Clorprenaline  ( INN Tooltip International Nonproprietary Name ,  USAN Tooltip United States Adopted Name ,  BAN Tooltip British Approved Name ), also known as  isoprophenamine  and known as  clorprenaline hydrochloride  ( USAN Tooltip United States Adopted Name ,  JAN Tooltip Japanese Accepted Name ) in the case of the  hydrochloride   salt , is a  sympathomimetic  and  bronchodilator   medication  which is marketed in  Japan . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  It acts as a  β-adrenergic receptor agonist  or as a  β-sympathomimetic . [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  Brand names of clorprenaline in Japan are numerous and include Asnormal, Bazarl, Bronchon, Clopinerin, Conselt, Cosmoline, Fusca, Kalutein, Pentadoll, Restanolon, and Troberin. [ 2 ] [ 1 ]  The drug was first described in the literature by 1956. [ 1 ] [ 4 ]


CM-4620  is a drug which acts as a selective inhibitor of the  calcium channel   ORAI1 . It has  antiinflammatory  effects and is being researched for the treatment of  pancreatitis . [ 1 ]


C min  is a term used in  pharmacokinetics  for the minimum  blood plasma  concentration reached by a drug during a  dosing interval , which is the time interval between administration of two  doses . This definition is slightly different from  C trough , the concentration immediately prior to administration of the next dose. [ 1 ]   C min  is the opposite of  C max , the maximum concentration that the drug reaches.  C min  must be above certain thresholds, such as the  minimum inhibitory concentration  (MIC), to achieve a  therapeutic effect . [ 2 ]


In most cases  C min  is directly measurable. At steady state the minimum plasma concentration can also be calculated using the following equation: [ 3 ]

 C

 m
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 n

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 F
 D

 k

 a

 V

 d

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 a

 −

 k

 e

 )

 ×

 (

 e

 −

 k

 e

 τ

 1
 −

 e

 −

 k

 e

 τ

 −

 e

 −

 k

 a

 τ

 1
 −

 e

 −

 k

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 τ

 )

 {\displaystyle C_{min}={\frac {SFDk_{a}}{V_{d}(k_{a}-k_{e})}}\times \left({\frac {e^{-k_{e}\tau }}{1-e^{-k_{e}\tau }}}-{\frac {e^{-k_{a}\tau }}{1-e^{-k_{a}\tau }}}\right)}


C min  is also an important parameter in  bioavailability  and  bioequivalence  studies, it is part of the pharmacokinetic information recommended for submission of  investigational new drug  applications. [ 4 ]


A  codrug  consists of two drug  moieties , generally "active against the same disease", that are joined through one or more  covalent chemical bonds  to create a single  new chemical entity ; [ 1 ]  they can also be described as a  mutual  prodrug , recognising that a  catabolic   biosynthetic  step is most often required to liberate the two drugs. [ 2 ]  While acting against the same disease, the two moities may operate via different  mechanisms of action , and so display differing specific therapeutic effects. [ citation needed ]  The recognised advantages of a codrug approach to small molecule  drug design  include the possibilities of (i) combined efficacies of the two drugs that are therapeutically synergistic, (ii) altered properties that improve the pharmacokinetics (e.g., halflife) of the codrug over its individually administered components (iii) improved modes of  drug delivery , and (iv) masking of reactive functional groups of each component drug, possibly improving shelf life (as well as pharmacokinetics). [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


An effective codrug should be pharmacologically inactive in its own right but should release the constituent drugs upon biochemical breakage of the chemical linkage at the target tissue where their therapeutic effects are needed. As such, the chemical linkage (usually a  covalent bond ) should be subjectable to biodegradation, such as hydrolysis, by an enzymatic or non-enzymatic mechanism. The differential distribution of enzymes capable of catalyzing the breakage of the chemical linkage in different tissues may be exploited to achieve tissue-specific metabolism of the codrug to release the constituent drugs.


Colforsin daropate  is a carboxylic ester derived from the condensation of  forskolin  (colforsin) with  N , N -dimethyl-β-alanine. [ 1 ]


Its water-soluble hydrochloride salt ( NKH 477 ) [ 2 ]  is an  adenylyl cyclase  activator which has been studied for its cardiac selectivity. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Colterol  is a short-acting  β2-adrenoreceptor agonist .    Bitolterol , a  prodrug  for colterol, [ 1 ]  is used in the management of  bronchospasm  in  asthma  and  chronic obstructive pulmonary disease  (COPD).


Patents: [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Conessine  is a  steroidal alkaloid  found in a number of plant species from the family  Apocynaceae , including  Holarrhena floribunda , [ 1 ]   Holarrhena antidysenterica [ 2 ]  and  Funtumia elastica . [ 3 ]  It acts as a  histamine antagonist , selective for the  H 3  subtype  (with an affinity of pK i  = 8.27; K i  = ~5 nM). [ 4 ]  It was also found to have long CNS clearance times, high  blood–brain barrier  penetration and high affinity for the adrenergic receptors. [ 5 ]


The  conflict procedure  is an experiment often used in  scientific research  to quantify  anxiety  levels by measuring changes in punished/unpunished responses. It is often used to screen  drugs  for their potential to inhibit anxiety ( anxiolytic  potential).


Some researchers from France have conducted an experiment on "Effects of Chronic Antidepressants in an Operant Conflict Procedure of Anxiety in the rat (1998)", "the aim of their study was to reveal possible anxiolytic like effects of antidepressants during ongoing treatment. Rats were subjected to a conflict procedure during which lever pressing for food was suppressed by a conditioned signal for punishment and contingent electric foot shocks." [ 1 ]  In the preparatory phase of the experiment, researchers increased anxiety using electrical shocks on rats gradually over a several week long training process. They then administered the chosen drug and observed how it altered the responses of the rats. [ 1 ]


Other studies have used conflict procedures to test a variety of drugs, and some have reported that depressants cause an increase in punished responses, while anxiolytic drugs decrease the level of punished responding. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


This  animal rights -related article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


This  psychology -related article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


Corey lactone 4-phenylbenzoate  is a synthetic intermediate used in the manufacture of some  prostaglandin  derivatives. [ 1 ]  It has been used as a false name by some  designer drug  manufacturers as a label to sell  substituted cathinone  derivatives after the banning of  mephedrone  and related drugs in some jurisdictions - but there is no evidence to suggest that Corey lactone 4-phenylbenzoate has any stimulant effects in its own right.  [ citation needed ]


Cosibelimab , sold under the brand name  Unloxcyt , is a monoclonal antibody used for the treatment of  cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma . [ 1 ]  It is a programmed death ligand-1 (PD-L1) blocking antibody. [ 1 ]


The most common adverse reactions include fatigue, musculoskeletal pain, rash, diarrhea, hypothyroidism, constipation, nausea, headache, pruritis, edema, localized infection, and urinary tract infection. [ 2 ]


Cosibelimab was approved for medical use in the United States in December 2024. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Cosibelimab is  indicated  for the treatment of adults with metastatic  cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma  or locally advanced cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma who are not candidates for curative surgery or curative radiation. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Efficacy was evaluated in study CK-301-101 (NCT03212404), a multicenter, multicohort, open-label trial in 109 participants with metastatic cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma or locally advanced cutaneous squamous-cell carcinoma who were not candidates for curative surgery or curative radiation. [ 2 ]  Participants were excluded if they had any of the following: active or suspected autoimmune disease, allogeneic transplant within six months prior to treatment, prior treatment with anti-PD-1/PD-L1 blocking antibodies or other immune checkpoint inhibitor therapy, uncontrolled or significant cardiovascular disease, ECOG PS • 2, or infection with HIV, hepatitis B, or hepatitis C. [ 2 ]


Cosibelimab was approved for medical use in the United States in December 2024. [ 2 ] [ 4 ]


Cosibelimab is the  international nonproprietary name . [ 5 ]


Cosibelimab is sold under the brand name Unloxcyt. [ 1 ]


Cost-minimization  is a tool used in  pharmacoeconomics  to compare the cost per course of treatment when alternative therapies have demonstrably equivalent clinical effectiveness. [ 1 ]


Therapeutic equivalence (including adverse reactions, complications and duration of therapy) must be referenced by the author conducting the study and should have been done prior to the cost-minimization work.  Since equal efficacy and equal tolerability is already demonstrated, there is no requirement to find a common efficacy denominator as would be the case when conducting a  cost-effectiveness  study.  The author is not precluded from doing so through the use of "cost/cure" or "cost/year of life gained".  If efficacy and tolerability is demonstrated, however, then a simple comparison of "cost/course of treatment" can suffice for the purpose of comparing two or more therapeutically equivalent treatment alternatives. When conducting a cost-minimization study, the author needs to measure all costs (resource expenditures) inherent to the delivery of the therapeutic intervention and that are relevant to the pharmacoeconomic perspective. The optimal choice is that which can be provided for the lowest cost.


This  economics -related article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


CPD-1  ( LS-193743 ) is a  drug  with a  benzofuranyl   piperazine  structure, which acts as a  potent  and  selective   agonist  for the  5-HT 2   receptor  family, with highest  affinity  and full agonist efficacy at the  5-HT 2C  subtype, and lower affinity and  partial agonist  action at the  5-HT 2A  and  5-HT 2B  subtypes. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Crelosidenib  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of cancer.  It acts as a selective inhibitor of  isocitrate dehydrogenase 1  (IDH1), an enzyme that plays a crucial role in cellular metabolism and is frequently mutated in various cancers, including  cholangiocarcinoma . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Kolliphor EL , formerly known as  Cremophor EL , is the registered trademark of  BASF  Corp. for its version of polyethoxylated castor oil.  It is prepared by reacting 35 moles of  ethylene oxide  with each mole of  castor oil . The resulting product is a mixture ( CAS number  61791-12-6): the major component is the material in which the hydroxyl groups of the castor oil  triglyceride  have been  ethoxylated  with ethylene oxide to form  polyethylene glycol   ethers . Minor components are the polyethyelene glycol  esters  of  ricinoleic acid , polyethylene glycols and polyethylene glycol ethers of  glycerol . [ 1 ]  Kolliphor EL is a synthetic,  nonionic   surfactant  used to stabilize  emulsions  of nonpolar materials in  water .


Kolliphor EL is an  excipient  or additive in drugs. Therapeutically, modern drugs are rarely given in a pure chemical state, so most active ingredients are combined with excipients or additives such as Kolliphor EL. [ 2 ]


Allergic reactions to  Taxol  are most often allergic reactions to Kolliphor EL; symptoms include tightness in the chest, shortness of breath, and similar reactions consistent with severe anaphylactic reactions.  Although many anti-allergens including corticosteroids and Benadryl may be administered before chemotherapy, they are not always sufficient to prevent the severe reaction to Kolliphor EL.


Allergic reaction should not be confused with the normal side effects of  Taxol .  The allergic reaction is usually immediate, similar to severe allergic reactions typical of other allergens.


BASF offers a purified, injectable version of Kolliphor EL, known as Kolliphor ELP. [ 3 ]


Crisugabalin  ( HSK16149 ) is a selective  GABA  analog in development for the treatment of  chronic pain . It has a wider  therapeutic index  than  pregabalin , which as a similar  mechanism of action . In China, it was approved in 2024 for the treatment of diabetic peripheral  neuropathic pain . [ 1 ]   In the United States, it is in Phase III trials as of 2023. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  The drug can be administered with or without food. [ 4 ]


CS-27349 , or  L -2-α-tropinyl benzilate , is an experimental  incapacitating agent . It acts as an  antagonist  to  muscarinic acetylcholine receptors , causing  delirium . It has 37% of the potency of the related compound  3-quinuclidinyl benzilate  (BZ) in producing peripheral effects, but 85% of the potency in producing central effects. The mean dose required to incapacitate subjects was 1.2 times that of BZ. [ 1 ]  It has not been in use since the 1970s, and there have been no publications about its effects or long-term toxicology since then. [ 2 ]


CU-CPT4a  is a drug which acts as a selective antagonist of  Toll-like receptor 3  (TLR3), with an IC 50  of 3.44 μM. It is used for research into the function of TRL3 and its role in  inflammation ,  autoimmune  disorders and  cancer . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


CU-CPT9a  is a drug which acts as a potent and selective antagonist of  Toll-like receptor 8  (TLR8), with an IC 50  of 0.5nM. Activation of toll-like receptors triggers release of  cytokines  and other signalling factors, leading to  inflammation . This is an essential part of the  immune system 's response to infection, but chronic activation of TLR signalling is thought to be involved in various inflammatory and autoimmune disorders. CU-CPT9a has  immunosuppressant  properties, and may have applications in the treatment of autoimmune disorders, as well as being used in scientific research into the function of TLR8. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


In old  pharmacy , a  cucupha  or  cucufa  was a  cap , or cover for the head, with  cephalic   spices  quilted in it, worn for certain nervous  distempers , particularly those affecting the head.


A  CYP17A1 inhibitor  is a type of  drug  that  inhibits  the  enzyme   CYP17A1 . [ 1 ]  CYP17A1 inhibitors work by blocking specific enzyme functions, impacting androgen biosynthesis.


CYP17A1 inhibitors may inhibit one or both of the enzyme’s functions:  17α-hydroxylase  and  17,20-lyase . Some inhibitors are selective and target only the 17,20-lyase function, while others inhibit both functions. [ 2 ]  By inhibiting these enzymatic functions, CYP17A1 inhibitors prevent the conversion of  pregnane   steroids  into  androgens  like  testosterone . This action classifies them as  androgen   biosynthesis  inhibitors and functional  antiandrogens .


Examples of CYP17A1 inhibitors include the older drug  ketoconazole  and the newer drugs  abiraterone acetate ,  orteronel ,  galeterone , and  seviteronel . [ 3 ]


CYP17A1 inhibitors, such as abiraterone acetate, are primarily used in the treatment of  prostate cancer . These drugs reduce androgen levels, which helps to slow the progression of prostate cancer in patients with castration-resistant prostate cancer. [ 4 ]


Non-selective CYP17A1 inhibitors that inhibit both the 17α-hydroxylase and 17,20-lyase functions must be administered alongside a  glucocorticoid  (e.g.,  prednisone ) to prevent  adrenal insufficiency  and  mineralocorticoid excess . This precaution is necessary because non-selective inhibitors can disrupt  cortisol  production, leading to hormone imbalances. [ 5 ]


Cytoprotection  is a process by which chemical compounds provide protection to  cells  against harmful agents. [ 1 ]


A gastric  cytoprotectant  is any medication that combats  ulcers  not by reducing  gastric acid  but by increasing mucosal protection. [ 2 ]  Examples of gastric cytoprotective agents include  prostaglandins  which protect the stomach mucosa against injury by increasing gastric  mucus  secretion.  Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs  (NSAIDs) inhibit the synthesis of prostaglandins and thereby make the stomach more susceptible to injury. [ 3 ]   Gastric cytoprotective drugs include  carbenoxolone , deglycyrrhizinised  liquorice ,  sucralfate  (aluminium hydroxide and sulphated  sucrose ),  misoprostol  (a  prostaglandin  analogue),  bismuth chelate  (tri-potassium di-citrato bismuthate) and  zinc  L -carnosine .


This article incorporates text from the  United States National Library of Medicine , which is in the  public domain .


Cytrel  is a  cellulose -based  tobacco  substitute used in some low-tar  cigarette  brands. It formerly constituted 25% of  Silk Cut  cigarettes.


Development began on a replacement for tobacco in cigarettes in the 1950s, to reduce undesirable tobacco smoke components present in cigarettes. Cytrel was developed by  Celanese  Fiber Marketing Company.


The fiber underwent a challenging development phase, during which scientists faced difficulties in achieving satisfactory smoking characteristics, taste, and manufacturing properties. Despite these challenges, the product proved to be less dense than tobacco and useful as a bulking agent, prompting further development efforts. After undergoing five revisions, the Celanese Fiber Marketing Company finally released Type 308 to the market.


It was one of the  NSM  ( New Smoking Materials ) that came into popularity in the 1970s.


DailyMed  is a website operated by the  U.S. National Library of Medicine  (NLM) to publish up-to-date and accurate drug labels (also called a " package insert ") to health care providers and the general public. The contents of DailyMed is provided and updated daily by the  U.S. Food and Drug Administration  (FDA). The FDA in turn collects this information from the pharmaceutical industry.


The documents published use the  HL7  version 3  Structured Product Labeling  (SPL) standard, [ 1 ]  which is an  XML  format that combines the human readable text of the product label with structured data elements that describe the composition, form, packaging, and other properties of the drug products in detail according to the  HL7 Reference Information Model  (RIM).


As of August 21, 2021 [update] , it contained information about 140,232 drug listings. [ 2 ]


It includes an  RSS feed  for updated drug information. [ 3 ]


In 2006 the FDA revised the drug label and also created DailyMed to keep prescription information up to date. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]


Danicopan , sold under the brand name  Voydeya , is a medication used for the treatment of  paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria . [ 6 ] [ 7 ]  It is a  complement  inhibitor which reversibly binds to factor D to prevent alternative pathway-mediated  hemolysis  and deposition of  complement C3  proteins on red blood cells. [ 7 ]


The most common side effects include fever, headache, increased levels of liver enzymes (a sign of possible liver problems) and pain in the extremities (arms and legs). [ 7 ]


Danicopan was approved for medical use in Japan in January 2024, [ 9 ]  in the United States in March 2024, [ 6 ] [ 10 ]  and in the European Union in April 2024. [ 7 ]


Danicopan is  indicated  as add-on therapy to  ravulizumab  or  eculizumab  for the treatment of extravascular hemolysis in adults with paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria. [ 6 ] [ 7 ]


Danicopan was approved for medical use in Japan, [ 11 ]  the United States, [ 6 ]  and the European Union in 2024. [ 7 ]  The FDA granted the application  breakthrough therapy  designation. [ 12 ]


In February 2024, the  Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use  of the EMA adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a marketing authorization for the medicinal product Voydeya, intended as add-on therapy to ravulizumab or eculizumab for the treatment of residual hemolytic anemia in adults with paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH). [ 7 ] [ 13 ]  The applicant for this medicinal product is Alexion Europe. [ 7 ]  Danicopan was approved for medical use in the European Union in April 2024. [ 7 ] [ 8 ]


In October 2024, the  National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE)  adopted a recommendation for danicopan as an add-on therapy for adults with the  paroxysmal nocturnal haemoglobinuria (PNH)  based results from the phase 3 ALPHA trial, which evaluated the efficacy and safety of the drug as an add-on to  ravulizumab  or  eculizumab  in patients with PNH who experienced clinically significant extravascular haemolysis. [ 14 ]


Danicopan is the  international nonproprietary name . [ 15 ]


Dapagliflozin/sitagliptin , sold under the brand name  Sidapvia , is a  fixed-dose combination   anti-diabetic medication  used for the treatment of  type 2 diabetes . [ 1 ]  It contains dapagliflozin, as propanediol monohydrate, a  SGLT-2 inhibitor ; and sitagliptin, as phosphate monohydrate, a  DPP-4 inhibitor . [ 1 ]  It is taken  by mouth . [ 1 ]


Dapolsertib is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of cancer.  It is dual inhibitor of  PIM  family of serine/threonine protein kinases and mutant forms of  FMS-related tyrosine kinase 3  (FLT3) that is being developed by Ryvu Therapeutics SA. [ 1 ]


Darbinurad  is a  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of  gout .  It is a selective  urate transporter  1 (URAT1) inhibitor that blocks the reabsorption of  uric acid  within the renal  proximal tubule , thereby reducing serum uric acid concentrations. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Darovasertib  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of metastatic  uveal melanoma  and other cancers.  It is a first-in-class oral, small molecule inhibitor of  protein kinase C  (PKC). [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


It selectively targets mutant forms of PKC found in tumors with GNAQ or GNA11 mutations, which are present in approximately 90% of uveal melanoma cases. [ 1 ]  The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) granted orphan drug designation to darovasertib for the treatment of uveal melanoma on May 2, 2022, highlighting its potential to address an unmet medical need in this rare and aggressive form of eye cancer. [ 1 ]  As of 2024, darovasertib is in clinical development, with ongoing phase 1/2 trials evaluating its efficacy both as a monotherapy and in combination with other agents, such as  binimetinib  and  crizotinib . [ 3 ]


10-Deacetylbaccatins  are a series of closely related natural  organic compounds  isolated from the yew tree (Genera  Taxus ).  10-Deacetylbaccatin III is a precursor to the anti-cancer drug  docetaxel  (Taxotere).


10-deacetylbaccatin III 10- O -acetyltransferase  converts 10-deacetylbaccatin to  baccatin III :


This article about a  ketone  is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


A  demulcent  (derived from the  Latin :  demulcere  "caress") is a  mucilaginous  or oleaginous preparation [ 1 ]  that forms a soothing protective film over a  mucous membrane , relieving minor pain and inflammation of the  membrane . [ 2 ]  However, they generally help for less than 30 minutes. [ 3 ]


Demulcents are sometimes referred to as  mucoprotective  agents. Demulcents such as  pectin ,  glycerin ,  honey , and  syrup  are common ingredients in cough mixtures and cough drops. [ 4 ]


Natural demulcents include  slippery elm ,  pectin ,  licorice-root  and  marsh-mallow .


Synthetic demulcents include  methylcellulose ,  propylene glycol , and  glycerin .


Tripathi, K. D. (31 October 2018).  Essentials of Medical Pharmacology, 8th Edition . Jaypee Brothers Medical Publishers.  ISBN   978-93-5270-499-6 .  OCLC   1050280101 .


The  Dénomination Commune Française  ( DCF ), or "Common French Denomination/Name" in  English , is the formal  French  name for a  drug . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


This  France -related article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


The  Denominazione Comune Italiana  ( DCIT ), or "Common Italian Denomination/Name" in  English , is the formal  Italian   generic name  for a  drug . [ 1 ]


The  Dermatologic And Ophthalmic Drugs Advisory Committee  (DODAC) receives requests for technical and clinical evaluation of new drugs by the  U.S. Food and Drug Administration  (FDA).  The committee, consisting of members from academic and clinical dermatology, ophthalmology, biostatistics, the general public, and the pharmaceutical industry, makes non-binding recommendations to both the  CDER  and  CBER  divisions of the FDA about the advisability of approving new medications to treat  dermatologic  and  ophthalmic  conditions.


Derwent Drug file , formerly known as Ringdoc, is an  information monitoring ,  abstracting  and  documentation  service, specifically designed to meet the  information  needs of people requiring information on  pharmaceuticals . The Derwent Drug File
provides all relevant and important information for the whole life-cycle of a  drug , from  drug design  to use. The Derwent Drug File concentrates information about the drug itself and its use.  Online  file contains over 1.5 million records from 1964 to present. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Desmethylsibutramine  (also known as  norsibutramine  and  BTS-54354 ) is an  active metabolite  of the  anorectic  drug  sibutramine . It is a more potent  monoamine   reuptake inhibitor  than sibutramine and has been sold as an ingredient in  weight loss  products sold as  dietary supplements , along with related compounds such as the  N -ethyl and 3,4-dichloro derivatives. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


Deterenol  (also known as  Isopropylnorsynephrine  and  Isopropyloctopamine ; trade name  Betaphrine ) is a  stimulant  drug which acts as a  beta agonist . It has been found as an ingredient of  dietary supplement  products, but is banned in most countries due to risk of  cardiac arrest . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


Deuruxolitinib , sold under the brand name  Leqselvi , is a medication used for the treatment of  alopecia areata . [ 1 ]  It is a  Janus kinase inhibitor  selective for  JAK1  and  JAK2 . [ 2 ]  Although the relative effectiveness of deuruxolitinib and another Janus kinase inhibitor— baricitinib —for alopecia areata may vary depending on the population studied, both drugs are more effective than alternative treatments. [ 3 ]


Deuruxolitinib was approved for medical use in the United States in July 2024. [ 1 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


Deuruxolitinib is  indicated  for the treatment of adults with severe alopecia areata. [ 1 ]


The FDA prescribing label for deuruxolitinib contains a  boxed warning  for serious infections; malignancies; cardiovascular death, myocardial infarction, and stroke; and thrombosis. [ 6 ]


Deuruxolitinib is the  international nonproprietary name [ 7 ]  and the  United States Adopted Name . [ 8 ]


Dexamethasone/levofloxacin , sold under the brand name  Levodexa , is a  fixed-dose combination  medication used for the prevention and treatment of inflammation, and the prevention of infection, associated with  cataract surgery . [ 1 ] [ 3 ]  It contains  dexamethasone , a  corticosteroid ; and  levofloxacin , an  anti-infective . [ 1 ]


It was approved for medical use in Canada in December 2023. [ 1 ]


Dexamethasone/levofloxacin is  indicated  for the prevention and treatment of inflammation, and the prevention of infection, associated with cataract surgery in adults. [ 1 ]


In pre-modern medicine,  diascordium  (medical  Lat.   diascordium , for  diascordiōn , from  Gr.   διὰ σκορδίων , [a preparation] of scordium,  σκόρδιον , "a strong-smelling plant mentioned by  Dioscorides ", possibly  Teucrium scordium [ 1 ] ), or  diascord , is a kind of  electuary , or  opiate , first described by Jerome Frascata, and denominated from the dried leaves of scordium, which is an ingredient therein. [ 1 ]  The other ingredients are red roses,  bole armoniac ,  storax , cinnamon,  cassia lignea  (coarse bark of  Cinnamomum cassia ),  dittany ,  tormentil  roots,  bistort ,  gentian ,  galbanum , amber,  terra sigillata ,  opium , long pepper, ginger,  mel rosatum , and  malmsey . It was used against malignant fevers, the plague, worms,  colic , to promote sleep, and resist putrefaction. [ 2 ]  In 1746, diascordium was offered in two forms: with or without opium. [ 3 ]


In 1654,  Nicholas Culpeper  wrote in his  London Dispensatorie  about the mixture: "It is a well composed Electuary, a something appropriate to the nature of women, for it Provokes the Terms, hastens their Labor, helps their usual sickness at the time of their Lying-in, I know nothing better." [ 3 ]


Over the years, the composition of diascordium was modified, until it gradually changed into what became known as  pulvis catechu compositus  ("compound powder of  catechu "). [ 3 ]


Dibenzylpiperazine  ( DBZP ) is a  piperazine  derivative often found as an impurity in the recreational  stimulant  drug  benzylpiperazine  (BZP). [ 1 ]  Presence of DBZP is a marker for low quality or badly made BZP. It can be made as a reaction  byproduct  during BZP synthesis, either because the reaction has been run at too high a temperature, or because an excess of  benzyl chloride  has been used.


It is not known to have any stimulant effects in its own right, although this has not been tested.


The toxicity of DBZP is unknown.


As of October 2015 DBZP is a controlled substance in China. [ 2 ]


DBZP is not scheduled as a  controlled substance  at the federal level in the  United States . [ 3 ]  It is possible that it could be considered an analog BZP, in which case, sales or possession intended for human consumption could be prosecuted under the  Federal Analog Act .


DBZP is a  Schedule I controlled substance  in the state of  Florida  making it illegal to buy, sell, or possess in Florida. [ 4 ]


Diethyl lutidinate  is a chemical compound. It has been studied for its potential use in hair care. [ 2 ]


It can be synthesized by reacting  lutidinic acid  with  ethanol  at elevated temperature in presence of  sulfuric acid . [ 3 ]


5α-Dihydrolevonorgestrel  ( 5α-DHLNG ) is an  active metabolite  of the  progestin   levonorgestrel  which is formed by  5α-reductase . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  It has about one-third of the  affinity  of levonorgestrel for the  progesterone receptor . [ 1 ]  In contrast to levonorgestrel, the compound has both  progestogenic  and  antiprogestogenic  activity, and hence has a  selective progesterone receptor modulator -like profile of activity. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]  This is analogous to the case of  norethisterone  and  5α-dihydronorethisterone . [ 3 ] [ 5 ]  In addition to the progesterone receptor, 5α-DHLNG interacts with the  androgen receptor . [ 6 ]  It has similar  affinity  for the androgen receptor relative to levonorgestrel (34.3% of that of  metribolone  for levonorgestrel and 38.0% of that of metribolone for 5α-DHLNG), and has  androgenic  effects similarly to levonorgestrel and  testosterone . [ 6 ]  5α-DHLNG is further  transformed  into 3α,5α- and 3β,5α- THLNG , which bind weakly to the  estrogen receptor  (0.4 to 2.4% of the  RBA  of  E2 Tooltip estradiol (medication) ) and have weak  estrogenic  activity. [ 7 ] [ 8 ] [ 4 ]  These  metabolites  are considered to be responsible for the weak estrogenic activity of high doses of levonorgestrel. [ 8 ] [ 4 ]


5α-Dihydronormethandrone  ( 5α-DHNMT ; developmental code name  RU-575 ), also known as  17α-methyl-4,5α-dihydro-19-nortestosterone  or as  17α-methyl-5α-estran-17β-ol-3-one , is an  androgen / anabolic steroid  and a likely  metabolite  of  normethandrone  formed by  5α-reductase . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  Analogously to nandrolone and its 5α-reduced metabolite  5α-dihydronandrolone , 5α-DHNMT shows reduced  affinity  for the  androgen receptor  relative to normethandrone. [ 1 ]  Its affinity for the androgen receptor is specifically about 33 to 60% of that of normethandrone. [ 1 ]


Diodone  is a  radiocontrast agent  that was used in  urography . [ 1 ]  It was usually formulated as a  salt  with  diethanolamine .


Diphenidol  is a  muscarinic antagonist  employed as an  antiemetic  and as an anti vertigo  agent. It is not marketed in the United States or Canada.


Although the mechanism of action of diphenidol on the  vestibular system  has not yet been elucidated, it exerts an  anticholinergic  effect due to interactions with  mACh receptors , particularly M 1 , M 2 , M 3  and M 4 . Hence, its actions may take place at the vestibular nuclei, where a significant excitatory input is mediated by ACh receptors, and also at the vestibular periphery where mACh receptors are expressed at efferent synapses. A series of selective mACh-receptor antagonists based on the diphenidol molecule has been synthesized, but they have not yet been the subject of clinical trials. [ 1 ]


Alkylation of  1-Bromo-3-chloropropane  [109-70-6] ( 1 ) with  piperidine  ( 2 ) gives 3-Piperidinopropyl chloride [1458-63-5] ( 3 ). The Grignard reaction of this intermediate with benzophenone [119-61-9] gives the benzhydrol and hence, Diphenidol ( 4 ).


Ditt Apotek  is a chain of 80  pharmacies  owned and run by independent pharmacists on  franchise  from  Norsk Medisinaldepot , a subsidiary of  McKesson Europe . The chain is the fourth largest, and thus smallest, in Norway. The chain was established in 2001 after the deregulation of the pharmacy market in Norway. The sister company  Vitusapotek  operates 133 pharmacies owned by the mother company.


Among the members are the four state owned  pharmaceutical trusts  that operate the pharmacies at the  hospitals :  Southern and Eastern Norway Pharmaceutical Trust ,  Western Norway Pharmaceutical Trust ,  Central Norway Pharmaceutical Trust , and  Northern Norway Pharmaceutical Trust .


Docirbrutinib  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of cancer.  It is a selective  Bruton's tyrosine kinase  (BTK) inhibitor that targets  chronic lymphocytic leukemia  (CLL) and other  B-cell malignancies . [ 1 ]


Domesticine  is an  α 1D -adrenergic receptor   antagonist . [ 1 ]  The compound belongs to the group of  aporphine alkaloids .


This article about an  alkaloid  is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


d -DOPA   ( D -3,4- d ihydr o xy p henyl a lanine;   dextrodopa ) is similar to  L -DOPA  (levodopa), but with opposite  chirality .  Levo - and  dextro - rotation refer to a molecule's ability to rotate planes of  polarized light  in one or the other direction. Whereas  L -DOPA  is moderately effective in the  treatment  of  Parkinson's disease  (PD) and  dopamine-responsive dystonia  (DRD) by stimulating the production of dopamine in the brain,  D -DOPA  is  biologically  inactive.


Dordaviprone  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of  diffuse intrinsic pontine glioma  (a type of brain tumor). [ 1 ]   It is  dopamine receptor D2  antagonist and an allosteric activator of the mitochondrial  caseinolytic protease P . [ 2 ]


In  pharmacology  and medicine,  dosage  refers to the  prescribed regimen  for administering a  medication  or substance, encompassing the amount, frequency, and duration of use. [ 1 ]  It is distinct from  dose , which denotes a single, specific quantity of a drug or substance given at one time. [ 2 ]  Dosage typically includes information on the number of doses, intervals between administrations, and the overall treatment period. [ 3 ]  For example, a dosage might be described as "200 mg twice daily for two weeks," where 200 mg represents the individual dose, twice daily indicates the frequency, and two weeks specifies the duration of treatment. [ 4 ]


Dose dumping  is a phenomenon of  drug metabolism  in which environmental factors can cause the premature and exaggerated release of a  drug . This can greatly increase the  concentration  of a drug in the body and thereby produce  adverse effects  or even drug-induced  toxicity . [ 1 ]


Dose dumping is most commonly seen in drugs taken by mouth and digested in the  gastrointestinal tract . Around the same time patients take their medication, they can also ingest other substances like fatty meals or  alcohol  that increase  drug delivery . The substances may act on the drug's  capsule  to speed up drug release, or they may stimulate the body's absorptive surfaces to increase the rate of drug uptake.


Dose dumping is a disadvantage found in extended release dosage form.


In general,  drug companies  try to avoid drugs with significant dose dumping effects. Such drugs are prone to problems and are often pulled from the market. Such was the case with the  pain  medication  Palladone  Once Daily formulation due to its dose-dumping effects when taken with alcohol. [ 2 ]


It is by definition an unintended rapid release in large amounts of a  modified-release dosage  due to a co-ingestion with ethanol. [ 3 ]


Some interactions between alcohol, biological factors and the presentation of the drug can influence the apparition of AIDD by:


Food intake produces dynamic changes in digestion and  pharmacokinetics  through a variety of mechanisms, which can produce an unintended release of modified-release dosages under certain circumstances. Usually, high fat diets are the most associated with this phenomenon, but there is evidence that standard-composition food can cause this even in  immediate release  formulations, such as the case of  methylphenidate . [ 9 ]


Some of the mechanisms involved in FIDD are: [ 10 ] [ 11 ]


Drofenine  is an  antimuscarinic   antispasmodic  drug used for relaxing smooth muscle, thereby treating conditions, such as: dysmenorrhea, and pain in the gastrointestinal tract, biliary passages, and urogenital tract. Drofenine is assumed to work by increasing the levels of the protein  TRPV3 . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Dronabinol/acetazolamide  (investigational name IHL-42X) is a  combination therapy  under investigation for  sleep apnea . It is developed by Incannex Healthcare. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


The  Drug Effectiveness Review Project  (DERP) is a self-governed collaboration of state  Medicaid  and public pharmacy programs that commission high-quality evidence-based research products to assist policymakers and other decision-makers grappling with difficult drug coverage decisions. Housed at the Center for Evidence-based Policy at  Oregon Health & Science University  in Portland,  Oregon , DERP produces concise, comparative, evidence-based research products that evaluate the efficacy, effectiveness, and safety of  drugs  in many widely used drug classes.


Nationally recognized for its clinical objectivity and high-quality research, DERP focuses on specialty and other high-impact drugs – particularly those that have potential to change clinical practice. The program's goal is to ultimately help improve appropriate patient access, safety, and quality of care while helping government programs contain exploding costs for new pharmaceutical therapies. DERP uses a collaborative governing model to develop work plans that provide independent and objective research on drug effectiveness and safety to bring evidence to health policy decisions.


DERP reports include up-to-date clinical evidence on efficacy, adverse events, and safety information for the drugs reviewed. These reports and research products are not usage guidelines, nor should they be read as an endorsement of or recommendation for any particular drug, use or approach. Rather, DERP reports are used by policy makers to develop criteria for drug coverage, such as prior authorizations, clinical edits, drug utilization management policies, and provider or patient education materials. DERP research products include a comprehensive search of the global evidence, an objective appraisal of the quality of the studies found, and a thorough synthesis of high-quality evidence. Policymakers are able to use these reports and research products to make informed policy decisions that improve patient outcomes and contain costs.


Any product defined as a  drug  under the  Canadian   Food and Drugs Act  must have an associated  drug identification number  (or DIN). [ citation needed ]  A DIN also pertains to veterinary drugs permitted for sale in Canada. [ 1 ]


The drug identification number (DIN) is the 8 digit number located on the label of prescription and  over-the-counter drug  products that have been evaluated by the  Therapeutic Products Directorate  (TPD) and approved for sale in Canada. [ citation needed ]


Once a drug has been approved, the Therapeutic Products Directorate issues a DIN, which permits the manufacturer to market the drug in Canada. For drugs, where there is minimal market history in Canada, there is a more stringent review and the drug is required to have a Notice of Compliance and a DIN in order to be marketed in Canada. [ citation needed ]


A DIN lets the user know that the product has undergone and passed a review of its formulation, labeling, and instructions for use. A drug product sold in Canada without a DIN is not in compliance with Canadian law, with limited exceptions, such as foreign drug products imported under emergency authorization. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


The DIN is also a tool to help in the follow-up of products on the market, recall of products, inspections, and quality monitoring.
A drug product can be looked up via its DIN with the Health Canada's Drug Product Database (DPD) to find specific information of drugs approved by the Ministry. [ 4 ]


The  drug policy  of  Germany  is considered to be one of the most lenient among  European Union  (EU) countries. Policies vary depending on the  state .


In 1994, the  Federal Constitutional Court  ruled that drug addiction and the possession of small quantities of narcotics for personal use were not crimes. In 2000, the German law on narcotics ( Betäubungsmittelgesetz ) was changed to allow supervised injection rooms. [ citation needed ]


In 2002, a pilot project was started in seven German cities to evaluate the effects of  heroin-assisted treatment  on addicts, compared to  methadone -assisted treatment. In 2009, the positive results of the study led to heroin-assisted treatment becoming included in mandatory health insurance. [ citation needed ]


As of November 2010, the youth organisation of  Alliance 90/The Greens , namely the  Green Youth , support the decriminalisation of those who consume drugs and the regulated sale of drugs via specialist stores along with drug education. [ 1 ]


In February 2021, authorities in Germany and  Belgium  seized more than 23 tonnes (23 long tons; 25 short tons) of  cocaine , worth billions of  euros , from shipments that originated in  Paraguay  and  Panama . In an international operation that resulted in one arrest, a man from  Vlaardingen , Netherlands, German and Belgian authorities seized the largest amount of cocaine in Europe. [ 2 ]


In 2017, Germany re-allowed medical cannabis. After the  2021 German federal election , the  new government  announced in their  coalition agreement  that they intend to legalise cannabis for all purposes (including  recreational ), and legislation to this effect was passed on 23 February 2024. The  German cannabis control bill  law went into effect on 1 April.


In March 2023, the health minister,  Karl Lauterbach , reported a positive reaction from European Commission on the plan, and intended to bring a bill forward soon. [ 3 ]


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Drug titration  is the process of adjusting the  dose  of a  medication  for the maximum benefit without  adverse effects . [ 1 ]


When a drug has a narrow  therapeutic index , titration is especially important, because the range between the dose at which a drug is effective and the dose at which side effects occur is small. [ 2 ]  Some examples of the types of drugs commonly requiring titration include  insulin ,  anticonvulsants ,  blood thinners ,  anti-depressants , and  sedatives . [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


Titrating off of a medication instead of stopping abruptly is recommended in some situations.  Glucocorticoids  should be tapered after extended use to avoid adrenal insufficiency. [ 6 ]


Drug titration is also used in  phase I  of  clinical trials . The  experimental drug  is given in increasing dosages until side effects become intolerable. [ 7 ]   A clinical trial in which a suitable dose is found is called a  dose-ranging study .


In  pharmacology  and  medicine ,  vectorization of drugs  refers to ( intracellular )  targeting  with plastic,  noble metal  or  silicon   nanoparticles  or  liposomes  to which  pharmacologically active  substances are reversibly bound or attached by  adsorption . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


CNRS  researchers have devised a way to overcome the problem of  multidrug resistance  using polyalkyl  cyanoacrylate  (PACA) nanoparticles as " vectors ". [ 3 ]


As a developing concept,  drug nanocarriers  are expected to play a major role in delivering multiple drugs to  tumor  tissues by overcoming semi-permeable membranes and biological barriers such as the  blood–brain barrier . [ 4 ]


Dual amylin and calcitonin receptor agonists  (DACRAs) are a class of drugs that act as agonists at the  amylin receptor  and  calcitonin receptor  that are under development as therapies for obesity and type 2 diabetes. Examples are  cagrilintide ,  Petrelintide ,  ACCG-2671  and the KBP family derived from  salmon calcitonin , [ 1 ]  including  KBP‐042 , [ 2 ]   KBP-066A , [ 3 ]   KBP-089 , [ 4 ]  and  KBP-336 . [ 5 ]


Durlobactam  is a  beta-lactamase inhibitor  used in combination with  sulbactam  to treat susceptible strains of bacteria in the genus  Acinetobacter [ 1 ]  It is an analog of  avibactam .


The combination therapy  sulbactam/durlobactam  was approved for medical use in the United States in May 2023. [ 1 ]


Ear instillation  is the process of introducing  otic medication  or other liquids into the  ear canal . Proper care is needed in delivering such liquids.


Edotreotide  ( USAN , also known as ( DOTA 0 - Phe 1 - Tyr 3 )  octreotide ,  DOTA-TOC ,  DOTATOC ) is a substance which, when bound to various  radionuclides , is used in the treatment and diagnosis of certain types of cancer. [ 3 ]  When used therapeutically it is an example of  peptide receptor radionuclide therapy .


A  phase I clinical trial  of  yttrium-90  labelled edotreotide concluded in 2011, [ 4 ]  aiming to investigated effects in young cancer patients (up to 25 years of age).  Specific cancers being included in the trial include  neuroblastoma , childhood  brain tumours  and  gastrointestinal cancer . [ 5 ]


A  phase II trial  for the use of  90 Y DOTA-TOC for patients with  metastatic   carcinoid , where  octreotide  treatment was no longer effective, also reported results in 2010. [ 6 ]


Lutetium-177  labelled edotreotide ( 177 Lu-DOTA-TOC), with the  trade name  Solucin, is the subject of a  phase 3 clinical trial  for treatment of  GEP-NETs . [ 7 ] [ 8 ]  It was granted  orphan drug designation  by the  European Medicines Agency  in 2014. [ 9 ]


Gan Ee Kiang  (born 23 June 1944) is a  Malaysian  pharmacologist. He is Professor of Pharmacology at the  University of Science, Malaysia , and currently holds the honorary office of  Chancellor  of the  International Medical University  in  Kuala Lumpur . [ 1 ]


He joined the University of Science in 1977 and was Dean of School of Pharmaceutical Sciences from 1979 to 1995. He has also served as an adviser to the  World Health Organization . From 1999 to 2013 he was Managing Director of the USAINS Group, the commercial arm of the University of Science. He is a member of the Board of Directors of several companies. [ 2 ]


He earned a PhD in Pharmacology at the  University of Western Australia  in 1972 under the supervision of Mary Fauriel Lockett, the first female professor in Australia. [ 3 ]


This biographical article related to medicine in Malaysia is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


EF-24  is a compound that is a synthetic analogue of  curcumin , a bioactive  phytochemical  from  turmeric . Curcumin has  antioxidant ,  antibiotic ,  anti-inflammatory  and anti- cancer  properties  in vitro  but has low potency and very poor bioavailability when taken orally, resulting in limited efficacy. EF-24 was developed to try to improve upon these properties, and has been found to be around 10 times more potent than curcumin and with much higher systemic bioavailability. It has never been developed for medical use, though research continues to investigate whether it may be useful as an  adjuvant treatment  for some  cancers  alongside conventional  chemotherapy  drugs. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


Efaroxan  is an  α 2 -adrenergic receptor   antagonist [ 1 ]  and  antagonist  of the  imidazoline receptor .


The  Darzens reaction  between 2-fluorobenzaldehyde [57848-46-1] ( 1 ) and Ethyl 2-bromobutyrate [533-68-6] ( 2 ) gives ethyl 2-ethyl-3-(2-fluorophenyl)oxirane-2-carboxylate,  CID:100942311  ( 3 ). A catalytic hydrogenation over Pd/C would give ethyl 2-[(2-fluorophenyl)methyl]-2-hydroxybutanoate,  CID:77591056  ( 4 ).  Saponification  of the ester then gives 2-[(2-Fluorophenyl)methyl]-2-hydroxybutanoic acid,  CID:53869347  ( 5 ). Treatment with 2 molar equivalents of  sodium hydride  apparently gives 2-Ethyl-2,3-dihydrobenzofuran-2-carboxylic acid [111080-50-3] ( 6 ). Treatment of the carboxylic acid with  thionyl chloride  then gives the acid chloride and subsequent treatment of this with  ethylenediamine  in the presence of trimethylaluminium completed the synthesis of  Efaroxan  ( 8 ).


Efgartigimod alfa/hyaluronidase , sold under the brand name  Vyvgart Hytrulo , is a  coformulation medication  used for the treatment of generalized  myasthenia gravis  and  chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy . [ 1 ]  It contains  efgartigimod alfa , a  neonatal Fc receptor  blocker, and  hyaluronidase  (human recombinant), an  endoglycosidase . [ 1 ]


Efgartigimod alfa/hyaluronidase may increase the risk of infection, including urinary tract infection and respiratory tract infections. [ 2 ]  In clinical trials, hypersensitivity reactions, including rash, angioedema (swelling), dyspnea (shortness of breath), and urticaria (itchy welts) were observed in people treated with efgartigimod alfa. [ 2 ]  The most common adverse reactions (≥ 10%) of people with myasthenia gravis treated with efgartigimod alfa were respiratory tract infections, headache, and urinary tract infection. [ 2 ]


It was approved for medical use in the United States in June 2023. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Efgartigimod alfa/hyaluronidase is  indicated  for the treatment of generalized myasthenia gravis in adults who are anti-acetylcholine receptor antibody positive. [ 1 ]


In June 2024, the US  Food and Drug Administration  (FDA) expanded the indication for the combination to include the treatment of  chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy  in adults. [ 2 ]


The effectiveness of the combination for the treatment of adults with chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy was established in a two stage, multicenter study (Study 3; NCT04281472). [ 2 ]  Study 3 included an open-label period (stage A) to identify people who had evidence of improvement with the use of Vyvgart Hytrulo, who then entered a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, withdrawal period (stage B). [ 2 ]


Efinopegdutide  (MK-6024) is a dual agonist of the  glucagon  and  GLP-1 receptors . It is being developed by  Merck  for  non-alcoholic fatty liver disease . It was also developed for type 2 diabetes and obesity but these indications were discontinued. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Efocipegtrutide  (HM15211) is a triple agonist of the  glucagon ,  GIP , and  glucagon-like peptide 1 receptors . It is being studied for obesity and  nonalcoholic steatohepatitis . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Efpeglenatide  is a  GLP-1 receptor agonist  under development for the treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity and reducing the risk of cardiovascular incidents in people with these conditions. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ]  Its developer is  Hanmi Pharmaceutical . [ 8 ]


EHNA  ( e rythro-9-(2- h ydroxy-3- n only) a denine) is a potent  adenosine deaminase  inhibitor, [ 1 ]  which also acts as a  phosphodiesterase inhibitor  that selectively inhibits  phosphodiesterase type 2  (PDE2). [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Eladocagene exuparvovec , sold under the brand name  Upstaza  among others, is a  gene therapy  product for the treatment of  aromatic L‑amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) deficiency . [ 3 ]  It infuses the gene encoding for the human aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase enzyme into the  putamen region of the brain . [ 3 ]  The subsequent expression of aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase results in  dopamine  production and, as a result, development of motor function in people with aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency. [ 3 ]  Eladocagene exuparvovec is an adeno-associated virus vector-based gene therapy. [ 4 ]


The most common side effects include initial insomnia, irritability and dyskinesia. [ 3 ]  The most common side effects of eladocagene exuparvovec (Kebilidi) include dyskinesia (involuntary muscle movements), fever, low blood pressure, anemia (low red blood cell count), increased saliva production, insomnia, low levels of potassium, phosphate, and/or magnesium, and procedural complications such as respiratory and cardiac arrest. [ 4 ]


Eladocagene exuparvovec was approved for medical use in the European Union in July 2022, [ 3 ]  and in the United States in November 2024. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


Eladocagene exuparvovec is  indicated  for the treatment of aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) deficiency. [ 3 ]


Aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency is a rare genetic disorder that affects the production of some neurotransmitters, which are chemical messengers that allow cells in the body's nervous system to communicate with each other. [ 4 ]  Affected individuals may experience symptoms such as delays in gross motor function (head control, sitting, standing, and walking), hypotonia (weak muscle tone), and developmental and cognitive delays. [ 4 ]


Eladocagene exuparvovec is contraindicated in people who have not achieved skull maturity assessed by neuroimaging. [ 4 ]


The safety and effectiveness of eladocagene exuparvovec were demonstrated in an open-label, single-arm clinical study in 13 children with confirmed diagnosis of aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency. [ 4 ]  At the start of the study, all participants had no gross motor function (the most severe presentation of aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency) and decreased aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase activity in the plasma. [ 4 ]  Participants treated with eladocagene exuparvovec were compared to untreated participants (natural history). [ 4 ]  Motor milestone assessments were completed for 12 of the 13 participants at week 48 after receiving the treatment. [ 4 ]  The efficacy of eladocagene exuparvovec was demonstrated based on gross motor function improvement in 8 of 12 treated participants, which has not been reported in untreated participants with the severe presentation of aromatic L-amino acid decarboxylase deficiency. [ 4 ]


In May 2022, the  Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use  of the  European Medicines Agency  adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a marketing authorization under exceptional circumstances for the medicinal product Upstaza, intended for the treatment of aromatic L‑amino acid decarboxylase (AADC) deficiency. [ 6 ] [ 7 ]  As Upstaza is an advanced therapy medicinal product, the CHMP positive opinion is based on an assessment by the Committee for Advanced Therapies. [ 6 ]  The applicant for this medicinal product is PTC Therapeutics International Limited. [ 6 ]  Eladocagene exuparvovec was approved for medical use in the European Union in July 2022. [ 3 ] [ 8 ]


Eladocagene exuparvovec was approved for medical use in the United States in November 2024. [ 4 ] [ 9 ]  The US  Food and Drug Administration  (FDA) granted the application for eladocagene exuparvovec  priority review  and  orphan drug  designations, and a rare pediatric disease priority review voucher. [ 4 ]  It was approved under the  accelerated approval  pathway. [ 4 ]  The FDA granted approval of Kebilidi to PTC Therapeutics. [ 4 ]


Eladocagene exuparvovec is the  international nonproprietary name  (INN), [ 10 ]  and the  United States Adopted Name . [ 11 ]


Elezanumab  (development names AE12-1Y-QL and ABT-555) is a fully human  monoclonal antibody  developed by  AbbVie  against  repulsive guidance molecule A  (RGMa). It has been tested in people with  multiple sclerosis  and  acute ischemic stroke . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


The  elimination rate constant   K  or  K e  is a value used in  pharmacokinetics  to describe the rate at which a  drug  is removed from the human system. [ 1 ]


It is often abbreviated  K  or  K e . It is equivalent to the fraction of a substance that is removed per unit time measured at any particular instant and has units of  T −1 . This can be expressed mathematically with the  differential equation


where

 C

 t

 {\displaystyle C_{t}}

  is the  blood plasma  concentration of drug in the system at a given point in time

 t

 {\displaystyle t}

 ,

 d
 t

 {\displaystyle dt}

  is an infinitely small change in time, and

 C

 t
 +
 d
 t

 {\displaystyle C_{t+dt}}

  is the concentration of drug in the system after the infinitely small change in time.


The solution of this differential equation is useful in calculating the concentration after the administration of a single dose of drug via IV bolus injection:


In first-order (linear) kinetics, the plasma concentration

 C

 t

 {\displaystyle C_{t}}

  of a drug at a given time t after single dose administration via IV bolus injection is given by;


C

 t

 =

 C

 0

 2

 t

 t

 1

 /

 2

 {\displaystyle C_{t}={\frac {C_{0}}{2^{\frac {t}{t_{1/2}}}}}\,}


where:


Therefore, the amount of drug present in the body at time t

 A

 t

 {\displaystyle A_{t}}

  is;


A

 t

 =

 V

 d

 ⋅

 C

 t

 =

 V

 d

 ⋅

 C

 0

 2

 t

 t

 1

 /

 2

 {\displaystyle A_{t}=V_{d}\cdot C_{t}=V_{d}\cdot {\frac {C_{0}}{2^{\frac {t}{t_{1/2}}}}}\,}


where  V d  is the apparent volume of distribution


Then, the amount eliminated from the body after time t

 E

 t

 {\displaystyle E_{t}}

  is;


E

 t

 =

 V

 d

 ⋅

 C

 0

 (

 1
 −

 1

 2

 t

 t

 1

 /

 2

 )

 {\displaystyle E_{t}=V_{d}\cdot {C_{0}}{\Biggl (}1-{\frac {1}{2^{\frac {t}{t_{1/2}}}}}{\Biggr )}\,}


Then, the rate of elimination at time t is given by the derivative of this function with respect to t;


d

 E

 t

 d
 t

 =

 ln

 2
 ⋅

 V

 d

 ⋅

 C

 0

 2

 t

 t

 1

 /

 2

 ⋅

 t

 1

 /

 2

 {\displaystyle {dE_{t} \over dt}={{\frac {\ln 2\cdot {V_{d}\cdot {C_{0}}}}{2^{\frac {t}{t_{1/2}}}\cdot {t_{1/2}}}}\,}}


And since

 K

 {\displaystyle K}

  is fraction of the drug that is removed per unit time measured at any particular instant, then if we divide the rate of elimination by the amount of drug in the body at time t, we get;


K
 =

 d

 E

 t

 d
 t

 ÷

 A

 t

 =

 ln

 2

 t

 1

 /

 2

 ≈

 0.693

 t

 1

 /

 2

 {\displaystyle K={dE_{t} \over dt}\div A_{t}={\frac {\ln 2}{t_{1/2}}}\approx {\frac {0.693}{t_{1/2}}}}


Finley Ellingwood  was an American doctor of  eclectic medicine  who was the author of the influential  American Materia Medica , therapeutics, and pharmacognosy in 1919. Ellingwood was an active Chicago physician with many years experience, and an acknowledged expert in  obstetrical / gynecological  medicine. He was a vocal advocate of women physicians, and edited  Ellingwood's Therapeutist  for many years. His brand of Eclectic Medicine differed from the more subdued Cincinnati style as mentored by Scudder, Lloyd, Fyfe, and Felter. [ 1 ]


The American Materia Medica, Therapeutics and  Pharmacognosy  is a serious medical text from the early 20th century, intended for practicing physicians and surgeons, which refers to difficult medical situations found in that period. There is an emphasis on physical diagnosis.  The book is organized by organ system affected instead of by herbal name, so it will have headings such as "agents acting on the  nervous system " or "agents acting on the  heart ". This type of listing is somewhat controversial as  herbal medicines  tend to work on more than one system.  The book had been substantially lost until it was scanned by herbalist  Michael Moore  in pdf format. [ 2 ]  The book is also available in  HTML  format at  Henriette Kress 's website. [ 3 ]


This article about a  herbalist  is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


This biographical article related to a physician in the United States is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


Eltrekibart  (LY3041658) is a "septa-specific  monoclonal antibody  that neutralizes all seven ELR+ CXC chemokines ( CXCL1-3  and  CXCL5-8 ), thereby limiting signaling through  CXCR1  and  CXCR2 ". [ 1 ]  It was tested in clinical trials for  hidradenitis suppurativa . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Emavusertib  ( CA-4948 ) is a drug which acts as a selective inhibitor of the enzyme  Interleukin-1 receptor-associated kinase 4  (IRAK-4) and was developed for the treatment of some forms of  cancer . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Emraclidine  (developmental code names  CVL-231 ,  PF-06852231 ) is an investigational  antipsychotic  for the treatment of both  schizophrenia  and  Alzheimer's disease  psychosis developed by  Cerevel Therapeutics . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  As of August 2024, it is in  phase 2   clinical trials . [ 1 ] [ 3 ]


Emraclidine is a  positive allosteric modulator  that selectively targets the  muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M4  subtype. The M4 receptor subtype is expressed in the  striatum  of the brain, which plays a key role in regulating  acetylcholine  and  dopamine  levels. An imbalance of these neurotransmitters has been linked to psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia. Unlike other  muscarinic receptors , M4 receptor subtypes are selectively expressed in the striatum and activation of these receptors has been shown to indirectly regulate dopamine levels without blocking  D2 / D3  receptors, which may lead to unwanted motor side effects seen in current antipsychotics. [ 4 ]


Enbezotinib  ( TPX-0046 ) is an experimental  anticancer medication  which acts as a  RET inhibitor , as well as an inhibitor of  SRC kinase . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


An  endocannabinoid enhancer  ( eCBE ) is a type of  cannabinoidergic [ 1 ]   drug  that enhances the activity of the  endocannabinoid system  by increasing  extracellular   concentrations  of  endocannabinoids . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]  Examples of different types of eCBEs include  fatty acid amide hydrolase  (FAAH)  inhibitors ,  monoacylglycerol lipase  (MAGL)  inhibitors , and  endocannabinoid transporter  (eCBT) inhibitors (or " endocannabinoid reuptake inhibitors " ("eCBRIs")). [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]  An example of an actual eCBE is  AM404 , the  active metabolite  of the  analgesic   paracetamol  (acetaminophen; Tylenol) and a dual FAAH inhibitor and eCBRI. [ 6 ] [ 7 ] [ 8 ]


An  endopeptidase inhibitor  is a drug that  inhibits  one or more  endopeptidase   enzymes . Endopeptidases are one of two types of  proteases  (enzymes that break down  proteins  and  peptides ), the other being  exopeptidases . Endopeptidases cleave  peptide bonds  of non-terminal  amino acids  (that is, they cut proteins/peptides into two chains), whereas exopeptidases break terminal bonds, resulting in the release of a single amino acid or  dipeptide  from the peptide chain.


Some examples of endopeptidase inhibitors include the following:


Enitociclib  is an  experimental drug  that is being investigated for the treatment of cancer. [ 1 ]  It is an inhibitor of the kinase  CDK9 . [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Enlicitide chloride  (INN; [ 1 ]  previously known as  MK-0616 ) is a  macrocyclic  peptide  investigational drug  who is being evaluated for the treatment of  hypercholesterolaemia . It is a  PCSK9  inhibitor. [ 2 ]


Merck has launched a Phase 3 clinical trial to evaluate the efficacy and safety of  MK-0616  in Adults With Hypercholesterolemia.  [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Ensartinib , sold under the brand name  Ensacove , is an  anti-cancer medication  used for the treatment of  non-small cell lung cancer . [ 1 ]  Ensartinib is an  Anaplastic lymphoma kinase  (ALK) inhibitor used as the salt ensartinib hydrochloride. [ 1 ]  It is taken  by mouth . [ 1 ]


The most common adverse reactions include rash, musculoskeletal pain, constipation, cough, pruritis, nausea, edema, pyrexia, and fatigue. [ 2 ]


Ensartinib was approved for medical use in the United States in December 2024. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Ensartinib is  indicated  for the treatment of adults with anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK)-positive locally advanced or metastatic non-small cell lung cancer who have not previously received an ALK-inhibitor. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Efficacy was evaluated in eXALT3 (NCT02767804), an open-label, randomized, active-controlled, multicenter trial in 290 participants with locally advanced or metastatic ALK-positive non-small cell lung cancer who had not previously received an ALK-targeted therapy. [ 2 ]  Participants were randomized 1:1 to receive ensartinib or crizotinib. [ 2 ]


Ensartinib was approved for medical use in the United States in December 2024. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Ensartinib is the  international nonproprietary name . [ 5 ]


Ensartinib is sold under the brand name Ensacove. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Envafolimab  is an anti- PD-L1   nanobody  used in  cancer immunotherapy . [ 1 ]   It has been approved in China for the treatment of  microsatellite instability -high (MSI-H) or  MisMatch Repair  deficient (dMMR) solid tumours. [ 2 ]  Envafolimab (KN035) has obtained the US FDA's orphan drug designation for advanced biliary tract cancer.


Envudeucitinib  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of  psoriasis .  It is a selective  tyrosine kinase  2 (TYK2) inhibitor developed by
Fronthera U.S. Pharmaceuticals LLC for the treatment of  autoimmune diseases . Envudeucitinib targets the TYK2 signaling pathway, which plays a crucial role in regulating multiple pro-inflammatory cytokines such as  IL-12 ,  IL-23 , and  type I interferons . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Enzomenib  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of acute leukemia. [ 1 ]   It is a small molecule inhibitor that targets the interaction between  menin  and  mixed-lineage leukemia  (MLL) proteins. [ 2 ]  Enzomenib particularly in patients with KMT2A (MLL) rearrangements or NPM1 mutations. [ 3 ]


The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has granted both  Fast Track  and  Orphan Drug  designations to Enzomenib. [ 4 ]


An  enzyme modulator  is a type of  drug  which modulates  enzymes . They include  enzyme inhibitors  and  enzyme inducers . In an homogeneous  assay , "an enzyme modulator ... is  covalently  linked to the ligand which competes with free ligand from the test sample for the available antibodies." [ 1 ]


Epaminurad  is an  investigational new drug   being developed by JW Pharmaceutical for the treatment of  gout  and  hyperuricemia . It is a urate-lowering agent that selectively inhibits the human  uric acid transporter 1  (hURAT1), promoting  urate  excretion. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  As of 2024, epaminurad is undergoing Phase 3 clinical trials to evaluate its efficacy and safety compared to  febuxostat  in gout patients across multiple Asian countries. [ 3 ] [ 1 ]


Eplontersen , sold under the brand name  Wainua , is a  medication  used for the treatment of  transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis . [ 3 ]  It is a transthyretin-directed antisense oligonucleotide. [ 3 ]  It was developed to treat hereditary transthyretin amyloidosis by  Ionis Pharmaceuticals  and  AstraZeneca . [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ] [ 7 ]


Eplontersen was approved for medical use in the United States in December 2023 and in the UK in October 2024. [ 3 ] [ 8 ] [ 9 ] [ 10 ] [ 11 ]


Eplontersen is  indicated  for the treatment of the  polyneuropathy  of hereditary transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis in adults. [ 3 ]


The most common adverse reactions include decreased vitamin A and vomiting. [ 3 ]


In October 2024, the  Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use  of the  European Medicines Agency  adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a marketing authorization for the medicinal product Wainzua, intended for the treatment of adults with hereditary transthyretin-mediated amyloidosis (ATTRv) and stage 1 or 2 polyneuropathy. [ 12 ]  The applicant for this medicinal product is AstraZeneca AB. [ 12 ] [ 13 ]


Eplontersen is the  international nonproprietary name . [ 14 ]


Epoetin theta , sold under the brand name  Biopoin  among others, is a copy of the human hormone  erythropoietin . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


The most common side effects include shunt thrombosis (clots that can form in blood vessels of patients on dialysis, a blood clearance technique),  headache ,  hypertension  (high blood pressure),  hypertensive crisis  (sudden, dangerously high blood pressure),  skin reactions ,  arthralgia  (joint pain) and  influenza  (flu)-like illness. [ 1 ] Epoetin theta was approved for medical use in the European Union in October 2009. [ 1 ]  It is on the  World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines . [ 3 ]


Epoetin theta is  indicated  for the treatment of symptomatic  anemia  in adults. [ 1 ]


attribution  contains material copied from Biopoin | European Medicines Agency  https://www.ema.europa.eu/en/medicines/human/EPAR/biopoin  2021


Epsametostat  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of peripheral  T-cell lymphoma .  It is a  EZH1 / EZH2  inhibitor developed by Shanghai Haihe Pharmaceutical Research & Development Co., Ltd. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Erastin  is a small molecule capable of initiating  ferroptotic cell death . [ 1 ]  Erastin binds and activates  voltage-dependent anion channels  (VDAC) by reversing tubulin's inhibition on   VDAC2  and  VDAC3 , [ 2 ]  and functionally inhibits the cystine-glutamate antiporter  system X c − . [ 3 ]  Cells treated with erastin are deprived of  cysteine  and are unable to synthesize the antioxidant  glutathione . Depletion of glutathione eventually leads to excessive  lipid peroxidation  and  cell death .


Erastin was first described in 2003. Its name is short for "eradicator of RAS and ST-expressing cells". [ 4 ]


Erfonrilimab  is a  investigational drug  being evaluated for use in  cancer immunotherapy . [ 1 ]  It is a bispecific antibody targeting  PD-L1  and  CTLA-4 . [ 2 ]


Erythromycin/sulfafurazole  ( trade name   Pediazole ) is a  combination drug  with the  antibiotics   erythromycin  and  sulfafurazole  (the latter is also known as sulfisoxazole). [ citation needed ]


It is indicated in  acute otitis media  in children, particularly when  Hemophilus influenzae  is the suspected pathogen. [ 1 ]


4-Ethylphenyl sulfate  ( 4EPS ) is a metabolite produced by gut bacteria, which can be toxic when present in large amounts. Elevated levels of this metabolite have been associated with some medical conditions including  chronic kidney disease  and  autism . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Evazarsen sodium  (IONIS-AGT-LRx) is an  antisense RNA  designed to inhibit  angiotensinogen  as an alternative to other mechanisms to target the  renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


An  excitatory amino acid receptor antagonist , or  glutamate receptor antagonist , is a  chemical substance  which  antagonizes  one or more of the  glutamate receptors . [ 1 ]


Examples include:


Excitatory amino acid receptor ligands  are  ligands  of  excitatory amino acid receptors  (EAARs), also known as  glutamate receptors . They include  excitatory amino acid receptor agonists  and  excitatory amino acid receptor antagonists . [ 1 ]


This  biochemistry  article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


An  excitatory amino acid reuptake inhibitor  ( EAARI ) is a type of  drug  which inhibits the  reuptake  of the  excitatory   neurotransmitters   glutamate  and  aspartate  by blocking one or more of the  excitatory amino acid transporters  (EAATs).


Examples of EAARIs include  dihydrokainic acid  (DHK) and  WAY-213,613 , selective blockers of  EAAT2  (GLT-1), [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  and  L - trans -2,4-PDC , a non-selective blocker of all five EAATs. [ 3 ]   Amphetamine  is a selective noncompetitive reuptake inhibitor of presynaptic  EAAT3  (via transporter endocytosis) in dopamine neurons. [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]   L -Theanine  is reported to competitively inhibit reuptake at  EAAT1  (GLAST) and  EAAT2  (GLT-1). [ 7 ]


An  exopeptidase inhibitor  is a  drug  that  inhibits  one or more  exopeptidase   enzymes . Exopeptidases are one of two types of  proteases  (enzymes that break down  proteins  and  peptides ), the other being  endopeptidases . Exopeptidases cleave  peptide bonds  of terminal  amino acids , resulting in the release of a single amino acid or  dipeptide  from the peptide chain, whereas endoeptidases break non-terminal bonds (that is, they cut proteins/peptides into two chains).


Some examples of exopeptidase inhibitors include  amastatin ,  bestatin  (ubenimex),  puromycin ,  1,10-phenanthroline ,  D -phenylalanine ,  ACE inhibitors ,  DPP-4 inhibitors , and  exogenous   MMP inhibitors  like  batimastat  and  marimastat . Various  enkephalinase inhibitors , such as  ketalorphan ,  spinorphin , and  tynorphin , are mainly exopeptidase inhibitors. [ 1 ]


The  Fabunan Antiviral Injection  ( FAI ) is a patented medicine administered to patients by US-based  Filipino  doctors Ruben and Willie Fabunan, who assured that it can treat  dengue fever ,  chikungunya , dog bite, snakebite, and  HIV /AIDS. [ 1 ]


Fabunan contains  procaine hydrochloride , a water-soluble ester  anesthetic , and  dexamethasone sodium phosphate , a  corticosteroid  with well-known  anti-inflammatory  and  immunosuppressant  properties. [ 2 ]  The solution is intended to be administered as an  intramuscular injection .


The patent application cites six case studies for conditions such as  dengue ,  dengue hemorrhagic fever  and  AIDS , which were all conducted at the Fabunan Medical Clinic in  Burgos . To date, no registered  clinical trials  of the Fabunan Antiviral Injection have been performed to validate the Fabunans' claims.


Recent claims promoted on social media that it can cure  COVID-19  are not supported by the  Philippine government , which has issued a  cease and desist order  to Fabunan Medical Clinic in  Zambales , prompting the clinic to stop its operations on April 2. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]  On April 15, 2020, the  fact-checking  website  Rappler  warned against false claims on  YouTube  and  Facebook  that the so-called treatment had been approved, and pointed out that on April 8, 2020, the FDA warned the public against the use of drugs or vaccines that are not yet certified to treat COVID-19, particularly the Fabunan Antiviral Injection. [ 5 ]  Similarly, claims popularly spread in YouTube videos in June 2020 that Fabunan has been approved in Indonesia have been demonstrated to be false. [ 6 ]


This article about the  COVID-19 pandemic  is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


The  Farmacotherapeutisch Kompas  (FK) contains a wide spectrum of information on prescribing and  pharmacology , among others indications,  side effects  and costs of the prescription of all  pharmaceutical drugs  available in the  Netherlands . It was first published in 1982 and is now the most used drug reference by  doctors ,  pharmacists  and students in the Netherlands. It is published by the  College voor zorgverzekeringen  (CVZ).


In English, the name means  ' pharmacotherapeutic compass ' .


This  Netherlands -related article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


Favezelimab  (MK-4280) is an experimental anti-cancer  monoclonal antibody  developed by  Merck . It is being tested by itself [ 1 ]  and in a  fixed-dose combination  with  pembrolizumab . [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ] [ 6 ]


Favezelimab/pembrolizumab  is a fixed-dose combination of two  monoclonal antibodies  developed by  Merck  to treat various cancers. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


FEM-1689  is a drug which acts as a potent and selective  sigma-2 receptor  ligand with a binding affinity of 11 nM, and was developed for the treatment of  neuropathic pain . [ 1 ]


Ferroquine  is a synthetic compound related to  chloroquine  which acts as an  antimalarial , and shows good activity against chloroquine-resistant strains. [ 1 ]  It contains an  organometallic   ferrocene  ring which is unusual in pharmaceuticals, [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]  and while it was first reported in 1997, [ 5 ]  it has progressed slowly through  clinical trials , with results from Phase II trials showing reasonable safety and efficacy, and further trials ongoing. [ 6 ] [ 7 ]


Fexofenadine/pseudoephedrine , sold under the brand name  Allegra-D  among others, is a  fixed-dose combination  medication used for the treatment of nasal congestion and other symptoms of  allergies [ 4 ]  and the  common cold . [ 2 ]  It contains  fexofenadine , as the hydrochloride, an  antihistamine ; and  pseudoephedrine , as the hydrochloride, a  nasal decongestant . [ 2 ]


In 2021, it was the 279th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 800,000 prescriptions. [ 5 ] [ 6 ]


A  flacon  (from  Late Latin   flasco , meaning "bottle"; cf. " flagon ") is a small, often decorative, bottle. It has an opening seal or stopper and is designed to hold valuable liquids which may deteriorate upon contact with the air. They are widespread in the food industry, the pharmaceutical industry, and the cosmetics industry. They are generally made of glass for perfumes, but can also be made out of plastics for other uses. [ 1 ]


The plastic bottles can be manufactured using different processes depending on the size and the proposed application (i.e. what the content will be, what the surrounding environment will be etc.). A common technique is  blow molding . Like any object made by  extrusion , it is possible to produce multilayer plastic bottles. This is called  coextrusion . The combination of different materials or colours can be used to produce flacons with different properties, such as: impermeability to light, oxygen, recycled inner layer. The glass bottles are manufactured by blow molding.


Charles Baudelaire  wrote a poem about the flacon, entitled  Le Flacon  (The Perfume Flask). [ 2 ]


Other words derived from  flasco :


This  food -related article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


Flazalone  is an  anti-inflammatory  drug that has not been approved as a medicine. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


According to  Shaomeng Wang  and co-workers, replacement of the para-fluoro halogen with a meta,para-dichloro substitution resulted in dopamine reuptake inhibitors useful in treating cocaine addiction. [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Flip–flop kinetics , or  flip–flop pharmacokinetics , describes an atypical situation in  pharmacokinetics  where a drug's rate of  absorption  or the rate at which it enters the  bloodstream  is slower than its  elimination  rate. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  That is, when the  k a  ( absorption constant ) is slower than  k e  ( elimination constant ).


These circumstances can occur with  sustained-release  formulations,  depot injections , and some  subcutaneous  or  intradermal injections . [ 3 ] [ better source needed ]  In the resulting slope of log plasma concentration (log Cp) versus time, the apparent  k e  is determined by the  k a , and the apparent  k e  is smaller than when the drug is administered intravenously or by immediate-release formulation.  Depot injections such as  depot antipsychotics  and long-acting injectable  steroid hormone  medications like  estradiol valerate ,  testosterone enanthate , and  medroxyprogesterone acetate  are examples of drugs with flip–flop kinetics. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


The term "flip–flop" indicates that the downward slope more closely represents  k a  rather than  k e .


Flip–flop kinetics can create difficulties in the determination and interpretation of pharmacokinetic parameters if not recognized. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Flotufolastat ( 18 F) , sold under the brand name  Posluma , is a  radioactive diagnostic agent  for use with  positron emission tomography  (PET)  imaging  for  prostate cancer . [ 1 ]  The active ingredient is flotufolastat ( 18 F). [ 1 ]


Flotufolastat ( 18 F) was approved for medical use in the United States in May 2023. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Flotufolastat ( 18 F) is  indicated  for positron emission tomography of prostate-specific membrane antigen positive lesions in men with prostate cancer. [ 1 ] [ 3 ]


4'-Fluoro-4-methylaminorex  ( 4F-MAR ,  4-FPO ) is a recreational  designer drug  from the substituted  aminorex  family, with  stimulant  effects. It was first detected in Slovenia in 2018. [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  It was made illegal in Italy in March 2020. [ 4 ]


18 F-Fluorocholine  is a fluorinated  choline  derivative and an  oncologic   PET  tracer. [ 2 ]


Fluorodeoxyglycosylamine  is a product of  fluorodeoxyglucose  and biological amines. [ 1 ]  The  Maillard reaction  of sugars and amines results in the formation of glycosylamines and  Amadori products  that are of biological significance, for drug delivery, role in central nervous system, and other potential applications.


This approach has also been used to prepare  oximes  of fluorodeoxyglucose using peptides, [ 2 ]  folic acid [ 3 ]  and rhodamine. [ 4 ]


Fluorodeoxyglycosylamine in the form of fluorodeoxyglycosylamines ( 18 F ) may be reduced to provide fluorodeoxyglucamine ( 18 F) [ 5 ]  as a  positron emission tomography  (PET)  radiotracer .


Fluoroethyl- l -tyrosine ( 18 F)  commonly known as [ 18 F]FET, is a radiopharmaceutical tracer used in positron emission tomography (PET) imaging. This synthetic amino acid, labeled with the radioactive isotope fluorine-18, is a valuable radiopharmaceutical tracer for use in neuro-oncology for diagnosing, planning treatment, and following up on brain tumors such as gliomas. The tracer's ability to provide detailed metabolic imaging of tumors makes it an essential tool in the clinical management of brain cancer patients. Continued advancements in PET imaging technology and the development of more efficient synthesis methods are expected to further enhance the clinical utility of [ 18 F]FET. [ 2 ]


There are two common pathways for the radiosynthesis of [ 18 F]FET. The first one utilizes a nucleophilic  18 F-fluorination of ethyleneglycol-1,2-ditosylate with a subsequent  18 F-fluoroethylation of a precursor di-potassium salt of L-tyrosine. This sequence requires two purification steps, two different precursors and a dual-reactor synthesis module which is not widely available in research or commercial centers.  [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]  Schematic for this pathway is presented in Figure 1. [ 6 ]


Second route of radiosynthesis is a direct nucleophilic  18 F-fluorination a TET (O-(2-tosyloxy-ethyl)-N-trityl-L-tyrosine tertbutylester) pretected precursor followed by acidic hydrolysis of protecting groups.  [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 7 ]  Schematic for this pathway is presented in Figure 2. [ 6 ]


The use of radiolabeled amino acids for brain tumor imaging utilizes the increased proiliferation of tumor cells and overexpression in the amino acid transport system observed in malignant brain tumors.  [ 7 ] [ 8 ]


As far as the [ 18 F]FET is concerned following intravenous injection it is transported into cells primarily through amino acid transporters, particularly system L transporters, which are upregulated in many tumor cells. Once inside the cells, [ 18 F]FET does not undergo significant further metabolism but accumulates in tumor tissues, allowing for their visualization and quantification using PET imaging.  [ 8 ]


The differential uptake provides a high tumor-to-background contrast, facilitating the detection of primary and recurrent brain tumors. Unlike some other PET tracers, [ 18 F]FET does not significantly accumulate in inflammatory tissues, reducing false positives and improving diagnostic specificity.  [ 9 ] [ 10 ]


Animal studies in rodents have demonstrated high uptake of [ 18 F]FET in brain tumors, with a significant tumor-to-brain ratio, making it a useful tracer for brain tumor imaging. [ 11 ]


Heiss et al. conducted in vitro and in vivo investigation of transport mechanism and uptake of [ 18 F]FET.  The experimented utilized human colon carcinoma cells (SW 707) and  xenotransplanted, tumor-bearing mice. [ 18 F]FET was shown to be transported mainly (>80%) by the l-type amino acid transporter system, which was inhibited by 2-amino-2-norbornanecarboxylic acid (BCH) and not incorporated into proteins in SW 707 cells. This study also help to establish the half-life of [ 18 F]FET in the plasma (94 min), brain-to-blood ratio (0.86) and shower statistically significant higher uptake of [ 18 F]FET in the xenotransplanted tumor than in any other organ beside the pancreas. [ 12 ]


In 1999 biodistribution studies in mice with colon carcinoma cells were conducted by Wester et al. The study showed a high uptake of radioactivity in the pancreas (18% injected dose (ID)/g) at 60 min after injection of [ 18 F]FET. [ 5 ]  The brain (2.17% ID/g) and the tumors (6.37% ID/g) showed moderate uptakes of the radiotracer.  Rapid distribution of [ 18 F]FET with completion time of less than 5 min was observed for liver, kidney and blood. The other organs showed little elevated uptake with time. [ 18 F]FET remained intact in the tissue tested samples (pancreas, brain, tumor and plasma) and no  incorporation of radiotracer into proteins was observed. [ 5 ]


Another biodistribution study was carried out by Wang et al. In this study the comparison between [ 18 F]FDG and [ 18 F]FET in rats with gliomas showed a moderate uptake and a long retention time of [ 18 F]FET in liver, kidneys, lung, heart and blood whereas a diminished uptake was observed in healthy brain. The maximum uptake of [ 18 F]FET and [ 18 F]FDG in the glioma was observed at 60 min post injection 1.49% and 2.77% ID/g, respectively. The tumor-to-brain ratios were 3.15 for [ 18 F]FET and 1.44 for [ 18 F]FDG. PET images of [ 18 F]FET showed higher uptake and better contrast for tumor vs health tissue. [ 13 ]


Biodistribution studies in mice and rats have shown that [ 18 F]FET is retained in tumor tissues and exhibits low uptake in inflammatory tissues, enhancing its specificity for tumor imaging. [ 14 ]  In vivo experiments have also indicated that [ 18 F]FET can effectively differentiate between high-grade and low-grade tumors based on the level of tracer uptake. [ 13 ]  Additionally, longitudinal studies in animal models have shown that [ 18 F]FET PET imaging can be used to monitor tumor progression and response to therapy, providing valuable insights into the efficacy of treatment regimens. [ 15 ]  These preclinical findings have laid the groundwork for the successful translation of [ 18 F]FET PET imaging into clinical practice.


[ 18 F]FET radiotracer has several clinical applications, particularly in neuro-oncology: [ 9 ] [ 16 ]


Initial [ 18 F]FET dosimetry was estimated by Pauleit et al. based on human dynamic PET scans after injection of 400 MBq of radiotracer at 70 and 200 min. [ 17 ]  The highest dose was received by bladder (0.060 mGy/MBq) and subsequently by kidneys (0.020 mGy/MBq) and uterus (0.022 mGy/MBq). No increased uptake was observed in the liver, bone, intestine, lung, heart, or pancreas. The effective dose determined by human study was 0.0165 mSv/MBq  whereas the effective dose based on biodistribution data of mice was estimated to be 0.009 mSv/MBq. [ 17 ] [ 18 ]


Recommended activity dose for and adult (weight 70 kg) is in the range of 180 to 250 MBq.


Based on the Radiation Dose to Patients from Radiopharmaceuticals (4th addendum) the absorbed doses in human organs are presented in the table below. [ 19 ]


[ 18 F]FET has a relatively short shelf life which is a result of radioactive isotope fluorine-18 half life (109.8 minutes). However, in comparison to radiotracers labelled with carbon-11 isotope, it still allows for radiotracer to be  distributed through land and air up to 6 hour delivery radius.


Currently [ 18 F]FET is comercially available in Europe as IASOglio© in France (MA number 34009 550 105 1 7/34009 550 105 2 4) and in Poland (MA number 27420). The Marketing Authorization Holder is radiopharmaceutical company called Curium™. [ 20 ]


Flurpiridaz ( 18 F) , sold under the brand name  Flyrcado , is a  cyclotron -produced  radioactive diagnostic agent  for use with  positron emission tomography  (PET)  myocardial perfusion imaging  under rest or stress (pharmacologic or exercise). [ 3 ]  Flurpiridaz ( 18 F) It is given by  intravenous injection . [ 3 ]


The most common adverse reactions include  dyspnea  (shortness of breath),  headache ,  angina pectoris  (severe pain in the chest),  chest pain ,  fatigue ,  ST segment  changes,  flushing ,  nausea ,  abdominal pain ,  dizziness , and  arrhythmia  (irregular heartbeat). [ 3 ]


Flurpiridaz ( 18 F) was approved by the FDA for medical use evaluate for myocardial ischemia and infarction in the United States in September 2024. [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


Flurpiridaz ( 18 F) is  indicated  for positron emission tomography myocardial perfusion imaging under rest or stress (pharmacologic or exercise) in adults with known or suspected coronary artery disease to evaluate for  myocardial ischemia  and infarction. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


Flurpiridaz F-18 is a fluorine 18-labeled agent developed by Lantheus Medical Imaging for the diagnosis of coronary artery disease. [ 6 ]


The efficacy and safety of flurpiridaz ( 18 F) were evaluated in two prospective, multicenter, open-label clinical studies in adults with either suspected CAD (Study 1: NCT03354273) or known or suspected CAD (Study 2: NCT01347710). [ 3 ]  Study 1 evaluated the sensitivity (ability to designate an imaged patient with disease as positive) and specificity (ability to designate an imaged patient without disease as negative) of flurpiridaz ( 18 F) for the detection of significant CAD in subjects with suspected CAD who were scheduled for invasive coronary angiography (ICA). [ 3 ]  Across three flurpiridaz ( 18 F) imaging readers, estimates of sensitivity ranged from 74% to 89% and estimates of specificity ranged from 53% to 70% for CAD defined as at least 50% narrowing of an artery. [ 3 ]


Study 2 evaluated the sensitivity and specificity of flurpiridaz ( 18 F) for the detection of significant CAD in subjects with known or suspected CAD who had ICA without intervention within 60 days prior to imaging or were scheduled for ICA. [ 3 ]  Across three flurpiridaz ( 18 F) imaging readers, estimates of sensitivity ranged from 63% to 77% and estimates of specificity ranged from 66% to 86% for CAD defined as at least 50% narrowing of an artery. [ 3 ]


Flurpiridaz ( 18 F) was approved for medical use in the United States in September 2024. [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ]


Flurpiridaz ( 18 F) is the  international nonproprietary name . [ 7 ]


Fluticasone  is a  manufactured   glucocorticoid  used to treat  nasal congestion . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ] [ 4 ] [ 5 ]  Both the  esters ,  fluticasone propionate  (sold as Flovent) and  fluticasone furoate , are also used as  topical   anti-inflammatories  and inhaled  corticosteroids , and are used much more commonly in comparison. [ 3 ] [ 2 ] [ 4 ] [ 6 ]


It is on the  World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines . [ 7 ]  In 2022, it was the 25th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 22   million prescriptions, [ 8 ] [ 9 ]  although it is also sold  over-the-counter  (OTC). [ 10 ]


Foltx  is a vitamin supplement containing a combination of  vitamin B6  (pyridoxine),  vitamin B12  (cyanocobalamin), and  folic acid  (folacin).  It may be used to treat  hyperhomocysteinemia , a medical condition. [ 1 ]


Fosgonimeton  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated to treat  neurodegenerative  diseases such as  Alzheimer's  and  Parkinson's disease . [ 1 ]  It is a  pro-drug  of the active metabolite  dihexa . Dihexa in turn binds to the  hepatocyte growth factor  (HGF) and potentiates its activity at its receptor,  c-Met . [ 2 ]


Fosigotifator  is an experimental small-molecule developed by  AbbVie , which is running clinical trials to determine if the drug can treat  amyotrophic lateral sclerosis  (ALS). [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  A formulation of fosigotifator, as its monosodium  phosphate  salt mixed with  tromethamine , is known as ABBV-CLS-7262. Fosigotifator has been patented by AbbVie and  Calico Life Sciences  as a  prodrug  for modulation of the  integrated stress response  pathway. [ 4 ]


Fotagliptin  ( SAL067 ) is a  DPP-4 inhibitor  under development for the treatment of  type 2 diabetes . Like other DPP-4 inhibitors, it works by increasing endogenously produced  GLP-1  and  GIP . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] [ 3 ]  In a phase 3 trial it showed similar results as  alogliptin . [ 4 ]


Fotretamine  ( INN Tooltip International Nonproprietary Name ), also known as  fotrin , is an  alkylating   antineoplastic  and  immunosuppressant . [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  The drug entered  clinical trials  in the  Soviet Union . [ 3 ]  It was first described in the literature by 1972. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]


Gloria Niemeyer Francke  (April 28, 1922 – August 3, 2008) [ 1 ]  was an American pharmacist. She became assistant director of the  American Pharmacists Association  (APhA) Division of Hospital Pharmacy (1946–1956); executive secretary of the American Society of Hospital Pharmacists (1949–1960); and research associate for the Audit of Pharmaceutical Service in Hospitals (1956–1964).


A native of  Dillsboro, Indiana , Gloria Niemeyer earned her B.S. degree in Pharmacy from  Purdue University  in 1942 and her  Pharm.D  in 1971 from the  University of Cincinnati .


She then served as a drug literature specialist at the  National Library of Medicine  (1965–1967); as a clinical pharmacy teaching coordinator for the Veterans Administration Hospital in Cincinnati (1967–1971); as secretary of the American Institute of the History of Pharmacy (1968–1978); and as Chief of the program evaluation branch in the Alcohol and Drug Dependence Service, Veterans Administration (1971–1975).


She rejoined the APhA staff (1975–1985) and was elected Honorary President in 1986 and received the  Remington Honor Medal  in 1987. [ 2 ]


She served as a member of the APhA Foundation Advisory Committee. The society's Gloria Niemeyer Francke Leadership Mentor Award is named for her. [ 2 ]


Francke became the first executive secretary of the American Society of Health-System Pharmacists [ASHP] in 1949 and was Associate Editor of the American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy from 1944 to 1964. [ 3 ]


Francke's journalistic achievements include:


She was married to Donald Francke, who founded Drug Intelligence (now The Annals of Pharmacotherapy). Following his death in 1978, she became the owner of Drug Intelligence Publications.  [ citation needed ]


This  Indiana -related article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


Fruquintinib , sold under the brand name  Fruzaqla , is an  anti-cancer medication  used for the treatment of  colorectal cancer . [ 6 ]  Fruquintinib is a  kinase inhibitor . [ 6 ]  It is taken  by mouth . [ 6 ]


The most common adverse reactions include  hypertension ,  palmar-plantar erythrodysesthesia ,  proteinuria ,  dysphonia ,  abdominal pain ,  diarrhea , and  asthenia . [ 9 ]


Fruquintinib was approved for medical use in the United States in November 2023. [ 9 ] [ 10 ]


Fruquintinib is  indicated  for adults with metastatic colorectal cancer who received prior  fluoropyrimidine -,  oxaliplatin -, and  irinotecan -based chemotherapy, an anti-VEGF therapy, and, if RAS wild-type and medically appropriate, an anti-EGFR therapy. [ 6 ] [ 9 ] [ 11 ] [ 12 ]


Efficacy was evaluated in FRESCO-2 (NCT04322539) and FRESCO (NCT02314819). [ 9 ]  FRESCO-2 (NCT04322539), an international, multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, evaluated 691 participants with metastatic colorectal cancer who had disease progression during or after prior fluoropyrimidine-, oxaliplatin-, irinotecan-based chemotherapy, an anti-VEGF biological therapy an anti-EGFR biological therapy if RAS wild type, and at least one of trifluridine/tipiracil or regorafenib. [ 9 ]  FRESCO, a multicenter, placebo-controlled trial conducted in China, evaluated 416 participants with metastatic colorectal cancer who had disease progression during or after prior fluoropyrimidine-, oxaliplatin, and irinotecan-based chemotherapy. [ 9 ]


In April 2024, the  Committee for Medicinal Products for Human Use  (CHMP) of the  European Medicines Agency  adopted a positive opinion, recommending the granting of a marketing authorization for the medicinal product Fruzaqla, intended for the treatment of people with previously treated metastatic colorectal cancer (mCRC). [ 7 ] [ 13 ]  The applicant for this medicinal product is Takeda Pharmaceuticals International AG Ireland Branch. [ 7 ]  Fruzaqla was approved for medical use in the United States in June 2024. [ 8 ]


Fudosteine  ( Cleanal ) is a  mucolytic agent . [ 1 ]   In Japan, it is approved for the treatment of  bronchial asthma ,  chronic bronchitis ,  pulmonary emphysema ,  bronchiectasis ,  pulmonary tuberculosis ,  pneumoconiosis , atypical  mycobacterial disease , and  diffuse panbronchiolitis . [ 2 ]


Fudosteine works by increasing  mucin  secretion by inhibiting expression of the protein  mucin 5AC . [ 3 ]


Fumarranol  is a drug which acts as an inhibitor of the type 2 methionine aminopeptidase  enzyme   METAP2 . It was derived by structural modification of the natural product  fumagillin . It was originally developed as an anti- angiogenesis  drug for the treatment of cancer, [ 1 ]  but it was subsequently found to bind with high affinity to the METAP2 enzyme in  malaria  parasites and has been investigated as a potential treatment for malaria. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


In chemistry and pharmacology,  functional analogs  are  chemical compounds  that have similar  physical ,  chemical ,  biochemical , or  pharmacological  properties. Functional analogs are not necessarily  structural analogs  with a similar  chemical structure . [ 1 ]   An example of pharmacological functional analogs are  morphine ,  heroin  and  fentanyl , which have the same mechanism of action, but fentanyl is structurally quite different from the other two with significant variance in dosage. [ 2 ]


Funobactam  is an  investigational new drug  that is being evaluated for the treatment of hospital-acquired  bacterial pneumonia . [ 1 ]  It is a  β-lactamase inhibitor . [ 2 ]