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| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T03:05:37.656124Z" |
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| "title": "ON THE ONTOLOGICAL STATUS OF VISUAL MENTAL IMAGES", |
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| "first": "Stephen", |
| "middle": [ |
| "Michael" |
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| "last": "Kosslyn", |
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| "first": "Harvard", |
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| "last": "Unlverslty", |
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| "text": ", 1 9 7 5 , 1 9 7 6 ) a n d l a t e r i m p l e m e n t e d i n a c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n b y K o s s l y n 6 S h w a r t z ( 1 9 7 7 a , i n p r e s s ) .", |
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| "text": "Qn t h i s v i e w , i m q g e a a r e e p t i a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o w s i n a c t i v e memory g e n e r a t e d f r o m m o r e a b s t r a c t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n 0 i n L o n g -t e r m memory; t h e s e s p a t i a l r e p r e d e n t a t i o n s a r e a b lt o be i~t e r p r e t e d ( \" i n s p e c t e d n ) b y p r o c e d u r e s t h a t c l a 3 s i f y went i n t o v a r i o u s s e m a n t i c c a t e s o r i e s . p r o p e r t y i m p l i e s t h a t image r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a r e b o t h m e m a n t i c a l l y a n d s y n t a c t i c a l l y @ d e n s e n o r * u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d n i n t h e e x t r e m e (Goodman, 1 9 6 8 , pa 1 3 6 f f . 1 .", |
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| "text": "F o r e x a m p l e , a r e a d i n q o n a t i r e p r e s s u r e q a u q e i s a n a n a l o g u e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n t o some e f c t e n t , b e c a u s e e v e r y r e a d i n g a l o n g t h e c o n t i n u o u s s c a l e h a s m e a n i n g ( a n d s o i t i s s e m a n t i c a l l y i 3 e n s e ) t i f t h e g a u q e h a d a n t n f i n i t y o f m a r k i n q m ob p o u n d s -p e r -s q u a r e i n c h , t h e s c a l a w o u l d be s y n t a c t i c a l l y d e n s e a n d r e a d i n g s o n i t w o u l d be p u r e l y a n a l a g~e . I n c p n t r a s t , d i s c r e t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s are n o t s e m a n t i c a l l y o r s y n C a c t i c a 1 l y d e n s e , b u t a t e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d ( i . e . , q e p h r a b l e a n d d i s t i n c t ) . F o r e x a m p l e , e a c h r e a d i n g o f a d i q i t a l c l o c k , i n c o n t r a s t 'to the t r a d i t i o n a l d i a l v a r i e t y , i s e n t i r e l y u n a m b i g u o u s i n terms of i t s i d e n t i t y ( i . e . , i s s y n t a c t i c a l l y d i s t i n c t ) a n d i t s m e a n i n q ( i * e * , i s semantically d i s t i n c t ) . I m a g e s a r e b o t h s e m a n t i c a l l y a n d s y n t a c i c a l l y d e n s e .", |
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| "text": "2 ) P a r t a n d p a r c e l of t h e c o n t i n u i t y p r o p e r t y i s t h e p r o p e r t y t h a t a n g l o p u e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s are n o t a r b i t r a r i l y B e c a u s e m e n t a l i m a g e a n a l o g u e q e p r e s e n t a t i o n s can be a r r a n g e d first t w o p $ o p e r t i e s n o t e d below d e s c r i b e a n a l o g u e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s as a c b a e s . Goodman ( 1 9 6 8 1 , P a l m e r ( i n p r e s s ) , S h e p a r d ( 1 9 7 5 1 , S l o m a n ( 1 9 7 5 ) , a n d o t h e r s h a v e p r o v i d e d i n f o r m a t i v e a n d d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n s of r e l e v a n c e h e r e , a n d I w i l l d r a w f r e e l y o n t h e s e s o u r c e s i n t h e p r e s a n t d i s c u s s i o n .", |
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| "text": "1 ) Imaqes c a n c a p t u r e c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a t i o n s i n s h a p e .", |
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| "text": "T h i s c o n t i n u i t y i n d i c a t i n g a v a l u e f a l t i n g b e t w e e n t w o o t h e r e ( e . g . , a n i n t e r m e d i a t e s i c s ) m u s t r e f e r to a v a l u a of t h e r e f e r e n t f a l l i n g b e t w e e n &he t w o i n d i c a t e d b y t h e others ( e~q . , a n object d i n t e r m e d i a t e site), H e n c e , u n l i k e d l a c r a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s , any g i v e n a n a l o g u e r e p r e a e n t a k i o n cannot be a s s i g n e d a n a r b i t r a r y m e a n i n g ( t h l a p o i n t wae f i r s t b r o u q h t t o my a t t e n t i o n b y W i l k i n s , r e a t r i a n g l e i s a c t u a l l y r e p r e s e n t e d by mamething t r i a n g u l a r i n t h e b r a i n , b u t t h e r e i s a more a b s t r a c t i s o m o r p h i a m where a t r i a n g l e i s r e p r s m e n t e d by a at o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s c o r r e s p o n d i n q t o t h e v e r t i c e s a n d s i d e 8 s t a n d i n g i n t h e p r o p e r r e l a t i o n s -T h u s i m a g e s d e p i c t , n o t describe. w h i i e a n y symbol c a n b e u s e d t o r e p r e s e n t mr o b j e c t o r p a r t t h e r e o f i n a d e g c r i p t i o n , t h e p a r t i c u l a r r e p r e r a n t a t i o n o f such i n a n image i s c o n e t r a l ned by o t h e r r e p r e 8 e n t a t i o n r --q i v e n t h a t t h e i n t e r p o r k i o n e p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s m u s t be r e t a i n e d i n t h e imaqe r e p t e e e n t a t i o n . r e l a t i o n l i k e \" o n \" c a n be r e p r e s e n t e d .", |
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| "text": "2 ) Images do n o t c o n t a i n a r g u m e n t s . The c o m p o n e n t s of a n image are n o t d i s c r e t e e n t i t i e s t h a t c a n b e r e l a t e d t o g e t h e r i n p r e c i s e w a y s * The box, f o r sxanple, c a n be decomposed i n t o faces, n e n t r U will d e p e n d on w h a t a n i a a g e i s s u p p o s e d to be a n i m a g e of A s we a l l know, * i m p o s s i b l e p i c t u r e s m a r e created t e g u l a r l y ( e~q . , b y artists such a s E u c b e r ) , a n d r u l e s t h a t g o v e r n t h e n a t u r e of o b j e c t s i n t h e w o r l d may n o t n s c e a s a r i l y c o n s t r a i n t h e t h i n q a t h a t one c a n depict i n a p i c t u r e . A ) F i t a l l y , u n l i k e a p r b p o % i t i o n , a n i m a g e d o e s n o t have a t r u t h v a l u e . I n fact, an W i t t g e n s t e i n ( 1 9 5 3 ) p o i n t e d o u t , t h e r e i r n o t b i n g i n t r i n s i c i n a p i c t u r e o f a m a n w a l k i n g up a h i l l t h a t p r e v e n t s one from i n t e x p r e t i n q i t a s a p i c t u r e o f a man m l i d i n g d o w n h i l l b a c k w a r d s -The m a a n i n q p f a n i m a g e , a n d h e n c e i t s t r u t h v a l u e , are a s s i g n e d by p r o c e s s e s t h a t work o v e r t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n a n d a r e n o t i n h e r e n t &n t h e r e p z q s e n t a t i o n i t s e l f . ", |
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| "text": "F u r t h e r , o v e r a l l s c a n n i n g t i m e s w e r e r e d u c e d when p e o p l e w e r e a s k e d t o \" s h r i n k a a n i m a g e d f a c e m e n t a l l y p r r o r t o B c a n n i n q it, and times were i n c r e a s e d when s u b y e c t s \" e x p a n d e d n a f a c e b e f o r e s c a n n i n g . The n a t i o n t h a t i a a g e~ embody s p a t i a l e x t e n t S u g q s~t a t h a t t h e y may h a v e s p a t i a l b o u n d a r i e s ; a f t e r a l l , t h e y do n o t e x t e n d on i n d e f i n i t e l y . ", |
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| "section": "u p Y t o t h e e y e s of t h e imaged f a c e a n d see w h e t h e t o x n o t t h e y were a p p r o p s i h t e l y d e s c r i b e d b y t h e word. Time to j u d g e w h e t h e r t h e e y e s were l i q h t o r dadk i n c r e a s e d 1 i n e a r P y w i t h d i u w n c e f r o m t h e mouth.", |
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| "text": "A t t h i s p o i n t , t h e s u b j e c t was t o \" u t o p * i n h i s / h e x m e n t a l walk a n d to e s t i m a t e haw ear away t h e o b j e c t would be if e / h e were a c t u a l l y s e e i n g i t a t t h a t s u b j e c t i v e s i z e . ", |
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| "section": "c t s r e p o r t e d t h a t i t d i d ( o f t h e nubjecto who could do &he t a s k a t a l l , w h i c h was usually only a b o u t 8 0 % o f t h e p e o p l e t e n t e d ) . F u r t h e r , t h e s e s u b j s c t s c l a i m e d t h a t t h e i m a g e loomed so large a t one point t h a t i t s e e m e d to n o v e r f l o w . *", |
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| "text": "T h e r e h a s J o n g b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l e c o n t r o v e r s y o v e r t h e o n t o l o g i c a l s t a s u s o f m e n t a l i a a g e a . Most r e c e n t l y , members o f t h e A . X . c o m m u n i t y h a v e a r g u e d f o r t h e s u f f i c i e n c y of \" p r o p o s i t i o n a l r e p r e r e n t a t i o n * a n d h a v e r e s i s t e d t h e n o t i o n t h a t o t h e r s o r t s o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s are f u n c t i o n a l i n t h e human m i n d * The p u r p o s e o f t h i s p a p e r i s t o r e v i e w w h a t I t a k e to b e t h e b e s t e v i d e n c e t h a t i m a g e s a r e d i s t i n c t f u n c t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s i n human memory. B e f o r e r e v i e w i n g t h e s e d a t a , h o w e v e r , I o f f e r a p r e l i m i n a r y d e f f n i t i o n o f w h a t I mean by a -v i s u a l m e n t a l i m a q e . \" T h i s d e f r n i b i o n arises o u t of t h e \" c a t h o d e r a y t u b e M m e t a p h o r o r i g i n a l l y i n t r o d u c e d i n K o s s l y n", |
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| "text": "l i m i n a r y d a f i n i t i o n v i s u a l related t o t h e i r r e f e r e n t s .", |
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| "text": "I w i s h t o d e f i n e a W v i s u a l m e n t a l o n a c o n t i n u u m ( e . g . , o f s i z e ) , a e y m b o l i m a g e n i n terms o f f i v e b a s i c k i n d s o f p r o p e r t i e s . Images a r e o f t e n d i s t i n g u i s h e d f r o m more d i s c r e t e , p r o p o s i t i o n a l or l i n g u i s t i c r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s b e c a u s e t h e y s u p p o s e d l y h a 3 e \" a n a l o g u e w p r o p e r t i d s .", |
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| "text": "1977). B e c a u s e of t 6 Y s require men^, p o r t i o n s o f images o f s u r f a c e s o r o b j e c t s ( i n v o l v i n g t w o or t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s ) bear a a n e -t o -o n e s t r u c t u r a l i s o m o r p h i s m to t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g p o r t i o n s of t h e r e f e r e n t . T h a t i 6 , p o r t i o n s o f t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n c o r r e s p o n d P t o p o r t i o n s of t h e r e f e r e n * , a n d t h e s p a t i a l r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n ~o r t i o n s o f t h e r e f e r e n t a r e -T h e work r e p o r t e d h e r e wag s u p p o r t e d p r e s e r v e d i n t h e image. T h i s p r o p e r t y b y NSP G r a n t s B N s 7 6 -1 6 9 8 7 a n d B N S 77-21782* ha, b e e n d e s c r i b e d b y S h e p a r d ( 1 9 ? 5 ) a s I w i s h t o t h a n k W i l l a R o u d e r f o r h e r a s s k s t 4 n c e a n n a b s t r a c e f q r s t -o r d e r i o o m o r~h i s m .~ I n i n p r e p a r i n g t h e r n a n u s o r i p t . t h i s came, t h e r e is n o t a q e n u i n e f i r s t -o r d e r i s o m o r p h i s m , w h e", |
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| "text": "%he f o l l o w i n g t h r e e a d d i t i o n a l p r o~e r t i e s f o l l o w f r o m o u r CRT m e t a p h o r : ' 3 ) Images o c c u r i n a s p a t i a l medium t h a t ia e q u i v a l e n t to a E u c l i d e a n c o o r d i n a t e s p a c e -T h i s d o e s n o t mean that t h e r e i s l i t e r a l l y a s c r e e n i n the headma R a t h e r , , l o c a t i o n s a r e a c c e s s e d s u c h t h a ' t t h e s p a t i a l p r o p e r t i e s o f p h y a i c a l s p a c e are p r e s e r v e d . A p e r f e c t e x a m p l e o f t h i r i s a s i m p l e t w o -d i m a n s i o p a l a r r a y s t o r e d i n a c o m p u t e r ' s acmoryr T h e r e i s n o p h y s i c a l m a t r i x i n t h e memory b a n k s , but b q c a u s e o f t h e way in which c e l l s are r e t r i e v e d o n e c a n s e n s i b l y s p e a k o f t h e i n t e r -c g l l r e l a t i o n s i n terms o f a d j a c e n c y , d i s t a n c e , a n d o t h e r q e n m e t r i c p r o p e r t i e s . 4 ) The same s o r t s o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s t h a t u n d e r l i e s u r f a c e i m a g e s a l s o u h d e r l i e t h e c o m r e s p o n d i n g p e r c e p t s . Hence, i n a d d i t i o n t o r e g i s t e r i n g s p a t i a l p r o p e r t i e s l i k e t h o s e of p i c t u r e s , i m a q e s d e p i c t s u r f s e e p r o p e r t i e s o f o b j e q t e l i k e t e x t u r e and c o l o r . T h u s , a l t h o u g h t h e i a a g e i t s e l f i s n o t m o t t l e d , or g r e e n , or l a r g e o r s m a l l , i t c a n r e p r e s e n t s u c h p r~p e r t b e r i n t h e same way they a r e r e p r e s e n t e d i n o u r p e r c e p t s . T h a t i e , t h e imaqe r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s m u s t be a b l e t a attain m t a t e s t h a t p r o d u c e t h e Qualia, t h e e x p e r i e n c e of s e e i n q t e x t u r e , c o l o r , siZe and s o on. 5 ) F i n a l l y , by d i n t of the s t r u c t u r a l i d e n t i t y of imaqe z e p r e e e n t a t i o n s and t h o s e u n d e r l y i n g t h e c o r r e e p o n d A n g p e r c e p t , irnaqes may be a p n r o p r ' i a t e l y p r o c e s s e d by m e c h a n i s m s u s u a l l y r e c r u i t e d only d q r i n g l i k e~q o d a l i t y p e r c e p t i o n -F o r e x a m p l e , o n e mag e v a l u a t e a n i m a g e i n terms of i t s w s i z e \" f i . e . , b e i n g d e p i c t e d o -t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n L a s e l f As n e i t h e r l a r q e n o r s m a l l ) i n t h e same way o n e would e v a l u a t e t h e r e p r e s b n t a t i o n e w k e d w h i l e a c t u a l l y s e e i n g t h e o b j e c t . Imaqes, t h e n , s h a r e v i r t u a l l y a11 t h e p r o p e r t i e s of p e r c e p t e , as opposed t o p r o w r t i e s o f p i c t u r e s o r o b j e c t s t h e m s e l v e s . I r e f r a i n f r o m m a k i n g a i. Althodgh there c o u l d be, i f i m a q e s o c c u r a s t o p o q r a p h i c p r o j e c t i o n s on t h e s u r f a c e of t h e cortex; t h i s k i n d af space i e a e u b n e t o f t h e o n e I am d e f i n i n a h e r e , however.", |
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| "text": "c o m p l e t a i d e n t i t y because o f a c r u c i a l d i f f e r e n c e s P e r c e p t u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s a r e a d r i v e n u f xom t h e p e r i p h e r y , whsrsar i m a g e s a r e moreho$ Sormsd f r o m m e n o r v * H e n c e , i n both ease8 t h e r e may be p a r t i c u l a r k f n d n of n c a p a c f t y l i m i t a t i o n s * t h a t i n f l u e n c e p r o p e r t i e s of t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . F o r e x a m p l e ( a n d t h i s i a a n e m p i b i c a l q u e s t i o n ) , i m a g a u may be c Q R r s e r a n d l e s s d e t a i l C d t h a n t h e c o r r e a p o n d i n q p e r c e p t b e c a u s e o f memory c a p a c i t y limits. T h e s e p r q p e x t i s e o f imaqes c a n be f u r t h e r u n d s r e t o a d i n c o n t r a r t t o p r o p e r t i e s of \" p r o p o a i t i o n a l Y r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . C o n s i d e r t h e t w o r e p r e u e n t a t i o n a of a b a l l on a b o x I l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 1. A p r o p o a i t f o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o 5 m u s t have: 1 ) a f u n & t i o p o r r e l a t i a n t 2 ) a t l e a s t o n e a r g u m e a t t 3 ) r u l e s of f o r r n a t f o n r a n d d ) a t r u t h v a l u e . ON (BOX, BALL) Flgure 1. Two representations of a ball on a box. In c o n t r a s t : 1 ) I m a g e s d o n o t c o n t a i n i d e n t i f i a b l y d i s t i n c t r e l a t i o n s 8 r e l & t i o n s o n l y e m e r g e from t h e c o n g l o m e r a t e df t h e component6 b e i n q r e p r e s e d t e d t o s e t h e r * T h u s , one n e e d s t w o c o m p o n e n t s b e f o r e a", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF7": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null, |
| "text": "edge^ a n d s o on--and t h e s e a r e c e r t a i n l y n o t a r g u m e n t s i n a n d o f t h e m s e l v e s . 3 ) Imaqes d o w o t seem to have a s y n t a x ( e x c e p t p e r h a p s i n the r o u q h e~t s e h s e ) . T h a t i s , a r e l a t i o n lik'e * o n Y r e q u i r e s two argurnefies in o r d e r t o create, a w e l l -f o r m e d p r o p o s i t i o n ; *on box\" i s a n u n a c c e p t a b l e f r a g m e n t . I n c o ' n t r a s t , a n y s y n t a x d i c t a t i n g \" w e l l -f o r m e d n e s s * of p i c t u r e s o r images will p r o b a b l y d e p e n d o n eoma s o r t of i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h a m e s m a n t i c c o h p o", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF8": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null, |
| "text": "e p l a s s e~ Of e r n~i r i c a l f i n d -r u p p o r t i n q the f p n c t i a n a $ r e a l i t y afv i G u e 1 m o n t h 1 imaaes 2.1 E x p e r i m e n t s on s c a n n i n g v i r u s 1 y p r o p e r t y o f i m a g e s i s t h a t t h e y embody s p a t i a l e x t e n t .I f i m a g e s a r e f u n c t i o n a l , t h e n , w e a ho u l d e x p e c t t h i s p r o p e r t y t o a f f e c t some f o r m s o f p r o c e s s i n g t h a t i n v o l v e u s i n g itnagas. K o s s l y n r B a l l , P R e i s a r ( 1 9 7 8 ) r e p o r t a number o f e x p e r i m e n t 8 t h a t d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t more t i m e i s r e q u i r e d t o s c a n f u r t h e r d i s t a n c e s a c r o s s m e n t a l i m a q e s . I n o n e s t u d y , p e o p l e imaqed a map c o n t a i n i n g s e v e n l o c a t i o n s a n d acann.ed b e t w e e n a l l p o s s i b l e ? a h a o f l o c a t i o n s . Time t o s c a n i n c r e a s e d l i n e a r l y w i t h increasing d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h e 2 1 p o s s i b l e p a i r s of L o c a t i o n s , e a c h o f w h i c h was s e p a r a t e d by a u n i q u e d i s t a n c e . There were n o e f f e c t s o f d i ' s t a n c e i n a c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n waexe s u b j e c t s f o c u s e d o n a l p c a t i o n i n t h e i m a g e b u t t h e n s i m p l y d e c i d e d w h e t h e r a n o t h e r o b j e c t w a s p P e s e n t , w i t h o u t b e i n g a s k e d t o s c a n t o h h a t l o c~t & o m . Th a n o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t , p e o p l e imaqed s c h e m a t i c faces w h e r e i n t h e e y e s were e i t h e r l i g h t or d a r k a n d l o c a t e d a i t h e r 3, 4 , or 5 i n c h e s above t h e moutht i n a l l o t h e r r e a p e c t s t h e f a c e s w e x e i d e n t i c a l . A f t e r a g i v e n f a c e h a d been removed, a s u b j e c t was a s k e d t o f o c u s on t h e mouth a n d t h e n t o i n a q e t h e f a c e a s l a r q e a s p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t i t s e e m i n g to o v e r f l o w , o r i n a q e i t h a l f of this s i z e r o r i m s q e i t s o l a r g e s u b j e c t i v e l y t h a t o n l y t h e m o u t h was l e f t v i s i b l e i n t h e imaqe. F o l l o w i n g this, t h e word * l i q h t w o r * d a r k n wag p x e a e n a e d . A s soon a s either word h a d occurred, the subject wa8 t o \" g l a q c s", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF9": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null, |
| "text": "These r c b u l t s a r e d i f f i c u l t t o e z p l a i n i f images a r e s i m p l e * a b e t r a c t p r o p b s i t k o n a l * l i s t s t r u c t u r e s , b u t f o l l o w n s t u * a l l y i f images a r e s p a t i a l r e p r e m e n h a t i o n s that p r e s e r v e m e t r i c d i s t a n c e i n f o r m a t i o n *", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF10": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null, |
| "text": "u r i n a s p a t i a l r e p r e r e n t a t i o n a l medium, then t h e i r m a x i m a l s p a t i a l extent may b e c o n s t r a i n e d b y t h e e x t e n t o f the medium i t s e l f . l o a s l y n ( i n p r e m s ) usad t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a d i g m i n a n attempt to t e a t t h i s i d e a r P e o p l e w e r e asked t o image a n object a s i f i t were b e i n q seen f r o m v e r y f a r away. T h e n , t h b y were a s k e d t o i m a g i n e w a l k i n g t o w a t d s t h e o b j e c t a n d were a s k e d i f i t a p p e a r e d to loom l a r q e x ; a l l s u b j e", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF11": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null, |
| "text": "We d i d t h i s basic e x p e r i m e n t i n a v a r i e t y of w a y s , h a v i n g s u b j e c t s image v a r i o u m s o r t s o f p i c t u r e s o r i m a g e a n i m a l s when q i v e n j u s t t h e i r name8 a n d s i z e s ; i n a d d i t i o n , s u b j e c t u e s t i m a t e d d i s t a n c e b y v e r b a l l y h s s e s s i n g f e e t a n d i n c h e s o r r e s p o n d e d by m o v i n g a t r i p o d a p p a r a t u s t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d i s t a n c e from a b l a n k w a l l * I f i m a q e s o c c u r i n a s p a t i a l l y c o n s t r a i n e d medium, t h e n t h e l a r q e r t h e i m a g e d o b j e c t , the f u x t h e r away i t s h o u l d seem a t t h e p o i n t o f o v e r f l a w . I n a d d i t i o n , a c o n s t a n t a n g l e s h o u l d b e s u b t e n d e d by t h e i m a g e d b b j e c t e ( w h i c h r a n g e d i n a c t u a l s i z e ) a t t h e p o i n t of o v e r f l o w . U s i n g s i m p l e t r i q o n o m e t r y , w e were a b l e t o compute t h e ' v i s u a l a n g l e of t h e m i n d ' s eye* f r o m t h e e s t i m a t e d d i s t a n c e s a n d l o n g e s t a x i s o f e a c h i m a g e d o b j e c t . I n a l l 02 o u r e x p e r i m e n e m , t h e b a s i c r e s u l t s were t h e aamer F i r s t , p e o p l e a l a i m e d t h a t s m a l l e r o b j w c t a eeemed to overflow a t nearer apparent d i s t a n c e s t h a h d i d l a r g e r o b j e c t s ( t h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n o b j e c k a i z e a n d d i e t a n c e was a l w a y q vety h i g h ) # a n d d i s t a n c e u s u a l l y i n c r e a s e d l i n e a r l y w i t h s i z e of t h e i m a q e d o b j e c t -Second, t h e c a l c u l a t e d * v i s u a l a n g l e n a t t h e p o i n t of o v e r f l o w r e m a i n e d c o n s t a n t f o r d i f f e r e n t -s i t e d o b j e c t s wMen subjects i m a q e d p i c t u r e s o r o b j e c t a t h a t h a d ) u s t b e e n p r e s e n t e d .", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF12": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null, |
| "text": "T h e a c t u a l s i z e of t h e a n g l e v a r i e d , h o v s v e r , d e p e n d i n g o n i n s t r u c t i o n s t More s t h i n g e n t d e f i n i t i o n 8 o f Y o v e r f l o w * r e s u l t e d i n smaller a n g l e s . T h e s e l a s t f i n d i n g s I m p l y t h a t i m a g e s do n o t o v e r f l o w a t a d i s t i n c t p o i n t , but s e e m t o f a d e of g r g d u a l l y t o w a r d s the p e r i p h e r y -( T h e be s t e s t i m a t e of the m a s i a a l a n g l e s u b t a n d e d b y a n i n P g e w h i l e s t i l l r s m a i n k n q e n t i r e l y v i s i b l e eeemed t o b e a r o u n d 20 d e g r e e s . ) I n a n o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t , w e a s k e d p e o p l a t o s c a n images o f l i n e s r u b t e n d l n q d i f f e r e n t amountm of v i s u a l a r c a n d wa & a l c u l a t e d how many muec wexe r e q u i r e d t o eaan each degree. These p e o p l e a180 e c a n h e d a n image of a l i n e t h e y h a dc o n s t r u c t e d t o be a 3 long a s p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t e f ther e n 4 o v e r f l o w i n g l l The v i s u a l a r c s u b t e n d e d by t h i s \" l o n g e a t p o s s i b l e non-ovsrf l o w i n g l i n e w a s i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e t i m e r e q u i r e d t o s c a n a c r o s s i t . T h i s e s t i m a t e wa# v e r y c l o s e t o one o b t a i n e d u s i n g t h e t e c h n i q u e d e s c r i b e d a b o v e a n d t o o n e o b t a i n e d by s i m p l y s e k i n g p e o p l a t o i n d i c a t e t h e s u b j e c t i v e a i e a of a l o n p e s t n o n -o v e r f l o w i n g l i n e b y h o l d i n g t h e i r , h a n d s a p a r t 80 a 8 to s p a n t h e l e n g t h o i t h e l d n g e s t l i n e * 2.3 ~f f e e t s of s u b j e c t h v e s i z e o n c a s e m --p n a b e i n q w p a r t q & m e n t a l i m a u e s I f a s k e d w h i c h i s h f q h e r o f f t h e g r o u n d , a h o r s e ' s k n e e s or t h e t i p o f i t s t a i l , many people c l a i m t o imaqe t h e b e a a t a n d t o ' i n s p e c t Y t h e i m a q e , e v a l u a t i n g the q u e r i e d r e l a t S o n . I t h a k e s s e n s e t o s u s p e c t , t h e n , t h a t i m a g e s m i g h t be a p p r o p r i a t e l y p r o c e s s e d by the aame s o r t s of c l a s s i f i c a t o r y procedures used i n c a t a g o r i z i n g p e r c e p t u a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s . I f so, t h e n we m i g h t e x p e c t c o n s t r a i n t s t h a t a f f e c t e a s e of c l a a s i f y i n q p a r t s p e r c e p t u a l l y also t o a f f e c t e a s e of i m a g e r y c l a s s i f i c a t i o n . P a r t s o f smaller. o b j e c t s a r e \"haflder t o s e e * i n p e r c e p t i o n , f o r e x a m p l e , a n d a l s o may be h a r d e r t o \" s e e a i n i m a q a r y * This r e s u l t was i n f a c t o b t a i n e d ( s e e K o s s l y n , 1 9 7 5 ) r p a r t s o f s u b j e c t i v e l y s m a l l e r i m a g e s df o b j e c t 8 d i d r e q u i r e more t i m e to c l a s s i f y m e n t a l l y t h a n d i d p a r t s o f s u b j e c t i v e l y l a r g e r imaged o b j e c t s * I n a d d i t i o n , s i m p l y v a x y f n q the s i z e o f the p a r t & r a l s o a f f e c t e d tinke t o examine a n image. In t h i s c a s e , s m a l l e r p a r t s --1 i ke a c a t ' s c l a w s --r e q u i r e d more time t o see on p n imaqe than d i d l a r q e r p a r t s --l i k e i t s head. T h l s l a s t r e s u 3 $ w a s o b t a i n e d ( K o s s l y n , 1 9 7 6 ) e v e n t h o u g h t h e smallor p a r t s w e r e more s t r o n q l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a n i m a l i n q u e s t i o n , a n d were more q u i c k l y v e r x f & e d a e b e l o n q i n q t o t h e a n i m a l w h e n i m a g e r y was n o t used (mpore h i g h l y a s s o c i a t e d p r o p e r t i e s are t y p i c a l l y a f f i r m e d a 5 a p p r o p r i a t e more q u i c k l y t h a n l e s s associated o n e 8 i n s t u d i e s o f * s e m a n t i c memorya--6ee S m i t h , Shoben & Rips, 1974 T h e s e f i n d i n g s , t h e n , n o t o n l y a r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e n o t i o n t h a t i m a q e s a r e f u n c t i o n a l spatial r e p r e s e n t a t i b n s t h a t may be i n t e r p r e t e d by o t h e r p r o c e s s e s , b u t a l s o serve t o distinguish b e t w e e n p r o c e g s i n g i m a g i n a l and n o n -i m h g i n a l r e p r e e e n t a t i o n s . 2.4 E f f e c t # of s u b j e c t i v e s i z e g J a t -", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF13": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null, |
| "text": "a r t s o f s u b j e c t i v e l y s m a l l e r imaqeu a r e l e s s d i s t i n c t , t h e n o n e m i q h t e x p e c t t h a t t h e imaged o b j e c t i t s e l f would b e moae d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y . T h u s , i f one a e t u a l l y e n c b d e s a s u b j e c t i v e l y s m a l l imaqe i n t o memory, o n r ' a a b i l i t y t o kscall, tiha o b j e c t l a t e r ( ( s h o u l d be p o o r e r t h a n it t h e imaqe h a d been l a r g e r --i f i d f a c t the imhqe i t s e l f i s r e c a l l e d end i n s p e c t e d when m e tries t o r e c a l k t h e encoded words as o b j e c t s . K o s s l y n & A l p e r ( 1 9 7 7 1 a s k e d sub-Jects C o construct inaqee of t h e o b j e c t $ named by p a i r s of word^. Sometimes o n e o f t h e i m a g e s was t o be v e r y s m a l l s~b j a c t i v e l y a n d sometimes both i m a q e s w e r e t o be \" n o r m a l w s i t e s . When a s u r p r i s e memory t e s t f o r t h e words was l a t e r a d m i n i s t e r e d , memory was i n f a a t w o r s e i f o n e member o f a p a i r i n i t i a l l y h a d bead imaged a t a s u b f e c t i v c~y s m a l l siz T h i s r e s u l t wad r e p l i c a t e d i n s e v e s t u d i e s , e a c h of which c o n t r o l l e d f o r d i f f e r e n t p o s s i b l e c o n f o u n d i n g 8 ( e m s , , less \" d e p t h of p r o c e s s i n g n may h a v e o c c u r r e d when p e o p l e c o n s t r u c t e d s u b j e c t i v e l y s m a l l e r i m a q e a ) . o t h e r s h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t i n c r e a s i n g l y more t i m e i~ r e q u i r e d when o n e * r o t a t e s n a m e n t a l image t h r o u q h p r o g r e s s i v e l y g r e a t e r a r c s . S i m i l a r l y , we h a v e found t h a t more t i m e i s r e q u i r e d t o expand o r c o n t r a c t irnaqes t o g r e a t e r d e q r e e s ( K o s s l y n & S h w a r t z , 1 9 7 7 b ) , a a d i d S e k u l a r & Nash ( 1 9 7 1 ) r A p r o p o s i t i o n l l model of t h e s b r t o f f e r e d b y G i p s ( 1 9 7 4 ) d o e s n o t l e a d u s t o bxpect t h e s e r e s u l t s . A s p a t i a l model, w h e r e i n a p i c t o r i a l image i s t r a n s f o r m e d , seems t o i q p l y i n a s t r a i q h t f o r w a r d manner t h a t i m a g e s w i l l p a s s t h r o u g h i n b e r m e d r a t e p o s i t i o n s a s t h e y a r e t r a n s f o r m e d , qaven $ h a t t h e same i h a g e rs b e i n s r e t a i n e d a n d p l t o c e S s v i e w , t h e most p a r s i m o n i o u s , s t r a i q h t f o r w a r d a c c o u n t s of a l l t h e s e d a t a b i l l fncAade t h e n o t i o n t h a t i m a q e s a r e f p n c t i o n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s i n human memory. I h a v e n o d o u b t t h a t a l t e r -a t i v e non-imagery a c c o u n t s c a n be f o r m u l a t e d f o r e a c h s e t o f r e s u l t s , b u t t h e c o l l e c t i o n of e a c h o f these i n d i v i d u a l a c c o u n t s will l i k e l y b e more a 6 h o c , post h o c a n d cumbersome t h a n t h e i m a q e r y a c c o u n t s . R e f e r e n c e s C o o p e r , L. A. & S h e p a r d , R. N. C h r o n o m e t r i c s t u d i e s o f t h e x o t a t i o n o f m e n t a l images. I n We G. C h a s e ( E d . ) , V i s u a l I n f o r m a t i o n P r u i r e d t o p r e p a r e f~r a r o t a t e d s t i m u l u s * Memory a n a Cogn$tion, n t a x -d e r i v e d program t h a t p e x f o r m s a t h r e e -d i m e n s i o n a l p e r c e p t u a l t a s k . P a t t e r n R e c o s n i t i o n , 1 9 7 4 , Vole 6 , 189-b99f of A r t r An K o s s l y n , S I M. C o n s t r u c t i n q V i s u a l I m a g e s . Ph.D. AisaertatLon, S t l t l f o f d U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 7 4 . K o s s f y n , S . M. I n f o r m a t i o n r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i n v i s u a l imaqes.", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF14": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null, |
| "text": "C o g n i t i v e P~y c h o l o a y , 1 9 3 5 , 2, 341-376. K o s s l y n , S. M. C a n i m a g e r y b e d i s t i n q u l s h e d from o t h e r forms o f i r r t e r n a l r e p r e s e n t a t f a n ? E v i d e n c e f ram s t u d i e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n r e t r i e v a l t i m e .Memory a n d C o , q n i t i o n , 1 9 7 6 a , A, s u w i n q t h e v i s u a l a n q l e o f t h e m i n d ' s eye.", |
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| }, |
| "FIGREF15": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "num": null, |
| "text": "c h o l o q y , i n p r e s g . K o s s l y n , S I Me ti A l p e r , S. N. On t h e p i c t o r i a l p r v e r t i e s o f v i s u a l i h a g e s t E f f e c t s o f i m a q e s i z e o n memory fay d o r d o . C a n a d i a n J o u r n a l o f P s y b h o l o q y , s l y n , S.M., B a l l , T. M a , h R e i s e r , B. 3 . V i s u a l i m a g e s p r e s e r v e m e t r i c s p a t i a l ~n f o r m a t i o n E v i d e n c e f r o m s t u d i e s of i m a q e s c a n n i n g . J o u r n a l o f E x p e r i m e n t a l l y n , S. M. & S h w a r t z , S . P. Two w a y s o f t r a n s f o r r n i n q mental v i s u a l i m a q e s . P s y c h o n o m i c S o c i e t y M e e t i n g s , W a s h i n q t n n d a m e n t a l a s p e c t s of c o q n i t i v e x e p~e s a n t a t i o n . I n E m H. R o s c h 6 B. B. LLoyd (Eds.1, C o g n i t i o n and ~a t e~B r i t a t i o n . H~l l o d a i e , N o J o t Lawrence Erlbaum ~ssociakes, In press. S e k u l e r , R. ti N h s h , D I Speed o f size s c a l i n q i n human v i a i o n . P s y c h o n o m i c S c i e n c e , 1 9 7 2 , u h 93-94. S h e p a r d r R. N. Form, f o r m a t i o n , a n d t r a n s f o r m a t i o n o f i d t e r n a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . I n k. S o l s o ( E d . ) , I n f o r m a t i o n p r o c e s s i n q a s c o q n i t i o n r The -~o y o l a S Y~U O S~~~ H i l l s d a l e , N. J . t --L a w r e n c e E r l b a u m A s s o c i a t e s , 1 9 7 5 . S l o w n , A . A f t e r t h o u q h t s o n a n a l o g i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n . P a p e r p r e s e n t e d a t t h e Conference o n T h e o r e t i c a l Issues i n N a t u r a l L a n q u a q e P r o c e s s i n q . C a m b r i d g e , M a s s -J u n e , 1 9 7 5 . S m i t h , E l . E., S h o b e n , E m J., 8 R i p s , L. J . S t r u c t u r e a n d p r o c e s s i n s e m a n t i c m e d o r y A f e a t u r e m o d e l f o r s e m a n t i c d e c i s i o n . P s y c h o l o g i c a l R e v i e w , 1 t g e n s t e i n , L O Philosophical I n v e s t i q a t i o n s . d e w York M a c m i l l a n & CO., 195'3.", |
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