File size: 78,416 Bytes
6fa4bc9 | 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 594 595 596 597 598 599 600 601 602 603 604 605 606 607 608 609 610 611 612 613 614 615 616 617 618 619 620 621 622 623 624 625 626 627 628 629 630 631 632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 647 648 649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 670 671 672 673 674 675 676 677 678 679 680 681 682 683 684 685 686 687 688 689 690 691 692 693 694 695 696 697 698 699 700 701 702 703 704 705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 734 735 736 737 738 739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 748 749 750 751 752 753 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 779 780 781 782 783 784 785 786 787 788 789 790 791 792 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 800 801 802 803 804 805 806 807 808 809 810 811 812 813 814 815 816 817 818 819 820 821 822 823 824 825 826 827 828 829 830 831 832 833 834 835 836 837 838 839 840 841 842 843 844 845 846 847 848 849 850 851 852 853 854 855 856 857 858 859 860 861 862 863 864 865 866 867 868 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876 877 878 879 880 881 882 883 884 885 886 887 888 889 890 891 892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900 901 902 903 904 905 906 907 908 909 910 911 912 913 914 915 916 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 926 927 928 929 930 931 932 933 934 935 936 937 938 939 940 941 942 943 944 945 946 947 948 949 950 951 952 953 954 955 956 957 958 959 960 961 962 963 964 965 966 967 968 969 970 971 972 973 974 975 976 977 978 979 980 981 982 983 984 985 986 987 988 989 990 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 1000 1001 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008 1009 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028 1029 1030 1031 1032 1033 1034 1035 1036 1037 1038 1039 1040 1041 1042 1043 1044 1045 1046 1047 1048 1049 1050 1051 1052 1053 1054 1055 1056 1057 1058 1059 1060 1061 1062 1063 1064 1065 1066 1067 1068 1069 1070 1071 1072 1073 1074 1075 1076 1077 1078 1079 1080 1081 1082 1083 1084 1085 1086 1087 1088 1089 1090 1091 1092 1093 1094 1095 1096 1097 1098 1099 1100 1101 1102 1103 1104 1105 1106 1107 1108 1109 1110 1111 1112 1113 1114 1115 1116 1117 1118 1119 1120 1121 1122 1123 1124 1125 1126 1127 1128 1129 1130 1131 1132 1133 1134 1135 1136 1137 1138 1139 1140 1141 1142 1143 1144 1145 1146 1147 1148 1149 1150 1151 1152 1153 1154 1155 1156 1157 1158 1159 1160 1161 1162 1163 1164 1165 1166 1167 1168 1169 1170 1171 1172 1173 1174 1175 1176 1177 1178 1179 1180 1181 1182 1183 1184 1185 1186 1187 1188 1189 1190 1191 1192 1193 1194 1195 1196 1197 1198 1199 1200 1201 1202 1203 1204 1205 1206 1207 1208 1209 1210 1211 1212 1213 1214 1215 1216 1217 1218 1219 1220 1221 1222 1223 1224 1225 1226 1227 1228 1229 1230 1231 1232 1233 1234 1235 1236 1237 1238 1239 1240 1241 1242 1243 1244 1245 1246 1247 1248 1249 1250 1251 1252 1253 1254 1255 1256 1257 1258 1259 1260 1261 1262 1263 1264 1265 1266 1267 1268 1269 1270 1271 1272 1273 1274 1275 1276 1277 1278 1279 1280 1281 1282 1283 1284 1285 1286 1287 1288 1289 1290 1291 1292 1293 1294 1295 1296 1297 1298 1299 1300 1301 1302 1303 1304 1305 1306 1307 1308 1309 1310 1311 1312 1313 1314 1315 1316 1317 1318 1319 1320 1321 1322 1323 1324 1325 1326 1327 1328 1329 1330 1331 1332 1333 1334 1335 1336 1337 1338 1339 1340 1341 1342 1343 1344 1345 1346 1347 1348 1349 1350 1351 1352 1353 1354 1355 1356 1357 1358 1359 1360 1361 1362 1363 1364 1365 1366 1367 1368 1369 1370 1371 1372 1373 1374 1375 1376 1377 1378 1379 1380 1381 1382 1383 1384 1385 1386 1387 1388 1389 1390 1391 1392 1393 1394 1395 1396 1397 1398 1399 1400 1401 1402 1403 1404 1405 1406 1407 1408 1409 1410 1411 1412 1413 1414 1415 1416 1417 1418 1419 1420 1421 1422 1423 1424 1425 1426 1427 1428 1429 1430 1431 1432 1433 1434 1435 1436 1437 1438 1439 1440 1441 1442 1443 1444 1445 1446 1447 1448 1449 1450 1451 1452 1453 1454 1455 1456 1457 1458 1459 1460 1461 1462 1463 1464 1465 1466 1467 1468 1469 1470 1471 1472 1473 1474 1475 1476 1477 1478 1479 1480 1481 1482 | {
"paper_id": "P96-1005",
"header": {
"generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0",
"date_generated": "2023-01-19T09:03:11.153030Z"
},
"title": "From Submit to Submitted via Submission: On Lexical Rules in Large-Scale Lexicon Acquisition",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Evelyne",
"middle": [],
"last": "Viegas",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "Computing Research Laboratory",
"institution": "New Mexico State University",
"location": {
"postCode": "88003",
"settlement": "Las Cruces",
"region": "NM",
"country": "USA"
}
},
"email": ""
},
{
"first": "Boyan",
"middle": [],
"last": "Onyshkevych",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "Computing Research Laboratory",
"institution": "New Mexico State University",
"location": {
"postCode": "88003",
"settlement": "Las Cruces",
"region": "NM",
"country": "USA"
}
},
"email": ""
},
{
"first": "Victor",
"middle": [
"Raskin"
],
"last": "\u00a7~",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "Computing Research Laboratory",
"institution": "New Mexico State University",
"location": {
"postCode": "88003",
"settlement": "Las Cruces",
"region": "NM",
"country": "USA"
}
},
"email": ""
},
{
"first": "Sergei",
"middle": [],
"last": "Nirenburg",
"suffix": "",
"affiliation": {
"laboratory": "Computing Research Laboratory",
"institution": "New Mexico State University",
"location": {
"postCode": "88003",
"settlement": "Las Cruces",
"region": "NM",
"country": "USA"
}
},
"email": ""
}
],
"year": "",
"venue": null,
"identifiers": {},
"abstract": "This paper deals with the discovery, representation, and use of lexical rules (LRs) during large-scale semi-automatic computational lexicon acquisition. The analysis is based on a set of LRs implemented and tested on the basis of Spanish and English business-and finance-related corpora. We show that, though the use of LRs is justified, they do not come costfree. Semi-automatic output checking is required, even with blocking and preemtion procedures built in. Nevertheless, largescope LRs are justified because they facilitate the unavoidable process of large-scale semi-automatic lexical acquisition. We also argue that the place of LRs in the computational process is a complex issue.",
"pdf_parse": {
"paper_id": "P96-1005",
"_pdf_hash": "",
"abstract": [
{
"text": "This paper deals with the discovery, representation, and use of lexical rules (LRs) during large-scale semi-automatic computational lexicon acquisition. The analysis is based on a set of LRs implemented and tested on the basis of Spanish and English business-and finance-related corpora. We show that, though the use of LRs is justified, they do not come costfree. Semi-automatic output checking is required, even with blocking and preemtion procedures built in. Nevertheless, largescope LRs are justified because they facilitate the unavoidable process of large-scale semi-automatic lexical acquisition. We also argue that the place of LRs in the computational process is a complex issue.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Abstract",
"sec_num": null
}
],
"body_text": [
{
"text": "This paper deals with the discovery, representation, and use of lexical rules (LRs) in the process of largescale semi-automatic computational lexicon acquisition. LRs are viewed as a means to minimize the need for costly lexicographic heuristics, to reduce the number of lexicon entry types, and generally to make the acquisition process faster and cheaper. The findings reported here have been implemented and tested on the basis of Spanish and English businessand finance-related corpora. The central idea of our approach -that there are systematic paradigmatic meaning relations between lexical items, such that, given an entry for one such item, other entries can be derived automatically-is certainly not novel. In modern times, it has been reintroduced into linguistic discourse by the Meaning-Text group in their work on lexical functions (see, for instance, (Mel'~uk, 1979) . \u00a7 also of US Department of Defense, Attn R525, Fort Meade, MD 20755, USA and Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA. USA. \u00a7 \u00a7 also of Purdue University NLP Lab, W Lafayette, IN 47907, USA.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 866,
"end": 881,
"text": "(Mel'~uk, 1979)",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Introduction",
"sec_num": "1"
},
{
"text": "It has been lately incorporated into computational lexicography in (Atkins, 1991) , (Ostler and Atkins, 1992) , (Briscoe and Copestake, 1991) , (Copestake and Briscoe, 1992) , (Briscoe et al., 1993) ).",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 67,
"end": 81,
"text": "(Atkins, 1991)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF1"
},
{
"start": 84,
"end": 109,
"text": "(Ostler and Atkins, 1992)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF21"
},
{
"start": 112,
"end": 141,
"text": "(Briscoe and Copestake, 1991)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF2"
},
{
"start": 144,
"end": 173,
"text": "(Copestake and Briscoe, 1992)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF6"
},
{
"start": 176,
"end": 198,
"text": "(Briscoe et al., 1993)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF3"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Introduction",
"sec_num": "1"
},
{
"text": "Pustejovsky (Pustejovsky, 1991 (Pustejovsky, , 1995 has coined an attractive term to capture these phenomena: one of the declared objectives of his 'generative lexicon' is a departure from sense enumeration to sense derivation with the help of lexical rules. The generative lexicon provides a useful framework for potentially infinite sense modulation in specific contexts (cf. (Leech, 1981) , (Cruse, 1986) ), due to type coercion (e.g., (eustejovsky, 1993) ) and similar phenomena. Most LRs in the generative lexicon approach, however, have been proposed for small classes of words and explain such grammatical and semantic shifts as +count to -count or -common to +common.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 12,
"end": 30,
"text": "(Pustejovsky, 1991",
"ref_id": "BIBREF23"
},
{
"start": 31,
"end": 51,
"text": "(Pustejovsky, , 1995",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 373,
"end": 391,
"text": "(cf. (Leech, 1981)",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 394,
"end": 407,
"text": "(Cruse, 1986)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF7"
},
{
"start": 439,
"end": 458,
"text": "(eustejovsky, 1993)",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Introduction",
"sec_num": "1"
},
{
"text": "While shifts and modulations are important, we find that the main significance of LRs is their promise to aid the task of massive lexical acquisition.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Introduction",
"sec_num": "1"
},
{
"text": "Section 2 below outlines the nature of LRs in our approach and their status in the computational process. Section 3 presents a fully implemented case study, the morpho-semantic LRs. Section 4 briefly reviews the cost factors associated with LRs; the argument in it is based on another case study, the adjective-related LRs, which is especialy instructive since it may mislead one into thinking thai. LRs are unconditionally beneficial.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Introduction",
"sec_num": "1"
},
{
"text": "Our approach to NLP can be characterized as ontology-driven semantics (see, e.g., (Nirenburg and Levin, 1992) ). The lexicon for which our LRs are introduced is intended to support the computational specification and use of text meaning representations. The lexical entries are quite complex, as they must contain many different types of lexical knowledge that may be used by specialist processes for automatic text analysis or generation (see, e.g., (Onyshkevych and Nirenburg, 1995) , for a detailed description). The acquisition of such a lexicon, with or without the assistance of LRs, involves a substantial investment of time and resources. The meaning of a lexical entry is encoded in a (lexieal) semantic representation language (see, e.g., ) whose primitives are predominantly terms in an independently motivated world model, or ontology (see, e.g., (Carlson and Nirenburg, 1990) and (Mahesh and Nirenburg, 1995) ).",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 82,
"end": 109,
"text": "(Nirenburg and Levin, 1992)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF17"
},
{
"start": 451,
"end": 484,
"text": "(Onyshkevych and Nirenburg, 1995)",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 859,
"end": 888,
"text": "(Carlson and Nirenburg, 1990)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF5"
},
{
"start": 893,
"end": 921,
"text": "(Mahesh and Nirenburg, 1995)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF16"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Ontological-Semantic Background",
"sec_num": "2.1"
},
{
"text": "The basic unit of the lexicon is a 'superentry,' one for each citation form holds, irrespective of its lexical class. Word senses are called 'entries.' The LR processor applies to all the word senses for a given superentry. For example, p~vnunciar has (at least) two entries (one could be translated as \"articulate\" and one as \"declare\"); the LR generator, when ap= plied to the superentry, would produce (among others) two forms of pronunciacidn, derived from each of those two senses/entries.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Ontological-Semantic Background",
"sec_num": "2.1"
},
{
"text": "The nature of the links in the lexicon to the ontology is critical to 'the entire issue of LRs. Representations of lexical meaning may be defined in terms of any number of ontological primitives, called con= cepts. Any of the concepts in the ontology may be used (singly or in combination) in a lexical meaning representation.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Ontological-Semantic Background",
"sec_num": "2.1"
},
{
"text": "No necessary correlation is expected between syntactic category and properties and semantic or ontological classification and properties (and here we definitely part company with syntax-driven semanticssee, for example, (Levin, 1992) , (Dorr, 1993) -pretty much along the lines established in (Nirenburg and Levin, 1992) . For example, although meanings of many verbs are represented through reference to ontological EVENTs and a number of nouns are represented by concepts from the OBJECT sublattice~ frequently nominal meanings refer to EVENTs and verbal meanings to OBJECTs. Many LRs produce entries in which the syntactic category of the input form is changed; however, in our model, the semantic category is preserved in many of these LRs. For example, the verb destroy may be represented by an EVENT, as will the noun destruction (naturally, with a different linking in the syntax-semantics interface). Similarly, destroyer (as a person) would be represented using the same event with the addition of a HUMAN as a filler of the agent case role. This built-in transcategoriality strongly facilitates applications such as interlingual MT, as it renders vacuous many problems connected with category mismatches (Kameyama et al., 1991) and misalignments or divergences (Dorr, 1995) , (Held, 1993) that plague those paradigms in MT which do not rely on extracting language-neutral text meaning representations. This transcategoriality is supported by LRs.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 220,
"end": 233,
"text": "(Levin, 1992)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF14"
},
{
"start": 236,
"end": 248,
"text": "(Dorr, 1993)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF8"
},
{
"start": 293,
"end": 320,
"text": "(Nirenburg and Levin, 1992)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF17"
},
{
"start": 1214,
"end": 1237,
"text": "(Kameyama et al., 1991)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF12"
},
{
"start": 1271,
"end": 1283,
"text": "(Dorr, 1995)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF9"
},
{
"start": 1286,
"end": 1298,
"text": "(Held, 1993)",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Ontological-Semantic Background",
"sec_num": "2.1"
},
{
"text": "In reviewing the theoretical and computational linguistics literature on LRs, one notices a number of different delimitations of LRs from morphology, syntax, lexicon, and processing. Below we list three parameters which highlight the possible differences among approaches to LRs.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Approaches to LRs and Their Types",
"sec_num": "2.2"
},
{
"text": "Depending on the paradigm or approach, there are phenomena which may be more-or less-appropriate for treatment by LRs than by syntactic transformations, lexical enumeration, or other mechanisms. LRs offer greater generality and productivity at the expense of overgeneration, i.e., suggesting inappropriate forms which need to be weeded out before actual inclusion in a lexicon. The following phenomena seem to be appropriate for treatment with LRs:",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Scope of Phenomena",
"sec_num": "2.2.1"
},
{
"text": "\u2022 Inflected Forms-Specifically, those inflectional phenomena which accompany changes in subcategorization frame (passivization, dative alternation, etc.). \u2022 Word Formation-The production of derived forms by LR is illustrated in a case study below, and includes formation of deverbal nominals (destruction, running), agentive nouns (catcher). Typically involving a shift in syntactic category, these LRs are often less productive than inflection-oriented ones. Consequently, derivational LRs are even more prone to overgeneration than inflectional LRs. \u2022 Regular Polysemy -This set of phenomena includes regular polysemies or regular nonmetaphoric and non-metonymic alternations such as those described in (Apresjan, 1974) , (Pustejovsky, 1991 (Pustejovsky, , 1995 , (Ostler and htkins, 1992) and others.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 705,
"end": 721,
"text": "(Apresjan, 1974)",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 724,
"end": 742,
"text": "(Pustejovsky, 1991",
"ref_id": "BIBREF23"
},
{
"start": 743,
"end": 763,
"text": "(Pustejovsky, , 1995",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 766,
"end": 791,
"text": "(Ostler and htkins, 1992)",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Scope of Phenomena",
"sec_num": "2.2.1"
},
{
"text": "Once LRs are defined in a computational scenario, a decision is required about the time of application of those rules. In a particular system, LRs can be applied at acquisition time, at lexicon load time and at run time.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "When Should LRs Be Applied?",
"sec_num": "2.2.2"
},
{
"text": "\u2022 Acquisition Time -The major advantage of this strategy is that the results of any LR expansion can be checked by the lexicon acquirer, though at the cost of substantial additional time. Even with the best left-hand side (LHS) conditions (see below), the lexicon acquirer may be flooded by new lexical entries to validate. During the review process, the lexicographer can accept the generated form, reject it as inappropriate, or make minor modifications. If the LR is being used to build the lexicon up from scratch, then mechanisms used by Ostler and Atkins (Ostler and Atkins, 1992) or (Briscoe et al., 1995) , such as blocking or preemption, are not available as automatic mechanisms for avoiding overgeneration.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 561,
"end": 586,
"text": "(Ostler and Atkins, 1992)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF21"
},
{
"start": 590,
"end": 612,
"text": "(Briscoe et al., 1995)",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "When Should LRs Be Applied?",
"sec_num": "2.2.2"
},
{
"text": "\u2022 Lexicon Load Time -The LRs can be applied to the base lexicon at the time the lexicon is loaded into the computational system. As with run-time loading, the risk is that overgeneration will cause more degradation in accuracy than the missing (derived) forms if the LRs were not applied in the first place. If the LR inventory approach is used or if the LHS constraints are very good (see below), then the overgeneration penalty is minimized, and the advantage of a large run-time lexicon is combined with efficiency in look-up and disk savings.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "When Should LRs Be Applied?",
"sec_num": "2.2.2"
},
{
"text": "\u2022 Run Time -Application of LRs at run time raises additional difficulties by not supporting an index of all the head forms to be used by the syntactic and semantic processes. For example, if there is an Lit which produces abusive-adj2 from abuse-v1, the adjectival form will be unknown to the syntactic parser, and its production would only be triggered by failure recovery mechanisms --if direct lookup failed and the reverse morphological process identified abusevl as a potential source of the entry needed.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "When Should LRs Be Applied?",
"sec_num": "2.2.2"
},
{
"text": "A hybrid scenario of LR use is also plausible, where, for example, LRs apply at acquisition time to produce new lexical entries, but may also be available at run time as an error recovery strategy to attempt generation of a form or word sense not already found in the lexicon.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "When Should LRs Be Applied?",
"sec_num": "2.2.2"
},
{
"text": "For any of the Lit application opportunities itemized above, a methodology needs to be developed for the selection of the subset of LRs which are applicable to a given lexical entry (whether base or derived). Otherwise, the Lits will grossly overgenerate, resulting in inappropriate entries, computational inefficiency, and degradation of accuracy. Two approaches suggest themselves.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "LR Triggering Conditions",
"sec_num": "2.2.3"
},
{
"text": "\u2022 Lit Itemization -The simplest mechanism of rule triggering is to include in each lexicon entry an explicit list of applicable rules. LR application can be chained, so that the rule chains are expanded, either statically, in the specification, or dynamically, at application time. This approach avoids any inappropriate application of the rules (overgeneration), though at the expense of tedious work at lexicon acquisition time. One drawback of this strategy is that if a new LR is added, each lexical entry needs to be revisited and possibly updated.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "LR Triggering Conditions",
"sec_num": "2.2.3"
},
{
"text": "\u2022 Itule LIIS Constraints -The other approach is to maintain a bank of LRs, and rely on their LHSs to constrairi the application of the rules to only the appropriate cases; in practice, however, it is difficult to set up the constraints in such a way as to avoid over-or undergeneration a pri-or~. Additionally, this approach (at least, when applied after acquisition time) does not allow explicit ordering of word senses, a practice preferred by many lexicographers to indicate relative frequency or salience; this sort of information can be captured by other mechanisms (e.g., using frequency-of-occurrence statistics). This approach does, however, capture the paradigmatic generalization that is represented by the rule, and simplifies lexical acquisition.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "LR Triggering Conditions",
"sec_num": "2.2.3"
},
{
"text": "Morpho-Semantics and Constructive Derivational Morphology:",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "3",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "a Transcategorial Approach to Lexical Rules",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "3",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "In this section, we present a case study of LRs based on constructive derivational morphology. Such LRs automatically produce word forms which are polysemous, such as the Spanish generador 'generator,'",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "3",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "either the artifact or someone who generates. The LRs have been tested in a real world application, involving the semi-automatic acquisition of a Spanish computational lexicon of about 35,000 word senses. We accelerated the process of lexical acquisition 1 by developing morpho-semantic LRs which, when applied to a lexeme, produced an average of 25 new candidate entries. Figure 1 below illustrates the overall process of generating new entries from a citation form, by applying morpho-semantic LRs.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 373,
"end": 381,
"text": "Figure 1",
"ref_id": "FIGREF2"
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "3",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "Generation of new entries usually starts with verbs. Each verb found in the corpora is submitted to the morpho-semantic generator which produces all its morphological derivations and, based on a detailed set of tested heuristics, attaches to each form an appropriate semantic LR. label, for instance, the nominal form comprador will be among the ones generated from the verb comprar and the semantic LR \"agent-of\" is attached to it. The mechanism of rule application is illustrated below.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "3",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The form list generated by the morpho-semantic generator is checked against three MRDs (Collins Spanish-English, Simon and Schuster Spanish-English, and Larousse Spanish) and the forms found in them are submitted to the acquisition process. However, forms not found in the dictionaries are not discarded outright because the MRDs cannot be assumed to be complete and some of these \":rejected\" forms can, in fact, be found in corpora or in the input text of an application system. This mechanism works because we rely on linguistic clues and a See (Viegas and Nirenburg, 1995) for the details on the acquisition process to build the core Spanish lexicon, and (Viegas and Beale, 1996) for the details oil the conceptual and technological tools used to check the quality of the lexicon. ................................. The Lexical Rule Processor is an engine which produces a new entry from an existing one, such as the new entry compra (Figure 3 ) produced from the verb entry comprar (Figure 2 ) after applying the LR2event rule. 2",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 547,
"end": 575,
"text": "(Viegas and Nirenburg, 1995)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF28"
},
{
"start": 658,
"end": 682,
"text": "(Viegas and Beale, 1996)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF30"
}
],
"ref_spans": [
{
"start": 784,
"end": 817,
"text": ".................................",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 936,
"end": 945,
"text": "(Figure 3",
"ref_id": "FIGREF5"
},
{
"start": 985,
"end": 994,
"text": "(Figure 2",
"ref_id": "FIGREF1"
}
],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "3",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The acquirer must check the definition and enter an example, but the rest of the information is simply retained. The LEXical-RUT.~.S zone specifies the morpho-semantic rule which was applied to produce this new entry and the verb it has been applied to.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "3",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "The morpho-semantic generator produces all predictable morphonological derivations with their morpho-lexico-semantic associations, using three major sources of clues: 1) word-forms with their corresponding morpho-semantic classification; 2) stem alternations and 3) construction mechanisms. The patterns of attachement include unification, concatenation and output rules 3. For instance beber can be 2We used the typed feature structures (tfs) as described in (Pollard and Sag, 1997 (inconlrolable, inlratable, ... ) . For instance, comprable, adj, LR3feasibilityallribulel, is morphologically derived from comprar, scope of this paper, and is discussed in .",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 460,
"end": 482,
"text": "(Pollard and Sag, 1997",
"ref_id": null
},
{
"start": 483,
"end": 516,
"text": "(inconlrolable, inlratable, ... )",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "3",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "4We developed about a hundred morpho-semantic rules, described in .",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "3",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "5The results of the derivational morphology program output are checked against, existing corpora and dictionaries, automatically. In this example no forms rejected by the dictionaries were found in the corpora, and therefore there was no reason to generate these new entries. However, the citation forms supercompra, precompra, precomprado, autocomprar actually appeared in other corpora, so that entries for them could be generated automatically at run time.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "3",
"sec_num": null
},
{
"text": "It is clear by now that LRs are most useful in largescale acquisition. In the process of Spanish acquisition, 20% of all entries were created from scratch by H-level lexicographers and 80% were generated by LRs and checked by research associates. It should be made equally clear, however, that the use of LRs is not cost-free. Besides the effort of discoveriug and implementing them, there is also the significant time and effort expenditure on the procedure of semiautomatic checking of the results of the application of LRs to the basic entries, such as those for the verbs.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The Cost of Lexical Rules",
"sec_num": "4"
},
{
"text": "The shifts and modulations studied in the literature in connection with the LRs and generative lexicon have also been shown to be not problem-free: sometimes the generation processes are blocked-or preempted-for a variety of lexical, semantic and other reasons (see (Ostler and Atkins, 1992) ). In fact, the study of blocking processes, their view as systemic rather than just a bunch of exceptions, is by itself an interesting enterprise (see (Briscoe et al., 1995) ).",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 266,
"end": 291,
"text": "(Ostler and Atkins, 1992)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF21"
},
{
"start": 444,
"end": 466,
"text": "(Briscoe et al., 1995)",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The Cost of Lexical Rules",
"sec_num": "4"
},
{
"text": "Obviously, similar problems occur in real-life large-scale lexical rules as well. Even the most seemingly regular processes do not typically go through in 100% of all cases. This makes the LR-affected entries not generable fully automatically and this is why each application of an LR to a qualifying phe- nomenon must be checked manually in the process of acquisition.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The Cost of Lexical Rules",
"sec_num": "4"
},
{
"text": "Adjectives provide a good case study for that. The acquisition of adjectives in general (see (Raskin and Nirenburg, 1995) ) results in the discovery and application of several large-scope lexical rules, and it appears that no exceptions should be expected. Table 1 illustrates examples of LRs discovered and used in adjective entries.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 93,
"end": 121,
"text": "(Raskin and Nirenburg, 1995)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF27"
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The Cost of Lexical Rules",
"sec_num": "4"
},
{
"text": "The first three and the last rule are truly largescope rules. Out of these, the -able rule seems to be the most homogeneous and 'error-proof.' Around 300 English adjectives out of the 6,000 or so, which occur in the intersection of LDOCE and the 1987-89 Wall Street Journal corpora, end in -able.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The Cost of Lexical Rules",
"sec_num": "4"
},
{
"text": "About 87% of all the -able adjectives are like readable: they mean, basically, something that can be read. In other words, they typically modify the noun which is the theme (or beneficiary, if animate) of the verb from which the adjective is derived:",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The Cost of Lexical Rules",
"sec_num": "4"
},
{
"text": "One can read the book.-The book is readable.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The Cost of Lexical Rules",
"sec_num": "4"
},
{
"text": "The temptation to mark all the verbs as capable of assuming the suffix -able (or -ible) and forming adjectives with this type of meaning is strong, but it cannot be done because of various forms of blocking or preemption. Verbs like kill, relate, or necessitate do not form such adjectives comfortably or at all. Adjectives like audible or legible do conform to the formula above, but they are derived, as it were, from suppletive verbs, hear and read, respectively. More distressingly, however, a complete acquisition process for these adjectives uncovers 17 different combinations of semantic roles for the nouns modified by the -ble adjectives, involving, besides the \"stan-dard\" theme or beneficiary roles, the agent, experiencer, location, and even the entire event expressed by the verb. It is true that some of these combinations are extremely rare (e.g. perishable), and all together they account for under 40 adjectives. The point remains, however, that each case has to be checked manually (well, semi-automatically, because the same tools that we have developed for acquisition are used in checking), so that the exact meaning of the derived adjective with regard to that of the verb itself is determined. It turns out also that, for a polysemous verb, the adjective does not necessarily inherit all its meanings (e.g., perishable again).",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "The Cost of Lexical Rules",
"sec_num": "4"
},
{
"text": "In this paper, we have discussed several aspects of the discovery, representation, and implementation of LRs, where, we believe, they count, namely, in the actual process of developing a realistic-size, real-life NLP system. Our LRs tend to be large-scope rules, which saves us a lot of time and effort on massive lexical acquisition. Research reported in this paper has exhibited a finer grain size of description of morphemic semantics by recognizing more meaning components of non-root morphemes than usually acknowledged.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Conclusion",
"sec_num": "5"
},
{
"text": "The reported research concentrated on lexical rules for derivational morphology. The same mechanism has been shown, in small-scale experiments, to work for other kinds of lexical regularities, notably cases of regular polysemy (e.g., (Ostler and Atkins, 1992) , (Apresjan, 1974) ).",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 234,
"end": 259,
"text": "(Ostler and Atkins, 1992)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF21"
},
{
"start": 262,
"end": 278,
"text": "(Apresjan, 1974)",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Conclusion",
"sec_num": "5"
},
{
"text": "Our treatment of transcategoriality allows for a lexicon superentry to contain senses which are not simply enumerated. The set of entries in a superentry can be seen as an hierarchy of a few \"original\" senses and a number of senses derived from them according to well-defined rules. Thus, the argument between the sense-enumeration and sense-derivation schools in computational lexicography may be shown to be of less importance than suggested by recent literature.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Conclusion",
"sec_num": "5"
},
{
"text": "Our lexical rules are quite different from the lexical rules used in lexical]y-based grammars (such as (GPSG, (Gazdar et al., 1985) or sign-based theories (HPSG, (Pollard and Sag, 1987) ), as the latter can rather be viewed as linking rules and often deal with issues such as subcategorization.",
"cite_spans": [
{
"start": 110,
"end": 131,
"text": "(Gazdar et al., 1985)",
"ref_id": "BIBREF10"
},
{
"start": 162,
"end": 185,
"text": "(Pollard and Sag, 1987)",
"ref_id": null
}
],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Conclusion",
"sec_num": "5"
},
{
"text": "The issue of when to apply the lexical rules in a computational environment is relatively new. More studies must be made to determine the most beneficial place of LRs in a computational process.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Conclusion",
"sec_num": "5"
},
{
"text": "Finally, it is also clear that each LR comes at a certain human-labor and computational expense, and if the applicability, or \"payload,\" of a rule is limited, its use may not be worth the extra effort. We cannot say at this point that LRs provide any advantages in computation or quality of the deliverables. What we do know is that, when used justifiably and maintained at a large scope, they facilitate tremendously the costly but unavoidable process of semi-automatic lexical acquisition. 6",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Conclusion",
"sec_num": "5"
}
],
"back_matter": [
{
"text": "This work has been supported in part by Departmerit of Defense under contract number MDA-904-92-C-5189. We would like to thank Margarita Gonzales and Jeff Longwell for their help and implementation of the work reported here. We are also grateful to anonymous reviewers and the Mikrokosmos team from CRL.",
"cite_spans": [],
"ref_spans": [],
"eq_spans": [],
"section": "Acknowledgements",
"sec_num": null
}
],
"bib_entries": {
"BIBREF1": {
"ref_id": "b1",
"title": "Building a lexicon:The contribution of lexicography In",
"authors": [
{
"first": "B",
"middle": [
"T S"
],
"last": "Atkins",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1991,
"venue": "Special Issue, International Journal of Lexicography",
"volume": "4",
"issue": "",
"pages": "167--204",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "B. T. S. Atkins 1991 Building a lexicon:The con- tribution of lexicography In B. Boguraev (ed.), \"Building a Lexicon\", Special Issue, International Journal of Lexicography 4:3, pp. 167-204.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF2": {
"ref_id": "b2",
"title": "Sense extensions as lexical rules",
"authors": [
{
"first": "E",
"middle": [
"J"
],
"last": "Briscoe",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "A",
"middle": [],
"last": "Copestake",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1991,
"venue": "Proceedings of the IJCAI Workshop on Computational Approaches to Non-Literal Language",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "12--20",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "E. J. Briscoe and A. Copestake 1991 Sense exten- sions as lexical rules In Proceedings of the IJCAI Workshop on Computational Approaches to Non- Literal Language. Sydney, Australia, pp. 12-20.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF3": {
"ref_id": "b3",
"title": "Inheritance, Defaults, and the Lexicon",
"authors": [
{
"first": "E",
"middle": [
"J"
],
"last": "Briscoe",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1993,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "E. J. Briscoe, Valeria de Paiva, and Ann Copestake (eds.) 1993 Inheritance, Defaults, and the Lexi- con. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF4": {
"ref_id": "b4",
"title": "Ann Copestake, and Alex Lascarides. 1995. Blocking",
"authors": [
{
"first": "E",
"middle": [
"J"
],
"last": "Briscoe",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": null,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "E. J. Briscoe, Ann Copestake, and Alex Las- carides. 1995. Blocking. In P. Saint-Dizier and E.Viegas, Computational Lcxical Semantics. Cam- bridge University Press.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF5": {
"ref_id": "b5",
"title": "World Modeling for NLP. Center for Machine Translation",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Lynn",
"middle": [],
"last": "Carlson",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Sergei",
"middle": [],
"last": "Nirenburg",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1990,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Lynn Carlson and Sergei Nirenburg 1990. World Modeling for NLP. Center for Machine Trans- lation, Carnegie Mellon University, Tech Report CMU-CMT-90-121.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF6": {
"ref_id": "b6",
"title": "Lexical operations in a unification-based framework",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Ann",
"middle": [],
"last": "Copestake",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Ted",
"middle": [],
"last": "Briscoe",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1992,
"venue": "Lexical Semantics and Knowledge Repres~:ntation",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "101--119",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Ann Copestake and Ted Briscoe 1992 Lexical operations in a unification-based framework. In J. Pustejovsky and S. Bergler (eds), Lexical Se- mantics and Knowledge Repres~:ntation. Berlin: Springer, pp. 101-119.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF7": {
"ref_id": "b7",
"title": "Lexical Semantics Cambridge",
"authors": [
{
"first": "D",
"middle": [
"A"
],
"last": "Cruse",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1986,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "D. A. Cruse 1986 Lexical Semantics Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF8": {
"ref_id": "b8",
"title": "Machine Translation: A View from the Lexicon Cambridge",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Bonnie",
"middle": [],
"last": "Dorr",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1993,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Bonnie Dorr 1993 Machine Translation: A View from the Lexicon Cambridge, MA: M.I.T. Press.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF9": {
"ref_id": "b9",
"title": "A lexical-semantic solution to the divergence problem in machine translation",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Bonnie",
"middle": [],
"last": "Dorr",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1995,
"venue": "Computational Lezical Semantics: CUP",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Bonnie Dorr 1995 A lexical-semantic solution to the divergence problem in machine translation. In St-Dizier P. and Viegas E. (eds), Computational Lezical Semantics: CUP.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF10": {
"ref_id": "b10",
"title": "Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Gerald",
"middle": [],
"last": "Gazdar",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "E",
"middle": [],
"last": "Klein",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Geoffrey",
"middle": [],
"last": "Pullum",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Ivan",
"middle": [],
"last": "Sag",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1985,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Gerald Gazdar, E. Klein, Geoffrey Pullum and Ivan Sag 1985 Generalized Phrase Structure Gram- mar. Blackwell: Oxford.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF11": {
"ref_id": "b11",
"title": "Le lexique : quelques probl@mes de description et de repr@sentation lexieale pour la traduction automatique",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Ulrich",
"middle": [],
"last": "Heid",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1993,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Ulrich Heid 1993 Le lexique : quelques probl@mes de description et de repr@sentation lexieale pour la traduction automatique. In Bouillon, P. and Clas, A. (eds), La Traductique: AUPEL-UREF.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF12": {
"ref_id": "b12",
"title": "Resolving Translation Mismatches With Information Flow",
"authors": [
{
"first": "M",
"middle": [],
"last": "Kameyama",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "R",
"middle": [],
"last": "Ochitani",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "S",
"middle": [],
"last": "Peters",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1991,
"venue": "Proceedings of ACL'91",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "M. Kameyama, R. Ochitani and S. Peters 1991 Re- solving Translation Mismatches With Information Flow. Proceedings of ACL'91.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF13": {
"ref_id": "b13",
"title": "Semantics",
"authors": [],
"year": 1981,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Geoffrey Leech 1981 Semantics. Cambridge: Cam- bridge University Press.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF14": {
"ref_id": "b14",
"title": "Towards a Le~cical Organization of English Verbs Chicago",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Beth",
"middle": [],
"last": "Levin",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1992,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Beth Levin 1992 Towards a Le~cical Organization of English Verbs Chicago: University of Chicago Press.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF16": {
"ref_id": "b16",
"title": "A situated ontology for practical NLP",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Kavi",
"middle": [],
"last": "Mahesh",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Sergei",
"middle": [],
"last": "Nirenburg",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1995,
"venue": "Proceedings of the Workshop on Basic Ontological Issues in Knowledge Sharing, International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI-95)",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Kavi Mahesh and Sergei Nirenburg 1995 A sit- uated ontology for practical NLP. Proceedings of the Workshop on Basic Ontological Issues in Knowledge Sharing, International Joint Confer- ence on Artificial Intelligence (IJCAI-95), Mon- treal, Canada, August 1995.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF17": {
"ref_id": "b17",
"title": "Syntax-Driven and Ontology-Driven Lexical Semantics In",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Sergei",
"middle": [],
"last": "Nirenburg",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Lori",
"middle": [],
"last": "Levin",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1992,
"venue": "Lexical Semantics and Knowledge Representation",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "5--20",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Sergei Nirenburg and Lori Levin 1992 Syntax- Driven and Ontology-Driven Lexical Semantics In J. Pustejovsky and S. Bergler (eds), Lexical Se- mantics and Knowledge Representation. Berlin: Springer, pp. 5-20.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF18": {
"ref_id": "b18",
"title": "A Metric for Computational Analysis of Meaning: Toward an Applied Theory of Linguistic Semantics Proceedings of COLING '86",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Sergei",
"middle": [],
"last": "Nirenburg",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": ";",
"middle": [
"F R G"
],
"last": "Victor Raskin",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1986,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "338--340",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Sergei Nirenburg and Victor Raskin 1986 A Metric for Computational Analysis of Meaning: Toward an Applied Theory of Linguistic Semantics Pro- ceedings of COLING '86. Bonn, F.R.G.: Univer- sity of Bonn, pp. 338-340",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF19": {
"ref_id": "b19",
"title": "Machine Translation: A Knowledge-Based Approach",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Sergei",
"middle": [],
"last": "Nirenburg",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Jaime",
"middle": [],
"last": "Carbonell",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Masaru",
"middle": [],
"last": "Tomita",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Kenneth",
"middle": [],
"last": "Goodman",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1992,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Sergei Nirenburg, Jaime Carbonell, Masaru Tomita, and Kenneth Goodman 1992 Machine Transla- tion: A Knowledge-Based Approach. San Mateo CA: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF21": {
"ref_id": "b21",
"title": "Predictable meaning shift: Some linguistic properties of lexical implication rules In",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Nicholas",
"middle": [],
"last": "Ostler",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "B",
"middle": [
"T S"
],
"last": "Atkins",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1992,
"venue": "Lexical Semantics and Knowledge Representation",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "87--100",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Nicholas Ostler and B. T. S. Atkins 1992 Pre- dictable meaning shift: Some linguistic properties of lexical implication rules In J. Pustejovsky and S. Bergler (eds), Lexical Semantics and Knowledge Representation. Berlin: Springer, pp. 87-100.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF23": {
"ref_id": "b23",
"title": "The generative lexicon",
"authors": [
{
"first": "James",
"middle": [],
"last": "Pustejovsky",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1991,
"venue": "Computational Linguistics",
"volume": "17",
"issue": "4",
"pages": "409--441",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "James Pustejovsky 1991 The generative lexicon. Computational Linguistics 17:4, pp. 409-441.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF24": {
"ref_id": "b24",
"title": "Type coercion and [exical selection",
"authors": [
{
"first": "James",
"middle": [],
"last": "Pustejovsky",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1993,
"venue": "Semantics and the Lexicon",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "73--94",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "James Pustejovsky 1993 Type coercion and [exical selection. In James Pustejovsky (ed.), Semantics and the Lexicon. Dordrecht-Boston: Kluwer, pp. 73-94.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF26": {
"ref_id": "b26",
"title": "What Is There in Linguistic Semantics for Natural Language Processing",
"authors": [
{
"first": "",
"middle": [],
"last": "Victor Raskin",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1987,
"venue": "Proceedings of Natural Language Planning Workshop",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "78--96",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Victor Raskin 1987 What Is There in Linguis- tic Semantics for Natural Language Processing? In Sergei Nirenburg (ed.), Proceedings of Natu- ral Language Planning Workshop. Blue Mountain Lake, N.Y.: RADC, pp. 78-96.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF27": {
"ref_id": "b27",
"title": "Lexieal Semantics of Adjectives: A Microtheory of Adjectival Meaning",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Victor",
"middle": [],
"last": "Raskin",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Sergei",
"middle": [],
"last": "Nirenburg",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1995,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Victor Raskin and Sergei Nirenburg 1995 Lexieal Semantics of Adjectives: A Microtheory of Adjec- tival Meaning. MCCS-95-28, CRL, NMSU, Las Cruces, N.M.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF28": {
"ref_id": "b28",
"title": "Acquisition semi-automatique du lexique",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Evelyne",
"middle": [],
"last": "Viegas",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Sergei",
"middle": [],
"last": "Nirenburg",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1995,
"venue": "Proceedings of \"Quatri~mes Journ@es scientifiques de Lyon",
"volume": "95",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Evelyne Viegas and Sergei Nirenburg 1995 Acquisi- tion semi-automatique du lexique. Proceedings of \"Quatri~mes Journ@es scientifiques de Lyon\", Lez- icologie Langage Terminologie, Lyon 95, France.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF29": {
"ref_id": "b29",
"title": "Morpho-semanlics and Constructive Derivational Morphology: a Transcategorial Approach to Lexical Rules",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Evelyne",
"middle": [],
"last": "Viegas",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Margarita",
"middle": [],
"last": "Gonzalez",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Jeff",
"middle": [],
"last": "Long",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1996,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Evelyne Viegas, Margarita Gonzalez and Jeff Long- well 1996 Morpho-semanlics and Constructive Derivational Morphology: a Transcategorial Ap- proach to Lexical Rules. Technical Report MCCS- 96-295, CRL, NMSU.",
"links": null
},
"BIBREF30": {
"ref_id": "b30",
"title": "Multilinguality and Reversibility in Computational Semantic Lexicons Proceedings of INLG'96",
"authors": [
{
"first": "Evelyne",
"middle": [],
"last": "Viegas",
"suffix": ""
},
{
"first": "Stephen",
"middle": [],
"last": "Beale",
"suffix": ""
}
],
"year": 1996,
"venue": "",
"volume": "",
"issue": "",
"pages": "",
"other_ids": {},
"num": null,
"urls": [],
"raw_text": "Evelyne Viegas and Stephen Beale 1996 Multi- linguality and Reversibility in Computational Se- mantic Lexicons Proceedings of INLG'96, Sussex, England.",
"links": null
}
},
"ref_entries": {
"FIGREF0": {
"text": ".-.-:.~;~::::~:,::.~.:;~ ~:::~-::::.: :.: ~::~::~:::::::.:::.~:::.::~ ~..:::.::~ \u00d7.:",
"num": null,
"uris": null,
"type_str": "figure"
},
"FIGREF1": {
"text": "Partial Entry for the Spanish lexieal item comprar.",
"num": null,
"uris": null,
"type_str": "figure"
},
"FIGREF2": {
"text": "Automatic Generation of New Entries. therefore our system does not grossly overgenerate candidates.",
"num": null,
"uris": null,
"type_str": "figure"
},
"FIGREF3": {
"text": "below, shows tlle derivational morphology output for eomprar, with the associated lexical rules which are later used to actually generate the entries. Lexical rules 4 were applied to 1056 verb citation forms with 1263 senses among them. The rules helped acquire an average of 25 candidate new entries per verb sense, thus producing a total of 31,680 candidate entries.From the 26 different citation forms shown inFigure4, only 9 forms (seeFigure 5), featuring 16 new entries, have been accepted after checking. 5",
"num": null,
"uris": null,
"type_str": "figure"
},
"FIGREF5": {
"text": "Partial Entry for the Spanish lexical item compra generated automatically. and adds to the semantics of comprar the shade of meaning of possibility.",
"num": null,
"uris": null,
"type_str": "figure"
},
"FIGREF6": {
"text": "Dictionary Checking Output.",
"num": null,
"uris": null,
"type_str": "figure"
},
"TABREF0": {
"content": "<table><tr><td>\"comprar-V1</td><td/></tr><tr><td>cat:</td><td>V</td></tr><tr><td>dfn:</td><td>acquire the possession or right</td></tr><tr><td/><td>by paying or promising to pay</td></tr><tr><td>ex:</td><td>troche eompro una nueva empress</td></tr><tr><td>aAmin:</td><td>jlongwel \"18/1 15:42:44\"</td></tr><tr><td>syn: sere: iiii iiiiiii!iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiJJii !i iii iiiii ~ forme i ii ii:ii i</td><td>\"root: [] 0 bj: ~ [sem: rcat \"buy agent: fi-i] human theme: [~] object</td></tr><tr><td>accepted forms</td><td/></tr><tr><td>rejected forms</td><td/></tr></table>",
"type_str": "table",
"num": null,
"html": null,
"text": "................. :.: .........."
},
"TABREF3": {
"content": "<table><tr><td>LRs</td><td>Applied to</td><td>Entry Type 1</td><td>Entry Type 2</td><td>Examples</td></tr><tr><td>Comparative</td><td>All scalars</td><td>Positive '.Degree</td><td>Comparative Degree</td><td>good-better</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>big-bigger</td></tr><tr><td>Semantic Role</td><td>Event-Based</td><td>Adj. Entry</td><td>Adj. entry</td><td>abusive</td></tr><tr><td>Shifter Family</td><td>Adjs</td><td>corresponding to</td><td>corresponding to</td><td>noticeable</td></tr><tr><td>of LR's</td><td/><td>one semantic role</td><td>another semantic role</td><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>of the underlying</td><td>of the underlying</td><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>verb</td><td>verb</td><td/></tr><tr><td>-Able LR</td><td>Event-Based</td><td>Verbs taking the</td><td>Adjs formed</td><td>noticeable</td></tr><tr><td/><td>Adjs</td><td>-able suffix to</td><td>with the help of</td><td>vulnerable</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>form an adj</td><td>-able from these</td><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>verbs (including</td><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>\"suppletivism\" )</td><td/></tr><tr><td>Human Organs LR</td><td>Size adjs</td><td>Adjs denoting</td><td>Adjs denoting</td><td>undersized-l-2</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>general human size</td><td>the corresponding size</td><td>buxom-l-2</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>of all or some</td><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>external organs</td><td/></tr><tr><td>Size Importance LR</td><td>Size adjs</td><td>Basic size</td><td>Figurative meanings</td><td>big-l-2</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>adjs</td><td>of same adjectives</td><td/></tr><tr><td>-Sealed LR</td><td>VeryTrueScalars</td><td>True scalar</td><td>Adj-scale(d)</td><td>modest-</td></tr><tr><td/><td>(age, size, price,)</td><td>adjectives</td><td/><td>modest(ly)-</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>-price(d)old</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>-old-age</td></tr><tr><td>Negative LR</td><td>All adjs</td><td>Positive adjs</td><td>Corresponding</td><td>noticeable</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>Negative adjectives</td><td>unnoticeable</td></tr></table>",
"type_str": "table",
"num": null,
"html": null,
"text": "Lexical Rules for Adjectives."
}
}
}
} |