| { |
| "paper_id": "C69-0501", |
| "header": { |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T12:31:56.092723Z" |
| }, |
| "title": "AN APPLICATION OF COMPUTER PROGRAMMING TO THE RECONSTRUCTION OF A PROTO-LANGUAGE", |
| "authors": [ |
| { |
| "first": "Stanton", |
| "middle": [ |
| "P" |
| ], |
| "last": "Durham", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": { |
| "laboratory": "", |
| "institution": "University of Michigan l.Purpose", |
| "location": {} |
| }, |
| "email": "" |
| }, |
| { |
| "first": "David", |
| "middle": [ |
| "Ellis" |
| ], |
| "last": "Rogers", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": { |
| "laboratory": "", |
| "institution": "University of Michigan l.Purpose", |
| "location": {} |
| }, |
| "email": "" |
| } |
| ], |
| "year": "", |
| "venue": null, |
| "identifiers": {}, |
| "abstract": "This paper illustrates the use of a computer program as a tool in linguistic research. The program under consideration produces a concordance on words according to phonological segments and environments. Phonological segments are defined as a predetermined aet of consonants and vowels. An environment is defined as the locus of occurrence of any of the phonological segments.", |
| "pdf_parse": { |
| "paper_id": "C69-0501", |
| "_pdf_hash": "", |
| "abstract": [ |
| { |
| "text": "This paper illustrates the use of a computer program as a tool in linguistic research. The program under consideration produces a concordance on words according to phonological segments and environments. Phonological segments are defined as a predetermined aet of consonants and vowels. An environment is defined as the locus of occurrence of any of the phonological segments.", |
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| "section": "Abstract", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "body_text": [ |
| { |
| "text": "The concordance facilitates the recognition of sound correspondances that lead to the reconstruction of a protolanguage.", |
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| "section": "", |
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| { |
| "text": "The program for production of the concordance was written in the SNOBOL4 programming language, which was selected because of its pattern match-1 ing capabilities.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "2.0,Program Description.", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The summary Flow Chart of the program, found in \u00a77, should be adequate for the experienced reader. Nevertheless, a few general comments are in order.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "2.0,Program Description.", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "2.1.1nitlallzation. All patterns to be used in the program are created during the Initialization. As originally conceived, the program was composed of one long run where 1For a full exposition of SNOBOL4, see Griswold, R.E., Page, J.F., and Polonsky, I.P., The SNOBOL4 Programming Lan_~. Holmdel, New Jersey, Bell.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "2.0,Program Description.", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "19~8.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "section": "2.0,Program Description.", |
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| { |
| "text": "all steps of the analysis were carried out. However, due to problems of internal storage caused by the numerous data, it was decided to run the program in two passes, each of which is explained below. As the items are read, determination is made of the largest size of each element for later column slignment in the print-out. Each item is then stored as a strlmE named after the sequential number assigned to the ~tem, and the phonological form on which the concordance will be based is selected. The phonological form is then analyzed, ln order to retain the generic types and specific segment-environments occurring in that,phonological form, A generic type is defined as a consonant or vowel in a given environment, as for example, word-initial consonant or tonic free vowel. A specific segment-environment is defined as one certain consonant or vowel in a given environment, as for example, word-initial P or tonic free A.", |
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| "section": "2.0,Program Description.", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "For each specific segment-environment found, a list is created composed of the numbers of the items containing that specific segment-envlronment. II II II Ig ~I fl II II Ig II II II II ,e II I~ II II ~f and so on, through the long tonic checked vowels, the nonlong tonic free and checked vo~els, the long pre-tonlc free and checked vowels, the non-long pre-tonic free and checked vowels, etc., until all possible combinations of parameters have been listed. where < stands for /~/I ?, /2%/I @, /8/~ and >, /D/.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 146, |
| "end": 222, |
| "text": "II II II Ig ~I fl II II Ig II II II II ,e II I~ II II ~f", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "2.0,Program Description.", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "After the entire item has been read into computer memory, and determination has been made as to the size of each entry relative to the individual entries of all other items, a search is made for the so-called \"special\" environments, at Ci in the Flow Chart. None of these environments are applicable in the case of alteru. Therefore, these searches will fail, and the next search will be for a word-lnitial consonant or consonants, at C2 in the Flow", |
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| "section": "2.0,Program Description.", |
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| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Chart.", |
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| "section": "2.0,Program Description.", |
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| { |
| "text": "In the case of alter~ this search, too, will fail, and the next search will be for a vowel, at A8 in the Flow Chart.", |
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| "section": "2.0,Program Description.", |
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| "text": "A tonic vowel in a checked syllable will be found at A8.2 and A8.6, and in the subroutine Br tonic checked A will be queued to the string containing all tonlc checked vowels, and the item number will be queued to a string containing the numbers of all items having a tonic checked A.", |
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| "section": "2.0,Program Description.", |
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| "text": "The next search will be for a consonant or consonants in all possible environments, beginning at At0 in the Flow Chart. Searches for a strong sequence or a geminate con-~onant will fail. At Ai2 the search for a sequence will be successful, the sequence found being L.TR. Once more, subroutine B is entered, the sequence L.TR is queued to the string labeled \"sequence C.CC\" at BI.1, if this is the first occurrence of L.TR, and the item number is queued to the string containing the item numbers of all items having the sequence L.TR at B~2. Next, at A131 the syllable-final L, and at A14, the syllable-lnltial cluster TR, will be queued respectively to the strings containing syllablefinal consonants and syllable-initial clhsters, and the item number will be queued to the strings containing the numbers of all items having syllable-final L's in the one case, and to the string containing the item numbers of all items having syllable-initial TR in the other.", |
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| "section": "2.0,Program Description.", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "The subsequent search for a post-tonic vowel will In Pass Two, the tape will be read, and the listings will be printed with the elements of each item aligned in columns. ", |
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| "section": "2.0,Program Description.", |
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| } |
| ], |
| "back_matter": [], |
| "bib_entries": {}, |
| "ref_entries": { |
| "FIGREF0": { |
| "text": "Pass One. During the first pass of the program all cards of an item are read. An item is defined as the Classical Latin dictionary form, followed by the author's phonemicization of the Latin form according to the most conservative estimate of the maximal phonological system capable of giving rise to the various dialects of spoken Latin. These two elements are followed optionally by the modern ~eflexes in as many as eleven dialects from the area commonly subsumed under the heading Franco-Provencal. An optional comment concludes the item.", |
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| "FIGREF1": { |
| "text": "S~ecial Environments. Listed lastly are occurrences of the so-called velar consonants /k g kw gw/ (symbolized in the program as K,G,Q,X) followed by a front vowel or /J/.These lists are called \"special\" and are printed as a separate portion of the print-out, because of the wellknown phenomen of the palatalization of these Latin consonants plus a front vowel or /J/\u00b0 3.7.Errors. Toward the end of the first pass, before the condensed listings are outputted onto the tape, certain errors are printed out. Errors may be errors in phonological form, as for example, use in the phonological form of a consonant symbol that has not been pre-defined, failureto punch a syllable boundary, or failure to punch length or stress symbols~ or the error may be the lack of occurrence of the phonological form for which the program is searching.3.8.Ali__~nt. The second pass is almost entirely composed of the subroutine in which the elements of an Itam are aligned in columns in the listings on the basis of the number of characters in the longest occurrence of that particular element. 4.0.1nstructions to User. A system of symbolization for vocalic and consonantal specific segments must be decided on. During the processing there must be only one computer character for each segment the computer will examine. If it is necessary (because of the non-availabillty of many customary linguistic symbols as characters in the computer alphabet) to encode the data with two symbols for one phonological segment, the program should have all the double symbols used and the corrseponding single computer symbols by which the program will process the data defined. Because of peculiarities in the program it is also necessary to change any numbers, V, or C, that may be used as consonantal or vocalic symbols in the phonological form to be concordanced on to some other unique computer symbol. For example, if theta a~d delta are encoded as TH and DH, and if the symbols C, V, and 5 are used in the input program and in the representation of a specific phonological segment, then the following two statements should be inserted at the appropriate place in the program: EXT3 = 'TH DH C V ~ INT3 = 'a b c d e ' where a, ~b, c, d, and e are unique symbols belonging to the character set of the particular computer, and different from other symbols punched in the phonological form to be concordanced on. In the present program double symbols are freely used in the transcription of the dialect reflexes. I If a concordance is to be produced on the basis of one of the dialects, the above modifications must still apply. ~.l.Restrictions. The present program is designed to con-cordance on the second element of an item, the phonological representation of the spoken Latin form. To produce a concordance on a dialect, the phonological form to be concordanced on must be redefined. A special environment may be searched for and listed separately by means of the insertatlon of a statement defining an appropriate pattern in the ~nitialization of the program, and by the placement of a search for that pattern in the body of the program. If one is producing a concordance on a particular dialect, then special environments may be defined according to symbols used in that particular dialect. 4.2,Encoding of the Data. All cards will have information beginning in column one and may have information punched continuously through column seventy-five, Columns seventysix through eighty may be unlque]y sequentially numbered for each entry (column seventy-nlne having units position and column eighty being saved for insertions). A linguistic unit may be split between cards; in such cases no hyphenation will be needed. That is, in all ~nstanees the information beginning in the first column of the second and subsequent cards of an entry will be abutted to the seventy-fifth column of the previous card. The first card of an item will begin in column one with the dictionary entry of the Latin word, with both I0 vowel length and stress indicated, followed by two spaces. Indication of stress is redundant, stress being predictable in Classical Latin. However, stress is indicated in dictionary fashion, as an aid toward rapid recognition of the proper stress by the reader. Though the accusative singular of Classical Latin nouns is the citation form, with few exceptions, for the first element, the final m has in all instances been omitted. Thus, where the noun nox is cited, it is spelled NO-CTE, rather than NO-CTEM, to save space, and because texts which cite spoken Latin nouns usually cite such nouns without final 2. The asterisk is used to indicate an unattested Classical Latin form, in most instances taken from Wilhelm Meyer-Lubke's Romanishces Et Z-I, molo~isches Wortebuch, but in a few instances posited by the author. In all cases where words of Germanic or Celtic origin have been latinized in spelling, they are also preceded by an asterisk. In Latin dictionary forms of more than one word, the words are separated by a plus, which is removedat the end of the program. The second linguistic information, the phonemicization of the spoken Latin word, is followed by at least one space. The dialect entries follow, each composed of, first, the identifying abbreviation enclosed in parentheses and second, the reflex in that dialect, preceded by one space and followed by at least one space. At least one space is obligatory after each dialect entry, but more spaces facilitate correction of an erroneously punched form. An optional comment concludes the item; the abbreviation for the co~Lment, (CON), must precede the comment and be followed by one space. When dialect identifying abbreviations are used in the comment, they must not be enclosed in parentheses, lest the computer mistake one of these abbreviations for the actual identifier. ~n end-ofitem slash completes the item, and a single space is obligatory before the slash. 5.Example. The examination of one item will suffice to illustrate the working of the program. Let us suppose the item currently under consideration by the computer is the Latin word alteru. The data cards containing this word and its reflexes w~11 have the followlng information:", |
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| "FIGREF2": { |
| "text": "succeed at A8.3, and the vowel U in free syllable (in fact in word-final position) will, In subroutine B, be queued to the string of post-tonlc vowels in free syllables, the item number being queued to the string containing the item numbers of all items with post-tonic free U. At this point, return is made out of subroutine B to the beginning of the program for the reading of the next item. After all items have been read and operated on, the strings and their headings stored in computer memory are outputted in condensed form onto magnetic tape. The item alteru will be found under the following headings~ syllable-final L, syllable-initial TR, sequence L.TR, tonic checked A, and post-tonic free U.", |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null, |
| "num": null |
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| "FIGREF3": { |
| "text": "6\u00b0O\u00b0Li_~uistlc C0ncl~sions. During the course of reconstruction, one interesting question that arose was the following: do the so-called Franco-Provencal dialects really show final (post-tonic) vowels, as for example, in the above-mentioned Latin etymon, alteru? With all items containing reflexes of Latin post-tonic free U in one convenient list, checking the possible correspondances is made much easier. Alteru, for example, shows the following cormost other examples of Classical Latin post-tonic free U, all dialects show zero. On the basis of all examples under the heading \"post-tonlc free U\" one may conclude that there is a reflex of Latin post-tonic U in these dialects as asupport vowel after an otherwise unpronounceable sequence. Furthermore, this support vowel keeps the quality of its phonological ancestor. Such questions as this are capable of much more rapid, if not surer, solution, by consultation of the listings on the computer print-out, than simply by means of the examinatlon of index cards, where examples might be skipped over. The number of examples available for examination is greatly increased as well. Since the data are so numerous wlth this method, very comprehensive analysis is required of the linguist. This program is general enough to be applicable in the compilation of a concordance for any group of related dialects for which such a concordance would be useful. For example, In a proposed reconstruction of Proto-Slavlc, present-day reflexes of a selected corpus could be encoded and the concordance produced on any one of the dialects selected. The chief advantages of the use of the computer to produce such a concordance are the increased facility for the exhaustive handling of a large amount of data (as compared to the customary handling of data on index cards), and the avoidance of many time-consuming searches through many lists of forms for occurrences of a specific segment in a specific environment, since all such lists are readily available on the prlnt-out.", |
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| "TABREF0": { |
| "type_str": "table", |
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| "text": "..... KJ ........ Then all words containing sequences of a single consonant followed by a syllable boundary, by more than one consonant, abbreviated C1.C2Cn , followed are listed! followed by words containing all other sequences, abbreviated cnc.c(cn), where the parentheses indicate", |
| "content": "<table><tr><td colspan=\"4\">ants are listed according to two parameters: sonants. For example, given the predetermined order KPWFS a predeter-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">mined order of those consonants and, within that parameter, TDMNRBLJGQXZ, listings of words having the following clu-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">according to the fol~owing environments: sters in word-inltial position would appear in this order: word-initial, ge-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">minate, syllable-initial, syllable-flnal, and word-flna~ all words containing word-lnitial KLJ optlonality. In each of these listings the consonant or</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">position. syllable boundary in the n A geminate consonant is defined as a long con-\" ' STR th position has higher value</td></tr><tr><td/><td>\"</td><td/><td>' .....</td><td>ST RJ</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">sonant, sometimes described as double, occurring across ........ STJ than the consonant in the n v i th position (consonants</td></tr><tr><td/><td>\"</td><td colspan=\"2\">.......</td><td>MJ.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">As all items are read and analyzed, errors in phono-syllable boundaries. being counted from left to right). For example~ if the</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">3.3.Sequences.</td><td>A sequence is defined as the occurrence of</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">logical form are outputted. 3.2.Ciu__ sters. A cluster is defined as the occurrence of After the analysis of all in-following sequences were found, they would be listed in the</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">two or more consonants in immediate succession across syl-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">put items is completed, a generic type list is examined two or more consonants in immediate succession in the same following order:</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">for a specific segment-environment. syllable. All words containing clusters of two consonants From the list named ac-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">after that specific segment-environment the numbers of the are listed according to the parameters of ~3.1, but in re-cording to the following ordered parameters and subpara-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">items containing the specific segment-environment are ob-verse order. This order of consonants is the same as the meters: stress (tonic, pre-tonlc, post-tonic), length</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">tained and the items are written onto tape in condensed order used to list single consonants with the additional (long, non-long), position (in free or checked syllable),</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">form for accessing in Pass Two. stipulation that the value of the consonant In left-most and the predetermined order of vowels. For example, given</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">2.3.Pass Two. position have precedence ever the one in rlght-most posi-During the second pass. the condensed lis-the predetermined order ~EAOU, the listings would occur</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">tings are accessed from the tape, along with the largest tion, as in any dictionary order. fn the following order:</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">size of each element, and alignment of columns is made ail words containing long tonic free I Lists of words containing clusters of three or more ,I I! I, II I~ f' E</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">Just prior to printing for easier reading of the print-out. consonants follow, according to the same parameters as</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">3.0.S~eclfication. those specified for two-consonant clusters. The program is designed to list all Where there</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">words in a dialect (for example, Latin or a present-day are different numbers of consonants (three or more) in the</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">dialect of Latin) containing a specific segment in a given clusters, the words are listed giving the highest value to</td></tr><tr><td>the consonant</td><td colspan=\"3\">in the n th position, followed by the conson-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">environment.</td><td/><td>The order for the production of the lists is</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">ant in the n ~ I th position (counting consonants from left</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">outlined in the following paragraphs.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"4\">to right), and according to the predetermined order of con-</td></tr><tr><td>3.1.~</td><td colspan=\"3\">Consonants.</td><td>All words containing single conson-</td></tr></table>", |
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| } |
| } |
| } |
| } |
