| { |
| "paper_id": "P85-1006", |
| "header": { |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T09:39:35.211970Z" |
| }, |
| "title": "MEINONGIAN SEMANTICS FOR PROPOSITIONAL SEMANTIC NETWORKS", |
| "authors": [ |
| { |
| "first": "William", |
| "middle": [ |
| "J" |
| ], |
| "last": "Rapaport", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": { |
| "laboratory": "", |
| "institution": "University at Buffalo State University of New York Buffalo", |
| "location": { |
| "postCode": "14260", |
| "settlement": "rapapor t%buffalo~csnet-re la y", |
| "region": "NY" |
| } |
| }, |
| "email": "" |
| } |
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| "year": "", |
| "venue": null, |
| "identifiers": {}, |
| "abstract": "Tilts paper surveys several approaches to semanttc-netw,~rk semantics that have not previously been treated ~n the AI or computattonal lingutsttcs hterature, though there ~s a large ptulu. ~)ph~cal hterature invest)gating them m ~mledetad. In parttcular, proF~n~onal semanttc networks (exemphhed hv ~,NeP%)are dis cus.~d, it ts argued that ~mlv a Iull'; mtenstonal (\"Mem(mgtan\") semantics is apprt)prtate I(~r them. and se'~eral \\|eln(~nglan svstenls are presented.", |
| "pdf_parse": { |
| "paper_id": "P85-1006", |
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| "abstract": [ |
| { |
| "text": "Tilts paper surveys several approaches to semanttc-netw,~rk semantics that have not previously been treated ~n the AI or computattonal lingutsttcs hterature, though there ~s a large ptulu. ~)ph~cal hterature invest)gating them m ~mledetad. In parttcular, proF~n~onal semanttc networks (exemphhed hv ~,NeP%)are dis cus.~d, it ts argued that ~mlv a Iull'; mtenstonal (\"Mem(mgtan\") semantics is apprt)prtate I(~r them. and se'~eral \\|eln(~nglan svstenls are presented.", |
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| "section": "Abstract", |
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| "text": "~emantlc netw\u00a2~rks have pr(~ed rt~ I~ a uselul dahl ,,true.lure for representing mlormatttm. =.e., a \"knt~wledt, e'\" repre~ntatmn svs tenn. (A I'~tter termmtdogv ix \"'belief\" teptexentatiott system; t.f. I~>hrnw and Win(~grad's KRI. (1977) , ,,r IIra~.hman',, KI.()',I. (1979,) , bear strong tamttv re~mblanues t() \"l'.wphvrv',, I'ree'\" (I ~t,.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 216, |
| "end": 239, |
| "text": "Win(~grad's KRI. (1977)", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 270, |
| "end": 277, |
| "text": "(1979,)", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "SEMANTICS OF SEMANTIC NETWORKS.", |
| "sec_num": "1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "2)---a mediaeval device u.~d t~> dlustrate the .\\r:st,.~ehan 'het,rv ,~I definn~(m by ~pe~:e~ and d~fferent~a ((-I. Kret~'mann I~'hh. ('It 2; Kneale and Kneale It~hh: 232) . It has been r~,nted (~ut that titere ~s nothing essentmlly \"~emanttc\" about semantic networks (llendnx 1979; hut cf. Woods 1975 . Brachman 1979 . Indeed. v~ewed ,as a data structure, it is arguable that a semantic network m a language (r,,~.,~lhlV w~th an a~st~lated Ingle (~r ~nference mechanmm) f(~r representing inlornlatl(}n ah~)ut ,aline d(,mam, and, as such, IS a purely syntactic entity. They have (-(~me to he (-ailed \"semanttc'\" primarily hecau.~ ~d their uses as wart, ~ll representing tile meanings (~f hngutstic !tems\u00a2.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 142, |
| "end": 171, |
| "text": "Kneale and Kneale It~hh: 232)", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 268, |
| "end": 282, |
| "text": "(llendnx 1979;", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 283, |
| "end": 301, |
| "text": "hut cf. Woods 1975", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 302, |
| "end": 317, |
| "text": ". Brachman 1979", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
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| "section": "SEMANTICS OF SEMANTIC NETWORKS.", |
| "sec_num": "1." |
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| "text": "As a notatt(mal device, a semanuc net'a.'tlrk ~an ~tseil be g~','en a semantic,s. That is, the art, s. nc,Jes, and rules (~l :. semantic net~,'(irk representational system (.an 1~' given interpretations, in terms (if the entities they are u~d tit represent. Witilout ~;uch a semantics, a semantic network is an arhltrar'\u00a2 not-':tt(mal dev;ce Imble tt~ mtsmterpretat=on tel. Wtx.ds 1975; I!,rathman i977. 1983; Mclgerm~ltt 1981 ) . The task (~! prov:ding a semantt~s For semantic networks is more ak=n tt~ the task t)f providing a ,~mant~cs For a language than I'()r a logic. ,crate in the latter ca.;e, hut not m the (.jenlls ................... l~rmer, nt,tltms like al gunte;~t validity mu,d Fn: c,,Iahllshed and ctm-neLthHl'~ rl~u~.l |~' made with JXl(~nl?., ,nd rules ~1 Hllerent,\u00a2. ~uinltrl,ltlng ideall ',' Ill ',,~undne~', and Ltmtpletene,,,, thet~rem',. }lut unllerlvinu the h~glc\"~ ~.enlantlL:~, there must P~ ,k ~;erllafltlcs I(ir the Itlglc',\u00a2 underlvin~ I.lngthl~.e. alltl thl,~ ~.~.L~uh.I h~ ~lkell in terms ~l '~uLh .i rltlfll~n ,1~ llldJflnitt,~. Ilere. tvpltallv, .in inlerpret.dlL~n lunc tl(in IS e~tahllshed P~t~.~.een K\"*'tttdLtlCa[ iter11~ Irtlnl the language l, and ~lntt~l~lc;Jl items Inml rile \"~(~rtd'\" W lhat the langua~de is t() de~t, rlt)e. J'hts, m turn. ~ u~,uall~, at.conlphsiled b',' dexcrdlm~ the 'Aorld in .in{ither language. 1, . and '~htl~.lng that /'. and /'4 are nld.ll'l(in;ll V,lrt;infs hv ,~ho',X.'lng that tile'*' ,ire l~m{)rphl(-.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 374, |
| "end": 386, |
| "text": "Wtx.ds 1975;", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 387, |
| "end": 409, |
| "text": "I!,rathman i977. 1983;", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 410, |
| "end": 428, |
| "text": "Mclgerm~ltt 1981 )", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 617, |
| "end": 645, |
| "text": "(.jenlls ...................", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 809, |
| "end": 861, |
| "text": "',' Ill ',,~undne~', and Ltmtpletene,,,, thet~rem',.", |
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| "section": "SEMANTICS OF SEMANTIC NETWORKS.", |
| "sec_num": "1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": ".. > Differentia ..... > C()R~)~ / NON-CORPOREAL Species .............. > ~ L / \"- RA~ /NON-RATIONAL \"~. ~ < .... Principle of Individual)on (-'P~'~ M~., k-'y \"_ <---Individuals", |
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| "section": "SEMANTICS OF SEMANTIC NETWORKS.", |
| "sec_num": "1." |
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| "text": "Recentlv. hngu~sts and phdosopilers have at'cued for the ~ml'*~lrranke (~1 intenaional ,~..muntlt:S For natural languages (t;l'. ~lontat;tie 1(~7. 1. I~ar,~ms 1981) . Rapar~lr? 1981L .-\\t the same t~me, com-putat~tmal Ilnt~ulS(~; and ~ther .-\\1 researche~ have n~\u00a3un [o re~:{)gnt/~ tile ii~lr~rtanke (~1 representing intensIonal entitles (cl. \\,V(x)ds 1975 . IIrachman 1979 . Mc('arthv 1979 . \\lards and ~,hap~ro 1982 . It ~ems rea,~)nahle t|laI .~ ~mantlcs For such a repre'.~entatl()nal system should ~tself he an mtensmnal ~mant~cs. In tht~ paper. 1 ()utline ~,.'eral fully tntensttmal semantlc.S for ~nten,cltmal semantic net,x(~rk~, hv discu~sHag tile relatmns between a semantic-network \"!anguage'\" /, :~nd ~','eral ~anthdates For L w . For /,. I Focus on ~,haptro's propositional ,Semantic Network Processing System (SNell.': Shaptn) 1979). For which Israel (1983) has offered a I'w~sible-w~lrlds semantics. But p~stble-worlds semantic,s, while countenancing mtenmonal entities, are not fu/,/y intensional, since they treat mtens,mal entities extensionally. The L w s 1 di~uss all have t'ullv intenslonal components.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 147, |
| "end": 164, |
| "text": "1. I~ar,~ms 1981)", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 338, |
| "end": 356, |
| "text": "(cl. \\,V(x)ds 1975", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 357, |
| "end": 373, |
| "text": ". IIrachman 1979", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 374, |
| "end": 390, |
| "text": ". Mc('arthv 1979", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 391, |
| "end": 417, |
| "text": ". \\lards and ~,hap~ro 1982", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 858, |
| "end": 871, |
| "text": "Israel (1983)", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "SEMANTICS OF SEMANTIC NETWORKS.", |
| "sec_num": "1." |
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| { |
| "text": "A SNePS semantic network (Fig. 3) A concept is \"anything about whtch mlormat~on can he stored and/or transmitted\" (Shapiro 197q: 179) . Widen a semantic network such as SNePS ~s u~d to model \"the behel structure ol a thinking, rea.~onlnt.,, language using be,ng\" (Matda and Shaptru 1982: 296: of. ~';haplro 1971h: 51.),;. the ct)nt.epts are the oh)ectx of mental (i.e.. mtentu)nal) acts ..u~.h as thinking, behev:ng, wishing, etc. Such oblect,~ are mren~mal i~.t. Rapaport l()7g).", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
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| "start": 114, |
| "end": 133, |
| "text": "(Shapiro 197q: 179)", |
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| "start": 25, |
| "end": 33, |
| "text": "(Fig. 3)", |
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| "section": "SNePS.", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
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| "text": "It t'ollov,'s I rc,m (%) that the arcs do not represent concepr-s. Rather. they repre',ent binary, structural relations between concept.s. If ~t )s des)red to talk about certain relations between concepts, then tho~e relations must be represented by nodes, smce they have r.neJt become objects o= thought, =.~, concepts. In terms of Oume's dictum that \"t~ be is to be the value of a [hound] variable\" (Qume 1980: 15; cf. Shapiro 1971a: 7q-80) . nodes represent such values, ar~s do not. That Is. given a domain of dlscours~--mcludlng ~tems, .'~ arv relations among them, and prolX)S~tions--SNeP% nodes ~,ouid be used to represent all members t)l the domain. The arcs are used to structure the items, relations, and p)(,I')()'~tJons ,)l the domain into ((:chef.) prl)p(~sltmns. As ~n analogy, SNel)% arcs are to %Nel). ~, nodes as the svmn()ls '~\" and \"+' are to the symbols %', '5.P'. ond \"VI )' in the rewrite rule: S -, \";I ) + VI ). It ~s because m) prorxts~ t~ons :are represented hv arcs that SNel)% ts a \"pr()rx)sltlonal\" semantic network (c:. Maida and Shapiro 1982: 292) .", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 401, |
| "end": 416, |
| "text": "(Qume 1980: 15;", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 417, |
| "end": 442, |
| "text": "cf. Shapiro 1971a: 7q-80)", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| { |
| "start": 1060, |
| "end": 1078, |
| "text": "Shapiro 1982: 292)", |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "SNePS.", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
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| { |
| "text": "When a ~manttc network such as SNePS is u~d to model a mind, the nodes represent only intensional ~tems (Maida and Shapiro 1982; of. Rapaport 1978) . Simil-',rly, if such a network were to be used ~s a notation for a fully lntensional naturallanguage semantics (such as the semantics presented in Rapaport 198-1 ), the n(~es would represent only mtensional items. Thus, a semantics for such a network ought )tsetf to be fully mtensional.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 104, |
| "end": 128, |
| "text": "(Maida and Shapiro 1982;", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| { |
| "start": 129, |
| "end": 147, |
| "text": "of. Rapaport 1978)", |
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| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "SNePS.", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
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| "text": "There are two pairs of t3tpes of nodes in S.Nel)S: constant and variable nixies, and atomic (or individual) and molecular (or propositumal) nodes. (Molecular md~wdual nodes are currently being implemented: see Sect. 7. 8. For a dt~usstt)n ol tile semantics of varmble nodes, see ShaDro 1985.) Except for a few pre-de)ined arcs for u~ by an inference package, all arc labels are ~hosen by the user: such labels ,re completely arbitrary (albeit often mnemonic) and depend ,m the domain being represented. The \"meanings\" of the labels are provided (hv the u~rt only by means of explicit rule re)des. ',~.hlch allo~' the retrieval ,)r constructam (by referencing) of pr(~l'xtsltlonal ntvJes.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "section": "SNePS.", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
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| "text": "David Israel's semantics f~r SS, ePS a~sumes \"~he general framework of Knpke-\\lontague style model theoretic a~counts\" (Israel 1983 : 3), presumahlv because tie takes tt as \"quite ~lear that [Malda and Shapiro] ... vnew their formahsm ,isa '~,lontague type type theoretic, inten,~uonal system\" (Israel 1983 ", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 119, |
| "end": 131, |
| "text": "(Israel 1983", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 191, |
| "end": 210, |
| "text": "[Malda and Shapiro]", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 294, |
| "end": 306, |
| "text": "(Israel 1983", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "ISRAEL'S POSSIBLE-WORLDS SEMANTICS FOR SNePS.", |
| "sec_num": "3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "A!cxlus Metnong's (19(M) theory of the oh)e~ts of psvchologl-~i acts ~s a more appropriate foundation for a semantics of propositional semantic networks as well a.s for a natural-language semantics. in brier, 5,1emong's the()rv camsists of the f~)llo~ing theses (c|'. Rapap)rt 1976, 1978):", |
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| "section": "MEINONG'S TIIEORY OF OKJEC'TS.", |
| "sec_num": "4." |
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| { |
| "text": "(MI) Thes/s oj\" Intentionality: livery mental act (e.g., thmkmg, believing, judging, etc.) is \"directed\" towards an \"ob.)ect\". l'here are two kmds of Memongian objects: (I) objecta, the individual-like oh}ectx of such a mental act as thmking-of, and (2) objectives, the proposttlon-hke objects tat such mental acts as believlng(-that) or knowing(-that). E.g.. the object of my act of thinking of a unicorn is: a unicorn; the object or mv act of believing that the I~rth is flat is: the Earth is flat.", |
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| "section": "MEINONG'S TIIEORY OF OKJEC'TS.", |
| "sec_num": "4." |
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| { |
| "text": "(M2) Not every object of thought exists (technically, \"has being\"). ", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "MEINONG'S TIIEORY OF OKJEC'TS.", |
| "sec_num": "4." |
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| "text": "On my own reconstruction of Meinong's theory (Rapaport 1976 (Rapaport , 1978 --which bears a coincidental r~mblance to McCarthy 1979). there are two types of objecLs: M-objecta (i.e~ the objects of thought, which are intensional) and actual objects (which are extensional). There are two modes of predication of properties to these: M-objects are constituted by properties, and both M-and actual objects can exemplify properties. For instance, the pen with which l wrote the manumnpt of this paper is an actual object that exemplifies the property of being while. Right now. when I think about that pen. the object of my thought is an M-oblect that is con-stitLaed (in part) by that property. The M-object Jan's pen can be represented as: <belonging to Jan. being a pen> (or. for short, as: *J. P>). Ileing a pen is also a constituent of this M-object: P c <J. P >; and 'Jan% pen is a pen' is true in virtue of this objective.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 45, |
| "end": 59, |
| "text": "(Rapaport 1976", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 60, |
| "end": 76, |
| "text": "(Rapaport , 1978", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| "section": "RAPAPOIIT'S THEORY.", |
| "sec_num": "5." |
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| { |
| "text": "[n addition. <J. P > exemplifies (ex) the property of being constituzed by two properties. There might be an actual (abject, .say. ~. corresrxmding to <J. P >, that exemplifies the property of being a pen (iv ex /\" ) as well as (say) the property of being 6 inches &rag. But being 6 inches long \u00a2 ('J. l\" \",. The mtensmnal fragment ol this theory can he used to provnde it semantics I.r %NeP% m mut.h the ,~lme way that It can been u.,~d ttl provide a ,,emanttt.s lt)r natural languaEe (Rapap(irt 1981). %Nel)9; hase nodes can t~ taken to represent \\1 t~b~ecta and prl)pertles; %Nel)% prt}rx~ltlimal IIIM'kN L.n i've taken t(~ represent \\1 oh~ectlves.", |
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| "section": "RAPAPOIIT'S THEORY.", |
| "sec_num": "5." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Twu ,ilternatixe'~ ix,r networks, rcpre'-~:nIlnL, tile three \\| ,ff~lectlves: ", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "RAPAPOIIT'S THEORY.", |
| "sec_num": "5." |
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| "text": "Terence Parsons's theory of nonexistent oh]eeLs (1980; cf. Rapa~x~rt 1976 cf. Rapa~x~rt . 1978 ) recognizes only one type of ob]ect-intenstonal ones--and onl~\" one m(xle of predlcatton. But it has two types ill\" properties: nuclea~ and extranuclea~. Tile tormer includes all \"ordinary\" properties such as: being red. being round, etc.; the latter includes such properties as: existing, being ~ml~t~sthJe. etc. I~u[ the thstlnctnon ts SlurrY, s, nce for each extranuclear pn~perty, there Is a ct)rresl~)ndlng nuclear one. J:or ever',' set ~d nuclear prtt pertles, there Ix a unique ohlect that has ~nls,\" rh,w,e prt~l~rt~es. Existing ohlects must he ct~mplete (and. ~tf ct~urse, ctmslstent).", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 48, |
| "end": 54, |
| "text": "(1980;", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 55, |
| "end": 73, |
| "text": "cf. Rapa~x~rt 1976", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 74, |
| "end": 94, |
| "text": "cf. Rapa~x~rt . 1978", |
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| "section": "PARSONS'S THEORY.", |
| "sec_num": "6." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "though not all such ohle~ts exist. For instance, the Morning Star and the I:'vening Slat don't exist (tl th~ are taken to ct)nsnst, roughly, of only two properties each). I'he ~ound square, of course.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "section": "PARSONS'S THEORY.", |
| "sec_num": "6." |
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| "text": "ts (and only ls~ hits round and square ,and. ~, ~sn't non-square; through tt is. for that rea~am, lmp~.xsd~le, hence not real. .-ks for the existing golden mountain, exintence ix extranuclear. ~l the set ~1 these three properties doesn't Ila~.e a cttrre.~p~mtlung ~)htect. There is, however, a \"'watered do~ n\". nuclear ~ersion ,~1 existence, and there is an ex=stm~ golden mountain that has Ihat property; hut it didn't ha',e the extranuclear property ~,1 existence, and. '~ ~t doesn't exist.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "section": "PARSONS'S THEORY.", |
| "sec_num": "6." |
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| "text": "Parstms's the~lrv could pn~ tdea semantics for SNeI>S. though the use of two types of properties pla~ restrictions on the po~tble uses of SNePS. On the other hand, SNePS could he used to represent Parsons's theory (though a device would be needed for marking the d~sttoctlon between nuclear and extranuclear properties) and, hence. tt~ether with I)arrams's natural language semantics, to provide a hX)t f(}r comptit:ttit)nal linguistics. Fig. h suggests how tilts might be d~me.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 438, |
| "end": 444, |
| "text": "Fig. h", |
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| ], |
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| "section": "PARSONS'S THEORY.", |
| "sec_num": "6." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The round square is round, square, and impossible' on Parsons's th~orT.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Fi~. 6. A SNePS representation of", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Ilector-N~ri Castan'eda's theory of \"guises\" (1972, 1975a-c. 1977, 197q. 1980 ) is a better .~ndidate. It is a fully intensional theory with one type of oh!oct: guises (intensional items corr~ponding to ~t.q ,if properties), and one type of property. More prettily, there are properties (e.g., being round, being square, being blue .... ). ~ees of these (called guise cores: e.g., {being round, being squaret), and an ontic counterpart, c, or the detimte-descriptlon operator, which ns used to form guises; e.g.. c{being round, being square| is the round square. Guises can be understood, roughly, as things-under-a-descrtptmn. ~,s \"facets\" of (physical and nonphysical) ob.l~t.s, as \"roles\" that ohjecr,s play, or, in general, as objects t)l\" thought.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 45, |
| "end": 77, |
| "text": "(1972, 1975a-c. 1977, 197q. 1980", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "CASTANIrDA'S THEORY.", |
| "sec_num": "7." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Gui~ theory has two modes of predication: internal and external In general, the gui~ cl... F... } is-internally t'. I:..g., the gut~ (named by) the round square is-mternally only round and square. The two guises the tallest mountain and &It. Everest are related hv an external mode of predication called consubstantialion (C'*). Consuh~tantmtnon is an equivalence relation that is u~d in the analyses of (I) external predication, (2) co-reference, and 3 Amtther e\\ternal nl,~e td' predt~atl~)n ~x ~,msociati,..n (('\") .", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 512, |
| "end": 517, |
| "text": "(('\")", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "CASTANIrDA'S THEORY.", |
| "sec_num": "7." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This ts al~ an equivalence relalltm, hut t~ne that holds between gu0se~ that a m0nd has \"put together\". ~.e.. between gulwes m \"behef space\". I'(~r unsran~.e, (\" \"(llamlet. the Prm~,e ~f I)enmark J.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "CASTANIrDA'S THEORY.", |
| "sec_num": "7." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "(\" anti C\" ct~rre~p~md alm~sr exactly r(~ tile use ~t tile I'OUIV art sn 'q,NePS. \\lalda and Shap~n~ ~I'IS2: );1131~ u.~ the I-{)UIV ca~-frame to represent t,o relerence f ~vhlch us ~hat ('\" us), hut, .~s I have suggested In RapaI~rt lt~84h. I:(J('l\\\" m~re prnpertv repre~ntx believed ct~ relerence--~A,'hl~.h Is '~'ltat (''= IS. It sht~uld he clear h,~ gu:~ the~rv can pnw~de a ~mantncs It)r 'qNeP%. Ilg. 7 \";ugge'~ls h~v. thus m~t, ht h~ done. %~nle pn~hlems remain, ho,x ever: in p.lrtlcular, the need t~ pn:,tde ,= SXeP ~, ~t~rrel,te lt}r mter hal predt~,at~t~n and the retlu~renlent ~1 explicating external predication In terms ~1 retatl~n~', like (\" . Note. h~, tha! nt~des m3. mS. and m8 in F!y. 7 ;ire 'structured illdl~.ldtl.~ls '\" -a ,~rt ~1 molecular h;~se nixie.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "CASTANIrDA'S THEORY.", |
| "sec_num": "7." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "It ~s p~,sthle rn provide a tully tntenslonal, nt)n-fx~,'~ahlew(~rlds ~malltlCS for ~NePS and similar ,~emanttc net~.v~rk f(wmal tsms. \"l he tnt~t strat~,htlttr~.vard way ,s h~ use ~,letmmg's thet~rv ~)l ohlects, though thus the~rv has tile dx.,,ad~antage ,~t not being f~,rmah/\u00a2d. There are several extant formal ~.|emon~lan theorte~ that can t~ u.sed, t|t~;u~h eaLh has L.ertaln dt~tdvantages or pn~hl~mr;. Two hnes ,ff ,e~earch are currently being inv,~;tlgate~d: (1) Take ~.Nel~F, as :s. and prnvide a nov,', formal Memonglan theory I',~r Its semanth.: ~~,u,'tdatl~)n. Thin has not been discussed here. hut the wav to do this sh~luid be clear: from the p~.s.slhtlittes examined ab~lve. My t~v,'n theory (strspped of Its exten~mnal IragmentJ ~)r a m(Cdl~;:il~n (~| (',istaRetia'y~ rllel~rv ~'enl tile me,st pronll~ln~ appn~:u.he~. {2~ Modnlv S~.eP% '~ that ~n~ ,,I the extant lormal \\lenn~;n~.)an ttl,t~rtc.s can ~ ,a~ used. S3,eP~ ~s, nn fact, ~.urrentIv |~nn[. m,~dlhed hv tile SNePS Research [intup-lor independent rea..-a,l'.S -'n v,'avN that make it cheer to ('.=,,talleda's guise theory, hv :he tnt.\"(xlUCtlon of structured mdt~,uduals--\"hase nodes\" with descending arcs for indicating their \"internal ~tructure\". ", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "g. CON(~L USION.", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "back_matter": [ |
| { |
| "text": "This research was supported in part by ~ilSN'I' Buifalo Research DeveJupment Fund grant ~150-9216-F. I am grateful to Stuart C'. Shapiro, Hc,~tor-Nen Ca.stallreda. and the members of the SNePS Research Group for comments and discussion.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
| ], |
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| "FIGREF0": { |
| "text": "Rapa~)rt and Shaptn~ 1984. Rapap(trt 198.1hL The ~tlt'.= =,, an ,lid one: Inheritance networks (Iqg. I), hke tht,se ~1 ()ulllti|II 1968. (,has feather~) An inheritance network.", |
| "num": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF1": { |
| "text": "Fig. 2. Porphyry's Tree: A mediaeval inheritance network.", |
| "num": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF2": { |
| "text": "is primarily a proposinamed \"John\" ha~ the proper~F of being rich.' tional network (see below), it can. however, als,) he used to represent the mherttabthtv of properties, e~ther hv explicit rules or by path-based inference(Shapiro lq781. It ctins~stx of labeled nodes and labeled, directed arcs satl~fwng (inter alia) the folh)wmg condition (of. Malda and Shapiro lq82):iS) There is a I-I ~orrespondence betv, een nodes and represented concepts.", |
| "num": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF3": { |
| "text": ": 2). lie mtrc~luces \"a domam I) ,,I i')()~.sible entitles, a non empty ,~t / ( . ,)l ~)~.Slble ~.or[ds), ,lnd .... l distinguished element w (~) I h) represent the real world\"(Isra\u00a2l Iq83: 3). ..\\n individu,d,',)ncept )s a lunc rlon ic : I ~ I). linch constant mdiv)dual %Nel)% node =~ m,N.leted hv an ic; variable mdl~)dual m~ies are handled hv \".~.~)gnments relative to such a model\", l[()~.c,.er, predicates--which, the reader should re,.all, are al.~) represented m %\\el)% hv t.~mr, tant mdlvlduat n(xJes~are modelled as lunctl,,)ns \"I r()m / tn!i~ the p()~.er set ol the set ol redly)dual Loncept~\" J)ror~),,)tlonal nt~Je,~ are mL,.ielled bv \"'functtons from / mto{Y . I'}.\"alth~)ugh Israel Icets th,~t. \"hvr~rmtens.mal'\" h,glc ~,,uld Ix~ needed m ,,rder t,, h.ndle proD,.~Uonal attitudes. Israet has dlthL.ultv mterpretln~ \\II!MIII'.R. ('I.AS%. ,,nd [SA arcs in this Irame~x'~)rk. \"l'hl~ is to be eM\"~.tcd for tx~,,, reasons. Ihr~r. i) is arguahtv a mistake to i~.terpret them (rather ~han g~,, mg rule~ lot them}, since they are arcs, hence arhttrarv and rainconceptual. Second, a pos.slhle-worlds semantics is not the best approach (nor ~s tt \"clear\" that this m what Ma=da and Shapiro had in mmd--indeed, they explicitly reject it: cf. Malda and Shapiro 1982: 2c)7}. Israel himself hints at the mapproprlatene.~ ol this approach: H\" one )s l'(~u.~ing on prop(~monal attitude{s} ... =t can seem hke a waste ol time to mtroduce m(Mel-the~ret)~, accounts()l'intens.)nahrv at all. Thus the air of de~F)erat)on alx~ut the loregomg attempt .... (Israel !O83: 5.) More~wer--and sigmficantlv--a possible-worlds approach ms misguided it' ,,ne wants to be able tn represent intpossible oh)errs..~r, ,,ne should want to it\" one ts doing natural-language semanttcs (Rapa-I~)rt 1\")78. 1981: Routlev 1979). A fully mtensmnal semantic network demands a :ullv mtenstonal semantics. The mare rival to klontague-stvle, p(,~,,~hle worlds semantics (as well as tt) ~ts close kin. '~ltUatlon sem~nllL% !lklr~.~.l'.:.e and Perry lq8311 ~.~ Meinot~iatt ~emonlics.", |
| "num": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF4": { |
| "text": "It is not self-contradictory to deny. nor tautologous to al'firm.existence of an object of thought.(M4) Thesis of Au~sersein: All objects of thought are ausserse/~nd (\"beyond being and non-being\").For present pur~Aussersein ts most easily explicated as a domain of quantification for non-existentially-loaded quanttfiers.required by (M2) and (M3).(MS) I!verv oblect of thought has properties (technically. \"Sosein\").(M6) Principle of Independence: (M2) and (MS) are not inconsistent. ( For more d,~'ux, c,on. if. Rapal~rt I984c.) ('atoll'dry: liven oblectx of thought that do not exist have properties. (M7) Principle of l\"teedom of Assumption : (a) I!verv set ol properties (S, asein) ci~rres(~mds ti~ ,in ~hlect ~fl\" thought. (b) livery oblet:t t~l thought can be thought ol (retatl'.e to certain \"perfornlance'\" IlnlltiltlonsL (x,18) ~me objects of Ihought are ,ncomplete (i.e.. undeternllned with respect t(a ,~lme prtIpertleSL (Mg) The meaning tal every ~ntence ;anti noun phrase Is an -hi~ct ~I thought. It should be obvious that there is a close relationship between Memong's theory and a rullv mtensnonat ~mantlc network hke %NePS. SNel)S it.'.,elf ts much hke .4usse~ein; %haplro (personal communication) has said that all nixies are :mpIncntlv m the network ,ill the ume. In particular, a SNePS base (i.e.. attempt constant) n(xJe represents an ohlectum, and a %NePS pr(q'x~ltn(mal nixie represents :in ,~hlt~tnve. Thus. when %NeP% ,s used as a mtx.lel ~,1 ,~ mind. pr(q'xxstttonal taxies represent the able, tires ol behels (d. Matda and ~hapnro 1982. Rapal'~rt and ~,hapiro 1984. Raparxwt !984b;; and When S\\-l )':, t,\u00a2 used xn a natural language pr(x:e~.,~ing system tcf. Shaptn) 1982. Rapal~)rt and %hapirn 1984). Lndivtdual nixies represent the meanmgs ill' noun phra~s and verb phrases, and pr(arx~slttonal taxies represent the meannng'~ (af sentences.Memong's theory wa.s attacked by llertrand Ru~setl tan gr, aunds of inconsistency: (1) According t(a Meinong, :he round square is boil: round and square (mdeed. this ,s a tautology); vet. according to Rus~ll. ~i\" ~t is r(aund, then ~t ~s not square. (2) %lm~larlv, the extsung .~{)lden mounuHn must ha;e .ill three of its definmg prtaperttes: benng a m(,untam, h~mv ~,,lden. and existing; but. as Russell re)ted. I: doest(t exu'~t. I('l. Rapapt~rt 1976('l. Rapapt~rt . 1978 It)r rel erences.)There have bee.n several I.rmahzatnons ,fl Melnonglan theories in recent philosophical literature, each of which overcomes these problems. In ~ul~,,quent ce~tnon.~ I briefly de.~rxbe three of these and show their relatmnshir~ to SNePS. (Others, not described }'.ere. includeRoutlev 1979----cf. Raparx~rt lqg4a--and Zalta 1983", |
| "num": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF5": { |
| "text": "['he M-object the round square. \u2022 R. A' \",. IS c,nstntuted bv pre-cn~ly two properties: being round ( R ) and being ~uare (S): \"The round square is round' is true m virtue of this. and 'The round ~uare ts not .~luare\" ts fal~ ,n virtue of it. But (R, S > exemplifies neither of thine pn)pertles, and 'The round ~quare ts not ~uare\" ts true In virtue of lhtll, i.e., 'I'~\" Is .imhl~UOUS. An ~'| tlhleCt o eXl..ls ill there is .n .ctu. I ,~hleCt tl th.t Is \"'\"kin-correlated'[l'\" c o \u2022 ,tex 1'\" 1. X, ole th.t tnct~nlplete oble~.ts, such am .Y. I'',. can ex,st. Ih~wever. the \\t-.hle\u00a2.-t the existing golden mountain. < E. (i. M >, has the property t,l exnstnng ( hecause 1:\" C , 1:'. (;, M >) hut does not exnst (because 3t~{t* S(7 \u2022 I:'. (;. M >]. as an empirical fat.t I.", |
| "num": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF6": { |
| "text": ".~. n in l:ig,~. 4 ,nil 5. Ir}le ,,\u00a2.,Lolid Lan }~' it,ceil t()d~.iud \"'('lark's", |
| "num": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF7": { |
| "text": "A SNePS repro~n~tion of \"The round square is round', 'The round square is square', and \"The round square is impossible' on Rapaport's theory. paradox\"; ',.ca. Rapalx,r! 1978. It~82.) ,-\\Ltual (i.e.. extensnonal) oh~cts, however, sht~uld nl~t be represented (~1, \\lalda and %hHplrl) 1982: 2t~h t,~). I'. the extent to which %uch ot)le~ts ;ire essential to this %|etnon~lan Iheorv. the present thei~rv Is r~r|lap~; an mapproprtate tree. (A similar remark holds, of course, l'or Mc('arthy 1979.)", |
| "num": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF8": { |
| "text": "An alternative SNePS repreuncation o\u00a3 'The round square is round', ~rhe round square is square', and \"Tho round square is impossible' on Rapaport\u00b0s theory.", |
| "num": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null |
| }, |
| "FIGREF9": { |
| "text": "Fig. 7. A SNePS representation o\u00a3 \"l'he Morning Star is the Evening Star' (m6) and 'The Morning Star is a planet' (m9) on Castaneda's theory.", |
| "num": null, |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null |
| } |
| } |
| } |
| } |
