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"paper_id": "P85-1027",
"header": {
"generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0",
"date_generated": "2023-01-19T09:39:39.879827Z"
},
"title": "ANAPHORA RESOLUTION: SHORT-TERM MEMORY AND FOCUSING",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Raymonde",
"middle": [],
"last": "Guindon",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "",
"institution": "Microeleotronlcs and Computer Technology Corporation (MCC)",
"location": {
"addrLine": "9430 Research Blvd",
"postCode": "8759",
"settlement": "Austin",
"region": "Texas ?"
}
},
"email": ""
}
],
"year": "",
"venue": null,
"identifiers": {},
"abstract": "",
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"abstract": [],
"body_text": [
{
"text": "The information stored in the cache is used to integrate ~he incoming sentence with the preceding discourse.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "",
"sec_num": null
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{
"text": "Pronouns should be used to refer to units in focus. Operating memory contains a very large number of units but its re~rleval time is slow. It contains the previous tex~ units that are not in the cache.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "",
"sec_num": null
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{
"text": "It comprises the tex~ units not in focus. Definite noun phrases should be used to refer to unite not in focus.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "Two empirical studies are described that demonstrate the cognitive basis for focusing, the use of definite noun phrases to refer to antecedents not in focus, and the use of pronouns to refer to antecedents in focus.",
"cite_spans": [],
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{
"text": "The goal of thls research is to show the relation between the psychological work on anaphora resolution based on the notion of a limited short-term or working memory and the computational linguistics work based on the notion of focusing.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "",
"sec_num": null
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{
"text": "This rapprochement is important for the following reasons: I) From a theoretical viewpoint. cognitive evidence increases the validity of the computational notion of focus.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "",
"sec_num": null
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{
"text": "2) Focusing corresponds to one of the reader's comprehension processes and it needs to be incorporated in the model of the user in language understanding systems to adequately resolve am~iguitles in the user's utterances and to handle language generation.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"sec_num": null
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{
"text": "According to Grosz (1977) . who was interested in ~he resolution of definite noun phrases, focusing is the process. engaged in by participants in a discourse, of highlighting a subset of their shared reality. Grosz. Joshi. and weinstein (1983) One principle derived by Grosz, Joshl, and Weins~ein is the following: if the b~okward-looking center of the ourren~ utterance is the same as the baokward-looklng cen~er of the previous utterance, a pronoun should be When one reads a text, only a small part of the text information is stored in short-term memory and most of the information is stored in long-term memory.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 13,
"end": 25,
"text": "Grosz (1977)",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 209,
"end": 243,
"text": "Grosz. Joshi. and weinstein (1983)",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 244,
"end": 477,
"text": "One principle derived by Grosz, Joshl, and Weins~ein is the following: if the b~okward-looking center of the ourren~ utterance is the same as the baokward-looklng cen~er of the previous utterance, a pronoun should be",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "FOCUSING IN COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "This is due to the very small storage capacity of short-term memory (7 t2 chunEs;",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "FOCUSING IN COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Miller , 1956) . Given that retrieval time in short-term memory is much faster than retrieval time in long-term memory, it will tame longer to remember something from the text if the memory is stored in long-term memory than in short-term memory. was separated from the anaphor by either zero or ~wo in~ervenlng sentences.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 7,
"end": 14,
"text": ", 1956)",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "FOCUSING IN COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The anaphor appeared in the last sentence of the paragraph. The last sentence was presented in one of three versions: i) the subject of the sentence was a repetition (i.e. burglar) of the referent in the first sentence (anaphorio-identioal); 2) the subject was the name of the category-(e.g. criminal) in which the referent belonged (anaphorlc-category);",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "FOCUSING IN COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "3) the subject was a noun (e.g. ca~) unrelated ~o the referent (non-anaphoric).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "FOCUSING IN COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "During the experimental trials, the \"referent\" (i.e. burglar) was presented immediately after the last sentence for an old-new recognition. The anaphor is a definite noun phrase and the referent is not in focus, that is, i~ is in operating memory,",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "FOCUSING IN COMPUTATIONAL LINGUISTICS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The anaphor is a definite noun phrase and the referent is in focus, that is. it is in the cache.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "2.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The anaphor is a pronoun and the referent is in the cache (in fOCUS).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "3.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The anaphor is a pronoun and the referent is in operating memory (not in focus). In operating memory.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Other things being equal, it will tame more time to retrieve an item from operating memory than from the cache.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The referent will need to be reinstated into the cache. This will produce a topic shift. The reinstated referent is then highly available and can be referred to by using a pronoun. was developed specifically to provide the empirical da~a for these studies.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
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"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
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{
"text": "The on-line activation technique can be compared to \"closely\" tracing the execution of ~ program.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
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{
"text": "In the on-line activation technique, passages are presented using rapid serial visual presentation (RSVP), one word a~ a time. In ~dditlon to reading each text. the participants were also given the ~ask to recognize whether some specially marked words, presented surreptitiously wi~hln ~he ~ext, had appemred before in the tex~ or not. Some of ~hese special words were presented before in the text and others were not.. We will call ~hese specially marked words zest words. This task is called am old-new recognition task. or 50 was presented for each text to the participants of the study.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "In each text. one of the test words was the referent of the anaphor. At some point before or after the anaphor was presented on the CRT, its referent was presented for old-new recognition and recognition times and errors were collected.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "The delay between the onse~ of the anaphor and the onset of the test word is called the stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
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{
"text": "The ~naphor is acting as a prime, which should activate the referent.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "The old-new recognition time for the referent test word indicates whether the referent is in the cache or in operating memory. ",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4.",
"sec_num": null
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{
"text": "The experiment would take at least four hours.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "2-",
"sec_num": null
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{
"text": "There would then be a ten hour wait for the reaction to complete.",
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"section": "3-",
"sec_num": null
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{
"text": "He measured the temperature of a solution using a thermometer. 5a-The thin instrument was not giving the expected re~ding. 5b-A broken instrument was not giving the expected reading. 5c-The compuzer terminal was not giving the expected reading.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "4-",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "The assistant was preparing solutions for a chemistry experiment. 2-He measured the temperature of a solution using a thermometer. 3-The experiment would take at least four hours.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "I-",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "There would then be a ten hour w~it for the reaction to complete. 5a-The thin instrument was not givlng the expected reading. 5b-A broken instrument was not giving the expected reading. 50-The computer terminal was not giving the expected reading.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "4-",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "In addition, there were three types of primes, as shown in sentences 5a, 5b, 8~d 5o in Table i. The prime could be either semantically related and referential (S+R\u00f7) ~ in 5a, semantically related and not referential (S+R-) as in 5b, or semantically unrelated and not referential (S-R-) as in 5c.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 87,
"end": 95,
"text": "Table i.",
"ref_id": null
}
],
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"section": "4-",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "In the S\u00f7R\u00f7 condition, the prime is the an~phor.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4-",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The two conditions S\u00f7Rand S-R-were control conditions to separate the effect of semantic priming, due ~o semantic ~ssociation between the anaphor and the referent, on the old-new reccgnltlon for referents.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4-",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "A schema of the procedure is shown in Table 2 . The words surrounded by stars a~e the test words. ",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 38,
"end": 46,
"text": "Table 2",
"ref_id": "TABREF9"
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "4-",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "There p~rtioipants in this study.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "ELT.TJ,~,pA~",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "were 36 ~/~I~ There were 36 experimental texts.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
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"section": "ELT.TJ,~,pA~",
"sec_num": null
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{
"text": "They contained as a referent an instance of a cl~ss (e.g. thermometer)",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "ELT.TJ,~,pA~",
"sec_num": null
},
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"text": "to be used later as a test word, and a~ an an~phor the class name (e.g. instrument).",
"cite_spans": [],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "ELT.TJ,~,pA~",
"sec_num": null
},
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"text": "In this study, the an~phor w~s a definite noun phrase. An example of the material was presented in They also support the notion that an anaphor reinstates a referent not in focus and does so by transferring the r@ferent to the cache. In another study (Gulndon, 1982) , using ~he same on-llne ~c~iva~ion technique, the ~c~ivation of an antecedent by a pronoun was ~raced. In this study, it was fo%L~d tha~ referring ~o an anteceden~ not in focus by using a pronoun was detrimental to anaphora resolution.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 251,
"end": 266,
"text": "(Gulndon, 1982)",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "ELT.TJ,~,pA~",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "L A T E N C I E S (msec) FIGURE I.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "ELT.TJ,~,pA~",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The delay between reading the anaphor and reins~atlng the an~eceden~ was as long as 2400 msec. The actlva~ion of an anteceden~ no~ in focus by a pronoun takes a long ~ime because ~he reader is induced: I) to search the cache unsuocesfully; 2) to search operating memory with a \"sketchy\" pronoun:",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "ELT.TJ,~,pA~",
"sec_num": null
},
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"text": "3) to relnstaZe the referent into the cache. Activation was immediate for ~he antecedents in focus. As opposed ~o the previous s~udy where referring to a focused referen~ using a definite noun phrase hindered anaphora resolution, no such effect was observed when using a pronoun. This is expected since pronouns signal tha~ ~he referent is in the cache.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "ELT.TJ,~,pA~",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The notion of focusing and the notion that the form of the anaphor signals whether ~he referen~ is in focus or no~ have cognitive support.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUMMARY",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Items in focus are items in the cache which is dynamically updated ~o contain ~he T most ~opical and the R most recen~ items in the ~ex~.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUMMARY",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Because the cache con~alns few items, pronouns should be used ~o refer to items in focus. O~her things being equal, anaphora resolution will be easier if the antecedent is in focus, because ~he retrieval ~imes from the cache are much faster ~han those from the operating memory.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUMMARY",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Antecedents not in focus are in operating memory. I~ems no~ in focus are in operating memory. A definite noun phrase, because it is more descriptive ~han a pronoun, should be used to re~rieve the ~nteceden~ from ~he large set of i~ems in operating memory. ",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUMMARY",
"sec_num": null
}
],
"back_matter": [],
"bib_entries": {
"BIBREF0": {
"ref_id": "b0",
"title": "~i~ P/.OD~ses i~ E.~,~&L'LD~. Hillsdale",
"authors": [],
"year": 1977,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": ". Samuels (Eds.), ~i~ P/.OD~ses i~ E.~,~&L'LD~. Hillsdale, N.g.: Erlbaum, 1977.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF1": {
"ref_id": "b1",
"title": "Discourse structure and human knowledge",
"authors": [
{
"first": "W",
"middle": [],
"last": "Chafe",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": null,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Chafe, w. Discourse structure and human knowledge. In J.B.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF2": {
"ref_id": "b2",
"title": "L~n~ co~mmhmna~mn ~n~ ~hm amg~l~imn of ~i~",
"authors": [
{
"first": "~",
"middle": [
"R O"
],
"last": "Carroll",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "",
"middle": [],
"last": "Freedle",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": null,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Carroll ~ R.O. Freedle \"(Eds.), L~n~ co~mmhmna~mn ~n~ ~hm amg~l~imn of ~i~. Washington: Winston.",
"links": null
}
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"ref_entries": {
"FIGREF0": {
"text": "FIGURE 2.",
"uris": null,
"num": null,
"type_str": "figure"
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"TABREF8": {
"content": "<table><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"3\">OF TEXTS WITH ANTECEDENTS</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"4\">IN FOCUS AND NOT IN FOCUS</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">Antecedent:</td><td>thermometer</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">Anaphor:</td><td>instrument</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"3\">Antecedent in Focus</td><td/></tr><tr><td>1-</td><td>The</td><td>assistant</td><td>was</td><td>preparing</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">solutions for a chemistry experiment.</td></tr></table>",
"type_str": "table",
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"TABREF9": {
"content": "<table><tr><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">OF THE PROCEDURE</td></tr><tr><td>SOAs</td><td colspan=\"2\">Before</td><td colspan=\"3\">~50 msec</td><td>1250 msec</td></tr><tr><td>Time</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>T1</td><td>The</td><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">The</td><td>The</td></tr><tr><td>T2</td><td colspan=\"2\">thin</td><td/><td colspan=\"2\">thin</td><td>thin</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"7\">T~ \"thermometer* instrument instrument</td></tr><tr><td>T4</td><td colspan=\"6\">instrument *thermometer\"</td><td>was</td></tr><tr><td>T5</td><td>was</td><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">was</td><td>not</td></tr><tr><td>T8</td><td>not</td><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">not</td><td>giving</td></tr><tr><td>T7</td><td colspan=\"2\">giving</td><td colspan=\"3\">giving</td><td>*thermometer\"</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"6\">The predictions were:</td></tr><tr><td/><td>I.</td><td colspan=\"5\">If a referent is not in</td><td>focus,</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>due</td><td>to</td><td colspan=\"3\">a topic</td><td>shift,</td><td>the</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"5\">ooourenoe of the anaphor should</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"5\">reinstate the referent into the</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">cache,</td><td colspan=\"2\">leading</td><td>to</td><td>faster</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">old-new</td><td colspan=\"3\">recognition times.</td><td>In</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>terms</td><td colspan=\"2\">of</td><td>the</td><td>experimental</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"3\">conditions,</td><td colspan=\"2\">there</td><td>should be a</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"5\">decrease in old-new recognition</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>time</td><td>at</td><td colspan=\"3\">the 350 and 1250 msec</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"3\">conditions</td><td>in</td><td>the</td><td>S+R\u00f7</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">condition</td><td/><td>(i.e.</td><td>after</td><td>the</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"5\">anaphor), but not in</td><td>the</td><td>S+R-</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>and</td><td colspan=\"4\">S-R-conditions, which are</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"4\">not anaphorio.</td></tr><tr><td/><td>2.</td><td>The</td><td>use</td><td>of</td><td colspan=\"2\">a definite</td><td>noun</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">phrase</td><td>to</td><td/><td>refer</td><td>to</td><td>an</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"5\">antecedent in the</td><td>cache</td><td>(i.e.</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"5\">in focus) should be detrimental</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"3\">to anaphora</td><td colspan=\"2\">resolution.</td><td>IZ</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">should</td><td colspan=\"2\">slow</td><td>down</td><td>the</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"5\">recognition of the referent</td><td>as</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>old</td><td>or</td><td colspan=\"2\">new.</td><td>In terms of the</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"6\">ex~erlmental conditions, if the</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">referent</td><td colspan=\"2\">is</td><td>in</td><td>focus,</td><td>the</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">old-new</td><td colspan=\"3\">recognition</td><td>times</td><td>in</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"2\">the</td><td>350</td><td colspan=\"2\">and</td><td>1250</td><td>msec</td><td>SOA</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"4\">conditions</td><td colspan=\"2\">should</td><td>be</td><td>slower</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"2\">than</td><td colspan=\"2\">in</td><td>the</td><td>before</td><td>SOA</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"4\">coD~Litlon.</td><td/></tr></table>",
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