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"title": "Formal Constraints on Metarules*",
"authors": [
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"addrLine": "333 Ravenswood Avenue Menlo Park",
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"first": "Susan",
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"last": "Stucky",
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"abstract": "Metagrammaticai formalisms that combine context-free phrase structure rules and metarules (MPS grammars) allow concise statement of generalizations about the syntax of natural languages. Unconstrained MPS grammars, tmfortunately, are not cornputationally \"safe.\" We evaluate several proposals for constraining them, basing our amae~ment on computational tractability and explanatory adequacy. We show that none of them satisfies both criteria, and suggest new directions for research on alternative metagrammatical formalisms.",
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"text": "Metagrammaticai formalisms that combine context-free phrase structure rules and metarules (MPS grammars) allow concise statement of generalizations about the syntax of natural languages. Unconstrained MPS grammars, tmfortunately, are not cornputationally \"safe.\" We evaluate several proposals for constraining them, basing our amae~ment on computational tractability and explanatory adequacy. We show that none of them satisfies both criteria, and suggest new directions for research on alternative metagrammatical formalisms.",
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"text": "The computational-linguistics community has recently shown interest in a variety of metagrammatical formalisms for encoding grammars of natural language. A common technique found in these formalisms involves the notion of a metarule, which, in its most common conception, is a device used to generate grammar rules from other given grammar rules. 1 A metarule is essentially a statement declaring that, if a grammar contains rules that match one specified pattern, it also contains rules that match some other specified pattern. For example, the following metarule states that, if there is a rule that expands a finite VP into a finite auxiliary and a nonfinite VP, there will also be a rule that expands the VP as before except for an additional adverb between the auxiliary and the nnnfinite VP. 2 The patterns may contain variables, in which case they characterize \"families ~ of related rules rather than individual pairs. *This reeearch was supported by the National Science Foundation grant No. IST-8103550. The views and conclusions expressed in this document are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as represent,.tive of the views of the National Science Foundation or the United States government. We are indebted to Fernando Pereira, Stanley Peters, and Stanley Roscnscheln for many helpful discun~ons leading to the writing of this paper. IMetarules were first utilized for natural-language research and are most extensively developed within the theory of Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar (GPSG) [Ga2dar end Pullum, 1082; Gawron et ~., 1982; Thompson. 1082 I. 2A metarule similar to our example was proposed by Gazdar, Pullum, and sag [10s2, p. oorl. The metarule notion is a seductive one, intuitively allowing generalizations about the grammar of a language to be stated concisely. However, unconstrained metarule formalisms may possess more expressive power than is apparently needed, and, moreover, they are not always compatationally \"safe.\" For example, they may generate infinite sew of rules and describe arbitrary languages, lu this paper we examine both the formal and linguistic implications of various constraints on metagrammatical formalisms consisting of a combination of context-free phrase structure rules and metarules, which we will call metarule phrase.structure (MPS] grammars.",
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"start": 1259,
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"text": "Stanley Peters, and Stanley",
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"text": "Pullum, 1082;",
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"text": "Gawron et ~., 1982;",
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"text": "Thompson. 1082 I.",
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"text": "and sag [10s2,",
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"text": "p. oorl.",
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"text": "(MPS]",
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"section": "Introduction",
"sec_num": "1."
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"text": "The term \"MPS grammar\" is used in two ways in this paper. An MPS grammar can be viewed as a grammar in its own right that characterizes a language directly. Alternatively, it can be viewed as a metagrammar, that is, as a generator of a phrase structure obiect grammar, the characterized language being defined as the language of the object grammar. Uszkoreit and Peters [1982] have developed a formal definition of MPS grammars and have shown that an unconstrained MPS grammar can encode any recursively enumerable language. As long am the framework for grammatical description is not seen am part of a theory of natural language, this fact may not alt'ect the usefulness of MPS grammars am tools for purely descriptive linguistics research; however, it has direct and obvious impact on those doing research in a computational or theoretical linguistic paradigm. Clearly, some way of constraining the power of MPS grammars is necessary to enable their use for encoding grammars in a \u00a2omputationally feasible way. In the sections that follow, we consider several formal proposals for constraining their power and discuss some of their computational and linguistic ramifications.",
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"start": 349,
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"text": "Uszkoreit and Peters [1982]",
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"section": "Introduction",
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"text": "In our discussion of the computational ramifications of the proposed constraints, we will use the notion of weak-generative capacity as a barometer of the expressive power of a formalism. Other notions of expre~ivity are possible, although some of the traditional ones may not be applicable to MPS grammars. Strong*generative capacity, for instance, though well-defined, seems to be an inadequate notion for comparison of MPS grammars, since it would have to be extended to include information about rule derivations am well am tree derivations. Similarly, we do not mean to imply by our arguments that the class of natural languages corresponds to some class that ranks low in the Chomsky hierarchy merely because the higher classes are less constrained in weak-generative power. The appropriate characterization of possible natural languages may not coincide at all with the divisions in the Chomsky hierarchy. Nevertheless weakgenerative capacity--the weakest useful metric of capacity--will be the primary concern of this paper as a well-defined and relevant standard for measuring constraints. Peters and Ritchie [1973] have pointed out that contextsensitive grammars have no more than context-free power when their rules are viewed as node-admissibility conditions. This suggests that MPS grammars might be analogously constrained by regarding the metarules as something other than phrusestructure grammar generators. A brief examination of three alternative approaches indicates, however, that none of them clearly yields any useful constraints on weak-generative capacity. Two of the alternatives discussed below consider metarules to be part of the grammar itself, rather than as part of the metagramo mar. The third views them as a set of redundant generalizations about the grammar.",
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"text": "Stucky [forthcoming] investigates the possibility of defining metarules as complex node-admissibility conditions, which she calls meta, node-admissibility conditions. Two computationally desirable results could ensue, were this reinterpretation possible. Because the metarules do not generate rules under the meta, node-admissibility interpretation, it follows that there will be neither a combinatorial explosion of rules nor any derivation resulting in an infinite set of rules (both of which are potential problems that could arise under the original generative interpretation).",
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"section": "Constraints by Change of Perspective",
"sec_num": "2."
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"text": "For this reinterpretation to have a computationally tractable implementation, however, two preconditions must be met. First, an independent mechanism must be provided that assig~ to any string a finite set of trees, including those admitted by the metarules together with the bmm rules. Second, a procedure must be defined that checks node admissibilities according to the base rules and metarules of the grammar--and that terminates.",
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"text": "[t is this latter condition that we snspect will not be possible without constraining the weak-generative capacity of MPS grammars. Thus, this perspective does not seem to change the basic expressivity problems of the formalism by itself.",
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"text": "A second alternative, proposed by Kay [1982] , is one in which metarules are viewed as chart-manipulating operators on a chart parser. Here too, the metarules are not part of a metagrammar that generates a context-free grammar; rather, they constitute a second kind of rule in the grammar. Just like the meta-node-admissibility interpretation, Kay's explicst, ion seems to retain the basic problem of expressive power, though Kay hints at a gain in efficiency if the metarules are compiled into a finite-state transducer.",
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"text": "Finally, an alternative that does not integrate metarules into the object grammar but, on the other hand, does not assign them a role in generating an object grammar either, is to view them as redundancy statements describing the relationships that hold among rules in the full grammar. This interpretation eliminates the problem of generating infinite rule sets that gave rise to the Uszkoreit and Peters results. However, it is difficult to see how the solution supports a computationally useful notion of metarules, since it requires that all rules of the grammar be stated explicitly. Confining the role of metarules to that of stating redundancies prevent~ their productive application, so that the metarules serve no clear computational purpose for grammar implementation. 3",
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"text": "We thus conclude that, in contrust to context-sensltive grammar, in which an alternative interpretation of the phruse structure rules makes a difference in weak-generative capacity, MPS grammars do not seem to benefit from the reinterpretations we have investigated.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"text": "~. a, e it appears unlikely that a reinterpretation of MPS grammars can be found that solves their complexity problem, formal constraints on the MPS formalism itself have to be explored if we want to salvage the basic concept of metarules. In the following examination of currently proposed constraints, the two criteria for evaluation are their effects on computational tractability and on the ezplanatory adcquaeltof the formalism.",
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"section": "For:hal Constraints",
"sec_num": "3."
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"text": "As an example of constraints that satisfy the criterion of computational tractability but not that of explanatory adequacy, we examine the issue of essential variables. These are variables in the metarule pattern that can match an arbitrary string of items in a phrase structure rule. Uszkoreit and Peters have shown that, contrary to an initial conjecture by Jcehi (see [Gazdar, 1982, fn. 28] ), allowing even one such variable per metarule extends the power of the formalism to recursive enumerability. Gazdar has recommended [1982, p.160 ] that the power of metarules be controlled by eliminating essential variables, exchanging them for abbreviatory variables that can stand only for strings in a finite and cztrinsieally determined range. This constraint yields a computationslly tractable system with only context-free power.",
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"text": "Exchanging essential for abbreviatory variables is not, however, as attractive a prospect as it appears at first blush. Uszkoreit and Peters [1982[ show that by restricting MFS grammars to using abbreviatory variables only, some significant generalizations are lost. Consider the following metarule that is proposed and motivated in [Gazdar 1982 ] for endowing VSO languages with the category VP. The metarule generates fiat VSO sentence rules from VP rules.",
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"text": "2) VP-.V U~ S-.V NPU",
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"text": "Since U is an abbreviatory variable, its range needs to be stated explicitly. Let us imagine 'h:,t the VSO language in question has the follo~ ;~ small set of VF rules:",
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"text": "(3) w ,'~ VP --V NP vP-. V-~ VP -. V VP VP -. V NP V-P",
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"text": "Therefore, the range of U has to be {e, NP, ~, ]77~, NP V'P}.",
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"text": "3As statements about the object ~'~mmar, however, metxrules might play s role in language acquisition or in dia~hronie processes.",
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"text": "If these VP rules are the only rules that satisfy the lefthand side of (2), then (2) generates exactly the same rules am it would if we declared U to be an essential variable--i.e., let its range be (Vr O VN) \u00b0. But now imagine that the language adopts a new subcategorizatiun frame for verbs, 4 e.g., a verb that takes an NP and an S am complements. VP rule (4) is added:",
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"text": "(4) VP --I/\" NP -S Metarule (2) predicts that VPs headed by this verb do not have a corresponding fiat V$O sentence rule. We will have to change the metarule by extending the range of U in order to retain the generalization originally intended by the metarule. Obviously, our metarule did not encode the right generalization (a simple intension-extensiun problem).",
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"text": "This shortcoming nun also surface in cases where the input to a metarule is the output of another metaruh. It might be that metarule (2) not only applies to basic verb rules but also includes the output of, say, a passive rule. The range of the variable [.r would have to be extended to cover these tames too, and, moreover, might have to be altered if its feeding metarules change.",
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"text": "Thus, if the restriction to abbreviatury variables is to have no effect on the weak-gensrative capacity of a grammar, the range assigned to each variable must include the range that would have actually instantiated the variable on an expansion of the MPS grammar in which the variable was treated as essential.",
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"text": "The assignment of a range to the variable can only be done po,t /actum. This would be a satisfactory result, were it not for the fact that finding the necessary range of a variable in this way is an undecidable problem in general. Thus, to exchange essential for abbreviatory variables is to risk affecting the generative capacity of the grammar~with quite unintultive and unpredictable results. In short, the choice is among three options: to affect the language of the grammar in ways that are linguistically un-moti~at4ed and arbitrary, to solve an undecidable problem, or to discard the notion of exchanging essential for abbreviatory variables--in effect, a Hobsun's choice.",
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"text": "An example of a constraint that satisfies the second criterion, that of explanatory adequacy, hut not the first, computational tractability, is the leziesl-head constraint of GPSG [. This constraint allows metarules to operate only on rules whose stipulated head is a lexical (preterminal) category. Since the Uszkoreit and Peters results are achieved even under this restriction to the formalism, the cow straint does not provide a solution to the problem of expressive power. Of course, this is no criticism of the proposal, since it was never intended as a formal restriction on the class of languages, but rather ~ a restriction un linguistically motivated grammars. Unfortunal,ely, the motivation behind even this use of the lexicalhead constraint may be lacking. One of the few analyses that relies on the lexical-head constraint is a recent GPSG analysis of coordination and extraction in English (Gazdar, 1981] . In this ease--indeed, in general-one could achieve the desired effect simply by specifying that the coefficient of the bar feature be lezical. It remains to be seen whether the constraint must be imposed for enough metarules so as to justify its incorporation as a general principle.",
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"text": "Even with such motivation one might raise a question about the advisability of the lexical-head constraint on a metatheoretical level. The linguistic intuition behind the constraint is that the role of metarules is to \"express generalizations about possibilities of subeategorizatiun\" exclusively [Gaadar, Klein, Pullum, and Sag, 1982, p.391, e .g., to express the p~mive-active relation. This result is said to follow from principles of ~ syntax [Jackendoff, 1077] , in which just those categories that are subcategorized for are siblings of a lexieal head. However, in a language with freer word order than English, categories other than those subcategorized for will be siblings of lexieal heads; they would, thus, be affected by metarules even under the lexical-head constraint. This result will certainly follow from the liberation rule approach to free word order [Pullum, 1982] . The original linguistic generalization intended by the hxical-head constraint, therefore, will not hold cross-linguistically.",
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"text": "Finally, there is the current proposal of the GPSG community for constraining the formal powers of metarules by allowing each metaruh to apply only once in a derivation of a rule. Originally dubbed the once.through hgpothe~is, this constraint is now incorporated\" into GPSG under the name finite closure . Although linguistic evidence for the constraint has never been provided, the formal motivation is quite strong because, under this constraint, the metarule formalism would have only context-free power.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"text": "Several linguistic constructions present problems with respect to the adequacy of the finite-closure hypothesis. For instance, the liberation rule technique for handling free-word-order languages {Pullum, 1982] would require ffi noun-phrase liberation rule to be applied twice in a derivation of a rule with sibling noun phrases that permute their subconstituents freely among one another. As a hypothetical example of this phenomenon, let us suppose that English allowed relative clauses to be extraposed in general from noun phrases, instead of allowing just one extraposifion. For instance, in this quasi-English, the sentence (5) Two children are chasing the dog who are small that is here.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"text": "would he a grammatical paraphrase of (0) Two children who are small axe chasing the dog that is here.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"text": "Let us suppose further that the analysis of this phenomenon involved liberation of the NP-S substructure of the noun phrases for incorporation into the main sentence. Then the noun-phrase liberation rule would apply once to liberate the subject noun phrase, once again to liberate the object noun phrase. That these are not idle concerns is demonstrated by the following sentence in the free-word-order Australian aboriginal language Warlpiri. s 4Note that it does not matter whether the grammar writer discovers an additional subcateKorization, or the language develops one diachronically; the same problem obtains. 5This example is t,.ken from [van Riemsdijk, 1981] .",
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"start": 646,
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"text": "(7) Kutdu-jarra-rlu ks-pals maliki wita-jarra-rlu chiId-DUAL-ERG AUX:DUAL dog-ABS smalI-DUAL-ERG yalumpu wajilipi-nyi that-ABS chase=NONPAST Two 8mall children are cha,ing that dog.",
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"text": "The Warlpiri example is analogous to the quasi-English example in that both sentences have two discontinuous NPs in the same distribution. Furthermore, the liberation rule approach has been proposed as a method of modeling the free word order of Waripiri. Thus, it appears that finite closure is not consistent with the liberation rule approach to free word order.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"text": "Adverb distribution presents another problem for the hypothesis. In German, for example, and to a lesser extent in Engiish, an unbounded number of adverbs can be quite freely interspersed with the complements of a verb. The following German sentence is an extreme example of this phenomenon [Uszkoreit, 1982] . The sequence of its major constituents is given under (9). A metarule might therefore be proposed that inserts a single adverb in a verb-phrase rule. Repeated application of this rule (in contradiction to the finite-closure hypothesis) would achieve the desired effect. To maintain the finite-closure hypothesis, we could merely extend the notion of context-free rule to allow regular expressions on the right-hand side of a rule. The verb phrase rule would then be accurately, albeit clumsily, expressed as, say, VP -.* V NP ADVP* or VP -* V NP ADVP* PP ADVP* for ditransitives.",
"cite_spans": [
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"start": 291,
"end": 308,
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"text": "Similar constructions in free-word-order languages do not permit such naive solutions. As an example, let us consider the Japanese causative. In this construction, the verb sutRx \"-sase\" signals the causativization of the verb, allowing an extra NP argument. The process is putatively unbounded (ignoring performance limitations). Furthermore, Japanese allows the NPs to order freely relative to one another (subject to considerations of ambiguity and focus), so that a fiat structure with some kind of extrinsic ordering is presumably preferable.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"text": "One means of achieving a fiat structure with extrinsic ordering is by using the ID/LP formalism, a subformalism of GPSG that allows immediate dominance (ID) information to be specified separately from linear precedence (LP) notions. (Cf. context-free phrase structure grammar, which forces a strict oneto-one correlation between the two types of information.) ID information is specified by context-free style rules with unordered right-hand sides, notated, e.g., .4 ~ B, C, D. LP informa,Aon is specified as a partial order over the nonterminals in the ..orr-,m max, notated, e.g., B < C (read B precedes C). These two rules can be viewed as schematizing a set of three context-free rules, namely, A --B C D, A --B D C, and A - ",
"cite_spans": [],
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"start": 699,
"end": 728,
"text": "A --B C D, A --B D C, and A -",
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"text": "-D B C.",
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"text": "Without a causativization metarule that can operate more than once, we might attempt to use the regular expression notation that solved the adverb problem. For example, we might postulate the ID rule VP -, NP*, V, sane* with the LP relation NP < V < sase, but no matching of NPs with sases is achieved. We might attempt to write a liberation rule that pulls NP.saee pairs from a nested structure into a flat one, but this would violate the finite-closure hypothesis (as well as Pullum's requirement precluding liberation through a recursive category). We could attempt to use even more of the power of regular-expression rules with ID/LP, i.e., VP -, {NP, 8a,e} \u00b0, V under the same LP relation. The formalism presupposed by this analysis, however, has greater than context-free power, \u00b0 so that this solution may not be desirable. Nevertheless, it should not be ruled out before the parsing properties of such a formalism are understood. T Gunji's analysis of Japanese, which attempts to solve such problems with the multiple application of a tlash introduction metarule [Gunji, 1980 l, again raises the problem of violating the 6nite-closure hypothesis (as well as being incompatible with the current version of GPSG which disallows multiple slashes). Finally, we could always move ca~ativization into the lexicon as a lexical rule. Such a move, though it does circumvent the difficulty in the syntax, merely serves to move it elsewhere without resolving the basic problem.",
"cite_spans": [
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"start": 1071,
"end": 1092,
"text": "[Gunji, 1980 l, again",
"ref_id": null
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"text": "Yet another alternative involves treating the right-hand ~ides of phrase structure rules as sets, rather than multisets as is implicit in the ID/LP format. Since the nonterminal vocabulary is finite, right-hand sides of ID rules must be subsets of a finite set and therefore finite sets themselves. This hypothesis is quite similar in effect to the finite-closure hypothesis, albeit even more limited, and thus inherits the same problems aa were discussed above.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"sec_num": "3."
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"text": "An obvious way to constrain MPS grammar, is to eliminate metarules entirely and replace them with other mechanisms. In fact, within the GPSG paradigm, several of the functions of metarules have been replaced by other metagrammatical devices. Other functions have not, as of the writing of this paper, though it i$ instructive ~.o co=ider ~.he c~es covered ~y this cia~s. In the discussion to follow we have isolated thxee of the primary functions of metarules. This is not intended az an exhaustive taxonomy, and certain metarules may manifest more than one of these functions.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "The Ultimate Solution",
"sec_num": "4."
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"text": "First, we consider generalizations over linear order. If metarules are metagrammatical statements about rules encoding linear order, they may relate rules that differ only in the linear order of categories. With the introduction of ID/LP format, however, the hypothesis i, that this latter metagrammatical device will suffice to account for the linear order among the categories within rules. For instance, the problematic adverb and causative metarnles could be replaced by extended contex.t-free rules with [D/LP, as was suggested in Section 3 above. Shieber [forthcoming[ has shown that a pure ID/LP formalism (without metarules, Kleene star, or the like) is no le~ computationally tractable than context-free grammars themselves. Although we do not yet know what the consequences of incorporating the extended context-free rules would be for computational complexity, ID/LP format can be used to replace certain word-ordervariation metarules.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"sec_num": "4."
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"text": "A second function of metarnles wa~ to relate sets of rules that differed only in the values of certain specifed features. It has been suggested [Gat~iar and Pullum 1982 ] that such features are distributed according to certain general principles. For instance, the slash-propagation metarule haz been replaced by the distribution of slash features in accord with such a principle.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 157,
"end": 168,
"text": "Pullum 1982",
"ref_id": "BIBREF14"
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"section": "The Ultimate Solution",
"sec_num": "4."
},
{
"text": "A third function of metarules under the original interpretation has not been relegated to other metagr~nmatical devices. \\Ve have no single device to suggest, though we axe exploring alternative ways r,o account for the phenomena. Formally, this third class can be characterized as comprising those metacules that relate sets of rules in which the number of categories on the right-and left-hand sides of rules differ. It is this sort of metarule that is essential for the extension of GPSGs beyond context-free power in the Uszkoreit and Peters proofs {1982]. Simply requiring that such metarules be disallowed would not resolve the linguistic issues, however, since this constraint would inherit the problems connected with the regular expression and set notations discussed in Section 3 above. This third cl~s further breaks down into two cases: those that have different parent categories on the rightand left-hand sides of the metarule and those that have the same category on both sides. The ~rst c~e includes those liberation rules that figure in analyses of free-word-order phenomena, plus such other rules as the subject-auxiliary-inversion metarule in English. Uszkoreit [forthcoming] is exploring a method for isolating liberation rules in a separate metagrammaticul formalism. It also appears that the subject-auxiliary inversion may be analyzed by already existing principles governing the distribution of features. The second case (those in which the categories on the right-and left-hand sides are the same) includes such analyses as the passive in English. This instance, at least, might be replaced by a lexicai-redundancy rule. Thus, no uniform solution has yet been found for this third function of metarules.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 1171,
"end": 1194,
"text": "Uszkoreit [forthcoming]",
"ref_id": null
}
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"ref_spans": [],
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"section": "The Ultimate Solution",
"sec_num": "4."
},
{
"text": "We conclude that it may be possible to replace MPS-style metagrammatical formalisms entirely without losing generaliza-tion~. '~Ve ~re consequently pursuing re~eaxcu tu ~u,o o~,,.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
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"section": "The Ultimate Solution",
"sec_num": "4."
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"text": "The formal power of metaxule formalisms is clearly an important consideration for computational linguists. Uszkoreit and Pet.era [1982] have shown that the potential exists for defining metarule formalisms that are computationally \"unsafe.\" However, these results do not sound a death knell for metarules. On the contrary, the safety of metarule formalisms is still an open question. We have merely shown that the constraints on metarules necessary to make them formally tractable will have to be based on empirical linguiaic evidence as well as solid formal research. The solutions to constraining metarules analyzed here seem to be either formally or linguistically inadequate. Further research is needed in the actual uses of metarules and in constructions that axe problematic for metarules so ~ to develop either linguistically motivated and computationally interesting constraints on the formalisms, or alternative formalisms that axe linguistically adequate but not heir to the problems of metaxules.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 107,
"end": 135,
"text": "Uszkoreit and Pet.era [1982]",
"ref_id": null
}
],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Conclusion",
"sec_num": "5."
}
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"ref_entries": {
"FIGREF1": {
"num": null,
"uris": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "Gestern hatte in dec Mittagspause yesterday had during lunch break der Brigadier in dec Werkzeugkammer the foreman (NOM) in the tool shop dam Labeling au~ Boehaftigkeit lancaam the apprentice (DAT) maliciously slowly zehn schmierige Gasseisenscbeiben unbemerkt ten greasy cast iron disks (ACC) unnoticed in die Hosentasche gesteckt in the pocket put )'*aerdav, durin~ lunch break in the tool shop, the foreman, malicioedy and unnoticed, put ten grea,y caJt iron disks tlowist into the apprentice's pocket. (9) ADVP VrrN ADVP NPsuuJ ADVP NProaJ ADVP ADVP NPDoa.t ADVP PP VIN e"
},
"FIGREF2": {
"num": null,
"uris": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "8For instance, the grammar $ ~ {a,b,e} e with a < b < \u2022 generates anb~en\" 7Shieber [forthcoming] provides an ~l&orithm for parsing ID/LP grammars directly that includes a method for utilizing the Kleene star device. It could be extended to even more of the regular expression notation, though the effect of such extenslon-on the time complexity of the algorithm is an open question."
}
}
}
} |