File size: 104,002 Bytes
6fa4bc9 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 594 595 596 597 598 599 600 601 602 603 604 605 606 607 608 609 610 611 612 613 614 615 616 617 618 619 620 621 622 623 624 625 626 627 628 629 630 631 632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 647 648 649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 670 671 672 673 674 675 676 677 678 679 680 681 682 683 684 685 686 687 688 689 690 691 692 693 694 695 696 697 698 699 700 701 702 703 704 705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 734 735 736 737 738 739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 748 749 750 751 752 753 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 779 780 781 782 783 784 785 786 787 788 789 790 791 792 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 800 801 802 803 804 805 806 807 808 809 810 811 812 813 814 815 816 817 818 819 820 821 822 823 824 825 826 827 828 829 830 831 832 833 834 835 836 837 838 839 840 841 842 843 844 845 846 847 848 849 850 851 852 853 854 855 856 857 858 859 860 861 862 863 864 865 866 867 868 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876 877 878 879 880 881 882 883 884 885 886 887 888 889 890 891 892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900 901 902 903 904 905 906 907 908 909 910 911 912 913 914 915 916 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 926 927 928 929 930 931 932 933 934 935 936 937 938 939 940 941 942 943 944 945 946 947 948 949 950 951 952 953 954 955 956 957 958 959 960 961 962 963 964 965 966 967 968 969 970 971 972 973 974 975 976 977 978 979 980 981 982 983 984 985 986 987 988 989 990 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 1000 1001 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008 1009 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028 1029 1030 1031 1032 1033 1034 1035 1036 1037 1038 1039 1040 1041 1042 1043 1044 1045 1046 1047 1048 1049 1050 1051 1052 1053 1054 1055 1056 1057 1058 1059 1060 1061 1062 1063 1064 1065 1066 1067 1068 1069 1070 1071 1072 1073 1074 1075 1076 1077 1078 1079 1080 1081 1082 1083 1084 1085 1086 1087 1088 1089 1090 1091 1092 1093 1094 1095 1096 1097 1098 1099 1100 1101 1102 1103 1104 1105 1106 1107 1108 1109 1110 1111 1112 1113 1114 1115 1116 1117 1118 1119 1120 1121 1122 1123 1124 1125 1126 1127 1128 1129 1130 1131 1132 1133 1134 1135 1136 1137 1138 1139 1140 1141 1142 1143 1144 1145 1146 1147 1148 1149 1150 1151 1152 1153 1154 1155 1156 1157 1158 1159 1160 1161 1162 1163 1164 1165 1166 1167 1168 1169 1170 1171 1172 1173 1174 1175 1176 1177 1178 1179 1180 1181 1182 1183 1184 1185 1186 1187 1188 1189 1190 1191 1192 1193 1194 1195 1196 1197 1198 1199 1200 1201 1202 1203 1204 1205 1206 1207 1208 1209 1210 1211 1212 1213 1214 1215 1216 1217 1218 1219 1220 1221 1222 1223 1224 1225 1226 1227 1228 1229 1230 1231 1232 1233 1234 1235 1236 1237 1238 1239 1240 1241 1242 1243 1244 1245 1246 1247 1248 1249 1250 1251 1252 1253 1254 1255 1256 1257 1258 1259 1260 1261 1262 1263 1264 1265 1266 1267 1268 1269 1270 1271 1272 1273 1274 1275 1276 1277 1278 1279 1280 1281 1282 1283 1284 1285 1286 1287 1288 1289 1290 1291 1292 1293 1294 1295 1296 1297 1298 1299 1300 1301 1302 1303 1304 1305 1306 1307 1308 1309 1310 1311 1312 1313 1314 1315 1316 1317 1318 1319 1320 1321 1322 1323 1324 1325 1326 1327 1328 1329 1330 1331 1332 1333 1334 1335 1336 1337 1338 1339 1340 1341 1342 1343 1344 1345 1346 1347 1348 1349 1350 1351 1352 1353 1354 1355 1356 1357 1358 1359 1360 1361 1362 1363 1364 1365 1366 1367 1368 1369 1370 1371 1372 1373 1374 1375 1376 1377 1378 1379 1380 1381 1382 1383 1384 1385 1386 1387 1388 1389 1390 1391 1392 1393 1394 1395 1396 1397 1398 1399 1400 1401 1402 1403 1404 1405 1406 1407 1408 1409 1410 1411 1412 1413 1414 1415 1416 1417 1418 1419 1420 1421 1422 1423 1424 1425 1426 1427 1428 1429 1430 1431 1432 1433 1434 1435 1436 1437 1438 1439 1440 1441 1442 1443 1444 1445 1446 1447 1448 1449 1450 1451 1452 1453 1454 1455 1456 1457 1458 1459 1460 1461 1462 1463 1464 1465 1466 1467 1468 1469 1470 1471 1472 1473 1474 1475 1476 1477 1478 1479 1480 1481 1482 1483 1484 1485 1486 1487 1488 1489 1490 1491 1492 1493 1494 1495 1496 1497 1498 1499 1500 1501 1502 1503 1504 1505 1506 1507 1508 1509 1510 1511 1512 1513 1514 1515 1516 1517 1518 1519 1520 1521 1522 1523 1524 1525 1526 1527 1528 1529 1530 1531 1532 1533 1534 1535 1536 1537 1538 1539 1540 1541 1542 1543 1544 1545 1546 1547 1548 1549 1550 1551 1552 1553 1554 1555 1556 1557 1558 1559 1560 1561 1562 1563 1564 1565 1566 1567 1568 1569 1570 1571 1572 1573 1574 1575 1576 1577 1578 1579 1580 1581 1582 1583 1584 1585 1586 1587 1588 1589 1590 1591 1592 1593 1594 1595 1596 1597 1598 1599 1600 1601 1602 1603 1604 1605 1606 1607 1608 1609 1610 1611 1612 1613 1614 1615 1616 1617 1618 1619 1620 1621 1622 1623 1624 1625 1626 1627 1628 1629 1630 1631 1632 1633 1634 1635 1636 1637 1638 1639 1640 1641 1642 1643 1644 1645 1646 1647 1648 1649 1650 1651 1652 1653 1654 1655 1656 1657 1658 1659 1660 1661 1662 1663 1664 1665 1666 1667 1668 1669 1670 1671 1672 1673 1674 1675 1676 1677 1678 1679 1680 1681 1682 1683 1684 1685 1686 1687 1688 1689 1690 1691 1692 1693 1694 1695 1696 1697 1698 1699 1700 1701 1702 1703 1704 1705 1706 1707 1708 1709 1710 1711 1712 1713 1714 1715 1716 1717 1718 1719 1720 1721 1722 1723 1724 1725 1726 1727 1728 1729 1730 1731 1732 1733 1734 1735 1736 1737 1738 1739 1740 1741 1742 1743 1744 1745 1746 1747 1748 1749 1750 1751 1752 1753 1754 1755 1756 1757 1758 1759 1760 1761 1762 1763 1764 1765 1766 1767 1768 1769 1770 1771 1772 1773 1774 1775 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 1807 1808 1809 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 | {
"paper_id": "C67-1015",
"header": {
"generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0",
"date_generated": "2023-01-19T12:35:28.250223Z"
},
"title": "METHODS FOR OBTAINING CORRESPONDING PHRASE STRUCTURE AND DEPENDENCY GRAMMARS",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Jane",
"middle": [
"J"
],
"last": "Robinson",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "",
"institution": "Thomas J. Watson Research Center Yorktown Heights",
"location": {
"settlement": "New York"
}
},
"email": ""
}
],
"year": "",
"venue": null,
"identifiers": {},
"abstract": "Two methods are given for converting grammars belonging to different systems. One converts a s~mple (context-free) phrase structure grammar (SPG) into a corresponding dependency grammar (DG); the other converts a DG into a corresponding SPG. The structures assigned to a string by a source grammar will correspond systematically, though asymmetrically, to those assigned by the target grammar resulting from its conversion. Since both systems are wealdy equivalent, generating exactly the CF languages, the methods facilitate experimentation with either notation in devising rules for any CF language or any CF set of strings designed to undergo subsequent transformation.",
"pdf_parse": {
"paper_id": "C67-1015",
"_pdf_hash": "",
"abstract": [
{
"text": "Two methods are given for converting grammars belonging to different systems. One converts a s~mple (context-free) phrase structure grammar (SPG) into a corresponding dependency grammar (DG); the other converts a DG into a corresponding SPG. The structures assigned to a string by a source grammar will correspond systematically, though asymmetrically, to those assigned by the target grammar resulting from its conversion. Since both systems are wealdy equivalent, generating exactly the CF languages, the methods facilitate experimentation with either notation in devising rules for any CF language or any CF set of strings designed to undergo subsequent transformation.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Abstract",
"sec_num": null
}
],
"body_text": [
{
"text": "A source SPG is assumed to be of'finite degree with ordered rules in which only the initial symbol is recursive. Unless the source grammars obey additional constraints, the target grammars may exhibit a peculiar property, defined as \"structure sensitivity\". The linguistic implications of the property are discussed, and the linguistic motivation for imposing the constraints necessary to avoid its appearance is suggested.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The author owes an especial debt to Jesse Wright of the Automata Theory and Computability Group in the Mathematical Science Department of IBM Research for many helpful discussior~s of theoretical problems arising in the course of this investigation.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "In an article on dependency theory i appearing in 1964 [5] , Hays remarked , \"Casual examination suggests there would be little difference between transformation of dependency trees and transformation of IC [immediate constituent] structures, but no definite investigation has been undertaken.\" Since then, a dependency grammar with transformational rules has been designed for a subset of English sentences, and preliminary results indicate that Hays' observation is correct. [9] In either case, transformations are specified in terms of labeled trees, and the number of branches and the denotations of the labels do not affect the essential operation.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 55,
"end": 58,
"text": "[5]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF4"
},
{
"start": 61,
"end": 74,
"text": "Hays remarked",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 477,
"end": 480,
"text": "[9]",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Since the base grammar is generally limited to the generation of context-free pro-terminal strings of \"deep structure\", and since context-free languages are characterizable in either dependency or phrase structure (i.e., immediate constitu-ent} systems, neither system is clearly preferable as a base.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "A linguist may find that the notation afforded by one or the other is simpler for characterizing some language, or for defining structures to be transformed, or for adapting a grammar to computer applications.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "A linguist may also wish to experiment with grammars of both types, or redesign transformations defined on the structures of one base grammar in order to incorporate them into a transformational grammar using a different base.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Such considerations as these motivate the present treatment of the problem of obtaining paired grammars by converting a grammar of one kind into a systematically corresponding grammar of the other which generates the same sentences and assigns comparable structures.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "In addition, conversion draws attention to some linguistically significant relationships that may exist unnoticed among the categories and rules of the source grammar and which may induce in the derived grammar a peculiar property of structure sensitivity, roughly analogous to context sensitivity. This property will be exhibited and discussed in the course of illustrating the method.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "We begin concretely by inspecting ( Fig. i ) a pair of grammars: SPG1, a simple or context-free phrase structure grammar of the kind formalized by Chomsky [2] , Bar-Hillel [i] , and others, and DGI, a dependency grammar of the kind formalized by Gaif-man{4] and Hays [5] . Two structural diagrams, a P-tree and a D-tree drawn beneath the grammars, illustrate the structure each assigns.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 155,
"end": 158,
"text": "[2]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF0"
},
{
"start": 267,
"end": 270,
"text": "[5]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF4"
}
],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 36,
"end": 42,
"text": "Fig. i",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The rewriting rules of SPOt are of two kinds, those in which only categories appear, and those in which a category is rewritten as a terminal (lexical formative or word).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The latter may be separated from the former and made into assignment rules, i For additional material on dependency theory, see Ref. 6 . This is possible because SPGt does not contain any mixed rewriting rules in which both categories and lexical formatives appear on the right.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "It can be shown that any SPG which has mixed rules, in this sense, can be converted into one which does not merely by introducing new categories, without affecting generative power.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Thus there is no reason for not separating the two types of rules, and Chomsky~devotes a good part of Aspects of the Theory o_ff Syntax [3] to giving linguistic reasons for just such a separation.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 136,
"end": 139,
"text": "[3]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF2"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Hereafter, \"rewriting rules\" will refer only to those like rules i-3 in SPGi, and those like rules 4-9 Will be called \"assignment rules\".",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Categories which do not appear on the left of any rewriting rules are terminal categories.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "With each category of SPGi, we associate a number called its degree.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "{To say that a category is of degree n means that n is the fixed upper limit to the number of nodes of the shortest path leading from it to a terminal category in any structure derived from St by successive rule applications. A category may be of infinite degree.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "For example, if X ~ XX, then X is of infinite degree and so is the grammar in which it occurs even though another rule rewrites X as a string containing only terminal categories.) i In SPGt the terminal categories D, N, V are of zero degree, since they are not rewritten; the categories NP and VP are of degree i, since at least one category in their replacement is of zero degree; and the degree of S is 2, since the least degree assigned to any category on the right of the rule for rewriting S is i. The maximum number assigned to any category in a grammar is also the degree of the grammar; therefore, the degree of SPGi is 2.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "An essential difference between SPGi and DGi now emerges more clearly.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "DGi uses only terminal categories, while SPGi uses categories of higher degree.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The effects of the differences are reflected in the structure of the P-tree and D-tree.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The latter has fewer branches, and this will always be the case for structures assigned to the same string by grammars belonging to the two different systems.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Even so, there is a systematic correspondence between the two trees and their labels of a kind defined by Hays [5] . Every complete subtree of the D-tree, that is, every node taken together with all of its descendents, covers a substring of the sentence that is covered by a complete subtree of the P-tree.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 111,
"end": 114,
"text": "[5]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF4"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The conver, se does not hold, but every complete subtree of the P-tree covers a substring that is covered by a connected subtree of the D-tree. In i For a more precise characterization of \"degree\", see Gaifman [4] . the example, both complete subtrees dominated by N in the D-tree correspond to the two complete subt~ees of the P-tree dominated by NP, and the complete (sub)tree dominated by V corresponds to the complete (sub)tree dominated by S. However, the complete subtree dominated by Vlo in the lo-tree corresponds to an incomplete subtree of the D-tree, which is dominated by V but includes only V and the branches to its right; so that the relationship of correspondence is asymmetrical.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 210,
"end": 213,
"text": "[4]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF3"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "While such systematic correspondences exist between the structures assigned to all strings generated by SloGi and DGi, this is not the general case. In general. ~ i.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Any context-free language can be generated by grammars of either simple phrase structure or dependency systems.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "For any given SPG, there exists one or more DG over the same language all of whose structures correspond systematically to structures assigned to the same strings by the SPG if and only if the SPG is of finite degree.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "2.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "For any given DG there exists one or more corresponding SloG.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "3.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "For any given DG there exists a unique SPG of degree i that is strongly equivalent to it.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Gaifman [4] gives a very general method for constructing corresponding DG from any SloG of finite degree, and also a method for constructing a unique SloG of degree t from any DG. Here we give two methods for constructing corresponding Slog and DG that differ from Gaifman's.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 8,
"end": 11,
"text": "[4]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF3"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The first applies only to a more restricted set of SI\u00b0G and leads to reduced DG, whereas Ga~fman's method tends to produce DG with overlapping categories and superfluous rules that may never be used to generate any string.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The second allows construction of SPG of degree greater than i from certain DG. 2 A simplified sketch of the two methods follows. Each rewriting rule is \"augmented\" by starring a category on the right. Each dependency rule is augmented by assigning a numerical coefficient to each dependent. Figure 2 shows a possible augmented lloroofs are given by Gaifman [4] . It is assumed that the Slog is non-erasing and reduced; that is, no category is rewritten as null, and there are no superfluous categories or rules.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 358,
"end": 361,
"text": "[4]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF3"
}
],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 292,
"end": 300,
"text": "Figure 2",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "2The second method was suggested by Kay's procedurefor constructing lo-trees from D-trees [7]. More precisely, an Slog of degree n > i may be derived if, in the DG, some categories govern two or more dependents, and the left-or rightmost depen= dent itself governs dependents.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "form of SPGI on the left and a possible augmented form of DGI on the right. (Detailed consideration of the problem of augmentation @ill follow the sketch of the operations.) These augmentations were deliberately chosen so that conversion of either grammar uniquely produces the other. Different augmentations produce different results, although structures of the original grammar and of the grammar derived from it still correspond.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "SPGI TS IRL DGI S --NP Vim* S:V z V 2---N i.IVi* V (2N * iN) VP---V* N1 m VP:V i V i -~ V 0 N i N (ID *) NP~D N* NP:N i N 1 ---D O N O D (*) Figure 2",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The columns TS and IRL in Figure 2 represent a Table of Substitutes and an Intermediate Rule List. In the conversion of SPGi, the TS is constructed, equating each category on the left of a rule with a superscripted terminal category.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 26,
"end": 34,
"text": "Figure 2",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The numerical superscript {hereafter called the exponent) equals the number of rules traced through when tracing by starred categories before a starred terminal category is reached, and expresses the distance between the terminal category and the category for which it is a substitute.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "In the IRL, the categories occurring in each rule of the SPG are replaced by their substitutes from TS. Taking the first LRL rule, construction of a dependency rule is begun by replacing the arrow with parentheses enclosing the substitute categories on the right.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Thus from the first IRL rule in Figure 2 we obtain V 2 (Ni V~). The construction of a dependency rule is continued so long as the exponent of the starred category X~ is greater than zero. The next step is to search the IRL for a rule with X s on the left. The categories on the right of the new rule are inserted in the parentheses of the D rule under construction, in the position of X~, but no new parentheses are added. When the starred occurrence is X~, it is replaced by *, all exponents are erased, and the dependency rule is complete. The process is repeated for new dependency rules until all IRL rules are exhausted.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 32,
"end": 40,
"text": "Figure 2",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "We must add rules to the constructed DG for any unstarred terminal category of the IRL. The added rules assign no dependents and are of the form D(*). The assignment rules are simply transferred, and since V is the substitute for the axiom category S, it is taken as the axiom for the DG.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Going in the other direction from an augmented DGI to SI:'Gt, we first assign an exponent s to each category, where s equals the largest coefficient of any dependent of that category. If a category is not assigned dependents, its exponent is zero. The first rule of augmented DGt now appears as V z (ZN 1 * 1Nt). From this rule two rules are constructed for the IRL; that is, the number of IRL rules constructed from each rule of DGt will be equal to the exponent of the governor.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The first rule so obtained writes the governor with its exponent on the left of the arrow.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "All of its dependents whose coefficients equal that of the exponent are written in order on the right, and the governing category with its exponent decreased by t is written with the *. Thus we obtain",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "V z ~ N 1 Vt..",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The second rule is obtained in a similar fashion, with the exponent of the governing category diminished by 1 yielding V t -~ V0 N1. ' The process is repeated until an IRL rule rewriting some category with exponent equal to 1 is used, after which the next DG rule is processed, and so on until all DG rules are exhausted.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "At this point, the *'s may be erased and, except for category labels, the IRL is exactly equivalent to the rewriting rules of the original unaugmented SPG.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The only function the TS serves is to reassign labels. Assignment rules are transferred and the substitute for the axiom of DGt is added, t SPGI and DG1 are very simple, with no embeddings and no optional rules. More complicated grammars give rise to problems of augmentation, especially for SPG. Even SPGI poses a problem. Assume it had been augmented by starring NP in rule I and in rule Z. In that case, the same substitute, N Z, is assigned to both S and VP, and the procedure produces a DG that is not even weakly equivalent to the original. Clearly some constraints must be imposed on augmentation and provision made for grammars in which it may not be possible to avoid starring a category more than once.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Similarly, assume that some DG has a rule of the form C (A B * D), and that this is augmented as C (tA Z]3 * tD).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The IRL rules are:",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "C z --, B C $ C 1 ~ A C O D.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "But now the rules generate the sequence ]3 A C D, which was not generated by the original rule, and do not generate A B C D, which was. This is remedied by requiring that if a coefficient n has been assigned to a dependent, no higher number is assigned to any dependent which intervenes between it and the *. We will also require that at least one dependent be preceded by t, and if any dependent is preceded by n > t, there must be at least one dependent 1Although grammars with only one axiom are illustrated, grammars with more than one axiom can obviously be handled as well.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "preceded by n -i. This is not crucial, but it avoids setting up unnecessary, single-branching categories in the derived $PG. Note that if all dependents in any rule are preceded by i, which is the same as not augmenting the DG at all, the resulting SPG will be of degree i; that is, each rule of the grammar will contain at least one terminal category on the right. This is equivalent to Gaifman's procedure [4] .",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 408,
"end": 411,
"text": "[4]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF3"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Augmentation of SPG is the more difficult case. Primarily it is the problem of constructing the TS in a finite number of steps. For ex~mple, if for S ---NP VP S the S is starred on the right, an infinite loop is created immediately.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "This is easy to avoid when considering a single rule or a small set of rules, but we do not know in general whether some series of rule augmentations may not lead to the same situation. Gaifman's solution is to require that the marked category be of lesser degree than the category on the left, but this not only leads to a proliferation of categories in the derived DG whenever the SPG has more than one rewriting rule for any of its categories, it prevents us from deriving the simplest corresponding DG in some cases. I On the other hand, the method employed here will not work unless some restrictions are imposed on augmentation which also imply restrictions on the form of the SPG in addition to the requirement of finite degree. It is not clear what restrictions are minimally necessary, but it is sufficient to require, in addition to finiteness of degree, that the rules of the SPG be ordered, so that in a developing derivation, if rule n has been applied, no rule m, m < n, need be applied thereafter. This is too restrictive, and does not allow for full recursion. We may, however, allow a dummy symbol, S', to appear in any rule rewriting some X as a string containing some Y, S' ~ Y ~ X, where S' is replaced after one application of the set of rules by # S #, the axiom, so that the rules then reapply in linear order.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Any $PG of finite degree with ordered rules providing for recursive application in the manner specified can be converted to a corresponding DG by the method given here. The base component proposed by 2Chomsky [3] for transformational grammar is an SPG of this form.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 209,
"end": 212,
"text": "[3]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF2"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "l\"Simplest\" with respect to process, number of categories, and freedom from the property of structure sensitivity. See p. 14 ff.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "2Chomsky does not explicitly require that if S' appears in rewriting X, some Y (S' ~ Y ~ X) appear in the rule also, but implicitly observes the restriction. A new grammar for English by Rosenbaum [10] contains a rule NP ~ NP S' which does not observe it. This is the only case known to me of an actual grammar for some !'real\" language that violates this restriction, and Rosenbaum does not claim any strong theoretical motivation for the rule in-question. Cf. also Lees [8] , and the MITRE grammar [11] .",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 467,
"end": 475,
"text": "Lees [8]",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 500,
"end": 504,
"text": "[11]",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "We turn now to more detailed consideration of augmenting and converting SPG subject to the above constraints. While the constraints insure that the SPG can be workably converted, some linguistically significant problems arise if we consider how to derive a simple DG, and it will be shown that under some conditions the derived DG will exhibit a feature not heretofore considered in the literature, a feature of \"structure sensitivity\".",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Step i. Augmentation",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method i. Conversion of SI:'G to DG",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "All rules of the SPG which rewrite a given category are conflated and written as one schematized rule, with square brackets enclosing optionally omitted categories and braces enclosing lists of categories from which a single choice is Beginning with the first rule rewriting some X and proceeding in rule order, star occurrences of categories, excluding the dummy symbol S I, on the right in such a way that one and only one starred category Y% where Y ~ X, will occur in any application of the rule. 2 It follows that no bracketed (omissible) occurrence may be starred.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method i. Conversion of SI:'G to DG",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "If more than one category is starred, the schernatized rule must be separated into as many rt, les as there are starred categories, with one starred category appearing in each.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method i. Conversion of SI:'G to DG",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "For example, X -~ C must be separated into X -~ A* C ~D* F J X --D* F. This is a partial undoing of the conflation, but for linguistic reasons all ways of rewriting a category will usually have some element in common and some c0nflation will usually be preserved.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method i. Conversion of SI:'G to DG",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "iSquare brackets are used here rather than the customary parentheses to avoid confusion with the parentheses used in the derived DG. More exactly, [] and {} enclose lists of strings of categories.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method i. Conversion of SI:'G to DG",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "In the case of [ ] the list may consist of one member, and in both cases the strings may consist of one item.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method i. Conversion of SI:'G to DG",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "ZSince the SPG must be finite, no rule will rewrite X as a string orals in any application, and some other category of degree less th~n X will be available for starring in all cases.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method i. Conversion of SI:'G to DG",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "If the simplest DG corresponding to the SPG is desired, then it is preferable to augment the SPG in such a way that a)",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method i. Conversion of SI:'G to DG",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "no category occurs both starred and non-starred on the right, and b) no category is starred on the right of two or more rules which rewrite different categories. But it is not always possible to observe these policies, and in that case, additional augmentation is necessary in order to distinguish among occurrences of X as the marked constituent in the rule rewriting Y, X as the marked constituent in the rule rewriting Z, Z ~ Y, and X as an unmarked constituent of any category.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method i. Conversion of SI:'G to DG",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Assume some category X is starred in two or more rules which rewrite different categories, 1 say Y and Z, and also occurs unstarred on the right in some rules.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method i. Conversion of SI:'G to DG",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The two X*'s are assigned different subscripts to avoid assigning the same substitutes for Y and Z with the consequent loss of essential information.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method i. Conversion of SI:'G to DG",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "We now have three varieties of X, namely: X, XI, and X2, where X is the unstarred variety, X I is the marked constituent of Y, and X 2 of Z. (If X does not occur unstarred, only X and X I are needed.) If X is not a terminal category, there is a rule rewriting X. Then we must add, beneath that rule, rules for rewriting X 1 and X 2. If X ~ U* W, we add X I ~ UI* W and X 2 -~ U2* W. Now, if U is not a terminal category, we add rules for rewriting U I and U 2 beneath the rule rewriting U. Thus the process of adding rules is iterative, but it will eventually end when, in some lower rule, a terminal category is starred.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method i. Conversion of SI:'G to DG",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Note that in some cases sub-subscripts are needed. As a result, no Xi* occurs on the right of two or more rules which rewrite different categories.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method i. Conversion of SI:'G to DG",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "This process and the remaining steps will be illustrated using SPG2. In order to show the effects of different choices t0 :ii in ~ugmentation, SPG2 will be augmented in a way that deliberately violates the policies advocated for starring (but not the restrictions). ",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method i. Conversion of SI:'G to DG",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "NP --~ D N~ We will assume assignments are the same as for SPGt with the additional assignments of \"send\" and \"give\" to V, and \"books\" and \"flowers\" to N. I Note that, in this augmentation, NP is starred twice and also occurs non-starred on the right. Subscripting and duplication are required, resulting in i.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "VP-4\" V NP* [NP] 3:",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "S ---NP~ VP z.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "VP-4\" V NP* [NP] 3:",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "3. NP ~ D N~",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "vP-v [NP]",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "NP 1 ~ D N~",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Step 2. Establish a table of substitutes (TS) of 2 columns and n rows, where n equals the number of rules in the SPG (after step i). List categories on the left in column t, and starred categories on the right in column 2, in order.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "NP 2 ~ D N~",
"sec_num": "5."
},
{
"text": "Eliminate any duplicate rows. (Cf. p. 9, footnote l.)",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "NP 2 ~ D N~",
"sec_num": "5."
},
{
"text": "At the end of step 2, applied to SPGZ, the result is",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "NP 2 ~ D N~",
"sec_num": "5."
},
{
"text": "TS S NP i VP NP z NP N NP i N I NP z N 2",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "NP 2 ~ D N~",
"sec_num": "5."
},
{
"text": "1In a transformational grammar, lexical assignment rules of more complex form than that given here would presumably block the generation of un-English sentences.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "NP 2 ~ D N~",
"sec_num": "5."
},
{
"text": "Step 3.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "li",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Starting with k = i, try to match the category in row k, column 2 (k, 2) with a category occurring in column i of a lower row.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "li",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "If a match is found on row m, check to see if a match also occurs on m + i. {This will be the case if the SPG contains more than one rewriting rule for the category in' (k, 2}.) If it does, mark m as a branching point, insert a duplicate of row k beneath row k {the duplicate will be row k + i) and follow separate branches for substitutes for (k, i) and (k + i, i). Replace the category in (k, 2) with the category in (m, 2) and repeat the search on the remaining lower rows. When the search is exhausted, assign an exponent s to the last category obtained {the final substitute} in column 2, where s equals the number of matches plus i. Increment k and repeat until every category in column i has a substitute that does not appear in column i. At the end of step 3, we obtain a unique substitute for every rewritten category of SPG2. i",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "li",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "2 S N i 2 VP N 2 NP N i i NP i N i i NP 2 N 2",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "TS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Step 4.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "TS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Rule List (IRL) by replacing each category in the augmented SPG rules with its substitutes from TS. If a category has no substitute, superscript it with a zero.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "If X i has more than one substitute, include them in braces wherever X i appears on the right. If a category X occurring on the left has more than one substitute, provide a separate rewriting rule for each substitute yS such that yn. _~ At the end of step 4, we obtain",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 234,
"end": 236,
"text": "_~",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "2 N~* 2 1. N 1 --- N 2 Z V 0 NiZ, [Ni] 2. N 2 3. N 1 -* D O N O 1 -~ D O N~* 4. N i t --~ D O N~* 5. N 2",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Step 5. Take the first unmarked IRL rule, which rewrites some X~, set s as a counter, and write X n followed by a pair of parentheses enclosing the string of categories on the r~ght of the IRL rule.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Note that the string will contain an X s-*.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "n",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Step 6. Mark the previously processed IRL rule, decrease s by t, and test for s = 0. If so, go to step 7. Otherwise, find s the rule which rewrites the new X n. Replaced the starred xS* in the current D rule with the categories on the right of the IRL rule.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Repeat step 6.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Step 7.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Test to see if any unmarked rules remain in the IRL. If they do, return to step 5. If not, a.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Erase starred categories, leaving only the star. b.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Add rules of the form X(*) for any non-starred terminal , category of the IRL. c.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Add as axiom(s) of the DG the substitute(s) of the axiom(s) of the SPG. d.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Add the assignment rules of the SPG. If a category is subscripted in the DG, the assignments are duplicated for each subscripted variant. e. Erase exponents. At the end of step 7, we obtain the derived DG2. If we interpret each distinct X n as a separate category, then the same list of words is assigned to the three categories, N, Nf, and NZ, by the assignment rules. If we interpret them as the same category, then the subscripts distinguish the different substructures of a sentence in which the N's occur. Each N governs a D directly on the left, but if it is the axiom it is required to govern another N on the right also. If N is not the axiom but is governed directly by the axiom, it ~ govern another N on the right, and is required to govern a V on the left. If it is neither the axiom nor a direct dependent of the axiom, it governs nothing but the D. We may not erase the subscripts and write a single conflated rule N (iv] D \u2022 iN]), for then strings not generated by SPGZ would be generated.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "(For example, the rule would generate an infinite set of strings, (D N)n.) In such circumstances we say that the DG is structure sensitive. This structure-sensitive feature of some DG apparently serves functions llke those served by the context-sensitive feature of context-sensitive phrase structure grammars in placing restrictions on the string generated, but there seems to be no mention of it in the literature.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Its character may be masked by the freedom to set up categories and assign the same terminals to them. i For example, one may substitute simple symbols X and Y for the complex symbols N i and N 2, and obtain the rules",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "X (D * Y) Y (V D ~' iN]) N (D *)",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "iGaifrnan's method [4] for converting SPG to DG makes great use of this freedam.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 19,
"end": 22,
"text": "[4]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF3"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Construct an Intermediate",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "In this case, only the assignment rules, assigning exactly the same set of terminals to X, Y, and N, explicitly show the structure sensitivity,' although the fact that N governs a subset of the dependents of X and Y is significant.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "i4",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "in assigning symbols raises the significant linguistic problem of criteria for establi.shing categories, which is too large an issue to be discussed here,",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The p.roblem is no less relevant to SPG, Definition Z.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "An SPG is structure sensitive if a.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "the set of terminals assigned to one terminal category is \u2022 identical to the set assigned to any other, and/or b.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "any rewriting rule does not contain, on the right, a unique category (other than the axiom) which occurs only once in that rule and appears on the right in no other rule.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The linguistic implica.tions of the property may be clarified by considering two sets of rules, one for the artificial language a n b a n and one for a fragment of English.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The language a n b a n is generated by the rules S ~-~ A S A, S ~ B, A ~ a, and B ~ b. The first rule \"does not contain a unique category (other than the axiom) which occurs only once\", since A occurs twice.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "One of the A's must be starred in converting to a DG and the DG will distinguish two categories of a, a left A and a right A. Note that the same language is generated if the first rule is S ~ A S and a transformational rule X B => X B X is added.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "In this case, each rewriting rule contains a unique category other than the axiom, and a structure-free set of dependency rules is obtainable from them.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "A less artificial but still extreme case of structure sensitivity is that in which two or more rules are rewritten in exactly the same way. Assume that an SPG for English has the following rewriting rules : S~X VP VP~V Y X--~D N Y~D N Here the distinction drawn between a sequence D N that is a(n) X (i. e., derives from X) and a D N that is a Y, reflects the functional notions of subject and object, but obscures the categorial notion is a noun phrase.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Chomsky [3, pp. 68-72] argues that it is confusing and redundant to assign categorial status to both notions since the purely relational character of the functional notion is implicit in the rewriting rules S --~ NP VP and VP ~ V [NP] ; that is, the notion \"subject of a sentence\" refers to the NP under the immediate domination of S, and \"object of a verb\" refers to the NP under the immediate domination of VP. Chomsky also shows that for sentences like \"John was persuaded by Bill to leave\" where \"John\" is simultaneously object-of \"persuade\" and subject-of a transformed embedded sentence \"John leave\", it is impossible to represent such functional notions by categorial assignments, and adds that \"Examples of this sort, of course, provide the primary motivation and empirical justification for the theory of transfor-",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 8,
"end": 22,
"text": "[3, pp. 68-72]",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 230,
"end": 234,
"text": "[NP]",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "mational grammar.\" [p. 70].",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Whether it is possible or desirable to require that SPG components of transformational grammars for natural languages be structure free is an open question, ibresumably, it is desirable if it is possible, since the least powerful, most restricted grammar --the tightest fit --is to be preferred.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Moreover, inspection of proposed grammars, for English at least, indicates that most of their rules do contain unique categories on the right.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Returning now to SPG2, we see that it is structure free, since every elementary rewriting rule for every category X i contains a single occurrence of at least one category Yi on the right which does not appear elsewhere on the right, and is not the axiom. Under these conditions we will say that Yi is a head for category X i and call all such Y's head categories.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Examination shows that the structure-sensitive property of DG2 arose from the choices made in augmenting SPG2. If only head categories are marked, a structure-free DG similar to DGi results, in which all signs of augmentation can be erased without altering its generative capacity.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Intuitively, it seems reasonable to regard heads as sources of a \"governor\" in any string derivable from the category in whose rewriting rules they appear.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "This does not mean that the string is to be considered endocentric in the strong sense of requiring that the governor be substitutable for the entire string without loss of grammaticality, and the objection sometimes raised that dependency theory forces a purely endocentric analysis of a language is based on failure to distinguish between \"head o.P' and \"substitutable for\". It appears truer to say that dependency analysis assumes that one phrase type is distinguished from another primarily by the singular presence of some category in it rather than by co-occurrence and order of categories in it.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Incidentally, aside from the problem of obtaining a structure-free DG from an SPG, avoidance of structure sensitivity may be a criterion for assigning government when one is analyzing a language in terms of dependency theory. In English, for example, the choice has generally wavered between noun and verb as candidates for sentence government.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Since every elementary sentence contains one verb but may contain several nouns, choosing the noun forces a structure-sensitive DG.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "In converting a DG to an SPG, no requirement of intrinsic t6 ordering needs to be imposed on the dependency rules, as it was on the rewriting rules of SPG. Dependency rules may always he partially ordered by starting with the rule (or rules) for the axiom(s).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Call these \"level zero rules\". Then level i rules are those which assign dependents to the axiom, level Z those which assign dependents to categories which make their first appearance in level t rules, and so on. To insure eventual termination, however, it is required that if X occurs anywhere in a level n rule, and is a dependent in a level m rule, m > n, then its choice as \u2022 dependent in the level m rule is optional or else the governor in the level m rule is optionally chosen at some point. Otherwise no constraints on recursion are necessary, and any category may be i'eintroduced at a lower level.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "By contrast, the problem of conflation arises. It has been shown that rules like k (~) and A (B * C), occurring in structuresensitive DG, cannot be conflated. Conflations of A (B $) with A (C * D) and of A (~ B) with A (B *) are also impossible, although structure sensitivity as defined above is not involved. If the rules are not conflatable because the DG is structure sensitive, then the SPG may also be structure sensitive. If they are not conflatable solely because of disparate number or position Cleft or right) with respect to the governor, the SPGwill be structure free. In either case, the conversion process becomes somewhat more complicated.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The process will be illustrated first by applying it to a DG whose rules cannot be fully conflated both because some are structure sensitive and because some assign disparate numbers or positions to dependents of a category.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Such arbitrariness",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Conversion of DG to SPG",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method 2.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Step t. a.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method 2.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Precede each dependent element with a coefficient n > i, so that for any n > i, at least one element is preceded by n -I, and for any m > n, m does not intervene between n and ~. Thus:",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method 2.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "b. C.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method 2.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "d.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Method 2.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "A (2B IC *) but not A (2B @ 2C) and not A (iB 2C *). Assign an exponent s to the governor in each rule, where s equals the largest coefficient n of any dependeSt. (For rules of the form X (~), s is zero.) If a category X is assigned different exponents for different rules in which it occurs as governor, associate a distinct subscript with each distinct exponent. Replace every occurrence of X as dependent by X s. If X has been subscripted, include each variant in braces, thus : j",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "A (ZB * IC)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Step 2.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "A (ZB * IC)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Test for unmarked (unprocessed) rules. If none remain, go to step 4. Otherwise take the first unmarked rule, where some x~i is governor and set a counter S = s..",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "A (ZB * IC)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Step 3.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "1",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "If S = 0, mark the rule and repeat step 2. If S ~ 0, construct'a rule of an IntErmediate Rule List of the form X~ .....",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "1",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "On the right of the arrow duplicate all dependent elements whose coefficients n = S. Include the $, and precede it with ~-i.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "1",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Decrease S by i, and repeat step 3.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "1",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Step 4. Establish a Table of Substitutes, assigning a unique symbol to every distinct XSn i for which S i ~ 0.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "1",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Step 5.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "1",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Assign the substitute or substitutes for the axioms of the DG as axioms of the SPG.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "1",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Step 6.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "1",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Rewrite the IRL, using substitutes from the TS, deleting exponents and subscripts from any X 0 and omitting ~. n'",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "1",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Step 7.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "1",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Transfer the assignment rules.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "1",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "This method will be illustrated using an abstract DG3, without assignment rules.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "1",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "DG3 is structure sensitive since there are rules which restrict the choices of dependents of categories A and C to subsets of the ordered categories they are permitted to govern in other rules. ",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "1",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "(tB i *) i. A i B i D O 3 i Z. A z (Z C i 0 C 2 3. B i (IE i *) 4. B i (* iF i) i (iG 0 , iFi) 5. C i 0 6. c z (*) 7. D O (*) 8. E i (* IG 0) iB 1 , 3E 1)",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "DG3 (augmented)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "iNote the impossibility of further conflation, and that every category'occurring as dependent in a rule of level m and also occurring in some other rule of level n < m is always optionally chosen as a dependent. That is, there is t-he possibility of avoiding its reintroduction. Thus A, the axiom, is reintroduced in rule 9, but its governor, F, is optionally chosen as a dependent. Otherwise no derivation could terminate. ",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "DG3 (augmented)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "At the end of iterationm on steps 2 and 3, the IRL is ",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "G O (*)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "i --~ B i A0, i. A i 2. S A2, E ~ A2 ~ [ B t D O } I --~ B I A02 , 4. A 2 5. B i -~ E i B 0 6. B i --B 0 F i i_,. G O C0~ F i 7. C i 8. E i ~ E 0 G O A possible TS is: i S :A i 3 Z :A z 2 Y :A z i X :A 2 W:B i i V:C i U:E i T :F i",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "G O (*)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "i. S -*W A Z. Z-*Y U {W D} 3. Y ~ V C 4. X --~W A 5. W ---~U B 6. W~B T 7. V~G C T 8. U ---*E G tLJ X SPG3",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "G O (*)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "is structure sensitive, since two categories, S and X, are rewritten the same way. This results from the fact that, in DG3, A has two sets of dependents and one set is included in the other.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "G O (*)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The structure-sensitive rules for C in DG3 produced no additional structure-sensitive rules in SPG3, however, since one of them, C ($1, was not processed in step 3 and did not form part of the IRL. SPG3 may be rewritten as a structure-free grammar in a purely ad hoc way by eliminating the rewriting rule for X and shbstituting S for the occurrence of X on the right. More generally, it is reasonable to require of the original DG that its rules be designed so that it is possible to write a single rule (schema} assigning dependents to any given category. This requirement is reasonable if the DG is a base component of a transformational grammar whose transformations take care of the eventual order of elements in a sentence.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "G O (*)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The primary function of the DO's dependency rules is, in this case, only that of listing 'co-occurring categories in the dependency relations in some canonical order. In DO3, A always occurs with B as dependent. Whenever E is a dependent of A, then either a second B or a C are also dependents, and if a second B is a dependent of A, D is also.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "G O (*)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "This set of conditions is summed up by 2i Similarly, B always occurs with E or F as dependents, i.e., and C occurs with no dependents or else with both G and F, i.e., c (* [O F]).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "G O (*)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "These rules express co-occurrence relationships more directly than the original rules do. Let us assume this constraint and redesign DG3 as DG4. Let the augmented DG4 be:",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "G O (*)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Axiom:",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "G O (*)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "\u2022 ",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "G O (*)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "5~ V--E G 6. U--Z F v]",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "G O (*)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "SPG4 is structure free. Furthermore, it has only one axiom, whereas SPG3 had two even though derived from a DG which had only one.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "G O (*)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "proposed for DG and SPG in discussions of the results of conversion by these methods are not crucial as far as obtaining systematically corresponding grammars is concerned.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The additional restrictions",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Without them, every complete subtree of a D-tree will correspond to a complete subtree of a P-tree over the same string, and every complete subtree of the P-tree will correspond to a connected subtree of a D-tree over the same string. (No formal proof of this was given, but the methods of constructing an IRL make it moderately apparent.) Hays [5] suggests the term relational correspondence for this state of affairs. Also there is a systematic relationship between the categories of the two gram-mars~ which the TS makes explicit.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 345,
"end": 348,
"text": "[5]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF4"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The additional restrictions",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "that relationship is simple, as in the case of DG4 and SPG4.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Sometimes",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Given any category of DG4, there is exactly one category of SPG4 from which the same set of strings is derivable. The relationship also holds between the categories of DGt and SPGt, and between those of DG2 and SPG2.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Sometimes",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Under these conditions, Hays [5] calls the categories \"substantively equivalent\". The relationship between the categories of DG3 and SPG3 is less simple.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 29,
"end": 32,
"text": "[5]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF4"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Sometimes",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "There the set of strings derivable from A of the DG is the union of the set of strings derivable from S and Z of the SPG, and the set derivable fromB is the union d the set derivable from W and V.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Sometimes",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Hays says that a D-tree and a P-tree correspond if they correspond relationally and if the category at the origin of every complete subtree of the D-tree is substantively equivalent to the category labeling the complete subtree of the P-tree related to it. If a DG and an SPG \"have the same terminal alphabet, and for every string over that alphabet, every structure attributed by either cot/responds to a structure attributed by the other\", he calls the two grammars \"strongly equivalent\". [5, p. 52t] We prefer to say that they correspond substantively, since relational correspondence is asymmetric and there are always \"left-over\" SPG categories to which no DG category is substantively equivalent. The weaker relationship exhibited by SPG3 and DG3, where some DG categories are not substantively equivalent to any single SPG category, we have been calling systematic correspondence.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 491,
"end": 502,
"text": "[5, p. 52t]",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Sometimes",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "i Conversion by the methods given here results in systematic' correspondence. If the suggested constraints, which appear to be linguistically well-mot~vated for base components of transformational grammars, are imposed on the form of the source grammar, the target grammar corresponds substantively as well as systematically to the source grammar and both are structure free.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Sometimes",
"sec_num": null
}
],
"back_matter": [],
"bib_entries": {
"BIBREF0": {
"ref_id": "b0",
"title": "On formal properties of phrase structure grammars",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Y",
"middle": [],
"last": "Bar-Hillel",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Perles",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "E",
"middle": [],
"last": "Shamir",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": null,
"venue": "Readings in Mathematical Psychology",
"volume": "II",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Bar-Hillel, Y., Perles, M., and Shamir, E. \"On formal properties of phrase structure grammars,\" in R. D. Luce, R. Bush, and E. Galanter (eds.), Readings in Mathematical Psychology, Vol. II, pp. 75~i04. New York, Wiley, i965.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF1": {
"ref_id": "b1",
"title": "On certain formal properties of grammars",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Noam",
"middle": [],
"last": "Chomsky",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": null,
"venue": "Handbook of Mathematical Psychology",
"volume": "II",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Chomsky, Noam. \"On certain formal properties of gram- mars,\" inR. D. Luce, R. Bush, and E. Galanter (eds.), Handbook of Mathematical Psychology, Vol. II, pp. 323-4t8. New York, Wiley, i963.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF2": {
"ref_id": "b2",
"title": "Aspects of the theory of syntax. The M.I.T. Press, Massachusetts Institute of Technology",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Noam",
"middle": [],
"last": "Chomsky",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1965,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Chomsky, Noam. Aspects of the theory of syntax. The M.I.T. Press, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass., 1965.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF3": {
"ref_id": "b3",
"title": "Dependency systems and phrase structure systems. P-23t5, The RAND Corporation",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Haim",
"middle": [],
"last": "Gaifman",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1961,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Gaifman, Haim. Dependency systems and phrase structure systems. P-23t5, The RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, California, May 1961.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF4": {
"ref_id": "b4",
"title": "Dependency theory: a formalism and some Language",
"authors": [
{
"first": "David",
"middle": [
"G"
],
"last": "Hays",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "",
"middle": [],
"last": "Observations",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": null,
"venue": "",
"volume": "40",
"issue": "",
"pages": "5--525",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Hays, David G. observations,\" 5ti-525. \"Dependency theory: a formalism and some Language, Vol. 40, (Oct.-Dec. i964), pp.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF5": {
"ref_id": "b5",
"title": "An annotated bibliography of publications on depende-tc7 theory. RM-4479-PR, The RAND Corporation",
"authors": [
{
"first": "David",
"middle": [
"G"
],
"last": "Hays",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1965,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Hays, David G. An annotated bibliography of publications on depende-tc7 theory. RM-4479-PR, The RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, California, Marc1~ 1965.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF6": {
"ref_id": "b6",
"title": "The tabular parser: A parsing program for phrase structure and dependency. RM-4933-PR. The RAND Corporation",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Martin",
"middle": [],
"last": "Kay",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1966,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Kay, Martin. The tabular parser: A parsing program for phrase structure and dependency. RM-4933-PR. The RAND Corporation, Santa Monica, California, July 1966.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF7": {
"ref_id": "b7",
"title": "Th___e_e grammar of English nominalizations, Supplement to",
"authors": [
{
"first": "R",
"middle": [
"B"
],
"last": "Lees",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1960,
"venue": "International Journal of American Linguistics",
"volume": "26",
"issue": "3",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Lees, R. B. Th___e_e grammar of English nominalizations, Sup- plement to International Journal of American Linguistics, 26, No. 3, Part II, 1960.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF8": {
"ref_id": "b8",
"title": "Adependency-based transformational grammar",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Jane",
"middle": [],
"last": "Robinson",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": null,
"venue": "IBM Corporation",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Robinson, Jane, \"Adependency-based transformational grammar.\" IBM Corporation, Yorktown Heights, New York. (Forthcoming, i967)",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF9": {
"ref_id": "b9",
"title": "English Grammar II",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Peter",
"middle": [
"S"
],
"last": "Rosenbaum",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1967,
"venue": "IBM Corporation",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Rosenbaum, Peter S. \"English Grammar II.\" IBM Corpo- ration, Yorktown Heights, New York. (Forthcoming, 1967)",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF10": {
"ref_id": "b10",
"title": "English preprocessor manual",
"authors": [
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [
"M"
],
"last": "Zwicky",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "B",
"middle": [
"C"
],
"last": "Hall",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [
"B"
],
"last": "Fraser",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [
"L"
],
"last": "Geis",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [
"W"
],
"last": "Mintz",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Isar-D",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "P",
"middle": [
"S"
],
"last": "Peters",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": null,
"venue": "Inforrrmtions System Language Studies Number Seven, SR-i32",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Zwicky, A.M., Hall, B.C., Fraser, J.B., Geis, M.L., Mintz, J.W., Isar-d, S. ~ and Peters, P.S. \"English pre- processor manual.\" Inforrrmtions System Language Studies Number Seven, SR-i32, The MITRE Corporation, December i964.",
"links": null
}
},
"ref_entries": {
"FIGREF0": {
"type_str": "figure",
"num": null,
"text": "DGi in an obvious way.",
"uris": null
},
"FIGREF1": {
"type_str": "figure",
"num": null,
"text": "the fourth rule, under the same conditions, and 1\"1 .... At*\" \" \" 1\"2 ~'''A2*''\" and we are looking at rule 5 where P2i* requires us to add t0 ..... * .... P21 A21 Rule 6 requires us to add tt ..... 1=22 A22. .... But in rule 7, A#; requires no additions, because A is not subscripted, and the subscripted A's in rules 8-1t require no additions because A's are terminal categories.",
"uris": null
},
"FIGREF4": {
"type_str": "figure",
"num": null,
"text": "Definition i. A DG is structure sensitive if a. the set of terminals assigned to one category is identical to the set assigned to any other category, and/or b. any rule restricts the choice of dependents a category may govern to a subset of the ordered dependents it is permitted to govern in some other rule.Note that a DG containing the rules A (*) and A (B \u2022 C) is structure sensitive by this definition. Here, too, conflation is impossible, since A ([B] \u2022 [C]) allows A to govern B without governing C.",
"uris": null
},
"FIGREF5": {
"type_str": "figure",
"num": null,
"text": "Augmentation Definition: A dependent element in a dependency rule is any braced or bracketed string not included in larger braces or brackets, ~nd any single unbraced, unbracketed occurrence other than \u2022 occurring within parentheses. E.g., in A ({BD[C]} * E [F]) there are three dependent elements: \"{BD[C]'~ , E, and [F].",
"uris": null
},
"TABREF1": {
"type_str": "table",
"html": null,
"content": "<table><tr><td colspan=\"5\">and that there is no rule rewriting 1\"1\" Therefore,</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">beneath</td><td colspan=\"2\">1\" ....</td><td>A*...</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">we add</td><td colspan=\"2\">Pt ....</td><td>At* ....</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">In the second rule, RI* occurs, is non-terminal,</td><td>and requires</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">a rule, so</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">beneath</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">we add</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">RZ* occurs</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">beneath</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">we add</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">1\"2\" occurs</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">beneath</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">we add</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">Our rules are now:</td></tr><tr><td>1.</td><td>Z ....</td><td colspan=\"3\">1\"1\"\" \"\"</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>For</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">example :</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>I.</td><td>Z ....</td><td>PI*\" \" \"</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>2.</td><td>X ....</td><td>RI*...</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>3.</td><td>Y ....</td><td>R2*...</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">4.</td><td>R .... P2*\" \" \"</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>5.</td><td>P ....</td><td>A*...</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>I</td><td colspan=\"2\">X# may occur</td><td>more than once in rules rewriting the same cate-</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">gory, Y.</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">E.g., inY-~</td><td>Y X</td><td>, the only possible starring is</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>Y~</td><td>~Z*</td><td>L} X</td><td>Z , which produces three rules for Y, in two of</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">which X* occurs.</td></tr></table>",
"num": null,
"text": "\"roceeding down the rules, we see first that pt~ and OCCURS, scanning down the left,~that P's are not terminal categories"
},
"TABREF2": {
"type_str": "table",
"html": null,
"content": "<table><tr><td colspan=\"4\">has more than one substitute,</td><td>include all substitutes as</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">braced options.</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">.2 If a non-starred</td><td>category on the right</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">iIn cases, not illustrated here, where several substitutes are found</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">because several rules rewrite some Xi, each substitute will be</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">uniquely assigned to X i.</td></tr><tr><td>2E.g., assume</td><td>X ....</td><td>A~...</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">~' sothat the substitutes for X are X Y .... C~...</td><td>Ai</td><td>, B 2, and C 2, and the substi-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">tutes for Y are B i and C i.</td><td>Then the IRL is:</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>i2</td></tr></table>",
"num": null,
"text": "..._nS ys-i~... .... Y~... Y .... B~..."
}
}
}
} |