in  salmonids , and was the first GnRH agonist to be available for use in fish. [ 2 ] [ 8 ]  It was introduced for use by 2005. [ 9 ]


An  azasteroid  is a type of  steroid   derivative  which has one of the  carbon  atoms in the steroid ring system replaced by a  nitrogen  atom. Two azasteroids,  finasteride  and  dutasteride , are used clinically as  5α-reductase inhibitors . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Some of the 6-azasteroids may prove to be useful drugs, but have yet to reach the pharmaceutical market. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


AZD2693  is an  antisense therapy  developed by  AstraZeneca  for the treatment of  non-alcoholic fatty liver disease  based on the  PNPLA3  gene, believed to be the largest single genetic risk factor for this condition. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


AZD 9272  is a drug which acts as a selective  antagonist  for the  metabotropic glutamate receptor  subtype  mGluR5 . [ 1 ]  It was unsuccessful in human trials as an analgesic, [ 2 ]  but continues to be widely used in research especially as its  radiolabelled  forms. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]


Azemiglitazone  ( MSDC-0602 ) is a novel  insulin sensitizer  designed to retain the effect of  thiazolidinediones  on  mitochondrial pyruvate carriers  with limited  PPAR-gamma  binding. It is hoped to have fewer adverse effects than the thiazolidinediones and is being developed by Cirius Therapeutics for  type 2 diabetes  and  non-alcoholic fatty liver disease . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]   It is formulated as its  potassium   salt , azemiglitazone potassium (MSDC-0602K). [ citation needed ]


Azficel-T , sold under the brand name  Laviv , is a  cell therapy  product for the improvement of the appearance of moderate to severe  nasolabial fold  wrinkles in adults. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  It consists of  fibroblasts  harvested from the patient's own skin. [ 2 ]


It was approved for medical use in the United States in June 2011. [ 2 ]


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Azumolene  is an experimental drug which is a derivative of  dantrolene . In animal studies, azumolene showed similar efficacy to dantrolene at controlling symptoms of  malignant hyperthermia  but with better water solubility and lower toxicity, albeit with lower potency. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Baccatin III  is an isolate from the yew tree (Genera  Taxus ).  Baccatin III is a precursor to the anti- cancer  drug  paclitaxel  (Taxol).


In 2014, researchers reported introduction and expression of the endophytic fungal gene responsible for synthesizing baccatin III ( 10-deacetylbaccatin III 10-O-acetyltransferase ), to the mushroom  Flammulina velutipes . [ 1 ]  Researchers achieved the same accomplishment with   Escherichia coli  in 2000. [ 2 ]


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Batoclimab  (also known as HBM9161 or HL161) is a fully human  monoclonal antibody  administered by subcutaneous injection. It works by inhibiting the  neonatal fragment crystallizable receptor , which leads to a reduction in antibodies of the  thyrotropin receptor . It is being developed to treat  myasthenia gravis  and  thyroid eye disease . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Baxdrostat  is an  investigational drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of  hypertension . [ 1 ]   It is an  aldosterone synthase  inhibitor. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


BC-LI-0186  is a compound that acts as an  inhibitor  of the  GTPase   enzyme   leucyl-tRNA synthetase  (LRS). This enzyme acts as part of the  mTOR  complex and acts as a  leucine  sensor which stimulates  mTORC1  in the presence of leucine. BC-LI-0186 blocks the docking site for mTORC1 and thereby prevents the mTOR activation and increased protein synthesis which is usually triggered by  branched-chain amino acids  such as leucine, yet without inhibiting the separate catalytic activity of LRS. [ 1 ]  This may have potential applications in the treatment of  cancer , [ 2 ]  and BC-LI-0186 has also been shown to promote muscle regeneration after injury. [ 3 ]


Belapectin  (also known as GR-MD-02) is a  galectin-3  inhibitor developed by  Galectin Therapeutics  that failed phase 3  clinical trials  for the treatment of  non-alcoholic steatohepatitis . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Belnacasan  ( VX-765 ) is a drug developed by  Vertex Pharmaceuticals  which acts as a potent and selective inhibitor of the enzyme  caspase 1 . This enzyme is involved in  inflammation  and cell death, and consequently blocking its action may be useful for various medical applications, including treatment of  epilepsy ,  arthritis , aiding recovery from  heart attack  and slowing the progression of  Alzheimer's disease . Belnacasan is an orally active  prodrug , being converted in the body to the active drug VRT-043198 ( O -desethyl-belnacasan). However while belnacasan has proved well tolerated in human  clinical trials , it has not shown sufficient efficacy to be approved for use for any of the applications suggested to date, though research continues into possible future uses of this or similar drugs. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


Bexirestrant  is a  selective estrogen receptor degrader  (SERD) which is being evaluated for the treatment of  breast cancer . This orally bioavailable compound has demonstrated potent activity against both wild-type and mutant forms of the estrogen receptor (ER), addressing a critical need in overcoming resistance to current endocrine therapies. [ 1 ]


It is structurally characterized by an E- alkene  linked to an  azetidine  core.


Bezuclastinib  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of solid tumors and  systemic mastocytosis . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  It acts as an inhibitor of  KIT  (a specific type of  receptor tyrosine kinase ). [ 3 ]


Bimokalner  is an  investigational new drug  under evaluation for preventing and treating  hearing loss  caused by  cisplatin  treatment. It is a  voltage-gated potassium channel  agonist targeting  Kv7.4  and is being developed by Acousia Therapeutics GmbH. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


In  medicinal chemistry  and  pharmacology , a  binding coefficient  is a quantity representing the extent to which a  chemical compound  will  bind  to a  macromolecule . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  The preferential binding coefficient can be derived from the  Kirkwood-Buff solution theory  of solutions. Preferential binding is defined as a thermodynamic expression that describes the binding of the cosolvent over the solvent. This is in a system that is open to both the solvent and cosolvent.  [ 3 ]  Consequently, preferential interaction coefficients are measures of interactions that involve “solutes that participate in a reaction in solution.”  [ 4 ]


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In  pharmacology ,  biological activity  or  pharmacological activity  describes the beneficial or adverse effects of a  drug  on  living matter . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  When a drug is a complex chemical mixture, this activity is exerted by the substance's  active ingredient  or  pharmacophore  but can be modified by the other constituents. Among the various properties of chemical compounds, pharmacological/biological activity plays a crucial role since it suggests uses of the compounds in the medical applications. However, chemical compounds may show some adverse and toxic effects which may prevent their use in medical practice.


Biological activity is usually measured by a  bioassay  and the activity is generally  dosage -dependent, which is investigated via  dose-response curves .  Further, it is common to have effects ranging from beneficial to adverse for one substance when going from low to high doses. Activity depends critically on fulfillment of the  ADME  criteria. To be an effective drug, a compound not only must be active against a target, but also possess the appropriate ADME (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, and Excretion) properties necessary to make it suitable for use as a drug. [ 3 ]  Because of the costs of the measurement, biological activities are often predicted with computational methods, so-called  QSAR  models.


Bioactivity is a key property that promotes osseointegration for bonding and better stability of dental implants. [ 4 ]   Bioglass  coatings represent high surface area and reactivity leading to an effective interaction of the coating material and surrounding bone tissues. In the biological environment, the formation of a layer of  carbonated hydroxyapatite  (CHA) initiates bonding to the bone tissues. The bioglass surface coating undergoes  leaching / exchange of ions , dissolution of glass, and formation of the HA layer that promotes cellular response of tissues. [ 5 ]  The high specific surface area of bioactive glasses is likely to induce quicker solubility of the material, availability of ions in the surrounding area, and enhanced protein adsorption ability. These factors altogether contribute toward the bioactivity of bioglass coatings. In addition, tissue mineralization (bone, teeth) is promoted while tissue forming cells are in direct contact with bioglass materials.


Whereas a material is considered bioactive if it has interaction with or effect on any  cell tissue  in the  human body , pharmacological activity is usually taken to describe beneficial effects, i.e. the effects of  drug candidates  as well as a substance's  toxicity .


In the study of  biomineralisation , bioactivity is often meant to mean the formation of  calcium phosphate  deposits on the surface of objects placed in  simulated body fluid , a  buffer solution  with ion content similar to  blood .


The  Board of Pharmacy Specialties  ( BPS ) was established in 1976 and is an independent division of the  American Pharmacists Association  that grants recognition within the United States [ 1 ]  to appropriate  pharmacy  practice specialities and establishes standards for certification of  pharmacists  in 14 specialities. [ 2 ]  The specialty examinations are accredited by National Commission for Certifying Agencies (NCCA), the accreditation body of  Institute for Credentialing Excellence  (ICE).


The Executive Director of the BPS is William M. Ellis. [ 3 ]


The BPS recognizes 14 specialties: [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


A  bone seeker  is an  element , often a  radioisotope , that tends to  accumulate  in the  bones  of humans and other animals when introduced into the body.


For example,  strontium  and  radium  are chemically similar to  calcium  and can replace the calcium in bones. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]   Plutonium  is also a bone seeker, though the mechanism by which it accumulates in bone tissue is unknown. [ 3 ]


Radioactive  bone seekers are  particular health risks  as they irradiate surrounding tissue, though this can be useful for  radiotherapy , such as in the case of  radium-223 . [ 2 ] [ 4 ]  Stable bone seekers can also be harmful: excessive strontium absorption has been linked with increased levels of  rickets . [ 5 ] [ 6 ]  The salt  strontium ranelate , however, is a bone seeker which is sometimes used to strengthen bones as a treatment for  osteoporosis . [ 7 ]  Bone seekers have been proposed as a method of delivering  antibiotics  to infected bone tissue. [ 8 ]


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Alexander A. Borbély  (born 1939 in  Budapest ) is a Hungarian-Swiss  pharmacologist  known for his  sleep  research.


Borbély proposed the two-process model of  sleep regulation  in 1982 which postulates there are two complementary processes (S and C, which stands for Sleep and Circadian, respectively) which together account for one's sleep schedule. [ 1 ]  This model has been widely influential and strongly influenced the field of circadian  neuroscience  for decades. [ 2 ] [ non-primary source needed ]


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Bortezomib/dexamethasone  is a  combination drug  against  multiple myeloma . [ 1 ]  When bortezomib is used by the  trade name  Velcade, the combination is called  Vel/Dex  (or  Vel-Dex  or  Veldex ).  Bortezomib  is a  proteasome inhibitor  and  dexamethasone  is a  corticosteroid .


Boserolimab  	(MK-5890) is a  monoclonal antibody  in development for  lung cancer . It is developed by  Merck . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


BPI-16350  is a small molecule  CDK4/6 inhibitor  that is being studied for the treatment of cancer. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  It has a similar structure to  abemaciclib  but is more selective for CDK4/6 over CDK9 according to preclinical research. [ 3 ]


Brainshuttle  or  brain shuttle  is a technology developed by  Roche  to help molecules such as  monoclonal antibodies  to cross the  blood-brain barrier  more than they would otherwise. It has been tested with anti-amyloid monoclonal antibodies such as  trontinemab . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]


Brensocatib  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated to treat  bronchiectasis . [ 1 ]  It is a  dipeptidyl-peptidase I  (also known as  cathepsin C ) inhibitor. [ 2 ]


Brepocitinib  ( PF-06700841 ) is a drug which acts as a dual  inhibitor  of  JAK1  and  TYK2 , and was developed for the treatment of  plaque psoriasis . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Brimarafenib  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of cancer.  It targets the proto-oncogene  BRAF  with activating mutations BRAF mutations (such as  V600E ), non-V600 BRAF mutations, and RAF fusions. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


It is being developed by MapKure, LLC, a joint venture between SpringWorks Therapeutics and  BeiGene . [ 1 ]


The  British Society for the History of Pharmacy (BSHP)  is an organisation in the United Kingdom devoted to the  history of pharmacy . [ 1 ]  It was established in 1967, [ 2 ]  although its roots date to 1952, when the Council of the  Pharmaceutical  Society established a history of pharmacy committee. The society has published a  journal ,  Pharmaceutical Historian , from the beginning. Since 2017 [ 3 ]  it has been issued by BSHP on behalf of the International Society for the History of Pharmacy. [ 4 ]  From its foundation, BSHP has been keen to encourage the study of pharmacy history amongst students. This advocacy role has included providing lecturers for history courses at Schools of Pharmacy. [ 5 ]


The organisation is affiliated with the  International Society for the History of Pharmacy  and the  British Society for the History of Medicine . Its president is Chris Duffin.


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BRL-37344  is a drug which acts as a selective  agonist  of the  β 3  adrenergic   receptor , [ 1 ]  which has been investigated for various  biomedical research  applications but never developed for clinical use. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ]


Bromo-Seltzer  is a brand of  antacid  formulated to  relieve pain  occurring together with  heartburn ,  upset stomach , or  acid indigestion . It originally contained  sodium bromide  and  acetanilide , both toxic substances which were eventually removed. Its current formulation contains the pain reliever  aspirin  and two reactive chemicals –  sodium bicarbonate  and  citric acid  – which creates effervescence when mixed with water. Sodium bicarbonate is an antacid.


Bromo-Seltzer was invented in 1888 by  Isaac E. Emerson  and produced by the Emerson Drug Company of  Baltimore, Maryland . It was sold in the United States in the form of  effervescent  granules that were mixed with water before  ingestion . [ 1 ]  The product took its name from a component of the original formula,  sodium bromide ; each dose contained 3.2  mEq /teaspoon of it.  Bromides  are a class of tranquilizers that were withdrawn from the U.S. market in 1975 due to their toxicity. Their  sedative  effect probably accounted for Bromo-Seltzer's popularity as a  hangover remedy . Early formulas also used  acetanilide  as the  analgesic  ingredient; it is now known to be toxic. [ 2 ]  Acetanilide was replaced with its metabolite  acetaminophen , and its current formulation uses  aspirin ,  sodium bicarbonate , and  citric acid , the latter two of which provide the  carbonation .


Bromo-Seltzer's main offices and factory were located in downtown Baltimore, Maryland, at the corner of West Lombard and South Eutaw streets. [ 3 ]  The factory's most notable feature was the  Emerson Bromo-Seltzer Tower , built in 1911, whose four clock faces are ringed by letters spelling out the product name. The tower was patterned on the  Palazzo Vecchio  in  Florence, Italy , and is listed on the  National Register of Historic Places . The tower originally held a 51-foot (16m) representation of a Bromo-Seltzer bottle at its top, glowing blue and rotating on a vertical axis. The sign weighed 20 tons (18.1 tonnes), included 314 incandescent light bulbs, and was topped with a crown. The sign was removed in 1936 because of structural concerns. [ 1 ]


Emerson, who traveled widely, said the fizz reminded him of the bubbling action of  Mount Bromo , a volcano in Java. [ 4 ]


Bromo-Seltzer is mentioned in several films and TV shows, including  The Crooked Circle  (1932),  Bed of Roses  (1933),  Topper  (1937),  Wonder Man  (1945),  Somewhere in the Night  (1946),   The Postman Always Rings Twice  (1981),  The Hudsucker Proxy  (1994), [ 5 ]  the 1998  The Simpsons  episode " Bart Carny ", and in  Golden Girls  (Season 4, Episode 1).


It is mentioned in  John Steinbeck 's 1939 novel  The Grapes of Wrath .


Drugstore Bromo-Seltzer dispensers are mentioned in  Georges Simenon 's 1949 detective novel  Maigret chez le coroner  that takes place in Arizona.


It was a sponsor of the old time radio program, “The Inner Sanctum”.


It is mentioned in several songs, including " Bewitched, Bothered and Bewildered " by  Rodgers and Hart , " Adelaide's Lament " in the musical  Guys and Dolls , and " Pachuco Cadaver " by  Captain Beefheart and his Magic Band . In  Spike Jones ' version of   Laura , the chorus chants "Bromo-Seltzer, Bromo-Seltzer..." to evoke the sound of a chugging train.


Brydioside  is any one of several  chemical compounds  isolated from certain plants, notably  Bryonia dioica .  They can be seen as derivatives of the  triterpene   hydrocarbon   cucurbitane  ( C 30 H 54 ), more specifically from  cucurbitacin L  (23,24-dihydrocucurbitacin I). [ 1 ]


They include


BU08028  is a drug which acts as an extremely potent  partial agonist  at both the  μ-opioid receptor  and  nociceptin receptor . It is a  homologue  of  buprenorphine  extended by just one carbon on the side chain, but has relatively greater activity at the nociceptin receptor, which is thought to reduce the abuse potential without compromising analgesia. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Buloxibutid  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated to treat  COVID-19  infections. [ 1 ]  It is an  angiotensin II receptor type 2  agonist. [ 2 ]


Butaxamine  ( INN ; also known as  butoxamine ) is a  β 2 -selective   beta blocker . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  Its primary use is in experimental situations in which blockade of  β 2  receptors  is necessary to determine the  activity  of the drug (i.e. if the β 2  receptor is completely blocked, but the given effect is still present, the given effect is not a characteristic of the β 2  receptor). It has no clinical use. An alternative name is α-(1-[ tert -butylamino]ethyl)-2,5-dimethoxybenzyl alcohol.


BW-501C67  is a  peripherally selective   serotonin   5-HT 2A  and  5-HT 2C  receptor   antagonist  which is used in  scientific research . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]  It shows  selectivity  for the serotonin  5-HT 2  receptors  over the  α 1 -adrenergic receptor . [ 1 ]


The drug antagonizes peripheral but not  central  effects of  serotonin receptor agonists  like serotonin. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 7 ] [ 6 ]  As examples, it has been found to antagonize the  sympathomimetic  effects of serotonin in animals, including  vasoconstriction  and  pressor  effects, but does not block centrally mediated effects like increased  corticosterone   secretion  or  myoclonus . [ 3 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 6 ]


BW-501C67 and  analogues  were  patented  for use in  combination  with serotonin 5-HT 2A  receptor  agonists  like  serotonergic psychedelics  in 2023. [ 9 ]


BW284C51  is a selective  acetylcholinesterase inhibitor . [ 1 ]  It is also a  nicotinic antagonist . [ 2 ]


Bytox Hangover Patch  is a medication used to reduce effects of  hangover . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Bytox Hangover Patch was first introduced in  New York  2011 by Alex Fleyshmakher and Leonard Grossman. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]  Bytox word is a portmanteau of "bye" and "toxins". [ 1 ]


In 2012, Bytox was banned in the  United Kingdom  by the  Medicines and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency  due to no license. [ 5 ] [ 6 ]


Bytox works in the same way as  scopolamine  does. [ 1 ]  It is made using  acai berries  and extract of  green tea . [ 7 ]


CA77.1  ( CA ) is a synthetic compound that activates  chaperone-mediated autophagy  (CMA) by increasing the expression of the lysosomal receptor for this pathway,   LAMP2A , in  lysosomes . CA77.1 is a derivative of earlier compound AR7(HY-101106), which shows potent CMA activation  in vitro  but is not suitable for  in vivo  use. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  CA77.1 is able to activate CMA  in vivo , and demonstrates brain penetrance and favorable pharmacokinetics.  It has been shown in animal studies that  in vivo  administration of CA77.1 to enhance  chaperone-mediated autophagy ,  may help to degrade toxic pathogenic protein products  such as  tau proteins  and has potential applications in the treatment of  Alzheimer's disease [ 4 ] [ 5 ]  particularly in improving both behavior and neuropathology in PS19 mice models.


Cadonilimab  is a  PD-1 / CTLA-4  bispecific  monoclonal antibody [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  developed to treat a variety of solid cancer types. In June, 2022 it was approved in China "for use in patients with relapsed or metastatic  cervical cancer  (r/mCC) who have progressed on or after  platinum-based chemotherapy ". [ 3 ]


Cagrilintide  is a long-acting analogue of  amylin . It is being tested to treat  obesity  and  type 2 diabetes  by itself and in combination with  semaglutide  as  cagrilintide/semaglutide . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]


A systematic review and metanalysis of cagrisema, published in 2024, found that cagrisema may provide weight loss benefits. [ 7 ]


Cagrilintide/semaglutide , marketed as  CagriSema , is a combination of  cagrilintide , a  dual amylin and calcitonin receptor agonist , and  semaglutide , a  GLP-1 agonist . It is injected once weekly and is being tested in  type 2 diabetes  and  obesity . Preliminary trial results found a greater weight loss compared to either medication alone.  HbA1c  was significantly improved compared to cagrilintide alone and non-significantly better than semaglutide alone. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  In a Phase II trial, weight loss averaged -15.6 percent after 32 weeks, making CagriSema comparable in efficacy to  tirzepatide . [ 3 ] [ 4 ]  A future trial sponsored by Novo Nordisk is comparing tirzepatide and CagriSema head-to-head. [ 5 ]


CagriSema entered  Phase III clinical trials  in 2023. [ 6 ]  In December 2024, Novo Nordisk announced the results of REDEFINE 1, one of their series of Phase III trials, testing weekly cagrilintide 2.4 mg and semaglutide 2.4 mg individually and together versus placebo in obese or overweight subjects with one or more comorbidities. [ 7 ]  In the  intention-to-treat analysis , people treated with CagriSema lost 20.4% of their body weight over 68 weeks, versus 11.5% with cagrilintide 2.4 mg alone, 14.9% with semaglutide 2.4 mg alone, and 3.0% with placebo. [ 7 ]


A  calcium channel opener  is a type of  drug  which facilitates  ion  transmission through  calcium channels .


An example is  Bay K8644 , which is an  analogue  of  nifedipine  that specifically and directly activates  L-type   voltage-dependent calcium channels . [ 1 ]


In contrast to Bay K8644, which is not for clinical use,  ambroxol  is a frequently used mucolytic drug that triggers lysosomal secretion by mobilizing calcium from acidic calcium stores. [ 2 ]  This effect does most likely not occur by a direct interaction between the drug and a lysosomal calcium channel, but indirectly by neutralizing the acidic pH within lysosomes. Calcium permeable ion channels in lysosomal membranes that may be activated by a luminal pH increase include two pore channels (TPCs), mucolipin TRP channels (TRPMLs) and purinergic receptors of the P2X channel type. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Calculus bovis , [ 1 ]   niu-huang  ( 牛黃 ) or  cattle gallstones  are dried  gallstones  of  cattle  used in  Chinese herbology . In  China  and  Japan  it has been long used to treat various diseases, including  high fever ,  convulsion  and  stroke . [ 2 ]


In Asian countries, calculus bovis are sometimes harvested when  steers  ( Bos taurus domesticus ) are slaughtered. Their  gall bladders  are taken out, the  bile  is filtered, and the stones are cleaned and dried. The bezoars may also be surgically removed by  veterinarians  when working cattle become ill. In Western countries, they are usually discarded. Its equivalent in  Hindu  culture is  Gorochana .


Calculus bovis have a color varying from golden yellow to brownish yellow.  The shape of a stone is variable and depends on how it was formed, becoming spherical, oval, triangular, tubular, or irregular.


Since natural calculus bovis are scarce, they can be very expensive.  There are artificial calculus bovis or  bovis calculus artifactus  used as substitutes. In China, these are manufactured from  cholic acid  derived from bovine bile [ 3 ]  combined with dry bovine  bile  powder,  porcine   ursodeoxycholic acid ,  taurine ,  bilirubin ,  cholesterol , etc. [ 4 ]  Chinese regulations forbid the use of artificial calculus bovis in 42 drugs. [ 5 ]


Calculus bovis can cultivated (induced)  in vivo  by implanting a foreign object and microbials into bovine biles. [ 6 ] : 478   It can also be cultivated (precipitated)  in vitro  from bovine bile by adding  ursodeoxycholic acid ,  cholic acid , and calcium bilirubinate, producing  calculus bovis sativus . [ 7 ] [ 8 ]  Unlike artificial calculus bovis, either type of cultivated calculus bovis can fully replace calculus bovis under Chinese regulations. [ 5 ]


Calmurid  was the name of a skin cream manufactured by Galderma (now discontinued due to safety reasons). Calmurid Cream contained the active ingredients  lactic acid  and  urea , [ 1 ]  whereas  Calmurid HC  contained an additional ingredient, the mild  corticosteroid   hydrocortisone .


Owing to lactic acid's  keratolytic  properties (to break down hard skin cells) and urea's hydrating properties, Calmurid was used primarily in the treatment of dry, scaly skin.  Ichthyosis  and general  dermatitis  in the absence of  inflammation  are some of its indications.


When the extra steroid component is added (as in Calmurid HC), it was used to treat dry, scaly skin that is accompanied by inflammation of the skin. This may include various forms of  eczema . The presence of a corticosteroid, however, means that the cream needed to be used sparingly and only for the shortest time period due to possible side effects that could occur due to systemic absorption of the steroid.


Composition: Urea 100 mg/g and lactic acid 50 mg/g in an emulsified base containing betaine monohydrate,  glyceryl monostearate , diethanolamine cetylphosphate complex, hard fat, cholesterol, sodium chloride, purified water.


Camibirstat  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of cancer.  It is a small molecule that acts as a selective inhibitor of  SMARCA2  and  SMARCA4 , which are key components of the  SWI/SNF  chromatin remodeling complex. [ 1 ]


It is being developed by Foghorn Therapeutics. [ 2 ]


Camizestrant  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated to treat  breast cancer . [ 1 ]  It is an  estrogen receptor alpha  antagonist and a  selective estrogen receptor degrader  (SERD). [ 2 ]


Camlipixant  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of chronic  cough . [ 1 ]  It is a  P2X3 receptor  antagonist. [ 2 ]


Camonsertib  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of cancer.  It is a selective oral small molecule inhibitor of ATR ( Ataxia telangiectasia and Rad3 related ), developed by Repare Therapeutics. This drug targets tumors with specific genetic alterations that create vulnerabilities in  DNA damage response  (DDR) pathways, particularly those with  ATM  or  BRCA1 / BRCA2  mutations. [ 1 ]  It is currently in Phase 2 clinical trials both as a monotherapy and in combination with other agents, including  PARP inhibitors ,  gemcitabine , and  lunresertib . [ 2 ]


The  Canadian Society of Hospital Pharmacists  (CSHP) is a  professional organization  representing the interests of  pharmacists  who practice in hospitals and related healthcare settings. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  It publishes the  Canadian Journal of Hospital Pharmacy . The CSHP has more than 3,000  hospital pharmacists  as members.


Cantharidic acid  is a selective  inhibitor  of PP2A ( protein phosphatase 2 ) and PP1 ( protein phosphatase 1 ). [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


It is the  hydrolysis  product of  cantharidin .


9-Carboxymethoxymethylguanine  ( CMMG ) is a compound which is known as the principal  metabolite  of the antiviral medication  aciclovir  (and its  prodrug   valaciclovir ), and has been suggested as the causative agent in the neuropsychiatric side effects sometimes associated with these medications. These are mainly suffered by patients with  kidney failure  or otherwise decreased kidney function, and can include psychotic reactions, hallucinations, and rarely more complex disorders such as  Cotard delusion . Patients suffering these symptoms following aciclovir treatment were found to have much higher levels of CMMG than normal, and since this is the first time Cotard delusion has been linked to a drug as a side effect, this discovery may be useful in the study of Cotard delusion and its treatment. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]


Cardanolide  is a  steroid  with a  molecular weight  of 344.54 g/mol.


Carmantadine  ( INN Tooltip International Nonproprietary Name ,  USAN Tooltip United States Adopted Name ; developmental code name  SCH-15427 ) is an  antiparkinsonian agent  of the  adamantane  group that was never marketed. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]  It is  structurally related  to  amantadine  and shares some of its  pharmacological  actions. [ 2 ]  Another related drug is  dopamantine . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]  Carmantadine was first described by 1972 and is said to have reached early  clinical trials . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


The  Carr index  ( Carr's index [ 1 ]  or  Carr's Compressibility Index [ 2 ] ) is an indicator of the  compressibility  of a  powder . It is named after the scientist Ralph J. Carr, Jr.


The Carr index is calculated by the  formula

 C
 =
 100

 ρ

 T

 −

 ρ

 B

 ρ

 T

 {\displaystyle C=100{\frac {\rho _{T}-\rho _{B}}{\rho _{T}}}}

 , where

 ρ

 B

 {\displaystyle \rho _{B}}

  is the freely settled  bulk density  of the powder, and

 ρ

 T

 {\displaystyle \rho _{T}}

  is the tapped bulk density of the powder after "tapping down".  It can also be expressed as

 C
 =
 100
 (
 1
 −

 ρ

 B

 /

 ρ

 T

 )

 {\displaystyle C=100(1-\rho _{B}/\rho _{T})}

 .


The Carr index is frequently used in  pharmaceutics  as an indication of the compressibility  of a powder.  In a free-flowing powder, the bulk density and tapped density would be close in value, therefore, the Carr index would be small. On the other hand, in a poor-flowing powder where there are greater interparticle interactions, the difference between the bulk and tapped density observed would be greater, therefore, the Carr index would be larger. [ 3 ]  A Carr index greater than 25 is considered to be an indication of poor flowability, and below 15, of good flowability. [ 4 ]


Another way to measure the flow of a powder is the  Hausner ratio , which can be expressed as

 H
 =

 ρ

 T

 /

 ρ

 B

 {\displaystyle H=\rho _{T}/\rho _{B}}

 .


Both the Hausner ratio and the Carr index are sometimes criticized, despite their relationships to flowability being established  empirically , as not having a strong theoretical basis. Use of these measures persists, however, because the equipment required to perform the analysis is relatively cheap and the technique is easy to learn.


Mark Gibson (2001).  Pharmaceutical Preformulation and Formulation: A Practical Guide from Candidate Drug Selection to Commercial Dosage Form . Boca Raton: CRC Press.  ISBN   1-57491-120-1 .


Robert H. Carter III  (January 12, 1847 - January 13, 1908) was an American pharmacist. He was the first African American certified pharmacist from  Massachusetts .
By 1871, Carter worked for druggist and chemist William P. S. Caldwell on 49 Purchase Street. [ 1 ]  He married hairdresser Parthenia M. Harris on July 8, 1869. They had six children. Between 1876 and 1907, he owned and managed pharmacies in  Boston  and  New Bedford, Massachusetts . On January 5, 1896, he was certified as a registered pharmacist. [ 1 ]  He worked as a pharmacist for 37 years. [ 1 ]  He was a member of the  National Negro Business League . [ 2 ]


He died January 13, 1908, in  Brighton, Boston  of tuberculosis. [ 2 ]


This  African American–related  article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


C avg  is the average concentration of a drug in the  central circulation  during a dosing interval in  steady state . It is calculated by


where

 A
 U

 C

 τ
 ,

 ss

 {\displaystyle AUC_{\tau ,{\text{ss}}}}

  is the  area under the curve  and

 τ

 {\displaystyle \tau }

  the dosing interval.


CCG-4986  is a drug which is the first non-peptide compound discovered that acts as a selective inhibitor of the  regulator of G protein signalling  protein subtype  RGS4 . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  Regulators of G protein signalling are proteins which act to limit and shorten the response produced inside a cell following activation of a  G protein-coupled receptor . Since different RGS subtypes are expressed in different tissues and are associated with particular receptors, this makes it possible for selective inhibitors of RGS proteins to be developed, which should be able to enhance the activity of a particular receptor in a defined target tissue, but not elsewhere in the body. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ]


CD38-IN-78c  is a drug which acts as a potent and selective  inhibitor  of the  glycoprotein  enzyme  CD38 . [ 1 ]  In animal studies it boosts levels of  nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide  (NAD+) in tissues via inhibition of CD38 mediated breakdown of  nicotinamide riboside  (NR) and  nicotinamide mononucleotide  (NMN), and has been shown to ameliorate metabolic dysfunction associated with the aging process. [ 2 ]  It also has potential therapeutic application in the treatment of  asthma . [ 3 ]


CDD-2807  is a chemical compound which acts as a potent and selective inhibitor of  serine/threonine-protein kinase  33 ( STK33 ), with a IC 50  of 9.2 nM. In animal studies it causes production of abnormal sperm with reduced motility, and it has been investigated as a potential  male contraceptive  drug. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Cefepime/enmetazobactam , sold under the brand name  Exblifep , is a  medication  used for the treatment of  urinary tract infections . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  It is a  fixed dose combination  containing  cefepime , a  cephalosporin  antibacterial; and  enmetazobactam , a  beta-lactamase inhibitor . [ 2 ]


The combination was approved for medical use in the United States in February 2024, [ 1 ] [ 4 ]  and in the European Union in March 2024. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


In the US, cefepime/enmetazobactam is  indicated  for the treatment of people with complicated urinary tract infections including  pyelonephritis , caused by the following susceptible microorganisms:  Escherichia coli ,  Klebsiella pneumoniae ,  Pseudomonas aeruginosa ,  Proteus mirabilis , and  Enterobacter cloacae  complex. [ 1 ]


In the EU, cefepime/enmetazobactam is indicated for the treatment of complicated urinary tract infections, including pyelonephritis; [ 2 ]   hospital-acquired pneumonia , including  ventilator-associated pneumonia ; [ 2 ]  and the treatment of people with  bacteremia  that occurs in association with, or is suspected to be associated with, any of the infections listed above. [ 2 ]


Enmetazobactam was invented by Orchid Pharma in India and then out-licensed to Allecra Therapeutics for further development. [ 5 ]


The combination was approved for medical use in the United States in February 2024. [ 1 ]


In January 2024, the  Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use  of the  European Medicines Agency  adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a marketing authorization for the medicinal product Exblifep, intended for the treatment of urinary tract infections and pneumonia in adults. [ 2 ]  The applicant for this medicinal product is Advanz Pharma Limited. [ 2 ]  The combination was approved for medical use in the European Union in March 2024. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


The combination cefepime/enmetazobactam is sold under the brand name Exblifep. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Cendakimab  (RPC4046; ABT 308; CC-93538) is a  monoclonal antibody  against  interleukin 13 . It is developed by  Bristol Myers Squibb [ 1 ]  for  eosinophilic esophagitis . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Cenerimod  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of  systemic lupus erythematosus . [ 1 ]   It is a  sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor  modulator. [ 2 ]


The  Center for Pharmaceutical Research and Innovation  ( CPRI ) is a  University of Kentucky -based research center established by the University of Kentucky College of Pharmacy in 2012 to facilitate academic translational research and  drug discovery / drug development . The UK CPRI specializes in  natural product -based drug discovery from microbes found within unique environments including underground and surface  coal mines ,  acid mine drainage  and  mine reclamation  sites, thermal vents associated with underground coal mine fires (see  coal seam fire ) [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ]  and deep-well drilling for  carbon sequestration . CPRI also provides core support for  medicinal chemistry ,  assay  development and screening, rational  drug design ,  computational chemistry , and  ADME T. The Center collaborates with investigators focused on drug discovery or development research in the areas of  cancer , drug and alcohol  addiction ,  cardiovascular disease ,  infectious disease ,  regenerative medicine  and  neurodegenerative disease .


Central Norway Pharmaceutical Trust  ( Norwegian :  Sykehusapotekene i Midt-Norge HF ) is a  health trust  owned by  Central Norway Regional Health Authority  that operates four hospital  pharmacies  at  St. Olavs Hospital  in  Trondheim ,  Kristiansund Hospital ,  Molde Hospital  and  Ålesund Hospital . The pharmacies are part of the  Ditt Apotek  chain and use  Norsk Medisinaldepot  as  wholesaler . The hospitals in Levanger, Namsos and Orkanger do not use the trust for their pharmacies. [ 1 ]


Ceralasertib  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of cancer. [ 1 ]  It is an  ATR kinase  inhibitor. [ 2 ]


Cerdulatinib  is a  small molecule  SYK/ JAK   kinase  inhibitor in development for treatment of  hematological malignancies . [ 1 ]  It has lowest nM  IC50  values against  TYK2 ,  JAK1 ,  JAK2 ,  JAK3 , FMS, and  SYK . [ 2 ]


It is being developed by  Portola Pharmaceuticals ; in September 2018 the  FDA  granted  orphan drug  status to cerdulatinib for the treatment of  peripheral T-cell lymphoma  (PTCL). [ 3 ]


Cetrimide , or  alkyltrimethylammonium bromide , is an  antiseptic  which is a  mixture  of three  quaternary ammonium compounds :  tetradonium bromide  (TTAB or MITMAB),  cetrimonium bromide  (CTAB), and  laurtrimonium bromide  (DTAB or LTAB). [ 1 ]  It was first discovered and developed by  ICI  and introduced under the brand name  Cetavlon . [ 2 ]  It is used as a 1-3 % solution for cleaning roadside accident wounds. [ 3 ]  ICI also introduced  Savlon , which was a combination of cetrimide and  chlorhexidine . ICI later sold the Savlon brand OTC to  Johnson & Johnson  in May 1992. [ 4 ]  Cetrimide is used in various applications such as antiseptic agents, diagnostic test and analysis, topical formulations, and dental treatment. [ 5 ]


A  channel modulator , or  ion channel modulator , is a type of drug which modulates  ion channels . They include  channel blockers  and  channel openers . [ 1 ]


Ion channels are typically categorised by gating mechanism and by the ion they conduct. Note that an ion channel may overlap between different categories. Some channels conduct multiple ion currents and some are gated by multiple mechanisms.


Examples of targets for modulators include:


Voltage-gated ion channels


Ligand gated ion channels


Ion channels gated by other mechanisms (e.g. light gated and  mechanosensitive ion channels ). These types of channels can also be pharmacologically modulated. For lists of the substances that pharmacologically modulate them, see their respective articles.


Ion channels can also be modulated indirectly. For example with  G protein coupled receptors  (GPCRs), for  G protein coupled inward rectifier potassium channels  (GIRKs) and M channels. Ion channels can also be modulated by  reuptake inhibitors  and  releasing agents .


A  channel opener , also known as a  channel activator , is a type of  drug  which facilitates  ion  flow through  ion channels .


They include the following:


Cheng Fong Chemical Co. Ltd  is a Chinese active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) company that exports to the United States of America. [ 1 ]  In September 2016, the US FDA issued a warning letter "following a five-day inspection in April 2016 that found the company failed to appropriately maintain its facilities and investigate reports of foreign particles in finished batches." [ 2 ]  According to the FDA, Cheng Fong officials told investigators "that the rooms had never been cleaned.". [ 1 ]


This Chinese corporation or company article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


Chiglitazar  (trade name  Bilessglu ) is a drug for the treatment of  type 2 diabetes . [ 1 ]   It is a  peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor  (PPAR)  agonist .


In China, chiglitazar is approved for  glycemic control  in adult patients with type 2 diabetes when used in combination with diet and exercise. [ 2 ]


A  chloride channel blocker  is a type of  drug  which inhibits the transmission of  ions  (Cl − ) through  chloride channels .


Niflumic acid  is a chloride channel blocker that has been used in experimental  scientific research . [ 1 ]  Another example is  anthracene-9-carboxylic acid , a potent blocker of the  CLCN1 -type chloride channel found in skeletal muscle, which is used to study animal models of  myotonia congenita . [ 2 ]


Some antagonists of  glycine receptors  and  GABAA receptors  also act as chloride channel blockers.


3-Chloro-PCP  ( 3'-Cl-PCP ) is a recreational  designer drug  from the  arylcyclohexylamine  family, with  dissociative  effects. It has comparable potency to  phencyclidine  but with a slightly different effects profile, being somewhat more potent as an  NMDA antagonist  but around the same potency as a  dopamine reuptake inhibitor . [ 1 ]  It was first identified in Slovenia in December 2020, [ 2 ]  and was made illegal in Hungary in April 2021. [ 3 ]


6-Chloronicotine  is a drug which acts as an  agonist  at neural  nicotinic acetylcholine receptors . It substitutes for  nicotine  in animal studies with around twice the potency, and shows  antinociceptive  effects. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


3-Chlorophenmetrazine  ( 3-CPM ,  PAL-594 ) is a recreational  designer drug  with  stimulant  effects. It is a  substituted phenylmorpholine  derivative, closely related to better known drugs such as  phenmetrazine  and  3-fluorophenmetrazine . It has been shown to act as a monoamine releaser with some preference for  dopamine  and  noradrenaline  release over  serotonin . [ 1 ]


Chlorosibutramine  is an analogue of the  anorectic  drug  sibutramine , which has been sold as an ingredient in  weight loss  products sold as  dietary supplements , first detected in South Korea in 2013. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  It is illegal in South Korea. [ 4 ]


Chlorosipentramine  is an analogue of the  anorectic  drug  sibutramine , which has been sold as an ingredient in  weight loss  products sold as  dietary supplements , first detected in South Korea in 2017. [ 1 ]  It is one of a number of sibutramine derivatives which have been sold in grey-market weight loss products since sibutramine itself was taken off the market due to safety concerns. Others include  desmethylsibutramine ,  didesmethylsibutramine , homosibutramine,  chlorosibutramine , and benzylsibutramine. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  Chlorosipentramine is illegal in South Korea along with other related compounds. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


3-Chlorostyrylcaffeine  ( CSC ), or  8-(3-chlorostyryl)caffeine  ( 8-CSC ), is a  potent  and  selective   adenosine   A 2A  receptor   antagonist  which is used in  scientific research . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


It has 520-fold selectivity for the adenosine A 2A  receptor over the adenosine  A 1  receptor  (K i  = 54   nM and 28,000   nM for the rat receptors, respectively). [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  Its  affinities  for the adenosine  A 2B  and  A 3  receptors  are similarly low (K i  = 8,200   nM and >10,000   nM, respectively). [ 3 ]


CSC has been found to reverse the  catalepsy  induced by the  dopamine   D 1  receptor   antagonist   SCH-23390  and the dopamine  D 2  receptor  antagonists  raclopride  and  sulpiride  in animals. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]


The drug was one of the first selective adenosine A 2A  receptor antagonists to be developed. [ 1 ]  However, in addition to its adenosine receptor antagonism, CSC was subsequently found to be a potent  monoamine oxidase B  (MAO-B)  inhibitor  (K i  = 80.6   nM for baboon MAO-B). [ 2 ] [ 1 ] [ 3 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ]  CSC was first described in the  scientific literature  by 1993. [ 9 ]


CHZ868  is a drug which acts as a  Janus kinase inhibitor  selective for the  JAK2  subtype. It was one of the first Janus kinase inhibitors developed, originally for the treatment of  leukemia  and related blood cancers, and while it did not get approved for clinical use, it is still used for research in the area. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


cis -Urocanic acid  ( cis -UCA) is a chemical compound produced by  ultraviolet  irradiation of  trans -urocanic acid , a metabolite naturally formed in the body from  histidine .  cis -Urocanic acid is suspected of involvement in the development of  skin cancer . It acts as an  immunosuppressant  through action as an  agonist  of the  5-HT 2A  receptor , and blocking this receptor has been shown to reduce  cis -UCA mediated photocarcinogenesis. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  However the  immunomodulatory  effects of  cis -UCA are complex and also involve other pathways, and at low levels it shows  antiinflammatory  actions and may be protective against UV damage in the  cornea  and  retina . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ]


Clark's rule  is a  medical term  referring to a mathematical formula used to calculate the proper dosage of  medicine  for children aged 2–17 based on the weight of the patient and the appropriate adult dose. [ 1 ]  The formula was named after  Cecil Belfield Clarke  (1894–1970), a  Barbadian  physician who practiced throughout the UK, the West Indies and Ghana. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


The procedure is to take the child's  weight  in  pounds , divide by 150 lb, and multiply the fractional result by the adult dose to find the equivalent child dosage. For example, if an adult dose of medication calls for 30 mg and the child weighs 30 lb, divide the weight by 150 (30/150) to obtain 1/5 and multiply 1/5 times 30 mg to get 6 mg.


Though it is more common for physicians to use medications that have suggested manufacturer's doses for children, familiarity of Clark's rule is used as an additional layer of protection against potentially deadly  medication errors  in clinical practice. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


Similar to Clark's rule is  Fried's rule , by which the formula is modified to be used for infants. [ 6 ]  The formula is nearly identical, except with the child's weight replaced by the infant's age in months.


Fried's rule was named after  Kalman Fried  (1914–1999), an Israeli geneticist and pediatrician who developed his own formula while treating and observing children at the  Hebrew University of Jerusalem -affiliated   Hadassah Medical Center  in the 1960s. Fried though was more renowned as a  geneticist  rather than a  pediatrician . [ citation needed ]


The earlier  Young's rule [ 1 ]  for calculating the correct dose of medicine for a child is similar: it states that the child dosage is equal to the adult dosage multiplied by the child's age in years, divided by the sum of 12 plus the child's age.


Young's rule was named after  Thomas Young  (1773–1829), an English polymath, physician and physicist. [ 7 ]


Claziprotamide  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of rare metabolic disorders such as  pantothenate kinase-associated neurodegeneration  (PKAN) and  neurodegeneration with brain iron accumulation  (NBIA). It acts as a positive allosteric modulator (PAM) of  pantothenate kinases  1 and 3 ( PANK1  and  PANK2 ) which are critical for  coenzyme A  biosynthesis and cellular metabolism. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Cleaning validation  is the methodology used to assure that a cleaning process removes chemical and microbial residues of the  active, inactive or detergent ingredients  of the product manufactured in a piece of equipment, the cleaning aids utilized in the cleaning process and the  microbial  attributes. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  All residues are removed to predetermined levels to ensure the quality of the next product manufactured is not compromised by residues from the previous product and  the quality of future products using the equipment, to prevent cross-contamination and as a  good manufacturing practice  requirement.


The U.S.  Food and Drug Administration  (FDA) has strict regulations about cleaning validation. For example, FDA requires firms to have written general procedures on how cleaning processes will be validated. Also, FDA expects the general validation procedures to address who is responsible for performing and approving the validation study, the acceptance criteria, and when revalidation will be required. FDA also require firms to conduct the validation studies in accordance with the protocols and to document the results of studies. The valuation of cleaning validation is also regulated strictly, which usually mainly covers the aspects of equipment design, cleaning process written, analytical methods and sampling. Each of these processes has their related strict rules and requirements. Acceptance criteria for cleaning validation protocols considers limits for chemicals and actives, limits for bio burden, visually cleanliness of surfaces, and the demonstration of consistency when executing the cleaning procedure.   Regarding the establishment of limits, FDA does not intend to set acceptance specifications or methods for determining whether a cleaning process is validated. Current expectations for setting cleaning limits include the application of risk management principles and the consideration of Health Based Exposure Limits as the basis for setting cleaning limits for actives. [ 3 ]  Other limits that have been mentioned by industry include analytical detection levels such as 10  PPM ,  biological activity  levels such as 1/1000 of the normal  therapeutic dose  and  organoleptic  levels. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]


This  industry -related article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


Clesrovimab  (MK-1654) is a fully human  monoclonal antibody  designed to prevent  respiratory syncytial virus  (RSV) infections. Developed by  Merck , it is in a phase III trial as of 2023. It works differently than  nirsevimab . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ]


Clindamycin/adapalene/benzoyl peroxide , sold under the brand name  Cabtreo , is a  fixed-dose combination  medication used for the treatment of  acne . [ 2 ]  It contains  clindamycin , as the phosphate, a  lincosamide  antibacterial;  adapalene , a synthetic  retinoid ; and  benzoyl peroxide , an  oxidizing agent . [ 2 ]  It is  applied to the skin . [ 2 ]


Clindamycin/adapalene/benzoyl peroxide was approved for medical use in the United States in October 2023. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  It is the first triple-combination topical acne treatment approved by the US  Food and Drug Administration . [ 3 ]