| { |
| "paper_id": "C69-1101", |
| "header": { |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T12:32:16.430787Z" |
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| "title": "AUTOMATED PROCESSING OF MEDICAL ENGLISH", |
| "authors": [], |
| "year": "", |
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| "abstract": "Int ro duct ion The present interest of the scientific community in automated language processing has been awakened by the enormous capabilities of the high speed digltal computer. It was recognized that the computer which has the capacity to handle symbols effectively can also treat words as symbols and language as a string of symbols. Automated language processing as exemplified by current research, had its origin in machine translation. The first attempt to use the computer for automatic language processing took place in 1954. It is known as the \"IBM-Georgetown Experiment\" in machine translation from Russian into English. (I ,2) The experiment revealed the following facts: a. the digital computer can be used for automated language processing 2 but b. much deeper knowledge about the structure and semantics of language will be required for the determination and semantic interpretation of sentence structure. The field of automated language processing is quite broad; it includes machine translation, automatic information retrieval (if based on language data), production of computer generated abstracts, indexes and catalogs, development of artificial languages, question answering systems, automatic speech analysis and synthesis, and others.", |
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| "paper_id": "C69-1101", |
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| "text": "Int ro duct ion The present interest of the scientific community in automated language processing has been awakened by the enormous capabilities of the high speed digltal computer. It was recognized that the computer which has the capacity to handle symbols effectively can also treat words as symbols and language as a string of symbols. Automated language processing as exemplified by current research, had its origin in machine translation. The first attempt to use the computer for automatic language processing took place in 1954. It is known as the \"IBM-Georgetown Experiment\" in machine translation from Russian into English. (I ,2) The experiment revealed the following facts: a. the digital computer can be used for automated language processing 2 but b. much deeper knowledge about the structure and semantics of language will be required for the determination and semantic interpretation of sentence structure. The field of automated language processing is quite broad; it includes machine translation, automatic information retrieval (if based on language data), production of computer generated abstracts, indexes and catalogs, development of artificial languages, question answering systems, automatic speech analysis and synthesis, and others.", |
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| "text": "Approaches to automatic information retrieval, quantitative studies of generic relations between languages and style analysis~ have been based to a great extent on statistical considerations~ such as frequency counts of linguistic units (phomemes, morphemes~ words, fixed phrases). In each of these approaches linguistic analysis was considered to be a useful but insufficient method for automated information processing because of the many unresolved problems in language analysis. Implementation of statistical techniques for automated indexing, classification and abstracting has proved useful despite certain limitations caused by our lack of knowledge of language. In recent years mathematically oriented studies'of the nature of natural languages have been directed to the development of formal models of grammars, such as context free r context sensitive and transformational grammars. Formal characteristics of these models of grammars, their generative power, and their adequacies and inadequacies may be found in the literature (3, 4, 5, 6, 7) .", |
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| "text": "Several noted scientists, such as , have expressed a pessimistic view in regard to practical implementation of machine translation.", |
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| "text": "Nevertheless, there is merit in continuing efforts for more fundamental research in the area of formal and applied linguistics and computer applications. Even if we are not able to resolve all the problems in language processing at once, limited goals can be attained and tested for validity by design of a model for language processing within a restricted language domain, such as medicine.", |
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| "text": "Aware of the many problems associated with automated processing of natural language, we have limited our efforts, for the present, to the language domain used in pathology diagnoses, a subset of Medical English. Medical diagnosis may be described as the process used by the physician to determine the nature of disease, or as the art of distinguishing one disease from another. The name which is assigned to a disease ~plies the unique configuration of signs and symptoms believed to be characteristic of the condition which has been diagnosed. The diagnosis can be regarded as a summary of the more complete medleal document in a conventionalized medical style.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "Medical diagnoses are characteristically free of verb phrases.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "The copulative verb \"to be\" is frequently implied by the use of comma. Often~ the pseudosentence structures appear to be grammatically illogical. Nevertheless~ these structures carry semantic meaning and are generally understood by others in medicine. Modifiers frequently occur in discontinuous sequence with the nouns they modify.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Anaphoric expressions are eo~auonplace.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The terminology consists of a mixture of Latin~ Greek and English derivatives.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "Not uncommonly~ diagnostic statements exhibit features of all three languages. Evidence of heterogeneous linguistic origin is also found in single word forms. The language is rich in the use of compound word forms which are segmentable into single constituents.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "The distinctive semantic features of diagnostic statements may be categorized as follows:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "\u2022 anatomic site affeeted~ or body system involved in the disease process;", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "\u2022 disease condition, including structural changes ranging from gross observations to intracellular ultrastructural changes;", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "\u2022 causative agent of the abnormality;", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "\u2022 disease manifestations~ including physiological and chemical changes~ observable manifestations, and symptoms reported by the patient;", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "\u2022 therapeutic agents or processes used;", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "\u2022 causal relationships among disease entities;", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "\u2022 method or souree of diagnosis.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "Two or more of these distinctive semantic features may be combined.in a single conceptual unit, e.g., \"measles\" implies both the specific infectious disease manifested, and the etiology, the rubeola virus; while \"pneumonia\" describes the inflammatory disease process or condition, as well as the anatomic site affected,, lung.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "On the other hand, the precise designation of the loeation at which a disease entity has manifested itself may require a complex statement for adequate description of the semantics relative to anatomic site affected, e.g., a lesion may be found in the \"apicoposteriot segment in the upper division of the upper lobe of the lung.\"", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
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| "text": "After mentioning some of the pecularities of Medical English we will turn to the description of the system for automated processing In our work we have been using as a lexicon base the Systematized Nomenclature of Pathology (SNOP) 14, the structure of which is described below:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "SNOP is a special purpose lexicon created by pathologists to assist them in the organization and retrieval of information. The SNOP language consists of a relatively rich word vocabulary and a primitive grammar.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "A term or conceptual unit is listed in only one of the four semantic categories of the vocabulary and is assigned a unique numerical code within the given information class.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
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| "text": "The four semantic categories of the SNOP are: The problem of paraphrasing is closely related with automatic recognition of synonymous or nearly-synonymous expressions which are not found in the lexicon. Even if we would be able to assign an approximative value to so-called \"unknow~ terms\" by the implementation of deductive rules, the physician o~ the expert in the related field will have to make the decision about the synonymity of the term in question. ", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Topography (T) -", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Some Characteristics of Medical English", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "In both cases it is assumed that the semantic content of the message is understood. For example, the statement: \"Pneumonia~ due to staphylococcus\" can be formalized as", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "4.", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "[(RI) (M,E) 1", |
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| "section": "4.", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "where R 1 is the causative relational predicate \"due to,\" \"pneumonia\"", |
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| "text": "is the kernel phrase belonging to the semantic category 'M' (morphology) and \"staphylococcus\" being a member of the category 'E ~ (causative agent). The relational expression \"due to\" can be substituted by other equivalent expressions such as \"caused by\" or \"resulting from,\" since they designate a similar relationship between the same The most amazing aspect of language is the fact that despite its enormous complexity human beings are able to use it with success as a communication tool. If we are ever able to discover and describe the process of human thought, we will be closer to the resolution of many problems associated with the formalization and subsequent automatization of natural language. It is not our intention to tackle all the problems inherent in natural language. We believe that we will be able to refine our algorithms and further develop a system which will process medical text by applying the formalized linguistic analytic procedures for the storage of data in such a way that the users' cequirements can be met. ", |
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| "section": "4.", |
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| }, |
| "BIBREF25": { |
| "ref_id": "b25", |
| "title": "E~eriments with a Deductive Question-Answerin ~ ~", |
| "authors": [ |
| { |
| "first": "J", |
| "middle": [ |
| "R" |
| ], |
| "last": "Slagle", |
| "suffix": "" |
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| "year": null, |
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| "num": null, |
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| "raw_text": "SLAGLE, J.R. : E~eriments with a Deductive Question-Answerin ~ ~;", |
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| "type_str": "figure", |
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| "text": "Some of the major problems in language processing are: a. There is no method for Storing in a computer the speaker's knowledge of the universe. b. Syntactic and semantic ambiguities pose severe difficulties for implementation. c. Difficulties associated with the design of a general purpose formal semantic language (intermediate language) into which an input natural language could be mapped by an algorithm. d. Recognition and interpretation of logical inferences which are contained implicitly in natural language. e. Lack of computer-oriented dictionaries and microglossaries.", |
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| "FIGREF1": { |
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| "text": "in each category are information content words which are used by the pathologist to convey in a condensed form the concept being described. The basic syntactic structures of the dictionary entries are: single nouns, adjective phrases, attributive noun phrases and participial phrases.The code of dictionary entries is divided into four separate and independent fields T, M, E, F. Within a given field, terms are assigned a four digit number. The first digit refers to the section of the field, while the other three digits indicate progressively finer subdivisions. These groupings reflect natural relations among the terms insofar as possible. The code structure permits selection of more specific terms by moving down the list and of more generic terms by moving up the list (see Appendix I).Semantic linkage pointers are also incorporated in the dictionary which enable the cross-referencing of information within the same or another category.We intend to extend the semantic codes and also to allow the insertion of additional semantic information. The individual codes will be linked together to represent the content of the messages and messages will be linked to represent the content of a diagnosis or other relevant medical document.Grammar Automated processing of Medical English (APME) consists of a series of computer programs which given as input a body of medical text, will produce as output~ a linguistic description and semantic interpretation of the given utterance. In the initial stage of our research, our attention was focused on patholoEy diagnoses since this domain of discourse intersects with all other medical specialty areas. Consequently, research work in this area should be applicable to other medical specialties. The APME parsin E algorithms consist of series of interrelated linguistic and programming operations which are described briefly as follows : Morphological Analysis embodies the identification and transformation of terminal morphemes and recognition of a limited set of prefixes. The input to the morphological analysis and subsequent morphosyntactic transformations is the unedited Medical English of a pathologist. The transformation procedure consists of a set of rules by which the adjective forming suffixes are substituted by a set of nominalizing suffixes (adjective to noun transforms) or plural nominal suffixes are substituted by their singular allomorphs (plural to singular noun transforms) and, finally~ transforms of nouns to their synonymous or near-synonymous forms (i.e., DIS~TERY--~DISENTERIA). (12) The main reason for the transformation of terminal morphemes is to provide a means for the successful retrieval of word forms which occur in the text in a derivative form but are listed in the SNOP dietionary in an alternative form. We have been preparing rules for morphosemantie segmentation of composite word forms which aremainly derived from Greek or Latin. The decomposition implies the recognition of constitutents, the order of constituents, how they are intertwined and the assignment of semantic value to productive components. For example, the composite 'BRONCHITIS' is segmented into two components CI-T and C2-M, namely: a. Terminal morpheme-ITIS (C2-M) which is the semantic marker of inflammation process (semantic category 'M'), and b. The stem morpheme BRONCH(US) (CI-T)~ the site of the body where the inflammation process occurs (semantic category 'T'). The semantic structure of the class of word forms such as 'BRONCHITIS' is expressed as W (T, M) -+ (CI -T) + (C2-M) where the order of semantic components CI-T and C2-M is fixed and cannot be reversed. It is expected that the analysis of the semantic structure of components into their semantic constituents and the formalization of the structural and semantic relationships among them will be useful for the preparation of computer-oriented medical micro-glossaries. S~ntactic and Semantic Analysis Syntactic and semantic analysis of medical text involves the determination of sentence structure and its semantic interpretation. This problem can be resolved by the implementation of transformational rules by which different types of noun Phrases will be transformed into a set of semantically equivalent phrases. For example: NP-~ N 1 + N 2 (muscle atrophy)--~ N 2 + OF + N 1 (atrophy of muscle)~ N 2 + COMMA + N 1 (atrophy, muscle) ~ (N2--> A) \u00f7 N 1 (atrophic muscle)~ (NI--> A) + N 2 (muscular atrophy). Two tree diagrams are required for the representation of cumulative derivations in an abbreviated form.", |
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| "text": "Otherwise, if the transformational rules were based only on the formal structure of noun phrases they could generate phrases which are not compatible with the semantic content of the message. Consequently, the transformational or paraphrasing rules should not be based only on syntactic features but also on semantic features of components of the given semantic unit~ i.e., on the deep structure of the message. The boundaries of the semantic unit do not correspond, necessarily, to the boundaries of the noun phrase. For this reason, we prefer the term \"kernel phrase\" instead of noun phrase. However, it seems reasonable to identify first the semantic correlations within the frame of the syntactic construction (noun phrase, adjectival phrase, verb phrase, etc. ) . The noun phrase structure grammar comprises -among othersthe analysis and synthesis of adjectival phrases and attributive noun phrases. The adjectives were classified in terms of their semantic compatibility with semantic classes of head nouns. The following properties of adjectives and nouns were considered: Ad j act ives : t a. Feature of transformabillty (A-# N; A + ed--) N; A + ing.-) semantic correlations with semantic classes of head nouns NPx --> Ax + Nx where (x) denotes the type correl at ion. Noun._.._.~s: a. Feature of transformabillty (N-->N; N-+A); b. Semantic class membership (T,M,E,F,G as above) For example: ACUTE STAPHYLOCOCCAL PNEUMDNIA A-TR/G/M + A-TR/E/M + N-T'R/M-~(NP) M,E where A-TR/G/M (acute) = Adjective (A), transformable (TR), 'General' (G), semantic correlation with N(M) ; A-TR/E/M = Adjective, transformable, semantic class membership-'Etiology' (E), modifying N(M) ; N-TR/M = noun, non-transformable (TR), belonging to semantic category 'Morphology' (M). (NP)M,E = adjectival kernel phrase belonging to the semantic category 'M' (morphology) and category 'E' (etiology). The semantics assigned to adjectivals reflect, to a greater or lesser extent~ the semantic and syntactic relations between the adjectivals and the head nouns that they modify. Rules were written for strings of adjectives which are preposed or 14 postposad to the head noun as immediate constituents or in discontinuous sequence. Analogous criteria were used to prepare rules for recognition of attributive noun phrases. (13) Z. Harris suggested that it might be possible to establish, what he calls, \"classified relationships\" between adjective and noun in advance r i.e., to have dictionary pairing of words and their classifiers for a scientific language because the metaphorical usage is highly restricted in scientific discourse. It seems reasonable that adjectival phrases or appositional noun phrases which are perceived as single conceptual units should be listed and treated in the same way as compounds. Any treatment of ~hglish adjectives shows that the attribution and predication is far from simple. For instance, an adjective may modify a noun whleh is not present explicitly. An example is the phrase \"parathyroid (gland) adenoma\" meaning \"parathyroid gland adehome\" where the adjective \"parathyroid\" is semantically related to the absent noun \"gland.\" i The complexity of the analysis of adjectival phrases becomes apparent in attempting to semantically classify adjectives. Many adjectives may be members of two or more classes~ i.e., the given Axy can modify either N x or Ny, e.g.~ general adjective 'ab~ormal' can be correlated semantically with N T or N~ or N E or ~F' thus, yielding mul tiple readings. Even further refinement of the classification of adjectives will not completely solve the difficulty. Semant ics It was already mentioned before that our goal is the successful mechanical recognition, interpretation and subsequent storage of Medical English for meaningful and timely retrieval of medical data in accordance with the needs of the user. When the boundaries of kernel phrases are identified by the implementation of syntactic and semantic algorithms the next step is the establishment of semantic correlations among the major semantic units of the utterance. The semantics of kernel phrases are conveyed by a set of relational predicates. Relational predicate having a propositional function f(x) describes the type of semantic relationship among the major kernel phrases as mentioned before.", |
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| "text": "semantic categories. The notion of argument pair(M,~ is not limited to single constituents as in the example above but it refers to kernel phrases in which the number of constituents is variable. For example~ the statement mentioned above can be expanded as follows:\"Acute and severe pneumonia caused by staphylococcus albus\" where the left-bound phrase \"acute and severe pneumonia\" (M) and the right-bound phrase \"staphylococcus albus\" (E) are related by the relational predicate \"caused by\" (RI). Consequently, the statement [(R 1) (M,E)] holds in both cases.The classification of relational predicates RI, R2 --R n will reveal different types of relations among the semantically marked kernel phrases belonging to the semantic categories T~M,E,F or perhaps to other categories which may result from further semantic analysis. The precision of relational predicate rules may be increased by refinement of admissible co-occurrences of subclasses of the basic semantic constituents of kernel noun phrases. For example, statement: [(Rx) (M 12\"*, T II**)] is to be interpreted that there is a certain relationship Rx (not defined here) between the subclass MI2** (fractures) and subclass T II** (bones)where ** implies any member of the respective subclass.The syntactic structure of relational predicates consists either of a single functional element~ such as the preposition 'in,' or compound expressions~ such as 'due to~' or it can be a punctuation mark such as colm~a\u00b0The semantic rules can be regarded as the axioms of the system and therefore theorems derived from these axioms will describe various properties of Medical English which can be tested for truth or falsity for completeness, and for ambiguity.The body Of theorems will constitute the grammar of a formal intermediate language having the semantic classes T, M, E, F and others to be defined, as its vocabulary. The axioms of the system are based upon the distribution of semantically significant elements. The key components consist of operators and their operands. The operands~ linguistically related to noun phrases, are members of particular semantic categories, and the operators are theorems describing the relationship among the operands \u2022 Relationships among syntactically connected parts of sentences will be tabulated and associated with the meaning of semantic categories in the SNOP dictionary. The relationship between syntactic ~nd semantic units is expressed by a set of linguistic operators which lave the function of relational predicates in the intermediate language. Conceptual analysis and preparation of algorithms for translating restricted Medical English into well-formed expressions will equire definition of the functional form of relational predicates in :he intermediate language and their syntactic features as linguistic )perators in natural language. We assume that heuristic-type rules for automatic problem-solving ~ill be expanded beyond the present logical framework and combined ~ith linguistic techniques for automatic processing of natural lanl .Tuage. This will lead to the development of a more powerful theory of )roblem-solving, in general (15, 16). Conclusions The development of a methodology for machine encoding of diagnostic statements into a file, and the capability to retrieve information meaningfully from data file with a high degree of accuracy and completeness is the first phase towards the objective of processing general medical text. The results of morphological, syntactic and semantic analysis are translated via computer programs into the existing intermediate language which comprises four information fields: Topography, Morphology, Etiology~ and Function, as they are listed in the SNOP dietionary. Once the units are identified and mapped into the intermediate language, they could be replaced interlingually by equivalent units of another syntactic and semantic system. The replacement could be implemented mechanically through the selection of the equivalent syntactic structure, in our case, SNOP noun phrases in their intermediate language form.", |
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