File size: 115,292 Bytes
6fa4bc9 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 594 595 596 597 598 599 600 601 602 603 604 605 606 607 608 609 610 611 612 613 614 615 616 617 618 619 620 621 622 623 624 625 626 627 628 629 630 631 632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 647 648 649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 670 671 672 673 674 675 676 677 678 679 680 681 682 683 684 685 686 687 688 689 690 691 692 693 694 695 696 697 698 699 700 701 702 703 704 705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 734 735 736 737 738 739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 748 749 750 751 752 753 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 779 780 781 782 783 784 785 786 787 788 789 790 791 792 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 800 801 802 803 804 805 806 807 808 809 810 811 812 813 814 815 816 817 818 819 820 821 822 823 824 825 826 827 828 829 830 831 832 833 834 835 836 837 838 839 840 841 842 843 844 845 846 847 848 849 850 851 852 853 854 855 856 857 858 859 860 861 862 863 864 865 866 867 868 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876 877 878 879 880 881 882 883 884 885 886 887 888 889 890 891 892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900 901 902 903 904 905 906 907 908 909 910 911 912 913 914 915 916 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 926 927 928 929 930 931 932 933 934 935 936 937 938 939 940 941 942 943 944 945 946 947 948 949 950 951 952 953 954 955 956 957 958 959 960 961 962 963 964 965 966 967 968 969 970 971 972 973 974 975 976 977 978 979 980 981 982 983 984 985 986 987 988 989 990 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 1000 1001 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008 1009 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028 1029 1030 1031 1032 1033 1034 1035 1036 1037 1038 1039 1040 1041 1042 1043 1044 1045 1046 1047 1048 1049 1050 1051 1052 1053 1054 1055 1056 1057 1058 1059 1060 1061 1062 1063 1064 1065 1066 1067 1068 1069 1070 1071 1072 1073 1074 1075 1076 1077 1078 1079 1080 1081 1082 1083 1084 1085 1086 1087 1088 1089 1090 1091 1092 1093 1094 1095 1096 1097 1098 1099 1100 1101 1102 1103 1104 1105 1106 1107 1108 1109 1110 1111 1112 1113 1114 1115 1116 1117 1118 1119 1120 1121 1122 1123 1124 1125 1126 1127 1128 1129 1130 1131 1132 1133 1134 1135 1136 1137 1138 1139 1140 1141 1142 1143 1144 1145 1146 1147 1148 1149 1150 1151 1152 1153 1154 1155 1156 1157 1158 1159 1160 1161 1162 1163 1164 1165 1166 1167 1168 1169 1170 1171 1172 1173 1174 1175 1176 1177 1178 1179 1180 1181 1182 1183 1184 1185 1186 1187 1188 1189 1190 1191 1192 1193 1194 1195 1196 1197 1198 1199 1200 1201 1202 1203 1204 1205 1206 1207 1208 1209 1210 1211 1212 1213 1214 1215 1216 1217 1218 1219 1220 1221 1222 1223 1224 1225 1226 1227 1228 1229 1230 1231 1232 1233 1234 1235 1236 1237 1238 1239 1240 1241 1242 1243 1244 1245 1246 1247 1248 1249 1250 1251 1252 1253 1254 1255 1256 1257 1258 1259 1260 1261 1262 1263 1264 1265 1266 1267 1268 1269 1270 1271 1272 1273 1274 1275 1276 1277 1278 1279 1280 1281 1282 1283 1284 1285 1286 1287 1288 1289 1290 1291 1292 1293 1294 1295 1296 1297 1298 1299 1300 1301 1302 1303 1304 1305 1306 1307 1308 1309 1310 1311 1312 1313 1314 1315 1316 1317 1318 1319 1320 1321 1322 1323 1324 1325 1326 1327 1328 1329 1330 1331 1332 1333 1334 1335 1336 1337 1338 1339 1340 1341 1342 1343 1344 1345 1346 1347 1348 1349 1350 1351 1352 1353 1354 1355 1356 1357 1358 1359 1360 1361 1362 1363 1364 1365 1366 1367 1368 1369 1370 1371 1372 1373 1374 1375 1376 1377 1378 1379 1380 1381 1382 1383 1384 1385 1386 1387 1388 1389 1390 1391 1392 1393 1394 1395 1396 1397 1398 1399 1400 1401 1402 1403 1404 1405 1406 1407 1408 1409 1410 1411 1412 1413 1414 1415 1416 1417 1418 1419 1420 1421 1422 1423 1424 1425 1426 1427 1428 1429 1430 1431 1432 1433 1434 1435 1436 1437 1438 1439 1440 1441 1442 1443 1444 1445 1446 1447 1448 1449 1450 1451 1452 1453 1454 1455 1456 1457 1458 1459 1460 1461 1462 1463 1464 1465 1466 1467 1468 1469 1470 1471 1472 1473 1474 1475 1476 1477 1478 1479 1480 1481 1482 1483 1484 1485 1486 1487 1488 1489 1490 1491 1492 1493 1494 1495 1496 1497 1498 1499 1500 1501 1502 1503 1504 1505 1506 1507 1508 1509 1510 1511 1512 1513 1514 1515 1516 1517 1518 1519 1520 1521 1522 1523 1524 1525 1526 1527 1528 1529 1530 1531 1532 1533 1534 1535 1536 1537 1538 1539 1540 1541 1542 1543 1544 1545 1546 1547 1548 1549 1550 1551 1552 1553 1554 1555 1556 1557 1558 1559 1560 1561 1562 1563 1564 1565 1566 1567 1568 1569 1570 1571 1572 1573 1574 1575 1576 1577 1578 1579 1580 1581 1582 1583 1584 1585 1586 1587 1588 1589 1590 1591 1592 1593 1594 1595 1596 1597 1598 1599 1600 1601 1602 1603 1604 1605 1606 1607 1608 1609 1610 1611 1612 1613 1614 1615 1616 1617 1618 1619 1620 1621 1622 1623 1624 1625 1626 1627 1628 1629 1630 1631 1632 1633 1634 1635 1636 1637 1638 1639 1640 1641 1642 1643 1644 1645 1646 1647 1648 1649 1650 1651 1652 1653 1654 1655 1656 1657 1658 1659 1660 1661 1662 1663 1664 1665 1666 1667 1668 1669 1670 1671 1672 1673 1674 1675 1676 1677 1678 1679 1680 1681 1682 1683 1684 1685 1686 1687 1688 1689 1690 1691 1692 1693 1694 1695 1696 1697 1698 1699 1700 1701 1702 1703 1704 1705 1706 1707 1708 1709 1710 1711 1712 1713 1714 1715 1716 1717 1718 1719 1720 1721 1722 1723 1724 1725 1726 1727 1728 1729 1730 1731 1732 1733 1734 1735 1736 1737 1738 1739 1740 1741 1742 1743 1744 1745 1746 1747 1748 1749 1750 1751 1752 1753 1754 1755 1756 1757 1758 1759 1760 1761 1762 1763 1764 1765 1766 1767 1768 1769 1770 1771 1772 1773 1774 1775 1776 1777 1778 1779 1780 1781 1782 1783 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1790 1791 1792 1793 1794 1795 1796 1797 1798 1799 1800 1801 1802 1803 1804 1805 1806 1807 1808 1809 1810 1811 1812 1813 1814 1815 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1822 1823 1824 1825 1826 1827 1828 1829 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1836 1837 1838 1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844 1845 1846 1847 1848 1849 1850 1851 1852 1853 1854 1855 1856 1857 1858 1859 1860 1861 1862 1863 1864 1865 1866 1867 1868 1869 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024 2025 2026 2027 2028 2029 2030 2031 2032 2033 2034 2035 2036 2037 2038 2039 2040 2041 2042 2043 2044 2045 2046 2047 2048 2049 2050 2051 2052 2053 2054 2055 2056 2057 2058 2059 2060 2061 2062 2063 2064 2065 2066 2067 2068 2069 2070 2071 2072 2073 2074 2075 2076 2077 2078 2079 2080 2081 2082 2083 2084 2085 2086 2087 2088 2089 2090 2091 2092 2093 2094 2095 2096 2097 2098 2099 2100 2101 2102 2103 2104 2105 2106 2107 2108 2109 2110 2111 2112 2113 2114 2115 2116 2117 2118 2119 2120 2121 2122 2123 2124 2125 2126 2127 2128 2129 2130 2131 2132 2133 2134 2135 2136 2137 2138 2139 2140 2141 2142 2143 2144 2145 2146 2147 2148 2149 2150 2151 2152 2153 2154 2155 2156 2157 2158 2159 2160 2161 2162 2163 2164 2165 2166 2167 2168 2169 2170 2171 2172 2173 2174 2175 2176 2177 2178 2179 2180 2181 2182 2183 2184 2185 2186 2187 2188 2189 2190 2191 2192 2193 2194 2195 2196 2197 2198 2199 2200 2201 2202 2203 2204 2205 2206 2207 2208 2209 2210 2211 2212 2213 2214 2215 2216 2217 2218 2219 2220 2221 2222 2223 2224 2225 2226 2227 2228 2229 2230 2231 2232 2233 2234 2235 2236 2237 2238 2239 2240 2241 2242 2243 2244 2245 2246 2247 2248 | {
"paper_id": "L16-1014",
"header": {
"generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0",
"date_generated": "2023-01-19T12:09:18.119101Z"
},
"title": "CItA: an L1 Italian Learner Corpus to Study the Development of Writing Competence",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Alessia",
"middle": [],
"last": "Barbagli",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "",
"institution": "Universit\u00e0 di Roma \"La Sapienza\"",
"location": {}
},
"email": "alessia.barbagli@gmail.com"
},
{
"first": "Pietro",
"middle": [],
"last": "Lucisano",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "",
"institution": "Universit\u00e0 di Roma \"La Sapienza\"",
"location": {}
},
"email": "pietro.lucisano@uniroma1.it"
},
{
"first": "Felice",
"middle": [],
"last": "Dell'orletta",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "Istituto di Linguistica Computazionale \"Antonio Zampolli\" (ILC-CNR) ItaliaNLP Lab -www.italianlp",
"institution": "",
"location": {}
},
"email": ""
},
{
"first": "Simonetta",
"middle": [],
"last": "Montemagni",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "Istituto di Linguistica Computazionale \"Antonio Zampolli\" (ILC-CNR) ItaliaNLP Lab -www.italianlp",
"institution": "",
"location": {}
},
"email": ""
},
{
"first": "Giulia",
"middle": [],
"last": "Venturi",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "Istituto di Linguistica Computazionale \"Antonio Zampolli\" (ILC-CNR) ItaliaNLP Lab -www.italianlp",
"institution": "",
"location": {}
},
"email": ""
}
],
"year": "",
"venue": null,
"identifiers": {},
"abstract": "In this paper, we present the CItA corpus (Corpus Italiano di Apprendenti L1), a collection of essays written by Italian L1 learners collected during the first and second year of lower secondary school. The corpus was built in the framework of an interdisciplinary study jointly carried out by computational linguistics and experimental pedagogists and aimed at tracking the development of written language competence over the years and students' background information.",
"pdf_parse": {
"paper_id": "L16-1014",
"_pdf_hash": "",
"abstract": [
{
"text": "In this paper, we present the CItA corpus (Corpus Italiano di Apprendenti L1), a collection of essays written by Italian L1 learners collected during the first and second year of lower secondary school. The corpus was built in the framework of an interdisciplinary study jointly carried out by computational linguistics and experimental pedagogists and aimed at tracking the development of written language competence over the years and students' background information.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Abstract",
"sec_num": null
}
],
"body_text": [
{
"text": "Over the last ten years, language technologies have been successfully exploited to study the development of language learning processes. A variety of different approaches based on Natural Language Processing (NLP) tools has been developed for different purposes, such as to track the syntactic development in child language (Sagae et al., 2005; Lu, 2007; Lubetich and Sagae, 2014) , to measure the developmental language progress using child speech patterns (Sahakian and Snyder, 2012) . NLP-based approaches have been devised also to detect mild cognitive impairments using measures of syntactic complexity (Roark et al., 2007) or of semantic and pragmatic atypicality (Rouhizadeh et al., 2013) , and to select reading material that are appropriate for students' reading proficiency considered a fundamental component of language competency (Schwarm and Ostendorf, 2005; Petersen and Ostendorf, 2009) . As witnessed by the increasing success of the Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications (BEA) arrived in 2016 at its eleventh edition 1 , language technologies have been also exploited in educational settings to design and develop educational applications such as for instance Intelligent Computer-Assisted Language Learning systems (ICALL) (Granger, 2003) or Automatic Essay Scoring systems (Attali and Burstein, 2006) . For all these studies and applications, the availability of electronically accessible corpora of student essays is of pivotal importance. So far, several learner corpora have been built mainly differing at the level of typologies of collected essays (i.e. written or speech transcriptions), goals of analysis (e.g. theoretical studies or development of educational applications), typologies of considered learners (e.g. learners of first or second language, adults or children). A specific interest has been devoted to the construction of written learners' corpora where errors (i.e. erroneous forms written by learners) are annotated and classified; this is especially (but not only) the case of corpora of students learning a 1 http://www.cs.rochester.edu/\u223ctetreaul/naacl-bea10.html foreign language (L2). Corpora enriched with this kind of information can offer insight into learners' development of competencies and difficulties (Deane and Quinlan, 2010) , they can be used to investigate the characteristics of interlanguage (Brooke and Hirst, 2012) or as reference resources for automatic error detection and correction tasks. The latter is the case of the NUS Corpus of Learner English (NUCLE) (Dahlmeier et al., 2013) exploited during 2013 and 2014 editions of the \"Shared Task on Grammatical Error Correction\" (Ng et al., 2013; Ng et al., 2014) . Interestingly, corpora of L2 learners annotated for errors have been built for a number of languages other than English, e.g. for Arabic as L2 (Zaghouani et al., 2015) , German (L\u00fcdeling et al., 2005) , Hungarian (Dickinson and Ledbetter, 2012) , Basque (Aldabe et al., 2005) , Czech and Italian (Andorno and Rastelli, 2009; Boyd et al., 2014) .",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 324,
"end": 344,
"text": "(Sagae et al., 2005;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF43"
},
{
"start": 345,
"end": 354,
"text": "Lu, 2007;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF28"
},
{
"start": 355,
"end": 380,
"text": "Lubetich and Sagae, 2014)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF29"
},
{
"start": 458,
"end": 485,
"text": "(Sahakian and Snyder, 2012)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF44"
},
{
"start": 608,
"end": 628,
"text": "(Roark et al., 2007)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF41"
},
{
"start": 670,
"end": 695,
"text": "(Rouhizadeh et al., 2013)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF42"
},
{
"start": 842,
"end": 871,
"text": "(Schwarm and Ostendorf, 2005;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF45"
},
{
"start": 872,
"end": 901,
"text": "Petersen and Ostendorf, 2009)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF39"
},
{
"start": 1275,
"end": 1290,
"text": "(Granger, 2003)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF25"
},
{
"start": 1326,
"end": 1353,
"text": "(Attali and Burstein, 2006)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF3"
},
{
"start": 2289,
"end": 2314,
"text": "(Deane and Quinlan, 2010)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF19"
},
{
"start": 2386,
"end": 2410,
"text": "(Brooke and Hirst, 2012)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF11"
},
{
"start": 2557,
"end": 2581,
"text": "(Dahlmeier et al., 2013)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF14"
},
{
"start": 2675,
"end": 2692,
"text": "(Ng et al., 2013;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF36"
},
{
"start": 2693,
"end": 2709,
"text": "Ng et al., 2014)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF37"
},
{
"start": 2855,
"end": 2879,
"text": "(Zaghouani et al., 2015)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF46"
},
{
"start": 2889,
"end": 2912,
"text": "(L\u00fcdeling et al., 2005)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF33"
},
{
"start": 2925,
"end": 2956,
"text": "(Dickinson and Ledbetter, 2012)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF22"
},
{
"start": 2966,
"end": 2987,
"text": "(Aldabe et al., 2005)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF1"
},
{
"start": 3008,
"end": 3036,
"text": "(Andorno and Rastelli, 2009;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF2"
},
{
"start": 3037,
"end": 3055,
"text": "Boyd et al., 2014)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF10"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Introduction",
"sec_num": "1."
},
{
"text": "In this paper, we would like to narrow the focus on those studies devoted to build corpora of essays written by learners a first language (L1). Among the others, similar corpora have been built for example by Parr (2010) who collected a corpus of essays written by 20,947 New Zealand students in years 4 to 12 of schooling that were manually evaluated considering seven different rubrics (ranging from content organization to features of grammar, spelling, etc.); his study aimed at tracking the relative rate of progress in writing over the years and types of schools (e.g. private vs. public schools, urban vs. rural). Or by McNamara et al. (2010) who collected 120 essays written by U.S. undergraduate students that were manually evaluated to investigate linguistic factors (e.g. syntactic complexity and lexical diversity) related to the level of student writing quality.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 209,
"end": 220,
"text": "Parr (2010)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF38"
},
{
"start": 627,
"end": 649,
"text": "McNamara et al. (2010)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF35"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Introduction",
"sec_num": "1."
},
{
"text": "If great attention has been payed so far to the construction of corpora of written essays to study English language development of L1 learners, little work has been carried out for other languages. The KoKo corpus (Abel et al., 2014) and the corpus collected by Berkling et al. (2014) represent two main exceptions for the German language. The former is a collection of authentic texts (for a total of 716,000 tokens) written by 1,319 German-speaking students attend-ing the last year of secondary school, linguistically annotated using a battery of linguistic annotation tools and manually annotated for background information and errors. It was built to get insight into pupils writing competencies and difficulties. The latter is a corpus of essays collected via elicitation and written by 1,730 students (for a total of 159,111 tokens) from grade 1 to 8 attending elementary and secondary schools. It was manually annotated for a wide range of spelling errors (i.e. orthographic, morphosyntactic, etc.) to study the different categories of errors years. In this paper, we introduce CItA (Corpus Italiano di Apprendenti L1), the first freely available and digitalized corpus of essays written by Italian L1 learners collected in the first and second year of the lower secondary school 2 . Notably, it contains not-scored essays, it was manually annotated for errors and corrections, and it is accompanied by a questionnaire containing students' background information. The diachronic nature, the considered school period and the manual annotation for errors and corrections represent the main novelties of the CItA corpus. Italian corpora of L1 written productions built so far are characterized by a quite different internal composition. It is worth mentioning here the collection of 5,000 essays written by students from the first to the fifth years of elementary school (1,000 for each school year) collected in all the Italian regions by Marconi et al. (1993) and the corpus built by Borghi (2013), a collection of 2,500 essays (for a total of 276,849 tokens) written by students of the fist year of different high schools in Rome. The latter is a synchronic corpus, the former (although diachronic) does not include essays written by the same group of students over the five years of elementary school. To our knowledge, CItA is the first corpus built to track the development of L1 writing competence of a same group of students over two school years and several students' background information. This makes possible to compare the characteristics of a set of chronologically ordered essays written by the same student over the years. Thus, as discussed in what follows, CItA is currently used within an interdisciplinary study jointly carried out by computational linguistics and experimental pedagogists and devoted to investigate how a wide set of linguistic features automatically extracted from the corpus can be related to different aspects of written language development.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 214,
"end": 233,
"text": "(Abel et al., 2014)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF0"
},
{
"start": 262,
"end": 284,
"text": "Berkling et al. (2014)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF6"
},
{
"start": 1945,
"end": 1966,
"text": "Marconi et al. (1993)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF34"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Introduction",
"sec_num": "1."
},
{
"text": "The CItA corpus (Corpus Italiano di Apprendenti L1) is a collection of essays written by Italian L1 learners collected during the first and second year of lower secondary school. It was collected during the two school years 20012-2013 and 2013-2014 as part of a broader on-going study carried out in the framework of the IEA-IPS (Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement) activities (Lucisano, 1988; Lucisano and Benvenuto, 1991) . The study is devoted to introduce an innovative NLP-based methodology to track the evolution of written language competence over the first two years of the Italian lower secondary 2 The corpus is freely available for research purposes at http://www.italianlp.it/software-data/ school, a temporal span that is quite crucial in the school career of L1 students (Barbagli et al., 2015) .",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 400,
"end": 416,
"text": "(Lucisano, 1988;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF32"
},
{
"start": 417,
"end": 446,
"text": "Lucisano and Benvenuto, 1991)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF30"
},
{
"start": 629,
"end": 630,
"text": "2",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 808,
"end": 831,
"text": "(Barbagli et al., 2015)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF5"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The CItA Corpus",
"sec_num": "2."
},
{
"text": "CItA contains essays written by the same students chronologically ordered and covering a two-year temporal span. This makes the corpus particularly suitable to track the evolution of L1 written language competence over the time, as suggested by the results of the first experiments carried out by Richter et al. (2015) . The underlying hypothesis is that a number of quite relevant transformations in writing competence occurs during the transition from the first to the second year of lower secondary school and that these transformations are mainly due to a different instructional approach to teach writing. The idea is that these transformations can be captured by inspecting how a wide set of linguistic features automatically extracted from text and different typologies of learners' errors are differently distributed in the two considered years.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 297,
"end": 318,
"text": "Richter et al. (2015)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF40"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The CItA Corpus",
"sec_num": "2."
},
{
"text": "It should also be noted that none of the already existing Italian corpora of L1 written productions have been annotated for errors. As discussed in what follows, we defined a new annotation schema to mark-up different typologies of errors made by students, together with the corresponding corrections. To our knowledge, this is the first time that an error annotation scheme is designed to annotate errors made by L1 Italian learners. Annotated errors can be used as a further index of the development of written language competence and they make CItA suitable for being used in the construction of Automatic Error Correction systems.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The CItA Corpus",
"sec_num": "2."
},
{
"text": "The corpus is also accompanied by a questionnaire including 34 questions about biographical, socio-cultural and sociolinguistic background of students. This makes it possible to investigate whether and to which extent some of the student background information are related to the observed written competence changes.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The CItA Corpus",
"sec_num": "2."
},
{
"text": "The CItA essays were collected in 7 different lower secondary schools located in different areas of Rome: 3 schools are in the historical center and 4 schools in suburbs (see Table 1 ). The underlying idea is that the city area where the school is located is highly correlated with the socio-cultural context: the historical center is considered representative of a medium-high context while suburbs of a medium-low context. The corpus contains a total of 1,352 essays (369,456 word tokens) written by 153 students the first year and 155 the second year. The students were asked to respond to different writing prompts that can be grouped into five textual typologies: reflexive, narrative, descriptive, expository and argumentative corresponding to different communicative language abilities and different writing skills. As shown in Table 2 , there are some differences over the two considered years and the seven schools. First of all, it can be noted that the number of prompts differs among the seven schools: teachers of the schools located in the city center tend to give a higher numbers of prompts than their colleagues in the suburban schools. Secondly, if reflexive prompts are the most frequent textual type in the two years, from the first to the second year the distribution of narrative prompts are halved while the expository and argumentative ones are doubled. This different distribution follows from the approach to teach writing adopted by teachers: writing a narrative essay is considered simpler, i.e. it requires simpler cognitive and writing skills, than writing an argumentative or expository essays where more complex linguistic and discoursestructuring competences are required. As we will discuss later, this different distribution of prompts is also related to the different distribution of some categories of errors made by students.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 175,
"end": 182,
"text": "Table 1",
"ref_id": "TABREF1"
},
{
"start": 835,
"end": 842,
"text": "Table 2",
"ref_id": "TABREF3"
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Corpus Collection",
"sec_num": "2.1."
},
{
"text": "A prompt common to all schools was also assigned at the end of the first and second year. At the end of second year, students were asked to respond to the Italian version of Task 9 of the IEA-IPS (Lucisano, 1984; Corda Costa and Visalberghi, 1995 ) study, i.e. a letter of advice to a younger fellow student on how one should write in order to get good grades in the school; and at the end of the first year a modified version of Task 9. The two common prompts were meant to provide evidence of how students perceive the different writing instructions received in the two considered school years. First investigations in this directions were carried out by Barbagli et al. (2015) combining automatic linguistic annotation tools and knowledge extraction techniques. It resulted that in the first year students tend to mostly provide emotive advises expressed by terms such as e.g. non aver paura 'not to have fear', paura dei compiti 'fear of the essay', rifletti prima di scrivere 'reflect before writing'; while in the second year, their advises refer more to meta-linguistic traits, such as e.g. the use of calligraphy, the use of verbs, the adherence to the prompt, thus reflecting the different typology of writing instructions that they received. The students were also asked to answer to a questionnaire that we designed and that includes 34 questions about their biographical, socio-cultural and sociolinguistic background. We considered two main types of questions: a first group of thirteen concern biographical information such as the language(s) the students usually speak at home, when and where they were born, their parents' education and employment, etc.; the other questions are meant to investigate how students perceive the writing activity in general and particularly the school writing, if they like writing outside school, which kind of texts they prefer writing, etc. Interestingly enough, the distribution of the answers to the first set of questions is in line with our starting hypothesis that the city area where the school is located is highly correlated with the socio-cultural context. As shown in Tables 3 and 4 , it resulted that the schools located in the historical center are mostly attended by students who at home usually speak Italian or Italian and a foreign language, and whose parents are employed in highly ranked jobs; while students attending schools in suburbs belong to a different sociocultural context where dialects and foreign languages are more frequently spoken, and where low ranked jobs (i.e. artisan and workman jobs) are the main typology of employment. As far as the attitude towards writing is concerned, the majority of students claims that teaching writing is \"very important\" (78,9%) even though students attending the schools in the city center (88,7%) believe that it is more important than those attending a school in suburbs (69%). Interestingly, all students agree that writing is mostly useful to \"find a job\" than to \"put in order ideas\" , and they prefer writing essays that require few discourse-structuring competences and allow conveying emotions and feelings.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 196,
"end": 212,
"text": "(Lucisano, 1984;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF31"
},
{
"start": 213,
"end": 246,
"text": "Corda Costa and Visalberghi, 1995",
"ref_id": "BIBREF13"
},
{
"start": 657,
"end": 679,
"text": "Barbagli et al. (2015)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF5"
}
],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 2127,
"end": 2142,
"text": "Tables 3 and 4",
"ref_id": "TABREF5"
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Corpus Collection",
"sec_num": "2.1."
},
{
"text": "The CItA corpus was manually annotated for different typologies of errors by a lower secondary school teacher. She also hand-corrected the errors made by students. Error annotation is a quite challenging task since it assumes that a deviation from a linguistic norm is occurring, a norm which is in its turn an arbitrary concept defined only according to social conventions. Besides, an L1 error taxonomy applicable in corpus annotation is lacking for the Italian language. This is the reason why we defined a new annotation schema starting from Berruto (1997)'s definition of \"neo-standard Italian\" as linguistic norm, according to the literature on evaluation of written skills of L1 Italian learners (Corda Costa and Visalberghi, 1995; De Mauro, 1983; Emilia-Romagna, 2010; Colombo, 2011) and checking the frequency distribution of errors in CItA. To our knowledge, this is the first time that an error annotation scheme is designed to annotate errors made by L1 Italian learners. Table 5 reports the typology of errors considered in the error annotation schema we defined as well as some statistical distributions. We designed a three-level schema including: the macro-class of error, i.e. grammatical, orthographic and lexical; the class of error, i.e. the linguistic element involved (e.g. verbs, prepositions, monosyllables); and the corresponding type of modification required to correct the error (e.g. the misuse of verb with respect to the use of verbal tense). We chose to consider these three macro-classes of errors since they correspond to the main areas of linguistic skills required by the report \"Rilevazione degli errori pi\u00f9 diffusi nella padronanza della lingua italiana nella prima prova di italiano\" 3 issued by the INVALSI national institute 4 and the Accademia della Crusca in 2012. This three-layered schema is also in line with the one defined by Granger (2003) for the annotation of errors made by second language learners. According to the annotation format defined by Ng et al. (2013) for the \"Shared Task on Grammatical Error Correction\", CItA is annotated as follows:",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 710,
"end": 738,
"text": "Costa and Visalberghi, 1995;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF13"
},
{
"start": 739,
"end": 754,
"text": "De Mauro, 1983;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF16"
},
{
"start": 755,
"end": 776,
"text": "Emilia-Romagna, 2010;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF23"
},
{
"start": 777,
"end": 791,
"text": "Colombo, 2011)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF12"
},
{
"start": 1873,
"end": 1887,
"text": "Granger (2003)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF25"
},
{
"start": 1997,
"end": 2013,
"text": "Ng et al. (2013)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF36"
}
],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 984,
"end": 991,
"text": "Table 5",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "2.2."
},
{
"text": "[...] dopo aver fatto le squadre <M t=\"11\" c=\"abbiamo\">avevamo</M> subito iniziato a giocare [...] (once we splitted into teams we have suddenly started playing) where the textual span of error is marked by <M> and </M> (Mistake), the attribute t (type) is the macro-class and class of error (in this is case the error is a grammatical errror and it refers to a misuse of verbal tense), and c (correction) reports the corrected form. Examples of annotation are reported in Table 6 . Inspecting the statistical distribution reported in Table 5 , it can be noted that in both years (Column Total %) orthographic and grammatical errors are the most frequent ones (46.55% and 47.33% respectively) while the lexical errors are far less (about 6%). In particular, the most frequent errors are the orthographic not-classified (Other) ones (22.32%) followed by the erroneous use of verb tenses (11.26%), the grammatical not-classified errors (6.37%) and the erroneous use of prepositions (6.6%). Interestingly enough, the majority of errors (the ones bolded in Table 5 ) has a statistically significant variation over the two years thus showing that several common trends in the development of writing competence occur during the transition from the first to the second year. As far as the frequency distribution (Column Freq.%) and the average occurrence (Column Avg.) per year is concerned, the most frequent errors are the orthographic and grammatical not-classified ones, the erroneous use of verbs, prepositions, articles, pronouns and the redundant use of double consonants. More in particular, the total number of errors decreases over years even if this is not the case for all the classes of errors. The most interesting exception is represented by the erroneous use of verbs and, in particular, by the misuse of verbal tense that increases. This may be due to the different typology of prompts given by teachers. As reported above, in the first year students were mostly asked to respond to narrative prompts that require quite simple linguistic abilities including the use of 'simple' verb moods and tenses to express temporal sequences; while, in the second year students have to write more argumentative essays where more complex linguistic and discourse-structuring competences are required. This can suggest that students in the transition from the first to the second year are requested to use more complex verb forms thus making more errors. Interestingly, the statistical distribution of some typologies of errors is correlated with the student background information we collected. This is the case, for example, of the distribution of lexical errors that correlates with the attitude towards reading: the students who claim to read \"frequently\" make less errors of this type over the two considered years. And, this is also the case e.g. of the grammatical errors that vary significantly with respect to the city area where the schools are located, as Table 7 shows. The average occurrence of this type of errors decreases over the two years in all the schools located the center of Rome and in two of those in suburbs; while, in two of the suburban schools they increase. Surprisingly, the highest number of grammatical errors (on average) is made in a school of the center even though in this school the difference over the years is doubled with respect the other schools. If we compare Table 5 : Error annotation schema. For each year: frequency distribution and number of occurrences (Freq.%), average occurrence per year (Avg), Standard Deviation (SD). The column Tot. % reports the percentage and the number of occurrences of errors in the two years. Errors varying significantly over the two years (i.e. p < 0.05) are bolded.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 473,
"end": 480,
"text": "Table 6",
"ref_id": "TABREF11"
},
{
"start": 535,
"end": 542,
"text": "Table 5",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 1053,
"end": 1060,
"text": "Table 5",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 2963,
"end": 2970,
"text": "Table 7",
"ref_id": "TABREF9"
},
{
"start": 3400,
"end": 3407,
"text": "Table 5",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "2.2."
},
{
"text": "the average occurrences of these errors made by students born in Italy and abroad, we can claim that students born abroad make more errors than their mates in both the first and second year (see Table 8 ). However, the difference over the years varies importantly: during the transition from the first to the second year the students born abroad make significantly less errors; on the contrary, the number of errors made by students born in Italy increases a little bit. This demonstrates two different speed of development: students born abroad start from a lower level of grammatical competence but they improve faster their skills. On the contrary, orthographic errors do not vary significantly with respect to any background information. This provides evidence of linguistic studies claiming that language competence is not related with the orthographic correctness: orthographic skills are learned only over a longer time span (Colombo, 2011; Ferreri, 1971; Lavino, 1975; De Mauro, 1977) .",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 932,
"end": 947,
"text": "(Colombo, 2011;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF12"
},
{
"start": 948,
"end": 962,
"text": "Ferreri, 1971;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF24"
},
{
"start": 963,
"end": 976,
"text": "Lavino, 1975;",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 977,
"end": 992,
"text": "De Mauro, 1977)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF15"
}
],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 195,
"end": 202,
"text": "Table 8",
"ref_id": "TABREF10"
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "2.2."
},
{
"text": "3. CItA for ...",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "2.2."
},
{
"text": "As discussed in previous paragraphs of this paper, CItA is meant for a number of different research purposes. Firstly, the corpus was meant to study the development of writing language competence of Italian L1 learners over the time.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "2.2."
},
{
"text": "As introduced by Barbagli [...] dopo aver fatto le squadre <M t=\"11\" c=\"abbiamo\">avevamo</M> subito iniziato a giocare Use of mood [...] il pensiero che mi tormentava di pi\u00f9 era che tra poco si <M t=\"12\" c=\"sarebbe fatto\">faceva</M> il campo scuola. Subject-Verb agreement [...] la mia famiglia ed io <M t=\"13\" c=\"stavamo\">stavo</M> al mare a Torvajanica Prepositions Erroneous use <M t=\"14\" c=\"in\">a</M> Romania sono andata <M t=\"14\" c=\"in\">a</M> agosto",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 17,
"end": 25,
"text": "Barbagli",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 26,
"end": 31,
"text": "[...]",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 131,
"end": 136,
"text": "[...]",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 273,
"end": 278,
"text": "[...]",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Error Annotation",
"sec_num": "2.2."
},
{
"text": "Erroneous use Proteggere i pi\u00f9 deboli \u00e8 molto coraggioso da parte di chi <M t=\"16\" c=\"li\">lo</M> protegge Redundancy Alla nostra maestra <M t=\"18\" c=\"canc\">gli</M> piaceva tanto la storia Erroneous use of relative pronoun La scienza non so perch\u00e9 mi fa pensare a un fenomeno costruito su un'altura <M t=\"19\" c=\"per cui\">che</M> ci vuole molto ingegno. Articles Erroneous use <M t=\"111\" c=\"gli\">i</M> dei, sapendo che qualcuno aveva preso senza merito il sacro vaso della Giustizia, si rattristarono molto, [...] Use of h Omission <M t=\"23\" c=\"ho\">o</M> visto uno spettacolo bellissimo con i raggi laser Lexicon Erroneous use C'era molta ombra nel giardino e io mi ci <M t=\"31\" c=\"addormentavo\">addormivo</M> sempre. of text quality change over time according to the development of student writing skills and that these features can be identified by relying on the automatically annotated student essays. In order to test this hypothesis, CItA was morphosyntactically tagged by the POS tagger described in Dell'Orletta (2009) and dependency-parsed by the DeSR parser (Attardi et al., 2009) . The linguistically annotated corpus is further inspected using MONITOR-IT 5 , a tool able to carry out the linguistic profiling of texts following the methodology devised by Dell'Orletta et al. (2013) that relies on the wide set of linguistic features reported in Table 9 and extracted on the basis of the different levels of automatic linguistic analysis, i.e. tokenization, lemmatization, morpho-syntactic tagging and dependency parsing. Table 10 : % distribution of morpho-syntactic features varying significantly over the school years (significance: p < 0.05). Table 10 reports an excerpt of the results of the statistical distributions of some morpho-syntactic features. It can be noted that the essays written in the second year contain a lower percentage of conjunctions, pronouns, clitic and per-sonal pronouns, and a higher percentage of prepositions and nouns with respect to the essays of the first year. These statistically significant differences suggest that in the second year students learned to write possibly exploiting the pro-drop potentiality of the Italian language. According to the literature on register variation (Biber, 1993) , they write more informative essays, i.e. characterized by more prepositions and nouns. Note that this can also be influenced by the type of prompt the students are asked to write in the second year, i.e. descriptive and expository (see Table 2 ).",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 1005,
"end": 1024,
"text": "Dell'Orletta (2009)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF21"
},
{
"start": 1066,
"end": 1088,
"text": "(Attardi et al., 2009)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF4"
},
{
"start": 1265,
"end": 1291,
"text": "Dell'Orletta et al. (2013)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF20"
},
{
"start": 2231,
"end": 2244,
"text": "(Biber, 1993)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF8"
}
],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 1355,
"end": 1363,
"text": "Table 9",
"ref_id": "TABREF12"
},
{
"start": 1532,
"end": 1540,
"text": "Table 10",
"ref_id": "TABREF1"
},
{
"start": 1657,
"end": 1665,
"text": "Table 10",
"ref_id": "TABREF1"
},
{
"start": 2483,
"end": 2490,
"text": "Table 2",
"ref_id": "TABREF3"
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Pronouns",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "CItA is also currently used to investigate whether the linguistic features of student essays are significantly related to the students' background information. Table 11 reports an example of this investigation showing how the lemma occurring in the essays written by students attending schools in the historical center and in suburbs are differently distributed over the years with respect to the De Mauro's usage classification classes. It can be noted that in the first year students attending the suburban schools use a higher percentage of 'fundamental words' (i.e. very frequent and simple words) with respect to their peers attending the schools in the historical center, even if this variation resulted to be not statistically significant. On the contrary, it is significant that in the second year they use a lower percentage of this class of words and a higher percentage of 'high availability' words (i.e. relatively lower frequency words referring to everyday life). This suggests that they learned to write more complex words. The corpus can be also used to develop innovative NLP approaches for use in educational applications that can be used for example in MOOCs (Massive Open Online Courses) such as e.g. automatic error detection and correction systems, automatic essay scoring tools, intelligent tutoring systems or also tools for assisting teachers and test developers.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 160,
"end": 168,
"text": "Table 11",
"ref_id": "TABREF1"
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Pronouns",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "I year II year 'fundamental' 'high usage' 'high availability' 'fundamental' 'high usage' 'high availability' Table 11 : % distribution of lemma in the essays of the historical center and suburban schools with respect to the De Mauro's usage classification classes (significance: p < 0.05).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 109,
"end": 117,
"text": "Table 11",
"ref_id": "TABREF1"
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Pronouns",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "http://www.invalsi.it/download/rapporti/es2_0312/RAPPOR TO_ITALIANO_prove_2010.pdf 4 http://www.invalsi.it/invalsi/index.php",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
}
],
"back_matter": [],
"bib_entries": {
"BIBREF0": {
"ref_id": "b0",
"title": "Koko: an l1 learner corpus for german",
"authors": [
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Abel",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Glaznieks",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "L",
"middle": [],
"last": "Nicolas",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "E",
"middle": [],
"last": "Stemle",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2014,
"venue": "Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'14)",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "26--31",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Abel, A., Glaznieks, A., Nicolas, L., and Stemle, E. (2014). Koko: an l1 learner corpus for german. In Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Re- sources and Evaluation (LREC'14), pages 26-31.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF1": {
"ref_id": "b1",
"title": "Learner and error corpora based computational systems",
"authors": [
{
"first": "I",
"middle": [],
"last": "Aldabe",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "L",
"middle": [],
"last": "Amoros",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "B",
"middle": [],
"last": "Arrieta",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [
"D"
],
"last": "De Ilarraza",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Maritxalar",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Oronoz",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "L",
"middle": [],
"last": "Uria",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2005,
"venue": "Proceedings of the PALC 2005 Conference",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Aldabe, I., Amoros, L., Arrieta, B., de Ilarraza, A. D., Mar- itxalar, M., Oronoz, M., and Uria, L. (2005). Learner and error corpora based computational systems. In Pro- ceedings of the PALC 2005 Conference.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF2": {
"ref_id": "b2",
"title": "Corpora di Italiano L2: tecnologie, metodi, spunti teorici",
"authors": [
{
"first": "C",
"middle": [],
"last": "Andorno",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Rastelli",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2009,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Andorno, C. and Rastelli, S. (2009). Corpora di Italiano L2: tecnologie, metodi, spunti teorici. Guerra Edizioni.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF3": {
"ref_id": "b3",
"title": "Automated essay scoring with e-rater v.2",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Y",
"middle": [],
"last": "Attali",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [],
"last": "Burstein",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2006,
"venue": "Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment",
"volume": "4",
"issue": "3",
"pages": "465--480",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Attali, Y. and Burstein, J. (2006). Automated essay scoring with e-rater v.2. Journal of Technology, Learning, and Assessment, 4(3):465-480.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF4": {
"ref_id": "b4",
"title": "Accurate dependency parsing with a stacked multilayer perceptron",
"authors": [
{
"first": "G",
"middle": [],
"last": "Attardi",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "F",
"middle": [],
"last": "Dell'orletta",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Simi",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [],
"last": "Turian",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2009,
"venue": "Proceedings of Evalita'09 (Evaluation of NLP and Speech Tools for Italian",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Attardi, G., Dell'Orletta, F., Simi, M., and Turian, J. (2009). Accurate dependency parsing with a stacked multilayer perceptron. In Proceedings of Evalita'09 (Evaluation of NLP and Speech Tools for Italian).",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF5": {
"ref_id": "b5",
"title": "Il ruolo delle tecnologie del linguaggio nel monitoraggio dell'evoluzione delle abilit\u00e0 di scrittura: primi risultati",
"authors": [
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Barbagli",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "P",
"middle": [],
"last": "Lucisano",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "F",
"middle": [],
"last": "Dell'orletta",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Montemagni",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "G",
"middle": [],
"last": "Venturi",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2015,
"venue": "Italian Journal of Computational Linguistics (IJCoL)",
"volume": "1",
"issue": "1",
"pages": "99--117",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Barbagli, A., Lucisano, P., Dell'Orletta, F., Montemagni, S., and Venturi, G. (2015). Il ruolo delle tecnologie del linguaggio nel monitoraggio dell'evoluzione delle abilit\u00e0 di scrittura: primi risultati. Italian Journal of Computa- tional Linguistics (IJCoL), 1(1):99-117.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF6": {
"ref_id": "b6",
"title": "A database of freely written texts of german school students for the purpose of automatic spelling error classification",
"authors": [
{
"first": "K",
"middle": [],
"last": "Berkling",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [],
"last": "Fay",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Ghayoomi",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "K",
"middle": [],
"last": "Hein",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "R",
"middle": [],
"last": "Lavalley",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "L",
"middle": [],
"last": "Linhuber",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "St\u00fcker",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2014,
"venue": "Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'14)",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "1212--1217",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Berkling, K., Fay, J., Ghayoomi, M., Hein, K., Lavalley, R., Linhuber, L., and St\u00fcker, S. (2014). A database of freely written texts of german school students for the purpose of automatic spelling error classification. In Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Re- sources and Evaluation (LREC'14), pages 1212-1217.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF7": {
"ref_id": "b7",
"title": "Sociolinguistica dell'italiano contemporaneo",
"authors": [
{
"first": "G",
"middle": [],
"last": "Berruto",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1997,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Berruto, G. (1997). Sociolinguistica dell'italiano contem- poraneo. Carocci, Roma.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF8": {
"ref_id": "b8",
"title": "Using register-diversified corpora for general language studies",
"authors": [
{
"first": "D",
"middle": [],
"last": "Biber",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1993,
"venue": "Computational Linguistics Journal",
"volume": "19",
"issue": "2",
"pages": "219--241",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Biber, D. (1993). Using register-diversified corpora for general language studies. Computational Linguistics Journal, 19(2):219-241.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF9": {
"ref_id": "b9",
"title": "Analisi di produzioni scritte. Valutazioni e misure automatizzate di elaborati scolastici. Tesi di dottorato in pedagogia sperimentale",
"authors": [
{
"first": "C",
"middle": [
"C"
],
"last": "Borghi",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2013,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Borghi, C. C. (2013). Analisi di produzioni scritte. Val- utazioni e misure automatizzate di elaborati scolastici. Tesi di dottorato in pedagogia sperimentale, Universit\u00e0 di Roma, La Sapienza.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF10": {
"ref_id": "b10",
"title": "The merlin corpus: Learner language and the cefr",
"authors": [
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Boyd",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [],
"last": "Hana",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "L",
"middle": [],
"last": "Nicolas",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "D",
"middle": [],
"last": "Meurers",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "K",
"middle": [],
"last": "Wisniewski",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Abel",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "K",
"middle": [],
"last": "Sch\u00f6ne",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "B",
"middle": [],
"last": "\u0160tindlov\u00e1",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "C",
"middle": [],
"last": "Vettori",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2014,
"venue": "Proceedings of the Ninth International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'14)",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Boyd, A., Hana, J., Nicolas, L., Meurers, D., Wis- niewski, K., Abel, A., Sch\u00f6ne, K., \u0160tindlov\u00e1, B., and Vettori, C. (2014). The merlin corpus: Learner lan- guage and the cefr. In Proceedings of the Ninth Inter- national Conference on Language Resources and Evalu- ation (LREC'14).",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF11": {
"ref_id": "b11",
"title": "Measuring interlanguage: Native language identification with l1-influence metrics",
"authors": [
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [],
"last": "Brooke",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "G",
"middle": [],
"last": "Hirst",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2012,
"venue": "Proceedings of the 8th Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC 2012)",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "779--784",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Brooke, J. and Hirst, G. (2012). Measuring interlanguage: Native language identification with l1-influence metrics. In Proceedings of the 8th Conference on Language Re- sources and Evaluation (LREC 2012), pages 779-784.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF12": {
"ref_id": "b12",
"title": "A me mi\" Dubbi, errori, correzioni nell'italiano scritto",
"authors": [
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Colombo",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2011,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Colombo, A. (2011). \"A me mi\" Dubbi, errori, correzioni nell'italiano scritto. Franco Angeli editore.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF13": {
"ref_id": "b13",
"title": "Misurare e valutare le competenze linguistiche. Guida scientificopratica per gli insegnanti",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Corda",
"middle": [],
"last": "Costa",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Visalberghi",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1995,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Corda Costa, M. and Visalberghi, A. (1995). Misurare e valutare le competenze linguistiche. Guida scientifico- pratica per gli insegnanti. La Nuova Italia, Firenze.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF14": {
"ref_id": "b14",
"title": "Building a large annotated corpus of learner english: The nus corpus of learner english",
"authors": [
{
"first": "D",
"middle": [],
"last": "Dahlmeier",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "H",
"middle": [],
"last": "Ng",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Wu",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2013,
"venue": "Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Applications",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "22--31",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Dahlmeier, D., Ng, H., and Wu, S. (2013). Building a large annotated corpus of learner english: The nus corpus of learner english. In Proceedings of the Eighth Workshop on Innovative Use of NLP for Building Educational Ap- plications, pages 22-31.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF15": {
"ref_id": "b15",
"title": "Scuola e linguaggio. Editori Riuniti",
"authors": [
{
"first": "De",
"middle": [],
"last": "Mauro",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "T",
"middle": [],
"last": "",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1977,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "De Mauro, T. (1977). Scuola e linguaggio. Editori Riuniti, Roma.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF16": {
"ref_id": "b16",
"title": "Per una nuova alfabetizzazione",
"authors": [
{
"first": "De",
"middle": [],
"last": "Mauro",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "T",
"middle": [],
"last": "",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1983,
"venue": "Teoria e pratica del glotto-kit",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "De Mauro, T. (1983). Per una nuova alfabetizzazione. In S. Gensini et al., editors, Teoria e pratica del glotto-kit.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF17": {
"ref_id": "b17",
"title": "Una carta d'identit\u00e0 per l'educazione linguistica. Franco angeli",
"authors": [],
"year": null,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Una carta d'identit\u00e0 per l'educazione linguistica. Franco angeli, milano edition.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF18": {
"ref_id": "b18",
"title": "Grande dizionario italiano dell'uso (GRADIT)",
"authors": [
{
"first": "De",
"middle": [],
"last": "Mauro",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "T",
"middle": [],
"last": "",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2000,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "De Mauro, T. (2000). Grande dizionario italiano dell'uso (GRADIT). Torino, UTET.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF19": {
"ref_id": "b19",
"title": "What automated analyses of corpora can tell us about students' writing skills",
"authors": [
{
"first": "P",
"middle": [],
"last": "Deane",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "T",
"middle": [],
"last": "Quinlan",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2010,
"venue": "Journal of Writing Research",
"volume": "2",
"issue": "2",
"pages": "151--177",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Deane, P. and Quinlan, T. (2010). What automated analy- ses of corpora can tell us about students' writing skills. Journal of Writing Research, 2(2):151-177.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF20": {
"ref_id": "b20",
"title": "Linguistic profiling of texts across textual genre and readability level. an exploratory study on italian fictional prose",
"authors": [
{
"first": "F",
"middle": [],
"last": "Dell'orletta",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Montemagni",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "G",
"middle": [],
"last": "Venturi",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2013,
"venue": "Proceedings of the Recent Advances in Natural Language Processing Conference (RANLP-2013)",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "189--197",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Dell'Orletta, F., Montemagni, S., and Venturi, G. (2013). Linguistic profiling of texts across textual genre and readability level. an exploratory study on italian fictional prose. In Proceedings of the Recent Advances in Natural Language Processing Conference (RANLP-2013), pages 189-197.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF21": {
"ref_id": "b21",
"title": "Ensemble system for part-ofspeech taggin",
"authors": [
{
"first": "F",
"middle": [],
"last": "Dell'orletta",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2009,
"venue": "Proceedings of Evalita'09 (Evaluation of NLP and Speech Tools for Italian",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Dell'Orletta, F. (2009). Ensemble system for part-of- speech taggin. In Proceedings of Evalita'09 (Evaluation of NLP and Speech Tools for Italian).",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF22": {
"ref_id": "b22",
"title": "Annotating errors in a hungarian learner corpus",
"authors": [
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Dickinson",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Ledbetter",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2012,
"venue": "Proceedings of the Eight International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'12)",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Dickinson, M. and Ledbetter, S. (2012). Annotating er- rors in a hungarian learner corpus. In Proceedings of the Eight International Conference on Language Resources and Evaluation (LREC'12).",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF23": {
"ref_id": "b23",
"title": "La correzione dei testi scritti",
"authors": [
{
"first": "G",
"middle": [],
"last": "Emilia-Romagna",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2010,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "188--203",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Emilia-Romagna, G. (2010). La correzione dei testi scritti. In E. Lugarini, editor, Valutare le competenze linguis- tiche, pages 188-203. Franco angeli, milano edition.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF24": {
"ref_id": "b24",
"title": "Italiano standard, italiano regionale e dialetto in una scuola media di palermo",
"authors": [
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Ferreri",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1971,
"venue": "L'insegnamento dell'italiano in Italia e all'estero",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "205--224",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Ferreri, S. (1971). Italiano standard, italiano regionale e dialetto in una scuola media di palermo. In M. Medici et al., editors, L'insegnamento dell'italiano in Italia e all'estero, pages 205-224. Roma, bulzoni edition.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF25": {
"ref_id": "b25",
"title": "Error-tagged learner corpora and call: A promising synergy",
"authors": [
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Granger",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2003,
"venue": "CALICO Journal",
"volume": "20",
"issue": "",
"pages": "465--480",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Granger, S. (2003). Error-tagged learner corpora and call: A promising synergy. CALICO Journal, 20:465-480.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF27": {
"ref_id": "b27",
"title": "Un'inchiesta campione in una scuola media sarda",
"authors": [],
"year": null,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Un'inchiesta campione in una scuola media sarda. Edes, Cagliari.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF28": {
"ref_id": "b28",
"title": "Automatic measurement of syntactic complexity in child language acquisition",
"authors": [
{
"first": "X",
"middle": [],
"last": "Lu",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2007,
"venue": "International Journal of Corpus Linguistics",
"volume": "14",
"issue": "1",
"pages": "3--28",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Lu, X. (2007). Automatic measurement of syntactic com- plexity in child language acquisition. International Jour- nal of Corpus Linguistics, 14(1):3-28.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF29": {
"ref_id": "b29",
"title": "Data-driven measurement of child language development with simple syntactic templates",
"authors": [
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Lubetich",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "K",
"middle": [],
"last": "Sagae",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2014,
"venue": "Proceedings of the 25th International Conference on Computational Linguistics (COL-ING)",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "2151--2160",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Lubetich, S. and Sagae, K. (2014). Data-driven measure- ment of child language development with simple syn- tactic templates. In Proceedings of the 25th Interna- tional Conference on Computational Linguistics (COL- ING), pages 2151-2160.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF30": {
"ref_id": "b30",
"title": "Insegnare a scrivere: dalla parte degli insegnanti",
"authors": [
{
"first": "P",
"middle": [],
"last": "Lucisano",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "G",
"middle": [],
"last": "Benvenuto",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1991,
"venue": "",
"volume": "6",
"issue": "",
"pages": "265--279",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Lucisano, P. and Benvenuto, G. (1991). Insegnare a scri- vere: dalla parte degli insegnanti. Ricerca educativa, 6:265-279.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF31": {
"ref_id": "b31",
"title": "L'indagine iea sulla produzione scritta",
"authors": [
{
"first": "P",
"middle": [],
"last": "Lucisano",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1984,
"venue": "",
"volume": "5",
"issue": "",
"pages": "41--61",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Lucisano, P. (1984). L'indagine iea sulla produzione scritta. Ricerca educativa, 5:41-61.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF32": {
"ref_id": "b32",
"title": "La ricerca iea sulla produzione scritta",
"authors": [
{
"first": "P",
"middle": [],
"last": "Lucisano",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1988,
"venue": "",
"volume": "2",
"issue": "",
"pages": "3--13",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Lucisano, P. (1988). La ricerca iea sulla produzione scritta. Ricerca educativa, 2(3):3-13.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF33": {
"ref_id": "b33",
"title": "Multi-level error annotation in learner corpora",
"authors": [
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "L\u00fcdeling",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Walter",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "E",
"middle": [],
"last": "Kroymann",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Adolphs",
"middle": [],
"last": "",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "P",
"middle": [],
"last": "",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2005,
"venue": "Proceedings of Corpus Linguistics",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "L\u00fcdeling, A., Walter, M., Kroymann, E., and Adolphs, P. (2005). Multi-level error annotation in learner corpora. In Proceedings of Corpus Linguistics.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF34": {
"ref_id": "b34",
"title": "Lessico elementare: dati statistici sull'italiano scritto e letto dai bambini delle elementari",
"authors": [
{
"first": "L",
"middle": [],
"last": "Marconi",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Ott",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "E",
"middle": [],
"last": "Pesenti",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "D",
"middle": [],
"last": "Ratti",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Tavella",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1993,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Marconi, L., Ott, M., Pesenti, E., Ratti, D., and Tavella, M. (1993). Lessico elementare: dati statistici sull'italiano scritto e letto dai bambini delle elementari. Zanichelli, Bologna.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF35": {
"ref_id": "b35",
"title": "Linguistic features of writing quality",
"authors": [
{
"first": "D",
"middle": [],
"last": "Mcnamara",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Crossley",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "P",
"middle": [],
"last": "Mccarthy",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2010,
"venue": "Written Communication",
"volume": "27",
"issue": "1",
"pages": "57--86",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "McNamara, D., Crossley, S., and McCarthy, P. (2010). Linguistic features of writing quality. Written Commu- nication, 27(1):57-86.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF36": {
"ref_id": "b36",
"title": "The conll-2013 shared task on grammatical error correction",
"authors": [
{
"first": "H",
"middle": [],
"last": "Ng",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Wu",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Y",
"middle": [],
"last": "Wu",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "C",
"middle": [],
"last": "Hadiwinoto",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [],
"last": "Tetreault",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2013,
"venue": "Proceedings of the Seventeenth Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning: Shared Task",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "1--12",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Ng, H., Wu, S., Wu, Y., Hadiwinoto, C., and Tetreault, J. (2013). The conll-2013 shared task on grammatical er- ror correction. In Proceedings of the Seventeenth Con- ference on Computational Natural Language Learning: Shared Task, pages 1-12.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF37": {
"ref_id": "b37",
"title": "The conll-2014 shared task on grammatical error correction",
"authors": [
{
"first": "H",
"middle": [],
"last": "Ng",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Wu",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "T",
"middle": [],
"last": "Briscoe",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "C",
"middle": [],
"last": "Hadiwinoto",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "R",
"middle": [],
"last": "Susanto",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "C",
"middle": [],
"last": "Bryant",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2014,
"venue": "Proceedings of the Eighteenth Conference on Computational Natural Language Learning: Shared Task",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "1--14",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Ng, H., Wu, S., Briscoe, T., Hadiwinoto, C., Susanto, R., and Bryant, C. (2014). The conll-2014 shared task on grammatical error correction. In Proceedings of the Eighteenth Conference on Computational Natural Lan- guage Learning: Shared Task, pages 1-14.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF38": {
"ref_id": "b38",
"title": "A dual purpose data base for research and diagnostic assessment of student writing",
"authors": [
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [],
"last": "Parr",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2010,
"venue": "Journal of Writing Research",
"volume": "2",
"issue": "2",
"pages": "129--150",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Parr, J. (2010). A dual purpose data base for research and diagnostic assessment of student writing. Journal of Writing Research, 2(2):129-150.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF39": {
"ref_id": "b39",
"title": "A machine learning approach to reading level assessment",
"authors": [
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Petersen",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Ostendorf",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2009,
"venue": "Computer Speech and Language",
"volume": "23",
"issue": "",
"pages": "89--106",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Petersen, S. and Ostendorf, M. (2009). A machine learning approach to reading level assessment. Computer Speech and Language, 23:89-106.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF40": {
"ref_id": "b40",
"title": "Tracking the evolution of language competence: an nlp-based approach",
"authors": [
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Richter",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Cimino",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "F",
"middle": [],
"last": "Dell'orletta",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "G",
"middle": [],
"last": "Venturi",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2015,
"venue": "Proceedings of the Second Italian Conference on Computational Linguistics (CLiCit)",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "236--240",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Richter, S., Cimino, A., Dell'Orletta, F., and Venturi, G. (2015). Tracking the evolution of language competence: an nlp-based approach. In Proceedings of the Second Italian Conference on Computational Linguistics (CLiC- it), pages 236-240.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF41": {
"ref_id": "b41",
"title": "Syntactic complexity measures for detecting mild cognitive impairment",
"authors": [
{
"first": "B",
"middle": [],
"last": "Roark",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Mitchell",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "K",
"middle": [],
"last": "Hollingshead",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2007,
"venue": "Proceedings of the Workshop on BioNLP 2007: Biological, Translational, and Clinical Language Processing",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "1--8",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Roark, B., Mitchell, M., and Hollingshead, K. (2007). Syntactic complexity measures for detecting mild cog- nitive impairment. In Proceedings of the Workshop on BioNLP 2007: Biological, Translational, and Clinical Language Processing, pages 1-8.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF42": {
"ref_id": "b42",
"title": "Distributional semantic models for the evaluation of disordered language",
"authors": [
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Rouhizadeh",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "E",
"middle": [],
"last": "Prud'hommeaux",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "B",
"middle": [],
"last": "Roark",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [],
"last": "Van Santen",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2013,
"venue": "Proceedings of the 2013 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "709--714",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Rouhizadeh, M., Prud'hommeaux, E., Roark, B., and van Santen, J. (2013). Distributional semantic models for the evaluation of disordered language. In Proceedings of the 2013 Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics: Human Language Technologies, pages 709-714.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF43": {
"ref_id": "b43",
"title": "Automatic measurement of syntactic development in child language",
"authors": [
{
"first": "K",
"middle": [],
"last": "Sagae",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Lavie",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "B",
"middle": [],
"last": "Macwhinney",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2005,
"venue": "Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 05)",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "197--204",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Sagae, K., Lavie, A., and MacWhinney, B. (2005). Au- tomatic measurement of syntactic development in child language. In Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 05), pages 197-204.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF44": {
"ref_id": "b44",
"title": "Automatically learning measures of child language development",
"authors": [
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Sahakian",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "B",
"middle": [],
"last": "Snyder",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2012,
"venue": "Proceedings of the 50th Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL)",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "95--99",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Sahakian, S. and Snyder, B. (2012). Automatically learn- ing measures of child language development. In Pro- ceedings of the 50th Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL), pages 95-99.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF45": {
"ref_id": "b45",
"title": "Reading level assessment using support vector machines and statistical language models",
"authors": [
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Schwarm",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Ostendorf",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2005,
"venue": "Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 05)",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "523--530",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Schwarm, S. and Ostendorf, M. (2005). Reading level as- sessment using support vector machines and statistical language models. In Proceedings of the 43rd Annual Meeting on Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL 05), pages 523-530.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF46": {
"ref_id": "b46",
"title": "Correction annotation for non-native arabic texts: Guidelines and corpus",
"authors": [
{
"first": "W",
"middle": [],
"last": "Zaghouani",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "N",
"middle": [],
"last": "Habash",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "H",
"middle": [],
"last": "Bouamor",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Rozovskaya",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "B",
"middle": [],
"last": "Mohit",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Heider",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "K",
"middle": [],
"last": "Oflazer",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 2015,
"venue": "Proceedings of the 9th Linguistic Annotation Workshop",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "129--139",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Zaghouani, W., Habash, N., Bouamor, H., Rozovskaya, A., Mohit, B., Heider, A., and Oflazer, K. (2015). Correc- tion annotation for non-native arabic texts: Guidelines and corpus. In Proceedings of the 9th Linguistic Annota- tion Workshop, pages 129-139.",
"links": null
}
},
"ref_entries": {
"FIGREF0": {
"num": null,
"uris": null,
"text": "Raw text featuresAverage sentence and word lengthLexical featuresPercentage of words belonging to the Basic Italian Vocabulary (DeMauro, 2000) Internal distribution into the usage classification classes of 'fundamental', 'high usage', 'high availability' words Type/Token Ratio (TTR) of the first 100 and 200 tokens Morpho-syntactic features Distribution of Part-Of-Speech Lexical density Distribution of verbs with respect to their mood, tense and personSyntactic featuresDistribution of dependency types Verbal predicates features (i.e. arity of verbal predicates, percentage of verbal predicates with elliptical subject) Parse tree depth features (i.e. depth of the whole parse tree, average length of dependency links) Subordination features (i.e. distribution of subordinate vs main clauses, relative ordering of subordinates with respect to the main clause, average depth of 'chains' of embedded subordinate clauses) Nominal modification features (i.e. average depth of embedded complement 'chains' governed by a nominal head) Relative ordering of subject and object with respect to the main verbal predicates",
"type_str": "figure"
},
"TABREF1": {
"content": "<table/>",
"html": null,
"type_str": "table",
"text": "",
"num": null
},
"TABREF3": {
"content": "<table/>",
"html": null,
"type_str": "table",
"text": "Distribution of typologies of prompts.",
"num": null
},
"TABREF5": {
"content": "<table><tr><td colspan=\"5\">: Percentage distribution (and number of occur-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">rences) of student answers to the question: \"Which lan-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">guage do you usually speak at home?\"</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">Center Suburbs</td><td>Total</td></tr><tr><td/><td>High</td><td>54.9 (39)</td><td>6.1 (4)</td><td>31.4 (43)</td></tr><tr><td>Mother's</td><td colspan=\"3\">Medium 26.8 (19) 25.8 (17)</td><td>26.3 (36)</td></tr><tr><td>employment</td><td>Low</td><td colspan=\"2\">18.3 (13) 68.2 (45)</td><td>42.3 (58)</td></tr><tr><td/><td>Total</td><td>100 (71)</td><td colspan=\"2\">100 (66) 100 (137)</td></tr><tr><td/><td>High</td><td>47.3 (35)</td><td>2.9 (2)</td><td>25.7 (37)</td></tr><tr><td>Father's</td><td colspan=\"3\">Medium 36.5 (27) 21.4 (15)</td><td>29.2 (42)</td></tr><tr><td>employment</td><td>Low</td><td colspan=\"2\">16.2 (12) 75.7 (53)</td><td>45.1 (65)</td></tr><tr><td/><td>Total</td><td>100 (74)</td><td colspan=\"2\">100 (70) 100 (144)</td></tr></table>",
"html": null,
"type_str": "table",
"text": "",
"num": null
},
"TABREF6": {
"content": "<table/>",
"html": null,
"type_str": "table",
"text": "",
"num": null
},
"TABREF8": {
"content": "<table><tr><td/><td colspan=\"4\">School I year II year Difference</td></tr><tr><td>Center</td><td>A</td><td>2.6</td><td>0.9</td><td>1.7</td></tr><tr><td/><td>B</td><td>5.2</td><td>3.1</td><td>2.1</td></tr><tr><td/><td>C</td><td>15.1</td><td>9.3</td><td>5.8</td></tr><tr><td/><td>D</td><td>3.5</td><td>8.2</td><td>-4.8</td></tr><tr><td>Suburbs</td><td>E F</td><td>6.4 5.4</td><td>4.6 4.6</td><td>1.9 0.8</td></tr><tr><td/><td>G</td><td>1.5</td><td>2.8</td><td>-1.3</td></tr></table>",
"html": null,
"type_str": "table",
"text": "et al. (2015), it is currently",
"num": null
},
"TABREF9": {
"content": "<table><tr><td>\"Are you born in Italy or</td><td colspan=\"2\">I year II year</td><td>Diff.</td></tr><tr><td>abroad?\"</td><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>Yes</td><td>3.98</td><td>4.18</td><td>-0.2</td></tr><tr><td>No</td><td>23.19</td><td colspan=\"2\">11.06 12.13</td></tr></table>",
"html": null,
"type_str": "table",
"text": "Average occurrence of grammatical errors per year and with respect to the city areas.",
"num": null
},
"TABREF10": {
"content": "<table><tr><td>: Average occurrence of grammatical errors per year</td></tr><tr><td>and with respect to the question: \"Are you born in Italy or</td></tr><tr><td>abroad?\".</td></tr><tr><td>used in an interdisciplinary study that combines computa-</td></tr><tr><td>tional linguistics and experimental pedagogy approaches.</td></tr><tr><td>The study stems from the intuition that linguistic features</td></tr></table>",
"html": null,
"type_str": "table",
"text": "",
"num": null
},
"TABREF11": {
"content": "<table/>",
"html": null,
"type_str": "table",
"text": "Examples of errors annotated in CItA.",
"num": null
},
"TABREF12": {
"content": "<table/>",
"html": null,
"type_str": "table",
"text": "Linguistic features automatically extracted from the CItA corpus.",
"num": null
}
}
}
} |