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"paper_id": "L16-1013",
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"generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0",
"date_generated": "2023-01-19T12:02:06.130663Z"
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"title": "A Language Resource of German Errors Written by Children with Dyslexia",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Maria",
"middle": [],
"last": "Rauschenberger",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "Web Research Group",
"institution": "",
"location": {
"country": "Universitat Pompeu Fabra"
}
},
"email": "maria.rauschenberger@upf.edu"
},
{
"first": "Luz",
"middle": [],
"last": "Rello",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "",
"institution": "Carnegie Mellon University",
"location": {}
},
"email": "luzrello@cs.cmu.edu"
},
{
"first": "Silke",
"middle": [],
"last": "F\u00fcchsel",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "",
"institution": "University of Applied Science",
"location": {
"settlement": "Emden/Leer"
}
},
"email": "sfuechsel@gmx.de"
},
{
"first": "J\u00f6rg",
"middle": [],
"last": "Thomaschewski",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "",
"institution": "University of Applied Science",
"location": {
"settlement": "Emden/Leer"
}
},
"email": "joerg.thomaschewski@hs-emden-leer.de"
}
],
"year": "",
"venue": null,
"identifiers": {},
"abstract": "In this paper we present a language resource for German, composed of a list of 1,021 unique errors extracted from a collection of texts written by people with dyslexia. The errors were annotated with a set of linguistic characteristics as well as visual and phonetic features. We present the compilation and the annotation criteria for the different types of dyslexic errors. This language resource has many potential uses since errors written by people with dyslexia reflect their difficulties. For instance, it has already been used to design language exercises to treat dyslexia in German. To the best of our knowledge, this is first resource of this kind in German.",
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"abstract": [
{
"text": "In this paper we present a language resource for German, composed of a list of 1,021 unique errors extracted from a collection of texts written by people with dyslexia. The errors were annotated with a set of linguistic characteristics as well as visual and phonetic features. We present the compilation and the annotation criteria for the different types of dyslexic errors. This language resource has many potential uses since errors written by people with dyslexia reflect their difficulties. For instance, it has already been used to design language exercises to treat dyslexia in German. To the best of our knowledge, this is first resource of this kind in German.",
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"section": "Abstract",
"sec_num": null
}
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{
"text": "Dyslexia is a specific learning disability with neurological origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the perception of visual and auditory components of language. General misspells have already proven to be a useful source of knowledge for various applications (Gelman and Barletta, 2008; Piskorski et al., 2008; Baeza-Yates and Rello, 2012) . A list of annotated errors of children with dyslexia in German is a useful resource because the errors that people with dyslexia make reflect the types of difficulties that they have (Sterling et al., 1998) . As a matter of fact, these type of written errors have been used for various purposes such as studying dyslexia (Arag\u00f3n and Silva, 2000; Connelly et al., 2006) , diagnosing dyslexia (Schulte-K\u00f6rne et al., 1996; Toro and Cervera, 1984) , for build tools to treat 1 and to create applications to support dyslexia, such as dyslexia screeners (Rello et al., 2016b) , spellcheckers (Korhonen, 2008; Pedler, 2007; Rello et al., 2015 ), text prediction software 2 or spelling exercises (Rauschenberger et al., 2015; Rello et al., 2014b) . There are similar errors resources for English (Pedler, 2007) and Spanish (Rello et al., 2014a; Rello et al., 2016a) but, to the best of our knowledge, this is first resource of this kind in German. There are similar errors resources for English (Pedler, 2007) and Spanish (Rello et al., 2014a; Rello et al., 2016a) but, to the best of our knowledge, this is first resource of this kind in German. In this paper, we present the creation of a new resource composed of German errors written by people with dyslexia that did not exist before. This involved the collection and the annotation of the errors with different kind of information, such as, phonological and visual information; and the creation of new categories specifically for German lan-1 Dyseggxia is available at https://itunes.apple. com/de/app/dyseggxia/id534986729?mt=8.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 409,
"end": 436,
"text": "(Gelman and Barletta, 2008;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF5"
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{
"start": 437,
"end": 460,
"text": "Piskorski et al., 2008;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF11"
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{
"start": 461,
"end": 489,
"text": "Baeza-Yates and Rello, 2012)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF1"
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{
"start": 675,
"end": 698,
"text": "(Sterling et al., 1998)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF22"
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{
"start": 813,
"end": 837,
"text": "(Arag\u00f3n and Silva, 2000;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF0"
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{
"start": 838,
"end": 860,
"text": "Connelly et al., 2006)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF3"
},
{
"start": 883,
"end": 911,
"text": "(Schulte-K\u00f6rne et al., 1996;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF19"
},
{
"start": 912,
"end": 935,
"text": "Toro and Cervera, 1984)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF24"
},
{
"start": 1040,
"end": 1061,
"text": "(Rello et al., 2016b)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF18"
},
{
"start": 1078,
"end": 1094,
"text": "(Korhonen, 2008;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF8"
},
{
"start": 1095,
"end": 1108,
"text": "Pedler, 2007;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF10"
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"end": 1127,
"text": "Rello et al., 2015",
"ref_id": "BIBREF16"
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"text": "(Rauschenberger et al., 2015;",
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"text": "Rello et al., 2014b)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF15"
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"text": "(Pedler, 2007)",
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"end": 1328,
"text": "(Rello et al., 2014a;",
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"end": 1349,
"text": "Rello et al., 2016a)",
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"start": 1479,
"end": 1493,
"text": "(Pedler, 2007)",
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"text": "(Rello et al., 2014a;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF14"
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"end": 1548,
"text": "Rello et al., 2016a)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF17"
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"section": "Introduction",
"sec_num": "1."
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{
"text": "2 Penfriend XL is available at http://www.penfriend.",
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"section": "Introduction",
"sec_num": "1."
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{
"text": "biz/.",
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"section": "Introduction",
"sec_num": "1."
},
{
"text": "guage. The annotation criteria had to be adapted for German because it is a language with a different orthography and syllabic structure (Seymour et al., 2003) . The resource of dyslexic errors are available on-line. 3",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 137,
"end": 159,
"text": "(Seymour et al., 2003)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF20"
}
],
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"section": "Introduction",
"sec_num": "1."
},
{
"text": "We collected 47 texts (homework exercises, dictations, and school essays) written by students from 8 to 17 years old. In Figure 1 we show an example of a handwritten text from a 10 year-old boy with dyslexia. We kept collecting texts until we reached 1,000 written errors by people with dyslexia. Previous research have shown that around thousand errors are enough to extract for useful conclusions (Pedler, 2007; Rauschenberger et al., 2015; Rello et al., 2014b) . A total of 32 texts came from children who have been diagnosed with dyslexia. The remaining 15 texts came from students with a high spelling error rate that were chosen by their teachers. The students attended either primary school, comprehensive school (Gesamtschule), high school (Gymnasium) or a school for children with learning difficulties (F\u00f6rderschule).",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 399,
"end": 413,
"text": "(Pedler, 2007;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF10"
},
{
"start": 414,
"end": 442,
"text": "Rauschenberger et al., 2015;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF12"
},
{
"start": 443,
"end": 463,
"text": "Rello et al., 2014b)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF15"
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],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 121,
"end": 129,
"text": "Figure 1",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Collecting Errors",
"sec_num": "2."
},
{
"text": "We analyzed the errors and define two more error categories specific to German: capital letter and non-capital letter errors. The rest of the errors were consistent with Pedler's classification of dyslexic errors (Pedler, 2007) . 4 The error categories are the following:",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 213,
"end": 227,
"text": "(Pedler, 2007)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF10"
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{
"start": 230,
"end": 231,
"text": "4",
"ref_id": null
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],
"ref_spans": [],
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"section": "Error Classification",
"sec_num": "3."
},
{
"text": "-Substitution. Changing one letter for another, for example *gr\u00fcmeln (kr\u00fcmeln, 'crumble').",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Classification",
"sec_num": "3."
},
{
"text": "-Insertion. An insertion of one letter, such as *muttig (mutig, 'bravely').",
"cite_spans": [],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Classification",
"sec_num": "3."
},
{
"text": "-Omission. An omission one letter, as in *zusamen (zusammen, 'together'). Figure 1 : Example of a handwritten text of a 10 year-old boy with dyslexia (left) and its transcription in German and English (right).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 74,
"end": 82,
"text": "Figure 1",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Classification",
"sec_num": "3."
},
{
"text": "-Transposition. Reversing the order of two letters, for example Porblem (Problem, 'problem').",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Classification",
"sec_num": "3."
},
{
"text": "-Multi-errors. They differ in more than one letter from the target word such as *Stag (stark, 'strong').",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
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"section": "Error Classification",
"sec_num": "3."
},
{
"text": "-Word boundary errors. They are run-ons and split words. A run-on is the result of omitting a space, such as nicht\u00e4rgern (nicht\u00e4rgern, 'don't tease'). A split word occurs when a space is inserted in the middle of a word, such as Vogel futter (Vogelfutter, 'bird food').",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Classification",
"sec_num": "3."
},
{
"text": "-Capital Letter. In German nouns are written with capital letters, while other kinds of words like verbs, adjectives or articles are not (Stang, 2010) . For example *geschichten (Geschichten, 'stories').",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 137,
"end": 150,
"text": "(Stang, 2010)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF21"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Classification",
"sec_num": "3."
},
{
"text": "-Wrong Capital Letter. As explained before, it is confusing for children to decide which word has to be written with or without capital letters. For instance, verbs, adjectives or articles are not written with capital letters as in *Gl\u00fccklich (gl\u00fccklich, 'happy').",
"cite_spans": [],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Classification",
"sec_num": "3."
},
{
"text": "We annotated each of the word-error pairs with linguistic features and created new categories for German. Each of the word-error pairs was enriched with meta data and was classified as the following:",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "4."
},
{
"text": "-Unique numbering: unified number to distinctly identify the data.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "4."
},
{
"text": "-Target word: word the person aimed to write.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "4."
},
{
"text": "-Misspelled word: the wrongly written word.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "4."
},
{
"text": "-Damerau-Levenshtein distance: the minimum number of edits (insertion, deletion, substitution, transposition) required to change the misspelled error into the (target) correct word (Damerau, 1964; Levenshtein, 1965) . 5 -Target and misspelled word frequencies: defined as the number of hit counts in a major search engine 6 for the frequencies of the target and misspelled word. The search engine does not distinguished between noncapital and capital letters. Therefore words which only differ through a capital letter the same frequency e.g. *hubschrauber (Hubschrauber, 'helicopter') have.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 181,
"end": 196,
"text": "(Damerau, 1964;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF4"
},
{
"start": 197,
"end": 215,
"text": "Levenshtein, 1965)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF9"
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"start": 218,
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"text": "5",
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],
"ref_spans": [],
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"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "4."
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{
"text": "-Target and misspelled length: number of characters the target word and the error word have.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "4."
},
{
"text": "-Error position: the position in the target word where the error occurs.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "4."
},
{
"text": "-Syllable error: the position of the syllable in the target word where the error occurs.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "4."
},
{
"text": "-Target word syllables: number of syllables. 7",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "4."
},
{
"text": "-Target syllable: the structure of the syllable where the error occurs, such as C(onsunant)V(owel), CVC, or CCV, among others.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "4."
},
{
"text": "-Type of error: The errors were tagged according to the classification presented in Section 3.",
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"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "4."
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{
"text": "-Real word: this Boolean attribute records if the error produced another real word. For example Schal ('scarf') and Schall ('sound').",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "4."
},
{
"text": "-First letter error: this Boolean attribute records if the error is produced in the first letter of the word, for instances f\u00f6llig (v\u00f6llig, 'fully').",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "4."
},
{
"text": "-Last letter error: this Boolean attribute records if the error is produced in the last letter of the word such in dan (dann, 'then').",
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"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "4."
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{
"text": "-Correct Letter and Error Letter: The correct letter is the letter that was mistaken in the correct word by the Error Letter.",
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"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "4."
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"text": "For each target and error grapheme we annotate the letters involved in the error with the following visual information, considering handwritten text (Table 1) . Four handwriting alphabets are commonly used in German schools (Topsch, 2005; Bartnitzky, 2010) . These are the Lateinische Ausgangsschrift, Vereinfachte Ausgangsschrift, Schulausgangsschrift and Grundschrift. In some states there is one mandatory alphabet to be used by the school, while in other states schools can decide. For our method we choose the Lateinische Ausgangsschrift (Topsch, 2005), shown in Figure 2 , because it is commonly used in schools where the texts were collected.",
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{
"start": 224,
"end": 238,
"text": "(Topsch, 2005;",
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"start": 239,
"end": 256,
"text": "Bartnitzky, 2010)",
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{
"start": 149,
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{
"start": 568,
"end": 576,
"text": "Figure 2",
"ref_id": "FIGREF0"
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Visual Features",
"sec_num": "4.1."
},
{
"text": "\u2022 Mirror letter: Boolean attribute that indicates if the mirror of a letter produces another letter, such as <d> and <b> or <m>, and <w>.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Visual Features",
"sec_num": "4.1."
},
{
"text": "\u2022 Rotation: Boolean attribute that indicates if the rotation of a letter produces another letter, such as <d> and <p>.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Visual Features",
"sec_num": "4.1."
},
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"text": "\u2022 Fuzzy letters: Boolean attribute that indicates if the letter has similar visual letters (not due to rotate or mirror) such as <s> and <z>. o,\u00e4,\u00f6, b, d, g, h, m, n, p, q, u, v, w, y> ",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 142,
"end": 184,
"text": "o,\u00e4,\u00f6, b, d, g, h, m, n, p, q, u, v, w, y>",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Visual Features",
"sec_num": "4.1."
},
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"text": "Mirror Yes = <b, p, d, q, m, w, u, n, v, H> No = rest of letters Rotation Yes = <b, g, h, y, p, d, H> No = rest of letters Fuzzy Yes = <a,",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "Feature Letters",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Each of the error words were tagged using a scale inspired by the error analysis of the DRT (Grund et al., 2004) . This scale is based on traditional articulatory phonetic features (International Phonetic Association, 1999) and is divided into the following categories.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 92,
"end": 112,
"text": "(Grund et al., 2004)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF6"
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{
"start": 181,
"end": 223,
"text": "(International Phonetic Association, 1999)",
"ref_id": null
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"ref_spans": [],
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"section": "Phonetic Features",
"sec_num": "4.2."
},
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"text": "\u2022 Sound distinction. This category has two values: similar sound errors, e.g. \u2022 Sound sequence. The category has three values: error words with missing phonemes, e.g. *M\u00e4chen (M\u00e4rchen, 'fairy tale'); added phonemes, e.g. *Spieln (Spiel, 'game') or transposition of letters, e.g. *Porblem (Problem, 'problem').",
"cite_spans": [],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Phonetic Features",
"sec_num": "4.2."
},
{
"text": "\u2022 Combination of consonants. Some consonants are pronounced in a different way when they are combined with each other. For example the consonant <s> [s] and <p> [p] are pronounced like [Sp] when they are written together.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "Phonetic Features",
"sec_num": "4.2."
},
{
"text": "\u2022 Words with <v>. Words written with a <v> since its sound correspondence is not transparent in German, e.g. *Ferk\u00e4uferin (Verk\u00e4uferin, 'seller').",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Phonetic Features",
"sec_num": "4.2."
},
{
"text": "\u2022 Umlaut. There are three umlauts in the German language <\u00e4;\u00fc;\u00f6>. The dots are often missing in texts.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Phonetic Features",
"sec_num": "4.2."
},
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"text": "\u2022 Double consonant / false double consonant. After a short, stressed vowel there are usually two or more consonants following. If there is only one consonant following, this one should be doubled most of the times, e.g. *vergesen (vergessen, 'forget'). Double consonants also appear at syllable boundaries. This category include false double consonants and double consonants in the wrong place, such as *Unffall (Unfall, 'accident').",
"cite_spans": [],
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"sec_num": "4.2."
},
{
"text": "\u2022 Lengthening. There are different types of lengthening for a vowel in German. This process gives as a result a long stressed vowel. The long vowel <i> [i:] is frequently lengthened with an e which is not audible. A typical error is *wider (wieder [Vi:d5], 'again'). About 20% of the long, stressed vowels are lengthened with a <h>, e.g. *erz\u00e4len (erz\u00e4hlen [Er'tsE:l@n], 'tell') (Grund et al., 2004) . A few long stressed vowels are lengthened by double vowels like *Hare (Haare ['ha:r@], 'hair'). This category include false lengthening errors produced by adding <e> or <h> after a long stressed vowel in the wrong place, e.g. *w\u00e4hre (w\u00e4re ['vE:r@], 'would be').",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 379,
"end": 399,
"text": "(Grund et al., 2004)",
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}
],
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"section": "Phonetic Features",
"sec_num": "4.2."
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{
"text": "\u2022 Derivation. Related words that are often written the same way or similar but pronounced different. To write these words in the right way, one possibility is to have a look at the plural form so that the right writing can be derived, e.g. Walt (Wald [valt] ; W\u00e4lder [vEld5], 'forest').",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 245,
"end": 257,
"text": "(Wald [valt]",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Phonetic Features",
"sec_num": "4.2."
},
{
"text": "Words with <s/B>. A word with a voiced [s] is always written with an <s>. Words with a voiceless [s] have specific rules which determine if they have to be written with <s> <ss> or <B>, e.g. *Reisverschlus (ReiBverschluss, 'zipper').",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 97,
"end": 100,
"text": "[s]",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Phonetic Features",
"sec_num": "4.2."
},
{
"text": "In this paper we have presented the compilation and the annotation criteria of a list of 1,021 unique errors written by people with dyslexia in German. The adaptation of a Spanish based method to the German language raised a number of challenges. For instance, the handwriting systems taught in schools in Germany are different from the Spanish ones, so the visual features needed to be redefined. We annotated each of the word-error pairs with linguistic features and two new error categories were specially created for the German language. We are planning to use the resource for the detection of dyslexia in German (Rauschenberger, 2016) using web applications.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 618,
"end": 640,
"text": "(Rauschenberger, 2016)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF13"
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],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Conclusions",
"sec_num": "5."
},
{
"text": "The resource is available at http://goo.gl/LRaUDA .4 Examples with errors are preceded by an asterisk '*'. We use the standard linguistic conventions: '<>' for graphemes, '/ /' for phonemes and '[ ]' for phones.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The Levenshtein distance(Levenshtein, 1965) is the minimum number of substitutions, insertions and deletions to transform one string into another. The Damerau version(Damerau, 1964) counts a transposition as a single error instead of two errors.6 Here we refer to all web pages written in German and not only web pages from Germany. For determining whether a web page was written in German, we used Google Advanced Search settings (http://www. google.com/advanced search).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The syllables where checked with http://www.duden.de.",
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"section": "",
"sec_num": null
}
],
"back_matter": [
{
"text": "We deeply thank Janka Melgert-Retelsdorf and all children for making the collection of textes possible. We also thank Hendrik Witzel for helping with the phonetic error annotation.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Acknowledgements",
"sec_num": null
}
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