The practice of circumcision is thought to have been brought to the Bantu-speaking tribes of Africa by either the Jews after one of their many expulsions from European countries, or by Muslim Moors escaping after the 1492  reconquest  of Spain. In the second half of the first millennium CE, inhabitants from the Northeast of Africa moved south and encountered groups from Arabia, the Middle East, and West Africa. These people moved south and formed what is known today as the Bantu. Bantu tribes were observed to be upholding what was described as Jewish law, including circumcision, in the 16th century. Circumcision and elements of Jewish dietary restrictions are still found among Bantu tribes. [ 27 ]


Circumcision is practiced by some groups amongst  Australian Aboriginal  peoples,  Polynesians , and  Native Americans . [ 2 ] [ 27 ]


For Aboriginal Australians and Polynesians, circumcision likely started as a blood sacrifice and a test of bravery and became an initiation rite with attendant instruction in manhood in more recent centuries.  Often seashells were used to remove the foreskin, and the bleeding was stopped with  eucalyptus  smoke. [ 27 ] [ 101 ]


Christopher Columbus  reported circumcision being practiced by Native Americans. [ 28 ]  It probably started among South American tribes as a blood sacrifice or ritual to test bravery and endurance, and later evolved into a rite of initiation. [ 27 ]


Circumcision began to be advocated as a means of  prophylaxis  in 1855, primarily as a means of preventing the transmission of sexually transmitted infections. At this time,  British  physician  Jonathan Hutchinson  published his findings that, among his venereal disease patients, Jews had a lower prevalence of  syphilis . [ 102 ] [ 103 ]  Hutchinson suggested that circumcision lowers the risk of contracting syphilis. [ 103 ]  Pursuing a successful career as a general practitioner, Hutchinson went on to advocate circumcision for health reasons for the next fifty years, [ 102 ]  eventually earned a  knighthood  for his contributions to medicine. His viewpoint that circumcision was prophylactic against disease was adopted by other medical professionals. [ 104 ]


In 1870, orthopedic surgeon  Lewis Sayre , a founder of the  American Medical Association , introduced circumcision in the United States as a purported cure for several cases of young boys presenting with paralysis and other significant gross motor problems. He thought the procedure ameliorated such problems based on the then prominent "reflex neurosis" theory of disease, thinking that a tight foreskin inflamed the nerves and caused systemic problems. [ 105 ]  The use of circumcision to promote good health also fit the  germ theory of disease , which saw validation during the same period: the foreskin was thought to harbor infection-causing  smegma . [ 106 ] : 106   Sayre published works on the subject and promoted it in speeches. [ 105 ]  Although later discredited, many contemporary physicians believed it could cure, reduce, or otherwise prevent a wide-ranging array of perceived medical problems and social ills, including that of  epilepsy ,  hernia ,  headache ,  masturbation ,  clubfoot ,  alcoholism  and  gout . Its popularity spread with publications such as Peter Charles Remondino's  History of Circumcision . [ 106 ] [ 107 ] [ 108 ]  By the late 19th century, circumcision had become common throughout the  Anglophonic world —Australia, Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom—as well as the  Union of South Africa . In the United Kingdom and United States, it was universally recommended. [ 21 ] [ 106 ]  Some mainstream pediatric manuals in the US continued to recommend circumcision as a deterrent against masturbation until the 1950s. [ 107 ] : 752


Historian  David Gollaher  proposes that "Americans found circumcision appealing not merely on medical grounds, but also for its connotations of science, health, and cleanliness—newly important class distinctions" in a country where 17 million immigrants arrived between 1890 and 1914. [ 106 ] : 106


During the  interwar period , medical organizations and doctors in  mainland Europe  experimented with the idea of routine circumcision for prophylactic reasons as well, alongside developments in the Anglophonic world. In France, the medical profession went so far as to recommend universal routine circumcision. However, prevalence in France and mainland Europe remained low. [ 19 ]  There is a lack of consensus in the academic literature on why this occurred. [ 19 ]


Yosha & Bolnick & Koyle  (2012) have suggested that a factor in its Anglophonic adoption and dismissal in mainland Europe relates to attitudes towards Judaism and Jewish practices. While many of these Anglophonic polities would not be considered tolerant by modern standards: the United Kingdom had  Benjamin Disraeli —a Jew—as  Prime Minister ;  Jews in the United States  were prominent and generally well-respected; while in Australia "the racial issues of the time  involved primarily Aborigines and Chinese immigration , and Jews were essentially below the radar". They argue that once "a substantial proportion of the male population [was] circumcised, the idea that it [was] a Jewish practice [became] no longer relevant. In Britain this was aided by the fact that circumcision was well known to be as much a practice of the nobility as a Jewish religious rite, so that the racial-religious nexus was broken." These factors were absent in  continental Europe . [ 19 ]


Rates in the Anglophonic world began to sharply diverge after 1945. [ 28 ]


After the end of  World War II , Britain implemented a  National Health Service .  Douglas Gairdner 's 1949 article "The Fate of the Foreskin" argued that the evidence showed that the risks outweighed the benefits, leading to a significant reduction in circumcision incidence within the United Kingdom. [ 110 ]


In contrast to Gairdner, American pediatrician  Benjamin Spock  argued in favor of circumcision in his popular  The Common Sense Book of Baby and Child Care  which led to rates in the United States significantly rising. In the 1970s, national medical associations in Australia and Canada issued recommendations against routine infant circumcision, leading to drops in the rates of both of those countries. The United States made similar statements in the 1970s but stopped short of recommending against it. [ 28 ]


An association between circumcision and reduced heterosexual HIV infection rates was first suggested in 1986. [ 28 ]


Experimental evidence was needed to establish a causal relationship, so three  randomized controlled trials  were commissioned to exclude other  confounding factors . [ 12 ]  Trials took place in South Africa, Kenya and Uganda. [ 12 ]  All three trials were stopped early by their monitoring boards because those in the circumcised group had a substantially lower rate of HIV contraction than the control group, so it was considered unethical to withhold the procedure, in light of strong evidence of prophylactic efficacy. [ 12 ] [ 111 ]  WHO assessed these as "gold standard" studies and found "strong and consistent" evidence from later studies that confirmed the results of the studies. [ 30 ]  A scientific consensus subsequently developed that circumcision reduces heterosexual HIV infection rates in high-risk populations; [ 13 ] [ 9 ] [ 112 ]  the WHO, along with other major medical organizations, have since promoted circumcision of high-risk populations as part of the program to reduce the spread of HIV. [ 30 ]  The  Male Circumcision Clearinghouse  website was created in 2009 by WHO, UNAIDS, FHI and AVAC to provide evidence-based guidance, information, and resources to support the delivery of safe male circumcision services in countries that choose to scale up the procedure as one component of comprehensive HIV prevention services. [ 113 ] [ 114 ]


The word  circumcision  is from Latin  circumcidere , meaning "to cut around". [ 2 ]


Many societies hold  cultural, ethical, or social views on the practice , with perspectives ranging widely. In some cultures, males are generally required to be circumcised shortly after birth, during childhood or around puberty as part of a rite of passage. Circumcision is commonly practiced in the Jewish and Islamic and  Druze  faiths and in  Coptic Christianity  and the  Ethiopian Orthodox Church  and the  Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church . [ 19 ] [ 115 ] [ 116 ] [ 117 ] [ 118 ] [ 119 ] [ 120 ]  In contrast, some religions, such as  Mandaeism  and  Hinduism  and  Sikhism , strongly prohibit the practice of routine circumcision. [ 121 ] [ 122 ] [ 123 ]


Circumcision is near-universal among Jews. [ 124 ]  The  mitzvah  of circumcision on the eighth day of life is considered among the  most important commandments in Judaism . Barring extraordinary circumstances, failure to undergo the rite is seen by followers of  Judaism  as leading to a state of  Kareth : the extinction of the  soul  and denial of a share in the  world to come . [ 23 ] [ 24 ] [ 94 ]  Reasons for biblical circumcision include to show off "patrilineal descent, sexual fertility, male initiation, cleansing of birth impurity, and dedication to God". [ 125 ]


The basis for its observance is found in the  Torah  of the Hebrew Bible, in  Genesis chapter 17 , in which a covenant of circumcision is made with Abraham and his descendants. Jewish circumcision is part of the  brit milah  ritual, to be performed by a specialist ritual circumciser, a  mohel , on the eighth day of a newborn son's life, with certain exceptions for poor health. Jewish law requires that the circumcision leaves the glans bare when the penis is flaccid.  Converts to Conservative and Orthodox Judaism must also be circumcised; those who are already circumcised undergo a symbolic circumcision ritual. Circumcision is not required by Judaism for one to be considered Jewish, but mainstream Judaism foresees serious negative spiritual consequences if it is neglected. [ 115 ] [ 126 ]  Circumcision is not considered a  universal moral law  within Judaism. Rather, the commandment to circumcise is seen as only applying to Jewish people. Those who are Gentiles are believed to have a portion in the "World to Come" as long as they follow the tenets of the  Seven Laws of Noah . [ 127 ]  There are also certain exceptions for Jews with poor health. [ 128 ]


According to traditional Jewish law, in the absence of an adult free Jewish male expert, a woman, a slave, or a child who has the required skills is also authorized to perform the circumcision, provided that they are Jewish. [ 129 ]  However, most streams of non-Orthodox Judaism allow female  mohels , called  mohalot  ( Hebrew :  מוֹהֲלוֹת , the plural of  מוֹהֶלֶת   mohelet , feminine of  mohel ), without restriction. In 1984 Deborah Cohen became the first certified Reform  mohelet ; she was certified by the Berit Mila program of Reform Judaism. [ 130 ]  An increasing number of Jews in the United States have chosen not to circumcise their sons. [ 131 ]


All major rabbinical organizations make the recommendation that male infants should be circumcised. The issue of converts remains controversial in Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism; [ 132 ] [ 133 ]  circumcision of converts is not mandatory in either. [ 134 ]


Islamic scholars have diverse opinions on the obligatory nature of male circumcision, with some considering it mandatory ( wājib ), while others view it as only being recommended ( sunnah ). [ 135 ]  According to  historians of religion  and scholars of  religious studies , the Islamic tradition of circumcision was derived from the  Pagan practices and rituals  of  pre-Islamic Arabia . [ 136 ]  Although there is some debate within Islam over whether it is a religious requirement or mere recommendation, circumcision (called  khitan ) is practiced nearly universally by Muslim males. Islam bases its practice of circumcision on the Genesis 17 narrative, the same Biblical chapter referred to by Jews. The procedure is not explicitly mentioned in the Quran, however, it is a tradition established by Islam's prophet  Muhammad  directly (following Abraham), and so its practice is considered a  sunnah  (prophet's tradition) and is very important in Islam. For Muslims, circumcision is also a matter of cleanliness, purification and control over one's baser self ( nafs ). [ 117 ] [ 118 ] [ 137 ]


There is no agreement across the many Islamic communities about the age at which circumcision should be performed. It may be done from soon after birth up to about age 15; most often it is performed at around six to seven years of age. The timing can correspond with the boy's completion of his recitation of the whole Quran, with a coming-of-age event such as taking on the responsibility of daily prayer or betrothal. Circumcision may be celebrated with an associated family or community event. Circumcision is recommended for, but is not required of, converts to Islam. [ 117 ] [ 118 ] [ 137 ]


Traditionally, circumcision has not been practiced by Christians for religious reasons, with the practice being viewed as succeeded by  Baptism , with the  New Testament  chapter  Acts 15  recording that Christianity did not require circumcision from new converts. [ 138 ]  Christian denominations generally hold a neutral position on circumcision for prophylactic, cultural, and social reasons, while strongly opposing it for religious reasons. This includes the  Catholic Church , which explicitly banned the practice of religious circumcision in the  Council of Florence , [ 139 ]  and maintains a neutral position on the practice of circumcision for other reasons. [ 140 ]  A majority of other  Christian denominations  take a similar position on circumcision, prohibiting it for religious observance, but neither explicitly supporting or forbidding it for other reasons. [ 140 ]


Thus, circumcision rates of Christians are predominately determined by the surrounding cultures which they live in. In some  African  and  Eastern Christian denominations  circumcision is an established practice, [ 25 ] [ 141 ]  and generally boys undergo circumcision shortly after birth as part of a  rite of passage . [ 25 ]  Circumcision is near-universal among  Coptic Christians , [ 142 ]  and they practice circumcision as a rite of passage. [ 2 ] [ 116 ] [ 120 ] [ 143 ]  The  Ethiopian Orthodox Church  calls for circumcision, with near-universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia. [ 2 ]   Eritrean Orthodox  practice circumcision as a rite of passage, and they circumcise their sons "anywhere from the first week of life to the first few year". [ 144 ]  Some Christian churches in South Africa disapprove of the practice, while others require it of their members. [ 2 ]


Circumcision is practiced in many predominantly  Christian countries  and Christian communities. [ 145 ] [ 146 ] [ 147 ]   Christian communities  in  Africa , [ 148 ] [ 149 ]  some  Anglosphere countries , the Philippines, the Middle East, [ 150 ] [ 151 ]  South Korea and  Oceania  have high circumcision rates, [ 152 ] [ 153 ]  while Christian communities in  Europe  and  South America  have low circumcision rates, although none of these are performed out of perceived religious obligation. [ 25 ] [ 154 ]  Scholar Heather L. Armstrong writes that, as of 2021, [update]  about half of Christian males worldwide are circumcised, with most of them being located in Africa, Anglosphere countries, and the Philippines. [ 155 ]


Circumcision is widely practiced by the  Druze ; [ 156 ]  Druze practice Druzism, an  Abrahamic , [ 157 ] [ 158 ]   monotheistic ,  syncretic , and  ethnic religion . The procedure is practiced as a cultural tradition, and has no religious significance in the Druze faith. [ 159 ] [ 160 ]  There is no special date for this act in the  Druze faith : male Druze infants are usually circumcised shortly after birth, [ 161 ]  however some remain uncircumcised until the age of ten or older. [ 161 ]


Some Druses do not circumcise their male children and refuse to observe this "common Muslim practice". [ 162 ]


Like Judaism, the religion of  Samaritanism  requires ritual circumcision on the eighth day of life. [ 163 ]


Circumcision is forbidden in  Mandaeism , [ 121 ] [ 164 ]  and the sign of the Jews given to  Abraham  by God, circumcision, is considered abhorrent by the  Mandaeans . [ 165 ]  According to Mandaean doctrine, a circumcised man cannot serve as a  Mandaean priest . [ 166 ]


Circumcision is not required in  Yazidism , but is practised by some  Yazidis  due to regional customs. [ 167 ]  The ritual is usually performed soon after birth, it takes place on the knees of the kerîf (approximately "godfather"), with whom the child will have a life-long formal relationship. [ 168 ]


Sikhism  does not require the elective circumcision of its followers and strongly criticizes the practice. [ 123 ] [ 169 ]


For example,  Bhagat Kabir  criticizes the practise of circumcision in the hymn of  Guru Granth Sahib . [ 170 ]


Some  Australian Aborigines  use circumcision as a test of bravery and self-control as a part of a rite of passage into manhood, which results in full societal and ceremonial membership.  It may be accompanied by body  scarification  and the removal of teeth, and may be followed later by  penile subincision .  Circumcision is one of many trials and ceremonies required before a youth is considered to have become knowledgeable enough to maintain and pass on the cultural traditions.  During these trials, the maturing youth bonds in solidarity with the men.  Circumcision is also strongly associated with a man's family, and it is part of the process required to prepare a man to take a wife and produce his own family. [ 119 ]


In the Philippines, circumcision is known as "tuli" and is generally viewed as a rite of passage. [ 172 ]  An overwhelming majority of Filipino men are circumcised. [ 172 ] [ a ]  Often this occurs, in April and May, when Filipino boys are taken by their parents. The practice dates back to the arrival of  Islam  in 1450. Pressure to be circumcised is even in the language: one  Tagalog profanity  for 'uncircumcised' is  supot , meaning 'coward' literally. A circumcised eight or ten year-old is no longer considered a boy and is given more adult roles in the family and society. [ 174 ]


Worldwide, the large majority of polities do not have specific laws concerning the circumcision of males, [ 2 ]  with religious infant circumcision being legal in every country. [ 124 ] [ 179 ]  A few countries have passed legislation on the procedure: Germany allows routine circumcision, [ 180 ]  while non-religious routine circumcision is illegal in South Africa and Sweden. [ 2 ] [ 179 ]  No major medical organization recommends circumcising all males, and no major medical organization recommends banning the procedure. [ 19 ] [ 181 ] [ 124 ]


In the academic literature, there is general agreement among both supporters and opponents of the practice that an outright ban would be predominately ineffective and "harmful". [ 19 ] [ 124 ] [ 182 ] [ 181 ]  A consensus to keep the procedure within the purview of medical professionals is found across all major medical organizations, who advise medical professionals to yield to some degree to parental preferences in their decision to agree to circumcise. [ 19 ] [ 124 ]  The Royal Dutch Medical Association, which expresses some of the strongest opposition to routine neonatal circumcision, argues that while there are valid reasons for banning it, doing so could lead parents who insist on the procedure to turn to poorly trained practitioners instead of medical professionals. [ 19 ] [ 179 ]


During the 2010s, several  right-wing nationalist  parties prominently called for the banning of circumcision. [ 183 ]  Gressgård argued that politicians that supported Norway's proposed circumcision ban debated circumcision in a manner which constituted " ethnocentrism ". [ 184 ]


The cost-effectiveness of circumcision has been studied to determine whether a policy of circumcising all newborns or a policy of promoting and providing inexpensive or free access to circumcision for all adult men who choose it would result in lower overall societal healthcare costs. As  HIV/AIDS  is an incurable disease that is expensive to manage, significant effort has been spent studying the cost-effectiveness of circumcision to reduce its spread in parts of Africa that have a relatively high infection rate and low circumcision prevalence. [ 185 ]  Several analyses have concluded that circumcision programs for adult men in Africa are cost-effective and in some cases are cost-saving. [ 186 ] [ 187 ]  In Rwanda, circumcision has been found to be cost-effective across a wide range of age groups from newborn to adult, [ 55 ] [ 188 ]  with the greatest savings achieved when the procedure is performed in the newborn period due to the lower cost per procedure and greater timeframe for HIV infection protection. [ 189 ] [ 188 ]  Circumcision for the prevention of HIV transmission in adults has also been found to be cost-effective in South Africa, Kenya, and Uganda, with cost savings estimated in the billions of US dollars over 20 years. [ 185 ]  Hankins  et al.  (2011) estimated that a $1.5 billion investment in circumcision for adults in 13 high-priority African countries would yield $16.5 billion in savings. [ 190 ]


The overall cost-effectiveness of neonatal circumcision has also been studied in the United States, which has a different cost setting from Africa in areas such as public health infrastructure, availability of medications, and medical technology and the willingness to use it. [ 191 ]  A study by the CDC suggests that newborn circumcision would be societally cost-effective in the United States based on circumcision's efficacy against the transmission of HIV alone during  coitus , without considering any other cost benefits. [ 1 ]  The American Academy of Pediatrics (2012) recommends that neonatal circumcision in the United States be covered by third-party payers such as  Medicaid  and insurance. [ 1 ]  A 2014 review that considered reported benefits of circumcision such as reduced risks from HIV, HPV, and HSV-2 stated that circumcision is cost-effective in both the United States and Africa and may result in health care savings. [ 192 ]  A 2014 literature review found that there are significant gaps in the current literature on male and female sexual health that need to be addressed for the literature to be applicable to North American populations. [ 78 ]


Collagen induction therapy  ( CIT ), also known as  microneedling ,  dermarolling , or  skin needling , is a  cosmetic  procedure that involves repeatedly puncturing the  skin  with tiny, sterile needles (microneedling the skin). CIT should be separated from other contexts in which microneedling devices are used on the skin (e.g.,  transdermal  drug delivery,  vaccination ).


It is a technique for which research is ongoing, but has been used for a number of skin problems including scarring and  acne . [ 1 ]  Some studies have also shown that when combined with  minoxidil  treatment, microneedling is able to treat hair loss more effectively than minoxidil treatment alone. [ 2 ]


Platelet-rich plasma  (PRP) can be combined with collagen induction therapy treatment in a form of  dermatologic   autologous blood therapy . PRP is derived from the patient's own blood and may contain  growth factors  that increase collagen production. [ 3 ]  It can be applied topically to the entire treatment area during and after collagen induction therapy treatments or injected intradermally to scars. Efficacy of the combined treatments remains in question pending scientific studies. [ 4 ] [ 5 ]


More serious safety concerns have been cited for these treatments, popularly known as  vampire facials , when performed in non-medical settings by people untrained in  infection control . [ 6 ] [ 7 ]  The New Mexico Department of Health issued a statement that at least one such business offering vampire facials "could potentially spread blood-borne infections such as  HIV ,  hepatitis B  and  hepatitis C  to clients". [ 6 ]


In April 2024, the CDC announced that three women who had been patients at the Albuquerque, New Mexico, VIP Spa had been diagnosed with HIV after getting "vampire facials" there. Another almost 200 former clients and their sexual partners were also tested but were found to not have HIV. No mention was made of any testing for other possible blood-borne infections. [ 8 ]


A  corset  is a support  garment  worn to hold and train the  torso  into the desired shape and  posture . They are traditionally constructed out of fabric with boning made of  whalebone  or steel, a stiff panel in the front called a  busk  which holds the torso rigidly upright, and some form of lacing which allows the garment to be tightened. Corsets were an essential undergarment in European women's fashion from the 17th century to the early 20th century. In the 17th and 18th centuries they were commonly known as "stays" and had a more conical shape. This later evolved into the curvaceous 19th century form which is commonly associated with the corset today. By the beginning of the 20th century, shifting gender roles and the onsets of  World War I  and  II  (and the associated material shortages) led the corset to be largely discarded by mainstream fashion.


Since the corset fell out of use, the fashion industry has used the term "corset" to refer to undergarments or shirts which, to varying degrees, mimic the look of traditional corsets. While these modern  corsets  and  corset tops  often feature lacing or  boning , and generally imitate a historical style of corsets, they by-and-large have very little, if any, effect on the shape of the wearer's body. Elasticated garments such as girdles and waist trainers are still worn today and serve to compress the waist or hips, although they lack the rigidity of corsets. A  corset brace  is a type of  orthotic  resembling a traditional corset, used to support the lower back in patients with mild to moderate back pain.


The word  corset  is a diminutive of the  Old French  word  cors  (meaning "body", and itself derived from the  Latin   corpus ): the word therefore means "little body". The craft of corset construction is known as  corsetry , as is the general wearing of them. (The word  corsetry  is sometimes also used as a collective plural form of corset). Someone who makes corsets is a  corsetier  or  corsetière  (French terms for a man and for a woman maker, respectively), or sometimes simply a  corsetmaker .


In 1828, the word corset came into general use in the English language. The word was used in  The Ladies Magazine [ 1 ]  to describe a "quilted waistcoat" that the French called  un corset.  It was used to differentiate the lighter corset from the heavier stays of the period.


As the form and purpose of the corset was continually evolving throughout its time as a standard undergarment, there is no way to definitively state how it was worn. While the original purpose of stiffened undergarments was founded in the avoiding of creasing to costly, highly adorned outer garments, [ 2 ]  the most common and well-known use of corsets is to slim the body and make it conform to a fashionable silhouette. For women, this most frequently emphasizes a curvy figure by reducing the  waist  and thereby exaggerating the  bust  and  hips .


However, in the  Tudor period , corsets, known then as "bodies", were worn to achieve a tubular straight-up-and-down shape, which involved minimizing the bust. These bodies, both women's and menswear, were worn into the 16th and 17th centuries and achieved their stiffened shaping through materials including steel, wood, or whalebone, and were constructed of two parts and fastened at the sides. [ 3 ]


These bodies evolved into the  stays  of the 17th century. [ 2 ]  The term corset emerged later, around the end of the 18th century. [ 3 ]  Stays were an integral part of fashionable women's underclothing in  the West . Shaping the body to fit the desired silhouette, which, for example, in the 1780s resembled a conical shape, stays of the 18th century ensured good posture – the central aim of such undergarments of this period, rather than accentuating the bust, for example. [ 4 ]


During the late 1700s up until the 1820s, in reflection of the neoclassical style of dress, the demi-corset or short stays were popularised, [ 3 ]  as the  empire line  of fashionable gowns did not require support or shaping to the waist.


For men, corsets were sporadically used to slim the figure. From around 1820 to 1835—and even until the late 1840s in some instances—a  wasp-waisted figure  (a small, nipped-in look to the  waist ) was also desirable for men; [ citation needed ]  wearing a corset sometimes served to achieve this. However, by the mid-1800s onward, men's corsets fell out of favor, and were generally considered effeminate and pretentious. [ 5 ] : 227


An "overbust corset" encloses the torso, extending from just under the arms toward the hips. An "underbust corset" begins just under the breasts and extends down toward the hips. A "longline corset"—either overbust or underbust—extends past the  iliac crest , or the hip bone. A longline corset is ideal for those who want increased stability, have longer torsos, or want to smooth out or minimize the hips. This style was common during the 1910s, when slim hips came into vogue, and later evolved into the elasticated  girdle . [ 6 ]  A "standard" length corset will stop short of the iliac crest and is ideal for those who want increased flexibility or have a shorter torso. Some corsets, in very rare instances, reach the  knees . A shorter kind of corset that covers the  waist  area (from low on the ribs to just above the hips), is called a  waist cincher . A corset may also include  garters  to hold up  stockings ; alternatively, a separate  garter belt  may be worn.


Traditionally, a corset supports the visible dress and spreads the pressure from large dresses, such as the  crinoline  and  bustle . At times, a corset cover is used to protect outer clothes from the corset and to smooth the lines of the corset. The original corset cover was worn under the corset to provide a layer between it and the body. Corsets were not worn next to the skin, possibly due to difficulties with laundering these items during the 19th century, as they had steel boning and metal eyelets that would rust. Light linen or cotton shifts (also called chemises) were worn beneath corsets to absorb sweat and protect the corset and wearer from each other, and also to function as underwear and protect other garments from the wearer and their sweat. The corset cover was generally in the form of a light chemisette, made from cotton lawn or silk. Modern corset wearers may wear corset liners for many of the same reasons. Those who lace their corsets tightly use the liners to prevent burn on their skin from the laces.


Aside from fashion and medical uses, corsets are also used in  sexual fetishism , most notably in Bondage/Discipline/Sado-Masochism ( BDSM ). In BDSM, a  submissive  may be required to wear a corset, which would be laced very tightly and restrict the wearer to some degree. A  dominant  may also wear a corset, often black, but for entirely different reasons, such as aesthetics. A specially designed corset, in which the  breasts  and  vulva  are exposed, can be worn during " vanilla sex " or  BDSM  activities. Dress historian  David Kunzle  argues in his work  Fashion and Fetishism  that historical usage of the corset had a fetishistic dimension as some wearers reported feeling sexual pleasure from the use of the garment, and the corseted waist was highly sexualized by men and women alike. [ 7 ]


A  corset brace  is a  lumbar  support that is used in the prevention and treatment of lower-back pain. They can also be prescribed to patients healing from spinal surgery. A corset brace resembles a historical corset, but is typically made with elastic fabric and plastic boning to allow for more flexibility. Metal boning may be used if more rigidity is needed. [ 8 ] [ 9 ]  Artist  Andy Warhol  was shot in 1968 and never fully recovered; he wore a corset for the rest of his life. [ 10 ]


Corsets are typically constructed of a stiff material, such as buckram, structured with  boning  (also called ribs or stays) inserted into channels in the cloth or leather. In the 18th and early 19th century, thin strips of  baleen  (also known as whalebone) were favoured for the boning. [ 11 ] [ 12 ]   Plastic  is the most commonly used material for modern corsets and the majority of poor-quality corsets. Spring and/or spiral steel or synthetic whalebone is preferred for stronger and generally better quality corsets. Other materials used for boning have included  ivory ,  wood , and cane.


Corsets are held together by lacing, usually (though not always) at the back. Tightening or loosening the lacing produces corresponding changes in the firmness of the corset. Depending on the desired effect and time period, corsets can be laced from the top down, from the bottom up, or both up from the bottom and down from the top, using the bunny ears lacing method. Victorian corsets also had a buttoned or hooked front opening called a  busk . If the corset was worn loosely, it was possible to leave the lacing as adjusted and take the corset on and off using the front opening. (If the corset is worn snugly, this method will damage the busk if the lacing is not significantly loosened beforehand).


In the 1660s, the manufacture of stays, as they were known during the period, began to emerge as its own profession in France. These craftsmen were known as staymakers. The work was specialized and generally considered men's work, although women often assisted in the construction process sewing together pieces cut and fitted by men. Women were excluded from staymaker's guilds, and the work was considered too strenuous for women to do correctly. [ 13 ]


By the 19th century, corsets became one of the first garments to be manufactured in factories via assembly line. Each step was performed by a different group of people, often children. Heavy or messy work was done in house, such as cutting the fabric pieces and  japanning  the steels to prevent rust, and lighter work, such as sewing the bones in place, was taken home by  piece workers , generally women who enlisted their children to help them. Workers in corset factories were among the most poorly-paid in London, and frequently could not make enough to meet their daily living expenses. [ 5 ]


Although the corsetmaking industry was dominated by men, a number of woman designers and inventors became known for their work in this field. Among them included  Roxey Ann Caplin , who consulted her physician husband to create corsets with respect to modern knowledge of female  anatomy . The field of corsetmaking was one in which new designs were continually submitted and  patented , often with the desire to create ever stronger or stiffer corsets that were less likely to break. [ 5 ] : 26–28


In the past, a woman's corset was usually worn over a  chemise , a sleeveless low-necked gown made of washable material (usually  cotton  or  linen ). It absorbed  perspiration  and kept the corset and the gown clean. In modern times, a tee shirt, camisole, or corset liner may be worn. In the late Victorian period, as anxiety around the health effects of corseting increased, the "health corset" became popularized, typically featuring woolen lining and other features such as elasticated panels or steel watch springs instead of steel strips for boning.


The invention of the steel  eyelet  in 1827 was a major turning point in the history of the corset, and allowed wearers to lace their corsets significantly more tightly without damaging the garment. [ 5 ] : 13   Dress historian David Kunzle maintains that tightlacing was largely the domain of middle to lower-middle-class women hoping to increase their station in life; he estimates that the average corseted waist size of the 1880s was approximately 21 inches (53 cm), with an uncorseted waist size of about 27 inches (69 cm). [ 7 ]  A corseted waist of 19 inches (48 cm) was considered "standard" and one of 13 inches (33 cm) "severe" but not unheard of. [ 14 ] [ 15 ]   Statistics from 1888 indicate that the average waist size had decreased over the past 25 years, attributed to tightlacing itself as well as the lowered respiration and food intake permitted by tightlacing. [ 5 ] : 248–249   Modern wearers are unlikely to achieve the same degree of reduction that was recorded in historical usage since the corset was usually begun during the early teen years or even before. The slimmest waist sizes on record should be contextualized with the fact that they were seen in teenage girls, and may have been reserved for special occasions. [ 16 ] [ 14 ]


In 1895,  The West Australian  published an account purporting to be from the early 1860s, the diary of a student at an all-girls  boarding school  which described how their school madams trained girls to achieve waists ranging from 14 inches (36 cm) to 19 inches (48 cm); the narrator herself reports a reduction from 23 inches (58 cm) to 14 inches (36 cm), and a subsequent interview with a corsetmaking firm corroborated that such sizes were not unusual during that period. [ 16 ]


Until 1998, the  Guinness Book of World Records  listed  Ethel Granger  as having the smallest waist on record at 13 inches (33 cm). [ 17 ]  After 1998, the category changed to "smallest waist on a living person".  Cathie Jung  took the title with a waist measuring 15 inches (38 cm). Other women, such as  Polaire , also have achieved such reductions: 16 inches (41 cm) in her case.  Empress Sisi  of Austria was known to have a very slender waist at 16 inches.


The negative physical effects of corseting have become widely known, including a variety of myths. For example, the idea that Victorian women frequently underwent  rib removal  to achieve a smaller waist is baseless. [ 13 ]  However, wearing a corset does affect a number of bodily functions and can be deleterious to the wearer's health, especially when worn regularly over a long period of time; during the Victorian era stays were typically begun at or before the onset of puberty, with reported ages ranging from 7 to 13. [ 5 ]


Moderately laced corsets have been demonstrated to reduce  lung capacity  anywhere from 2 to 29%, with an average of 9%, and can cause an increase in shortness of breath during moderate exercise such as dancing. Doctors warned corseted women against "everything that [was] worthy of the name exercise" to avoid strain, [ 13 ] : 70–71   although some guides were written on light calisthenics to be done by young women who would presumably be wearing corsets. Typical exercises included stretching, dance steps, and skipping, largely focusing on moving the limbs and balancing. [ 18 ]  As women's social freedom increased during the second half of the 19th century, sport corsets began to be sold, designed for wear while  bicycling , playing  tennis , or horseback riding. These designs typically incorporated some form of elastic panelling or mesh. [ 5 ]


Corsets were widely thought to contribute to  tuberculosis . Prior to the advent of  germ theory , some thought corsets directly caused the disease, as women were significantly more likely to contract and die from the disease than men in this era. Others thought corsets contributed to TB deaths due to impairment of lung function. [ 14 ] [ 13 ]


Corsets are known to contribute significantly to  muscle wasting  in the core and back when worn over long periods of time. Although they temporarily relieve back pain, muscle atrophy due to disuse will lead to increased lower-back pain and eventually perpetual reliance on the corset. [ 13 ]   Forceps delivery  was standard during this period, which could be due to  atrophy  of the abdominal muscles caused by lifelong corset usage. [ 14 ]


Skeletal analyses have found that the usage of corsets had a significant effect on the form of the spine, ribs, and hips. [ 15 ] [ 19 ] [ 20 ]  However, the consequences of this change are not fully agreed upon by researchers. Underdevelopment of the pelvic inlet may have contributed to difficulties in birth. [ 15 ]


A significant source of the controversy surrounding corsets was their ability to affect the reproductive system due to the downward pressure created by displacement of organs. [ 5 ]  One Doctor Lewis writes in an 1882 edition of  The North American Review : [ 21 ]


A girl who has indulged in tight lacing should not marry. She may be a very devoted wife, yet her husband will secretly regret his marriage. Physicians of experience know what is meant, while thousands of husbands will not only know, but deeply feel the meaning of this hint.


This quote alludes to problems with the reproductive organs experienced by women who  tightlaced , and demonstrates the difficulties of explaining this issue due to  Victorian taboos  around discussing sexuality. Reformist and activist  Catharine Beecher  was one of the few to defy propriety norms and discuss in any detail the gynecological issues resulting from lifelong corset usage, in particular  uterine prolapse . [ 22 ] [ 23 ]  Corsets were usually worn during pregnancy, often as long as possible, to suppress and disguise the appearance of the growing fetus. [ 13 ] : 76   Obstetrician and writer  Alice Bunker Stockham  campaigned against the widespread practice of wearing corsets during  pregnancy , writing sardonically: "The corset should not be worn for two hundred years before pregnancy." [ 22 ]  Feminist historian Leigh Summers theorized that some of the moral panic came from the common but unspeakable idea that tightlacing could be used to induce an  abortion . [ 5 ]  Doctors often attributed the difficult births many Victorian women experienced to corsets, widely believing that "primitive" women who wore less restrictive garments had less painful births and were overall healthier and more vigorous. [ 5 ] [ 21 ]


Modern skeletal analyses indicate that corseting, particularly during pre-puberty (most girls began corseting around 7 or 8), led to underdevelopment of the  pelvic inlet , which is consistent with reported difficulties in birth, although studies into this topic have been mixed. [ 20 ] [ 15 ]


Uterine prolapse  was a significant danger exacerbated by corsets, the incidence of which correlated with widespread corset wearing. [ 13 ] [ 14 ]  Both  rectal  and uterine prolapse occurred at a higher incidence during the Victorian era than today, with occurrences declining as the corset fell out of fashion. [ 14 ]  An 1888 doctor reported that “uterine derangement had increased fifty percent within the last fifteen years as a result of tight clothing, corsets and high heels." [ 5 ] : 113   This era saw the development of a number of  pessaries  and other devices patented to support the prolapsed uterus, the insertion of which frequently led to further complications; the topic was a subject of wide professional discussion among  gynecologists . [ 5 ] [ 15 ]


Corset wearing is known to decrease the size of the stomach and disturb digestion, potentially leading to constipation or indigestion. The downward pressure on the pelvic floor can also lead to  urinary incontinence , similar to that experienced during pregnancy. [ 13 ]


Chlorosis is a now-outdated term which referred to a disease thought to be caused directly by corsets, now thought to be  hypochromic anemia . The illness, also known as green sickness, was associated with the onset of  menarche  and fell under the umbrella of "female complaints": problems attributed to the increasing demands that puberty brought onto the frail female body. [ 5 ]  The physician  Frederick Parkes Weber  posited that the disease may have been caused by corset wearing, noting that the illness never appeared in boys, that fat rather than thin girls were more likely to experience it, and that prolonged bed rest seemed to resolve the symptoms, while trips to the sea (during which corsets would still be worn) did not. [ 5 ] : 111


For nearly 500 years, bodies, stays, or corsets with boning made of reeds,  whalebone , or metal were a standard part of European women's fashion. Researchers have found evidence of the use of corsets in the  Minoan civilization  of early  Crete . [ 25 ] : 5


In the late 16th century, what would later be known as the corset was called "a pair of bodys." [ 26 ]  It consisted of a simple  bodice , stiffened with boning of reed or whalebone. [ 25 ] : 6   A busk made of wood, horn, whalebone, metal, or ivory further reinforced the central front and created an upright posture. It was most often laced in the back, and was, at first, a garment reserved for the aristocracy. Later, the term "pair of bodies" would be replaced with the term "stays" and was generally used during the 17th and 18th centuries. Stays shaped the upper torso into a cone or cylinder shape. [ 27 ]  In the 17th century, tabs (called "fingers") at the waist were added.


Stays evolved in the 18th century, during which whalebone was used more, and increased boning was used in the garment. The shape of the stays changed as well. While they were low and wide in the front, they could reach as high as the upper shoulder in the back. Stays could be strapless or use shoulder straps. The straps of the stays were generally attached in the back and tied at the front.


The purpose of 18th century stays was to support the bust and confer the fashionable conical torso shape, while drawing the shoulders back. At that time, the eyelets were reinforced with stitches and were not placed across from one another, but staggered. That allowed the stays to be spiral laced. One end of the stay lace was inserted into the bottom eyelet and knotted, and the other end was wound through the eyelets of the stays and tightened on the top. "Jumps" were a variant of stays, which were looser, had no boning, and sometimes had attached sleeves, like a jacket. [ 25 ] : 27   Women of all levels of society wore stays or jumps, from ladies of the court to street vendors.


Corsets were originally quilted waistcoats, which French women wore as an alternative to stiff stays. [ 25 ] : 29   They were only quilted linen, laced in the front, and unboned. That garment was meant to be worn on informal occasions, while stays were worn for court dress. In the 1790s, stays began to fall out of fashion. That coincided with the  French Revolution  and the adoption of  neoclassical  styles of dress. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, some men were known to wear corsets, particularly the widely mocked  dandies . [ 25 ] : 36


In the early 19th century, when gussets were added for room for the bust, stays became known as corsets. They also lengthened to the hip, and the lower tabs were replaced by gussets at the hip and had less boning. In the 1820s, fashion changed again, with the waistline lowered to almost the natural position. That was to allow for more ornamentation on the bodice, which, in turn, saw the return of the corset to modern fashion. Corsets began to be made with some padding, for a waist-slimming effect, and more boning. Some women made their own, while others bought their corsets. Corsets were one of the first mass-produced garments for women. They began to be more heavily boned in the 1840s, and the shoulder straps were eliminated. By 1850, steel boning became popular.


With the advent of metal eyelets in 1827, tightlacing became possible. The position of the eyelets changed. They were situated opposite one another at the back. The front was fastened with a metal  busk . The corsets of the 1850s–1860s were shorter, because of a change in the silhouette of women's fashion, with the advent of the  hoop skirt  or  crinoline . After the 1860s, as the crinoline fell out of style, the corset became longer, to shape the abdomen, exposed by the new lines of the princess or  cuirass  style.


In 1855, a woman named Frances Egbert had trouble with her corsets, due to the front steel pieces constantly breaking as a result of strain. [ 28 ]  Consequently, her husband, Samuel Barnes, designed "reinforced steels" for Egbert's corsets. Barnes filed a patent for the invention 11 years later, and Egbert collected the royalties on this patent for 15 years following his death. [ 28 ]  Following the case of  Egbert v. Lippmann , the US Supreme court deemed Barnes's and Egbert's  patent  as "public".


The new practice of  tight-lacing  instigated widespread controversy.  Dress reformists  claimed that the corset was prompted by vanity and foolishness, and harmful to health. The reported health risks included damaged and rearranged internal organs, compromised fertility; weakness and general depletion of health. Those who were pro-corset argued that it was required for stylish dress and had its own unique pleasures; dress historian David Kunzle theorized that some enthusiastic fans of tightlacing may have experienced sexual pleasure when tightlacing, or by  rubbing  against the front of the corset, which contributed to the moral outrage against the practice. [ 7 ]


The corset controversy was also closely tied to notions of  social Darwinism  and  eugenics . The potential damage to the uterus, ovaries, and fetus was frequently pointed to as a danger to the race; i.e., the  European  race. Western women were thought to be weaker and more prone to birth complications than the ostensibly more vigorous, healthier, "primitive" races who did not wear corsets. Dress reformers exhorted readers to loosen their corsets, or risk destroying the "civilized" races. [ 5 ] : 135   On the other hand, those who argued for the importance of corsets cited Darwinism as well, specifically the notion that women were less evolved and thus frailer, in need of the external support of a corset.


The reformers' critique of the corset was one part of a throng of voices clamoring against  tightlacing . Doctors counseled patients against it and  journalists  wrote articles condemning the vanity and frivolity of women who would sacrifice their health for the sake of fashion. Although for many, corseting was accepted as necessary for health, propriety, and an upright military-style  posture , dress reformers viewed tightlacing, especially at the height of the era of  Victorian morality , as a sign of moral indecency.


American women active in the  anti-slavery  and  temperance movements , with experience in public speaking and political agitation, advocated for and wore sensible clothing that would not restrict their movement, although corsets were a part of their wardrobe. [ 29 ]  While supporters of fashionable dress contended that corsets maintained an upright, "good figure", and were a necessary physical structure for a moral and well-ordered society, dress reformers maintained that women's fashions were not only physically detrimental, but "the results of male conspiracy to make women subservient by cultivating them in slave psychology". [ 30 ] [ 31 ]  They believed a change in fashions could change the position of women in society, allowing for greater social mobility, independence from men and marriage, and the ability to work for wages, as well as physical movement and comfort. [ 32 ]


In 1873,  Elizabeth Stuart Phelps Ward  wrote:


Burn up the corsets! ... No, nor do you save the whalebones, you will never need whalebones again.  Make a bonfire of the cruel steels that have lorded it over your thorax and abdomens for so many years and heave a sigh of relief, for your emancipation I assure you, from this moment has begun. [ 33 ]


Despite those protests, little changed in fashion and undergarments up to 1900. The primary result of the dress reform movement was the evolution, rather than elimination, of the corset. Because of the public health outcry surrounding corsets and tightlacing, doctors took it upon themselves to become  corsetieres . Many doctors helped to fit their patients with corsets to avoid the dangers of ill-fitting corsets, and some doctors even designed corsets themselves.  Roxey Ann Caplin  became a widely renowned corset maker, enlisting the help of her husband, a physician, to create corsets which she purported to be more respectful of human anatomy. [ 5 ]  Health corsets and "rational corsets" became popular alternatives to the boned corset. They included features such as wool lining, [ 34 ]  watch springs as boning, elastic paneling, and other features purported to be less detrimental to one's health.


In the 1890s,  Inès Gaches-Sarraute  designed the straight-front corset in response to her patients' gynecological issues which were attributed to wearing corsets. The design was intended to reduce pressure on the abdomen and improve overall health. The new S-curve silhouette created by this design quickly caught on among fashion houses in the early 20th century. [ 35 ]  The style was worn from 1900 to 1908. [ 25 ] : 144


The corset reached its longest length in the early 20th century. At first, the longline corset reached from the bust down to the upper thigh. There was also a style of longline corset that started under the bust, and necessitated the wearing of a brassiere, a style that was meant to complement the new silhouette. It was a boneless style, much closer to a modern  girdle  than the traditional corset. From 1908 to 1914, the fashionable narrow-hipped and narrow-skirted silhouette necessitated the lengthening of the corset at its lower edge. Meanwhile, as  bras  began to catch on in the 1910s, fewer and fewer corsets included bust support. The fashionable corsets of this period covered the thighs and changed the position of the hips, making the waist appear higher and wider and the hips narrower, forecasting the "flapper" silhouette of the 1920s. [ 35 ]   The new fashion was considered uncomfortable, cumbersome, and required the use of strips of elastic fabric. The development of rubberized  elastic  materials in 1911 helped the girdle replace the corset. [ 36 ]


In 1910, the physician  Robert Latou Dickinson  published "Toleration of the corset: Prescribing where one cannot proscribe", in which he investigated the medical effects of corsets, including the displacement and deformation of internal organs. He found that, while some women could wear these garments without apparent harm, the vast majority of users sustained permanent deformations and damage to their health. [ 37 ]


The longline style was abandoned during World War I, in part to save materials for the war effort. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, there was a brief revival of the corset in the form of the  waist cincher  sometimes called a "waspie". This was used to give the hourglass figure as dictated by  Christian Dior 's " New Look ". However, use of the waist cincher was restricted to  haute couture , and most women continued to use girdles. Waspies were also met with push-back from women's organizations in the United States, as well as female members of the British Parliament, because corsetry had been forbidden under rationing during  World War II . [ 34 ]  The revival ended when the New Look gave way to a less dramatically shaped silhouette.


By the 1960s, the advent of  hippie culture  and youth rebellion led the wasp-waisted silhouette to fall out of favor. Feminist activists protested against the restrictive nature of Dior's designs. [ 38 ]  In 1968 at the feminist  Miss America protest , protestors symbolically threw a number of feminine products into a "Freedom Trash Can." These included girdles and corsets, [ 39 ]  which were among items the protestors called "instruments of female torture". [ 40 ]  The 1960s and 1970s saw the rise of popular  fitness culture , and diet, plastic surgery (modern  liposuction  was invented in the mid-1970s), and  exercise  became the preferred methods of achieving a thin waist. [ 41 ]  The  sexual revolution  of the 1960s and 70s brought with it midriff-revealing styles like the  crop top , and many women chose to forgo supportive undergarments like girdles or corsets, preferring a more athletic figure. [ 42 ]


The corset has largely fallen out of mainstream fashion since the 1920s in Europe and North America, replaced by girdles and elastic  brassieres , but has survived as an article of costume. Originally an item of  lingerie , the corset has become a popular item of outerwear in the  fetish ,  BDSM , and  Goth  subcultures. In the fetish and BDSM literature, there is often much emphasis on  tightlacing , and many corset makers cater to the fetish market.


Outside the fetish community, living history reenactors and historic costume enthusiasts still wear stays and corsets according to their original purpose to give the proper shape to the figure when wearing historic fashions. In this case, the corset is underwear rather than outerwear. Skilled corset makers are available to make reproductions of historic corset shapes or to design new styles.


Since the late 1980s, the corset has experienced periodic revivals, all which have usually originated in haute couture and have occasionally trickled through to mainstream fashion. Fashion designer  Vivienne Westwood 's use of corsets contributed to the push-up bust trend that lasted from the late 1980s throughout the 1990s. [ 34 ]  Those revivals focused on the corset as an item of outerwear rather than underwear. The strongest of the revivals was seen in the Autumn 2001 fashion collections and coincided with the release of the film  Moulin Rouge! , in which the costumes featured many corsets as characteristic of the era. Another fashion movement, which has renewed interest in the corset, is the  steampunk  subculture that utilizes late-Victorian fashion shapes in new ways. In the early 2020s, corset-inspired tops and dresses began to trend as part of the  regencycore  aesthetic, inspired by television series like  Bridgerton  and  The Gilded Age . These designs typically do not incorporate any form of boning. [ 43 ]


Modern historical fiction films and TV shows such as  Bridgerton  have renewed interest in corsets while also drawing attention to potential health risks as actresses including  Emma Stone ,  Cara Delevingne , and  Simone Ashley  have complained about discomfort wearing them during the course of their careers. [ 44 ]


There are some special types of corsets and corset-like devices which incorporate boning.


A corset dress (also known as hobble corset because it produces similar restrictive effects to a  hobble skirt ) is a long corset. It is like an ordinary corset, but it is long enough to cover the legs, partially or totally. It thus looks like a dress, hence the name. A person wearing a corset dress can have great difficulty in walking up and down the stairs (especially if wearing high-heeled footwear) and may be unable to sit down if the boning is too stiff.


Other types of corset dresses are created for unique high fashion looks by a few modern corset makers. These modern styles are functional as well as fashionable and are designed to be worn with comfort for a dramatic look.


A  neck corset  is a type of  posture collar  incorporating  stays  and it is generally not considered to be a true corset. This type of corset and its purpose of improving posture does not have long term results. Since certain parts of the neck are being pulled towards the head, a band in the neck, called the platysmal band, will most likely disappear. [ 45 ]  Like the neck corset, a collar serves some of the same purposes. The neck collar can be worn to allow minimal neck movement after road accidents, and is more accessible and cheap than  physiotherapy . [ 46 ]  However, neck corsets and collars are more often used as a fashion statement or as an element of  BDSM  rather than physiotherapy.


Cosmetic surgery , also referred to as  aesthetic surgery , is a surgical procedure which endeavours to improve the physical aspects of one's appearance to become more aesthetically pleasing. [ 1 ]  The continuously growing field of cosmetic surgery is closely linked with  plastic surgery , the difference being, cosmetic surgery is an elective surgery with the sole purpose to enhance the physical features of one's appearance. Plastic surgery is performed in order to rectify defects to reinstate normality to function and appearance. [ 2 ]  Cosmetic surgical procedures are generally performed on healthy functioning body parts, with the procedure being optional not medically necessary. The inevitable aim of cosmetic surgery is to enhance one's image, encompassing reducing the signs of  aging  and/or correction of a believed deviation on one's body in turn it is surrounded by  controversy . Although the implementation of cosmetic surgery within Australian society is growing, the trade has struggled to find its place within the  Australian culture .


The word "cosmetic", originates from the  Greek  term Kosmetike, meaning the "art of beautifying". [ 3 ]


The history of cosmetic surgery can be linked back to that of plastic surgery, as the debate persists, around the blurred lines of the two. [ 4 ]  Plastic surgery originated in 600 BC when  Hindu  surgeons performed  rhinoplasty  with the use of segments of  cheek tissue .


At the end of the fifteenth century when  syphilis  was prevalent, came the introduction of debatable  reconstructive surgery  to rectify the ill shaped nose, a prominent feature of Syphilis sufferers. The sixteenth century saw an Italian by the name of  Gaspare Tagliacozzi  adopt the method of using upper arm tissue to reconstruct the nose during rhinoplasty, granting him the nickname 'the father of plastic surgery'. Although Tagliacozzi's approach left patients required to have their arm raised to their nose for several months, requiring numerous surgeries, with excessive  Scaring .


England was exposed to the Hindu techniques of rhinoplasty by a practitioner in 1815, who clearly defined the use for the surgery, limited to those who were physically affected by the horrors of  Napoleonic Wars . Towards the end of the century in the 1880s John Orlando Roe, a New York surgeon, developed a technique which prevented scarring by operating from inside the nostrils.


World War I  was the most costly war to Australia in regards to  fatality . The brutality sparked the generation of plastic surgery within Australia introduced by a man by the name of  Harold Gillies . Gillies oversaw the development of the first unit to treat the returned battle scared  veterans  of the war. This led to the relocation of the  Red Cross  to the Queen Mary Hospital in  Sidcup , England. The Queen Mary Hospital opened in 1917 was a six hundred bed hospital which focused solely on plastic surgery. It was here that Gillies trained not only Australian plastic surgeons but surgeons from all over the globe. The return of these surgeons to their home countries such as Australia, saw the spread of the plastic surgery trade across the globe. [ 4 ]


The war gave the dishonoured trade a respected name through the treatment and resurrection of returned war veterans, with shattered physical traits. The century gave rise to  anaesthetics  and  Antiseptics  prompting an increase in the number of surgeries being performed. But with this heroic status and development of techniques came the taboo ideology cast upon cosmetic surgery as the trade filtered into the population, with civilians un-pleased with their aesthetic appearance undergoing surgery. [ 5 ]  In turn the need for secrecy arose as people felt the need to hide the truth about their surgical endeavours. From here a surgeon by the name of Henry Junius Schireson, acquired his license to practice throughout multiple states of  America , who became known in 1923 when he performed rhinoplasty on a  Jewish  actress  Fanny Brice  in her New York apartment, [ 6 ]  giving birth to the booming trade of cosmetic surgery for everyday civilians.


Benjamin Rank was an Australian trained by Gillies himself who in the 1940s governed the  Royal Melbourne Hospital  which was the first plastic surgery unit within Australia. It was in 1956 that plastic surgery was acknowledged by the Royal Australia College of Surgeons as a separate specialty trade of plastic surgery. [ 4 ]  Today, the Australian Society of Plastic Surgeons Inc. founded in 1917, commonly known as ASPS, was founded in 1970 with the aim to uphold the integrity of the plastic surgery field (inclusive of cosmetic and reconstructive surgery) within Australia. Today, the deliverance of the highest quality surgeries is at the forefront of their work. They govern the AMC accredited Surgical Education and Training (SET) Program within Australia. [ 4 ]


The development of different techniques within the field of cosmetic surgery has led to the  innovation  of  non-invasive methods . Nine percent of the Australian population have undergone a non-invasive form of cosmetic surgery. [ 7 ]  Numerous surgeries are now performed using these techniques as opposed to open surgery methods which have been used in the past. This adaptation has led to a reduction in cost, time, scarring and pain involved with these procedures. Through the development of aiding surgical instruments such as a viewing scope or  Lasers  (see below), this shift has been made possible, reducing the incision site resulting in a faster recovery time for patients. [ 8 ]  Examples of non-invasive surgeries are as muscle relaxants, such as  Botox  or  Dysport .


Another form of laser treatment is  intense pulsed light  (IPL). IPL differs from laser treatment as unlike laser treatments, IPL will perform multiple treatments at once but only a few are capable of doing so with the same potency as a laser.  IPL is predominantly used for mild skin issues in comparison to laser being used for the more extreme cases. [ 7 ]


Due to cosmetic surgery being an elective surgical procedure it is of common assumption that the risk factors around these surgeries are lower than that of other surgeries. The invasive procedures have numerous risk factors as it is still a medical procedure, all of which come with a level of risk. The non-invasive treatments also come with a level of risk although lower than invasive methods. This common impression can be linked to the controversies surrounding the trade as critics struggle to see the link between the benefits and the risk facts. Surgeries are generally linked to, although not restricted to, risk factors affecting the area in which the surgery is performed. Some of the common risks are the development of a  hematoma , organ damage,  deep vein thrombosis ,  seroma , excessive bleeding, swelling, bruising,  ectropion  (optical), blindness (optical), obstruction of airways (nasal), loss of sensation, excessive scarring (including of  keloid scars ), a shift in position of hair line effecting symmetry and nerve damage. [ 9 ]


Most surgeons will suggest to patients electing to undergo cosmetic surgery to cease smoking for a period before and after their alterations. Generally a period of four weeks pre-operative and post operative, to aid in the recovery time and the healing of the wound. Just like other surgeries, cosmetic surgery may require incisions to be made to the skin, in one or more places of the body. These wounds will be required to heal post operation, therefore leaving the patient at risk of poor wound healing which may be due to numerous causes such as infection requiring  antibiotics . [ 9 ]


Medical conditions can impact on the level of risk involved with cosmetic surgery as there can be underlying effects caused by different medications. For example, blood thinning medication can cause excessive bleeding due to the bloods ability to clot being lowered by the medication. All medications prescribed to a patient are noted and discussed by the surgeons to reduce the chance of issues arising. [ 9 ]


The most common reason behind one's choice to undergo cosmetic surgery is due to dissatisfaction with their body image. Body image issues are commonly allied with lower levels of  self-esteem  and  psychological well-being . [ 10 ]  These issues are the cause of many women turning to cosmetic surgery. In today's world viewers are flooded with images and advertisements, showing generally, naturally unobtainable faces and bodies. There is a growing trend of reality television shows broadcasting makeovers of ordinary civilians undergoing cosmetic surgery to enhance their aesthetic image. Viewpoints grow around the link between the climbing figures of cosmetic surgery and the constantly changing world of media. There is a constant stream of connection developed via social media outlets such as Facebook and  Instagram  which hold a high level of importance within people lives. Other viewpoints circle the growth of public awareness of the topic is increasing becoming a direct link to this growth spurt in popularity of surgery. Many of the patients who undergo cosmetic surgery have been found to have low levels of self-esteem and use cosmetic surgery to rectify the issues they have with their body image. Numerous studies have focused on the final outcome of cosmetic procedures and the level of satisfaction which patients have with their results showing a large portion of patients look for additional surgeries to rectify the issue. Cosmetic surgery in a lot of cases will enhances the problems patients have with their self-esteem issues instead of depressing them as first desired. [ 10 ]  Studies show that patients who undergo cosmetic surgery who have been made aware of the risks involved along with the technical side of the procedure, have higher levels of satisfaction with their outcome post-surgery. [ 11 ]


Body dysmorphic disorder  (BDD) is a condition of which people find their own image immensely flawed. It effects both men and women equally, with the average onset age of thirteen years of age. The condition is treatable although there is an alarmingly high rate of suicide within BDD sufferers, one in every three hundred and thirty diagnosed will end their own lives. [ 12 ]  Patients of BDD will commonly turn to cosmetic surgery to rectify these flaws resulting in unsatisfactory results due to their condition. [ 11 ]


Histrionic personality disorder  can be categorised as a person who thrives on being the center of attention in all social settings. They show signs of  attention seeking behaviour  along with instability emotionally. Immense discomfort is felt by the individual when they do not feel they are the epicenter of a group or one on one environment and often struggle when it comes to relationships with others, being both on a level of friendship and sexual relationships. [ 13 ]  Suggestions have been made in regards to the need for screening before cosmetic surgeries are performed on patients who suffer from disorders such as histrionic personality disorder as the level of satisfaction which is felt by individuals post-surgery is low, triggering the desire for additional treatments. The surgery impacts on their self-esteem leaving them higher levels of distressed post-op. [ 11 ]


The controversies surrounding cosmetic surgery are plentiful. The stigma that exists around the practice has been evident since its introduction into the  modern world . The taboo stigma around these types of surgery is beginning to fade as we see the trend of cosmetic surgery growing. [ 7 ]


The age limitations around cosmetic surgery within Australia is eighteen years of age until one is eligible to opt to undergo cosmetic surgery. [ 14 ]  There is numerous discussions occurring around the use of cosmetic surgery within children which have undergone extensive  trauma  due to a catastrophic life event or birth defects, in turn patients seek cosmetic surgery to rectify the issue. The debate around whether this is ethically correct exists with the viewpoint that this is unethical and the surgeries are for the purpose of vanity. Other sides of the debate argue for the lasting impacts on the children during adolescent years due to the dis-figuration causing prejudice and view the surgical procedures will attribute to the child's mental health in later years. [ 15 ]


In 2011, concerns were expressed as information arose in regards to the quality of the material being used in silicone breast implants. Industrial grade silicone was being used in the replacement of medical grade supplies by a French firm by the name of  Poly Implant Prothese  (PIP). The silicone being used was found to be suitable for uses within the production of mattresses. [ 15 ]  In 2011, it was reported that in twelve years of production, more than 300,000 PIP implants were sold globally. [ 16 ]  In the case of rupture the dispute around safety risks arose with parties debating the increase cancer risks due to the poor grade materials. To date there has been no scientific evidence proving the implants should cause safety concerns linking to toxicity or cancer. The debate surrounds whether the removal of the implants is required due to safety concerns around rupture and toxicity. [ 16 ]


Concerns are sparked within Australia around the level of regulation which exists around the implementation of laser and IPL treatments. The practice has little federal regulated with inconsistencies existing between the states within Australia. It is largely debated around the level of regulation in comparison to the heavy controls placed around the use of  schedule 4 drugs  such as Botox or Dysport. Many rally for the investigation into the uses of these techniques, claiming long term damage can be a result of mistreatment. The authority involved in the monitoring these regulations within Australia is the  Department of Health , the  Therapeutic Goods Administration . [ 7 ]


Cosmetic surgery  refers to the process, methods, and theories focusing on the enhancement of a person's physical appearance. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  In  China , there are over 10 million people who have undergone cosmetic surgery, 8.5 million of them are under 30 years old. [ 3 ]  The intensifying fixation with physical beauty has escalated the demand for cosmetic surgery in recent years. The influence of Korean pop stars and other celebrities, and social media have significantly prompted young people to undergo these surgeries. [ 4 ]


The roots of modern cosmetic surgery in China goes back to a plastic surgeon called Song Ruyao. As a medical student during the  Second Sino-Japanese war , he was sent to the University of Pennsylvania in 1943 to study reconstructive  plastic surgery . He is considered the founder of the field in China, which would later include cosmetic surgery. [ 5 ]


Very few cosmetic surgeries took place before the  Chinese Communist Revolution . During the  Cultural Revolution , cosmetic surgeries were condemned as "bourgeois" for its focus on exterior form over practicality or function. [ 5 ]  In the 1980s, as cosmetic surgeries started becoming more acceptable, they also saw a rapid increase. [ 5 ]


In 1994, cosmetic surgery was introduced in  Beijing  and since then, the market has significantly evolved. In 2004, a beauty pageant where only contestants who had gone under the knife could enter crowned China's first "Miss Plastic Surgery". [ 6 ] [ 7 ]  In 2010, Beijing's  China-Japan Friendship Hospital  catered to a total of 20,000 to 30,000 people in its  plastic surgery  department, and the numbers consistently rose over the years. [ 8 ]


Students make up the bulk of cosmetic surgery patients under 30 and estimates show that there are 20 million people in China who have had cosmetic surgery. [ citation needed ]  In 2014 alone, over 7 million people, mostly young women, had cosmetic surgery, when the country's cosmetic surgery industry was valued at RMB400 billion. [ 9 ]  For every 100 buyers of medical beauty products, 64% per were from the post ’90s, followed by 19% of millennials. Reports also indicate an estimate of 100,000 cosmetic surgeons, of which only 10% were licensed. This signifies that 90% of facial surgery operations are carried out outside official medical systems. [ 10 ]


China’s cosmetic surgery industry soared from RMB 87 billion in 2015 to RMB 176 billion in 2017 [ 11 ]  and currently continues to rise. It is the world’s 3rd largest cosmetic surgery market in 2018 [ 12 ]  and recent studies conducted by  HSBC  foresee an increase in its market size by 2019. Forecasts also reveal a boost in total spending of up to 800 million  RMB  ($122 million US) with the potential to reach 20.6 billion U.S. dollars by 2020. [ 13 ]


The rise of the middle class in Chinese society is one reality behind China's escalating cosmetic surgery industry. The increase in the  purchasing power of over 350 million Chinese raised the level of people's standards of living allowing them to aspire for other luxuries and life standards. [ 14 ]  Based on statistics culled from the  Chinese Association of Plastics and Aesthetics  in November 2015, the country's plastic surgery sector has grown rapidly with an annual growth rate of 30%. Likewise, it has changed the definition of plastic surgery. The practice is no longer confined to improving the looks of people with disfigured faces resulting from accidents and injuries; it now like getting the "icing on the cake" for inherently good looking people. [ 15 ]


Another driver is pressure on social media. Beauty applications play an influential role in these “media demands”  as many of these platforms put forward  opportunities to alter or “improve” one's  face. These application propose their own standard of beauty to users which all the more ignites the pressure that these people feel when they start comparing their ‘before and after’ photos. [ 16 ]


The influence of Korean culture is another dynamic prompting the high number of Chinese citizens to avail of cosmetic surgery. This is due to the increasing popularity of the  Korean Wave  through Korean dramas and television shows which have become a hit in China. Since cosmetic surgery is common in Korea, entertainment personalities—with theirunbridled eyes [ clarification needed ] , V-shaped jaw, and prominent cheekbones—have greatly influenced the Chinese people. These same Korean influences are found on the skin care market, where a perfect and white skin is a must for any woman wishing to convey a beautiful image of oneself. [ 17 ] [ 18 ]


Cosmetic surgery  is voluntary or elective surgery for beauty enhancement. [ 1 ]  The motivation for plastic surgery has been debated throughout Korean society. Holliday and Elfving-Hwang suggest that the pressure of success in work and marriage is deeply rooted in one's ability to manage their body which is influenced by beauty. [ 2 ]  As companies helping with matchmaking for marriage and even job applications require a photo of the individual, Korean population inevitably feels pressure to undergo plastic surgery to achieve the "natural beauty". [ 3 ]


South Korea has emerged as a major destination for medical tourism. Over the past four years, the number of foreign patients who visited plastic surgery clinics was 190,000, with Thailand and China accounting for the largest number. [ 4 ]


According to ISAPS data as of 2021, South Korea has estimated the highest number of plastic surgery cases per capita in the world. [ 5 ]


The modern Korean interest in appearance dates back to the 7th century, finding its roots in  physiognomy  ( gwansang) . The concept of connecting identity and appearance became stronger during the  Japanese colonial period in Korea , as Japanese rulers believed that certain facial features displayed greater intelligence and nobility. After that, plastic surgery technique brought by American doctors during the Korean War and accepted the Western notion that changing one's face would change one's destiny. [ 6 ]


Due to the  1997 Asian financial crisis , South Korea deregulated the labor market; [ 7 ]  Korean citizens tried all they could to get an edge over competitors for a job position, including cosmetic surgery. [ 6 ]  This still happens in the current day, as companies require a photo, height, and sometimes the family background of applicants as a part of the hiring process. [ 8 ]


Over the past few decades, plastic surgery has become more accepted in Korea. For example, 66% of respondents in 2015 expressed that a woman can get plastic surgery for marriage, compared to 38% in 1994. [ 9 ]  The proportion of women who reported that they had undergone plastic surgery also climbed from 5% in 1994 to 31% in 2015. Women consistently score higher and are more supportive about the procedures than men. According to a Statista survey in 2020 which interviewed a total of 1,500 people, plastic surgery is prevalent among young women in South Korea. Nearly 25% of women aged 19–29 have undergone plastic surgery, while men have only undergone surgery 2% of the time. This number increases to 31% of women and 4% of men among 30–39-year-olds. [ 10 ]  A case study by Allure Magazine noted that in recent years, the percentage rate of males who underwent plastic surgery increased and consisted as much as 30% of cases of those who underwent the procedure. [ 11 ]  The expectation of undergoing cosmetic surgery is not restricted to urban areas and has spread to rural towns, in part due to the popularity of  K-pop idols  such as  Wonder Girls  and  Girls' Generation . [ 12 ]


South Korea is frequently called the "plastic surgery capital of the world". [ 13 ] [ 14 ]  Cosmetic surgery in South Korea is commonplace, if not a common graduation gift. [ 15 ]  South Korea's cosmetic surgery is a market leader, with South Korea taking a 25% share in the global market. [ 16 ]  One in five Korean women have undergone plastic surgery, compared to just one in twenty in the United States. [ 17 ]  In 2018, a total of 464,452 patients visited South Korea for cosmetic surgery, a 16.7 percent increase from 2017. [ 18 ]


In the Korean surgery market, there are two providers: Hospitals and Specialty Clinics and Spas and Cosmetic Surgery Centers. [ clarification needed ]  In 2021, the market was valued to 1.95 billion US dollars. [ 19 ]


This form of cosmetic surgery is also known as the " double eyelid surgery ". It is a surgery that reshapes the skin around the eye, resulting in a crease on the upper eyelid. The procedure is popular not just in South Korea but also other Asian countries like Taiwan and India.


The double eyelid surgery can be done in several ways, with the main difference being the form of incision. The full incision is often done to patients with excess fat and skin in the upper eyelid, a partial incision is done when there is only excess fat in the eyelid, while there is no incision used when there is no excess fat and skin. The surgery is not considered painful and it can take up to 4 weeks to fully recover. [ 20 ]


Asian facial skeletal contouring surgeries, also known as V-Line surgeries, are often done to reduce the dimension or angularity of the cheekbones or the jaw in order to create a V shape. They are commonly found among young Korean pop stars and can give the face an elf- or childlike appeal. [ 12 ]   K-pop  groups like created a trend for the V-shaped face among young girls, as it is seen as an attractive feature. [ citation needed ]


A surgery can involve several related procedures:  zygomatic reduction , V-Line surgery, mandibular contouring, and sagittal osteotomy of  mandible . Zygomatic reduction involves fracturing the  zygomatic arch , reshaping and re-orienting the bone so that it protrudes less to the side. During a V-Line surgery, incisions are made through the mouth. The chin is then fractured and reduced, and the jaw bone is shaved. Mandibular contouring is similar but does not involve the chin. Sagittal osteotomy reduces the width of the jaw bone. [ 21 ]


The pain following surgery ranges from mild to extreme. The jaws may be wired together for weeks, and it can take six months for the swelling to completely disappear, although it is most significant during the first 72 hours. [ 12 ] [ 21 ]  A maxillofacial surgeon and former professor at  Columbia University  said the V-Line surgery is complex and carries risks of permanent numbness and death. [ 12 ] [ 22 ]


Examples of Korean celebrities that have undergone a " nose job " include  Kim Hee-chul ,  Jessi , and  Soyou . [ 23 ]  A popular member from Apink Hyoyeon has undergone rhinoplasty and other procedures during her time as an idol. [ 24 ]


The surgery can be performed open and closed. The open procedure is the most popular as it gives the surgeon more visual context. It requires an incision in the  columella , which often heals without any issues and leaves a minor scar that should be difficult to spot. Once the procedure is done, it takes a few weeks to heal completely. [ 25 ]  In a closed surgery, all the incisions are made inside of the nose. [ 26 ]


In South Korea, rhinoplasty is the second least common surgery among ethnic Koreans. [ 27 ]  The procedure is sometimes be performed in a health context as well, as restructuring the nose can also make it easier to breathe. [ 23 ]


Face-whitening injections have also started becoming more popular as a pale skin fits within the  Korean beauty standards . [ 28 ]  The active ingredients in these injections is  glutathione . The procedure last 20 minutes. Some negative effects from the procedure are as following: low blood pressure, rash all over the body, and problems with the digestive system such as nausea or vomiting. [ 29 ]


Medical tourism is the act of attracting foreigners to undergo surgeries. With the rise of popularity of K-drama and K-pop around the world, numerous people opted South Korea to undergo cosmetic surgeries. "South Korea's plastic surgery business is gaining popularity because of the country's quick, affordable, efficient, safe, and high-quality healthcare system." [ 30 ]  In 2019, a total of 211,218 tourists visited South Korea for plastic surgery. [ 31 ]


A  ghost surgery  is a surgery in which the person who performs the operation, the "ghost doctor," is not the surgeon that was hired for and is credited with the operation. The ghost doctor substitutes the hired surgeon while the patient is unconscious from  anesthesia . [ 32 ] [ 33 ]


Ghost surgeries are "rampant" in the South Korean cosmetic surgery industry. [ 32 ] [ 33 ] [ 34 ]  Ghost doctors are often unlicensed and unqualified to perform the operations they are hired for, with some plastic surgeries being performed by dentists, nurses, or salespeople; one former ghost doctor reported that most substitutes were dentists. [ 32 ]  The Korean Society of Plastic Surgeons estimated that there were about 100,000 victims of ghost surgery in South Korea between 2008 and 2014. About five patients died during ghost surgeries between 2014 and 2022. [ 33 ]


Ghost surgery is illegal in South Korea, but as there is often no evidence a surgery was performed by a ghost doctor, it is rarely punished in court. [ 33 ]  Public backlash to ghost surgery has led to the mandating of security cameras in operating rooms in South Korea. [ 35 ] [ 36 ]


Korea is often criticised for having unrealistic beauty standards, often expecting women to be very thin to the point where their weight can become unhealthy. The "escape the corset" movement goes directly against the country's beauty standards and active promotion of beauty products and surgery. [ 37 ]  The movement is intended to create body positivity and reduce the strict standards that women have to live up to in the country.


A study made by Charlotte N. Markeya and Patrick M. Markeya show there is a correlation between reality television viewing and interest in cosmetic surgery. [ 38 ]


Another study made by Young A. Kim, Duckhee Chae and Hyunlye Kim about  "Factors Affecting Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Among Undergraduate Students" affirms that the rise of the beauty standards conveyed by television, internet, actors and stars of  K-pop  affect people's mental health by decreasing their self-esteem and increasing their anxiety. The socio-cultural message transmitted by peers reflects the high beauty standards are became the norms. [ 39 ]


A study at Miami University shows that the pressure to get the "perfect" appearance can stem from feelings of inferiority if someone sees themselves as less attractive. [ 3 ]


Let Me In  was a controversial South Korean television show that is focused on doing complete make-overs, including plastic surgery. [ 40 ]  Participants have to convince a panel that their appearance makes their life difficult, it even goes as far as making their parents apologise for appearance and lack of plastic surgery. Participants are presented to the audience after their make-over. The show was shut down in 2015 in a response to the amount of controversy and criticism, as the show was blamed for making plastic surgery more attractive to its viewers. [ 41 ]


Employment surgery is a common occurrence in South Korea. Due to a lot of competition in the job market, appearance is considered an important factor when hiring, which pressures people into undergoing surgery to get an edge over their competitors. [ 42 ]  People who are considered more appealing have statistically more chances to "have" the job than people who do not fit the beauty standards. This is well known by Koreans and can affect also the mental health of person who are looking for a job with the required qualification but not does not satisfy the beauty qualification. [ 43 ]  According to a 2006 survey, 92.2% of women in South Korea expect to be discriminated based on appearance during a job interview. [ 44 ]


In 2021, a bill was proposed that take action against this culture, banning companies from asking for photos at a résumé. A survey in 2006 showed that 80% of public companies require personal information like photos. [ 44 ]


Dermaordinology  (from Ancient Greek δέρμα (derma) “skin”, Latin ordināre, “to put in order” and Ancient Greek λόγος, “knowledge/study”) is a specialised field in  cosmetics  and  medicine  aimed at finding the optimal permanent solution to superficial  skin  defects, such as  hypertrichosis ,  hirsutism , couperosis,  acne ,  milia  and  fibromata . [ 1 ]  Combining findings from  endocrinology  and  dermatology , dermaordinology serves as the basis for the development of innovative micro-surgical methods to safely and painlessly remove these defects without damaging the surrounding skin tissue. [ 2 ] [ 3 ]


This  dermatology  article is a  stub . You can help Wikipedia by  expanding it .


Diary of a Facelift  is the second book by  Toyah Willcox , published in 2005 by  Michael O'Mara Books . It is an autobiographical account of her experiences with  cosmetic surgery .


Willcox had been contemplating cosmetic surgery ever since she was twenty-six. Her decision was eventually prompted in 2003, at the age of forty-five, when she took part in the  second series  of  I'm a Celebrity...Get Me Out of Here! , after which she received unfavourable media coverage referring to her appearance, particularly a derogatory comment by  Jonathan Ross  on his  BBC Radio 2  show. [ 1 ] [ 2 ]  For three years prior to her  facelift , Willcox had been having regular  botox  injections under her eyes. [ 3 ]


The singer underwent the surgery in Paris in February 2004. It involved lifting her jawline and operating skin around her eyes, and has reportedly cost £7,500. [ 1 ]  Graphic descriptions of the procedure as well as photos of the singer's recovery were included in the book. The cover photos of Toyah were taken by Dean Stockings. Excerpts from the book were published in  The Daily Telegraph  in the lead-up to its official release. [ 4 ]  The book gained a large amount of media interest.


Diary of a Facelift  has generated mixed response in the media. It was described in  Glasgow Evening Times  as "a truly remarkable account". [ 5 ]  A negative opinion in  The Guardian  found it "galling for such an admirable woman to be setting such a bad example to the sisterhood". [ 6 ]  Despite the controversy, the book reached the top 10 in many booksellers' lists, including  Waterstones .


EarFold  or  EarFold method  is a surgical method for pinning protruding ears. In contrast to all the other ear-pinning procedures ( otoplasty ), metal implants are used instead of  sutures . As far as the invasiveness of the surgery is concerned, the Earfold method ranks between the open, invasive conventional ear-pinning procedures (6, 7, 8, 9), and the closed, minimally invasive  stitch method  (4, 5) or other variations of minimally invasive procedures (10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18). The ears are cut open and the skin is detached from the  cartilage  as in conventional ear-pinning operations, but to a lesser extent. Occasionally, the cartilage under the detached skin is also scored or perforated with a needle to weaken it.


The Earfold technique was first described by Norbert V. Kang and Ryan L. Kerstein in 2016 (1). Kang and his colleagues reported on the results and possible complications of the method in 2018 (2).


One or several incisions of approximately 1 cm in length are made in the skin on the front of the ear, depending on the number of metal implants to be inserted in the ear. Starting here, the skin on the front of the ear is raised from the cartilage to create pockets in which the metal implants are inserted with the aid of an Earfold introducer 3).


The metal implants are called Earfolds. They are 5x15 mm large and 0.15 mm thick. They are made of  Nitinol , an alloy of titanium and nickel, and have a 24-carat gold plating. On the side facing the cartilage, the implants have short, triangular, thornlike tips that penetrate the cartilage and thus fix the implant in place after several weeks. Because of their U-shape, the implants reshape a poorly developed  antihelix  or create a new one if it is non-existent, thereby moving the ear towards the head. The ear cartilage lying beneath the implants is either left intact or is scored or perforated with a needle - the latter is done to weaken it. The patient is allowed to check the new position of his ears in a mirror before the operation by having a Prefold positioner, of the same size, shape and tension as the implant, placed temporarily on the antihelix fold. The extent of the ear pinning is determined by the curvature of the Earfolds and their position along the antihelix. The resulting new head-to-ear distance doesn’t always meet the individual expectations of the patient because it is determined by the constant, preset curvature of the implant. The incisions in the skin are sewn up and covered with a strip of plaster.
The method is not suitable for all patients. If their ears have a large, deep Cavum conchae, which in combination with a poorly formed antihelix is often the cause of a protruding ear, ear pinning in the lower half of the ear is not possible or the ear-pinning result is unsatisfactory. Protruding earlobes can’t be pinned.
In comparison to the conventional ear-pinning operations (see traditional  ear surgery  and  otoplasty ) and the  Stitch method , there are no publications available on long-term results. The authors of the Earfold method point out that late complications, such as relapse, secondary deformations, defects, shifts in position or rejection of the implants, could only be assessed to a limited degree due to the short follow-up time of the patients in the study carried out (1, 2).


The patients should not sleep on their ears for the first 4 weeks, so that the metal implants are not shifted out of place. One may not smoke for 3 months, so that there are no circulatory disturbances leading to skin  erosion  of the very thin skin over the implant. Earrings should not be worn for 2 weeks. One should not swim during the first 4 weeks.


They are comparable to the methods of the traditional otoplasty: irregularities; undesired results; top of ear is pointed (the so-called Spock ear); post-operative bleeding with haematoma in the pockets of the skin; pain; infection; erosion of the skin; allergic reaction to the implants; rejection of the implants;  hypertrophic scars ;  keloid  on the skin incisions; cosmetically disfiguring edge formations on the front of the ear when the implants turn;  asymmetry  in the position of the ears; shifting of the implants in the first weeks when lying on the ears; visibility of the implants under the skin; removal of the implants more complex and difficult than removing sutures with other surgical methods.


Reference List


Epicanthoplasty  is a rare  eye surgery  to modify the  epicanthal folds . It can be a challenging procedure because the epicanthal folds overlay the  lacrimal canaliculi  (tear drainage canals). [ 1 ]
Although an epicanthic fold can also be associated with a less prominent upper eyelid crease (a feature commonly termed "single eyelids" as opposed to "double eyelids"), the two features are distinct; a person may have both epicanthal folds and an upper eyelid crease, one and not the other, or neither. [ 2 ]  Single eyelids are reshaped using  East Asian blepharoplasty . [ citation needed ]


Epicanthoplasty may leave visible post-surgical scar lines. A common corrective technique involves using  Z-plasty .  [ citation needed ]


Eyelash implants  are a form of  cosmetic surgery  involving  transplanting  additional  eyelashes  around the  eye .  The process typically involves removing a section of  hair  from the patient, typically from the back of the head, and  grafting  the hair to the eyelids, replacing the existing eyelashes.  The procedure typically involves 60 to 70 hairs per eye, and after removal and a thorough cleaning of the oil on the hair, they are reattached to patient by delicately sewing the lashes back on. Maintenance of the eyelashes is needed thereafter, as the hair continues to grow at the same rate as on other parts of the body. [ citation needed ]


Eyelash transplantation is performed on outpatient basis under local anesthesia and takes two to three hours to complete. The steps involved in the surgery are:


Donor area preparation: Firstly donor area – usually back of the scalp – is shaved and cleansed to prepare it for the surgery.
Administration of anesthesia: Then local anesthesia is administered in the area around the eyelashes.
Hair extraction: After administration of anesthesia, hair follicles are extracted using follicular unit extraction. Grafts with 1 to 4 hair follicles are extracted for eyelash hair transplantation.
Recipient area preparation: After extraction of hair, surgeon prepares recipient area by administering local anesthesia and making extremely small incisions for implantation of follicles. While preparing recipient site, direction and angle of eyelashes are kept in mind to produce natural looking results.
Graft implantation: After preparing recipient site, surgeon implants 1 to 2 hair follicles at a time in specific directions. Single procedure usually involves implantation of 30 to 40 hair follicles to get desired density of eyelashes.