| { |
| "paper_id": "C94-1042", |
| "header": { |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T12:49:32.366516Z" |
| }, |
| "title": "Comlex Syntax: Building a Computational Lexicon", |
| "authors": [ |
| { |
| "first": "Ralph", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "Grishm", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": { |
| "laboratory": "", |
| "institution": "New York University", |
| "location": {} |
| }, |
| "email": "" |
| }, |
| { |
| "first": "Catherine", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "Macleod", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": { |
| "laboratory": "", |
| "institution": "New York University", |
| "location": {} |
| }, |
| "email": "" |
| }, |
| { |
| "first": "Adam", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "Mcyers", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": { |
| "laboratory": "", |
| "institution": "New York University", |
| "location": {} |
| }, |
| "email": "" |
| } |
| ], |
| "year": "", |
| "venue": null, |
| "identifiers": {}, |
| "abstract": "We des((tile tile design of Comlex Syntax, a co,nputational lexicon providing detailed syntactic iuformation ff)r approximately 38,000 English headwords. We consider the types of errors which arise in creating such a lexicon, and how such errors can be measured and controlled.", |
| "pdf_parse": { |
| "paper_id": "C94-1042", |
| "_pdf_hash": "", |
| "abstract": [ |
| { |
| "text": "We des((tile tile design of Comlex Syntax, a co,nputational lexicon providing detailed syntactic iuformation ff)r approximately 38,000 English headwords. We consider the types of errors which arise in creating such a lexicon, and how such errors can be measured and controlled.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Abstract", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "body_text": [ |
| { |
| "text": "The goal of the (:omlex Syntax project is to create a moderately-broad-coverage lexicon recording the syntactic features of gnglist; words for purposes of cou> putational language analysis. This dictionary is being developed at New York University and is to he distributed by the Linguistic Data Consortimn, to be freely usable for both research and commercial purposes by members of the Consortium.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Goal", |
| "sec_num": "1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In order to ineet the needs of a wide range of an~> lyzers, we have inchlded a rich set of syntactic features and haw~ aimed to characterize these Datures in a relatively theory-neutral way. In l)articnlar, the feature set is more detailed than those of the major commercial dictionaries, such ;us the Oxford Adwmced Learner's Dictionary (OALI)) [d] and the Longnum Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDOCE) [8] , which haw~ I)een widely used as a source o[' lexical i,,for,,lal, ioil ill ];lllguage analyzers. 1 In addil.ion, we have ahned to be irio,'e cOrrlpreheiisive ill capturhig featt, res (hi partic.u-]ar, stibcategorization ['eatures) than co,iI,llercial dic tlonaries.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 346, |
| "end": 349, |
| "text": "[d]", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 409, |
| "end": 412, |
| "text": "[8]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF7" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Goal", |
| "sec_num": "1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Tile word list was derived fi'on, the file prepared by Prof. Roger Mitten from the Oxford Adwn,ced Learner's Dictionary, and contains about 38,000 head forms, although some purely British terms have been omitted, loach entry is organized as a nested set of typed feature-vahle lists. We currently use a Lisp-like parenthesized list notation, although the lexicon couhl ITo facilii~ate the transition to COMLEX by currenl, users of these dictionaries, we have i)reparcd mappings froln COMI,EX classes to those of several other dictionaries. be readily mapped into other hwn,s, such as SC, MI,marked text, if desired.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Structure", |
| "sec_num": "2" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "SOllie sauil)le dicticll,ary entries are shown ilt Figure 1 . The first syml/ol gives the part of speech; a word with several parts of speech will have several dictionary entries, one for each part of speech. Each e,itry has all :orth foatilre, giving the base fO,'lfl of tile word, No,ins, verbs, and adjectiw~s with irregular Inorphology will liave featt,res for the irregular fo,.iris :plural, :past, :pastpart, etc. Words which take con-,i)leirients will have a subcatego,'ization (:sube) ['eat,ire. For exaniple> the verb \"ai)andon\" eali occur with a IlOllri phrase followed by a prepositional phrase with tim preposition \"to\" (e.g., \"1 abandoned hii,i to the linguists.\") or with just a ,lOll,, phrase compleifient (\"[ aballdone(l the shill.\"). Other syntactic features are recorded under :features. For example, the noun \"abandon\" is marked as (countable :pval (\"wlth\")), indicating that it must appear in the singular with a deter,niner unless it is preceded by the preposZion \"with\".", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 51, |
| "end": 61, |
| "text": "Figure 1", |
| "ref_id": "FIGREF0" |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Structure", |
| "sec_num": "2" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "We have paid p~u'ticular attention to providing detailed subcategorization information (information about complement structure), both for verbs and for tllose nouns and adjectives which do take cmnl)lements. In order to insure the COml)leteness of our codes, we studied the codiug e)ul)loyed by s(weral other u,ajor texicous, includh,g (,he Ih'andeis Verh Lexlcolt 2, the A(JQIJII,EX Prc, ject [10] , the NYU Linguistic String l'roject [9] IAarned the country's health i~roblems (.m eating tc, o much chocolate.\"), whereas \"blanle for\" involw,s ol)-. ject control (\"lie blamed John for going too fast.\").", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 394, |
| "end": 398, |
| "text": "[10]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF9" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 436, |
| "end": 439, |
| "text": "[9]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF8" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Subcategorization", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The names fl)r the ditferent complmnent types are b~sed on the conventions used ill the Ih-ancleis wwb lexicon, where each COml)Mneut is designated by tl,, names of its constituents, together with a few tags to indicate things such as control phenonleua. Earh corn plement type is formally defined by n fr;uue (see Fig-. ure 2). Tile frame includes the constituellt structure, :cs, tile grammatical structure, :gs, one cu, nlm'e :features, and one or more ex~unples, :ex. Tile constit.uent structure lists the constituents in sequence; the grammarital structure indicates the functional role played by e,~ch c(mstituent. The elemenl.s of the constitueut structure are indexed, and these indices are referenced in the grammatical structure field (in up-.frames, I.he index \"1\" in the grammatical structures always refers to tile surface subject of tile verb).", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 315, |
| "end": 320, |
| "text": "Fig-.", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Subcategorization", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Three verb frames are shown ill Figure 2 . The fh'st, s, is for flail sententiM complements with ;m optional \"that\" eo,nplementizer. Tim second aim third frames I)oth represent infinitiwd conq~lemel,ts, aim dill're' only in their filnctiona[ structure. The to-ingsc frame iv f(~r subject-cm~trol verbs, verbs for which the surface subject is the flmctional subject of both the nlatrix ;tad embedded chmses. The notation :subject 1 in the :cs tleld indicates that the surface subject is the subject of tile enlbedded clause, while the :subject 1 ill the :gs Iield indicates that it is the subject of the matrix clause. The indication :features (:control subject) provides this [nforlnation redundantly; we include I)oth indications in case one is more collvelliellt for i);trticultu\" dictionary users. The to-ingrs fl'atne is for raisingto-subject verbs --verbs for which the surface subject We expect t. checl\u00a2 tiffs dicti,mary ;tg;tillSt sevel'a{ SOIIrC(!S, VVe hltelld to C\u00a2)lill)al'e the IilaAlll;t] sllbcate gorizations for verbs aF.ainsl, I, hose in the ()A[,I), and would be pleased to make COllI])a, risous ;I.l.,;a.illst other broad-c~werage dictiouarios if those Cttll be m!tde avail-able tbr this purpose. We also hltend to mMw COml)ar-is~ms against sewn'al corpus deriw~d lists: at the very least, with w!rb/l~reptMthm and w~rb/partMe pairs wit.h high mutual inf, rmation [3] ", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
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| "start": 1383, |
| "end": 1386, |
| "text": "[3]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF1" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 32, |
| "end": 40, |
| "text": "Figure 2", |
| "ref_id": "FIGREF2" |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Subcategorization", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "As ])art of the process of refining the dictionary and assuring its quality, we have spent considerable resources on reviewing dictionary entries and on occasion have had sections coded by two or even four of the elves. This process has allowed us to make some analysis of the sources and types of error in the lexicon, and how these errors might be reduced. We. can divide the sources of error and inconsistency into four classes: A 1)reliminary study, conducted on examples (drawn at random from a corpus not used for our concordance) of verbs beginning with \"j\", indicated that elves were consistent 93% to 94% of the time in labeling argument/adjunct distinctions following our criteria and, in these eases, rarely disagreed on the subcategorization. In more than half of the cases where there was disagreethen(, the elves separately flagged these as drillcult, ambiguous, or figurative uses of the verbs (and therefore would probably not use them its the basis for assigning lexical features). The agreement rate for examl)les whicti were not flagged was 96% to 98%.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Types and Sources of Error", |
| "sec_num": "4" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "where an ell' omits a Dature because it is not suggested by an example in the concordance, a citation ill the dictionary, or the elf's introspection. In order to get an est.ilnate of the niag,itude of this problem we decided to establish a measure of coverage or \"recall\" for the subcategorization Dal.ures assigned by our elves. \"lb do this, we tagged the first 150 \"j\" verbs from a randomly selected corpus from a part of the San Diego Mercury which was not inchlded in our concordance and then compared the dictionary entries created by our lexicographers against the tagged eorptis. The restllts of this colnparison are sliown in Figure 3 .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 634, |
| "end": 642, |
| "text": "Figure 3", |
| "ref_id": "FIGREF5" |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "oniitted features:", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "~Phe \"(~omplements only\" is the percentage of instances in the corpus covered by the subcategorization tags assigned by the elves and does not include the identification of i~rly l)rel)ositions or adverbs. 'l'lie \"(~oinl~lements only\" would correspond rougllly to the type of inforinal, ion provided by OALI) and l,I.)()(]Jl'] 4. The \"COlllpielnc:nl,s q-l>relmsitions/l)articles\" colliirin inehides eli the fl,al.ures> tllal, is it, eonsidel'S the correct idenl,illcation of the conip]einent l)]ilS the sp,~cilie preposil.ions aiid adverbs i't!(lllil'e(] by eert~thi compleillonl.s. Ttie two COlllliiliS of (igiii'es iUlder \"Ci)nil)lenients-t-I>rel>ositions/l'ari.icles ', show tim resuits with and without the enumeration of dh'oetional l)reposltlons.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "oniitted features:", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "We have recently changed ollr approach to i, he classification of verbs (like \"riin '>' \"send >>, \"jog '>, \"wall:', \"juml;') wliieh take a long list of directional l)rel)ositlons, by l)roviding our entering prograin with a P-D/I{ option on the preposition llst. 'l'his option will automatically assign a list of directional prepositions to the verb and thus will saw.' tirne and eliminate errors of rriissing prepositions. In some eases this apl)roaeli will provide 4 I~I)OCI~ does provide some preposltloiis and particles. a prel)osition list that is a little rich for a given verb I)ut we have decided to err on the side of a slight overgeneration rather thall risk missing ally prel)ositions which actually occur. As you can see, the removal of the ILl)IlLs from consideration improves the in(lividual elf scores.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "oniitted features:", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The elf union score is the union, of the lexical entries for all fcmr elves. These are certainly nulnbets to be proud of, but realistically, having the verbs clone four sel)arate times is not I)ractical. llowew~r, in our original proposal we stated that because of the complexity of the verb entries we wouhl like to have them done twice. As can be seeil in l:igure 5, with two passes we su('ce,,d hi raising individual percentages in all cases.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "oniitted features:", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "We would like to make clear that evell in tim two cases where our individuM lexicographers miss 18% and 13% of the complements, there was only one instance in which this might have resulted in the inability to parse a sentence. This was a missing intransitNe. Otherwise, the missed cOnll)lernents wouhl have been analyzed as adjuncts since they were a combination of prepositional phrases and adverbials with one case of a suhordinal.e ccmj line(ion ~as\".", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "oniitted features:", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "We endeavored to make a comparison with LDOCE on the measurement. This was a bit difficult since LDOCE lacks some con,plements we have and combines others, not always consistently. For instance, our PP roughly corresponds to either 1,9 (our Pl'/al)Vl') or l)rep/adv + T1 (e.g. \"on\" corpora. We began with a corpus f,'ol,~ a single newspaper (S:m .lose Mercury News), but lutve since added the Ih'own corpus, several literary works from the l,ibrary of America, scientific abstracts fl'oul the U.S. I)epartment of Energy, aml ;ill additional newspal~er (the Wall ~treet Jnur-Iiztl). In ,~xl, ending the corpus, we h&ve limited mlrselves to texts which would lie readily awdlable I,o nlenlliers of the l,inguistic I)ata Consortium.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "oniitted features:", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "exl:e.ss ft~atul'es: when ;m elf assigns a spurious feature throu.gh incorrect extrapolation or analo.gy from available examples or introspection. Because of our desire Io obtain relatively complete foatllre sets, even figr infrequent verl)s, we have pernfit-ted elves to extrapolate from the citations fotmd. Such a process is bound to be less certain than the assignment of features from extant examples. Ilowever, this problem does not appear to be very severe. A review of tile \"j\" verb entries produced by all four elves indicates that the fraction of spurious entries ranges from 2% to 6%.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "oniitted features:", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "d. fl~zzy features: feature assignment is defined in terms of the acceptability of words in particular syntactic frames. Acceptability, however, is often not absolute but a matter of degree. A verb may occur primarily with particular complements, but will be \"acceptable\" with others.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "oniitted features:", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This problem is eompmmded by words which take on particular features only in special contexts. Thus, we don't ordinarily think of \"dead\" as being gradable (*\"Fred is more dead than Mary.\"), but we do say \"deader than a door nail\". It is also compounded by our decision not to make sense distinctions initially. For examl)le, many words which are countable (require a determiner before the singular form) also have a generic sense in which the determiner is not required (*\"Fred bought apple.\" but \"Apple is a wonderflfl flavor.\"). For each such problematic feature we have prepared gnidelines for the elves, but these still require considerable discretion on their part.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "oniitted features:", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "'Fhese problems have emphasized for ns tbe impof tanee of developing a tagged corpus in conjunction with the dictionary, so that frequency of occurrence of a feature (and frequency by text type) will be available. We have done stone preliminary tagging in paraim with the completion of our initial dictionary. We expect to start tagging in earnest in early summmer. Our plan is to begin by tagging verbs in the Brown corpus, in order to be able to correlate our tagging with the word sense tagging being done by tim Word-Net group on the same corpus [7] . We expect to tag at least 25 instances of each verb. If there are not enough occurrences in tim Brown Corlms , we will use examples from the same sources as our extended corpus (s~e above).", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 550, |
| "end": 553, |
| "text": "[7]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF6" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "oniitted features:", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Design and preparation of COMLEX Syntax has been supported by tile Advanced Research Projects Agency through the Office of Naval Research under Awards No. MDA972-92-J-1016 and N00014-90-J-1851, and The 'IYustees of the University of Pennsylwmia.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Acknowledgements", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "l)ewdoped by J. (ih'in;sha.w and I{..lackendoff.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "sec_num": null |
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| "back_matter": [], |
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| "ref_entries": { |
| "FIGREF0": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "text": ".qai,lph~ (X)M I,I,',X .qyntax diction:u'y en~.ri(-s.", |
| "num": null, |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF1": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "text": "is tile functional subject only of the embedded c];tuso. The functional subject position in the matrix clause is unlilled, as indicated by the notation :gs (:subject () :corap 2).", |
| "num": null, |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF2": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "text": "Sample O*OMI,I']X .Syntax subcategorization Dames.creation, it sliould be most wduable as a basis for comparisons.", |
| "num": null, |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF3": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "text": "errors of classification: where an instance of a word is improperly analyzed, and in particular where the words following a verb are not properly identified with regard to complement type. SI)eeific types of problems include misclassifying adjuncts as arguments (or vice versa) and identifying the wrong control features. Our primary defenses against such errors have been a steady refinement of tile feature deseril)tions in ollr nlanlla] and rel';ular grou I) review sessions with all the elves. Ill particular, we have developed detailed criteria for making adjunct/argument distinctiolis [O].", |
| "num": null, |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF4": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "text": "Numl)er of subcategorization features assigned 1.o \"j\" verbs by (lifferenl, elves.elf #Coml)len,mts only ( ~ mpl ~menls -F I'repositions/I)artMes tvithoul. I)-l)ll{. Numl)er of subcategorization features assigned t~) ''j'' glories by pairs of elw!s.", |
| "num": null, |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF5": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "text": "TI) (our I'I'/I'AI{;F-NP) but in some cases a I)relmsition is mentioned but the verb is classified as iIltr~tllSii, iVe. 'Hie stra, ightl(Fw;u'd colnparisor~ has I,I)O(~E (illdhlg 7;~(~t) of f,he Lagged COml)lemenl.s hut a softer measure eliminating complements that I,I)OC, E seems to 1)e lacking (I'AILT-NP-I'P, ILPOSSIN(I, PP-Pl ~) aM Mlowing for a 1)P coral)lenient for \"joke\", although it is no(. specitied, results ill a l'ml'celfl.ag(; of 79. We haw~ adOld.ed tw. lines of defense against the prohh!m of omitted features, l\"irsg, critical entries (particularly high fre(luency wM)s) have been done independently by two or more elves. Second, we are dewq.pinp; a IIIO1'(~ balanced C(H'plIH for t]lo dv,,s to ,,,~,ilt. i~)~c,.,,,, st,,di~,s (e4';., [1]) co,lh.,,, our {)])serv;ttions I,h:d, I'(':d, ures SllCh as sub('ategorizati()n patterlls luay di[i'l!r sui)stantiatly betweell", |
| "num": null, |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "TABREF1": { |
| "type_str": "table", |
| "html": null, |
| "text": "Alth-ugh methods haw~ been dew%ped .ww tile last few years for autovual,ically ideutifyi,g sore,: subcati,gorizati(~ll consl,r:tillts I, llrotlgh corpus ;tllulysis [2,5[, these methods are sl,ill lhuited iu the range cf disthlc l, ions they can identify and their Mfility to deal with ](~w-frequency words. (hmsequently \\ve have chosen [,o use manual entry for creaticm of our initial dictio,mry.The entry of lexical information is being performed by flmr gll;tdllllte liuguistics studcllts, rel'erled I.o as elves (\"elf\" = euterer ,,f lexical features). Tile elw:s are provided with a memMmsed interl'~ce c-ded in C-lumort 1,isp using the Garnet GI/I package, aim runuiug on Sun workst.atimls. Tiffs iuterfa.ce also p,'c.vides ac tess t,o a hu'ge text corpus; as ~ wcwd is being', eutered, instances .f t, he word e;m be viewed in one of tim windows. I:,lves rely on cited, ions from the corpus, dellni-ti\u00a2ms and citations from any of several printed dictio naries and their own linguistic intuitions in assigninp; features I,o words. I)ictiouary entry began ill April 19!)3. Au initial dicti<mary contahlhut ewtries for all the u(u.us, verbs and adjvci,ives ill tile ()AI,I) was coluldetml iu M.y,", |
| "num": null, |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>1!)9'1.3</td></tr></table>" |
| }, |
| "TABREF2": { |
| "type_str": "table", |
| "html": null, |
| "text": "mid, if possible, wil.h the results of recently-developed procedures for ex tractinF, subcai,egorlzal, iou tYames from corpor;t [2,.ti]. While tiffs corpus-derived information may not be detailed or accurate e|lough for fu~ly-autonl~tted lexicon", |
| "num": null, |
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