| { |
| "paper_id": "J78-3041", |
| "header": { |
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| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T03:05:38.723456Z" |
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| "title": "", |
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| "abstract": "", |
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| "paper_id": "J78-3041", |
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| "abstract": [], |
| "body_text": [ |
| { |
| "text": "The u s e o f two n u l l symbols i n a s i n g l e s e t o f a l t e r n a t", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "The c o m p l e t e c o o c c u r r e n c e g r a p h 1s b u i l t up by c o n t i n u i n g i n t h e game way u n t i l a l l t h e component s u b g r a p h s a r e i n i t :", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "g r a p h is e s s e n t i a l l y n o n p l a n a r Redundant n u l l s c o u l d b e e l i m i n a t e d by c r o s s i n g l i n e s i n a n e q u i v a l e n t g r a p h . o n e a n o t h e r , w i t h r e s u l t i n g c o n f u s i o n between n e g a t i v e and t e n t a t i v n between n e g a t i v e and t e n t a t i v e meanings. ", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "i v e s d o e s n o t mean t h a t H u i c h o l h a s two z e r o p r e f i x e s t h a t c o n t r a s t w i t h e a c h o t h e r , b u t r a t h e r t h a t t h e", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "E n g l i s h complex s e n t e n c e s . Amsterdam: North-Holland Pub1 i s h i n g Company.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "1971.", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Winograd, T e r r y .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "1971.", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "1972. U n d e r s t a n d i n g n a t u r a l l a n g u a g e . New York: Academic P r e s s .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "1971.", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "back_matter": [], |
| "bib_entries": {}, |
| "ref_entries": { |
| "FIGREF0": { |
| "text": "J o s e p h E. Grimes C o r n e l l U n i v e r s i t y and Summer I n s t i t u t e o f L i n g u i s t i c s T h i s paper h e l p s c l a r i f y o n e o f t h e p e r v a s i v e problems o f 1 i n g u i s t i c a n a l y s i s : t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e p a r a d i g m a t i c and s y n t a g m a t i c d i m e n s i o n s o f language. Paradigms a r e s e t s o f a l t e r n a t i v e s : t h e s p e a k e r must d e c i d e on one member o f t h e s e t t o use, and t h e h e a t e r must f i g u r e out which h s t r u c t i o n , an e l e m e n t chosen o u t o f o n e paradigm is p u t t o g e t h e r w i t h e l e m e n t s chosen out o f o t h e r s . Thus f a r a l l grammars of a l l l a n g u a g e s a g r e e . The problem comes when we put t h e grammar t o g e t h e r . The c h o i c e s a v a i l a b l e i n o n e paradigm t u r n o u t o f t e n t o b e l i m i t e d by t h o s e made i n some other paradigm t h a t is p a r t o f t h e same c o n s t r u c t i o n . Grammar i s n e v e r a s s i m p l e a s a C a r t e s i a n p r o d u c t o f paradigms. V a r i o u s forms o f grammar have v a r i o u s means, none o f them q u i t e s a t i s f y i n g , t o e x p r e s s t h e s e l i m i t a t i o n s , A cpmmon o n e is f o o t n o t e s a b o u t i r r e g u l a r i t i e s ; ad hoc f e a t u r e s t o t r i g g e r o r b l o c k s p e c i a l r u l e s when needed a r e ' a l s o used.", |
| "num": null, |
| "uris": null, |
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| "FIGREF1": { |
| "text": "Grammar o u g h t t o h i g h l i g h t t h e m u t u a l c o n s t r a i n t s between paradigms ahd c o n s t r u c t i o n s , n o t downplay them. H a l l i d a y ' s s y s t e m i c grammar h a s done w e l l i n t h i s r e g a r d ( H a l l i d a y -1961p u t a t i o n a l 1 i n g u i s t s t h r o u g h Winograd's work ( 1 9 7 2 ) . The h e u r i s t i c , based on work by Lowe, Dooley, and myself ( i n p r e s s ) , i s e x p r e s s e d w i t h i n H a l l i d a y l s framework h e r e , though i t is a p p l i c a b l e w i t h i n anyo t h e r model a f l a n g u a g e a s w e l l .", |
| "num": null, |
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| }, |
| "FIGREF2": { |
| "text": "s t e m i c t e r m a paradigm is known a s a ' s y s t e m B . A choice i n o n e syst'em c a n b e t h e e n t r y c o n d i t i o n f o r a n o t h e r s y s t e m , one par& o f a system c a n havq Q i f f e r e n t p r o p e r t i e s o f c o m b i n a t i o nfrom a n o t h e r p a r t , and two o r more s y s t e m s c a n b e a c t i v a t e d t o g e t h e r a s t h e b a s i s f o r a c o n s t r u c t i o n . The h e u r i s t i c is i n t e n d e d t o c l a r i f y something t h a t is more, o f t e n g u e s s e d a t t h a n proved:-what ' e l e m e n t b e l o n g s t o what s y s t e m , What I f i n d , on l o o k i n g a t l a n g u a g e s o t h e r t h a n E n g l i s h , i s t h a t membership i n a H a l l i d a y a n system is by no means o b v i o p e r t i e s t h a t p e r m i t u s t o a s s i g n them t o more t h a n o n e s y s t e m , and s e c o n d , some elements a r e a r t i f a c t s o f t h e mapping r e l a t i o n between s y s t e m s and forms b r a t h e r t h a n d i r e c t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f c h o i c e s w i t h i n s y s t e m s . The Data", |
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| "text": "c c u r r e n c e s among a p a r t i c u l a r l y complex s u b s e t o f t h e p r q f i x e s t o t h e v e r b i nHuichol , a Uto-Aztecan l a n g u a g e spoken i n t h e Mexican S i e r r a Madre. A 1 i n t h e t a b l e means t h a t t h e p r e f i x a t t h e head of t b i n a t i o n t h a t t h e row r e p o r t s . For t h i s l a n g u a g e t h e r e a r e e x a c t l y1 5 o b s e r v a b l e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e s e p r e f i x e s , e a c h r e p r e s e n t e d by one row i n T a b l e (1). The o r d e r i n which t h e rows a r e w r i t t e n down makes no d i f f e r e n c e , n o r does t h e o r d e r i n which t h e columns a p p e a r . kai-and ka2-are homophonous f o r m s t h a t occupy d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s i n t h e p r e f i x s t r i n g and have d i f f e r e n t meanings. s t a n d s f o r a h i g h back unrounded vowel.(1) k a l k e ps m& k a m p l e f a c t t h a t two forms c a n n o tc o o c c u r w i t h e a c h o t h e r is t h e most o b v i o u s b a s i s f o r s a y i n g t h a t t h o s e two a r e members o f a s i n g l e s y s t e m , t h a t t h e y a r e i n o p p o s i t i o n a s a l t e r n a t i v e s i n a paradigm, t h a t t h e c h o i c e o f o n e a s o v n i f i c a n c e . I n T a b l e ( I ) , f o r example, d o e s n o t o c c u r in any c o m b i n a t i o n % r e n i -o c c u r s , and v i c e v e r s a . h o n c o o c c u r r e q c e p a t t e r n s The p a t t e r n s bf n o n c o o c c u r r e n c e a r e d e r i v e d from T a b l e (1) by a s i m p l e a l g d r i t h m : For e a c h column: C r e a t e a v e c t o r o f a s many 0 ' s a s t h e r e a r e columns For e a c h row t h a t h a s a 1 i n t h e column i n q u e s t i o n : U n i t e t h a t row w i t h t h e v e c t o r . Complement t h e v e c t o r . Each o f t h e uncomplemented v e c t o r s r e p r e s e n t s t b i n a t i o n s which t h e form a t t h e head o f i t s column e n t e r s i n t o . The 1's i n i t s complement t h e r e f o r e i d e n t i f y t h e e l e m e n t s w i t h which i t c a n n o t c o o c c u r . The Hui.cho1 d a t a -and t h i s is t r u e o f o t h e r l a n g u a g e s , p o s s i b l u s i v e n e s s o r s i m p l e comembership gn s y s t e m s . ?he p r e f i x e s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e complement v e c t o r s of e a c h form a r e ( 2 ) k a l : k e , m& k e : kal, p c , m & , ka2 pc: k e , m & , n i mh: k a l , k e , p& ka2: ke n i : p& A form l i k e p&c a n b e a s s i g n e d t o o n e syStem i n o p p o s i t i o n w i t h n i -, and t o a n o t h e r i n o p p o s i t i o n w i t hkeand -I m&-\u2022 b u t k a l i -, which c o u l d a l s o g o i n t o a s y s t z w i t h k e and m&-, c o o c c u r s w i t h p~and t h e r e f o r e c a G o t r e p r e s e n t a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o it. The l o g i c o f s y s t e m o d u c t s t h a t t h a t i m p l i e s , i n which e a c h form o f o n e s e t c o o c c u r s w i t h e v e r y form of a n o t h e r . u n t i l t h e z e r o row is l e f t ; t h e n we a l s o c o n v e r t t h e zero row i f t h e r e is o n e i n t o a component s u b g r a p h . I n t h e f i n a l s t e p o f t h e h e u r i s t i c , t h e component s u b g r a p h s a r e u n i t e d t o givei t h e c o m p l e t e c o o c c u r r e n c e g r a p h . T h a t g r a p h o f forms is t h e aim of t h e h e u r i s t i c , I t is n o t a s y s t e m i c network d i a g r a m i t s e l f , but is r a t h e r a s t a t e m e n t o f a m a j o r c o n s t r a i n t o n t h e s e m a n t i c s y s t e m i c diagram t h a t a c c o u n t s f o r t h e forms. Component s u b g r a p h s a r e forrned by p u t t i n g a 1 t e r n a t i v e s v e r t i & a l l y i n a n y o r d e r w i t h i n s q u a r e b r a c k e t s , and c o n n e c t i n g forms t h a t c o o c c u r i n a n y o r d e r b y h o r i z o n t a l l i n e s . Absence o f a n y form i n a p a r t i c u l a r c o m b i n a t i o n is r e p r e s e n t e d by ---I n T a b l e (1) t h e two rows t h a t c o n t a i n 1's f o r k e -have a t o t a l o f o n l y t h r e e 1's i n them; s o t h o s e two rows a r e t a k e n o u t f o r t h e f i r s t s u b g r a p h : T h i s s u b g r a p h , l i k e t h e two rows o f T a b l e (1) t h a t i t r e p r e -n t s , s a y s t h a t ke-c a n o w u r w i t h o r w i t h o u t n i --The f u l l s e t o f component s u b g r a p h s d e r i v e d from T a b l e (1) c o n t a i n s o n l y s i m p l e a 1 t e r n a t i v e s and t h e i r C a r t e s i a n p r o d u c t s : t e m i c network c a n b e c a p t u r e d i n a c o o c c u r r e n c e g r a p h by f i r s o m p o s i t i o n s t m t e g y found s o f a r is t o start w t t h t h e q column t h a t m i n i m i z e s t h e number o f 1's t h a t would be removed from t h e t a b l e i f a l l t h e rows t h a t h a v e 1's i n t h a t column were removed, W e c o n v e r t t h o s e rows i n t o a component s u b g r a p h , t h e n c o n t i n u e r e c u r s i v e l y o n t h e t a b l e minus t h o s e rows u n t i l no rows a r e l e f t , o r Union o f component s u b g r a p f l a t i n g what t h e y h a v e i n common and s y m b o l i z i n g t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s a s a l t e r n a t i v e s , b y t h e d i s t r i b u t i v e p r o p e r t y . Four o f t h e s u b g r a p h s , ( a ) , ( f ) , ( g ) , and ( h ) , c a n be combined w i t h o u t ?hanging t h e p i c t u r e o f s i m p l e s y s t e m s and C a r t e s i a n p r o d u c t s : C o m p u t a t i o n a l a s p e c t s A r e s t r A c t k o n on C a r t e s i a n p r o d u c t s a p p e a r s , however, when we expand t h e c o m p o s i t e d i a g r a m f u r t h e r . ( d ) h a s t h r e e o u t o f f o u r F P its e l e m e n t s i n common w i t h e l e m e n t s a l r e a d y i n t h e c o m p o s i t e d i a g r a m ( 5 ) . The f o u r t h e ' l e m e~+~. however, h a s n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h ke-o r r t s a b s e n c e , b u t c o o c c u r r e n c e p r o p e r t i e s o f d i f f e r e n t f o r m s come i n t o t h e pictura, and h e r e is where t h e H a l l i d a y a n d e v i c e o f l i n k e d b r a c k e t c r e p a n c i e s . The e l e m e n t s i n ( 6 ) a r e r e o r d e r e d t o d i s r u p t t h e g r a p h i c s h a p e g i v e n by ( 5 ) a s l i t t l e a s p o s s i b l e : r k a 2 1 m& 7 C o o c c u r r e n c e g r a p h", |
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| }, |
| "FIGREF4": { |
| "text": "s t r a i n t s o n c o o c u u r r e n c e t h a t t h e r e a r e f o r t h e s e Huichol p r e f i x e s , I t is n o t y e t a s y s t e m i c d i a g r a m , b e c a u s e s y s t e m i c d i a g r a m s give d i f f e r e n c e s i n meaning and this o n e g i v e s o n l y c o o c c u r r e n c e s o f forms. The s y s t e m i c d i a g r a m we come up w i t h w i l l , however, h a v e t o a c c o u n t f o r e a c h o f t h e c o n s t r a i n t s o n c o o c c u r r e n c e g i v e n b y t h i s d i a g r a m , Our s c r u t i n y o f c o o c c u r r e n c e s and n o n c o o c c u r r e n c e s h a s shown u s what f o r m s m i g h t be i n o p p o s i t i o n w i t h e a c h o t h e r i n a senlantic s y s t e m and how t h o s e f o r m s interlock. T h a t is a s f a r a s o u r e x p l i c i t h e u r i s t i c t a k e us; b u t i t n a r r o w s the f h l d f~r semantic i n v e s t i g a t i o n c o n d i d e r a b l y . B e f o r e I go on t o show t h e payoPf i n terms o f s y s t e m s o f m e a n i n g f u l c h o i c e s , l e t me s k e t c h t h e c o m p u t a t i o n a l a q p e c t s o f the h e u r i s t i c . For a small problem l i k e t h e o n e i n t h e example, o f c o u r s e , no computing is needed. B u t were w e t o t a k e i n a l l 4 2 v e r b p r e f i x e s o f H u i c h o l , and s t a t e how t h e y combine wigh s u f f i x e s a r i s t i c would n e v e r get o f f t h e g r~u n d w i t h p e n c i l and p a p e r . I t is a good example o f how a c o m p u t a t i o n a l l y s i m p l e p r o c e s s , a c t u a l l y a t w i s t o n c o n c o r d a n c e g e n e r a t i o n , c a n b r i n g o r d e r i n t o an a r e a where a l i n g u i s t is o t h e r w i s e a l l too l i k e l y t o s h r u g h i s s h o u l d e r s and d e f i n e o v e r s i m p l i f i e r m i n a b l e f o o t n o t e s a b o u t why t h e y d o n ' t q u i t e combine a s h e s a y s t h e y do. A l i n g u c k s t i n t h e f i e l d n e e d s a t h r e e -s t e p c o m p u t a t i o n a l a i d . S t e p One is d a t a e n t t y : t a k e i n o c c u r r i n g c o m b i n a t i o n s o f f o r m s , which c o u l d as w e l l b e f u n c t i o n words o r s u f f i x e s o r a n y combinartion o f c l o s e d c l a s s phenomena, and d e v e l o p a t a b l e l i k e T a b l e ( 1 ) . S t e p Two i.s u n i o n : r e a d t h e t a b l e and d e v e l o p a v e c t o r f o r e a c h form t h a t shows t h e u n i o n o f a l l i t s c o m b i n a t i o n s . S t e p T h r e e is d e c o m p o s i t i o n : s e g r e g a t e o u t from t h e t a b l e t h e s u b s e t s o f i t s rows t h a t f a c i l i t a t e making i t s component Subgraphs.", |
| "num": null, |
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| "FIGREF5": { |
| "text": "r i s t i c , f o r m i n g t h e w c c u r r e n c e g r a p h by u n i t i n g t h e component s u b g r a p h s , is a t l e a s t a n o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e more complex, and may n o t b e f e a s i b l e f o r a s m a l l f i e l d computer. S y s t e m i c d i a g r a m A f t e r t h e h e u r i s t a c p r o c e d u r e is g o n e t h r o u g h , w b e t h e r w i t h p e n c i l o r by c o m p u t e r , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a s e m a n t i c h y p o t h e s i s r i c h enough t o a c c o u n t f o r a l l t h e p a t t e r n s o f c o o c c u r r e n q e c a n g o a h e a d . T h i s is a s t a n d a r d l i n g u i s t i c u n d e r t a k i n g , and h a s two s i d e s . T h e -f i r s t iS t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e r e a s o n s why one ox another member o f a n o n c o o c c u r r i n g s e t l i k e t h e o n e s i n ( 2 ) g e t s c h o s e n . The r e a s o n s f o r c h o o s i n g e i t h e r member of,a p a i r may n o t be t h e same i n the c o n t e x t o f o n e p a t t e r n o f c h o i c e s made i n o t h e r s y s t e m s a s i t is i n o t h e r c o n t e x t s . The s e c o n d p a r t o f t h e s e m a n t i c i n q u i r y is t o i d e n t i f y ofi c o m b i n a t i o n s o f f o r m s whose p r e s e n c e is a n a r t i f a c t o f t h e mapping between meaning and form, and n o t a n a s s e r t i o n o f a p a r t i c u l a r meaning. T h i s a r b i t r a r i n e s s i n t h e mapping r e l a t i o n shows up i n two p l a c e s i n t h e example. When Eis p r e s e n t , k a l -h a s e i t h e r a t e n t a t i v e o r a v e r y s t r o n g -n e g a t i v e meaning : k a a l &mie means ' he m i g h t n o t g o e o r ' h e s i ?a l l n o t go!' ( t h e meaning S p l i t is n o t t o o d i f f e r e n t fuom t h a t -o f -E n g l i s h d i s f i u r e d vs. e k a l -t h e o r d i n a r y n e g a t i v e , is p r e s e n t , and may o r may n o t -b e t h e r e when ka2is a b s e n t . The r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t k a l -=ways g o w i t h ka2-i n t h e p r e s e n z o f p i -e l i m i n a t e s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e two =mophones e v e r b e i n g opposed t o", |
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| "text": "The o e h e r a r b i t r a r i n e s s t u r n s u p o n t r y i n g t o r e l a L e m&w i t h ni-.m&by i t s e l f is t h e s q n o f a d e p n d e n r v e r b , andn iby i t s e l f o f a n i n d e p e n d e p t v e r b a t a p a r t i c e c o m b i n a t i o n -* mbni however,h a s n o t h i n g t o d o w i t h e i t h e r of t h e s e meanings; i t makes a s t a t e m e n t o f t h e s p e a k e r f s o ' l p i n i o n . I t a k e i t t o b e a m o~p h o l o g i c a l l y complex e x p r e s s i o n o f a s e p a r a t e term o f t h e modal s y s t e m , Taking t h e s e d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n t o ' a c c o u n t g i v e s u s a s y s t e m i c diagr.am: r r a t i v e ] imp1 i e s k a l o b l i g a t o r y w i t h [ n G a t i v e ] o p t i o n a l w i t h [ p o s i t i v e ] [ e v a l u a t i v e ] r e a l i z e d a s --mt+ni I t i s by s t r a i g h t e n i n g o u t k a l -and m&ni-t h a t i t becomes p o s s i b l e f o u s t6 give a s y s t e m i c d4iagram p l u s a s e t o f r e a l i q a t i Q n r ul es f o r i t . The s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d r e a l i z a t i o n r u l e s a r e w r i t , t e n r i g h t i n t o t h e d i a g r a m : f o r example, i f you c h o o s e [ n e g a t i v e ] , u t t e r ka2-The more complex r e a l i z a t i o n s a r e 7 g i v e n a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e d i a g r a m . The t e r m s of t h e s y s t e m i c d i a g r a m a r e l a b e l s f o r s e m a n t i b c h o i c e s t h a t h a v e b e e n e x p l a i n e d e l s e w h e r e and d o n o t c o n c e r n u s now; t h e y d o n o t c o n s t i t u t e e x p l a n a t i o n s i n t h e m s e l v e s . Once t h e a r b i t r a r y mappings a r e d e f i n e d i n r e a l i z a t i o n r u l e s , t h e d i a g r a m embodies o n l y o n e r e a l r e s t r i c t i o n o n C a r t e s i a n p r o d u c t s of p a r a d i g m s , i n t h a t Hbichol h a s rPo s p e c l a l n e g a t i v e i m p e r a t i v e form. ( I t u s e s t h e n e g a t i v e d e c l a r a t i v e G2 i n i t s p l a c e . ) The c o m p l e t e n e s s o h e a n a l y s i s is s u p p o r t e ? by t h e f a c t t h a e t h e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d p a r a d i g m s o f ( 8 ) h a v e e x a c t l y 14 p a t h s t h r o u g h them, and t h a t t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e o p t i o n a l rule. f o r t h e r e a l i z a t i o n of k d l -w i t h ni-, t h e s e y i e l d e x a c t l y t h e 15 rows o f ~a m e (1) wim which we began. Bib1 iog r a p h y Grimes, J o s e p h E., I v a n Lowe, a n d R o b e r t A. Dooley. i n p r e s s . C l o s e d s y s t e m s w i t h complex r e s t r i c t i o n s . Anthropolog ice1 ~i n g u i s t i c s . H a l l i d e y , Michael A.", |
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