Evolution of cultivated cannabis strains. The  cultivar ,  Cannabis ruderalis , still grows wild today.


Legal status of (whole-plant) medical cannabis worldwide  (only  de jure ; may not reflect actual access in these countries)       Legal as authorized by a physician      Legal for any use (no prescription required)     See also  countries that have decriminalized or where enforcement is limited .


Medical marijuana dispensary in Denver, Colorado


Bottle label


Areas within Pharmacology


A variety of topics involved with pharmacology, including  neuropharmacology , renal pharmacology, human  metabolism , intracellular metabolism, and intracellular regulation


A  toxicologist  working in a lab


A trio of  dose response curves . Dose response curves are studied extensively in pharmacology.


The  cholinergic  synapse. Targets in synapses can be modulated with pharmacological agents. In this case,  cholinergics  (such as  muscarine ) and  anticholinergics  (such as  atropine ) target receptors;  transporter inhibitors  (such as  hemicholinium ) target membrane transport proteins and  anticholinesterases  (such as  sarin ) target enzymes.


Ancient scale using known coins weight to determine the weight, once used at the Antica Farmacia Sant'Anna in Genoa


Cover page of Louis Le Roy,  Medicina curativa , Genoa 1885


Ancient photo of the pharmacy


Ames test procedure


Forward (classical) and  reverse pharmacology  approaches in drug discovery


The anesthetic area of an operating room. Induction of anesthesia, where the patient loses consciousness and passes through the  Guedel stages of anesthesia , commonly takes place here.


UCL Pharmacology department door, 22 Oct 2002


A.R. Cushny


A.J. Clark


John Henry Gaddum


Frank R. Winton


Heinz Otto Schild (1908-1984)


Sir James W. Black (1924-2010)


Humphrey Rang


David Colquhoun


Lucia Sivilotti (A.J. Clark Chair of Pharmacology)


Mammals excrete urine through the  urinary system .


Chemical structure of  uric acid .


White cast of uric acid defecated along with the dark feces by a  lizard . Insects, birds and some other reptiles also use a similar mechanism.


Hyoscyamus niger  fruit and seeds


Caesalpinia decapetala  flowers


Peucedanum japonicum


Phytolacca acinosa  flowers


Cannabis sativa  flowers


Datura stramonium  fruit and seeds


Ranunculus japonicus


Gymnopilus junonius


Panaeolus papilionaceus


Binding curves showing the characteristically sigmoidal curves generated by using the Hill equation to model cooperative binding. Each curve corresponds to a different Hill coefficient, labeled to the curve's right. The vertical axis displays the proportion of the total number of receptors that have been bound by a ligand. The horizontal axis is the concentration of the ligand. As the Hill coefficient is increased, the saturation curve becomes steeper.


Plot of the % saturation of oxygen binding to haemoglobin, as a function of the amount of oxygen present (expressed as an oxygen pressure). Data (red circles) and Hill equation fit (black curve) from original 1910 paper of Hill. [ 6 ]


A Hill plot, where the x-axis is the logarithm of the ligand concentration and the y-axis is the transformed receptor occupancy. X represents L and Y represents theta.


A trio of dose response curves


Streak plates  of several bacterial species on nutrient agar plates


Kirby–Bauer testing: White wafers containing  antibiotics  shown on plate of  bacteria . Circles of poor bacterial growth surround some wafers, indicating susceptibility to the antibiotic


Norethisterone  (17β-deacetyl-NETA), the  active form  of NETA.


Norethisterone and ethinylestradiol levels over 24 hours after a single oral dose of 10 mg NETA in postmenopausal women. [ 25 ]


P-i drugs table


The similarity in structural characteristics of MOR-antagonistsA = Benzene ring, B = Tetrahydrofuran, C, D = Cyclohexane rings, E = Piperidine ring


Different development stages of methylnaltrexone bromide. 1. Noroxymorphone 2. Naltrexone 3. Methylnaltrexone 4. Methylnaltrexone bromide


The development of alvimopan from 4-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-3,4-dimethylpiperidine


Structure of  axelopran


The therapeutic effects of antiarrhymatics may also potentiate cardiotoxicity


Representation of the  ion channel  opening/closing that antiarrhythmics act upon


Ventricular Action Potential


Early afterdepolarization


Figure 2.  A representative Jablonski diagram.


Figure 3 . Top: renditions of the Λ and Δ enantiomers of [Ru(phen) 2 dppz] 2+ , where phen=1,10-phenanthroline and dppz=dipyrido[3,2-a:2,3-c]phenazine. Bottom: Jablonski diagram representing the aqueous quenching of [Ru(phen) 2 dppz] 2+  emission, depicting bright states and dark states.


Figure 6.  Comparison of the principles behind classic chemotherapy and photo pharmacological chemotherapy.


Structure of a polymer conjugate


TL 12-186, a  thalidomide -based PROTAC targeting the protein  GSPT1 , a  translation  termination factor [ 1 ]


Mechanism. E1, E2, E3:  ubiquitination  enzymes; Ub = ubiquitin; target = protein to be degraded [ 1 ]


A pH scale that indicates that a pH of 1 to 6 are acidic, a pH of 7 is neutral and a pH of 8 to 14 is neutral.


A demonstration of a micelle structure with a hydrophobic core and hydrophilic surface.


The anatomy of the human eye, including the vitreous body that contains the vitreous humor.


Simplified overview of the processes involved in the primary immune response


Escherichia coli


Saccharomyces cerevisiae  colonies on yeast extract glucose chloramphenicol agar (YGC).


Schematic representation of baculovirus structure and infection cycle.


Engerix B (Hepatitis B) vaccine


Gardasil vaccine and box


The  international   pictogram  for toxic chemicals.


A version of Advil  tablets


One variety of Advil


A bottle of Excedrin with some of the caplets


An Excedrin magazine ad in  Persian ,  Zan-e Rooz  weekly, 16 January, 1971


The Angel Pharmacy in  Darmstadt  which was owned by the  Merck family  from 1668; the beginning of the Merck company


Merck visitor centre in Darmstadt, which stood from the early 1980s to around 2015


Merck chemical production plant in  Gernsheim


Merck headquarters in  Darmstadt


Seventh and former logo of Merck KGaA used from 1 October 2001 until 13 October 2015. This form was used internationally; in U.S. and Canada its design was similar but reading "EMD" instead of "Merck".


Boxes of Nurofen on a pharmacy shelf


The white and red versions of Haw Par Tiger Balm


Tiger Balm Red


Tiger Balm 1930s


1593 edition


BCS classes


A bottle of  Tylenol  capsules with the national drug code 50580-488-10


Peter Rheinstein , USAN Council Chairman, since 2012


The  S N 2 -like methyl transfer reaction. Only the SAM cofactor and cytosine base are shown for simplicity.


Table from the 2010  DrugScience  study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. This study rated alcohol the most harmful drug overall, and the only drug more  harmful to others  than to the users themselves. [ 4 ]


Acute confusional state caused by alcohol withdrawal, also known as  delirium tremens


An insulin treatment ward, circa 1951,  Roundway Hospital , Devizes, England


A patient subjected to the practice in Lapinlahti Hospital, Helsinki in the 1950s


Coluracetam , a high-affinity choline uptake (HACU) enhancer


Ritalin : 20 mg  sustained-release  (SR) tablets


A chart comparing the chemical structures of different  amphetamine derivatives


Roasted coffee beans, a common source of caffeine.


Tablets containing MDMA


Lines of  cocaine , a popular stimulant


Catha edulis


Sodium thiopental , marketed as Pentothal


Amobarbital , one of the chemical compounds that can be used as a truth serum


Gynecomastia, gross.


Testicular atrophy, microscopic.


Testicular atrophy, gross.


Heart with myocardial contraction band necrosis, trichrome stain, microscopic.


Heart with hypertrophy, gross.


Heart with ischemic changes, microscopic.


Abruptio placenta with large recent blood clot compressing the parenchyma, gross.


Heart with peripheral coronary artery sclerosis, microscopic.


Heart with myocardial contraction band necrosis, microscopic.


Cerebral infarction, gross.


Massive intracerebral hemorrhage associated with cocaine use, gross.


Talc granulomatosis of the lungs, polarized light, microscopic.


Talc granulomatosis of the liver, gross.


Glomerulus of kidney demonstrating focal scarring with heroin nephropathy, microscopic.


Mycobacterium tuberculosis, lung, cavitary disease, gross.


Macronodular cirrhosis of the liver, gross.


Viral hepatitis of the liver, microscopic.


Viral hepatitis of the liver, gross.


Surface of the brain with acute meningitis, gross.


Normal aortic valve compared with infective endocarditis, gross.


Wernicke's disease, hemorrhages in the mammillary bodies, gross.


Esophageal varices, gross.


Hepatocellular carcinoma, liver with micronodular cirrhosis, gross.


Micronodular cirrhosis of liver, microscopic.


Micronodular cirrhosis of liver, gross.


Fatty change of liver, microscopic.


Normal liver, gross.


Hyaline membrane disease in the lung of a premature neonate, microscopic.


Acute gastric ulcerations, gross.


Pelvis of kidney, urothelial carcinoma, gross.


Composite photograph with
a narrowed coronary artery at the left and a markedly narrowed coronary
artery at the right, microscopic.


Emphysema, representing a modern version of "The Masque of the Red Death" in Edgar Allen Poe's short story.


Emphysema, centrilobular type, gross.


Squamous cell carcinoma of lung, gross.


Small cell anaplastic (oat cell) carcinoma of lung, gross.


Normal lung, gross.