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"title": "SEMANTICALLY SIGNIFICANT PATTERNS IN DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS *",
"authors": [
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"first": "Judith",
"middle": [],
"last": "Markowitz",
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"affiliation": {
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"institution": "De Paul University",
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"postCode": "60604",
"settlement": "Chicago",
"region": "IL"
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"text": "Large natural language processing systems need lexicons much larger than those available today with explicit information about lexlcal-semantic re%ationships, about usage, about forms, about morphology, about case frames and selection restrictions and other kinds of collocational information.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "INTRODUCTION",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "Apresyan, Mel'cuk, and Zholkovsky studied the kind of explicit lexical information needed by non-native speakers of a language.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "INTRODUCTION",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "Their Explanatory-Combinatory Dictionary (1970) explains how each word is used and how it combines with others in phrases and sentences.",
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"start": 6,
"end": 47,
"text": "Explanatory-Combinatory Dictionary (1970)",
"ref_id": null
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"section": "INTRODUCTION",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "Their dream has now been realized in a full-scale dictionary of Russian (Mel'cuk and Zholkovsky, 1985) and in example entries for French (Mel'cuk et al., 1984) .",
"cite_spans": [
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"start": 72,
"end": 102,
"text": "(Mel'cuk and Zholkovsky, 1985)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF16"
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"start": 137,
"end": 159,
"text": "(Mel'cuk et al., 1984)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF17"
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"ref_spans": [],
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"section": "INTRODUCTION",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "Computer programs need still more explicit and detailed information.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
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"section": "INTRODUCTION",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "We have discussed elsewhere the kind of lexical information needed in a question answering system (Evens and Smith, 1978) and by a system to generate medical case reports (Li et al., 1985) .",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 98,
"end": 121,
"text": "(Evens and Smith, 1978)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF9"
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"start": 171,
"end": 188,
"text": "(Li et al., 1985)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF15"
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"section": "INTRODUCTION",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "This research was supported by the National Science Foundation under IST-85-10069.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "INTRODUCTION",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "A number of experiments have shown that relational thesauri can significantly improve the effectiveness of an information retrieval system (Fox, 1980; Evens et al., 1985; Wang et al., 1985) .",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 139,
"end": 150,
"text": "(Fox, 1980;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF13"
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"start": 151,
"end": 170,
"text": "Evens et al., 1985;",
"ref_id": "BIBREF11"
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{
"start": 171,
"end": 189,
"text": "Wang et al., 1985)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF23"
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],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "INTRODUCTION",
"sec_num": null
},
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"text": "A relational thesaurus is used to add further terms to the lquery, terms that are related to the ~riglnal by lexlcal relations like synonymy, taxonomy, set-membership, or the partwhole relation, among others.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "INTRODUCTION",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The addition of these related terms enables the system to identify more relevant documents.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "INTRODUCTION",
"sec_num": null
},
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"text": "The development of such relational thesauri would be comparatively simple if we had a large lexicon containing relational information.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
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"section": "INTRODUCTION",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "(A comparative study of lexical relations can be found in Evens et al., 1980) . The work involved in developing a lexicon for a large subset of English is so overwhelming, that it seems appropriate to try to build a lexicon automatically by analyzing information in a machine-readable dictionary. A collegiate level dictionary contains an enormous amount of information about thousands of words in the natural language it describes.",
"cite_spans": [
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"start": 58,
"end": 77,
"text": "Evens et al., 1980)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF10"
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"sec_num": null
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"text": "This information is presented in a form intended to be easily understood and used by a human being with at least some command of the language.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "INTRODUCTION",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "Unfortunately, even when the dictionary has been transcribed into machine-readable form, the knowledge which a human user can acquire from the dictionary is not readily available to the computer.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"text": "There have been a number of efforts to extract information from machinereadable dictionaries. Amsler (1980 Amsler ( , 1981 Amsler ( , 1982 and Amsler and John White (1979) mapped out the taxonomic hierarchies of nouns and verbs in the Merriam-Webster Pocket Dictionary. Michiels (1981 Michiels ( , 1983 analyzed the Longman Dictionary of C0ntemporary Englis h (LDOCE), taking advantage of the fact that that dictionary was designed to some extent to facilitate computer manipulation. Smith (1981) studied the \"defining formulae\" -significant recurring phrases -in a selection of adjective definitions from We bster[s Carolyn White (1983) has developed a program to create entries for Sager's Linguistic String Parser (1981) from WY. Chodorow and Byrd (1985) have extracted taxonomic hierarchies, associated wlth feature information, from LDOCE and W7.",
"cite_spans": [
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"start": 94,
"end": 106,
"text": "Amsler (1980",
"ref_id": "BIBREF3"
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"start": 107,
"end": 122,
"text": "Amsler ( , 1981",
"ref_id": "BIBREF4"
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"start": 123,
"end": 138,
"text": "Amsler ( , 1982",
"ref_id": "BIBREF5"
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{
"start": 143,
"end": 171,
"text": "Amsler and John White (1979)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF6"
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{
"start": 270,
"end": 284,
"text": "Michiels (1981",
"ref_id": "BIBREF18"
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{
"start": 285,
"end": 302,
"text": "Michiels ( , 1983",
"ref_id": "BIBREF19"
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"start": 484,
"end": 496,
"text": "Smith (1981)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF22"
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"start": 625,
"end": 637,
"text": "White (1983)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF25"
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{
"start": 684,
"end": 723,
"text": "Sager's Linguistic String Parser (1981)",
"ref_id": null
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"start": 733,
"end": 757,
"text": "Chodorow and Byrd (1985)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF8"
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],
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"section": "INTRODUCTION",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "We have parsed W7 adjective definitions (Ahlswede, 1985b ) using Sager's Linguistic String Parser (Sager, 1981) in order to automatically identify lexical-semantic relations associated with defining formulae.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 40,
"end": 56,
"text": "(Ahlswede, 1985b",
"ref_id": "BIBREF1"
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"start": 98,
"end": 111,
"text": "(Sager, 1981)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF21"
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"sec_num": null
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"text": "We have also (Ahlswede and Evens, 1983) identified defining formulae in noun, verb and adverb definitions from W7.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 13,
"end": 39,
"text": "(Ahlswede and Evens, 1983)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF2"
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],
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"sec_num": null
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"text": "At present we are working on three interrelated projects:",
"cite_spans": [],
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},
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"text": "identification and analysis of lexical-semantic -elations in or out of WY; generation of computed definitions for words which are used or referred to but not defined in WY; and parsing of the entire dictionary (or as much of it as possible) to generate from it a large general lexical knowledge base.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "INTRODUCTION",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "This paper represents a continuation of our work on defining formulae in dictionary definitions, in particular definitions from W7.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "INTRODUCTION",
"sec_num": null
},
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"text": "The patterns we deal with are limited to recurring phrases, such as '\"any of a\" or \"a quality or state of\" (common in noun definitions) and \"of or relating to\" (common in adjective definitions).",
"cite_spans": [],
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"text": "From such phrases, we gain information not only about the words being defined but also about the words used in the definitions and other words in the lexicon. Specifically, we can extract selectional information, co-occurrence relations, and lexical-semantic relations. These methods of extracting information from W7 were designed for use in the lexicon builder described earlier by Ahlswede (1985a) .",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 384,
"end": 400,
"text": "Ahlswede (1985a)",
"ref_id": null
}
],
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"sec_num": null
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"text": "The computational steps involved in this study were relatively simple. First W7 definitions were divided by part of speech into separate files for nouns, verbs, adjectives, and others.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"text": "Then a separate Keyword In Context (KWIC) Index was made for each part of speech. Hypotheses were tried out initially on a subset of the dictionary containing only those words which appeared eight or more times in the Kucera and Francis corpus (1968) of a million words of running English text.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"text": "Those that proved valid for this subset were then tested on the full dictionary. This work would have been impossible without the kind permission of the G. & C. Merriam Company to use the machine-readable version of W7 (Olney et al. 1967) .",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 219,
"end": 238,
"text": "(Olney et al. 1967)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF20"
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"text": "Noun definitions which begin with \"Any\" signal a taxonomic relationship between the noun being defined and a taxonomic superordinate which follows the word \"Any.\"",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "NOUN TAXONOMY",
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"text": "One subset of the formulae beginning with \"Any\" has the form: \"Any\"-NP, where the NP can be a noun, noun phrase, or a co-ordinated noun or adjective structure. In these definitions the taxonomic superordinate of the noun being defined is the head noun of the NP immediately following \"Any\".",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "NOUN TAXONOMY",
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"text": "The superordinate of \"alkyl\" is \"radical,\" which is the head of the co-ordinated structure following \"Any\" whereas the superordinate of \"ammunition\" is the unmodified noun \"material.\"",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "NOUN TAXONOMY",
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"text": "Of the 97 examples of \"Any\"-NP only two failed to contain an overt taxonomic superordinate following \"Any.\" 2a. week any seven consecutive days b. couple any two persons paired together",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "NOUN TAXONOMY",
"sec_num": null
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"text": "In each of these cases there is an implicit taxonomic superordinate \"set.\"",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "NOUN TAXONOMY",
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"text": "The second frequently occurring subset of noun definitions containing \"Any\" begins with the following pattern: \"Any of\"-NP.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "NOUN TAXONOMY",
"sec_num": null
},
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"text": "This pattern has two principal realizations depending upon what immediately follows \"Any of.\"",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "NOUN TAXONOMY",
"sec_num": null
},
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"text": "In one sub-pattern a quantifier, numeric expression, or \"the\" follows the initial \"Any of\" and begins an NP which contains the superordinate of the noun being defined.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "NOUN TAXONOMY",
"sec_num": null
},
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"text": "This pattern is similar to that described above for the \"Any\"-NP formula.",
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"section": "NOUN TAXONOMY",
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"text": "3a. doctor any of several brightly colored artificial flies b. allomorph any of two or more distinct crystalline forms of the same substance.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "NOUN TAXONOMY",
"sec_num": null
},
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"text": "The other sub-pattern expresses a biological taxonomic relationship and has the following definition structure: \"Any of a/an\" <optional> modifier taxonomic level \"(\"scientific name\")\" \"of\" taxonomic superordinate either attributes or taxonomic subordinate",
"cite_spans": [],
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"section": "c. elder any of various church officers",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The modifier is optional and modifies the taxonomic level of the noun being defined; the capitalized scientific name of the level follows in parenthesis; the taxonomic superordinate can be a noun or a complex NP and is the object of the second \"of\" in the formula; and the information following the superordinate is generally a co-ordinated structure, frequently co-ordinated NPs.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "c. elder any of various church officers",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Of the 901 instances of the definition-initial \"Any of a/an\" sequence 853, or 95 per cent, were biological definitions. The only sequences which break from the pattern described above are nonbiological definitions, which do not have parenthetical information following the head noun of the NP following \"Any of a/an\" and biological definitions where that head noun is \"breed.\" 5a. globulin any of a class of simple proteins (as myosin) insoluble in pure water but soluble in dilute salt solutions that occur widely in plant and animal tissues.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "c. elder any of various church officers",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "b. rottweiler any of a breed of tall vigorous black short-haired cattle dogs.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "c. elder any of various church officers",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "c. poland china any of an American breed of large white-marked black swine of the lard type.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "c. elder any of various church officers",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The definition for \"globulin\" illustrates that even when a nonbiological definition has a parenthesis, that parenthetical information does not immediately follow the NP following \"Any of a/an.\" The other definitions in (5) are instances of \"breed\" following \"Any of a/an.\"",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "c. elder any of various church officers",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "In general, when a definition begins with \"Any of a/an\" it is almost certainly a biological definition and that certainty is increased if the \"Any of a/an noun\" is immediately followed by parenthesis unless the noun of the pattern is \"breed.\"",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "c. elder any of various church officers",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Another defining formula with an interesting resemblance to taxonomy also occurs in noun definitions.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "THE MEMBER-SET RELATION",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The pattern \"A member of\"-NP is similar to the basic organization of the \"Any\" definitions in that the immediate superordinate of the noun being defined is the object of the preposition \"of\" except in this pattern the relationship is, of course, memberset. In our data the nouns being defined with this formula are invariably human. Of the 581 definitions which begin with \"A member of\" only nine define non-human nouns and two of those are anthropomorphic. Why is it important to mark nouns in a lexicon as explicitly human?",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "THE MEMBER-SET RELATION",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Many verbs can take only human subjects or objects.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "THE MEMBER-SET RELATION",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Also, the choice between the relative pronouns Vb9 and which depends on whether the referent is human or not.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "THE MEMBER-SET RELATION",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The member-set relation needs to be distinguished from another relation that classifies a specific individual as in 8a. Circe sorceress who changed Odysseus' men into swine.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "THE MEMBER-SET RELATION",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Generic agents are the typical fillers of the agent argument sot for a given verb.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "GENERIC AGENTS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "They are particularly valuable in understanding intersentential references or generating them.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "GENERIC AGENTS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "One very surprising source of definitions for human nouns is the formula \"One that.\"",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "GENERIC AGENTS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Of the 1419 examples of this pattern 694, or 49 per cent were verifiably human. That is, it was possible to determine from the definition itself or from associated definitions, such as a related verb, that the noun being defined was +human. This estimate is, therefore, conservative.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "GENERIC AGENTS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "It was also determined that a large portion of these definitions (30 per cent) were of occupations. WHAT THE PARENTHESES TELL US",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "GENERIC AGENTS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The formula \"one (..)\" offers very different information.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "GENERIC AGENTS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "(This formula typically occurs somewhere in the middle of a definition, not at the beginning.) If the first word of the parenthetical information is not \"as\", a definition which begins with this pattern is a biological definition.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "GENERIC AGENTS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The parenthetical material is the scientific name of the noun being defined.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "GENERIC AGENTS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "These definitions are sub-definitions and almost invariably follow \"esp: \".",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "GENERIC AGENTS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "of herbs of the primrose family; e~P: one (A. aryensis) whose scarlet, white, or purplish flowers close at the approach of rainy or cloudy weather. ",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "lOa. pimpernel any of a genus (Anagallis)",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The defining pattern \"One...(... specific /such...)\" is an interesting sequence which is only used to define suffixes.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUFFIX DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The words \"specific\" and \"such\" signal this while at the same time indicating what semantic information should be taken from the stem to which the suffix is affixed.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUFFIX DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "11a. -er one that is a suitable object of (a specified action).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUFFIX DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "b. -ate one acted upon (in a specified way).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUFFIX DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "c. -morph one having (such) a form.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUFFIX DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "d. -path one suffering from (such) an ailment.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUFFIX DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "e. -ant one that performs (a specified action).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUFFIX DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "f. -grapher one that writes about (specified) material or in a (specified) way.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUFFIX DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Examples associated with some of the definitions in (10) are \"isomorph,\" \"psychopath,\" and \"violinist.\"",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUFFIX DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "We are in the process of analyzing all instances of parenthetical \"specified\" and \"such\" to determine whether the defining formula exemplified by (10) is a general approach to the definition of affixes.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUFFIX DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Clearly, the use of parentheses is very significant, signalling an important semantic distinction.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUFFIX DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Noun defining patterns can provide important information about specific verbs.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Not surprisingly, one of these is the pattern \"Act of Ving\" which is an indicator of action verbs.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Action verbs differ from statlve verbs in a number of important ways. Action verbs llke bite and Re rsuade can appear in imperative sentences, while statlve verbs like own and resemble cannot:",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Bite that man! Persuade him to go! *Own the house! *Resemble your father! Action verbs take the progressive aspect; stative verbs do not:",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "She is biting the man. She is persuading him to go. *She is owning the house. *She is resembling your father.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Action verbs can appear in a number of embedded sentences where statives cannot be used.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "I told her to bite the man. *I told her to own the house.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "In definitions the action verb appears as the gerundive object of the preposition \"of\" or as the present-tense verb of the subordinate clause.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "12a. plumbing the act of using a plumb. The examples in (11) indicate that the related verb is not always morphologically related. This pattern could, therefore, be used as a means of accessing semantically related verbs and nouns or as a tool for the construction of a semantic network.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "\"The act of Ving\" definitions have a subpattern which consists of \"The act of Ving or the state of being <adj>.\" There are not many examples of this subpattern, but in all but one instance the noun being defined, the verb and the adjective are morphologically related.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "13a. adornment the act of adorning or the state of being adorned.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "b. popularization the act of popularizing or the state of being popularized c. nourishment the act of nourishing or the state of being nourished.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "d. intrusion the act of intruding or the state of being intruded.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "e. embodiment the act of embodying or the state of being embodied.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "In contrast, our data do not support the use of the corresponding formula \"The state of being\"-past part. for identifying stative verbs, Many instances of this pattern appear to be passives or stative use of normally nonstative verbs.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "This position is supported by the presence of a fair number of definitions which conjoin the two formulae.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "14a. displacement the act or process of displacing: the state of being displaced.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "b. examination the act or process of examining: the state of being examined.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "c. expansion the act or process of expanding. The quality or state of being expanded.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "It is likely that the formula \"The quality or state of being\"-past part. is a stative verb indicator when it does not co-occur with \"Act of\" definitions. Support comes from the frequency with which that pattern alternates adjectives, which are normally stative, with the past participle.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "WHAT NOUN DEFINITIONS TELL US ABOUT VERBS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Although the structure of verb definitions is much more limited than that of noun definitions, elements of verb definitions do provide interesting insights into collocatlonal information. One striking example of this is the use of parenthetical information which flags typical instantiations of case arguments for the verb being defined.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SELECTIONAL INFORMATION FOR VERB DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The most consistent of these patterns is \"To\"-V-(<\"as\">NP) where the NP is the typical object of the verb being defined.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SELECTIONAL INFORMATION FOR VERB DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "15a. mount to put or have (as artillery) in position.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SELECTIONAL INFORMATION FOR VERB DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "b. lay to bring forth and deposit (an egg).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SELECTIONAL INFORMATION FOR VERB DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "c. develop to subject (exposed phetographic material) to a usu. chemical treatment...",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SELECTIONAL INFORMATION FOR VERB DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "We are in the process of determining how consistent the parenthetical \"as\" is in signalling typical case relations.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SELECTIONAL INFORMATION FOR VERB DEFINITIONS",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Adjective definitions differ from those of nouns and verbs in that while nouns are virtually always defined in terms of other nouns and verbs in terms of other verbs, only about 10 percent of adjectives are defined in terms of other adjectives --the rest are related to nouns or sometimes to verbs. Furthermore, the semantic information in an adjective definition refers more to the noun (or type of noun) modified by the adjective than it does to the adjective itself. This is because an adjective, together with the noun it modifies, defines a taxonomic relationship --or, to put it another way, denotes a feature of the thing defined in the adjective+noun phrase. For instance, we can say either that the phrase \"big dog\" denotes a particular kind of (the more general term) \"dog\"; or that it denotes a dog with the additional feature of \"bigness\".",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SELECTIONAL INFORMATION FOR ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "A useful piece of information we would like to get from adjective definitions is selectional information --what sort of noun the adjective can meaningfully modify.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SELECTIONAL INFORMATION FOR ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Selectional restrictions are harder to find and are largely negative --for instance, the formula \"containing\" defines adjectives that do not (in the sense so defined) modify animate nouns.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SELECTIONAL INFORMATION FOR ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "10a. basic containing relatively little silica.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SELECTIONAL INFORMATION FOR ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "b. normal containing neither basic hydroxyl nor acid hydrogen.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SELECTIONAL INFORMATION FOR ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The same is true of some other moderately common formulae, such as \"consisting of\", \"extending\" and \"causing\".",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SELECTIONAL INFORMATION FOR ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "We hope that further analysis will allow us to find more indications of selectional characteristics of adjectives.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SELECTIONAL INFORMATION FOR ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "One property belonging more to adjectives themselves than to their associated nouns is an active-stative distinction similar to that found in verbs.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The test for an \"active\" adjective is that one may use it in a statement of the form \"they are being ----\" or in the command \"be .... ]\" e.g. \"be aggressive!\" or \"be good!\", but not *\"be tall!\" or *\"be ballistic!\"",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "As these examples indicate, most adjectives that can be used actively can also be used statively --aggressiveness or goodness may be thought of as a state rather than as an action --but not the other way around.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Contrary to our expectations, the active-stative parameter of adjectives is much easier to identify in definitions than is selectlonal information.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Some of the defining formulae discussed in Smith (1981) and Ahlswede (1985b) seem to be limited to statlve adjectives. \"Of or relating to\", one of the most common, is one of these: fla. ballistic of or relating to ballistics or to a body in motion according to the laws of ballistics.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 43,
"end": 55,
"text": "Smith (1981)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF22"
},
{
"start": 60,
"end": 76,
"text": "Ahlswede (1985b)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF1"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "b. literary of or relating to books.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Although many adjectives defined with \"of or relating to\" can be used actively in other senses, they are strictly stative in the senses where this formula is used:",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "12a. civil of or relating to citizens <~ liberties>.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "b. peaceful of or relating to a state or time of peace.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The common formula \"being ...\", on the other hand, defines adjectives which at least lean toward the action end of the spectrum:",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "13a. natural being in accordance with or determined by nature.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "b. cursed being under or deserving a curse.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Even such a normally stative adjective as \"liquid\" is relatively active in one of its senses:",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "14a. liquid being musical and free of harshness in sound.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "By no means all formulae give indications of the stative-active qualities of an adjective.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "A large family of formulae (\"having\", \"characterized by\", \"marked by\", etc.) denoting attribution, are completely neutral with respect to this parameter.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "RECOGNIZING ACTION VS. STATIVE ADJECTIVES",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "W7 contains a wealth of implicit information.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUMMARY",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "We have presented methods for making some of this information explicit by focussing on specific formulae found in noun, verb, and adjective definitions.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUMMARY",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Most of these formulae appear at the start of definitions, but we have also demonstrated that important information can be extracted from syntactic and graphemic elements, such as parentheticals.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
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"section": "SUMMARY",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The information we have extracted involves lexical relationships such as taxonomy and set membership, selectional restrictions, and special subcategories of nouns, verbs, and adjectives.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUMMARY",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "This information is used by an automatic lexicon builder to create lexical entries automatically from W7 definitions.",
"cite_spans": [],
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"eq_spans": [],
"section": "SUMMARY",
"sec_num": null
}
],
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"bib_entries": {
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"type_str": "figure",
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"text": "7a. Jotunn a member of a race of giants in Norse mythology b. Houyhnhnm a member of a race of horses endowed with reason in Swift's qu~li~!~ ~Y~."
},
"FIGREF1": {
"uris": null,
"type_str": "figure",
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"text": "b. forgiveness the act of forgiving. c. soliloquy the act of talking to oneself. d. projection the act of throwing or shooting forward. e. refund the act of refunding f. protrusion the act of protruding.g. investiture the act of ratifying or establishing in office."
}
}
}
} |