Datasets:

WINGNUS
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ACL-OCL

	{
	"paper_id": "E93-1033",
	"header": {
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	"date_generated": "2023-01-19T10:55:12.387652Z"
	},
	"title": "Abductive Explanation of Dialogue Misunderstandings",
	"authors": [
	{
	"first": "Susan",
	"middle": [],
	"last": "Mcroy",
	"suffix": "",
	"affiliation": {
	"laboratory": "",
	"institution": "University of Toronto Toronto",
	"location": {
	"postCode": "M5S 1A4",
	"country": "Canada"
	}
	},
	"email": ""
	},
	{
	"first": "Graeme",
	"middle": [],
	"last": "Hirst",
	"suffix": "",
	"affiliation": {
	"laboratory": "",
	"institution": "University of Toronto Toronto",
	"location": {
	"postCode": "M5S 1A4",
	"country": "Canada"
	}
	},
	"email": ""
	}
	],
	"year": "",
	"venue": null,
	"identifiers": {},
	"abstract": "To respond to an utterance, a listener must interpret what others have said and why they have said it. Misunderstandings occur when agents differ in their beliefs about what has been said or why. Our work combines intentional and social accounts of discourse, unifying theories of speech act production, interpretation, and the repair of misunderstandings. A unified theory has been developed by characterizing the generation of utterances as default reasoning and using abduction to characterize interpretation and repair.",
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	"abstract": [
	{
	"text": "To respond to an utterance, a listener must interpret what others have said and why they have said it. Misunderstandings occur when agents differ in their beliefs about what has been said or why. Our work combines intentional and social accounts of discourse, unifying theories of speech act production, interpretation, and the repair of misunderstandings. A unified theory has been developed by characterizing the generation of utterances as default reasoning and using abduction to characterize interpretation and repair.",
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	"section": "Abstract",
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	"text": "When agents participate in a dialogue, they bring to it different beliefs and goals. These differences can lead them to make different assumptions about one another's actions, construct different interpretations of discourse objects, or produce utterances that are either too specific or too vague for others to interpret as intended. As a result, agents may fail to understand some part of the dialogue--or unknowingly diverge in their understanding of it-making a breakdown in communication likely. One strategy an agent might use to address the problem of breakdowns is to try to circumvent them, for example, by trying to identify and correct apparent confusions about objects or concepts mentioned in the discourse [Goodman, 1985; McCoy, 1985; Calistri-Yeh, 1991; Eller and Carberry, 1992] . The work reported here takes a different, but complementary, approach: it models how an agent can use what she or he knows about the discourse to recognize whether either participant has misunderstood some previous utterance to repair the misunderstanding. This strategy handles cases that the preventive approaches cannot anticipate. It is also more general, because our system can generate repairs on the basis of the relatively few types of manifestations of misunderstanding, rather than the much broader (and hence more difficult to anticipate) range of sources.",
	"cite_spans": [
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	"text": "[Goodman, 1985;",
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	"start": 736,
	"end": 748,
	"text": "McCoy, 1985;",
	"ref_id": "BIBREF7"
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	"text": "Calistri-Yeh, 1991;",
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	"section": "Introduction",
	"sec_num": "1"
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	"text": "In this paper, we shall describe an abduetive account of interpreting speech acts and recognizing misunderstandings (we discuss the generation of repairs of misunderstandings in McRoy and Hirst, 1992) . This account is part of a unified theory of speech act production, interpretation, and repair [McRoy, 1993] . According to the theory, speakers use their beliefs about the discourse context and which speech acts are expected to follow from a given speech act in order to select one that accomplishes their goals and then to produce an utterance that performs the chosen speech act. Interpretation and repair attempt to retrace this selection process abductively--when a hearer attempts to interpret an observed utterance, he tries to identify the goals, expectations, or misunderstandings that might have led the to produce it. Previous plan-based approaches [Allen, 1979; Allen, 1983; Litman, 1985; Carberry, 1985] have had difficulty constraining this inference---from only a germ of content, potentially a tremendous number of goals could be inferred. A key assumption of our approach, which follows from insights provided by Conversation Analysis [Garfinkel, 1967; Schegloff and Sacks, 1973] , is that participants can rely primarily on expectations derived from social conventions about language use. These expectations enable participants to determine whether the conversation is proceeding smoothly: if nothing unusual is detected, then understanding is presumed to occur. Conversely, when a hearer finds that a speaker's utterance is inconsistent with his expectations, he may change his interpretation of an earlier turn and generate a repair [Fox, 1987; Suchman, 1987] . Our approach differs from standard CA accounts in that it treats Gricean intentions [Grice, 1957] as part of these conventions and uses them to constrain an agent's expectations; the work thus represents a synthesis of intentional and structural accounts.",
	"cite_spans": [
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	"start": 178,
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	"text": "McRoy and Hirst, 1992)",
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	"text": "[McRoy, 1993]",
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	"text": "[Allen, 1979;",
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	"text": "Litman, 1985;",
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	"text": "Carberry, 1985]",
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	"text": "[Garfinkel, 1967;",
	"ref_id": "BIBREF3"
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	"start": 1172,
	"end": 1198,
	"text": "Schegloff and Sacks, 1973]",
	"ref_id": null
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	"start": 1655,
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	"text": "[Fox, 1987;",
	"ref_id": null
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	"text": "Suchman, 1987]",
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	"section": "Introduction",
	"sec_num": "1"
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	"text": "Recognizing misunderstanding is like abduction because hearers must explain why, given their knowledge of how differences in understanding are manifested, a speaker might have said what she did. Attributions of misunderstanding are assumptions that might be abduced in constructing such an explanation. Recognizing misunderstanding also resembles a diagnosis in which utterances play the role of \"symptoms\" and misunderstandings are \"faults\". Previous work on diagnosis has shown abduction to be a useful characterization [Ahuja and Reggia, 1986; Poole, 1986 ].",
	"cite_spans": [
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	"start": 522,
	"end": 546,
	"text": "[Ahuja and Reggia, 1986;",
	"ref_id": "BIBREF0"
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	"start": 547,
	"end": 558,
	"text": "Poole, 1986",
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	"section": "Introduction",
	"sec_num": "1"
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	"text": "An alternative approach to diagnosing discourse misunderstandings is to reason deductively from a speaker's utterances to his or her goals on the basis of (default) prior beliefs and then rely on belief revision to retract inconsistent interpretations [Cawsey, 1991] ; however, this approach has a number of disadvantages. First, any set of rules of this form will be unable to specify all the conditions (such as insincerity) that might also influence the agent's interpretation; a reasoner will need also to assume that there are no \"abnormalities\" relevant to the participants or the speech event [Poole, 1989] . This approach also ignores the many other possible interpretations that participants might achieve through negotiation, independent of their actual beliefs. For example, an agent's response to a yes-no question might treat it as a question, a request, a warning, a test, an insult, a challenge, or just a vacuous statement intended to keep the conversation going. If conversational participants can negotiate such ambiguities, then utterances are at most a reason for attributing a certain goal to an agent. That is, they are a symptom, not a cause. Any deductive account would thus be counterintuitive, and very likely false as well.",
	"cite_spans": [
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	"start": 252,
	"end": 266,
	"text": "[Cawsey, 1991]",
	"ref_id": "BIBREF2"
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	"start": 600,
	"end": 613,
	"text": "[Poole, 1989]",
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	"section": "Introduction",
	"sec_num": "1"
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	{
	"text": "The abductive framework",
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	"section": "2",
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	"text": "We have chosen to develop the proposed account of dialogue using the Prioritized Theorist framework [Poole el ai., 1987; Brewka, 1989; van Arragon, 1990] . Theorist typifies what is known as a \"proofbased approach\" to abduction because it relies on a theorem prover to collect the assumptions that would be needed to prove a given set of observations and to verify their consistency. This framework was selected because of its first-order syntax and its support for both default and abductive reasoning. Within Theorist, we represent linguistic knowledge and the discourse context, and also model how speakers reason about their actions and misunderstandings.",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 100,
	"end": 120,
	"text": "[Poole el ai., 1987;",
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	"start": 121,
	"end": 134,
	"text": "Brewka, 1989;",
	"ref_id": "BIBREF2"
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	"start": 135,
	"end": 153,
	"text": "van Arragon, 1990]",
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	"text": "We have used Poole's implementation of Theorist, extended to incorporate preferences among defaults as suggested by Van Arragon [1990] . Poole's Theorist implements a full first-order clausal theorem prover in Prolog. It extends Prolog with a true negation symbol and the contrapositive forms of each clause. Thus, a Theorist clause a D/3 is interpreted as {/3 *--a,-~a 4---~/3}. A Prioritized Theorist reasoner can also assume any default d that the programmer has designated as a potential hypothesis, unless it can prove -~d from some fact or overriding hypothesis.",
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	"start": 120,
	"end": 134,
	"text": "Arragon [1990]",
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	"section": "2",
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	"text": "The reasoning algorithm uses model elimination [Loveland, 1978; Stickel, 1989; Umrigar and Pitchumani, 1985] as its proof strategy. Like Prolog, it is a resolution-based procedure that chains backward from goals to subgoals, using rules of the form goal 4--subgoall A... A subgoaln, to reduce the goals to their subgoals. However, unlike Prolog, it records each subgoal that occurs in the proof tree leading to the current one and checks this list before searching the knowledge base for a relevant clause; this permits it to reason by cases.",
	"cite_spans": [
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	"start": 47,
	"end": 63,
	"text": "[Loveland, 1978;",
	"ref_id": "BIBREF6"
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	"start": 64,
	"end": 78,
	"text": "Stickel, 1989;",
	"ref_id": "BIBREF10"
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	"start": 79,
	"end": 108,
	"text": "Umrigar and Pitchumani, 1985]",
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	"section": "2",
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	{
	"text": "The formal language",
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	"section": "3",
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	"text": "The model is based on a sorted first-order language, \u00a3, comprising a denumerable set of predicates, variables, constants, and functions, along with the boolean connectives V, A,-,, D, and --, and the predicate =. The terms of \u00a3 come in six sorts: agents, turns, sequences of turns, actions, descriptions, and suppositions 1. \u00a3 includes an infinite number of variables and function symbols of every sort and arity. We also define a number of special ones: do, mistake, intend, knowif, knowref, knows-BetterRef, not, and and. Each of of these functions takes an agent as its first argument and an action, supposition, or description for each of its other arguments; each of them returns a supposition. The function symbols that return speech acts each take two agents as their first two argument and an action, supposition, or description for each of their other arguments. For the abductive model, we define a corresponding language/~Th in the Prioritized Theorist framework. /:Th includes all the sorts, terms, functions, and predicates of /:; however, /:Tit lacks explicit quantification, distinguishes facts from defaults, and associates with each default a priority value. Variable names are understood to be universally quantified in facts and defaults (but existentially quantified in an explanation). Facts are given by \"FACT w.\", where w is a wff. A default can be given either by \"DEFAULT (p, d).\" or \"DEFAULT (p, d) : w.\", 1Suppositions represent the propositions that speakers express in a conversation, independent of the truth values that those propositions might have.",
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	"section": "3",
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	"text": "where p is a priority value, d is an atomic symbol with only free variables as arguments, and w is a wtf. For example, we can express the default that birds normally fly, as:",
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	"text": "DEFAULT (2, birdsFly(b)) : bird(b) D .fly(b).",
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	"text": "If Y: is the set of facts and AP is the set of defaults with priority p, then an expression DEFAULT(p, d) : w asserts that d E A p and (d D w) E .~'.",
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	{
	"text": "The architecture of the model",
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	"text": "In the architecture that we have formulated, producing an utterance is a default, deductive process of choosing both a speech act that meets an agent's communicative and interactional goals and a utterance that will be interpretable as this act in the current context. Utterance interpretation is the complementary (abductive) process of attributing to the speaker communicative and interactional goals by attributing to him or her a discourse-level form that provides a reasonable explanation for an observed utterance in the current context. Social norms delimit the range of responses that a participant may produce without becoming accountable for additional explanation. 2 The attitudes that speakers express provide additional constraints, because speakers are expected not to contradict themselves. We therefore attribute to each agent:",
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	"text": "\u2022 A theory T describing his or her linguistic knowledge, including principles of interaction and facts relating linguistic acts.",
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	"section": "4",
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	"text": "\u2022 A set B of prior assumptions about the beliefs and goals expressed by the speakers (including assumptions about misunderstanding).",
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	"section": "4",
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	"text": "\u2022 A set Ad of potential assumptions about misunderstandings and meta-planning 3 decisions that agents can make to select among coherent alternatives.",
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	"section": "4",
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	},
	{
	"text": "To interpret an utterance u, by speaker s, the hearer h will attempt to solve:",
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	"section": "4",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "T O B U M t-utter(s, h",
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	"eq_spans": [],
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	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": ", u, ts) for some set M C AJ, where ts refers to the current context.",
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	"text": "In addition, acts of interpretation and generation update the set of beliefs and goals assumed to be expressed during the discourse. Our current formalization focuses on the problems of identifying how an utterance relates to a context and whether it has been understood. The update of expressed beliefs 2These norms include guidelines such as \"If someone asks you a question, you should answer it\" or \"If someone offers their opinion and you disagree, you should let them know\". 3Our notion of \"meta-planning ~ is similar to Litman's [1985] use of meta-plans, but we prefer to treat meta-planning as a pattern of inference that is part of the task specification rather than as an action. is handled in the implementation, but outside the formal language. 4",
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	"text": "[1985]",
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	"text": "For simplicity, we represent utterances as surfacelevel speech acts in the manner first used by Perrault and Allen [1980] . For example, if speaker m asks speaker r the question \"Do you know who's going to that meeting?\" we would represent this as: srequest(m, r, informif(r, m, knowref(r, w))). Following Cohen and Levesque [1985] , we limit the surface language to the acts s-request, s-inform, sinformref, and s-informif. Discourse-level acts include inform, informif, informref, askref, askif, request, preteH 5, testref, testif and warn, and are represented using a similar notation.",
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	"start": 109,
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	"text": "Allen [1980]",
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	"section": "Speech acts",
	"sec_num": "4.1"
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	"text": "We distinguish the beliefs that speakers act as if they have during a course of a conversation from those they might actually have. Most models of discourse incorporate notions of belief and mutual belief to describe what happens when a speaker talks about a proposition, without distinguishing the expressing of belief from believing (see Cohen et al. 1990 ). However, real belief involves notions of evidence, trustworthiness, and expertise, not accounted for in these models; it is not automatic. Moreover, the beliefs that speakers as if they have need not match their real ones. For example, a speaker might simplify or ignore certain facts that could interfere with the accomplishment of a primary goal [Gutwin and Mc-Calla, 1992] . Speakers need to keep track of what others say, in addition to whether they believe them, because even insincere attitudes can affect the interpretation and production of utterances. Although speakers normally choose to be consistent in the attitudes they express, they can recant if it appears that doing so will lead (or has led) to conversational breakdown.",
	"cite_spans": [
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	"start": 340,
	"end": 357,
	"text": "Cohen et al. 1990",
	"ref_id": "BIBREF2"
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	"start": 709,
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	"text": "[Gutwin and Mc-Calla, 1992]",
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	"section": "Expressed attitudes",
	"sec_num": "4.2"
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	"text": "Following Thomason [1990] , we call the contents of the attitudes that speakers express during a dialogue suppositions and the attitude itself simply active. 6",
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	"start": 10,
	"end": 25,
	"text": "Thomason [1990]",
	"ref_id": "BIBREF10"
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	"sec_num": "4.2"
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	"text": "Thus, when a speaker performs a particular speech act, she activates the linguistic intentions associated with the act, along with a belief that the act has been done. These attitudes do not depend on the 4A related concern is how an agent's beliefs might change after an utterance has been understood as an act of a particulax type. Although we have nothing new to add here, Perrault [1990] shows how Default Logic might be used to address this problem.",
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	"start": 376,
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	"text": "Perrault [1990]",
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	"text": "5A pretellingis a preannouncement that says, in effect, \"I'm going to tell you something that will surprise you. You might think you know, but you don't.\"",
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	"section": "Expressed attitudes",
	"sec_num": "4.2"
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	"text": "eSupposition differs from belief in that speakers need not distinguish their own suppositions from those of another [Stalnaker, 1972; Thomason, 1990 ]. speakers' real beliefs. 7",
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	"start": 116,
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	"text": "[Stalnaker, 1972;",
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	"start": 134,
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	"text": "Thomason, 1990",
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	"section": "Expressed attitudes",
	"sec_num": "4.2"
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	"text": "The following expressions are used to denote suppositions:",
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	"section": "Expressed attitudes",
	"sec_num": "4.2"
	},
	{
	"text": "\u2022 do(s, a) expresses that agent s has performed the action a;",
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	"section": "Expressed attitudes",
	"sec_num": "4.2"
	},
	{
	"text": "\u2022 mistake(s, at, az) expresses that agent s has mistaken an act al for act a2;",
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	"section": "Expressed attitudes",
	"sec_num": "4.2"
	},
	{
	"text": "\u2022 intend(s,p) expresses that agent s intends to achieve a situation described by supposition p;",
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	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Expressed attitudes",
	"sec_num": "4.2"
	},
	{
	"text": "\u2022 knowif(s,p)expresses that the agent s knows whether the proposition named by supposition p is true;",
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	"section": "Expressed attitudes",
	"sec_num": "4.2"
	},
	{
	"text": "\u2022 knowref(s, d) expresses that the agent s knows the referent of description d;",
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	"section": "Expressed attitudes",
	"sec_num": "4.2"
	},
	{
	"text": "\u2022 knowsBetterP~ef(st, s2, d) expresses that agent sl has \"expert\" knowledge about the referent of description d, so that if s2 has a different belief about the referent, then sz is likely to be wrong; s and",
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	"section": "Expressed attitudes",
	"sec_num": "4.2"
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	"text": "\u2022 and(pl,p2) expresses the conjunction of suppositions Pl and P2;",
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	"section": "Expressed attitudes",
	"sec_num": "4.2"
	},
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	"text": "\u2022 not(p) expresses the negation of supposition p.9",
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	"section": "Expressed attitudes",
	"sec_num": "4.2"
	},
	{
	"text": "We represent agents' linguistic knowledge with three relations: decomp, a binary relation on utterance forms and speech acts; lintention, a binary relation on speech acts and suppositions; lezpectation, a three-place relation on speech acts, suppositions, and speech acts. The decomp relation specifies the speech acts that each utterance form might accomplish. The lintention relation specifies the beliefs and intentions that each speech act conventionally expresses. The lexpectation relation specifies, for each speech act, which speech acts an agent believing the given condition can expect to follow.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Linguistic knowledge relations",
	"sec_num": "4.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "We assume that an agent's beliefs and goals are given explicitly by statements of the form believe(S, P) and hasGoal(S, P, TS), respectively, where S is an agent, P is a supposition and TS is a turn sequence.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Beliefs and goals",
	"sec_num": "4.4"
	},
	{
	"text": "To represent the dialogue as a whole, including repairs, we introduce the notion of a turn sequence and tit is essential that these suppositions name propositions independent of their truth values, so that we may represent agents talking about knowing and intending without fully analyzing these concepts.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Activation",
	"sec_num": "4.5"
	},
	{
	"text": "8This specialization is needed to capture the pragmatic force of pretelling.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Activation",
	"sec_num": "4.5"
	},
	{
	"text": "9The function not is distinct from boolean connective -~. It is used to capture the supposition expressed by an agent who says something negative, e.g., \"I do not w~nt to go.\" the activation of a supposition with respect to a sequence. A turn sequence represents the interpretations of the discourse that a speaker has considered.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Activation",
	"sec_num": "4.5"
	},
	{
	"text": "Turn sequences are characterized by the following three relations:",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Activation",
	"sec_num": "4.5"
	},
	{
	"text": "\u2022 tumOr(is, t) holds if and only if t is a turn in the sequence ts; \u2022 succ (tj, tl, ts) holds if and only if turnO](ts, ti), turnOf(ts, tj), tj follows ti in ts, and there is no t~ such that turnOf(ts, tk), suce (tk,ti,ts) , and succ(tj, tk, ts); \u2022 focus(ts, t) holds ift is a distinguished turn upon which the sequence is focused; normally this is the last turn of ts.",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 75,
	"end": 87,
	"text": "(tj, tl, ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 212,
	"end": 222,
	"text": "(tk,ti,ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Activation",
	"sec_num": "4.5"
	},
	{
	"text": "We also define a successor relation on turn sequences.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Activation",
	"sec_num": "4.5"
	},
	{
	"text": "A turn sequence TS2 is a successor to turn sequence TS1 if TS2 is identical to TS1 except that TS2 has an additional turn t that is not a turn of TS1 and that is the successor to the focused turn of TS1.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Activation",
	"sec_num": "4.5"
	},
	{
	"text": "The set of prior assumptions about the beliefs and goals expressed by the participants in a dialogue is represented as the activation of suppositions. For example, an agent nan performing an informref(nan, bob, theTime) expresses the supposition do(nan, informref(nan, bob, theTime)) and the Gricean intention, and(knowref(nan, theTime), intend(nan, knowref(bob, theTirne)))",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Activation",
	"sec_num": "4.5"
	},
	{
	"text": "given by the lintention relation.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Activation",
	"sec_num": "4.5"
	},
	{
	"text": "We assume that an agent will maintain a record of both participants' suppositions, indexed by the turns in which they were expressed. It is represented as a set of statements of the form expressed(P, T) or expressedNot(P, T) where P is a simple supposition and T is a turn.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Activation",
	"sec_num": "4.5"
	},
	{
	"text": "Beliefs and intentions that participants express during a turn of a sequence tSl become and remain active in all sequences that are successors to tsl, unless they are explicitly refuted. ",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Activation",
	"sec_num": "4.5"
	},
	{
	"text": "If formula P is active within a sequence TS, it will remain active until not(P) is expressed: ",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "FACT -,(active(p, ts) A active(not(p), ts)).",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "The following definition captures the notion of \"expectation\".",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Expectation",
	"sec_num": "4.6"
	},
	{
	"text": "DEFINITION 2: A discourse-level action R is ezpected by speaker S in turn sequence TS when:",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Expectation",
	"sec_num": "4.6"
	},
	{
	"text": "\u2022 An action of type A has occurred;",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Expectation",
	"sec_num": "4.6"
	},
	{
	"text": "\u2022 There is a planning rule corresponding to an adjacency pair A-R with condition C;",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Expectation",
	"sec_num": "4.6"
	},
	{
	"text": "\u2022 S believes that C;",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Expectation",
	"sec_num": "4.6"
	},
	{
	"text": "\u2022 The linguistic intentions expressed by R axe consistent with TS; and",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Expectation",
	"sec_num": "4.6"
	},
	{
	"text": "\u2022 R has not occurred yet in TS. DEFAULT (2, ezpectedReply(Pdo, p, do(Sl, a2) , ts)):",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 32,
	"end": 43,
	"text": "DEFAULT (2,",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 44,
	"end": 62,
	"text": "ezpectedReply(Pdo,",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 63,
	"end": 65,
	"text": "p,",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 66,
	"end": 72,
	"text": "do(Sl,",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 73,
	"end": 76,
	"text": "a2)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Expectation",
	"sec_num": "4.6"
	},
	{
	"text": "active(pdo , is) A lezpectation(pdo, p, dO(Sl, a2)) A believe(sx, p) A iintentionsOk (sl, az, ts) D expected(s1, a2, ts) .",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 85,
	"end": 120,
	"text": "(sl, az, ts) D expected(s1, a2, ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Expectation",
	"sec_num": "4.6"
	},
	{
	"text": "FACT active(pdo, ts) D \",ezpectedReply (pdo, p, preply, ts) . The predicate expectedReply is a default. Although activation might depend on default persistence, activation always takes precedence over expectation because it has a higher priority (on the assumption that memory for suppositions is stronger than expectation).",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 39,
	"end": 59,
	"text": "(pdo, p, preply, ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Expectation",
	"sec_num": "4.6"
	},
	{
	"text": "The predicate lintentionsOk(S, A, TS) is true if speaker S expresses the linguistic intentions of the act A in turn sequence TS, and these intentions are consistent with TS.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Expectation",
	"sec_num": "4.6"
	},
	{
	"text": "We also introduce a subjunctive form of expectation, which depends only on a speaker's real beliefs: FACT lezpectation (do(sl, al) , p, do(s2, a2)) A believe(s1, p) D wouldEz (sl, al, a2) .",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 119,
	"end": 130,
	"text": "(do(sl, al)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 175,
	"end": 187,
	"text": "(sl, al, a2)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Expectation",
	"sec_num": "4.6"
	},
	{
	"text": "When a dialogue proceeds normally, a speaker's utterance can be explained by abducing that a discourse action has been planned using one of a known range of discourse strategies: plan adoption, acceptance, challenge, repair, or closing. (Figure 1 includes some examples in Theorist.) In cases of appaxent misunderstanding, the same explanation process suggests a misunderstanding, rather than a planned act, as the reason for the utterance. To handle these cases, the model needs a theory of the symptoms of a failure to understand [Poole, 1989] . For example, a speaker $2 might explain an otherwise unexpected response by a speaker $1 by hypothesizing that $2 has mistaken some speech act by $1 for another with a similar decomposition or $2 might hypothesize that $1 has misunderstood (see Figure 2) . We shall now consider some applications.",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 532,
	"end": 545,
	"text": "[Poole, 1989]",
	"ref_id": "BIBREF9"
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [
	{
	"start": 237,
	"end": 246,
	"text": "(Figure 1",
	"ref_id": "FIGREF2"
	},
	{
	"start": 793,
	"end": 802,
	"text": "Figure 2)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Recognizing misunderstandings",
	"sec_num": "4.7"
	},
	{
	"text": "Some applications",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "5",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "This first example (from [Sehegloff, 1992] FACT decomp ( s-request ( s l , s2, informif(s2, sl, knowref(s2, p) ",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 25,
	"end": 42,
	"text": "[Sehegloff, 1992]",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 55,
	"end": 110,
	"text": "( s-request ( s l , s2, informif(s2, sl, knowref(s2, p)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "5",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": ")), pretell(sl, s2, p)). FACT decomp( s-request ( s l , s2 , informif(s2, sl, knowref(s2, p))), askref(sl, s2, p)).",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "5",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "FACT decomp ( s-request ( s l , s2 , informit~s2, sl, knowref(s2, p) )), askif(sx, s2, knowref(s2, p))).",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 12,
	"end": 68,
	"text": "( s-request ( s l , s2 , informit~s2, sl, knowref(s2, p)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "5",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "Russ has linguistic expectation rules for the adjacency pairs pretell-askref, askref-inforraref, and askif-informif (as well as for pairs of other types).",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "5",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "Russ also has believes that he knows who's going to the meeting, that he knows he knows this, and that Mother's knowledge about the meeting is likely to be Utterance Explanation FACT decomp( u, al ) ^ try (sl,s2,al,ts) D utter (s1, s2, u, ts) .",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 205,
	"end": 218,
	"text": "(sl,s2,al,ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [
	{
	"start": 227,
	"end": 242,
	"text": "(s1, s2, u, ts)",
	"ref_id": "FIGREF2"
	}
	],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "5",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "DEFAULT (2, intendact(sl, s2, al , ts) ",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 8,
	"end": 38,
	"text": "(2, intendact(sl, s2, al , ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Planned Actions",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": ") :",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Planned Actions",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "shouldTry (sl, s2, al, ts) : D try(sl,s2,al,ts) . DEFAULT (3, adopt(a1, s2, al, a2, ts) ):",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 10,
	"end": 26,
	"text": "(sl, s2, al, ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [
	{
	"start": 29,
	"end": 47,
	"text": "D try(sl,s2,al,ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 50,
	"end": 87,
	"text": "DEFAULT (3, adopt(a1, s2, al, a2, ts)",
	"ref_id": "FIGREF2"
	}
	],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Planned Actions",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "hasGoal (sl, do(s2, a2 ) , ts) ^ wouldEx (sl, do(s1, aa) , do(s2, a2)) ^ iintentionsOk (sl, al, ts) D shouldTry (sl, s2, al, ts) .",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 8,
	"end": 24,
	"text": "(sl, do(s2, a2 )",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 41,
	"end": 56,
	"text": "(sl, do(s1, aa)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 87,
	"end": 99,
	"text": "(sl, al, ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 112,
	"end": 128,
	"text": "(sl, s2, al, ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Plan Adoption",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "expected(s1, a, ts) D shouldTry (sl, s2, a, is) .",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 32,
	"end": 47,
	"text": "(sl, s2, a, is)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "DEFAULT (2, ts)):",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "\"If agent $1 intends that agent S$ perform the action A~ and A2 is the expected reply to the action A1, and it would be coherent for SI to perform A1, then $1 should do so.\"",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "DEFAULT (2, ts)):",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "\"If agent $1 believes that act A is the expected next action, then $1 should perform A.\" ^ lintention(a2,pli) ^ lintention(aM, pli2) ^ inconsistentLl(ptl, Pli2) ^ p = mistake(s2, at, aM)) D try (s1, s2, a2, ts) .",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 194,
	"end": 210,
	"text": "(s1, s2, a2, ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "DEFAULT (2, ts)):",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "Failure to be understood DEFAULT (3, otherMis (sl, s2, p, a~, ts) do(s2, aM) , do(s1, a2))",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 46,
	"end": 65,
	"text": "(sl, s2, p, a~, ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [
	{
	"start": 66,
	"end": 76,
	"text": "do(s2, aM)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "DEFAULT (2, ts)):",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "A p = mlstake(sl, ai, aM)) D try (s1, s2, a2, ts) .",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 33,
	"end": 49,
	"text": "(s1, s2, a2, ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "DEFAULT (2, ts)):",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "\"Speaker S might be attempting action A in discourse TS if: S was thought to have performed action AM; but, the linguistic intentions of AM are inconsistent with those of A; acts A1 and AM have a similar surface form (and hence could be mistaken); and, H may have made this mistake.\"",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "DEFAULT (2, ts)):",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "\"Speaker S might be attempting action A in discourse TS if: speaker H was thought to have performed action At; but, acts AI and AM have a similar surface form; if H had performed AM, A would be expected;",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "DEFAULT (2, ts)):",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "S may express the linguistic intentions of A; and, S may have made the mistake.\" Figure 2 : Rules for diagnosing misunderstanding better than his own. We assume that he can make default assumptions about what Mother believes and wants:",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [
	{
	"start": 81,
	"end": 89,
	"text": "Figure 2",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "DEFAULT (2, ts)):",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "FACT believe(r, knowref(r, w)). FACT believe(r, knowif(r,knowref(r,w))). FACT believe(r, knowsBetterRef(m,r,w)). DEFAULT (1, credulousB(p)) : believe (in, p) . DEFAULT (1, credulousg(p, ts)) : hasGoal (in, p, ts) .",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 150,
	"end": 157,
	"text": "(in, p)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 201,
	"end": 212,
	"text": "(in, p, ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "DEFAULT (2, ts)):",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "Russ's interpretation of T1 as a pretelling is possible using the meta-plan for plan adoption and the rule for planned action.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "DEFAULT (2, ts)):",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "hasGoal (in, do(r, askref(r, In, w) ), ts(0)) may be explained by abducing credulousH (do(r,askref(r, m, w) ),ts(0)).",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 8,
	"end": 35,
	"text": "(in, do(r, askref(r, In, w)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 86,
	"end": 107,
	"text": "(do(r,askref(r, m, w)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "The proposition",
	"sec_num": "1."
	},
	{
	"text": "2. An askref by Russ would be the expected reply to a pretell by Mother:",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "The proposition",
	"sec_num": "1."
	},
	{
	"text": "wouldEz (in,do(in,pretell(m, r, w) ), do(r,askref(r, In, w)))",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 8,
	"end": 34,
	"text": "(in,do(in,pretell(m, r, w)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "The proposition",
	"sec_num": "1."
	},
	{
	"text": "It would be expected by Mother because:",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "The proposition",
	"sec_num": "1."
	},
	{
	"text": "\u2022 The lezpectation relation suggests that she might try to pretell in order to get him to produce an askref:",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "The proposition",
	"sec_num": "1."
	},
	{
	"text": "lezpec~ation ( do(in,pretell(in,r,w ) ), knowsBet terRef(in,r,w), do(r,askref(r,m,w)))",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 13,
	"end": 37,
	"text": "( do(in,pretell(in,r,w )",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "The proposition",
	"sec_num": "1."
	},
	{
	"text": "\u2022 Russ may abduce cred aousB (knowsnetterRef(in, r, w ) ) to explain believe (in,knowsBetterRef(in, r, w) ).",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 29,
	"end": 57,
	"text": "(knowsnetterRef(in, r, w ) )",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 77,
	"end": 105,
	"text": "(in,knowsBetterRef(in, r, w)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "The proposition",
	"sec_num": "1."
	},
	{
	"text": "3. The discourse context is empty at this point, so the linguistic intentions of pretelling satisfy lintentionsOk.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "The proposition",
	"sec_num": "1."
	},
	{
	"text": "adopt (m, r, pretell(m, r, w) , askref(r, m, w), ts(0)) Thus, the conditions of the plan-adoption meta~rule are satisfied, and Russ can explain shouldTry (m, r, pretell(m, r, w) , ts(0)). This enables him to explain try (m, r, pretell(m, r, w) , ts 0)as a planned action. Once Russ explains the pretelling, his decomp relation and utterance explanation rule allow him to explain the utterance.",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 6,
	"end": 29,
	"text": "(m, r, pretell(m, r, w)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 154,
	"end": 177,
	"text": "(m, r, pretell(m, r, w)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 220,
	"end": 243,
	"text": "(m, r, pretell(m, r, w)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Lastly, Russ may assume 1\u00b0",
	"sec_num": "4."
	},
	{
	"text": "misunderstanding in the meeting example ~From Russ's perspective, the inform-not-knowref that Mother performs in T3 signals a misunderstanding. Assuming T1 is a pretelling, just prior to T3, Russ's model of the discourse corresponds to the following:",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Russ's detection of his own",
	"sec_num": "5.2"
	},
	{
	"text": "expressed (do(m, pretell(m, r, w) ",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 10,
	"end": 33,
	"text": "(do(m, pretell(m, r, w)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Russ's detection of his own",
	"sec_num": "5.2"
	},
	{
	"text": "), 1) expressed(knowref(m, w), 1) expressed(knowsBetterItef(m, r, w), 1) expressed(intend(m, do(m, informref(m, r, w))), 1) expressed(intend(m, knowref(r, w)), 1) expressed(do(r, askref(r, m, w)), 2) expressedNot(knowref(r, w), 2) expressed(intend(r, knowref(r, w)), 2) expressed(intend(r, do(m, informref(m, r, w))), 2)",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Russ's detection of his own",
	"sec_num": "5.2"
	},
	{
	"text": "T3 does not demonstrate acceptance because inform(m, r, not(knowref(m, w))) is not coherent with this interpretation of the discourse. This act is incoherent because not(knowref(m, w)) is among the linguistic intentions of this inform, while according to the model active(knowref(m, w),ts(2)).",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Russ's detection of his own",
	"sec_num": "5.2"
	},
	{
	"text": "Thus, it is not the case that:",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Russ's detection of his own",
	"sec_num": "5.2"
	},
	{
	"text": "lintentionsOk (m, inform(m, r, not(knowref(m, w) ",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 14,
	"end": 48,
	"text": "(m, inform(m, r, not(knowref(m, w)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Russ's detection of his own",
	"sec_num": "5.2"
	},
	{
	"text": ")),",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Russ's detection of his own",
	"sec_num": "5.2"
	},
	{
	"text": "As a result, Russ cannot attribute to Mother any expected act, and must attribute a misunderstanding to himself or to her.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "ts(2))",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "Russ may attribute T3 to a self-misunderstanding using the rule for detecting failure to understand. We sketch the proof below.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "ts(2))",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "1. According to the Context, expressed( do(m,pretell(m,r,w) ",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 29,
	"end": 59,
	"text": "expressed( do(m,pretell(m,r,w)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "ts(2))",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "And, Russ may assume that the activation of 1\u00b0The only constraint on adopting a plan, is that the result not yet be achieved:",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "),O).",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "FACT active (do(a, az) , ts) D -~adopt(sl, s2, al, a2, ts) .",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 29,
	"end": 58,
	"text": "D -~adopt(sl, s2, al, a2, ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [
	{
	"start": 12,
	"end": 22,
	"text": "(do(a, az)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "),O).",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "this supposition persists:",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "),O).",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "activationPersists (do(m,pretell(m,r,w) ",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 19,
	"end": 39,
	"text": "(do(m,pretell(m,r,w)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "),O).",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "),O)",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "),O).",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "activationPersists ( do(m,pretell(m,r,w) ",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 19,
	"end": 40,
	"text": "( do(m,pretell(m,r,w)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "),O).",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "),l )",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "),O).",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "Thus, active(do(m, pretell(m, r, w) ), ts(2)).",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [
	{
	"start": 6,
	"end": 35,
	"text": "active(do(m, pretell(m, r, w)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "),O).",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "2. The acts pretell and askrefhave a surface form that is similar, s-request (m,r,informif(r,m,knowref(r,w) ",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 77,
	"end": 107,
	"text": "(m,r,informif(r,m,knowref(r,w)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "),O).",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": ")) So,",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "),O).",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "ambiguous (pretell(m,r,w) , askref(m,r,w)). ",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 10,
	"end": 25,
	"text": "(pretell(m,r,w)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "),O).",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "Once Russ explains the inform-not-knowref, his deeomp relation and utterance explanation rule allow him to explain the utterance.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "ts(2)).",
	"sec_num": null
	},
	{
	"text": "Speaker A finds that speaker B has misunderstood We now consider a new example (from McLaughlin [1984] ), in which a participant A recognizes that a another participant, B, has mistaken a request in T1 for a test: T1 A: When is the dinner for Alfred? A has linguistic expectation rules for the adjacency pairs pretell-askref, askref-informref, askif-informif, and testref-askif. A also believes that she does not know the time of the dinner, that B does know the time of the dinner. 11 We assume that A can make default assumptions about what B believes and wants:",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 85,
	"end": 102,
	"text": "McLaughlin [1984]",
	"ref_id": "BIBREF7"
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "FACT believe(a, not(knowref(a,d) believe(a, knowref(b,d) ). FACT hasGoal( a,do(b,informref(b,a,d ) ),ts( O ) ). DEFAULT (1, credulousB(p) ) : believe (b, p) . DEFAULT (1, credulousH(p, ts) ) : hasGoal (b, p, ts) .",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 150,
	"end": 156,
	"text": "(b, p)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 159,
	"end": 170,
	"text": "DEFAULT (1,",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 171,
	"end": 184,
	"text": "credulousH(p,",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 185,
	"end": 188,
	"text": "ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 201,
	"end": 211,
	"text": "(b, p, ts)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [
	{
	"start": 5,
	"end": 32,
	"text": "believe(a, not(knowref(a,d)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 33,
	"end": 56,
	"text": "believe(a, knowref(b,d)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 60,
	"end": 98,
	"text": "FACT hasGoal( a,do(b,informref(b,a,d )",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": ")). FACT",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "/,From A's perspective, after generating T1, her model of the discourse is the following:",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "ezpressed (do(a, askref(a, b, d) ,e,sedgot(knowref(a, d), 1) expressed (intend(a, knowref(a, d) ",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [
	{
	"start": 10,
	"end": 32,
	"text": "(do(a, askref(a, b, d)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 33,
	"end": 60,
	"text": ",e,sedgot(knowref(a, d), 1)",
	"ref_id": "FIGREF2"
	},
	{
	"start": 71,
	"end": 95,
	"text": "(intend(a, knowref(a, d)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "), 1) e p",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "), 1) expressed(intend(a, do(b, informref(b, a, d))), 1)",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "According to the decomp relation, T2 might be interpretable as askif(b, a, p). However, T2 does not demonstrate acceptance, because there is no askrefaskif adjacency-pair from which to derive an expectation. T2 is not a plan adoption because A does not believe that B believes that A knows whether the dinner is at seven-thirty. However, there is evidence for misunderstanding, because both information-seeking questions and tests can be formulated as surface requests. Also, T2 is interpretable as a guess and request for confirmation (represented as askif), which would be expected after a test. We sketch the proof below.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "1. According to the context: ezpressed (do(a, askref(a, b, d) activationPersists (do(a, askref(a, b, d) ), 0). Thus, aaive( do( a,askref( a,b,d ) ),ts(1) ).",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 111,
	"end": 145,
	"text": "Thus, aaive( do( a,askref( a,b,d )",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [
	{
	"start": 39,
	"end": 61,
	"text": "(do(a, askref(a, b, d)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 81,
	"end": 103,
	"text": "(do(a, askref(a, b, d)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "2. The acts askref and testrefhave a surface form that is similar, namely s-request (a,b,lnformref(b,a,knowref(b,d))). So,",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "ambiguous ( askref( a,b,d ), testref(a,b,d)).",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [
	{
	"start": 10,
	"end": 25,
	"text": "( askref( a,b,d",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "3. An askif by B would be the expected reply to a testref by A: do(a,testref(a, b, d) ), do(b,asklf(b, a, p))) From A's perspective, it would be expected by B because:",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [
	{
	"start": 64,
	"end": 85,
	"text": "do(a,testref(a, b, d)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "wouldEx(b,",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "\u2022 The iezpectation relation suggests that A might try to produce a testref in order to get him to produce an askif:",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "11A must believe that B knows when the dinner is for her to have adopted a plan in T1 to produce an askref get B to perform the desired informref.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "lexpectation ( do( a,testref( a,b,d ) ) , and(knowref(b,d), and(knowlf(b,p) , and(pred(p,X), pred(d,X))), do (b,asklf(b,a,p) ))",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 13,
	"end": 39,
	"text": "( do( a,testref( a,b,d ) )",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 42,
	"end": 75,
	"text": "and(knowref(b,d), and(knowlf(b,p)",
	"ref_id": null
	},
	{
	"start": 109,
	"end": 124,
	"text": "(b,asklf(b,a,p)",
	"ref_id": null
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "The condition of this rule requires that B believe he knows the referent of description d and that p asserts that the described property holds of the referent that he knows. For example, if we represent \"B knows when the dinner is\" as the description knowref(b, the(X, time(dinner, X))), then the condition requires that knowif(b, time(dlnner, q)) for some q. This is a gross simplification, but the best that the notation allows. A may assume that B believes the condition of this lezpecta~ion by default.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "A case of other-misunderstanding:",
	"sec_num": "5.3"
	},
	{
	"text": "The primary contribution of this work is that it treats misunderstanding and repair as intrinsic to conversants' core language abilities, accounting for them with the same processing mechanisms that underlie normal speech. In particular, it formulates both interpretation and the detection of misunderstandings as explanation problems and models them as abduction.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Conclusion",
	"sec_num": "6"
	},
	{
	"text": "We have implemented our model in Prolog and the Theorist framework for abduction with Prioritized defaults. Program executions on a Sun-4 for four-turn dialogues take 2 cpu seconds per turn on average.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Conclusion",
	"sec_num": "6"
	},
	{
	"text": "Directions for future work include extending the model to handle more than one communicative act per turn, misunderstood reference [Heeman and Hirst, 1992] , and integrating the account with sentence processing and domain planning.",
	"cite_spans": [
	{
	"start": 131,
	"end": 155,
	"text": "[Heeman and Hirst, 1992]",
	"ref_id": "BIBREF5"
	}
	],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Conclusion",
	"sec_num": "6"
	}
	],
	"back_matter": [
	{
	"text": "This work was supported by the University of Toronto and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. We thank Ray Reiter for his suggestions regarding abduction; James Allen for his advice; Paul van Arragon and Randy Goebel for their help on using Theorist; Hector Levesque, Mike Gruninger, Sheila McIlraith, Javier Pinto, and Steven Shapiro for their comments on many of the formal aspects of this work; Phil Edmonds, Stephen Green, Diane ttorton, Linda Peto, and the other members of the natural language group for their comments; and Suzanne Stevenson for her comments on earlier drafts of this paper.",
	"cite_spans": [],
	"ref_spans": [],
	"eq_spans": [],
	"section": "Acknowledgements",
	"sec_num": null
	}
	],
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	"FIGREF0": {
	"type_str": "figure",
	"uris": null,
	"num": null,
	"text": ""
	},
	"FIGREF1": {
	"type_str": "figure",
	"uris": null,
	"num": null,
	"text": "Mrs. McOwen and probably Mrs. Cadry and some of the teachers. The surface-level representation of this conversation is given as the following: T1 m: s-request(m, r, informif(r, m,knowref(r, w))) T2 r: s-request(r, m, informref(m, r, w)) T3 m: s-inform(m, r, not(knowref(m, w))) T4 r: s-informref(r, m, w) 5.1 Russ's interpretation of T1 in the meeting example ~,From Russ's perspective, T1 can be explained as a pretelling, an attempt by Mother to get him to ask her who is going. Russ's rules about the relationship between surface forms and speech acts (decomp) include that:"
	},
	"FIGREF2": {
	"type_str": "figure",
	"uris": null,
	"num": null,
	"text": "Theorist rules for producing and interpreting utterances Failure to understand DEFAULT (3, seafMis(s~, s2,p, a2, is)) :aai (do(s , aM), ^ ambiguous(aM, al)"
	},
	"FIGREF3": {
	"type_str": "figure",
	"uris": null,
	"num": null,
	"text": "informref(m, r, w))), intend(m, knowref(r, w))))) The linguistic intentions of inform-not-knowref are and(not (knowref(m, w)), intend(m, knowif(r,not (knowref(m, w))))). But these intentions are inconsistent. 4. Russ may assume selfMis(m,r, mistake(r,askref(m, r, w), prete\|l(m, r, w)), inform(m, r, not(knowref(m, w))),"
	},
	"FIGREF4": {
	"type_str": "figure",
	"uris": null,
	"num": null,
	"text": "T2 B: Is it at seven-thirty? T3 A: No, I'm asking you.T4 B: Oh. I don't know. The surface-level representation of this conversation is given as the following: T1 a: s-request(a, b, informref(b, a, d)) T2 b: s-request(b, a, informif(a, b, p)) T3 a: s-lnform(a, b, intend(a, do(a, askref(a, b, d)))) T4 b: s-inform(b, a, not(knowref(b, d)))"
	},
	"FIGREF5": {
	"type_str": "figure",
	"uris": null,
	"num": null,
	"text": "), 0). A may assume that the activation of this supposition persists:"
	}
	}
	}
	}