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| "paper_id": "2020", |
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| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T01:05:54.097982Z" |
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| "title": "Modelling Frequency and Attestations for OntoLex-Lemon", |
| "authors": [ |
| { |
| "first": "Christian", |
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| "last": "Chiarcos", |
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| "institution": "Goethe-Universit\u00e4t Frankfurt am Main", |
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| "institution": "Goethe-Universit\u00e4t Frankfurt am Main", |
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| { |
| "first": "Jesse", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "De Does", |
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| "institution": "Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal", |
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| "country": "the Netherlands" |
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| "abstract": "The OntoLex vocabulary enjoys increasing popularity as a means of publishing lexical resources with RDF and as Linked Data. The recent publication of a new OntoLex module for lexicography, lexicog, reflects its increasing importance for digital lexicography. However, not all aspects of digital lexicography have been covered to the same extent. In particular, supplementary information drawn from corpora such as frequency information, links to attestations, and collocation data were considered to be beyond the scope of lexicog. Therefore, the OntoLex community has put forward the proposal for a novel module for frequency, attestation and corpus information (FrAC), that not only covers the requirements of digital lexicography, but also accommodates essential data structures for lexical information in natural language processing. This paper introduces the current state of the OntoLex-FrAC vocabulary, describes its structure, some selected use cases, elementary concepts and fundamental definitions, with a focus on frequency and attestations.", |
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| "abstract": [ |
| { |
| "text": "The OntoLex vocabulary enjoys increasing popularity as a means of publishing lexical resources with RDF and as Linked Data. The recent publication of a new OntoLex module for lexicography, lexicog, reflects its increasing importance for digital lexicography. However, not all aspects of digital lexicography have been covered to the same extent. In particular, supplementary information drawn from corpora such as frequency information, links to attestations, and collocation data were considered to be beyond the scope of lexicog. Therefore, the OntoLex community has put forward the proposal for a novel module for frequency, attestation and corpus information (FrAC), that not only covers the requirements of digital lexicography, but also accommodates essential data structures for lexical information in natural language processing. This paper introduces the current state of the OntoLex-FrAC vocabulary, describes its structure, some selected use cases, elementary concepts and fundamental definitions, with a focus on frequency and attestations.", |
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| "section": "Abstract", |
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| "text": "The primary community standard for publishing lexical resources as linked data is the OntoLex-Lemon vocabulary, which is based on the lemon model (McCrae et al., 2012) , that has been designed as a model for complementing ontologies with lexical information in the Monnet project. 1 With its further development in the context of the W3C On-toLex Community Group, its scope was broadened and it developed towards the primary RDF vocabulary for lexical information. In 2016, the OntoLex vocabulary was published as a W3C Report 2 (Cimiano et al., 2016) . The model's primary element is the lexical entry (see Fig. 1 ), which represents a single lexeme with a single part-of-speech (when appropriate) and a set of grammatical properties. This entry is composed of a number of forms Figure 1 : OntoLex-Lemon core model as well as a number of senses which enumerate its various meanings. The meanings of these senses can be defined formally by reference to an ontology or informally by a lexical concept, which defines a concept in a cross-lingual manner. This paper describes the on-going development of a novel OntoLex module for frequency, attestation and corpus information (OntoLex-FrAC). FrAC extends OntoLex and its recently published lexicog vocabulary 3 with the capability to represent important supplementary information used in digital lexicography (collocations, distributional similarity, attestations, frequency information). As this information is equally relevant for both digital lexicography and for applications in fields such as natural language processing, the W3C OntoLex Community decided to treat such information within a separate module and to remove the corresponding concepts from the lexicography module. Important motivations to extend OntoLex core and lexicography modules are the Elexis project (Krek et al., 2019) , 4 where strategies, tools and standards for extracting, structuring and linking lexicographic resources are developed for their inclusion in Linked Open Data and the Semantic Web, as well as the Pr\u00eat-\u00e0-LLOD project (Declerck et al., 2020) 5 on making linguistic linked open data ready-to-use for knowledge services across sectors. The goal of the module is to complement the OntoLex-Lemon core elements with a vocabulary layer to represent lexicographical and semantic information derived from or defined with reference to corpora and external resources in a way that (1) generalizes over use cases from digital lexicography, natural language processing, artificial intelli- Figure 2 : OntoLex-FrAC module structure gence, computational philology and corpus linguistics, that (2) facilitates exchange, storage and re-usability of such data along with lexical information, and that (3) minimizes information loss. The scope of the model is three-fold:", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
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| "start": 146, |
| "end": 167, |
| "text": "(McCrae et al., 2012)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF16" |
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| { |
| "start": 281, |
| "end": 282, |
| "text": "1", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| { |
| "start": 529, |
| "end": 551, |
| "text": "(Cimiano et al., 2016)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF7" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1824, |
| "end": 1843, |
| "text": "(Krek et al., 2019)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF13" |
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| { |
| "start": 1846, |
| "end": 1847, |
| "text": "4", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| { |
| "start": 2061, |
| "end": 2084, |
| "text": "(Declerck et al., 2020)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF8" |
| } |
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| "ref_spans": [ |
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| "start": 608, |
| "end": 614, |
| "text": "Fig. 1", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| { |
| "start": 780, |
| "end": 788, |
| "text": "Figure 1", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| "start": 2521, |
| "end": 2529, |
| "text": "Figure 2", |
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| "section": "Background", |
| "sec_num": "1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "1. Extending the OntoLex-lexicog model with corpus information to support existing challenges in corpusdriven lexicography. 2. Modelling existing lexical and distributional-semantic resources (corpus-based dictionaries, collocation dictionaries, embeddings) as linked data, to allow their conjoint publication and inter-operation by Semantic Web standards. 3. Providing a conceptual / abstract model of relevant concepts in distributional semantics that facilitates building linked data-based applications that consume and combine both lexical and distributional information.", |
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| "section": "Background", |
| "sec_num": "1." |
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| "text": "Based on this, the following parts of the module can be distinguished: (1) Frequency, (2) attestations, and (3) corpusderived information. This paper provides an account for frequency and attestations, for which a consensus model has already been reached. Corpus information beyond that includes various information about lexically relevant concepts that can be created on grounds of corpora. This includes, for example, distributional similarity scores, collocation vectors or embeddings.", |
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| "section": "Background", |
| "sec_num": "1." |
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| "text": "The overall structure is presented in Figure 2 , which reflects the current state of modelling. Extensions for embeddings, collocations and similarity are still under development. For OntoLex, we assume that frequency, attestation and corpus information can be provided about every linguistic content element in the core model and the OntoLex modules. This includes ontolex:Form (token frequency, etc.), ontolex:LexicalEntry (frequency of disambiguated lemmas), ontolex:LexicalSense (sense frequency), ontolex:LexicalConcept (e.g., synset frequency), lexicog:Entry (if used for representing homonyms: frequency of non-disambiguated lemmas), etc. Formally, we define the domain of FrAC properties by the concept frac:Observable that we introduce as a generalization over these concepts: 6 Everything for which we provide frequency, attestation or corpus information must be observable in a corpus or another linguistic data source.", |
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| "text": "6", |
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| "start": 38, |
| "end": 46, |
| "text": "Figure 2", |
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| "section": "Background", |
| "sec_num": "1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "6 It is to be expected that other, subsequent OntoLex modules", |
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| "section": "Background", |
| "sec_num": "1." |
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| "text": "Frequency information is a crucial component in human language technology. Corpus-based lexicography originates with the Brown corpus (Ku\u010dera and Francis, 1967) and, subsequently, the analysis of frequency distributions of word forms, lemmas and other linguistic elements has become a standard technique in lexicography and philology, and given rise to the field of corpus linguistics. Information on frequency is used in computational lexicography and is essential for NLP and corpus linguistics. The FrAC module includes terminology to capture such information, both absolute and relative frequency, in order to facilitate sharing and utilising this valued information.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 134, |
| "end": 160, |
| "text": "(Ku\u010dera and Francis, 1967)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF14" |
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| ], |
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| "section": "Frequency", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
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| "text": "For modelling, we focus on absolute frequencies, as relative frequencies can be derived if absolute frequencies and totals are known. In order to avoid confusion with lexinfo:Frequency (which provides lexicographic assessments such as commonly used, infrequently used, etc.), this is defined with reference to a particular dataset, a corpus.", |
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| "section": "Model", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
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| { |
| "text": "CorpusFrequency (Class) provides the absolute number of attestations (rdf:value) of a particular frac:Observable in a particular language resource (frac:corpus).", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "section": "Model", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
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| { |
| "text": "SubClassOf: rdf:value exactly 1 xsd:int, frac:corpus exactly 1 frequency (ObjectProperty) assigns a particular frac:Observable a frac:CorpusFrequency.", |
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| "section": "Model", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
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| "text": "Range frac:Observable Corpus frequency is always defined relative to a corpus. We do not provide a formal definition of what a corpus is (it can be any kind or collection of linguistic data at any scale, structured or unstructured), except that we expect it to define a total of elements contained (frac:total). In many practical applications, it is necessary to provide relative counts, and in this way, these can be easily derived from the absolute (element) frequency provided by the CorpusFrequency class and the total defined by the underlying corpus.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "Domain frac:CorpusFrequency", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Corpus (Class) represents any type of linguistic data or collection thereof, in structured or unstructured format. At the lexical level, a corpus consists of individual elements (tokens, 'words'), and data providers should provide the total number of elements. It should also provide provenance information, e.g., the tokenization strategy, preprocessing steps, etc.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "Domain frac:CorpusFrequency", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "SubClassOf: frac:total exactly 1 xsd:int corpus (Property) assigns a corpus to a particular frac:CorpusFrequency.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Domain frac:CorpusFrequency", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "may require a similar generalization, and then, it would be advisable to create a class ontolex:LexicalElement (or the like) in the core model and use that one, instead.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "Domain frac:CorpusFrequency", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| "text": "Range: frac:Corpus total (Property) assigns a corpus the total number of elements that it contains. In the context of OntoLex, these are instantiations of lexemes, only, i.e., tokens ('words'). Domain: frac:Corpus", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Domain: frac:CorpusFrequency", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Range: integer (long)", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "Domain: frac:CorpusFrequency", |
| "sec_num": null |
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| { |
| "text": "Note that we expect a corpus to apply a specific tokenization strategy to define a total of elements. If different tokenization strategies of the same dataset occur, these result in different frac:Corpus elements.", |
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| "section": "Domain: frac:CorpusFrequency", |
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| "text": "The Electronic Penn Sumerian Dictionary (ePSD) 7 is an effort to provide an exhaustive dictionary of Sumerian, an isolate language of the ancient Near East, written between the 3rd and 1st millennium BCE being the oldest known written language. The Pennsylvania Sumerian Dictionary Project is carried out at the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Anthropology and Archaeology and funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities and private contributions. Its electronic edition has been developed in a corpus-based fashion, with information such as shown in Fig. 3 : It provides frequency information per time period (\"3000\", \"2500\", \"2000\" etc.), orthographic variants (\"[1]\", \"[2]\", \"[3]\"), individual inflected forms (window \"ePSD Forms\"), and individual word senses (\"1. (to be) strong\" etc.), and it provides absolute and relative counts. Within the ePSD, frequency information is assigned to any element in the dictionary (at least forms, entries, senses), and separately for a large number of subcorpora (defined by time periods and regions/cultures). An example in Listing 1 illustrates word and form frequencies for the Sumerian word kalag (n.) \"(to be) strong\" and the frequencies of the underlying corpus.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| { |
| "start": 564, |
| "end": 570, |
| "text": "Fig. 3", |
| "ref_id": "FIGREF0" |
| } |
| ], |
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| "section": "Illustrative Example", |
| "sec_num": "2.2." |
| }, |
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| "text": "The model sketched above is relatively verbose: It requires full provenance information to be provided with every frequency count. It is necessary to provide the link to the underlying corpus for every frequency assessment because the 7 http://psd.museum.upenn.edu/ same element may receive different counts over different corpora. For querying and retrieval, having this information explicitly given is a very good means to ease access and processing. From the perspective of data modelling, however, it is highly redundant and should be avoided. As corpus-derived information requires provenance and other metadata, the FrAC module uses reification (classbased modelling) for concepts such as frequency or embeddings. In a dataset, this information will be recurring, and for redundancy reduction, we recommend to provide resource-specific subclasses of concepts that provide metadata by means of owl:Restrictions that provide the value for the respective properties. This is illustrated in Listing 2 for the relevant FrAC classes. For data modelling and sharing, we thus define a corpus-or collection-specific subclass of frac:CorpusFrequency with an invariant link to the underlying corpus (and additional provenance information, if required). For specifying absolute frequencies, we thus refer to this constrained frequency type. This leads to more compact data and is more robust against information loss (i.e., if an RDF dump is incomplete, we either lose frequency metadata completely or we maintain its provenance, but it will not be incomplete). frac:CorpusFrequency can be extended with additional filter conditions to define sub-corpora. For example, we can restrict the subcorpus to a particular time period, e.g., the Neo-Sumerian Ur III period: ", |
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| "section": "Shorthands for Data Modelling", |
| "sec_num": "2.3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "# ePSD", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Shorthands for Data Modelling", |
| "sec_num": "2.3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "According to Kilgarriff (1997) :", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 13, |
| "end": 30, |
| "text": "Kilgarriff (1997)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF12" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "Attestations", |
| "sec_num": "3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "\"the scientific study of language should not include word senses as objects in its ontology. Where 'word senses' have a role to play in a scientific vocabulary, they are to be construed as abstractions over clusters of word usages . . . the basic units are occurrences of the word in context (operationalised as corpus citations).\"", |
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| "section": "Attestations", |
| "sec_num": "3." |
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| "text": "While dispensing with word senses is not an option for modelling dictionaries and lexica, one should take into account that it is by analysing corpus material that lexicographers, using their expert knowledge, can provide a careful description of the meanings of each word in the dictionary, together with the corpus evidence in the form of dictionary citations. Both the current OntoLex core model and the lexicography module lack a way to include this evidence. The main objective of modelling attestations for OntoLex is to do justice to the character of 'scholarly' lexicographical work by allowing us to \"put the corpus into the dictionary\".", |
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| "section": "Attestations", |
| "sec_num": "3." |
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| "text": "There are at least two different ways of linking lexical information with corpus evidence, each of which arises from a different tradition, in the first case that of scholarly lexicography and in the second case that of computational linguistics. These are:", |
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| "sec_num": "3.1." |
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| "text": "\u2022 The use of references to corpora by a lexicographer to furnish evidence with reference to examples for the existence of a given lexical phenomena at a certain time period; \u2022 Linking a computational lexicon with the corpora from which the lexical information is derived.", |
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| "text": "The attestation part of the FrAC module is intended to model both of these approaches in a unified way. It is important to have a flexible vocabulary to characterize the properties of attestations in dictionaries, allowing us to take account of, for instance, the presence of a context snippet and aspects of a cited attestation which relate to its being a scholarly hypothesis. Khan and Boschetti's lemonBib model for lexicographical citations (Khan and Boschetti, 2018) tackles some important issues relevant to the characterization of evidence in lexicography and proposes solutions based on the FRBR 8 (Saur, 1998) , CiTO and FaBIO ontologies (Peroni and Shotton, 2012) . In particular (Khan and Boschetti, 2018) mention:", |
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| "text": "(Saur, 1998)", |
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| "end": 673, |
| "text": "(Peroni and Shotton, 2012)", |
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| "text": "(Khan and Boschetti, 2018)", |
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| "text": "\u2022 The distinction between citations in general and citations which provide evidence (attestation) \u2022 Enabling the marking of text readings as conjectural", |
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| "text": "In fact we can identify at least five axes of classification:", |
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| "text": "1. Attestation (Citation provides evidence for the word sense) versus other types of citation in a lexical entry. 2. Degree of certainty with regard to the source text (e.g.,", |
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| "text": "given a reconstructed text how sure can we be that the word was present in the original?) 3. Degree of certainty of the interpretation (e.g., is this really an instance of the relevant word sense?) 4. Is any textual context for the cited usage of the word given in the form of a quotation? 5. Is the occurrence (or multiple occurrences) of the headword in the context/snippet explicitly marked?", |
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| "text": "The attestation part of the module tries to provide the necessary vocabulary for the representation of this data.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "text": "\u2022 There always is an instance of an object for any type of citation. It is always linked to the frac:Observable with the citation object property. Several vocabularies for modelling citation information have been introduced, FrAC is thus underspecified with respect to the exact definition but relies on using such vocabularies. One candidate vocabulary is the previously mentioned CITO ontology which provides fine-grained information, e.g., the type of citation (cites as evidence, agrees with, etc.) can be reflected in the value of cito:hasCitationCharacterization property and by subclasses of Citation.", |
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| }, |
| { |
| "text": "\u2022 (Un)certainty of source text reading and/or lexicographic interpretation can be modeled by two distinct boolean data properties associated with the Citation object. \u2022 Presence of context is simply reflected by a non-empty value for the quotation data property. \u2022 The locus object property can optionally be used to mark the place in the snippet in which the headword occurs (this is useful for computational applications use of dictionary quotations in e.g.). For expressing the locus, external vocabularies such as NIF or We-bAnnotation can be used.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Model", |
| "sec_num": "3.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Attestations constitute a special form of citation that provide evidence for the existence of a certain lexical phenomena; they can elucidate meaning or illustrate various linguistic features.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Classes and Concepts", |
| "sec_num": "3.1.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In scholarly dictionaries, attestations are a representative selection from the occurrences of a headword in a textual corpus. These citations often consist of quotation accompanied by a reference to the source. The quoted text usually contains the occurrence of the headword. frac:Attestation class represents an exact or normalized quotation or excerpt from a source document that illustrates a particular form, sense, lexeme or features such as spelling variation, morphology, syntax, collocation, register.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Classes and Concepts", |
| "sec_num": "3.1.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "A Citation is \"a conceptual directional link from a citing entity to a cited entity, created by a human performative act of making a citation, typically instantiated by the inclusion of a bibliographic reference in the reference list of the citing entity, or by the inclusion within the citing entity of a link, in the form of an HTTP Uniform Resource Locator (URL), to a resource on the World Wide Web\". This definition is taken from CITO (Peroni and Shotton, 2012) . The FrAC module does not prescribe a specific vocabulary for the citation object. If the CITO vocabulary is used, FrAC Citations can be defined as the subclass of CITO citations having frac:Observable as citing entity and attestations would correspond to citations with the cito:hasCitationCharacterization value citesAsEvidence. In many applications, it is desirable to specify the location of the occurrence of a headword in the quoted text of an attestation, for example, by means of character offsets. Different conventions for referencing strings by character offsets do exist, representative solutions are string URIs as provided by RCF5147 (for plain text) and NIF (all mimetypes), 9 and the selector mechanism of WebAnnotation. 10 As different vocabularies can be used to establish locus objects, the FrAC vocabulary is underspecified with respect to the exact nature of the locus object. Accordingly, the locus property that links an attestation with its source takes any URI as object.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 440, |
| "end": 466, |
| "text": "(Peroni and Shotton, 2012)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF17" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1205, |
| "end": 1207, |
| "text": "10", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Classes and Concepts", |
| "sec_num": "3.1.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "3.1.2. Properties frac:quotation (range: xs:String) This contains the text content of the dictionary quotation. frac:attestationGloss (domain: frac:Attestation, range:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Classes and Concepts", |
| "sec_num": "3.1.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "xs:String) This contains the text content of an attestation as represented within a dictionary. This may be different from a direct quotation because the target expression may be omitted or normalized. frac:citation (domain: frac:Observable) Associates a citation to the frac:Observable citing it. frac:attestation (domain: frac:Observable, range: frac:Attestation) Associates an attestation to the frac:Observable. This is a subproperty of frac:citation using it as evidence. frac:locus (domain: frac:Attestation) points to the location at which the relevant word(s) can be found.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Classes and Concepts", |
| "sec_num": "3.1.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "When the dictionary citations refer to an accessible corpus, we could consider the link between corpus and lexicon as a (e.g. word sense) annotation of the corpus. Different vocabularies for this purpose exist.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Relation with other Vocabularies", |
| "sec_num": "3.1.3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "http://persistence.uni-leipzig.org/nlp2rdf/ 10 https://www.w3.org/TR/annotation-model/ The NLP Interchange Format NIF, for example, provides vocabulary to point to a more precise location of the relevant word(s) within the quotation:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Relation with other Vocabularies", |
| "sec_num": "3.1.3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "nif:beginIndex (range: xs:Int) Initial character offset of the word to which the lexicographical interpretation is attached nif:endIndex (range: xs:Int) Final character offset of the word to which the lexicographical interpretation is attached Similarly, the Web Annotation Framework can be used for modelling loci (listing 6). In particular, Web Annotation provides a vocabulary to formalize loci by means of offsets as in NIF, but also by other means, e.g., XPath.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Relation with other Vocabularies", |
| "sec_num": "3.1.3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Our first use-case shows the application of the FrAC module to the modelling and publication of legacy lexical resources as linked data. In our particular case we will be working with the Liddell-Scott-Jones Ancient Greek Lexicon (LSJ) a scholarly dictionary in Ancient Greek-English originally published in the 19th century by Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott and then revised in 1940 by Henry Stuart Jones. The LSJ is still regarded as an authoritative lexicographic resource in Ancient Greek scholarship and is currently in print in its ninth edition (Liddell et al., 1996) . In 2007 the Perseus project published a digital edition of the work which was made available on their website both in HTML and as a TEI source 11 , which we take as a starting point of our work 12 . As may be imagined, the LSJ is an extremely rich resource and one that is particularly valuable with respect to its sense based attestations which it takes from the surviving corpus of Ancient Greek literature. We will look at one entry from that work and then show how the attestations may be modelled using the classes and properties which have been provisionally developed as part of the FrAC module. The entry in question is that for the word \u1f00\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 'uneven, irregular', from which the English word anomalous derives, see Fig. 4 . We will focus on the first sense of the word (the sense preceded by a bold capital letter 'A') which has 9 attestations, for some of which links are given. We will look at the TEI-XML source for the first three of these, see Fig. 5 . The <cit> element is described as containing \"a quotation Figure 5 : The TEI encoding for \u1f00\u03bd\u03ce\u03bc\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u03c2 from some other document, together with a bibliographic reference to its source\". Additionally, in dictionaries it \"may contain an example text with at least one occurrence of the word form, used in the sense being described, or a translation of the headword, or an example\"; this obviously fits the citation in the third attestation. Note that in each case the quotation itself is contained within a<quote> element and the bibliographic reference in the <bibl> element. In cases where there isn't a quotation, as in, for example, the fourth, fifth and sixth attestations in the entry, the <bibl> element has been used by itself. In fact there is no single mechanism for representing attestations in TEI since, depending on the particular feature content in a dictionary, and the practice of the project regarding bibliographic information, a number of different mechanisms can be used including: <cit>, <bibl>, <ref> as well as pointer attributes like @source. 13 In the FrAC module, however, our proposal is to define a generic mechanism to model the fact that a given lexical phenomenon, i.e., a given word sense, form, subcategorisation and valency information, etc., described in a lexical resource is attested to by a text, and to distinguish this from other kinds of citations. Returning to the example given above, looking at the first sense we see the following:", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 559, |
| "end": 581, |
| "text": "(Liddell et al., 1996)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF15" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 2615, |
| "end": 2617, |
| "text": "13", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 1311, |
| "end": 1317, |
| "text": "Fig. 4", |
| "ref_id": "FIGREF1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1545, |
| "end": 1551, |
| "text": "Fig. 5", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 1612, |
| "end": 1620, |
| "text": "Figure 5", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "The Liddell-Scott-Jones Ancient Greek Lexicon", |
| "sec_num": "4.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "\u2022 Instances of attestations for words both with and without associated quotations; \u2022 Instances of attestations where the quotation contains the headword and others where it does not; \u2022 An instance of an attestation where the text referred to is conjectural (it has been reconstructed and may or may not be accurate), marked by the Latin cj.; \u2022 A citation (marked as 'cf.', an abbreviation for the Latin confere 'compare') which may not be an attestation of the sense in question.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "The Liddell-Scott-Jones Ancient Greek Lexicon", |
| "sec_num": "4.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In the following we will make some remarks on the OntoLex-FrAC encoding of the example in RDF; the whole example is available on the Github repository. Listing below presents the entry with frequency information which lists its frequency in a corpus, which in this case is composed of Strabo's Geography:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "The Liddell-Scott-Jones Ancient Greek Lexicon", |
| "sec_num": "4.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "13 Personal Communication, Jack Bowers.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "The Liddell-Scott-Jones Ancient Greek Lexicon", |
| "sec_num": "4.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": ":lsjEntry_ent_n10947 a ontolex:LexicalEntry; frac:frequency [ a frac:CorpusFrequency; rdf:value \"18\"^^xsd:int frac:corpus <http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text? doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0197>] .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "The Liddell-Scott-Jones Ancient Greek Lexicon", |
| "sec_num": "4.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The first sense here is associated with 9 frac:Attestation resources:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "The Liddell-Scott-Jones Ancient Greek Lexicon", |
| "sec_num": "4.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": ":sense_n10947_0 a ontolex:LexicalSense ; frac:attestation :att_n10947_0_bib0, :att_n10947_0_bib1, :att_n10947_0_bib2, :att_n10947_0_bib3, :att_n10947_0_bib5, :att_n10947_0_bib6, :att_n10947_0_bib7, :att_n10947_0_bib8, :att_n10947_0_bib9 ; ontolex:isSenseOf :lsjEntry_ent_n10947 .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "The Liddell-Scott-Jones Ancient Greek Lexicon", |
| "sec_num": "4.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The first attestation is encoded in RDF as follows:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "The Liddell-Scott-Jones Ancient Greek Lexicon", |
| "sec_num": "4.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": ":att_n10947_0_bib0 a frac:Attestation ; cito:hasCitedEntity :n10947_0_bib0 ; att:hasBiblScope \"625d\" ; att:attestationGloss \"uneven, irregular \"\u03c7\u03c9\u03c1\u03b1\" Pl.Lg.625d\".", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "The Liddell-Scott-Jones Ancient Greek Lexicon", |
| "sec_num": "4.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Here we can see the use of a new datatype properties which complement the newly proposed FrAC properties. The first hasBiblScope is directly inspired by the corresponding TEI element <biblScope> which is defined as giving the \"scope of a bibliographic reference\". The listing also demonstrates the use of the FrAC property attestationGloss which gives the exact written text accompanying an attestation (this is important in the case of legacy and retrodigitized resources). We also use the property hasCitedEntity from the CITO vocabulary 14 (Peroni and Shotton, 2012) to link the attestation to a bibliographic record :n10947_0_bib0 (the latter is described using the FRBR vocabulary). The second attestation is represented as follows in RDF with FrAC:", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 543, |
| "end": 569, |
| "text": "(Peroni and Shotton, 2012)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF17" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "The Liddell-Scott-Jones Ancient Greek Lexicon", |
| "sec_num": "4.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": ":att_n10947_0_bib2 a frac:Attestation ; cito:hasCitedEntity :n10947_0_bib2 ; att:hasBiblScope \"7.71\" ; frac:quotation \"\u03c4\u03bf \u03b1. \u03c4\u03b7\u03c2\u03bd\u03b1\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c7\u03b9\u03b1\u03c2\" ; att:attestationGloss \"'\u03c4\u03bf \u03b1. \u03c4\u03b7\u03c2\u03bd\u03b1\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1\u03c7\u03b9\u03b1\u03c2'...\" ; rdfs:seeAlso :cit_n10947_0_1, :cit_n10947_0_2; :conjectural 'True' .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "The Liddell-Scott-Jones Ancient Greek Lexicon", |
| "sec_num": "4.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Note the use of the quotation property here (since the quotation in the attestation gloss includes the word itself), as well as the use of conjectural here. We also use the rdfs property seeAlso to encode the two citations cit_n10947_0_1 and cit_n10947_0_2.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "The Liddell-Scott-Jones Ancient Greek Lexicon", |
| "sec_num": "4.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "DiaMaNT (Diachroon seMAntisch lexicon van de Nederlandse Taal), is a diachronic semantic computational lexicon of Dutch, currently under development at the Instituut voor de Nederlandse Taal (Dutch Language Institute). This lexicon is the third component of the lexicographical infrastructure for historical Dutch, which is being developed at the Institute. The core of the infrastructure is formed by the four scholarly historical dictionaries of Dutch: the Woordenboek der Nederlandsche Taal (WNT) (Dictionary of the Dutch Language), the Middelnederlandsch Woordenboek (MNW) (Dictionary of Middle Dutch), the Vroegmiddelnederlands Woordenboek (VMNW) (Early Middle Dutch Dictionary) and the Oudnederlands Woordenboek (ONW) (Dictionary of Old Dutch). The four dictionaries cover a language period from ca. 500 -1976. The first component of this infrastructure is the historical dictionary portal. The portal gives online access to the dictionaries so that a user can look up the meaning of a word. The second component is the morphosyntactic lexicon GiGaNT, containing information on possible variation in spelling and form of historical Dutch language, by means of which searching in historical texts was made easier. The third component is the DiaMaNT lexicon. It forms a layer on top of GiGaNT. It aims to resolve the issue of historical semantic variation. The main purpose of this lexicon is to enhance text accessibility and to foster research in the development of concepts, by interrelating attested word forms and semantic units (concepts), and tracing semantic variation through time. Core of the DiaMaNT lexicon is on the one hand the senses of the dictionaries and on the other hand the attestations. The latter give information as to the time period a certain sense occurred in. A first Linked Open Data version (Depuydt and de Does, 2018) has been elaborated and published in the Dutch CLARIAH infrastructure. The DiaMaNT lexicon is also available at http://diamant.ivdnt.org/diamant-ui/. For an example of the use of the attestations, see Fig. 6 . An excerpt of the lexicon using the FrAC module to model attestations is presented in Listing 3. ", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 1825, |
| "end": 1852, |
| "text": "(Depuydt and de Does, 2018)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF9" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 2054, |
| "end": 2060, |
| "text": "Fig. 6", |
| "ref_id": "FIGREF2" |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Attestations in DiaMaNT", |
| "sec_num": "4.2." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The Dictionary of Old English Web Corpus (DOEC) has been compiled for the Dictionary of Old English at the University of Toronto and consists of \"at least one copy of every surviving Old English text\" (diPaolo Healey et al., 2009) , amounting to over 3 million written words. Originally available as a set of TEI-XML files, the DOEC is currently accessible online as a Web corpus. In this paper, we will illustrate modelling an attestation in DOEC of a lexical sense described in the Thesaurus of Old English (Roberts et al., 2000) . The thesaurus provides an onomasiological ordering of the lexis that was available to speakers of Old English. This ordering allows users to traverse a hierarchy of meanings, described in present-day English, to Old English lexical items that express that meaning. This information has recently been transformed to Linguistic Linked Data (Stolk, 2019) . This new form of the lexicographic work offers identifiers (or IRIs) for its concepts of meaning, its lexical entries, and its lexical senses. Thus, the single recorded sense of the entry g\u0113ardagum in TOE has its own IRI and is categorized under the concept named \"Formerly, long ago\". 15 Listing 5 shows an RDF sample of the entry, its sense, and the concept that expresses its meaning. The lexical sense of g\u0113ardagum in TOE is attested in a number of Old English texts, including the poem Beowulf. In fact, its first occurrence is in the second line of the single surviving copy of the poem. Listing 4 shows that very occurrence, in bold, as it is presented in the DOEC. The URL that provides access to the information above, is the following:", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 201, |
| "end": 230, |
| "text": "(diPaolo Healey et al., 2009)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF10" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 509, |
| "end": 531, |
| "text": "(Roberts et al., 2000)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF18" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 872, |
| "end": 885, |
| "text": "(Stolk, 2019)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF20" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Attestations in the DOE Web Corpus", |
| "sec_num": "4.3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "https://tapor.library. utoronto.ca/doecorpus/cgi-bin/oec-idx? type=bigger&byte=982592&q1=geardagum", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Attestations in the DOE Web Corpus", |
| "sec_num": "4.3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": ". This Web address includes information on the type of visualization (i.e., 'type=bigger'), the location of the current corpus reference (i.e., 'byte=982592') and the query string to highlight using a bold font (i.e., 'geardagum'). The type of visualization, as can be seen in the snippet, includes a small context surrounding the currently selected token in the corpus. The three lines are preceded by sentence numbering in Beowulf (i.e., 0001, 0002, and 0003 respectively) and the line number on which the given sentence starts in the manuscript (i.e., 1, 1, and 4 respectively).", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Attestations in the DOE Web Corpus", |
| "sec_num": "4.3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Rather than duplicating all the information from DOEC on 15 Information on this lexical sense in the linguistic linked data form of A Thesaurus of Old English has been made available on the digital platform Evoke: http://evoke.ullet.net/app/#/view?source= toe&iri=http://oldenglishthesaurus.arts. gla.ac.uk/sense/%23id%3D21808. the context of the particular attestation of g\u0113ardagum in the thesaurus, it would be more valuable to link that information to the relevant lexical sense in the thesaurus instead. Doing so will enable users from either resource to benefit from the complementary information provided by the other resource. Moreover, an additional advantage is that no licensing rights are violated in this manner: links between the two sources would simply refer to them without redistributing their content. Those who have the right to access the material can simply follow these links (from one resource to another) or query them integrally if they also have the means to do so. In this specific case, links such as the one proposed will allow for further examinations of both the accuracy of the definitions in the lexicographic resource and the aspects of, for instance, the distribution and frequency of specific senses as found in a body of texts. Thus, lexicographers and corpus linguists can benefit from these connections. One of the approaches explored with the FrAC module for modelling attestations in corpora (most notably online corpora) is to use the standardized Web Annotation vocabulary. This vocabulary, published in 2017, was developed by W3C. The vocabulary offers terminology to indicate a selection that one wishes to annotate. For the current case, we use a TextPositionSelector to indicate the start and end of our selection within the entire corpus of DOEC. For the sentence in which g\u0113ardagum occurs, this selection would start at 982592 (i.e., the value embedded as 'byte' in the URL for the DOEC snippet above) and end at 982708. If we were to select solely the token, however, the selection should start 15 characters (or bytes) later and be 9 characters (or bytes) long. Thus, the selection would start at 982607 and end at 982616. Listing 6 shows the resulting RDF for both options. The body of the annotation is the lexical sense from TOE; its target is the selection of the token (or its sentence) in DOEC. The motivation for the annotation is one of 'identifying', indicating that the lexical sense offers details on the identity of the selection. Selecting the token in DOEC only, rather than its entire sentence, is preferable since it allows for fine-grained analyses. Additionally, feeding this more accurate starting position to the DOEC interface (i.e., embedding it as 'byte' in the URL) does not pose any issues: The website of the online corpus still presents the user with an appropriate context for this more accurate selection. In conclusion, the use-case of DOEC shows that the Web Annotation vocabulary provides enough expressivity to capture attestations in corpora.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 57, |
| "end": 59, |
| "text": "15", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Attestations in the DOE Web Corpus", |
| "sec_num": "4.3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In this paper, we introduced the OntoLex-FrAC vocabulary, an OntoLex extension for representation of frequency, attestation and corpus information for the needs of digital lexicography, natural language processing and corpus linguistics. We described its structure, some selected use cases, elementary concepts and fundamental definitions, with a specific focus on frequency and attestations. The main goal of the paper is to document the progress achieved so far, and even more importantly, to elicit feedback from the language resource community. The next step is to reach a consensus for representing additional corpus information such as collocations and similarity scores. Another important direction is to apply the model on a larger scale to further test its applicability.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Conclusion", |
| "sec_num": "5." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "https://www.w3.org/2019/09/lexicog/ 4 See also https://elex.is/. 5 See also http://www.pret-a-llod.eu.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "http://purl.org/vocab/frbr/core#", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5147,", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Text Encoding Initiative, https://tei-c.org/ 12 http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/ text.jsp?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "https://sparontologies.github.io/cito/ current/cito.html", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "back_matter": [ |
| { |
| "text": "This paper is supported by the Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme with the projects Pr\u00eat-\u00e0-LLOD (grant agreement no. 825182) and ELEXIS (grant agreeement no. 731015). It is also partially based upon work from COST Action CA18209 -NexusLinguarum \"European network for Web-centred linguistic data science\". We also thank the anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Acknowledgements", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
| ], |
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| "num": null, |
| "text": "Listing 1: Word and form frequencies in ePSD", |
| "content": "<table><tr><td># word frequency, over all form variants</td></tr><tr><td>epsd:kalag_strong_v a ontolex:LexicalEntry;</td></tr><tr><td>frac:frequency [</td></tr><tr><td>a frac:CorpusFrequency;</td></tr><tr><td>rdf:value \"2398\"^^xsd:int;</td></tr><tr><td>frac:corpus</td></tr><tr><td><http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/epsd2/pager></td></tr><tr><td>] .</td></tr><tr><td># form frequency for individual orthographical variants</td></tr><tr><td>epsd:kalag_strong_v a ontolex:canonicalForm [</td></tr><tr><td>ontolex:writtenRep \"kal-ga\"@sux-Latn;</td></tr><tr><td>frac:frequency [</td></tr><tr><td>a frac:CorpusFrequency;</td></tr><tr><td>rdf:value \"2312\"^^xsd:int;</td></tr><tr><td>frac:corpus</td></tr><tr><td><http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/epsd2/pager></td></tr><tr><td>]</td></tr><tr><td>] .</td></tr><tr><td>epsd:kalag_strong_v a ontolex:otherForm [</td></tr><tr><td>ontolex:writtenRep \"kalag\"@sux-Latn;</td></tr><tr><td>frac:frequency [</td></tr><tr><td>a frac:CorpusFrequency;</td></tr><tr><td>rdf:value \"70\"^^xsd:int;</td></tr><tr><td>frac:corpus</td></tr><tr><td><http://oracc.museum.upenn.edu/epsd2/pager></td></tr><tr><td>]</td></tr><tr><td>] .</td></tr></table>", |
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| }, |
| "TABREF2": { |
| "type_str": "table", |
| "num": null, |
| "text": "frequency for theUr-III period (aat:300019910)", |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>:EPSDFrequency_UrIII</td></tr><tr><td>rdfs:subClassOf :EPSDFrequency;</td></tr><tr><td>rdfs:subClassOf [</td></tr><tr><td>a owl:Restriction ;</td></tr><tr><td>owl:onProperty dct:temporal ;</td></tr><tr><td>owl:hasValue aat:300019910</td></tr><tr><td>] .</td></tr><tr><td># frequency assessment for sub-corpus</td></tr><tr><td>epsd:kalag_strong_v frac:frequency [</td></tr><tr><td>a :EPSDFrequency_UrIII;</td></tr><tr><td>rdf:value \"1916\"^^xsd:int</td></tr><tr><td>].</td></tr></table>", |
| "html": null |
| }, |
| "TABREF4": { |
| "type_str": "table", |
| "num": null, |
| "text": "Listing 6: RDF representing the attestation in DOEC of the lexical sense of g\u0113ardagum from TOE @base <http://oldenglishthesaurus.arts.gla.ac.uk/> .", |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>ex:attestation412 a oa:Annotation ;</td></tr><tr><td>oa:motivation oa:identifying ;</td></tr><tr><td>oa:hasBody <sense/#id=21808> ;</td></tr><tr><td>oa:hasTarget [</td></tr><tr><td># the source corpus is DOEC</td></tr><tr><td>oa:hasSource</td></tr><tr><td><https://tapor.library.utoronto.ca/doecorpus/> ;</td></tr><tr><td># for selecting the entire sentence in DOEC</td></tr><tr><td>oa:hasSelector [</td></tr><tr><td>a oa:TextPositionSelector ;</td></tr><tr><td>oa:start 982592 ;</td></tr><tr><td>oa:end 982708 ;</td></tr><tr><td>] ;</td></tr><tr><td># for selecting the exact token in DOEC</td></tr><tr><td>oa:hasSelector [</td></tr><tr><td>a oa:TextPositionSelector ;</td></tr><tr><td>oa:start 982607 ;</td></tr><tr><td>oa:end 982616 ; ] ; ] .</td></tr></table>", |
| "html": null |
| } |
| } |
| } |
| } |
