| { |
| "paper_id": "A83-1012", |
| "header": { |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T02:11:37.217722Z" |
| }, |
| "title": "KNOWLEDGE BASED QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "authors": [ |
| { |
| "first": "Michael", |
| "middle": [ |
| "J" |
| ], |
| "last": "Pazzani", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": { |
| "laboratory": "", |
| "institution": "The MITRE Corporation Bedford", |
| "location": { |
| "postCode": "01730", |
| "region": "MA" |
| } |
| }, |
| "email": "" |
| }, |
| { |
| "first": "Carl", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "Engelman", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": { |
| "laboratory": "", |
| "institution": "The MITRE Corporation Bedford", |
| "location": { |
| "postCode": "01730", |
| "region": "MA" |
| } |
| }, |
| "email": "" |
| } |
| ], |
| "year": "", |
| "venue": null, |
| "identifiers": {}, |
| "abstract": "The natural language database query system incorporated in the KNOBS interactive planning system comprises a dictionary driven parser, APE-II, and script interpreter which yield a USER: Are there F-4G's at Ramatein? KNOBS: RAMSTEIN has F-4Ga. USER: Can its fighters reach the target? KNOBS: F-15e can reach SE50301 from RA~SIEIN. F-4Ge and F-dCa can not reach BEb0301 from RA~STEIN. USER: Which SCL which are carried by an F-dC contain ECM? KNOBS: Sl, S7 and BB.", |
| "pdf_parse": { |
| "paper_id": "A83-1012", |
| "_pdf_hash": "", |
| "abstract": [ |
| { |
| "text": "The natural language database query system incorporated in the KNOBS interactive planning system comprises a dictionary driven parser, APE-II, and script interpreter which yield a USER: Are there F-4G's at Ramatein? KNOBS: RAMSTEIN has F-4Ga. USER: Can its fighters reach the target? KNOBS: F-15e can reach SE50301 from RA~SIEIN. F-4Ge and F-dCa can not reach BEb0301 from RA~STEIN. USER: Which SCL which are carried by an F-dC contain ECM? KNOBS: Sl, S7 and BB.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Abstract", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "body_text": [ |
| { |
| "text": "conceptual dependency conceptualization as a representation of the manning of user input. A conceptualization pattern matching production system then determines and executes a procedure for extracting the desired information from the database.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In contrast to syntax driven Q-A systems, e.$., those based on ATH parsers, AFE-II ia driven bottom-up by expectations associated with word ~eanings. The procesain K of a query is based on the contents of several knowledge sources including the dictionary entries (partial conceptualizations and their expectations), frames representing conceptual dependency primitives, scripts which contain stereotypical knowledge about planning tasks used to infer states enabling or resulting from actions, and two production system rule bases for the inference of implicit case fillers, and for determining the responsive database search. The goals of this approach, all of which are currently at least partially achieved, include utilizing similar representations for questions with similar meanings but widely varying surface structures, developing a powerful mechanism for the disambiguatiou of words with multiple meanings and the determination of pronoun referents, answering questions which require inferences to be understood, and interpreting ellipses and unBra--natical utterances.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The KNOBS [Engelman, 1980] demonstration system is an experimental expert system providing consultant services to an Air Force tactical air mission planner. The KNOBS database consists of several nets of frames, implemented within an extension of FRL [Roberts, 1977] , representing both individual and generic classes of targets, resources, and planned missions. The KNOBS system supports a planner by checking the consistency of plan components, enumerating or ranking possible choices for plan components, or automatically generating a complete plan.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 10, |
| "end": 26, |
| "text": "[Engelman, 1980]", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 251, |
| "end": 266, |
| "text": "[Roberts, 1977]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF12" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "THE SETTING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Because these activities are accomplished by means of rules and constraints expressible in English, KNOBS will hopefully be a relatively easy system to learn.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "THE SETTING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "For the same reasons, it is also being considered as an aid to train mission planners.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "THE SETTING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
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| "text": "The natural language subsystem of KNOBS plays several roles including those of database query, database update, co~uand language, plan definition, and the addition or modification of production system rules representing domain knowledge. The moat developed of these is database query, upon which this paper will focus.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "THE SETTING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The balance of this paper will first outline the use of conceptual dependency and mention some prior related work and then describe the several knowledge sources and the parts they play in the parsing of the input query. Finally, it will describe the method of deriving the appropriate database search and output response as well as a script-based approach to interpretting COmmands. USE OF CONCEPTUAL DEPENDENCY APE-If utilizes Conceptual Dependency theory [Schank, 1972] to represent the meaning of questions.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 458, |
| "end": 472, |
| "text": "[Schank, 1972]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF13" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "THE SETTING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Once the meaning of a question has been found, the question is answered by a rule based system whose teats are CD patterns and whose actions execute database queries.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "THE SETTING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "We feel it is important to represent the meaning in this manner for several reasons.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "THE SETTING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "First, the canonical meaning representation enables questions which have different surface expressions, but the same meanins, to be answered by the same mechanikm. This is not only of theoretical sisnificance, but is also a practical matter as it requires less effort to produce a robust system.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "THE SETTING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "what they mean, inferences may be required to explicate missing information. This inference process can also utilize the canonical meaning representation.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Because people do not always say precisely", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Finally, finding the referent Qf a nominal which is modified by a relative clause is, in some cases, similar to question answering although the syntactic constructions used differ. As a result of this similarity, the question answering productions can also be used for determining the referents of a relative clause. The conversation with KNOBS (whose database is fictional) in Fig. 1 illustrates these points.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 378, |
| "end": 384, |
| "text": "Fig. 1", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Because people do not always say precisely", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The first question is represented in the same manner as \"Does Ramstein have F-4G's?\" and would be answered by the same rule. The second question, after resolving the pronominal reference, requires an inference to find the location from which the F-4G's will be leaving.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Because people do not always say precisely", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This inference states that if the source of the object of a physical transfer is missing, then the source could be the initial location of the object.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Because people do not always say precisely", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The third question can be thought of as two questions: \"Which SCL (Standard Configuration Load -a predefined weapons package) are carried by an F-dC?\" and \"Which of those contain ECM (Electronic Counter Measures -radar jamming equipment)?\".", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Because people do not always say precisely", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The first part requires a script based inference:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Because people do not always say precisely", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In order for an SCL to be carried by an aircraft, the aircraft must be capable of having the SCL as a part.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Because people do not always say precisely", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "After the first part is answered as a question, the second part is answered as a second question to discover which contain ECM.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Because people do not always say precisely", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The system of representation used for nominals (or picture producers) differs from that normally present in a CD system. Typically, an object such as an F-4C would be represented as a picture producer with a TYPE case filled by VEHICLE, a SUBTYPE case filled by aircraft, and, perhaps, a MODEL case filled by F-4C.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Because people do not always say precisely", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In KNOBS, the meaning representation produced by the parser is F-dC, the name of a frame.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Because people do not always say precisely", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The set membership of this frame is indicated by links to other frames.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Because people do not always say precisely", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "F-dC is a kind of FIGHTER which is a kind of AIRPLANE which is an AIRCR~T which is a VEHICLE which is a PICTURE PRODUCER. We feel that representing nominals in this manner allows a finer degree of discrimination than explicitly labeled cases to denote a conceptual hierarchy.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Because people do not always say precisely", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "of objects in the database (which are stored as value facets of slots in FRL) are represented as kinds of RELATIONS in the KNOBS system.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Many of the attributes", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "For example, the representation of \"Hahn's Latitude\" is (LATITUDE ARGUMENT (HAHN)). Note, however, chat the representation of \"Hahn's aircraft\" is (AIRCRAFT LOC (AT PLACE (HAHN))).", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Many of the attributes", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "We would like to distinguish the KNOBS natural language facility from such familiar natural language query systems as LADDER [Hendrix, 1978] and LUNAR [Woods, 1972] in both function and method.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 125, |
| "end": 140, |
| "text": "[Hendrix, 1978]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF8" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 151, |
| "end": 164, |
| "text": "[Woods, 1972]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF16" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "PREVIOUS WORK", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The functional model of the above systems is that of someone with a problem to solve and a database containing information useful in its solution which he can access via a natural language interface.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "PREVIOUS WORK", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "KNOBS, by contrast, integrates the natural language capability with multi-faceted problem solving support including critiquing and Benerating tactical plans. Our approach differs in method from these previous systems in its bottom-up, dictionary driven parsing which results in a canonical representation of the meaning of the query, its ability to perform context dependent inferences with this representation during question answering, and the use of a declarative representation of the domain to assist parsin S, question answering, plan updating, and inferencing.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "PREVIOUS WORK", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "A system similar to APE-If in both its diccionarydriven approach to parsins and ice direct attack on word sense disambiguation is the Word Expert Parser (WEP) [Small, 1980] . This parser associates a discrimination net with each word to guide the meanin 8 selection process. Each word in a sentence is a pointer to a coroutine called a word expert which cooperates with neighboring words to build a meanin S representation of the sentences in a bottom-up, i.e., data driven, fashion.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
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| "start": 159, |
| "end": 172, |
| "text": "[Small, 1980]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF14" |
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| "section": "PREVIOUS WORK", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "At each node in the discrimination net a multiple-choice test is executed which can query the lexical properties or expectations, (selectional restrictions [Katz, 1963] ) of neighboring words, or proposed FOCUS, ACTIVITY, and DISCOURSE modules.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 156, |
| "end": 168, |
| "text": "[Katz, 1963]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF9" |
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| "section": "PREVIOUS WORK", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "The sense selection process of WEP requires that each word know all of the contexts in which its senses can occur.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "section": "PREVIOUS WORK", |
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| "text": "For example, to find the meaning of \"pit\", the pit expert can ask if a MINING-ACTIVITY, EATING-ACTION, CAR-RACINC, or MUSIC-CONCERT-ACTION is active.", |
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| "section": "PREVIOUS WORK", |
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| "text": "Experiment), a parser used by the DSAM (Distributable Script Applying Mechanism) and ACE (Academic Counseling Expert) projects at the University of Connecticut [Cullingford, 1982] . APE is based on the CA parser [Birnbaum, 1981] with the addition of a word sense disambiguation algorithm.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 160, |
| "end": 179, |
| "text": "[Cullingford, 1982]", |
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| { |
| "start": 212, |
| "end": 228, |
| "text": "[Birnbaum, 1981]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF0" |
| } |
| ], |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II evolved from APE (A Parsing", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In CA, word definitions are represented as requests, a type of test-action pair.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II evolved from APE (A Parsing", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
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| "text": "The test part of a request can check lexical and semantic features of neighboring words; the actions create or connect CD structures, and activate or deactivate other requests.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II evolved from APE (A Parsing", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "The method available to select the appropriate meaning of a word in CA is to use the test part of separate requests to examine the meanings of other words and co build a meaning representation as function of this local context.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "APE-II evolved from APE (A Parsing", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "For example, if the objeet of \"serve\" is a food, the meaning is \"bring to\"; if the object is a ball, the meaning is \"hit toward\". This method works well for selecting a sense of a word which has expectations.", |
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| "section": "APE-II evolved from APE (A Parsing", |
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| "text": "However, some words have no expectations and the intended sense is the one that is expected. For example, the proper sense of \"ball\" in \"John kicked the ball.\" and \"John attended the ball.\" is the sense which the central action expects.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "section": "APE-II evolved from APE (A Parsing", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The word definitions of APE are also represented as requests. A special concept called a VEL is used to represent the set of possible meanings of a word.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II evolved from APE (A Parsing", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
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| "text": "When searching for a concept which has certain semantic features, an expectation can select one or more senses from a VEL and discard those that are not appropriate.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II evolved from APE (A Parsing", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "In addition, APE can use expectations from a contextual knowledge source such as a script applier to select a word sense.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "section": "APE-II evolved from APE (A Parsing", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
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| "text": "Each script is augmented with parser executable expectations called named requests.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "section": "APE-II evolved from APE (A Parsing", |
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| "text": "For example, aCa certain point in understanding a restaurant story, leaving \u2022 tip for the waiter is expected.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II evolved from APE (A Parsing", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "The parser is then given a named request which could help disambiguate the words \"leave\" and \"tip\", should they appear.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "section": "APE-II evolved from APE (A Parsing", |
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| "text": "A word definition in APE-II consists of the set of all of its senses.", |
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| "section": "APE-II", |
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| "text": "Each sense contains \u2022 concept, i.e., \u2022 partial CD structure which expresses the meaning of this sense, and a set of conceptual and lexical expectatious.", |
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| "text": "A conceptual expectation instructs the parser to look for a concept in s certain relative position which meets a selectional restriction. The expectation also contains a selectional preference, a more specific, preferred category for the expected concept (cf. [Wilkg, 1972] ).", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
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| "start": 260, |
| "end": 273, |
| "text": "[Wilkg, 1972]", |
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| "text": "If such a concept is found, the expectation contains information on how it can be combined with the concept which initiated the expectation.", |
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| "text": "A lexical expectation instructs the parser to look for a certain word and add a new, favored sense to it. This process is useful for predicting the function of a prepositiou [Reisbeck, 1976] .", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 174, |
| "end": 190, |
| "text": "[Reisbeck, 1976]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF11" |
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| "text": "The definition of a pronoun utilizes a context and focus mechanism co find the set of possible referents which agree with it in number and gender. THE PRONOUN IS THEN TREATED LIKE A WORD WITH MULTIPLE SENSES. The definitions of the words \"fly\", \"eat\" and \"A/C\" are shown in Fig. 2 .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
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| "start": 274, |
| "end": 280, |
| "text": "Fig. 2", |
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| "text": "The definition of \"A/C\" states that it means AIRCRAFT or AIR-CONDITIONER. APE-If uses selectional restrictions to choose the proper sense of \"A/C\" in the question \"What A/C can fly from Hahn?\". On the other hand, in the sentence \"Send 4 A/C to BE70701.\", APE-II utilizes the facts that the OCA script is active, and that sending aircraft to a target is a scene of that script, Co determine that \"A/C\" means AIRCRAFT.", |
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| "section": "APE-II", |
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| "text": "In the question \"What is an A/C?\", APE-II uses a weaker argument to resolve the potential ambiguity.", |
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| "text": "It utilizes the fact that AIRCRAFT is an object that can perform a role in the OCA script, while an AIR-CONDITIONER cannot.", |
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| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The definition of \"fly\" states that it means FLY which is a kind of physical transfer. The expectations associated with fly state the actor of the sentence (i.e., a concept which precedes the action in a d~clarative sentence, follows \"by\" in a passive sentence, or appears in various places in questions, etc.) is expected to be an AIRCRAFT in which case it is the OBJECT of FLY or is expected to be a BIRD in which case it is both the ACTOR and the OBJECT of the physical transfer. This is the expectation which can select the intended sense of \"A/C\". If the word \"~o\" appears, it might serve the function of indicating the filler of the TO case of FLY.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The word \"from\" is given a similar definition, which would fill the FROM case with the object of the preposition which :should be a PICTURE-PRODUCER but is preferred to be a LOCATION.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The definition of \"eat\" contains an expectation with s selectional preference which indicates that the object is preferred to be food.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This preference serves another purpose also. The object will be converted to a food if possible. For example, if the object were \"chicken\" then this conversion would assert that it is a dead and cooked chicken.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "We vili first discuss the parsing process as if sentences could be parsed in isolation and then explain how it is augmented to account for context. The simplified parsing process consists of adding the senses of each word to an active memory, considering the expectations, and removin E concepts (senses) which are not connected to other concepts.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Word sense disambiguation and the resolution of pronominal references are achieved by several mechanisms. Selectional restrictions can be helpful to resolve m-biguities.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "For example, many actions require an animate actor.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "If there are several choices for the actor, the inanimate ones will be weeded out.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Conversely, if there are several choices for the main action, and the actor has been established as animate, then ~hose actions which require an inanimate actor will be discarded. Selectional preferences are used in addition to selectioual restrictions.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "For example, if \"eat\" has an object which is a pronoun whose possible referents are a food and a coin, the food will be preferred and the coin discarded as a possible referent.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "A conflict resolution mechanism is invoked if more than one concept satisfies the restrictions and preferences.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This consists of using \"conceptual constraints\" to determine if the CD structure which would be built is plausible. These constraints are predicates associated with CD primitives.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "For example, the locational specifier INSIDE has a constraint which states that the contents must be smaller than the container.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The disnmbiguation process can make use of the knowledge structures which represent stereotypical domain information.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The conflict resolution algorithm also determines if the CD structure which would be built refers to a scene in an active script and prefers to build this type of conceptualization.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "At the end of the parse, if there is an ambiguous nominal, the possibilities are matched against the roles of the active scripts. Nominals which can be a script role are preferred.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "A planned extension to the parsing algorithm consists of augmenting the definition of a word sense with information about whether it is an uncommonly used sense, and the contexts in which i\u00a2 could be used (see [Charniak, 1981] ). Only some senses will be added to the active memory and if none of those concepts can be connected, other senses will be added. A similar mechanism can be used for potential pronoun referents, organizing concepts according to implicit or explicit focus in addition to their location in active or open focus spaces (see [Grosz, 1977] ).", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 210, |
| "end": 226, |
| "text": "[Charniak, 1981]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 549, |
| "end": 562, |
| "text": "[Grosz, 1977]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF7" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Another extension to APE-II will be the incorporation of a mechanism similar to the named requests of APE. However, because the expectations of APE-II are in a declarative format, it is hoped that these requests can be generated from the causally linked scenes of the script.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "APE-II", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "After the meaning of a question has been represented, the question is answered by means of pattern-invoked rules.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Typically, the pattern matching process binds variables to the major nominals in a question conceptualization. The referents of these nominals are used in executing a database query which finds the answer to the user's question.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Although the question conceptualization and the answer could be used to generate a natural language response [Goldman, 1975] , the current response facility merely substitutes the answer and referents in a canned response procedure associated with each question answering rule.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 109, |
| "end": 124, |
| "text": "[Goldman, 1975]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF6" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The question answering rules are organized according to the context in which they are appropriate, i.e., the conversational script [Lehnert, 1978] , and according to the primitive of the conceptualization and the \"path to the focus\" of the question.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 131, |
| "end": 146, |
| "text": "[Lehnert, 1978]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF10" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The path to the focus of a question is considered to be the path of conceptual cases which leads to the subconcept in question.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "A question answering production is displayed in Fig. 3 .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 48, |
| "end": 54, |
| "text": "Fig. 3", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "It is a default pattern designed to answer questions about which objects are at a location.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This pattern is used to answer the question \"~hat fighters do the airbasee in West Gerlmny have?\".", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In this example, the pattern variables &LOC is bound to the meaning representation of \"the airbases in West Germany\" and &OBJECT is bound to the meaning representation of \"fighters\".", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The action is then executed and the referent of &OBJECT is found to be (FIGHTER) and the referent of &LOC is found to be (HAHN SEMBACH BITBURG).", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The fighters at each of these locations is found and the variable ANSWER is bound to the value of MAPPAIR:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "((HAHN . (F-4C F-15)) (SEMBACH . NIL) (BITBURG . (F-~ F-15))).", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The response facet of the question answering production reformats the results of the action to merse locations with the same set of objects.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The answer \"There are none at Sembach.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Hahn and Bitburg have F-4Cs and F-15s.\" is printed on successive iteratione of PMAPC.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The production in Fig. 3 is used to answer most questions about objects aC a location.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 18, |
| "end": 24, |
| "text": "Fig. 3", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "It invokes a general function which finds the subset of ~he parts of a location which belong to a certain class. The OCA (offensive counter air) script used by the KNOBS system contains a more specific pattern for answering question about the defenses of a location.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This production is used to answer the question \"What SAMe are at BE70701?\". The action of this production executes a procedure which finds the subset of the surface to air missiles whose range is greater than the distance to the location. In addition to executing a database query, the action of a rule can racureively invoke other queJCion answering rules.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "For example, to answer the question '*Row many airbasaJ have F-At'e?\", a general rule converts the conceptualization of the question to that of '~hich airbaees have F-At\u00b0e? \" and counts the result of answering the larger.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The question answering rules can also be used to find the referent of complex nominals such as \"the airbases which have F-AC'e\". The path to the focus of the \"question\" is indicated by the conceptual case of the relative pronoun.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "QUESTION ANSWERING", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "when important roles are not filled in a concept, \"conceptual completion\" inferences are required to infer the fillers of conceptual cases. Our conceptual completion inferences are expressed as rules represented and organized in a manner analogous to question answering rules.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The path to the focus of a conceptual completion inference ie the conceptual case which it is intended co explioate.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Conceptual completion inferences are run only when necessary, i.e., when required by the pattern m4tcher to enable a question answering pattern (or even another inference pattern) to match successfully, An example conceptual completion inference is illustrated in FiE. 4. It is designed to infer the missing source of a physical transfer.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The pattern binds the variable &OBJECT co the filler of the OBJECT role and thq action executes a function which looks at the LOCATION case of &OBJECT or checks the database for the known location of the referent of &OBJECT.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This inference would not be used in processin E the question \"Which aircraft at Ramstein could reach the target from Hahn?\" because the source has been explicitly stated.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "It would be used, on the other hand, in processing the question, \"Which aircraft at Ramstein can reach the target?\".", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Its effect would be to fill the FROM slot of the question conceptualization with RAMSTEIN. If a question answering production cannot be found to respond to a question, and the question refers Co a scene in an active script, causal inferences are used CO find an answerable question vhich can be constructed as a state or action ~upliad by the original question. These inferences are represented by causal links [CullinKford, 1978] which connect the lCltel and actions of a stereotypical situation.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 411, |
| "end": 430, |
| "text": "[CullinKford, 1978]", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The causal links used for this type of inference are RESULT (actions can result in state changes), ENABLE (states can enable action), and EESULT-ENA3LE (an action results in a state which enables an action).", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This last inference is so coumon that it is given a special link.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In soma cases, the intermediate state is unimportant or unknown. In addition to causal links, temporal links are also represented to reason about the sequencing of actions.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The causal inference process consists of locating a script paCtern of an active script which represents the scene of the script referred to by a question.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The pattern matchfnE algorithm assures that the constants ~n the pattern are a super-class of the constants in the conceptual hierarchy of FRL frames. The variables in script patterns are the script roles which represent the common objects and actors of the script. The binding of script roles to subconcepts of a question conceptualization is subject to the recursive matching of patterns which indicate the common features of the roles. (This will be explained in more detail in the section on interactive script instantiation.)", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "After the scene referenced by the user question is identified, a new question concept is constructed by substituting role bindings into patterus representing states or actions linked to the identified scene. It results in the aircraft being over the target which enables the aircraft to attack the target.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The script pattern At-HIT-TARGET represents the propelling of a weapon toward the target. It results in the destruction of the target, and is followed by the aircraft flying back Co the airbase.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The knowledge represented by these script patterns is needed to answer the question \"What aircraft at Hahn can strike BE70701?\". The answer produced by KNOBS, \"Y-15s can reach BE70701 from Hahn.\", requires a causal inference and a concept completion inference.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The first step in producing this answer is to represent the meaning of the sentence.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The conceptualization produced by APE-If is shown in Fig. 6a .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 53, |
| "end": 60, |
| "text": "Fig. 6a", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "A search for a question answering pattern to answer this fails, so causal inferences are tried. The question concept is identified Co he the AC-HIT-TARGET scene of the 0CA script, and the scene which RESULT-ENABLEs it, AC-FLY-TO-TARGET is instantiafied.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This new question conceptualization is displayed in Fig 6b. A question answering pattern whose focus is (OBJECT IS-A) is found which could match the inferred question (Fig. 6c ). To enable this pattern to match the inferred question, the FROM case must be inferred.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 52, |
| "end": 59, |
| "text": "Fig 6b.", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 167, |
| "end": 175, |
| "text": "(Fig. 6c", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This is accomplished by a concept completion inference which produces the complete conceptualization shown in Fig. 6d .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 110, |
| "end": 117, |
| "text": "Fig. 6d", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Finally, the action and response of the question answering are executed to calculate and print ~n answer.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INFERENCE", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The script patterns which describe the relationships among the scenes of a situation are also used by the KNOBS system to guide a conversation about that domain.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INTERACTIVE SCRIPT INSTANTIATION", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The conversation with KNOBS in Fig. 7 illustrates the entering of plan components by interactively insCantiating script patterns.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 31, |
| "end": 37, |
| "text": "Fig. 7", |
| "ref_id": "FIGREF6" |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INTERACTIVE SCRIPT INSTANTIATION", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The first user sentence instantiaces two script patterns (the flying of aircraft, and the striking of a target) and binds the script roles: TARGET Co BE70501, WING to 109TFW, AIRCRAFT-NUMBER to 4, and TIME-OVER-TARGET to 0900. KNOB~ asks the user to select the AIRCRAFT.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INTERACTIVE SCRIPT INSTANTIATION", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Because the user replied with a question whose answer is an aircraft, KNOBS asks if the user would like would like to use chat aircraft am a component of the developing plan. This is accomplished by a rule that is activated when KNOBS asks the user to specify a plan component. The interpretation of the user s negative answer is handled by s rule activated when KNOBS asks a yes-no question. KNOBS checks the consistency of the user's answer and explains a constrainc which has failed.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INTERACTIVE SCRIPT INSTANTIATION", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Then, the user corrects this problem, and KNOBS processes the extra information supplied by matching the meaning of the user's input to a script pattern. Send 4 aircraft from the Logcfv co sc:iks SE7050L at 0900. Whac aircraft do you vane to use7 What alrcrafc are in the I09TI~T The I09TFW has F-4Cs. WouLd you Like to use F-4Cs for the aircraft?", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INTERACTIVE SCRIPT INSTANTIATION", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "NO, F-4Gs.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INTERACTIVE SCRIPT INSTANTIATION", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The 10~r~ does nOC co~tain F-4Gs. F17 the P-4Gs out of the 126TFW st Eamscsia. A script role can be bound by matching against patterns associated with other script roles in addition to matching against script patterns. Fig. 8 shows a role pattern associated with the script role AIRCL~YT. This pattern serves two purposes: to prevent bindings to the script role vhichwould not make sense (i.e., the object which plays the AIRCRAFT role ~st be an aircraft) and to recursively bind other script roles to attached concepts.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 219, |
| "end": 226, |
| "text": "Fig. 8", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INTERACTIVE SCRIPT INSTANTIATION", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In this exemple, the AIRBASE or the ~NC could be attached to the AIRCRAFT concept, e.g., \"F-4Cs from Hahn\" or \"F-dCa in the 126TFW\".", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INTERACTIVE SCRIPT INSTANTIATION", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The interactive script interpreter is an alternative to the menu system provided by KNOBS for the entering of important components of a plan Co be checked for consistency.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INTERACTIVE SCRIPT INSTANTIATION", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "KNOBS also provides a means of automatically finishing the creation of a consistent plan.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INTERACTIVE SCRIPT INSTANTIATION", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This can allow an experienced mission planner to enter a plan by typing one or two sentences and hitting a key which tells KNOBS co choose the unspecified components.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "INTERACTIVE SCRIPT INSTANTIATION", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "To demonstrate their domain independence, the KNOBS System and APE-II have been provided with knowledge bases to plan and answer questions about naval \"show of flag\" missions.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TRANSFERRING DOMAINS", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This version of KNOBS also uses FRL as a database language.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TRANSFERRING DOMAINS", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "A large portion of the question answering capability was directly applicable for a number of reasons.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TRANSFERRING DOMAINS", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "First of all, dictionary entries for frames are constructed automatically when they appear in a user query.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TRANSFERRING DOMAINS", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The definitions of the attributes (slots) of a frame which are represented as RELATIONs are also constructed when needed. The definitions of many common words such as \"be\", \"have\", \"a\", \"of\", etc., would be useful in understanding questions in any domain. The question answering productions and concept completion inferences are separated into default and domain specific categories. Many of the simple but common queries are handled by default patterns. For example, \"Which airbases have fighters?\" and \"What ports have cruisers?\" are answered by the same default pattern. Currently, the Navy version of KNOBS has 3 domain specific question answering patterns, compared to 22 in the Air Force version. (There are 46 default patterns.)", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TRANSFERRING DOMAINS", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The most important knowledge structure missing in the Navy domain is the scripts which are needed to perform causal inferences and dialog directed planning. Therefore, the system can answer the question \"What weapons does the Nimitz have?\", but can't answer '~ihat weapons does the NimiCz carry?\".", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TRANSFERRING DOMAINS", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "We have argued that the processing of natural languaae database queries should be driven by the meaning of the input, as determined primarily by the emaninss of the constituent words. The zuechanisms provided for word sense selection and for the inference of missing meaning elements utilize a variety of knowledge sources.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "CONCLUSION", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "It is believed Chat this approach will prove more general and extensible than those based chiefly on the surface structure of the natural language query.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "CONCLUSION", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "back_matter": [ |
| { |
| "text": "We would like to thank Tom Fawcett, Bud Frawley, Frank Jernigan, and Ethan Scarl for their CO1vementS.This work was supported by USAF Electronics System Division under Air Force contract F19628-82-C-0001.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "ACKNOWLZDGENEI~ S", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
| ], |
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| "FIGREF0": { |
| "text": "F~guve i. A Question Answering Interchange withi, KN08S.", |
| "uris": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF1": { |
| "text": "(IN-ACT-SPOT AIRCRAFT) THEN ((SLOTS (OSJECT))) ~ ELSE (IF (IN-ACT-SPOT BIRD) THEN ((SLOTS (ACTOR) (OBJECT)]) LEXICAL-EXPECTATIONS ((TO (MAKE-DEF (OB-PEEP ~ppw) (TO PLACE) (*~.oc*))) (FROM (MAKE-DEF (OS-Pg~P *PP*) (FROH PLACE) (*LOt*)))))) I Figure 2. APE-[I Dictionary Definitions.", |
| "uris": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF2": { |
| "text": "DEF-Q-PAT PAT (*EXISTS w OBJECT &OBJECT LOt (*PIOX* PLACE &LOt)) ACTION {MAPPAIR (FIND-REFEEEMTS &LOt) (FUNCTION (LAMBDA (LOt) (MAPCONC (FII;D-LZFERZNTS &OBJECT) (FUNCTION (LAMBDA (TYPE)' (FIND-OEJECTS-AT LOC TYPE] , OCUS (o~zcT Is-A)] Ftoure 3. A OuestHon Answertno Production.", |
| "uris": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF3": { |
| "text": "DEF-IHFERZNCE PAT (*PT~S* OBJECT &OBJECT) ACTION (F~MD-LOCATION &OBJECT) I}IlP~BJKNCB (FROM)) Ftgure 4; A Concelat Completion Inference.", |
| "uris": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF4": { |
| "text": "Two script patterns from the OCA script are illustrated in Fig. 5. The script pattern named (DZF-SCRIPT-PAT (DEF-SCRIYT-PAT NAME At-FLY-TO-TARGET PAT (*PTRANS* OBJECT &OCA:AIRCRAFT TO (*FROX* PLACE &0CA:TARGET) FROM (*PROX* PLACE &OCA:AIRHASE)) SCRIPT OCA AFTER At-HIT-TARGET RESULT-ENABLE At-HIT-TARGET RESULT At-OVER-TARGET) NAME AC-HIT-TARCET PAT (*PROPEL* ACTOR &OCA:AIRCRAFT TO (*LOCSPEC* PLACE &0CA:TARGET) OBJECT &OCA:SCL) Definitions of Script Patterns, AC-FLY-TO-TARCET matches the meaning of sentences which refer to the aircraft flying to the target from an airbase.", |
| "uris": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF5": { |
| "text": "Figure 6a. The Meaning Representation of \"What ~ircraft at Hahn can strike BE70701?\" (*PTRANS ~ OBJECT (AIRCRAFT IS-A (*?*) LOt (AT PLACE (HAHN))) TO (*PROX* PLACE (BE70701)) FROM (*PROX* PLACE (alL)) , MODE (*POTENTIAL*)) Fioure 6b. The Conceot Inferred from 6a. (What aircraft at Hahn can go to BE70701?) 6d. The Complete Question Conceptualization after Inferring the Source.", |
| "uris": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF6": { |
| "text": "A Conversation with ~OSS. (DEF-ROLE-PAT PAT (AIRCR\u00a3YT L0C (*pgOXt PLACE &OCA:AI/t3ASE) PART (PART ARGUMENT &OCA:WING)) SCB.IPT-NOLZ &OCA: AIRCRAFT SCIIPT OCA) Figure 8. A Script Role Pattern.", |
| "uris": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null |
| } |
| } |
| } |
| } |
