| { |
| "paper_id": "E87-1018", |
| "header": { |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T10:54:17.219989Z" |
| }, |
| "title": "MACHINE TRANSLATION, LINGUISTICS, AND INTERLINGUA", |
| "authors": [ |
| { |
| "first": "Petr", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "Sgall", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": { |
| "laboratory": "", |
| "institution": "Charles University", |
| "location": { |
| "addrLine": "Malostransk4 n.25", |
| "postCode": "118 O0", |
| "settlement": "Praha l", |
| "country": "Czechoslovakia" |
| } |
| }, |
| "email": "" |
| }, |
| { |
| "first": "Jarmila", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "Panevov~", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": { |
| "laboratory": "", |
| "institution": "Charles University", |
| "location": { |
| "addrLine": "Malostransk4 n.25", |
| "postCode": "118 O0", |
| "settlement": "Praha l", |
| "country": "Czechoslovakia" |
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| }, |
| "email": "" |
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| "abstract": "An adequate, complete, and economical linguistic theory is necessary for MT and the question is whether a consistent use of the often unduly neglected dependency syntax, including a systematic description of topic and focus, cannot serve as a re", |
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| "paper_id": "E87-1018", |
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| "text": "An adequate, complete, and economical linguistic theory is necessary for MT and the question is whether a consistent use of the often unduly neglected dependency syntax, including a systematic description of topic and focus, cannot serve as a re", |
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| "section": "Abstract", |
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| "body_text": [ |
| { |
| "text": ".", |
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| "text": "As one of the referrresofour papers has duly recalled, the number of publications concerning dependency grammar is much smaller than that on constituent structures, but the popularity of the model is not directly relevant for its evaluation. Therefore it seems highly useful to notice the advantages of the less known model, a more intensive use of which might be of importance for the further development of the field.", |
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| "text": "3. An interlin@ua for MT can well be based on such a theory. Since the 1960\"s -see As for the known difficulties concerning e.g. the formulation of fail-soft rules or the presence of surface clues (see Slocum, 1985,5; Vauquois and Boitet, 1985) , it appears that for with an interlingua. In this case, a translation between two languages exhibiting the marginal opposition will be faced with a similar problem as a translation from a \"prototypical\" language into a \"marginal\"", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
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| "start": 202, |
| "end": 217, |
| "text": "Slocum, 1985,5;", |
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| "start": 218, |
| "end": 244, |
| "text": "Vauquois and Boitet, 1985)", |
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| "text": "one (e.g. the use of dual number will be determined -perhaps only for some casesby contextual clues, rather than by the presence of dual in the input text).", |
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| "text": "If the relative weight of such surplus difficulties (and resulting mistakes) is considerable, then it may be useful to formulate interfaces, perhaps not always in a one-to-one correspondence to the processed languages, but relating to certain groups of them. Certain \"dialectal\" differences in the interlingua would then be useful, each of which would share some opposition(s) with a group of the processed languages.", |
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| "text": "This may concern the differences between languages having and not having articles, verbal aspects, various moods, and so on.", |
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| "text": "The substitution of a single interlingua by a set of closely related interface structures <see VauquoM and Boitet, 1985,32; as for its application in the EUROTRA project, Johnson etal., 1985,164) Vauquois, 1975; Boitet and Nedobejkine, 1981; Vauquois and Boitet, 1985,28f) ; although in this system the dependency relations are used along with a kind of phrase structure, the importance of complex node labels and of the syntactic relations (valency) has always been fully recognized. Also Nagao etal. (1985,esp.98) point out that dependency tree structures are used in their project (which certainly belongs to those with the best traditions and results); in the Eurotra system the dependency relations and the notion of \"gov (ernor)\" play an important role (see e.g. Johnson etal., 1985) . In Prague, especially the English-to-Czech translation project, the main author of which is Kirschner (1982; 1984) , is based on a dependency description. that it should not be much more difficult than it is with human translations of technical texts (although other kinds of mistakes will prevail).", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
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| "start": 95, |
| "end": 123, |
| "text": "VauquoM and Boitet, 1985,32;", |
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| { |
| "start": 124, |
| "end": 126, |
| "text": "as", |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 171, |
| "end": 195, |
| "text": "Johnson etal., 1985,164)", |
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| { |
| "start": 196, |
| "end": 211, |
| "text": "Vauquois, 1975;", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF13" |
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| { |
| "start": 212, |
| "end": 241, |
| "text": "Boitet and Nedobejkine, 1981;", |
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| { |
| "start": 242, |
| "end": 272, |
| "text": "Vauquois and Boitet, 1985,28f)", |
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| { |
| "start": 490, |
| "end": 515, |
| "text": "Nagao etal. (1985,esp.98)", |
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| { |
| "start": 769, |
| "end": 789, |
| "text": "Johnson etal., 1985)", |
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| "start": 884, |
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| "text": "Kirschner (1982;", |
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| "text": "1984)", |
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| "FIGREF0": { |
| "num": null, |
| "uris": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "text": "liable base for the grammar of an interlingua, or of a set of interrelated interface structures. i. As Slocum (198~)convinc~ly shows, the attitude towards translation in general, and therefore also towards automatic translation in the U.S.A. never has been based on urgent wide-spread needs of translating technical texts, and mostly has not been connected with broad interest in theoretical background. Outside the U.S.A., with the exception of G.E.T.A., Grenoble, the research had the character of scattered projects carried out by relatively small groups; only in the recent years the EUROTRA project and, especially, the two Japanese projects bring some hope as for the possibility of sufficiently concentrated research." |
| }, |
| "FIGREF1": { |
| "num": null, |
| "uris": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "text": "the research in this direction has been connected with theoretical investigations. It has been clear that the formulation of an interlingua is a practical task, for the underlying units differ from one language to the other, so that the structure of interlingua is based rather on the structural similarities (formal universals) of languages than on an assumed identity of their underlying structures, or their patternings of meaning." |
| }, |
| "FIGREF2": { |
| "num": null, |
| "uris": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "text": "a multilingual system of MT these disadvantages have to be compared with those present in the large number of binary systems which are otherwise necessary. The difference between the use of an interlingua and of a smaller number of \"interfaces\" (one for each language)appears not to be crucial. If, for a system including ~ languages, m among them display a certain opposition (that of dual versus plural number, or of gender with personal pronouns, etc.), then the degree of importance of this opposition for the system depend& on the difference between n and m and on the importance of the languages displaying the opposition. Extremely marginal oppositions will probably be ignored in a system using interfaces as well as in one" |
| }, |
| "FIGREF3": { |
| "num": null, |
| "uris": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "text": "The perspectives of MT seem to be connected with two major conditions, in addition to the choice of an appropriate underlying linguistic theory, which we discussed above: (a~ As is known, for the resolution of many lexical ambiguities and also for the identification of grammatically obligatory values of the target language not present in the input text, a MT system has to include not only a purely linguistic description. It has to be found out to what degree the practical purposes of MT can be achieved by systems \"modelling the world\" by such elementary means as sets of semantic features. Where means of this kind will be found to be insufficient, it is probable that neither data bases of the common types will do. It is then necessary to look for suitable kinds of knowledge representation systems. (b) The main perspective appears to be connected with the hope that a wider practical application of MT will lead to a new situation, in which the construction of MT systems will no longer be a matter of small research groups scattered and more or less isolated in different countries, but there will emerge large-scale and well--coordinated international projects based on the best results achieved and verified by widespread practical application. Under such new circumstances it will be possible not only to compile grammatically well . founded data on tens of thousands of lexical units from different languages, but also to connect translation systems in an effective way with broadly based nets of knowledge representation. Effective ways of human-machine interaction can then be found, and the formulation of appropriate intermediate languag~will meet good conditions. Post-editing will certainly re~ main necessary, the main condition being" |
| }, |
| "TABREF0": { |
| "type_str": "table", |
| "text": "The question whether linguistics is able to offer a reliable theoretical basis for MT cannot be answered in a qualified way without examining such linguistically based systems as Garvin~s'fulcrum\" approach {which was abolished on external grounds, after the unfortunate ALPAC report~ or the systems formulated by Kulagina and Apresyan.", |
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| "num": null, |
| "content": "<table><tr><td colspan=\"2\">(b) Testability! It follows from (a) formation, since also the topic-focus ar-</td><td/><td>mitted for unlimited complementation, as</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">that testability also is limited: not every ticulation is denoted here).</td><td/><td>verbs do.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">counterexample disqualifies a theory. Bloomfield's \u00b0exocentric \u00b0 constructions</td><td/><td>For point (b) it is important that the</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">(c) Economy: To be applicable, the theo-are often mistakenly understood as an ob-</td><td/><td>theory uses operational criteria in delim-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">ry cannot be too complex. It seems necessary stacle for dependency syntax; however, as~</td><td>iting its units and oppositions, thus re-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">to draw a boundary line between the system Robinson (1970):showed, they can be hanv</td><td/><td>presenting a suitable starting point for</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">of language on the one side, and its use or dled without serious difficulties within</td><td/><td>implementable application systems.</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">its semantic interpretation on the other, dependency trees. Let us add that, if con-</td><td/><td>With regard to (c), the relative gener-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">although in several respects it may be use-structions are analyzed in the terms of</td><td/><td>ality of the formulations used by the the-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">ful for the applications not to follow this word classes (parts of speech), rather than</td><td/><td>ory is relevant; thus e.g. Chomsky's uni-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">boundary quite exactly. in those of individual words, than the dis-</td><td/><td>versal principles are relatively econom-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">(d) Modularity: Since huge programs are tributional properties clearly show that</td><td colspan=\"2\">Certain features of their frameworks, as ical. On the other hand, the abundance of</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">extremely difficult to be handled (debugged, e.g. your sister is a noun group (since</td><td colspan=\"2\">well as of Vauquois\" (1975; Vauquois and nodes in the P-markers (cf. what was just</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">updated, etc.), priority will be given to e.g. Mother or syntax occur withouta deter-</td><td colspan=\"2\">Boitet, 1985~ are more closely connected to said on point (a)) brings along the ne-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">such a theory that not only allows for a miner), to hit the ball is a verb group</td><td colspan=\"2\">classical structural linguistics than is cessity to use tree pruning and to intro-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">division of labour between the description (due to to read,...), and also a sentence</td><td colspan=\"2\">the case with other MT systems. Also in duce devices making it possible to find an</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">of linguistic and communicative competence has a verb as its governor, since in I_~t</td><td colspan=\"2\">Prague, the research group of MT and formal orientation in the unnecessarily large</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">-rains no subject (Actor/Bearer) is present see (c), -but makes also a cooperation at the level of meaning (or in the under-between specialists in the different layers lying structure). of language itself possible. A formal treatment combining dependency</td><td colspan=\"2\">linguistics at Charles University has de-voted much effort (starting at the end of the 1950\"s~ to identify the positive results of classical European linguistics and to trees. As for (d), it seems preferable to work with two levels of sentence structure and</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">The comparison of different approaches syntax with a description of coordination to linguistic theory as to point (a) is a and apposition, allowing for an indefinite matter of the theory itself; let us only note that many theories seem not to be suf-number of sister nodes, was presented by</td><td colspan=\"2\">reformulate them in a metalanguage that would make them usable in the context of with a separate level of morphemic repre-sentations in the theory, although in the applications this pattern may be simplified Chomskyan (and Montaguean~ methodology and of automated language processing (now see (we are then aware what we have left out</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">ficiently adequate in that they do not</td><td/><td>Sgall et al., 1986~. e.g. in our parser, and are able to restore</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">properly distinguish between the three di-</td><td/><td>a missing subpart, if this proves to be</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">mensions of the sentence structure (valency</td><td/><td>2. The requirements on lin@uistic theory necessary, e.g. when the system is to be</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">or theta roles, coordination and apposition,</td><td colspan=\"2\">as a background for MT can be summarized as generalized to handle new kinds of texts).</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">and also topic and focus, which often is</td><td/><td>follows: A systematic investigation into compar-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">almost altogether neglected I) and the mor-</td><td/><td>(a~ Adequacy: The theory should underlie ing different linguistic theories from</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">phological categories (tense, aspect, num-</td><td/><td>relatively complete descriptions reflecting these viewpoints has resulted in our pre-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">ber, definiteness, and so on); the latter</td><td/><td>the structure of language. Since humans dif-ference for dependency grammar, based on</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">occupy no immediate positions in the struc-</td><td/><td>fer from computers (in freely combining fac-valency or theta roles (see Sgall et al.,</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">ture of the sentence with its recursive</td><td/><td>tual knowledge and other mental capacities 1986, for a detailed discussion). A depend-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">properties, and thus it is not adequate to</td><td/><td>with their knowledge and use of language, ency based linguistic description is ade-</td></tr><tr><td>denote e.g.</td><td>prepositions as if they per-</td><td/><td>and in being able to develop their language quate in the quoted respect [e.g. the mor-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">1 The relevance of the topic-focus ar-</td><td/><td>while using itS, the correspondence between theory and its MT application cannot be im-phological values are denoted here by parts of complex node labels); the theory is ful-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">ticulation for translation and for other</td><td/><td>mediate. The open-endedness of language ly testable and uses operational criteria,</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">aims of language comprehension can be illus-</td><td>makes it necessary to restrict the complete-and it ensures both economy [no non-termi-</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">trated by the following examples: In the</td><td/><td>ness of the description to a reasonably nal symbols are present in the representa-</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>estimated core of language, leaving the tions although as man N as necessary can be</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>~ossibly not too large~ periphery inrthe used during the derivation procedure) and</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>application to postediting, etc. modularity (the underlying representations</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>contain all the semantically relevant in-</td></tr></table>" |
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