| { |
| "paper_id": "C69-1601", |
| "header": { |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T12:32:24.310897Z" |
| }, |
| "title": "", |
| "authors": [ |
| { |
| "first": "W", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "Skalmowski", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": {}, |
| "email": "" |
| }, |
| { |
| "first": "M", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "Van Overbeke", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": {}, |
| "email": "" |
| } |
| ], |
| "year": "", |
| "venue": null, |
| "identifiers": {}, |
| "abstract": "This contribution presents the results of comparison of Dutch texts written by bilinguals I) (speaking French and Dutch), with Dutch texts regarded as STANDARD WRITTEN DUTCH. The attention was focussed on French loan-words appearing in both types of texts and the differences in their use. Certain generalizations as to the mechanisms of interference are suggested.", |
| "pdf_parse": { |
| "paper_id": "C69-1601", |
| "_pdf_hash": "", |
| "abstract": [ |
| { |
| "text": "This contribution presents the results of comparison of Dutch texts written by bilinguals I) (speaking French and Dutch), with Dutch texts regarded as STANDARD WRITTEN DUTCH. The attention was focussed on French loan-words appearing in both types of texts and the differences in their use. Certain generalizations as to the mechanisms of interference are suggested.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Abstract", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "body_text": [ |
| { |
| "text": "The materials used for the present contribution belong to ", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "I. Mater~ls", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "(~ We are greatly indebted for the assistance of oul colleages Mr.L.DE BUSSCHERE, who prepared all computer programs needed in this investigatfon, Mr.R.EECKHOUT, who helped us with many suggestions as to the possibilities of information processing techniques and with critical remarks concerning the linguistic aspects of our problem, and -last but not least -the Direction of the MATHEMATICAL CENTRE of the University of Louvain, who put at our disposal the IBM-360 computer.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "==============================================================", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The texts of group A were written by 400 francophone 18 yearold pupils in the highest classes at the 61 private secundary schools in Brussels and its suburbs. This sample represents one fifth of the total population. From every pupil we obtained two Dutch compositions, one of them a piece of homework written", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "t k", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "in November ]967, another an examination composition from", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "t k", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "December of the same year. The reasons for this choice are evident, since the pupils can call in their parents' and their dictionaries' assistance in the first situation but not in the second.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "t k", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "From every composition the first 125 words were put on punchcards together with coded information as to their source. In this way a corpus of ca. 100,000 words was compiled. In order to allow for comparison of relative parameters such as wordspread, vocabulary-growth etc., it was later divided into two parts each containing ca. 50,000 words (parts I and 2 below).", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "t k", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The texts of group B, i.e. the SWD, were obtained by putting together extracts from literary work by I0 contemporary authors.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "t k", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This anthology gave us a corpus of some ]O,0OO words.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "t k", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The first part of group A reflects ca. 50 different subjectmatters, whereas the SWD-anthology reflects only ]O subjectmatters or \"themes\". So the disproportion of corpora is outweighed by a themes/tokens ratio which is I/ 10 in both corpora. ", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "t k", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "As a first approximation test the percentage of foreign words in the vocabulary in both FWD-and SWD-texts was established. In other words, the \"conceptual symbols\" do not represent separate pieces of the univers de disoour8 taken at random, but are probably ordered by some classificational system, resembling the biological classification.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Lexical mter~renceand word-~ngth", |
| "sec_num": "3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "To test this hypothesis we divided the FWD material into ", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Word content and entropy", |
| "sec_num": "6." |
| } |
| ], |
| "back_matter": [], |
| "bib_entries": { |
| "BIBREF0": { |
| "ref_id": "b0", |
| "title": "Bilinguals (...) is a cover term for people with a number of different language skills, having in common only that they are not monolinguals\". Cf. also the same author, The Norwe$ian language in America", |
| "authors": [], |
| "year": 1953, |
| "venue": "The terms \"bilingual\" and \"bilingualism\" are understood here in the meaning used by E.HAUGEN, Bilin~ualism in the Americas", |
| "volume": "", |
| "issue": "", |
| "pages": "", |
| "other_ids": {}, |
| "num": null, |
| "urls": [], |
| "raw_text": "i. The terms \"bilingual\" and \"bilingualism\" are understood here in the meaning used by E.HAUGEN, Bilin~ualism in the Americas, Alabama 1958, p.9 : \"Bilinguals (...) is a cover term for people with a number of different language skills, having in common only that they are not monolinguals\". Cf. also the same author, The Norwe$ian language in America, Philadelphia 1953, p.7 :\"Bilingualism is understood here to begin at the point where the speaker of one language can produce complete meaning- ful utterances in the other language\"", |
| "links": null |
| }, |
| "BIBREF1": { |
| "ref_id": "b1", |
| "title": "Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandse Taal, door Dr.C. Kruyskamp, M.Nijhoff, Den Haag", |
| "authors": [ |
| { |
| "first": "", |
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| "last": "Van Dale", |
| "suffix": "" |
| } |
| ], |
| "year": null, |
| "venue": "", |
| "volume": "", |
| "issue": "", |
| "pages": "1981--1989", |
| "other_ids": {}, |
| "num": null, |
| "urls": [], |
| "raw_text": "VAN DALE, Groot Woordenboek der Nederlandse Taal, door Dr.C. Kruyskamp, M.Nijhoff, Den Haag 1981-8.", |
| "links": null |
| }, |
| "BIBREF2": { |
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| "title": "The Calculus of Linguistic Observation", |
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| "last": "Cf", |
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| }, |
| { |
| "first": "; G", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "Mandelbrot", |
| "suffix": "" |
| }, |
| { |
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| "last": "Herdan", |
| "suffix": "" |
| } |
| ], |
| "year": 1954, |
| "venue": "Structure formelle des textes et communication, Word, i0", |
| "volume": "", |
| "issue": "", |
| "pages": "59--84", |
| "other_ids": {}, |
| "num": null, |
| "urls": [], |
| "raw_text": "Cf. Mandelbrot, Structure formelle des textes et communication, Word, i0 (1954) pp.l-42 and G.Herdan, The Calculus of Linguistic Observation, Mouton & Co, The Hague 1962, pp.59-84.", |
| "links": null |
| }, |
| "BIBREF3": { |
| "ref_id": "b3", |
| "title": "Type-Token Mathematics", |
| "authors": [ |
| { |
| "first": "G", |
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| "last": "Herdan", |
| "suffix": "" |
| } |
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| "year": 1960, |
| "venue": "", |
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| "num": null, |
| "urls": [], |
| "raw_text": "G.Herdan, Type-Token Mathematics, Mouton, The Hague 1960,p.205.", |
| "links": null |
| }, |
| "BIBREF4": { |
| "ref_id": "b4", |
| "title": "Het ~uiste woord. Betekeniswoordenboek der Nederlandse taal", |
| "authors": [ |
| { |
| "first": "L", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "Brouwers S.J", |
| "suffix": "" |
| } |
| ], |
| "year": 1965, |
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| "urls": [], |
| "raw_text": "L.Brouwers s.j., Het ~uiste woord. Betekeniswoordenboek der Nederlandse taal, Brepols, Brussel-Turnhout, 1965.", |
| "links": null |
| }, |
| "BIBREF5": { |
| "ref_id": "b5", |
| "title": "Bilingualism and Information Processing", |
| "authors": [ |
| { |
| "first": "P", |
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| "A" |
| ], |
| "last": "Kolers", |
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| } |
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| "year": 1968, |
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| "raw_text": "P.A.Kolers, Bilingualism and Information Processing, The Scientific American, voi.218~ 3, 1968. Institute of Applied Linguistics University of Louvain Vesaliusstraat 2~ Louvain(Belgium)", |
| "links": null |
| } |
| }, |
| "ref_entries": { |
| "FIGREF0": { |
| "num": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null, |
| "text": ": texts written by francophones with ca. 6 years of Dutch training. These texts represent what we call Francophone Written Dutch (below FWD). -group B : Texts from recent contemporary Dutch literature by both Dutch and Flemish authors. They will here represent Standard Written Dutch (SWD)." |
| }, |
| "FIGREF1": { |
| "num": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null, |
| "text": "An interference modelThe interference model presented here consists of two parts : the syntactic one, containing also the word-formational devices,which may be thought of as a generative device of the kind described by N.CHOMSKY and other generativists; the second part, called the lexical morpheme store, is thought of as consisting of entries \"written down\" in terms of conceptual symbols, provided with actual linguistic interpretations. These \"interpretations\", which in a very simplified manner may be identified with words tout court, are picked out of the store and \"fitted\" into previously constructed sentence forms. In other words, we assume that the sentences are formed according to semantic requirements before the actual words have been chosen. This last routine goes on in a semi-automatic way, which may be visualized as pickingthe required lexemes -according to the entries in terms of conceptual symbols -out of a magnetic tape gliding under a reading device of some sort. For the case of a bilingual speaker, we can imagine the procedure as a tape with three different tracks, the middle one contain-~ng the \"entries\" , the other two the respective actual morphemes, in casu Dutch and French (D and F in fig. 3). Speaking in one of the two languages demands a switch-over to one of the external tracks. It may be assumed that, in the case of a monolingual Dutch speaker, the cells contain the parallel French and Dutch words in an unordered manner, whereas with a francophone a bias exists towards the French loan-word (e.g. column ] on fig.3 : ph~nom\u00a2ne > fenomeen (verschijnsel)). This explains the predilection for loan-words even within the limits of the \"basic vocabulary\" and the more so with words of low frequency. Other variants of speech production behavior are possible; for instance the hypercorrect option ] ~ 1 in column 2, where the speaker consciously reaches for the more distant lexeme, and the case of pure borrow-ing, which may be conceived of as an automatic switch-over to the French side, wherever the Dutch track is blank or whenever the bilingual's competence fails to furnish a good Dutch word or synonym. In this process the French lexeme is placed in the cell on the Dutch side (cf.column 3 where ~ is the lacking word). the word-formational rules belong to the syntactical part. Thus the reshaping of new French borrowings (cf. the loan-adjective gebagancerd composed of the French bagan~ , whose counterpart is lacking in the Dutch track, and of two Dutch affixes ge-and -d) is done in the grammatical part of our model. As a matter of fact, this assumption is a heuristic over-simplification, because certain grammatical morphemes are in fact borrowed, cf. the endings -eren, -at~e, -age etc. In order to explain this phenomenon, one could argue on the fact that in many cases whole word-items are introduced to the lexical store and activate the analogy mechanism, but this problem would lead us beyond the scope of the present investigation. A code-swit~ing th~ry There has been much speculation about the possible principle of lexeme order in the store, some ordering being a necessary condition of efficient re-coding. Much discussion, too, has been devoted to the so-called ZIPF-Iaw 3) . The most convincing explanation was that suggested by HERDAN 4), namely that an ordering of items by decreasing frequency would diminish the number of operations necessary to identifie a given item. \"Let us ... assume that the arrangement of the entries is systematic according to frequency of occurence in descending order of frequency, so that the most frequent word has rank I, the second most frequent word rank 2, and so on. If in such a dictionary, that is one in which words are arranged in order of decreasing frequency and increasing order of rankj the look-up procedure is one of successive comparison, the word of rank r will require r look-up operations~ and since this word occurs -the Zipf-law assumed -C/r times, the total number of look-up operations required to locate a word is C (the constant in the Zipf-law, formulated as r.fr= C ). Thus for n words contained in the dictionary, nC look-up operations will be required. On the other hand, we know that for the Zipf-law the total number of occurences (the text length in terms of word number) and thus the total number of words to be searched, is given by I~Crdr = C lo~ n N It follows that the average number of look-up operations per word is An= nC/C lo~ n = n/lo~ n (...) This compares favourably with the n/2 look-up operations which would be needed under the scheme described above, which makes no use of the frequency element.\" ) Within the framework of our model it would mean that the winding and unwinding of the tape takes considerably less time t~a~L in the case of wholly random distribution. The question remains of what principle underlies the differentiation of item possibility. Here too, the concept of \"pigeon-holing\" o~ semantic information proposed by HERDAN 4) seems to be the most plausible." |
| }, |
| "FIGREF2": { |
| "num": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null, |
| "text": "three frequency-classes (group I: absolute frequency ], group II: frequency 2 and 3, group III : frequency above 3) and examined the samples of these groups according to their distribution within the classificational system applied by L.BROUWERS in his Dutch thesaurus HET JUISTE WOORD 3). The supposition was that in the event of ordering of some kind, the distribution of items among the \"content classes\" in the thesaurus (expressed as entropy and redundancy) would be different for various frequency groups, and further, that in the event of the \"pigeon-holing\" suggested by HERDAN, the redundancy should increase for groups of items with higher frequencies. Such an increase was in fact observed, as the reader can conclude from the following" |
| }, |
| "FIGREF3": { |
| "num": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null, |
| "text": "Itrule out other devices allowing quick interconnections between words belonging to the same content-group but differing in frequency; (cf. the so-called association of related concepts suggested by P.A.KOLERS @). However, the basic principle of order seems to be of a statistical kind, as is proved by the perfect fit of the rank-frequency distribution with the theoretical distribution according to the ZIPF-MANDELBROT formulation (of.fig.4). The correlation coefficient between the observed and the theoretical distribution is 0.993!Z ConsequencesThe assumed model haslconsequences, which have been empiri-cally tested: I. The assumed model, and especially the process of bZank-fiZl\u00a3ng of the Dutch track with French morphemes, presupposes that in general the FWD-writers will use a greater number of foreign words than the SWD allows. This fact is already apparent from the overall percentage of foreign elements in FWD (cf. fig.5) In particular the foreign words should appear more frequently in proportion to the increase of text-length ) . The investigation of vocabulary growth rate has in fact shown that this is the case : the ratio of new foreign words to the total vocabulary remains stable (ca. ]/ lO) until a vocabulary of 3,000 items is reached. Thereafter it increases considerably. The sample described as Part 2 (fig. 5) containing ca.50,O00 words, has not been pre-edited; i.e. no orthographic mistakes or ommissions have been eliminated, as it was done manually in Part I. Thus all orthographic idiosyncrasies have been counted as new types by the computer. We assume that the difference in the size of the so-called basic vocabulary (3,000 --3,500) is mainly due to As the choice of lexemes from the store takes place in terms of \"conceptual symbols\", the lexical diversity should not be substantially diminished on account of the limited vocabulary. The blank-fillings with French lexemes should allow the francophones to keep the overall diversity on a normal level, i.e. on that of the SWD-writers. In other words, we suppose that the greater number of foreign elements in FWD-texts is the consequence of the endeavor to \"keep in pace\" with the normal rate of language diversity. CONCLUSIONS a) The francophone bilinguals use more than twice as much words as the monolingual native speakers of Dutch. b) This fact is connected with the tendency to keep the overall variety of vocabulary at a certain \"normal\" level of speech production. This variety is a bit smaller than in the case of native speakers (cf. the r lo~ee_~ ratio =log N ; for FWD 0.837, for SWD 0.880). c) It can nevertheless be described as \"normal\" since the value of parameter B in MANDELBROT's formulation of the ZIPF-Iaw is ].03347. d) The foreign lexemes are not equidistributed in the assumed word store; their number increases with the growing text length and this increase is quite evident above the first 3,000 words, This fact allows one to think of them as a \"basic vocabulary\", covering various subjects (two different multi-subject samples gave nearly identical values of the basic vocabulary). e) The existence of the basic vocabulary and the good fit of empirical data with the theoretical distribution known as ZIPF-Iaw, strengthens the assumption that the word-units in the store are ordered. f) One of \u00a3he ordering principles is the pigeon-holing of information according to some classificational system which takes into account the informational content of words. ~4" |
| }, |
| "TABREF1": { |
| "num": null, |
| "content": "<table><tr><td colspan=\"4\">is strikingly evident for word-length</td><td colspan=\"3\">|0 (fig.2) The fact that</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"7\">FWD-authors Would \"switch in\" this Dutch-formational device in</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">cases where the Dutch native speaker does not, shows that fran-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"7\">cophones are \"over-aware\" of this means of translating the</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">French genitive construction by a Dutch compositum (e.g. pot de</td></tr><tr><td>~eu~8></td><td>bloempot).</td><td colspan=\"6\">This fact strengthens the assumption made in</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"7\">this paper, that the lexieal level of language is very closely</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"7\">The results are as follows : connected with higher (syntactic) levels, so that statistically</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">statable facts may be explained only in connection with certain</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"6\">TOKENS more general models of speech production. TYPES ZogTYPES FOREIGN TYP ~ogF.T.</td><td colspan=\"2\">% F.TYPES~</td></tr><tr><td>FWD</td><td>47,307</td><td>5,653</td><td>0.8375</td><td>648</td><td>0.4954</td><td>11.85</td></tr><tr><td>SWD</td><td>10,358</td><td>2,616</td><td>0.8807</td><td>141</td><td>O.4285</td><td>5.38</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"7\">The difference of foreign vocabulary ratio in both groups</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"7\">results in distributional differences of words of diverging</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"7\">letter-number. Though the overall word-length of tokens in</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">both groups is nearly identical (4.5] for SWD and 4.61 for FWD)</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">en application of the chi-square test proved the divergences</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"7\">of word distribution (words belonging to different word-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"7\">classes) to be highly significant. The average word-length</td><td>of</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"5\">types (M) is different in both groups :</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>M</td><td/><td>o</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td>FWD</td><td colspan=\"2\">7.85</td><td>2.97</td><td/><td/></tr><tr><td/><td>SWD</td><td colspan=\"2\">7 .03</td><td>2.72</td><td/><td/></tr></table>", |
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| "text": "As the pronunciation of French words is in most cases adapted to the Dutch ones (and this is reflected in the orthography), it was not plausible to suppose that this divergence was due noly to the proportional difference of foreign words. It was found that the divergence was partly due tO the use of eomposita in FWD; their distribution differs considerably from SWD. This" |
| } |
| } |
| } |
| } |
