Base_JSON/prefixJ/json/J78/J78-3009.json

{
    "paper_id": "J78-3009",
    "header": {
        "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0",
        "date_generated": "2023-01-19T03:04:33.270345Z"
    },
    "title": "The Relation of Grammar to Cognitiotk-a Synopsis",
    "authors": [
        {
            "first": "Leonard",
            "middle": [],
            "last": "Tal M Y Program",
            "suffix": "",
            "affiliation": {},
            "email": ""
        }
    ],
    "year": "",
    "venue": null,
    "identifiers": {},
    "abstract": "A sentence (or other portion of discourse) i s taken to evoke in the 1 is tener a meaning compl ex, here called a \"cognitive representation\". The lexical elements of the sentence, t o simpli$y, by and large specify the content of the cognitive representation, while the gramatical elements specify i t s structure. Thus, looking systematically a t the actual notions specified by grammatical elements can",
    "pdf_parse": {
        "paper_id": "J78-3009",
        "_pdf_hash": "",
        "abstract": [
            {
                "text": "A sentence (or other portion of discourse) i s taken to evoke in the 1 is tener a meaning compl ex, here called a \"cognitive representation\". The lexical elements of the sentence, t o simpli$y, by and large specify the content of the cognitive representation, while the gramatical elements specify i t s structure. Thus, looking systematically a t the actual notions specified by grammatical elements can",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Abstract",
                "sec_num": null
            }
        ],
        "body_text": [
            {
                "text": "9 ive us a handle for ascertaining the very makeup of linguistic-) cognitive structuring. W e accordingly examine a number of grammatical 1 y spec 'fled notions, observe the categories and systems i n which they pattern, and speculate on broader cognitive connections.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "Some provisional findings have alreagy emerged. Grammatical specifications for s tFucture are preponderantly re1 a t i v i s t i c or topological, and exclude the fixed or metrical Jy Eucl idean. The categories 7n which grammatical notions pattern irlclude: ,bl exi ty perspectival mode s t a t e of boundedness level of synthesis s t a t e of dividedness 1 eve1 of exemplarity degyee of extensional i t y axial characteristics pattern of distribution scene-breakup \" Grammatical spec7 f ication ' o f s t r u c t u r~n g appears t o be the same, in certain abstract characteristics, as the structurinq of visual perception,",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "A sentence (or other portion of discourse) i s taken to evoke i n the listener a particular kind o f experiential compl ex--here t o be termed a \"cognitive representation\" or \" C P U . l There appears to be a significant way i n which different portions of the language i n p u t specify, g r codk for, different portions of the CR. The major finding, is that--for a f i r s t approximation--the 1 mica1 fraction of a sentence codes mainly for the content, or substance, of a CRY while the grammatical fraction of a sentence codes mainly for the structure of a CR. Determining the structure within a realm of phenomena has been a central concern for analytic science, including 1 inguist i c s and psychology. With grammar seen in the above light, i t can be used in determining the structure, of the 1 anguage-re1 ated portion of human cogrTition, w i t h possi bl e connections t o further poreons. In particular, looking systematically a t the actual notions specified by grammatical elements can give us a handle for ascertaining the ery nakeup of (1 f nguist i c -) cogni tive structuring.!",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "The beqinnings of such a n endeavor are the aims of this paper Several ideas here require some immediate elaboration. The distinction between lexical and grammatical i s made entirely formally--i,e., without any reference t o meaning--on the basis of the distinction between open-cl ass and cl osed-cl ass. 3 A1 1 openclass elem nts--i . e . , the stems of nouns, verbs, and B adjectives --are considered lexical. Everything else i s considered grammatical. Included here are a1 1 closed-cl ass morphemes and words--infl ections , p a rt iclles, adposi tons, conjunctions, demonstratives , etc. --as we1 1 as syntactic constructions, grama tical re1 ations , categorial identi t i e s , word order, and intonation. Terminological ly here, \"grammatical element\" wi 11 be used to refer t o any o f these.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "The nature of content and of structure, and the distinction between them, are not understood we1 1 enough t o be addressed analytically i n this paper and must be l e f t t o our intuitive sense of the matter. 5 Taking them for granted, however, we can now more finely characterize the linguistic-cognitive crossrelationships noted earlien While most of a CR's content i s specified by the lexical fraction of a sentence, the lexical items do usually specify some structural notions along with the contentful ones. The gramatical elements Of a sentence more unalloyedly specify only structural notions and specify them more determinately in the case of conflict w i t h a lexical item, e tab1 ishing perhaps the majority of a CR' s structure. 8",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "In other work in the present di recti on--notab1 y Fillmore's {e.g. , 1975, 1976 )--concern has also been with ascertaining structre, b u t the sentence elements used as starting-points have generally been lexical i terns with prominently i nmi xed structural specif ications ( l i k e buy and s e l l ) . The present work, i n part a complement t o the othet, takes advantage of grammar's greater directness and completeness in specifying structure.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 70,
                        "end": 75,
                        "text": "1975,",
                        "ref_id": null
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 76,
                        "end": 80,
                        "text": "1976",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "This paper i s divided into three sections. In the f i r s t , a sampling of grammatical elements i s examined for the notions that they specify, both as an introduction to out method and for the aim of notici n g properties common to such notions as we1 1 as properties excluded from them. In the second, we present a number of the categories i n which grammatically specified noSions have been observed t o pattern. In the third, we speculate on broader cognitve connections.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "1. The Nature o f Gramnatically Specified Notions I n t h i s section we examine a small sampling o f grammatical elements f o r the p a r t i c u l a r component notions t h a t they specjfy. The sample w i l l give a h e u r i s t i c indication o f the kinds of notions t h a t get grammatically specified as well as o f kinds o f notions t h a t possibly never do. The excluded kinds w i l l be seen as r e a d i l y specifiable by l e x i c a l elements. A further comparison between the characteri s t i c s o f gramnatically specified notions and o f l e x i c a l l y specified ones I s then made. To indicate the major finding a t the outset, i t seems that-grammatical specifications f o r structure are prepon'dera n t l y r e l a t i v i s t i c o r topological, and exclude the f i x e d o r m e t r i c a l l y Euclidean.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "For a f i r s t simple case, many languages have inf l e c t i o n s for the noun (Engl i s h has -b and -5 ) t h a t specify the u n i~l e x or the m u l t i p~e x instaztiat i o n o f t h e object specified by the noun. By con-' t r a s t , no languages appear t o have i n f l e c t i o n s t h a t speci fy the redness o r b l ueness , etc. -i . e. , the part i c u l a r color--of the object specified by a noun.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "-.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "i n the preceding, the underlined are instances o f \"notions\". the speaker-side o r the non-speaker-side o f a concept u a l p a r t i t i o n drawn through space (or time o r other qua1 i t a t i ve dimension). This i n t e g r a l specification can be analyzed as containing the following component notions (ehcl osed by quotes) :",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "(1 a-b. a ' p a r t i t i o n ' t h a t divides a space i n t o 'regionst/'sides' c-e. the ' locatednes's' (a p a r t i c u l a r r e l a t i o n ) o f a 'point' ( o r object idealizable as a point) 'within' a region f-g. (a side t h a t i s the) 'same' as o r ' d i f f e r e n t ' from h-i. a 'currently indicated' object and a 'currently communicating' e n t i t y",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "Notions t h a t might a t f i r s t be ascribed t o such deict i c s , such as of distance o r perhaps size, prove not t o be, on the evidence o f sentence-pairs 1 i k e (2):",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "(2) a. This speck i s smaller than t h a t speck. b. This planet i s smaller than t h a t planet.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "The CRs evoked by (2a) and (b) d i f f e r greatly, i nvol ving t i n y objects m i 1 1 imeters apart o r huge objects parsecs apart. Yet the sentences d i f f e r only l e x i ca l l y , not g r a m a t i c a l l y * Hence, the CRs' notions as t o the magnitude o f size o r distsence cannot be traced t o the d e i c t i c s (or t o other gramnatical elements) i n the sentences. Thus, the notional specifications o f a t h i s o r a t h a t appear, i n part, t o be genuinely topologicbl : the establishment of a p a r t i t i o n remains a constant, but i t s p o s i t i o n can vary unlimitedly (or, using topology's characterizabil i t y as \"rubber-sheet geometry\", the p a r t i t i o n ' s distance away can be (3) a. I wal ked through the water. b. I walked through the timeber ( i . e . p , woods).",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "In t h i s usage, through specifies, broadly, 'motion along a l i n e t h a t i s w i t h i n a medium'. The component notions contained here include:",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "4 ) 1 a-e.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "motion '--i . e., 'one-to-one correspondences'",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "between 'adjacent' points of ' space' and adjacent points o f ' t i m e ' f. motion t h a t describes a \"Line' g.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "t h e l o c a t e d n e s s o f a l i n e w i t h i n a 'medium' h-i. a medium, i.e., a region o f ekree-dimensional space s e t apart by the lomtedness w i t h i",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "n i t d f 'material' t h a t i s i n a pattern o f dis- t r i b u t i o ? ' o f a certain range o f character ( s t i 1 1 t o be determined)",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "Again, w i t h (3a) and ( i t can be f u r t h e r determined t h a t ' r a t e of motion' and 'shape/contour o f 1 inear path' are also n o t specified by the gramnatical element. As one s t e p i n a program t o ascertain any propert i e s comnon t o gramnatical l y specified notions, the notions j u s t found are gathered together i n Table 1 . For h e u r i s t i c purposes, the notions are very provisi o n a l l y divided i n t a three groups on the basis o f t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o topology. I n group (a) are the notions t h a t properly be1 ong , o r are r e a d i l y def inabl e, i n the actual mathematical system o f topology. I n group (b), the notions might not be p a r t o f topology proper but intuitively'seem l i k e those t h a t are--and might be includable i n a related mathematical system t h a t could be constructed. Pn group (c) are the not i o n s t h a t f a l l outside o f any usual conception o f a mathemat'ical system. The number of notions i n the f i r s t two groups combined i s 13, while t h e t h i r d has 6--an i n d i c a t i o n o f a preponderant propensity f o r gramnati cal elements t o specify quasi -topological notions. The ratSo i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n i s i n f a c t improved i f we consider t h a t even several n o t i~n s~i n group (c)--the bottom three--resemble topological ones i n t h e sense o f involving r e l a t i v i s t i c relationships between quantities r a t h e r than absol u t e l y f i x e d quantities.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 340,
                        "end": 347,
                        "text": "Table 1",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "(7) Table 1: Some notions found t o be specified d. one-to-one matter ,correspondences space tSme motion med i urn c u r r e n t l y indicated/ comnunicating e n t i t y",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "For a compl ementary program o f ascertaining any properties excluded from gramnatical specification, the notions found above n o t t o be specified by the .elerhents investigated are 1 i s t e d i n Table 2 . Rather than topological, topologf-like, o r r e l a t i v i s t i c , these notions involve Eucl idean-geometric concepts (e.g., set distance, Size, contour), q u a n t i f i e d measure, and various p a r t i c u l a r i t i e s o f a quantity--in sum, c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t a r e absolute o r fixed. These grammatical -1 e x i c a l differences can be s e t i n t o f u r t h e r r e l i e f by i n t u r n varying one elementtype while keeping the other constant. Thus, varying o n l y the gramnatical elements o f ( 9 ) , as i s done i n (13) A machine cancelled t h e stamps.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 200,
                        "end": 207,
                        "text": "Table 2",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "0."
            },
            {
                "text": "The preceding sampLing of g r a m a t i c a l elements has y i e l d e d a set o f natisns helpful toward discovering comnon properties. But t h e s e t has been small and haphazardly a r r i v e d at. With a broader and more systematic investigation, patterns of organization become evident. Gramnatically s p e c i f i e d notions can be seen t o p a t t e r n Jn categories, and the categories, i n turn, i n integrated systems. I n t h i s section we look a t some o f these categories and systems, The grammatical elements here w i l l not be treated i n isolation, but i n associa%ion w i t h l e x i c a l items. That i s , the grammatically specified structural not i o n s w i l l be considered i n i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h a t portiop o f l e x i c a l specification t h a t i s a1 so struct u r a l . This interaction e n t a i l s cognitive processing, and d i f f e r e n t cases o f such processing w i l l be considered along the way.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "2, Categories o f Gramnat i c a l l y Specified Notions",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "The note on methodology should be made t h a t our d i r e c t i o n o f analysis has been from grammatical speci f i c a t i~n t o category, not the reverse. That i s , the categories considered be1 ow were discovered t o be re1 evant t o the specifications o f various grammatical elements. They were not part o f some a priori concept u a l schema which then sought corrobovative exampl es.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "2, Categories o f Gramnat i c a l l y Specified Notions",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "The category o f \"dimension\" has two member notions, 'space' and ' time'. The kind o f \"quantity\" t h a t exists i n space i s --i n respectively continuous o r discrete form--'matter8 o r 'objects'. The kind o f quantity e x i s t i n g i n time i s 'action' o r 'events' (\"action\" i s meant t o refeF t o any obtaining circumstance not j u s t ( w i l l e d ) motion). I n tabular form, these notions r e l a t e thus: 13space: matter/objects time:",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Dimension / Kind o f Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "action/events A number of grammatical and l e x i c a l referents are specific w i t h regard t o one o r the other pole o f t h i s category. But s i~c e the category cross-cuts the ones t r e d e d next, we w i l l not exempl i f y i t here but w i l l endeavor i n the following, t o present both space and time examples side by side.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Dimension / Kind o f Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "The category here t o be termed \"plexityaL i s a quantity's s t a t e o f a r t i c u l a t i o n i n t o equivalent elements. Where the quantity consists o f only one such element, i t i s \"uniplex\", and where i t consists o f more than one, i t i s \"multiplex\". When the quantity involved i s m a t e r , p l e x i t y is, o f course, equivalent t o the t r a d i t i o n a l category o f \"number\" w i t h i t s component notions \"singulsr\" and \"plural\". But the present notions are intended t o capture the generalizat i o n f r o m matter over t o action, which the t r a d i t i o n a l ones do not.9",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Plexity",
                "sec_num": "2.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "Specifications as t o p l e x i t y are made by both l e x i c a l items and gramnatical elements, and the interplay between the two when they are both i n associat i o n must be noted. Example English l e x i c a l items t h a t basically specify a unipl ex referent are--for matter and action, respectively--birdand ( t o ) sigh. They q n occur w i t h gramnatical elements t h a t themselves specify a uniplexity, 1 i k e those under1 ined i n (14a) (many languages have here a more regular, overt system o f markers than English). But they can a1 so occur w i t h gramnatical elements t h a t specify a m u l t i p l e x i t y , as i n (14b). I n t h i s association, such elements can be thought t o t r i g g e r a p a r t i c u l a r cogn i t i v e operation--in t h i s case, one o f \"mu1 tiplexing\". The reverse o f the preceding circumstances i s also t o be found i n language. F i r s t , there are lexi c a l items t h a t i n t r i n s i c a l l y s~e c i f y a mu1 t l p l e x i t y .",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Plexity",
                "sec_num": "2.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "Engl i s h examples are f u r n i t u r g o r timber ( I l , 'stand i n g t r e e s ' ) f o r m a t t m r e a t h e f o r action, as used i n (15a). And, too, there are gramnatical elements able t o appear i n association here, as i n (15b), t h a t s'ignal an operation the reverse of mu1 tiplexing-one t h a t can be c a l l e d \"unit-excerpting\". By t h i s operation, a single one o f the specified equivalent u n i t s i s taken and set i n the foreground o f attention. ",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Plexity",
                "sec_num": "2.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "The category o f \"state o f dividedness\" r e f e r s t o a quantity ' s internal qonsistency. A quantity i s \"discrete\" (or \"particulate\") if there are breaks i n i t s 00 inuity. Otherwise, the quantity i s \"continu o~~\" .~~ Both lexical and grmaatical elements are sensitive. i n t h e i r specifications, t o the d i s t i n ctians o f t h i s category. But there appear t o be n$ gramnatical elements t h a t solely specify discreteness o r continuity f o r a quantity, and also none t h a t signal an operation f o r reversing quantity's lexdcal l y specified state o f dividedness. f 2 I n consequence, there i s d i f f i c u l t y i n demonstrating t h i s category e x p l i c i t l y by i t s e l f , and so we defer i t s treatment u n t i l the next section, where i t can be seen iU interaction with the other categories.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "State o f Dividedness",
                "sec_num": "2.4"
            },
            {
                "text": "The preceding four categories o f a t t r i b u t e s a l l pertain t o a quantity s imul taneously and, taken together, can be considered t o constitute a system of attributes that may be termed a quantity's \"dispdsition\". The particular intersections o f the several a t t r i b u t e s w i l l be the main object o f attention here.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "-2.4 The Disposition o f a Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "These, f i r s t l y , can be schematized as i n (19): (25) Moving along on the t r a i n i n g course, she c l imbed the f ire-1 adder a t exactly niidday.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "-2.4 The Disposition o f a Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "This s h i f t i n the cognized extensionality O f the event can be thought t o involve a cognitiv'e process o f \"reduction\" or of \"taking the long-range view\". The s h i f t carralso go i n the other direction. The event referent can be idealized as an unbounded extent from the e f f e c t o f grammatical elements l i k e \"keep -w,",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "-2.4 The Disposition o f a Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "\"-er -and -er\",and \"as -+ S\", as i n 26 TM prece-event referent was continuous, but a dpscrete case can exhibit the same s h i f t s o f extensiu~ral i t y . One such case, perhaps t o be considered as most basically o f bounded extent, i s shown with that degree o f extensionality i n (27a). But the referent can also be idealized as a point, as i n (27b) ( i t i s clear that the cows here d i d not a l l d i e a t the same moment, and y e t the spread of t h e i r death tl'rnes i s conceptually collapsed i n t o such a single moment). Or, the referent can be idealized as an unbounded extent, as i n (27c):",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "-2.4 The Disposition o f a Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "(27) a. The cows a l l died i n a month. b. When the cows a l l died, we sold our farm. c. The cows kept l y i n g (and dying) u n t i l the serum f i n a l l y arrived. (35b). l9 Especially w i t h regard t o i n t e r n a l l y d i sc r e t e quantities--as w i t h a c l u s t e r o f trees--the two NPs can here be seen as coding for two d i f f e r e n t \" l e v e l s o f synthesis\": The l a t e r NP specifies an unsynthesited m u l t i p l e x i t y , w h i l e the e a r l i e r NP spec i f i e s a p a r t i c u l a r g e a t a l t synthesized therefrom.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "-2.4 The Disposition o f a Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "There i s a f u r t h e r c o g n i t i v e d i s t i n c t i o n involved here t h a t language usually makes: e l t h e r l e v e l of s i n t h e s i s can be placed i n the foreground of p t t e n t i o n while the other l e v e l i s placed i n the background. One grammatical form t h a t specifies t h i s involves p l a c i n g t h e foregrounded NP-type f i r s t , as shown i n (36a). With the use o f t h i s granmatical device, moreover, predications can be made t h a t p e r t a i n s o l e l y t o one l e v e l o f synthesis o r the other, a$ seen i n (36b): (32) a. Thereare houses here and there i n the valley. There a r e c e r t a i n surface forms, furthermore, whose b. There -i s a house every now and t E n through r e f e r e n t s a r e keyed t o applying t o only one o r the t h e valley.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "-2.4 The Disposition o f a Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "other l e v e l o f synthesis. Thus, toggther (toward each o t h e r ) tends t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h mu1 t i p 1 e objects, w h i l e m u p o n i t s e l f ) tends t o c o r r e l a t e w i t h a",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "-2.4 The Disposition o f a Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "In a comparable case, the moving-per-h~ective form,",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "-2.4 The Disposition o f a Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "shown i n (33b), i s the o n l y mode t h a t can be spec-composne thereof: i f i e d using everyday language. One must r e s o r t t o s c i e n t i f i c language, as i n (33a), i n order t o estabi s h the synoptic perspective: 33a. The telephone poles' heights form a gradient t h a t c o r r e l a t e s w i t h t h e i r l o c a t i o n s on the road. b. The telephone poles g e t t a l l e r the f u r t h e r down t h e road they are.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "-2.4 The Disposition o f a Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "The reverse o f the preceding circumstances i s a1 so encountered. An example i n v o l v i n g a sequential m u l t i p l e x i t y o f eWnts i s shown i n (34a) w i t h t h e more congruent movi ng-perspec t i v e mode speci f l ed. I n (34b), the same r e f e r e n t instead becomes t h e o b j e c t of syno p t i c viewing. The preceding has involved s h i f t i n g a t t e n t i o n from a mu1 t i p l e x i t y t o the g e s t a l t t h a t i t c o n s t itutes. Also encountered i n language a r c means f o r specifying the reverse: s h i f t i n g a t t e n t i o n from a g e s t a l t t o the components t h a t c o n s t i t u t e i t . This procedure can take place when the s t a r t i n g l e x i c a l item specifies an e n t i t y taken t o be already a t the more s y n t h e t i c l e v e l , as i s t h e case w i t h iceberg i n (38a). By grammatical devices 1 i ke those seen i n (38b), such an e n t i t y can be broken down from conception as a coherent whole and presented i n terms o f component p a r t s and t h e i r i n t e r r e l a t i o n s :",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "-2.4 The Disposition o f a Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "(38) a. The iceberg broke i n two.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "-2.4 The Disposition o f a Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "b. The two halves o f the iceberg broke a p a r t ( * i n two).",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "-2.4 The Disposition o f a Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "Again we encounter a surface form--in -two--that corr e l a t e s w i t h o n l y one l e v e l o f synthesis and n o t t h e other.20 2.8 Level of Synthesis 2.9 Level o f Exemplarity The category t o be considered now p e r t a i n s t o bounded q u a n t i t i e s , 1 i k e those schematized i n t h e A/B row i n ( 1 9 ) . One form o f l o c u t i o n already seen t o s p e c i f y such q u a n t i t i e s i s t h e p a r t i c u l a r type of \"NP of NP\" construction i l l u s t r a t e d i n (35a). Here the second NP s p e c i f i e s t h e ,identity o f t h e q u a n t i t y involved, i t s e l f conceptual ized as without i n t r i n s i c bo,unds, while t h e f i r s t NP s p e c i f i e s the bounding ( o r \"portion-taking\") per se o f t h e quantity: i. She held a gun i n both hands.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "-2.4 The Disposition o f a Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "Sbe held a gun i n e i t h e r hand. 23",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "-2.4 The Disposition o f a Quantity",
                "sec_num": "2.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "More notional categories and cognitive processes have been worked up than there i s opportunity t o present here. Some o f t h i s other material i s treated i n an e a r l i e r work, Talmy (1977) (which i t s e l f lacks some o f the material presented here). But we w i l l briefl'y indicate some o f the concepts involved.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Other Categories and Processes",
                "sec_num": "2.10"
            },
            {
                "text": "The adjectives i n a p a i r l i k e s i c k j w e l l behave d i f f e r e n t l y i n association w i t h g r a m n a t i x e l ements specifying vectoral degree, as shown i n (40). I n t h t s they p a r a l l e l the behgvior o f certain s p a t i a l expressions l i ke a t the border/past the border: (41) ( A f t e r e a t i n the shrimp, he f e l t Worse and worse and 3 he was almost sick a t one point/ he f i n a l l y got s i c k i n 5 hrs.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Other Categories and Processes",
                "sec_num": "2.10"
            },
            {
                "text": "Lexical expresdions3 1 i ke cottage and hotel room mav be taken t o have \"as'sociated characteristics\"--h&e, respectively, those of ' permanent residense' and 'temporary Ibdgihg ' . These a t t r i bytes may mesh o r c o n f l i c t with the specifications o f another element i n the same sentence, e.g., with the d i r e c t i o n a l adverbhome, which specifies a permanent residence. both\"hostt and 'guest' are t o be found i n the. \"I\"):",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Other Categories and Processes",
                "sec_num": "2.10"
            },
            {
                "text": "(43) a. The host served me some dessert from the kitchen. b. I served myself some dessert from the kitchen. c. I went and g o t some dessert from the kitchen.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Other Categories and Processes",
                "sec_num": "2.10"
            },
            {
                "text": "A major aim i n cognitive l i n g u i s t i c s must be t o investigate the interactions between 1 e~i c a l and grammatical specifications a r i s i n g i n a s i n g l e sentence. Included here are the cognitive accommodations t h a t take place where there are c o n f l i c t i n g specifccations. A number of interactions have been provision a l l y i d e n t i f i e d , and f o u r seem d e f i n i t e l y established: operations, s h i f t s , blends (of two kinds: superimposed and introjected), and juxtapositions. The l a s t three of these arp t-reatqd a t length i n Talmy (1977) . I n (44a), the l e x i c a l verb flash appears. w i t h i t s basic s t r u c t u r a l specification as a point-durational f u l l -cycle unipl ex event. This undergoes the process o f mu1 t i p l e x i n g , t o y i e l d the unbounded mu1 t i p l e x i t y i n (44b). This then undergops bounding i n (44.c). This bounded mu1 t i p l e x i t y i s then-f i r s t put through the process of reduction to become idealized as a point. and this is i n t u r n multiplexed, yielding (44d). This new unbounded mu1 tip1 exity i s finally then bounded i n (44e). The nesting of structural specifications in this last stage can be represented schematically as in (45):",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 587,
                        "end": 593,
                        "text": "(1977)",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Other Categories and Processes",
                "sec_num": "2.10"
            },
            {
                "text": "Grammatical ly specified structuring appears to be similar, i n certain of i t s characteristics and functions, t o the structuring i n other cognitive domains, notably that of visual perception. In particul ar, the characteristic of being quasi-topological qan be pointed to, and three major functions can be identified: classification, synoptics, and continuity. The thinking here i s not equally f a r along on a l l these matters, but something of i t s directions can be indicated.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Further Cognitive Connections",
                "sec_num": "3."
            },
            {
                "text": "Grammatical specifications can be seen to cons t i t u t e a classification with regard to the vast variety of 1 earned,. conceived, and perceived material .",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Further Cognitive Connections",
                "sec_num": "3."
            },
            {
                "text": "They gather different portions of the material together intq subdivisions distinct from each other. By this, any particular currently cognized element i s associated with i t s imp1 i c i t \"subdivision-mates\". An illustrative case here are the twenty-odd motionrelaied ppepositions in English, such as through and into whlch together subdivide the domain of 'paths considered with respect t o reference-objects' . This domain covers a great and varied range, but any particular \"path\" fa1 1 s within the purvue of one or another preposition, associated there ~4 t h other \"paths\" The associations are often language-specific and sometimes seem arbitrary or idiosynchratic. Thus, a s s?n earlier, classed together by through are such dissimi l a r cases a s a straightforward liquid-parting course (walking through water) and a ,zig-zag obstacle-avoidi ng course (wal king through timber). The question arises why such distinctions should be effaced by the grammatical system, while they are observed by the lexical and other cognitive systems. Why are grammaticdl elements--say, such prepostions--not a large and open class marking indefinitely many d i stinctions? One may speculate that the cognitive function of such classificatioh l i e s in rendering contentful material manipulable--i.e., amenable t o transmission, storage, and processing--and that its lack would render content an ineffective agglopergtion.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Further Cognitive Connections",
                "sec_num": "3."
            },
            {
                "text": "The original assumption made i n this paper about grammatical specification involved the synoptic function. That i s , thO grammatical elements of any particular sentence together specify the structure i f the cognitive representati on evoked by that sentence.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Further Cognitive Connections",
                "sec_num": "3."
            },
            {
                "text": "Their specifications act as a scaffolding or framework across which contentful material can be splayed or draped. I t can be speculited that such structure is necessavly for a disparate quantity of contentful material to cohere in any sensible way or t o be simultaneously cognized as a gestalt.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Further Cognitive Connections",
                "sec_num": "3."
            },
            {
                "text": "In the course of discourse, a great welter of notions pass i n rapid succession. B u t there are several ways in which a cognitive continuity i s maintained through this flux and a coherent gestalt i s sumnated over time. For one, there are cognitive processes whereoy the successive notions generally can be sensibly connected together o r f i t -into a conceptual matrix. For another, rhetorical specifications --all the y ' s , on. the other hands, and a num-ber of subtler elements not generally recognized for this--direct the i l locutionary flow and make up the \"logical\" tissue of the discourse. Through this, grammatical elements appear to play a determinative role. Their specifications establ ish a structural level w i t h greater temporal constancy amidst more f 1 eeting aspects of content.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Further Cognitive Connections",
                "sec_num": "3."
            },
            {
                "text": "These forms of grammatically specified structuring seem t o parallel forms discernable in the operation of visual perception.24 First, the perception of anv particular object i s mediated by i t s association w i t h re1 a ted objects i n a cl assi f i catory schema.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Further Cognitive Connections",
                "sec_num": "3."
            },
            {
                "text": "Secondly, the we1 t e r of visual sensations cognized a t any given moment for some who1 e scene i s rendered coherent by the perception of structural delineations running through it. One specialized form of thjs i s discernable when one intends t o move through a space, say, from one to the opposi~te corner of a restaurant. The sensations of tables, chairs ,etc. are, in effect, perceived i n simplified spatial arrangements as i f from an aerial view, and the plot of a course one could follow through that i s sensed.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Further Cognitive Connections",
                "sec_num": "3."
            },
            {
                "text": "T h i r d l y , i n the course of motion through space over time, there is a great flux of visual sensations rushing past, b u t sense of continuity i s maintained by the perception of structure running through the successive scenes. Two 1 eve1 s of \"scene-structure constancy\" are maintained. In the f i r s t , the perce~ved del ineations afford greater permanence t h a n the sensory flux, b u t do slowly shift. Thjs i s the level where, say, i n walking past a table, i t s perceivedtoutl ine i s maintained b u t s h i f t s gradually from a quadrilateral t o a trapezoid and back to a quadrilateral. A deeper level of greater constancy i s also maintained, from which the table cont?nues to be perceived as a rectangle no matter where one i s in relation to i t . For a final parallel -w;ith grammatical specification, the topology-1 i ke nature of visual perception i s evident here. For certain abstract characterjstics of a scene and i t s contents are maintained constant while other, more metrical and Eucl idean characteris t i c s are free t o vary without re1 evance thereto.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Further Cognitive Connections",
                "sec_num": "3."
            },
            {
                "text": "4. Notes 1. The word \"evoke\" i s used because the relationship i s not direct, The CR i s an emergent, compounded by barious cognitive processes out of the sentence elements' referential meanings, understanding of the present situation, general know1 edge, etc.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Further Cognitive Connections",
                "sec_num": "3."
            },
            {
                "text": "Our term \"cognitive representation\" i s similar i n purport t o Fillmore's (1975) \"scene\" but i s chosen over that more specifically visual term, Ine 1 inguistical l y evok~d somplex can have much from other sense modal i t i e s (notably som/ k i nestheti c and auditory) as we1 1 as meta-modal aspects.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 75,
                        "end": 81,
                        "text": "(1975)",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Further Cognitive Connections",
                "sec_num": "3."
            },
            {
                "text": "2. Comprehension, rather than production, i s the d l rection we limit ourselves to in the i n i t i a l endeavor. This direction would seem t o yield more immediately reliable findings, since i t s starting point i s w i t h more overtly manifest, hence handleab'l e, forms 1 i ke grammatical elements rather than w i t h meanings and experiential Complexes, which rely more on introspection and reports of introspection. Nevertheless , eacl direction does involve both the manifest and the experiential sides of language.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Further Cognitive Connections",
                "sec_num": "3."
            },
            {
                "text": ". This i s a classical linguistic distinction. A class i n which morphemes are formally gathered i s con Sidered open i f i t i s quite large and easily augment-",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "",
                "sec_num": null
            }
        ],
        "back_matter": [
            {
                "text": "able relative t o other classes. A class is considered closed if i t i s relatively small and fixed i n membership. 4 . 'Also includable here are \"lexical complexes\" like lodge a complaint or zero i n on. ~xcluded are adverbs, which seem i n a l l languages to derive from the other three open classes rathe; than from any open class of specifically adverbtal stems.5. Since the term \"structure\" has broad usage, we can help focus i n on the intended sense w i t h alternative terms : \"principles qf organization\", \"pattern of del ineations\", \"schematic framework\".6. The fact of dual lexical specifications that can lead to conflict is a mojor issue that will be treated below under shifts. Some gramnatical elements a1 so cross the 1 i ne and make contentful specificat ions a1 ong w i t h structural ones. This i s a more tangential issue t h a t can be touched on here. The crossing ranges f~om the incorporation of a single contentful notion t o the orderly interweaving of contentful and sturctural notions. Thus, upon i n W e rode/sai 1 ed/rusked upon -~h e enemy incorporates the noti on of 'attackt , seemingly equivalent to the paraphrase ' i n t o attack upon' . The closed-class adverb tomorrow i s equivalent to the phrase 'during the day that occurs next after the day during which I am now speaking' , an example of an organized interlacing. 7. One can note, for example, the effect on one's internal coqnitive representation i n considering f i r s t the sentence I looked. -a t the 4% and then I looked a t the dogs. The addition of the gramnatical-element -s -has a major effect on the delineational brealiup of-t p p u t i t visually--the scene before the mind's eye.8. For example, augmentative and diminutive inflections, insofar as they refer to actual size, seem t o specify size relatively greater o r lesser than the norm for an object. And gramnatical elements specifying distance (1 i ke English w a -y and just appearing, e.g., before there) appear t o specify notions of ' f a r ' and ' n n a r ' t h a t are relative to the current situation.9. I t i s true t h a t there are the traditional terms \" semel factive\" and \"iterative\" referring, respectively, to one and more than one instantiation of an event. But there i s nu real equivalent to number: \"aspect\" i ncludes too much else about the temporal structure of action. And i n any case, none of the traditional terms refer generally t o both the dimensions:10. The mechanism actually resorted+ by both E n g l i s h and French i n many such cases, including that of tear, is the u s e of the plural, as i n :( i ) Tears flowed through that channel i n Hades.There seems t o be a ssquence of cognitiye oper-Btions here in getting from a bounded t o an unbounded suanti ty. Speculatively, the bounded quantity i s tlirst treated as a uniplex entity, i t i s then multip j exed, the resul tant entl'ties are conceived as spa-tMl ly juxtaposed, and their boundaries are lastly effaced.11. The present category may be prone t o confusion with the preceding one. Contributory here i s the normal meaning range of c a i n u o u s , which as easily covers ' bound1 essness ' as i t does ' internal seam1 essness'. However, the two categories can vary Independently. Thus, in the preceding section, the lexical examples given for unboundedness, water and sleep, happened also t o be internally continuous; b u t the same demonstration of unboundedness could have been made with internally discrete examples 1 ike timber and breathe 12. There do exist certain mechanisms for such reversal. Thus, taking an unbounded case, the continuity-spec-Ifying word water can be shifted towirkd beSng cognized as discrete by the locution particles of water, as i n :( i ) Water/Particles of water f i l l ed the vessel.However, the gramnati cal compl ex used here does not directly specify the s h i f t but, like the one in Note 10, seems to involve a several -atage route of cognitive operations.13. For schematizing action along the one-dimensions time axis, an adaptation of the two-dimensional A, B, A, and 6 diagrams wpuld be necessary--add can be readily visualized.14. The lexical types for several of these intersections, i t should be noted, do have traditional terms.Thus, nominal forms of the a, A, and % types, respectively, have been call ed count nouns, coll ecti v g nouns, and mass nouns. And verbal forms of the a and B types, respectively, have been called punctual and durative verbs. The matrix presented here augments, systemati zes , and general izes the traditional notion$.15. I t may be considered an extension of the category of state-of-boundedness via the incorporation of the notion of uniplexity.16. This categorv might be considered an extension or generalization of the \"dSsposi tion of a quantity\". Clearly, this category and the preceding five a l l belong together i n treating the greater disposition Of a quantity, b u t the relationships have n o t yet a l l been worked out.17. Our main purpose here i s t o note the s h i f t in structure type. The s h i f t in content, which will doubt1 ess prove to have some regulaitv i s n o t clearly understood a t this point.18. A major function of perfect forms in language indeed appears to be the one involved here. More particularly, the perfect seems able to specify the temp oral counterpart of matter located w i t h i n a bounded extent of space, as i n (i ). That is, a sentence containing the perfect, as i n ( i i ) , suggests a paraphrase like that i n ( i i i ) , which i s homologous w i t h ( i ) :( i ) There were 5 aspirins on the table. ( i i ) I have taken 5 aspirins i n the l a s t hour. ( i i i ) There were 5 aspirin-takings i n the l a s t hour.(In support of this interprpt?tion, as.pointed out, t o me by Peyton Todd, the perl can be notect a1 ways <o involve a temporal span bounded 'at both ends. ) 19. A 1 1 three notion--identi ty of a quantity, portiontaking of a quantity, configuration of the portion-are generally specified simultaneously (or, \"confl atedly\" --see Talmy (19753) by' lexical items that would f i t in the A/B row of (20). For example, (&r tear speci f i e s not only a certain s h a~e of Quantum, b u t also the material involved: lachrymal f 1 uid. Such words gener ally do not participate in an \"NP of NP\" construction --like *a tear of mil k--hnless they in fact accede t o a shift toward the type of word represented i n drop.20. There i s a foursome of apt terms t h a t can be applied t o the two levels of synthesis i n the two directions of shift, as indicated in ( i ) . Employed here I s the term \" Figure\" as it i s used in m y other work (Talmy 1978 (Talmy , 1976 ): ",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 116,
                        "end": 117,
                        "text": "4",
                        "ref_id": null
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 6045,
                        "end": 6058,
                        "text": "Talmy (19753)",
                        "ref_id": null
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 6646,
                        "end": 6657,
                        "text": "(Talmy 1978",
                        "ref_id": null
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 6658,
                        "end": 6671,
                        "text": "(Talmy , 1976",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 6605,
                        "end": 6612,
                        "text": "Figure\"",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "annex",
                "sec_num": null
            }
        ],
        "bib_entries": {},
        "ref_entries": {
            "FIGREF0": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "he,-f i r s t set are g r a m a t i c d l l y specified add can be r e a d i l y seen t o play a structuring r o l e i n -a C R .~ The second set are perhaps never found specified by gramnatical elements, though they are everywhere found specified by 1 exical elements (such as (Fed and blue).. --For another case we consider a d e i c t i c 1 i k e the English t h i s o rt h a t as i n This chair i s broken. A qramna t i c a l element o f this-De-ifie~ the 1 ocaticn o f an indicated object &' being, i n effect, on",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF1": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "stretched i n d e f i n i t d y ) without any constrajnts imposed by the d e i c t i c s ' specifications per se. This f i n d i n g about the d e i c t i c s a l e r t s us t o n o t i c i n g whether any gramnatical elements make specifications about magnitude. A spot, check through Engl i s h and various other languages suggests that--while there are apparent1 gramnatical specifications f o r r e l a t i v e magnitude$--there are possibly never any l o r absolute o r quantified magnitude, whether o f site, distance, o r other parameters. For a t h i r d case, we consSder the type o f adposit i o n t h a t specifies, f o r a moving object, certain characteristics o f path and o f point-o r frame-ofreference! An example of t h i s type i s Engl ish' through as used, e'g., in:",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF2": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "b) d i f f e r i n g only l e x i c a l l y , any notional differences i n t h e i r CRs cannot be a t t r i b u t e d t o through. Thus, n o t w i t h i n the specif i c a t i o n a l purvue o f that element are: the 'kind n f substance' comprising the medi um and the ' sensorimotor #characteri s t i c s ' attendant on executing the motiok--as, here, those attendant on wading vs . weaving amidst obstacles. N i t h other sentence p a i r s l i k e (5) a/b. I crawled/ran through the timber. (6) a/b. I zig-zagged/arced throught the timber.",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF4": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "c l u s i o n t o be d r a m from these findings i s that, i f grammatical specifications 1 argely correspond t o (1 i n g u i s t i c -) c o g n i t i v e structuring, then the nature o f t h a t s t r u c t u r i n g i s l a r g e l y r e l a t i vi -s t i c *or tqpological rather than f i x e d o r absolute. I n a search f o r contrasts between gramnatical and l e x i c a l specification, a d i R e r e n c e t h a t presents i t s e l f a t t h i s p o i n t i s t h a t the r e l a t i v i s m vs. absol u t i s m r e s t r i c t i o n s do not apply t o the l a t t e r . Lexi c a l i terns can specify topological and r e l a t i v i s t i c concepts, as the very words 1 i s t e d i n Table 1 a t t e s t to. And they can also specify Euclidean o r absolute concepts. Thus, f o r the n o t i o n o f c o l o r i n Table 2, there are such l e x i c a l items as rg, blue; f o r contour, there are c i r c l e , s t r a i g h t ; f o r q u a n t i f i e d rnagni tude, t h e r e are inch, mi le; f o r sensorimotor characteristics, there are *, nimble, effoyt.",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF5": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "For a f u r t h e r ~o n t r a s f between t h e gramnati cal and the 1 e x i c a l type o f s p e c i f icatign, we consider the f u l l complement o f both element-types i n a s i n g l e whole sentence, viz., t h a t s e l e f t e d i n (9): (9) A r u s t l e r lassoed the steers. W e f i r s t l i s t the gramnatical elements present i n the sentence and the notions t h a t they specify: t a time before t h a t o f t h e present comnuni cation' b, the: 'has ready i d e n t i f i a b i l i t y for the addressee ' t before i n discussion o r otherwise r e a d i l y i n d e n t i f i a b l e f o r addressee' g/h. t h e gram: category of \"nounu f o r r u s t l er/steer : 'objecthood' (one possible spec, o f \"Nu i / J . the gramnatical re1 ations o f \"subject\"/\"objectuf o r r u s t l e r steer: d t ' x t i e n t t (among possible specs k. a c t i v e voice: 'point-of-view a t the agent'1 . intonation, word-order, s t a t e o f a u~i l i a r i e s :' t h e speaker \"knows\" the s i t u a t i o n t o be t r u e and asserts i t 'The l e x i c a l items i n the sentence can have t h e i r spec-i f i c a t i o n s characterized as f o l lows : (11) A tompl ex o f ccncepts i nvol v i ng : a. r u s t l e r : property ownership, i 11 egal i t y , mode of a c t i v i t y b. steer: appearance, physical makeup, re1 a t i o n t o animal kingdom i n s t i t u t i o n of breeding f o r intended purposes, esp. human consumptioll c. lasso: c e r t a i n materiaTs (a body and a lasso) i n c e r t a i n configurations movement sequences o f materials ' parts concomitant mental intentions, d i rectings, moni torings, etc. I n surveying the l i s t s , we can see these d i f f e rences emerge: The grammatical elements are more numerous and t h e i r 5 p e c i f i c a t i o n s seem simpler and more s t r u c t u r a l . Together, t h e i r specifications seem t o detemaine the main organizational and communicatioaal del i nea t i o n s of the CR evoked by the sentence. The l e x i c a l elements are fewer i n number, b u t t h e i r speci f i c a t i o n s a r e more compl ex and seem t o compri se most, o f the content of the CR. The l e x i c a l specifications a r e complex i n three ways : compared , t o a grammatical $pecification, each has a) more t o t a l information, b) greater i n t r i c a c y of information, and c) more d i ff erent types o f information together.",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF6": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "12), seems t o a l t e r the organizational and comnunica t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the scene b u t t o leave i t s basic contents i n t a c t : (12) W i l l the r u s t l e r s lasso a steer? Varying o n l y ( 9 ) ' s l e x i c a l elements, as i n (13), s h i f t s us t o a new scene a1 together, and y e t the essentiai breakup o f the scene and o f the communitative s e t t i n g seem t o remain the same:",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF7": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "By t h i s operation, an o r i g i n a l solo referent i s , i n effect, copied onto various points o f space o r time. (14 matter action a. uniplex A b i m w in. He (once). b. multiplex Birds flew in. He kept sighing.",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF8": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "matter a c t i o n a. mu1 t i p l e x Furniture overturned i n the 'quake. She breathed without pain. b. uniplex A piece o f f u r n i t u r e overturned.. . Shetook bregthJbreathed in.. . The grarmatical elements t h a t above signaled mu1 tiplexing---s and keep -ing --have a d i r e c t l y manifested surface form. The ones signal ing uni t-excerpting are i n p a r t abstract i n form, as represented i n (16): (16) matter action (a ) Nt,ni t o f +v d u n m y~-' a N eg: a piece o f f u r n i t u r e take a breath or: -+ P r t c l e (eg:i n ) 2.3 State o f Boundedness Another category o f attribute5 specified both grammatically and l e x i c a l l y f o r a quantity i s i t s \"state o f boundedness\" When a quantity i s speaified as \"unbounded\", i t i s conceived as continuing on ind e f i n i t e l y with no necessary characteristic o f f i n i t eness i n t r i n s i c t o it, When a qua tit i s specified individuated u n i t e n t i t y , 13; as \"bounded\", i t i s conceived as dem rcated off as an Among Engl i sh exampl es of I ex1 ca I i terns, waterand ( t o ) sleep seem basically t o specify unbounded q u a n t x i e s , whereas and (to) dress seem basically t o specify bounded ones. These specifications are demonstrated by th? word* ' respectively unacceptable and acceptabl e occurrence w i t h the grammatical element \"u NPextent-of-time\", which specifies boundedness : action a, unbounded *We flew over water i n 1 hr. *She slept i n 8 hrs. b, bounded W e flew over a sea i n 1 hr. She dressed i n 8 mins. Now, there are grammatical elements suitable I U, co-occurrence w i t h unbounded-type 1 exical i tems which therewith, i n effect, t r i g g e r a cognitive operation o f \"bounding\". B y t h i s operation, a portion o f the s p e c i f i e d unbounded quamti t y i s demarcated and placed i n the foreground o f attention. Examples o f such gramnatical elements i n English are: action for Nextent-of-time + -P a r t i c u l a r cases o f them i n use are: (19) W e flew over a b o d x o f w a t e r i n 1 hr. She slept --f o r 8 hrs. The question arises whether the reverse o f the preceding circumstances i s ever t o be found i n language. Entailed would be the existence o f gramnati c a l elements that, when used with l e x i c a l i t m s specifying a bounded quantity, Would trigger an opera t i o n of \"debounding\". By this, e.g., the referent o f sea would be shifted t o 'pelagic water', and t h a t of tear, t o take another lexical bounded case, woula s m t o 'lachrymal f l u i d ' . It seems l i k e l y that such gramnatical elements exist; the closest candidate known t o the author i s the French s u f f i x -u e , but t h i s has a range o f meanings and many oc\"-curFence restrictions--and does not, e.g. , happen t o combine w i t h the French words f o r \"sea\" o r \"tear\". 10 4 ..",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF9": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "i s t i n c t i o n between matter and action, which cross-cuts a l l o f the a b o v e r Each intersection of a t t r i b u t e s indicated here has be'lln found specified by various l e x i c a l items. An example o r two (most s en e a r l i e r ) i s given f o r each i'rttersection i n (20) :1 8 -(20) : timber/furni t u r e B: water ( t o ) breathe ( t o ) sleep A: (a) family B: (a) seaitear ( t o ) button up ( t o ) z i p up a: ( a ) b i r d ( t o ) sighNOH if the particular contentful referent for whf ch one chooses a lexical 'item happens t o be wedded, by t h a t l e x i c a l item, t o an unwanted set of str'uctural specifications , there general l y are gramna t i c a l means available f o r a l t e r i n g t h i s t o a desired set. Such means range i n directness from specjfying the single apt a1 t e r a t i o n t o involving a c i r c u i tous sequence of operations. A number o f startingand ending-point2 for alterations, and the means f o r accomplishing them, are indicated i n(21): +x members o f a fmly B c B tears ('tearage) o f Extens'ional i t y I m p l i c i t i n the v e r t i c a l dimension o f the & matic arrangement i n (19) i s a further c a t e g o r y f c h a t can be called \"degree o f extensionality\". This category has three member notions, terms for which are given i n (22) together with schematics o f the notions for the l inear dimension: i t h e i t h e r a matter o r an action r e ferent can make concurrent structural specifications f o r t h e i r referent a% t o i t s basic degree o f extensional i ty. Three examples--speci fying objects o f d i f f e r e n t l i n e a r extens~onalities--are the words e x i c a l referent t h a t i s perhaps most basi c a l l y t o be conceived as o f one p a r t i c u l a r degree of extensional i t y can, by various grammatical sgecif icatfions t h a t induce a shift, be ideal ized as being o f some other degree o f extensionality. For a f i r s t ex-amp1 e, consider the event referent of climb % ladder, which seems basical l g o f bounded 1 inear e x t e n t r time), as i s i n f a c t manifested i n (24) i n conjunction w i t h the g r p m a t i c a l element \"in + NPextent-of-time\": (24) She c l imbed up the fire-1 adder i n 5 m i ns. With a d i f f e r e n t accompanying gramnatical element, l i k e the \"3 + NPpoint-or-time\" i n ( Z 5 ) , (as well as d i f f e r e n t contextual specifications), the event r e ferent o f the preceding can be s h i f t e d toward idealiz-atipn as a point of time--i.e., as being point-durat i o n a l :",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF10": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "She kept c l imbing higher and higher up the fire-ladder as we watched. Here there would seem t o nave taken place a cognitive process OK \"magnification\" o r of \"taking the close-up view\". I n such a process, a perspective i s estab-1 i shed whereby the ex i s tence o f any e x t e r i o r bounds f a l l s outside o f view and attention--or, a t most, are a s y m p t o t i~ 149 qpproachable.",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF11": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "The a1 ternative ideal izations o f extensional i t y j u s t seen as specifiable f o r an event referent are generally also available f o r an object referent.Thus, e.g., the referent o f (g) & can be specified f o r idealization as a point or as a bounded extent (of area or volume). Some gramnatical elements making such specifications are i l l u s t r a t e d i n (28). Also set f o r t h here are the homologies between these and the event-specific elements:p o i n tThe box i s 20 ft. away f r o n~ the wall .I read the book 20 yrs. ago* bounded extent The box i s 2 ft. across.I read the book i n 2 hrs.(point within)The b a l l i s i n the box. bounded extent She arrived as I was reading the book.2.6 Pattern o f DistributionThe pattern of d i s t r i b u t i o n of matter through space o r o f action through time i s a further category of notions that can be both gramnatically and lexica l l y specified. 16 For action through time--the only dimension we w i l l be looking a t now--this category together with the preceding one largely constitute the t r a d i t i o n a l category o f \"aspect\".Several o f the main patterns of d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r action through time are shown schematically i n (29) (the dots here, representing s i tuatedness i n complementary states, should r e a l l y be adjacent, but they are sketched apart with a connecting 1 h e t o show the crossing o f state-interfaces). Shown, too, are ex-amp1 e verbs whose basic distributional specifications are as i n the corresponding schematic: t h a t these lexical items have the specificat-ions indicated by noting the grammatical elem~nts with wh~ch they can and cannot occur (or, t o put the l a t t e r case i n our terms: . . . gramnatical elements toward whose specifications they w i l l not s h i f t ) . A f u l l demonstration i s not i n order here, but a few examples show the principle: The resettable type o f a one-way event i s distinguished from the non-resettable type by i t s compati b i 1 i t y i n sentences I l k e : ----He f e l l 3 tin&, which the o t h e r lacks: *& died 3 times.. This same one-way form i s distinguished from a full-cycle form by i t s abi1it.y t o aDpear i n sentences li&: He f e l l -and then gdt up, which the l a t t e r cannot do: * T& beacon flashed --and then went o f f -W e can now consider the cirsumstance where a verb of one type appears with gramatical elements o f another type Lnd shifts i n certain of i t s specificatjons o f distrtbution. For an example we again take die, whose basic specifications can be adjudged as pointdura tional one-way non-resettable--schematizabl e, now more precisely, as: . This verb i s used with i t s basic specifications i n a sentence 1 i ke (30a). (30) a. He died as she looked on. b. He was (slowly) dying as she looked on. But i n a sentence 1 i k e (30b), the gramatical element \"be + -ing'I induces a s h i f t . I n effect, the i n f i n i z s i m a l i n t e r v a l between the two states involved f o rdie--viz., 'aliveness' and 'deadhessn--is spread out, with the creation thereby o f an extent-durational gradient. This i s the s h i f t i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n pattern's structural type. ~u t concomitantly , a s h i f t i n the basic contentful referent i s engendered. Instead o f 'dying', the new gradient r e f e r s ta 'moribundity'. The d i s t i n c t i o n becomes clear i n i o t i n g t h a t one can have been dying without havingldied, and, correlatively, one can have died without having been dyi ng .I7 2.7 Perspectival Mode A specified action (which, i n our terms, can as equally be s t a t i c as involve change) has been seen t o have i t s own, perhaps most basic, pattern of d i s t r ibution through time. But, as i t turns out; there can be independent specification f o r a mode o f attending t o the action t h a t has a d i s t i n c t temporal pattern o f distribution, one that i s either equal or unequal t o the action's. I n what we shall now consider, there are two types of such \"attentional\" o r \"per-, s p e c t i w l mode\" viz. : (31) The assuming o f : a. a steady-state 1 ong-range perspective p o i n t w i t h synoptic scope o f a t t e n t i o n b. a moving close-up perspective p o i n t w i t h l o c a l scope o f a t t e n t i o nTo i l l u s t r a t e , we f i r s t consider an example w i t h a b a s i c a l l y steady-state referent, viz., objects i n location. The (31a) type o f perspectival mode--the one p o r e congruent w i t h such a referent--holds i n (32a), mu1 t i p l y s p e c i f ied/determined there by the set o f grammatical elements shown under1 ined. But by s u b s t i t u t i n g grammatical elements coding f o r the (31b) perspectival mode, as i s done i n (32b), the scene evoked can be s h i f t e d t o one where one's mental gaze o r 'one's own projected l o c a t i o n jumps i n t u r n from o b j e c t t o object. I n e f f e c t , a steady-state mu1 t i p l e x i t y of objects has been converted t o a sequential ml t i p l e x i t y o f events, viz., of concept u a l ized encounters w i t h t h e objects.",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF12": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "36) a. the c l u s t e r of trees / the trees i n the c l u s t e r b.That c l u s t e r of trees i s small.",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF13": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "The trees i n t h a t c l u s t e r a m small.",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF14": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "I n metaphorical terms, t h e eYfect here i s as i f t h e v e r t i c a l time l i n e i s t i l t e d up i n t o present-moment h o r i z o n t a l i ty f o r integrated o r summational assessment. took an a s p i r i n time a f t e r time during/ i n t6& course of t h e 1 a s t hour.have taken a number o f a s p i r i n s t h e l a s t h o u r . 18 a f t e r time during/ i n the course o f t h e 1 a s t hour.have takena number o f a s p i r i n s (3) The b r i c k s i n $he pyramid came c-rashing together/ i n . The pyramid o f b r i c k s came crashing i n (upon i t s e l f )/?together.",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF15": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "35) a-a set o f trees a body o f water b. a c l u s t e r o f trees a puddle/drop o f water Now, beyond the fact alone o f bounding o f f a portion, the f i r s t NP can a d d i t i o n a l l y specify the p a r t i c u l a r :onfiguration o rform t h a t t h e p o r t i o n takes, as i n The s p e c i f i c a t i o n f o r a mu1 t i p l e x i t y o f objects can have a f u r t h e r c o g n i t i v e d i s t i n c t i o n made pert a i n i n g t o i t . This d i s t i n c t i o n does n o t a f f e c t the basic reference t o a l l t h e members o f the multSplexi t y , b u t addresses how a t t e n t i o n i s d i r e c t e d therein.EitMr the f u l l complement o f the mu? t i p l e x i t y i s i n t h e foreground of a t t e n t i o n , w i t h perhaps i n d i 9 i d u a l i terns here and triere s i n g l e d o u t i n the background o f -a t t e n t i o n . O r a s i n g l e exemplar o u t o f t h e m u l t ip l e x i t y i s placed i n the foreground of a t t e n t i o n , w i t h t h e remaining items more dimly conceived i n thebackground o f a t t e n t i o n . eerhaps most 1 anguages have several grammatical devices f o r s p e c i f y i n g t h i s d i st i n c t i o n as t o t h e \" l e v e l o f exemplarity\". But Engl i s h stands o u t i n the extensiveness o f , i t s forms: there are d i f f e r e n t p a i r s o f grammat~jcal elements t h a t mark the d i s t i n c t i o n f o r a numb~r o f d i s t i n c t types o f m u l t i p l e x i t y . A rather f u l l l l i s t o f these p a i r s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n (39): (39) a. Oysters have siphonsla siphw. An oyster has siphons/a ~i~o h o n .~~ b. A l l oysters have siphons/a siphon. Every oyster has s i phons/a siphon. c. A l l the members raised t h e i r hand(s). d. Each member raised h i s hand(s). d. Many members raised t h e i r hand(s).Many a member raised hPs hand(s).e. Some members here and there raised t h e i r hand(s).A member here and there raised h i s hand (s ) .f. Members one a f t e r another raised t h e i r hand(s).One member a f t e r another raised h i s hand(s).g, Hardly any members raised t h e i r hand(s). Hardly a member raised h i s hand(s).h. No members raised t h e i r hand(s).No member (Not a member) raised h i s hand(s).",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF16": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "c k / ? p a r t the bard-er. 5This behavior can be accounted f o r by p o s i t i n g t h a t such adjectives are not simply \"opposites\", bgt, rather, imply f o r some semantic noticn, e.g., t h a t o f ' health' , a p a r t i c u l a r abstract topological axis o f which each adjective labels a c e r t a i n portion. The forms her-e seem i n p a r t i c u l a r t o imply a l i n e bounded a t one ena;well r e f e r s t o the end-point while sick refers t o the remainder of t h e 1 ine. These are the l e x i c a l items' \"axial characteristics\", i ,e., the p a r t i e u l a r (topological) r d a t i o n s ~a c h has t o a part i c u l a r semantic a x i s and t o other items albng thk same axis. Certain grdmnatical-elements, l i k e those under1 i m d i n (40), a? so specify a x i a l characterist i c s , Used incompatibly, they can cause a s h i f t i n an associated a d j e c t i v e ' f specifications.Thus, i n (41), sick seems t o label an end-point, and o f a d i f f~r e n t axis as well, t h a t of ' f e e l i n g bad':",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF17": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "I n ;he cese of c o n f l i c t , as I n (42b), the l e x i c a l item i s operated on by a c o g n i t i v e process t h a t leaves i t s essential characteristics i n t a c t but replaces i t s i ncidental characteristics:(42) a. He drove home t o h i s cottage i n the suburbs. b. He drove home t o h i s hotel room. The \"scene-brea kup characteristics\" o f a 1 exical item 1 i keserve refer t o i t s basic specification o f a dyadic event, i n p a r t i c u l a r , a social event invol-vi3g the two roles of 'host' and 'guest', as i s manifested i n (43a). But i n a sentence 1 i ke (43b), such a l g x i c a l i tem s h i f t s t o specifying a monadic event comparable t o a b a s i c a l l y monadic 1 exical expression 1 i k e t h a t i n (43c). This s h i f t i n (42b) takes place i n accomnodation o f the subject-plus-reflexive's s i n g l e -r o l e specification. (Though t h i s grammatical element i s determinative i n s e t t i n g t h e role-number as monadic, the verb's influence remains: blended i n here i s the metaphoric suggestion o f a dyad, as i f",
                "num": null
            },
            "FIGREF18": {
                "uris": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "The operations and s h i f t s seen i n 2.1 -2.6 need n o t take place singly. The o u t p u o f one can serve as the i n p u t t o another, up t o as as f i v e h i e ra r c h i cal 1 eve1 s o f \"nesting\" .b Whi le-ere are a number o f i n t e r e s t i n g examples o f t h i s f o r d i f f e r e n t types o f matter and action, we w i l l go d i r e c t l y t o i l l u s t r a t i n g one of the longest cases: (44 a. The beacon flashed (as I glanced over). b. The beacon kept flashing. c. The 'beacon flashed 5 times i n a row. d. The beacon kept f l a s h i n g 5 times a t a stretch. e. The beacon flashed 5 times a t a s t r e t c h f o r 3 hrs.",
                "num": null
            }
        }
    }
}