File size: 62,203 Bytes
6fa4bc9 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 594 595 596 597 598 599 600 601 602 603 604 605 606 607 608 609 610 611 612 613 614 615 616 617 618 619 620 621 622 623 624 625 626 627 628 629 630 631 632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 647 648 649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 670 671 672 673 674 675 676 677 678 679 680 681 682 683 684 685 686 687 688 689 690 691 692 693 694 695 696 697 698 699 700 701 702 703 704 705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 734 735 736 737 738 739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 748 749 750 751 752 753 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 779 780 781 782 783 784 785 786 787 788 789 790 791 792 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 800 801 802 803 804 805 806 807 808 809 810 811 812 813 814 815 816 817 818 819 820 821 822 823 824 825 826 827 828 829 830 831 832 833 834 835 836 837 838 839 840 841 842 843 844 845 846 847 848 849 850 851 852 853 854 855 856 857 858 859 860 861 862 863 864 865 866 867 868 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876 877 878 879 880 881 882 883 884 885 886 887 888 889 890 891 892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900 901 902 903 904 905 906 907 908 909 910 911 912 913 914 915 916 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 926 927 928 929 930 931 932 933 934 935 936 937 938 939 940 941 942 943 944 945 946 947 948 949 950 951 952 953 954 955 956 957 958 959 960 961 962 963 964 965 966 967 968 969 970 971 972 973 974 975 976 977 978 979 980 981 982 983 984 985 986 987 988 989 990 991 992 993 994 995 996 | {
"paper_id": "P83-1014",
"header": {
"generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0",
"date_generated": "2023-01-19T09:19:29.479204Z"
},
"title": "A Finite-Slate Parser for Use in Speech Recognition",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Kenneth",
"middle": [
"W"
],
"last": "Church",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "",
"institution": "Massachusetts Institute of Technology Cambridge",
"location": {
"postCode": "02139",
"region": "MA"
}
},
"email": ""
}
],
"year": "",
"venue": null,
"identifiers": {},
"abstract": "This paper is divided into two parts. 1 The first section motivates the application of finite-state parsing techniques at the phonetic level in order to exploit certain classes or\" contextual constraints.-In the second section, the parsing framework is extended in order to account ['or 'feature spreading' (i:.g., agreement and co-articulation) in a natural way.",
"pdf_parse": {
"paper_id": "P83-1014",
"_pdf_hash": "",
"abstract": [
{
"text": "This paper is divided into two parts. 1 The first section motivates the application of finite-state parsing techniques at the phonetic level in order to exploit certain classes or\" contextual constraints.-In the second section, the parsing framework is extended in order to account ['or 'feature spreading' (i:.g., agreement and co-articulation) in a natural way.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Abstract",
"sec_num": null
}
],
"body_text": [
{
"text": "It is well known that phonemcs have different acoustic/phonetic realizations depending on the context. Fur example, the phoneme/t/ is typically realized with a different allophone (phonetic variant) in syllable initial position than in syllable final position. In syllable initial position (e.g., Tom),/t/is almost always released (with a strong burst of energy) and aspirated (with h-like noise), whereas in syllable final position (e.g., cat.), /t/ is often unreleased and unaspirated_ It is common practice in speech research to distinguish acoustic/phonetic properties that vary a great deal with context (e.g., release and aspiration) from those that are relatively invariant to context (e.g., place, manner and voicing). 2 In the past, the emphasis has been on invariants; allophonic variation is traditionally seen as problematic for recognition.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "I. Parsing at the Phonetic Level",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "(I) \"In most systems for sentence recognition, such modifications must be viewed as a kind of 'noise' that makes it more difficult to hypothesize lexical candidates given an input phonetic transcription. To see that this must be the case, we note that each phonological rule [in an example to be presented below] This evidence suggests that allophonic variation provides a tich source of constraints on syllable structure and word stress. The recognizer to be discussed here (and partly tmplcmented in Church [4] ) is designed to exploit allophonic and phonotactic cues by parsing the input utterance into syllables and other suprasegmental constituents using phrasestructure parsing techniques.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 509,
"end": 512,
"text": "[4]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF3"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "I. Parsing at the Phonetic Level",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "It might be helpful to work out an example it] order to illustrate how parsing can play a role in l.exica] retrieval. Consider the phonetic transcription, mentioned above in the citation from Klatt [20, p. 1346] [2], pp. 548-549J:",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 198,
"end": 211,
"text": "[20, p. 1346]",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "An Example of Lexical Retrieval",
"sec_num": "1.1"
},
{
"text": "(3)",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "An Example of Lexical Retrieval",
"sec_num": "1.1"
},
{
"text": "[dD~hlf_lt) tam]",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "An Example of Lexical Retrieval",
"sec_num": "1.1"
},
{
"text": "It is desired to decode (3) into the string ofwords: (4) Did you hit it to Tom?",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 53,
"end": 56,
"text": "(4)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF3"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "An Example of Lexical Retrieval",
"sec_num": "1.1"
},
{
"text": "In practice, the lexical retrieval problem is complicated by errors in the front cad. However, even with an ideal error-free front-end, it is difficult to decode ( that it is) then it seems F~atural to propose a syllabic parser fi)r proccssit~g speech, by analogy with sentence parsers that have bccome standard practicc in d~e natural laoguagc community for processing .~ext.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "An Example of Lexical Retrieval",
"sec_num": "1.1"
},
{
"text": "A program has bcen implcmcntcd [41 which parses a lattice of phonetic segmcnts into a lattice of syllables and other phonological constituents. Except for its novcl mechanism for handling features, it is very much like a standard chart parser (e.g.. Earley's Algorithm lTD. P, ccall that a chart parser takes as input a sentence and a context-free grammar and produces as output a chart like that below, indicating the starting point and ending point of each phrase in the input string. The agreement problem also arises in phonology. Consider the example of homorganic nasal clusters (e.g., cam2II2, can't, sank), where the nasal agrees with the following obstruent in place of articulation.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Parser Implementation and Feature Spreading",
"sec_num": "2."
},
{
"text": "That is, the labial nasal /m/ is found before the labial stop /p/, the cor9nal nasal/n/ before the coronal stop/t/, and the velar nasal/7// before the velar stop/k/. This constraint, like subject-verb agreement.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Parser Implementation and Feature Spreading",
"sec_num": "2."
},
{
"text": "poses a problem for pure unaugmented context-free rules; it seems to be necessary to expand out each of the three cases:",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Parser Implementation and Feature Spreading",
"sec_num": "2."
},
{
"text": "(13a) homorganic-nasal-cluster ~ labial-nasal labial-obstruent (13b) homorganie-nasal-cluster ~ coronal-nasal coronal-obstruent (13c) homorganic-nasal-cluster---* velar-nasal velar-obstruent",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Parser Implementation and Feature Spreading",
"sec_num": "2."
},
{
"text": "In an effort to alleviate this expansion problem, many researchers have proposed augmentations of various sorts (e.g., ATN registers [26] , LFG constraint equations [16] , GPSG recta-rules till, local constraints [18] , bit vectors [6, 22] ). My own solution will be suggested after I have had a chance to describe the parser in further detail.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 133,
"end": 137,
"text": "[26]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF24"
},
{
"start": 165,
"end": 169,
"text": "[16]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF15"
},
{
"start": 213,
"end": 217,
"text": "[18]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF17"
},
{
"start": 232,
"end": 235,
"text": "[6,",
"ref_id": "BIBREF5"
},
{
"start": 236,
"end": 239,
"text": "22]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF21"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Parser Implementation and Feature Spreading",
"sec_num": "2."
},
{
"text": "This scction will show how the grammar can be implemented in terms of operations on binary matrices. Suppose that the chart is decomposed into a sum of binary matrices:",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "2..2 A Parser Based on Matrix Operations",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "(14) Chart = syl Msy I + onset Monse t + peak Mpeak + .,.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "2..2 A Parser Based on Matrix Operations",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "where Msy I is a binary matrix 8 describing the location of syllables and Monse t is a binary matrix describing the location of onsets, and so forth.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "2..2 A Parser Based on Matrix Operations",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Each of these binary matrices has a I in position (i,j) if there is a constituent of the appropriate part of speech spanning from the i m position in the input sentence to the jth position.9 (See figure 3).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "2..2 A Parser Based on Matrix Operations",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Ph'rase-structure rules will be implemented with simple operations on these binary matrices. For example, the homorganic rule (13) could be implemented as:",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 126,
"end": 130,
"text": "(13)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF12"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "2..2 A Parser Based on Matrix Operations",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "8. Fhese matnccs will sometimes be called segmentatton lattices for historical reasons. Techmcally. these matnc~ need not conform to the restrictions of a lattice, and therefore, the weaker term graph L~ more correcL 9 In a probabitisuc framework, one could replace all of the I's and 0's with probabdities. A high prohabdity m loeauon (i. j~ of the s),liable matnx would say that there probably is a ss'llahle from postuon t to position 1: a low probabdity would say that there probably isn't a syllable between i and 1. Most of the following apphcs to probabdity matrices welt as binary ntawices, though the probabdity matnces may be less sparse and consequently less efficient. 001100 010000 000000 001100 000000 001100 000011 000100 000000 000011 000001 000011 000000 000000 000000 000000 000000 000000",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 681,
"end": 807,
"text": "001100 010000 000000 001100 000000 001100 000011 000100 000000 000011 000001 000011 000000 000000 000000 000000",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "2..2 A Parser Based on Matrix Operations",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The matrices tend to be very sparse (ahnost entirely full of 0's) because syllable grammars are highly constrained. In principle, there could be n 2 entries. However, it can be shown that e (the number of l's) is linearly related to n because syllables have finite length. In Church [4] , I sharpen this result by arguing that e tends to be bounded by 4n as a consequence ofa phonotactic principle known as sonority. Many more edges will be ruled out by a number of other linguistic constraints mentioned above: voicing and place assimilation, aspiration, flapping. etc. In short, these mamces are sparse because allophonic and phonotactic constraints are useful where M& (element-wise intersection) implements the subject to constraint. Nasal-cluster and place-assimilation are defined as: the parser can process homorganic nasal clusters by processing place and manner phrases in parallel, and then synchronizing the results at the coda node with M&. That is, (17a) can be computed in parallel with (17b). mid then the rcsulLs are aligned whcn the coda is computed with (16) , as illustrated below for the word tent. Imagine that the front end produces the following analysis: This parser is a bold departure from a standard practice in two respects:",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 283,
"end": 286,
"text": "[4]",
"ref_id": "BIBREF3"
},
{
"start": 1072,
"end": 1076,
"text": "(16)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF15"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "2..2 A Parser Based on Matrix Operations",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "(1) the input stream is feature-based rather than segmental, and (2) the output parse is a heterarchy of overlapping constituents (e.g., place and ",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "2..2 A Parser Based on Matrix Operations",
"sec_num": null
}
],
"back_matter": [],
"bib_entries": {
"BIBREF0": {
"ref_id": "b0",
"title": "An Algorithm for Segment Durations in a Reading Machine Context, unpublished doctoral dissertation",
"authors": [
{
"first": "T",
"middle": [],
"last": "Bamwell",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1970,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Bamwell, T., An Algorithm for Segment Durations in a Reading Machine Context, unpublished doctoral dis- sertation, department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, M1T. 1970.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF1": {
"ref_id": "b1",
"title": "The Sound Pattern of~'nglish",
"authors": [
{
"first": ".",
"middle": [
"N"
],
"last": "L Chomsky",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Halle",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1968,
"venue": "Harper & R.ow",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "L Chomsky. N. and Halle, M., The Sound Pattern of~'nglish, Harper & R.ow, 1968.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF2": {
"ref_id": "b2",
"title": "Limitations in Natural Language Processing",
"authors": [
{
"first": "K",
"middle": [],
"last": "Church",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "",
"middle": [],
"last": "On Memoo",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1980,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Church, K., On Memoo' Limitations in Natural Language Processing, MS Thesis, MIT, Mr['/I,CS/TR-245, 1980 (also available from Indiana University Linguistics Club).",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF3": {
"ref_id": "b3",
"title": "Phrase-Structure l'arsing: A Method lbr Taking Advantage of Allophonic Constraints, unpublished doctoral dissertation, department of I-',lectrical Engineering and Computer Science, MIT",
"authors": [
{
"first": "K",
"middle": [],
"last": "Church",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1983,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Church, K., Phrase-Structure l'arsing: A Method lbr Taking Advantage of Allophonic Constraints, unpublished doctoral dissertation, department of I-',lectrical Engineering and Computer Science, MIT, 1983 (also to appear, I.CS and RLE publications, MIT).",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF4": {
"ref_id": "b4",
"title": "Perception and l'roduction of Fluent Speech",
"authors": [
{
"first": "R",
"middle": [],
"last": "Cole",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [],
"last": "Jakimik",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1980,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Cole, R., and Jakimik, J., A Model of Speech Perception, in R. Cole (ed.). Perception and l'roduction of Fluent Speech, Lawrence Erlbaum, HiIlsdale, N.J., 1980.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF5": {
"ref_id": "b5",
"title": "How Features Resolve Syntactic Ambiguity",
"authors": [
{
"first": "",
"middle": [
"B"
],
"last": "Dostert",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "F",
"middle": [],
"last": "Thompson",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1971,
"venue": "Proceedings of the Symposium on Information Storage and Retrieval",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Dostert. B., and Thompson, F., How Features Resolve Syntactic Ambiguity, in Proceedings of the Symposium on Information Storage and Retrieval, Minker. J., and Rosenfeld, S. (\u00a2d.), 1971.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF6": {
"ref_id": "b6",
"title": "An Efficient Context-Free Parsing Algorithm",
"authors": [
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [],
"last": "Farley",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1970,
"venue": "CACM",
"volume": "13",
"issue": "2",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Farley, J., An Efficient Context-Free Parsing Algorithm, CACM, 13:2, February, 1970.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF7": {
"ref_id": "b7",
"title": "Duration and Intensity as Physical Correlates of Linguistic Stress",
"authors": [
{
"first": "D",
"middle": [],
"last": "Fry",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1955,
"venue": "Readings in Acoustic l'honetics",
"volume": "17",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Fry, D., Duration and Intensity as Physical Correlates of Linguistic Stress, JASA 17:4, 1955, (reprinted in Lehiste (ed.), Readings in Acoustic l'honetics, MIT Press, 1967.)",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF8": {
"ref_id": "b8",
"title": "Temporal Organization of Articulatory Movements as Multidimensional Phrasal Structure",
"authors": [
{
"first": "O",
"middle": [],
"last": "Fujimura",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1981,
"venue": "Phonetica",
"volume": "33",
"issue": "",
"pages": "66--83",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Fujimura, O., Temporal Organization of Articulatory Move- ments as Multidimensional Phrasal Structure, Phonetica, 33: pp. 66-83, 1981.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF9": {
"ref_id": "b9",
"title": "Syllables as Concatenative Phonetic UralS",
"authors": [
{
"first": "O",
"middle": [],
"last": "L-'ujimura",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Lovins",
"middle": [
"J"
],
"last": "",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1982,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "l-'ujimura, O., and Lovins. J., Syllables as Concatenative Phonetic UralS, Indiana University Linguistics Club, 1982.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF10": {
"ref_id": "b10",
"title": "Phrase Structure Grammar",
"authors": [
{
"first": "G",
"middle": [],
"last": "Gazdar",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1982,
"venue": "The Nature of Syntactic Representation, D. Rcidet",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Gazdar, G., Phrase Structure Grammar, in P. Jacobson and G. Pullum (eds.), The Nature of Syntactic Representation, D. Rcidet, Dordrecht, in press, 1982.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF11": {
"ref_id": "b11",
"title": "General Phonetics",
"authors": [
{
"first": "R",
"middle": [],
"last": "Heffner",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1960,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Heffner, R., General Phonetics, The University of Wisconsin Press, 1960.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF12": {
"ref_id": "b12",
"title": "Syllable-Based (ieneralizations ht lOtglish Phonology",
"authors": [
{
"first": "D",
"middle": [],
"last": "Kahn",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1976,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Kahn, D., Syllable-Based (ieneralizations ht lOtglish Pho- nology,, Indiana University Linguistics Club, 1976.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF13": {
"ref_id": "b13",
"title": "Remarks on the Metrical Structure of the Syl\" lable",
"authors": [
{
"first": "P",
"middle": [],
"last": "Kiparsky",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1981,
"venue": "Phonologica 1980. Proceedings of the Fourth International Phonology Meeting",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Kiparsky, P., Remarks on the Metrical Structure of the Syl\" lable, in W. Dressier (ed.) Phonologica 1980. Proceedings of the Fourth International Phonology Meeting 1981.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF14": {
"ref_id": "b14",
"title": "Metrical Structure, Assignments in Cyclic",
"authors": [
{
"first": "P",
"middle": [],
"last": "Kiparsky",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1979,
"venue": "Linguistic Inquiry",
"volume": "10",
"issue": "",
"pages": "421--441",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Kiparsky, P., Metrical Structure, Assignments in Cyclic, Linguistic Inquiry, 10, pp. 421-441, 1979.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF15": {
"ref_id": "b15",
"title": "LexicabFunctional Grammar: A Formal System for Grammatical Representation",
"authors": [
{
"first": "R",
"middle": [],
"last": "Kaplan",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "J",
"middle": [],
"last": "Bresnan",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1982,
"venue": "Bresnan",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Kaplan, R. and Bresnan, J., LexicabFunctional Grammar: A Formal System for Grammatical Representation, in Bresnan (ed.), The Mental Representation of Grammatical Relations, MIT Press. 1982.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF16": {
"ref_id": "b16",
"title": "course notes, MIT",
"authors": [
{
"first": "F",
"middle": [],
"last": "Jetinek",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1982,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Jetinek, F., course notes, MIT, 1982.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF17": {
"ref_id": "b17",
"title": "Phrase Structure Trees Bear More Fruit Than You Would Have Thought, AJCL, 8: I",
"authors": [
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Joshi",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "L",
"middle": [],
"last": "Levy",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": null,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Joshi, A., and Levy, L.. Phrase Structure Trees Bear More Fruit Than You Would Have Thought, AJCL, 8: I, [982.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF18": {
"ref_id": "b18",
"title": "Word Verification in a Speech Understanding System",
"authors": [
{
"first": "D",
"middle": [],
"last": "Klatt",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1974,
"venue": "Speech Recognition",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "321--344",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Klatt, D., Word Verification in a Speech Understanding System, in P,. R, eddy (ed.), Speech Recognition, Invited Papers Presented at the 1974 [EEE Symposium, Academic Press, pp. 321-344, 1974.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF19": {
"ref_id": "b19",
"title": "Review of the ARPA Speech Understanding Project",
"authors": [
{
"first": "D",
"middle": [],
"last": "Klatt",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1977,
"venue": "JASA",
"volume": "62",
"issue": "6",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Klatt, D., Review of the ARPA Speech Understanding Project, JASA, 62:6, December 1977.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF20": {
"ref_id": "b20",
"title": "Scriber and Lal's: Two New Approaches to Speech Analysis, chapter 25 in W. Lea",
"authors": [
{
"first": "",
"middle": [],
"last": "Zi",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "D",
"middle": [],
"last": "Klatt",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1980,
"venue": "Trends in Speech Recog. ration",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "ZI. Klatt, D., Scriber and Lal's: Two New Approaches to Speech Analysis, chapter 25 in W. Lea, Trends in Speech Recog. ration, Prentice-Hall, 1980.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF21": {
"ref_id": "b21",
"title": "Prelhninary Analysis of a Breadth-First Parsing Algorithm: Theoretical attd Ex\" permwntal Results, MI'I'/LCS/'I'R-261, 1981 (also to appear in I",
"authors": [
{
"first": "W",
"middle": [],
"last": "Martin",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "K",
"middle": [],
"last": "Church",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "R",
"middle": [],
"last": "Patil",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": null,
"venue": "Natural language Parsing Systems",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Martin, W., Church, K., and Patil, R., Prelhninary Analysis of a Breadth-First Parsing Algorithm: Theoretical attd Ex\" permwntal Results, MI'I'/LCS/'I'R-261, 1981 (also to appear in I..Bolc (ed.), Natural language Parsing Systems, Macmillan, [.ondon).",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF22": {
"ref_id": "b22",
"title": "Word flypothesization in the Ilearsay-ll Speech System",
"authors": [
{
"first": "R",
"middle": [
"~"
],
"last": "Reddv",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Smith",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1976,
"venue": "Proc. IEEE Int, Conf. ASSP",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "549--552",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Reddv R., Speech Recognition by Machine: A Review, Proceedings of the IEEE, pp. 501-531, April 1976, ~. Smith, A., Word flypothesization in the Ilearsay-ll Speech System, Proc. IEEE Int, Conf. ASSP, pp. 549-552, 1976.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF23": {
"ref_id": "b23",
"title": "General Context Free Recognition in Less Than Cubic Time",
"authors": [
{
"first": "L",
"middle": [],
"last": "Valient",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1975,
"venue": "J. Computer and System Sciences",
"volume": "10",
"issue": "",
"pages": "308--315",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Valient, l.., General Context Free Recognition in Less Than Cubic Time, J. Computer and System Sciences 10, pp. 308- 315, 1975.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF24": {
"ref_id": "b24",
"title": "Transition Network Grammars for Natural Language Analysis",
"authors": [
{
"first": "W",
"middle": [],
"last": "Woods",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1970,
"venue": "CACM",
"volume": "13",
"issue": "10",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Woods, W., Transition Network Grammars for Natural Language Analysis, CACM, 13:10, 1970.",
"links": null
}
},
"ref_entries": {
"FIGREF0": {
"uris": null,
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "l, This research was ~pported (in part) by the National Institutes of I lealth Grant No. 1 POt I M 03374-01 and 03374-02 from the National Library of Medicine, 2. Place refers IO the location of the constriction in the vocal tracL Examples include: labial t'at the hpsl/p, b. f, ',. m/, velar/k, g. r~/, dental (at the teeth)/s, z, t. d, I, n/and palatal A, ;~, i:,'}/ Manner dislmgu~shes among vowels, liquids and slides (e.g., /1, r, y. w/t. fricatives le.s.,/s, z, f. v/t, nasals (e.g.,/n. m. rio and stops leg,/p, t, k, b, d, g/). Voietng (periodie ~,ibration of the vocal fold.s) distingmshes sounds like /b, d. S/ from sounds like/p, L, k./. results in irreversible ambiguity -the phonological rule does not have a unique inverse that cuuld be used to recover the underlying phonemic representation for a ie,xical item. l:or example .... schwa vowels could be the first vowel in a word like 'about' or the surface realization of almost any English vowel appearing in a sufficiently destressed word. The tongue tlap [El could have come from a /t/ or a /d/.\" Klatt (MIT) [21, pp. 548-5491 This view of allophonic variation is representative of much of the speech recognition literature, especially during the ARPA speech project. One can find similar statements by Cole and Jakim~k ICMU)"
},
"FIGREF1": {
"uris": null,
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "and by Jelinek (IBM)[17]. I prefer to think of variation as usefid. It is well known that atlophonic contrasts can be distinctive, as illustrated by the following famous minimal pairs where the crucial distinctions seem to lie in the allophonic realization of the/t/: (2at a tease / at ease aspirated / flapped (2b) night rate / ni-trate unreteased/retroflexed (2c) great wine / gray twine unreteased/rounded"
},
"FIGREF2": {
"uris": null,
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "Parsing and MatchingEven though 1 might be able to re-interpret many cases of apparent neutralization, it remains extremely difficult to \"undo\" theallophonic rules by inverse transformational parsing techniques. Let me suggest an alternative proposal, l will treat syllable structure as an intermediate level of representation between the input segment lattice and ',he output word lattice. In so doing, I have replaced .:.he lexical retrieval problem with two (hopefully simpler) problems: (a) parse the segment lattice into syllable structure, and (b) match the resulting constituents a~ainst the lexicon. I will illustrate the approach with Fig. I. Did you hit it to Tom? ,-,~.(..~.) ~o'; Laer\u00a2~ --t~,6HIm76OH8 ........."
},
"FIGREF3": {
"uris": null,
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "lnput~ Sentenc(l: 0 They t are 2 flying 3 planes 4 Gram.mar: N \"---* they V ---* are N --* tl\u00a5ing A -\"* flying V ---* flying N --~ planes S --* NP VP VP -..* V NP VP ---.the chart represents the possible analyses of the input words between a start position (the row index) and a finish position (the column index). [-'or example, the entry {NP, VP} in Chart(2,4) represents two alternative analyses of the words between 2 and 4: [xp fi3ulg pia,esl add [vp flying planesl. .the same parsing methods can be used to find syllable structure from an input transcription. lod)u[ Sentence: O ~\" \u00a3 t 2 S 3 l 4 Z 5 (this ~) .--) ~' [ S I Z syl ----) (onset) peak (coda)"
},
"FIGREF4": {
"uris": null,
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "in a straightforward way. For example, the following set of roles express the aspiration constraint discussed above. These rules allow aspiration in syllable initial position (under the onset node), but not in syllable final position (under the coda). (lla) uttcrancc ---) syllable* (lib) syllable ~ (onset) peak (coda) (II.c) onset --* aspirated-t [ aspirated-k I aspirated-p I.,. (lld) coda---, unrelcascd-t I unrclcased-k I unrcleased-p I-.-The aspiration constraint (as stated above) is relatively easy to cast in terms of context-free rules. Other allophonic and pho~aotactic processes may be more difficult. 7 2..1 The Agreement Problem In particular, context-free roles are generally considered to be awkward for expressing agreement facts. For example, in order to express subject-verb agreement in \"'pure\" context-free rules, it is probably necessary to expand the rule S ~ NP VP into two cases: (12a) S ---* singular-NP singular-VP singular case (12b) S --) plural-NP plural-YP plural case 7.For example, there may be a problem with constraintS that depend on rule ordering, since rule ordenng is not supported in the context-free formalism. This topic is discussed at length in I41."
},
"FIGREF5": {
"uris": null,
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "Msyl, Monse e and Mdtyme for: \"O '~ I t Z s 3 I 4 z 5\""
},
"FIGREF6": {
"uris": null,
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "(setq homorganic-nasal-lattice (M + (M* (phoneme-lattice #/m)labial-lattice) (M* (phoneme-lattice #/n) coronal-lattice) (M* (phoneme-lattice #/G) velar-lattice))) illustrating tile use of M + (matrix additit)n) ttt express the uniun of several alternatives and M* (matrix multiplication) to express the concatenation of subparts. It is well known that any finite-state grammar could be implemented in this way with just three matrix operations: M,, M+, and M** (transitive closure). If context-free power were required, Valient's algorithm [25] could be employed."
},
"FIGREF7": {
"uris": null,
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "17a) (setq nasal-cluster-lattice (M. nasal-lattice obstruent-lattice)) (17b) (setq place-assimilation-lattice (M + (M** labial-lattice) (M\" dental-lattice) (M'\" velar-lattice))) In this way. M& seems to be an attractive solution to the agreement problem. In addition, M& might also shed some light on co-articulation, another problem of'feature spreading'. Co-articulation (articulation of multiple phonemes at the same time) makes it extremely difficult (perhaps impossible) to segment the speech waveform into phonemeco-articulation, Fujimura su~csts that place, manner and other articulatory features be thought of as asynchronous processes, which have a certain amotmt of freedom to overlap in time. (tSa) \"Speech is commonly viewed as the result of concatenating phonetic segments. In most discussions of the temporal structure of speech, a segment in such a model is assumed to represent a phoneme-sized phonetic unit. which possesses an inherent [invariantj target value in terms of articulation or acoustic manifestation. Any deviation from such an interpretation of observed phenomena requires special attention ... [Biased on some preliminary results of X-ray microbeam studies [which associate lip, tongue and jaw movements with phonetic events in the utteranceJ, it will be suggested that understanding articulator'/ processes, which are inherently multi-dimensional [and (more or less) asynchrouousl, may be essential for a successful description of temporal structures of speech.\" [9 p. 66] In light of Fujimura's suggestion, I might re-interpret my parser as a highly parallel feature-based asynchronous architecture. For example."
},
"FIGREF8": {
"uris": null,
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "where many of the ~atures overlap m an asynchronous way. The parser will correctly locate the coda by intersecting the nasal cluster lattice (computed with (17a)) with the homorganic lattice (computed with (17b))."
},
"FIGREF9": {
"uris": null,
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure",
"text": "manner phrases) as opposed to a list of hierarchical parse-trees. [ find these two modifications most exciting and worthy of further investigation. In summary, two points have been made. [:irst. I suggested the use of parsing techniques at the segmental/feature level in speech applications. Secondly, I introduced M& as a possible solution to the agreement/co-articulation problem. Ack,mwledgements l have received a considerable amount of help and support over the course of this project. Let me mention just a few of the people that I should thank: Jon Allen, Glenn Burke, Francine Chen, Scott Cyphers, Sarah I-ergt,son..,'vlargaret Fleck, Dan Huttenlocher, Jay Kcyser, Lori LameL Ramesh Patil. Janet Pierrehumbert, Dave Shipman, Pete Szolovits. Meg Withgott and Victor Zue."
},
"TABREF0": {
"html": null,
"content": "<table><tr><td>context like ga~ shortage [12]. lh)we~cr, a recent experiment 1271</td></tr><tr><td>suggests that the/s~/sequence can be distinguished from /~,~/ las in</td></tr><tr><td>fisth shortage)</td></tr><tr><td>3) because, among other things, there are extensive</td></tr><tr><td>nile-governed changes affecting the way that words are pronounced in</td></tr><tr><td>different sentence contexts, as Klatt's example illustrates:</td></tr><tr><td>(5a) Pabtalization of/d/before/y/in didyou</td></tr><tr><td>(5b) Reduction of unstressed/u/to schwa in),~u</td></tr><tr><td>(5c) Flapping of intervocalic /t/ in hit. it</td></tr><tr><td>(5d) Reduction of schwa and devoicing of/u/in to</td></tr><tr><td>(5e) Reduc:ion of geminate/t/in it. to</td></tr><tr><td>These allophonic processes often appear to neutralize phonemic</td></tr><tr><td>distinctions. For example, the voicing contrast between/t/ and/d/.</td></tr><tr><td>which is usually distinctive, is almost completely lost in wr~er/rid_er,</td></tr><tr><td>where bod~ /t/ and /d/ are realized in American English with a tongue</td></tr><tr><td>~ap (q.</td></tr><tr><td>1.2 .\\n Ogtimistic \"v'icw of Neutralization</td></tr><tr><td>Fortunately, there are many fewer cases of true neutralization</td></tr><tr><td>than it might seem. Even in writ.er/ri~.er, the voicing contrast is not</td></tr><tr><td>completely lost. The vowel in rider tends to be longer than the vowel in</td></tr><tr><td>w~ter due to a general process that lengthens vowels before voiced</td></tr><tr><td>consonants (e.g., /d/) and shortens them before unvoiced consonants</td></tr><tr><td>(e.g.,/t/).</td></tr><tr><td>A similar lengthening argument can be used to separate In/and</td></tr><tr><td>/ndl (at least in some cases). It tmght be suggested that In/is merged</td></tr><tr><td>with/nd/by a/d/deletion rule that applies in words like mena~ wind</td></tr><tr><td>(noun). wind (',erbL and find. (Admittedly there is little if any direct</td></tr><tr><td>acoustic evidence fi)r a/d/segment in this environment.) However, [</td></tr><tr><td>suspect that these words can o)~en be distinguished from men, win.</td></tr><tr><td>)vttte. and fine mostly on the basis of the duration of the nasal murmur</td></tr><tr><td>which is lengthened in the precedence of a voiced obstruent like/d/.</td></tr><tr><td>Thus, this /d/-detction process is probably not a true case of</td></tr><tr><td>neutralization,</td></tr><tr><td>Recent studies in acoustic/phonetics seem to indicate that more</td></tr><tr><td>and more cases of apparent neutralization can be separated as the field</td></tr><tr><td>progresses. For instance, it has been said that/s/merges with f~/in a</td></tr></table>",
"num": null,
"type_str": "table",
"text": "on the basis of a spectral tilt: the /s,~/'spectrum is more /s/-like in the beginning and more/~,/-like at the cad, whereas the f~ spectrum is relatively constant throughout. A similar spectral tilt argument can be used to separate other cases of apparent gemination (e.g../z~'/in ~ the).As a final example of apparent ncutra!ization, consider the portion of the spectrogram inFigure !, between 0.85 and 1.1 seconds."
},
"TABREF1": {
"html": null,
"content": "<table><tr><td colspan=\"4\">Klatt's example (enlu, nced with allophonic diacritics to show aspiration</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">and glottalization):</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">(7) [drjighlff tht thaml</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td>TTr</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">Using phonotactic and allophonic constraints on syllable structure such</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>as: 3</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">(8a) /h/is always syllable initial,</td><td>phonotactic</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">(8b) [1\" I is always syllable final,</td><td/><td>allophonic</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">(8c) [?] is always syllable final, and</td><td>allophonie</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">(Sd) [t h] is always syllable initial,</td><td>allophonic</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">the parser can insert the following syllable boundaries:</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>(9)</td><td colspan=\"2\">[di~} # hlf. # I ? # tht # tham]</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">It is now it is relatively easy to decode the utterance with lcxical</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">matching routines similar to those in Smith's Noah program at CMU</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>{241.</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td>parsed transcription,</td><td/><td>decodinl</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td>dl]~</td><td>-...\u00a2</td><td>did you</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td>hlf=</td><td>--..*</td><td>hit</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td>l ?</td><td>-=+</td><td>it</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td>th)</td><td>---.,</td><td>to</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td>tham</td><td>---,</td><td>Tom</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"14\">If this constituency hypothesis for phonology is correct (and I believe</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">In summary, I believe that the lexical retrieval device will be in a</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">superior position to hypothesize word candidates if it exploits allo-</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">phonic and phonotactic constraints on syllable structure.</td><td colspan=\"5\">Fig. 2. Some Structural Contrnsts</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">1.4 Exploiting Redund:mey</td><td/><td/><td/><td>r</td><td/><td>!</td><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">_w</td><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"3\">In many cases, atlophonic and phonotacdc constraints are</td><td>t2</td><td>de-prive dep-rivation</td><td/><td colspan=\"4\">di-plomacy dip-lumatic</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">redundant, (10) dl]i9 #hlf_# I #tha #tham</td><td/><td>t li b d</td><td>a-ttribute att-ribute de-crease dec-riment cele-bration a-ddress celcb-rity</td><td/><td colspan=\"4\">de-cline dec-lination o-bligatory ob-ligation</td><td colspan=\"4\">a-cquire acq-uisition</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td>T</td><td/><td/><td>g</td><td>add-tess de-grade</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">The parser could deduce that the input transcription (10) is internally</td><td/><td>deg-radation</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">inconsistent, because of a phonotactic constraint on the lax vowel/I/.</td><td>4.</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>I ._</td><td>J.~</td><td>L ,</td><td>I',</td><td>I</td><td>.. t</td><td>I</td><td>,</td><td>L</td><td>-t_~!</td><td>I</td><td>-.1</td><td>L.]</td><td>I</td><td>l</td><td>I</td><td>I</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">Did you</td><td/><td>hit</td><td/><td/><td>it</td><td/><td>to</td><td/><td>Tom</td></tr></table>",
"num": null,
"type_str": "table",
"text": "Even if the parser should miss a few of the cues for syll~ibie structure, it will often be able to find the correct structure by taking advantage of some other redundam cue. [:or example, suppose that the front end failed to notice die glottalized/t./in the word it.Lax vowels are restricted to closed syllables (sylkdgles ending in a consonant) [I]. However, in this case, /1/ cannot mcct the closed syllable restriction because the following consonant is aspirated (arid therefi)re syllable initial). Thus the transcription is internally inconsistent. The parser shotlld probably rejcct tbc transcriot;\u00a2,n ~md hope that the front end can fix dxe problem. Alternatively, the parser might attempt to correct the error by hypothesizing a second/t/. 4 There are many other examples like (10) where phonotactic constraints and allophonic constraints overlap. Consider the pairs found in figure 2, where there are multiple arguments for assigning the crucial syllable boundary. In de-prive vs. dep-rivalion, for instance, the difference is revealed by the vowel argument above 5 and by the aspiration rule. 6 In addition, the stress contrast will probably be correlated with a number of so-called 'suprasegmental' cues, e.g., duration, fundamental frequency, and intensity [81.In general, there seem to be a large number of multiple low level cues for syllable strt,cture. This observation, if correct, could be viewed as a form of a 'constituency hypothesis'. Just as syntacticians have argued for the constituent-hood of noun phrases, verb phrases and sentences on the grounds that these constituents seem to capture crucial linguistic generalizations (e.g., question formation, wh-movement), so too, I might argue (along with certain phonologists such as Kahn[13]) that syllables, onsets, and rhymes are constituents because they also capture important generalizations such as aspiration, tensing and laxing. Personally. 1 favor the first alternative: after years of ,.,.smessmg Victor Zue read spectrograms. I have become most tmpressed with the richness of low level phonetic cues. 5. The syllable de. is open because the vowel is tense (diphthongizcd): dep\" is dosed because the vowel is lax 6. lhe /p/ m -prtve is syllable inttml because it ts a.sptrated whereas the /p/ in dep\" is"
},
"TABREF2": {
"html": null,
"content": "<table><tr><td>Chart:</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>0 J , H</td><td>I</td><td>2</td><td>3</td><td>4</td><td>.~ ,</td></tr><tr><td>o{}</td><td>{[.onset.coda}</td><td>{syl}</td><td>{syl}</td><td>{ }</td><td>{ }</td></tr><tr><td>t{}</td><td>{ }</td><td>{!,pcak.syl}</td><td>{syl)</td><td>{ }</td><td>{ }</td></tr><tr><td>z{}</td><td>{ }</td><td>{ }</td><td>{S.onset.codal</td><td>(syl}</td><td>{syl}</td></tr><tr><td>st}</td><td>{ }</td><td>{ }</td><td>{ }</td><td>{l,peak.syl}</td><td>{syl}</td></tr><tr><td>4{}</td><td>{ }</td><td>{ }</td><td>{ }</td><td>{ }</td><td>{Z, onset.coda)</td></tr><tr><td>s(I</td><td>{}</td><td>(}</td><td>(I</td><td>{}</td><td>(}</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"6\">Alternatively, the input sentence can be decomposed into [~'t][slzl. In</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"6\">this way. standard chart parsing techniques can be adopted to process</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"6\">allophonic and phonotactic constraints, if the constraints are</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">reformulated in terms of a grammar.</td><td/><td/></tr></table>",
"num": null,
"type_str": "table",
"text": "This chart shows that the input sentence can be decomposed into two syllables, one from 0 to 3 (this) and another one from 4 to 5 (is)."
}
}
}
} |