| { |
| "paper_id": "W04-0302", |
| "header": { |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T06:50:13.957770Z" |
| }, |
| "title": "Stochastically Evaluating the Validity of Partial Parse Trees in Incremental Parsing", |
| "authors": [ |
| { |
| "first": "Yoshihide", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "Kato", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": { |
| "laboratory": "", |
| "institution": "Nagoya University", |
| "location": {} |
| }, |
| "email": "yosihide@gsid.nagoya-u.ac.jp" |
| }, |
| { |
| "first": "Shigeki", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "Matsubara", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": { |
| "laboratory": "", |
| "institution": "Aichi Prefectural University", |
| "location": { |
| "addrLine": "Chikusa-ku", |
| "postCode": "464-8601", |
| "settlement": "Nagoya", |
| "country": "Japan" |
| } |
| }, |
| "email": "" |
| }, |
| { |
| "first": "Yasuyoshi", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "Inagaki", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": {}, |
| "email": "" |
| } |
| ], |
| "year": "", |
| "venue": null, |
| "identifiers": {}, |
| "abstract": "This paper proposes a method for evaluating the validity of partial parse trees constructed in incremental parsing. Our method is based on stochastic incremental parsing, and it incrementally evaluates the validity for each partial parse tree on a wordby-word basis. In our method, incremental parser returns partial parse trees at the point where the validity for the partial parse tree becomes greater than a threshold. Our technique is effective for improving the accuracy of incremental parsing. 1. [t] X , where t is a terminal symbol and X is a nonterminal symbol.", |
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| "paper_id": "W04-0302", |
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| "abstract": [ |
| { |
| "text": "This paper proposes a method for evaluating the validity of partial parse trees constructed in incremental parsing. Our method is based on stochastic incremental parsing, and it incrementally evaluates the validity for each partial parse tree on a wordby-word basis. In our method, incremental parser returns partial parse trees at the point where the validity for the partial parse tree becomes greater than a threshold. Our technique is effective for improving the accuracy of incremental parsing. 1. [t] X , where t is a terminal symbol and X is a nonterminal symbol.", |
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| "section": "Abstract", |
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| "body_text": [ |
| { |
| "text": "Real-time spoken language processing systems, such as simultaneous machine interpretation systems, are required to quickly respond to users' utterances. To fulfill the requirement, the system needs to understand spoken language at least incrementally (Allen et al., 2001; Inagaki and Matsubara, 1995; Milward and Cooper, 1994) , that is, to analyze each input sentence from left to right and acquire the content.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 251, |
| "end": 271, |
| "text": "(Allen et al., 2001;", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF0" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 272, |
| "end": 300, |
| "text": "Inagaki and Matsubara, 1995;", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF6" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 301, |
| "end": 326, |
| "text": "Milward and Cooper, 1994)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF13" |
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| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Introduction", |
| "sec_num": "1" |
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| { |
| "text": "Several incremental parsing methods have been proposed to date (Costa et al., 2001; Haddock, 1987; Matsubara et al., 1997; Milward, 1995; Roark, 2001 ). These methods construct candidate partial parse trees for initial fragments of the input sentence on a word-by-word basis. However, these methods contain local ambiguity problems that partial parse trees representing valid syntactic relations can not be determined without using information from the rest of the input sentence.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 63, |
| "end": 83, |
| "text": "(Costa et al., 2001;", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF4" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 84, |
| "end": 98, |
| "text": "Haddock, 1987;", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 99, |
| "end": 122, |
| "text": "Matsubara et al., 1997;", |
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| { |
| "start": 123, |
| "end": 137, |
| "text": "Milward, 1995;", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF14" |
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| "start": 138, |
| "end": 149, |
| "text": "Roark, 2001", |
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| "section": "Introduction", |
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| "text": "On the other hand, Marcus proposed a method of deterministically constructing valid partial parse trees by looking ahead several words (Marcus, 1980) , while Kato et al. proposed an incremental parsing which delays the decision of valid partial parse trees (Kato et al., 2000) . However, it is hard to say that these methods realize broad-coverage incremental parsing. The method in the literature (Marcus, 1980 ) uses lookahead rules, which are constructed by hand, but it is not clear whether broad coverage lookahead rules can be obtained. The incremental parsing in the literature (Kato et al., 2000) , which is based on context free grammar, is infeasible to deal with large scale grammar, because the parser exhaustively searches all candidate partial parse trees in top-down fashion.", |
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| "start": 135, |
| "end": 149, |
| "text": "(Marcus, 1980)", |
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| { |
| "start": 158, |
| "end": 169, |
| "text": "Kato et al.", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| { |
| "start": 257, |
| "end": 276, |
| "text": "(Kato et al., 2000)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF8" |
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| "start": 398, |
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| "text": "(Marcus, 1980", |
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| "text": "(Kato et al., 2000)", |
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| "section": "Introduction", |
| "sec_num": "1" |
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| { |
| "text": "This paper proposes a probabilistic incremental parser which evaluates the validity of partial parse trees. Our method extracts a grammar from a treebank, and the incremental parsing uses a beamsearch strategy so that it realizes broad-coverage parsing. To resolve local ambiguity, the parser incrementally evaluates the validity of partial parse trees on a word-by-word basis, and delays the decision of which partial parse trees should be returned, until the validity for the partial parse tree becomes greater than a threshold. Our technique is effective for improving the accuracy of incremental parsing.", |
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| "section": "Introduction", |
| "sec_num": "1" |
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| "text": "This paper is organized as follows: The next section proposes a probabilistic incremental parser. Section 3 discusses the validity of partial parse tree constructed in incremental parsing. Section 4 proposes a method of incrementally evaluating the validity of partial parse tree. In section 5, we report an experimental evaluation of our method.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "section": "Introduction", |
| "sec_num": "1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Our incremental parsing is based on tree adjoining grammar (TAG) (Joshi, 1985) . This section proposes a TAG-based incremental parsing method.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 65, |
| "end": 78, |
| "text": "(Joshi, 1985)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF7" |
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| "section": "TAG-based Incremental Parsing", |
| "sec_num": "2" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Firstly, we propose incremental-parsing-oriented TAG (ITAG). An ITAG comprises two sets of elementary trees just like TAG: initial trees and auxiliary trees. The difference between ITAG and TAG is the form of elementary trees. Every ITAG initial tree is leftmost-expanded. A tree is leftmostexpanded if it is of the following forms: ", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TAG for Incremental Parsing", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "\u153d 1 \u153d 2 \u153d 5 \u153d 7 \u153d 8 \u153d", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
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| "section": "TAG for Incremental Parsing", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
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| { |
| "text": "\u153e 1 \u153e 2 NP DT NN a \u153d 6 JJ NP DT NN the \u153d 9 JJ VP VB found \u153d 4 Figure 1: Examples of ITAG elementary trees 2. [\u03c3X 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 X k ] X , where \u03c3 is a leftmost expanded tree, X 1 , . . . , X k , X are nonterminal symbols.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "section": "TAG for Incremental Parsing", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "On the other hand, every ITAG auxiliary tree is of the following form:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TAG for Incremental Parsing", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "[X * \u03c3X 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 X k ] X", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TAG for Incremental Parsing", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
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| { |
| "text": "where \u03c3 is a leftmost expanded tree and X, X 1 , . . . , X k are nonterminal symbols. X * is called a foot node. Figure 1 shows examples of ITAG elementary trees. These elemental trees can be combined by using two operations: substitution and adjunction.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 113, |
| "end": 121, |
| "text": "Figure 1", |
| "ref_id": null |
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| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TAG for Incremental Parsing", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "substitution The substitution operation replaces a leftmost nonterminal leaf of a partial parse tree \u03c3 with an initial tree \u03b1 having the same nonterminal symbol at its root. We write s \u03b1 for the operation of substituting \u03b1 and s \u03b1 (\u03c3) for the result of applying s \u03b1 to \u03c3.", |
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| "section": "TAG for Incremental Parsing", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "adjunction The adjunction operation splits a partial parse tree \u03c3 at a nonterminal node having no nonterminal leaf, and inserts an auxiliary tree \u03b2 having the same nonterminal symbol at its root. We write a \u03b2 for the operation of adjoining \u03b2 and a \u03b2 (\u03c3) for the result of applying a \u03b2 to \u03c3.", |
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| "section": "TAG for Incremental Parsing", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
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| "text": "The substitution operation is similar to rule expansion of top-down incremental parsing such as (Matsubara et al., 1997; Roark, 2001 ). Furthermore, by introducing the adjunction operation to incremental parsing, we can expect that local ambiguity of left-recursive structures is decreased (Lombardo and Sturt, 1997) .", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 96, |
| "end": 120, |
| "text": "(Matsubara et al., 1997;", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF12" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 121, |
| "end": 132, |
| "text": "Roark, 2001", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF16" |
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| { |
| "start": 290, |
| "end": 316, |
| "text": "(Lombardo and Sturt, 1997)", |
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| "section": "TAG for Incremental Parsing", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Our proposed incremental parsing is based on ITAG. When i-th word w i is scanned, the parser combines elementary trees for w i with partial parse trees for", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TAG for Incremental Parsing", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "w 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 w i\u22121 to construct the partial parse trees for w 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 w i\u22121 w i .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "section": "TAG for Incremental Parsing", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
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| { |
| "text": "As an example, let us consider incremental parsing of the following sentence by using ITAG shown in Figure 1 : I found a dime in the wood.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
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| "start": 100, |
| "end": 108, |
| "text": "Figure 1", |
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| ], |
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| "section": "TAG for Incremental Parsing", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
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| "text": "(1) Table 1 shows the process of tree construction for the sentence (1). When the word \"found\" is scanned, partial parse trees #3, #4 and #5 are constructed by applying substitution operations to partial parse tree #2 for the initial fragment \"I\". When the word \"in\" is scanned, partial parse trees #12 and #13 are constructed by applying adjunction operations to partial parse tree #10 for the initial fragment \"I found a dime\". This example shows that the ITAG based incremental parsing is capable of constructing partial parse trees of initial fragments for every word input.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
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| "start": 4, |
| "end": 11, |
| "text": "Table 1", |
| "ref_id": "TABREF1" |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TAG for Incremental Parsing", |
| "sec_num": "2.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Here, we propose a method for extracting an ITAG from a treebank to realize broad-coverage incremental parsing. Our method decomposes parse trees in treebank to obtain ITAG elementary trees. The decomposition is as follows:", |
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| "section": "ITAG Extraction from Treebank", |
| "sec_num": "2.2" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "\u2022 for each node \u03b7 1 having no left-sibling, if the parent \u03b7 p has the same nonterminal symbol as \u03b7 1 , split the parse tree at \u03b7 1 and \u03b7 p , and combine the upper tree and the lower tree. \u03b7 1 of intermediate tree is a foot node.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "ITAG Extraction from Treebank", |
| "sec_num": "2.2" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "\u2022 for each node \u03b7 2 having only one left-sibling, if the parent \u03b7 p does not have the same nonterminal symbol as the left-sibling \u03b7 1 of \u03b7 2 , split the parse tree at \u03b7 2 .", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "ITAG Extraction from Treebank", |
| "sec_num": "2.2" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "\u2022 for the other node \u03b7 in the parse tree, split the parse tree at \u03b7.", |
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| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "ITAG Extraction from Treebank", |
| "sec_num": "2.2" |
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| "text": "For example, The initial trees \u03b1 1 , \u03b1 2 , \u03b1 5 , \u03b1 7 \u03b1 8 and \u03b1 10 and the auxiliary tree \u03b2 2 are extracted from the parse tree #18 in Table 1 . Our proposed tree extraction is similar to the TAG extractions proposed in the literatures (Chen and Vijay-Shanker, 2000; Chiang, 2003; Xia, 1999) . The main difference between these methods is the position of nodes at which parse trees are split. While the methods in the literatures (Chen and Vijay-Shanker, 2000; Chiang, 2003; Xia, 1999) utilize a head percolation rule to split the parse trees at complement nodes, our method splits the parse trees ", |
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| { |
| "start": 235, |
| "end": 265, |
| "text": "(Chen and Vijay-Shanker, 2000;", |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 266, |
| "end": 279, |
| "text": "Chiang, 2003;", |
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| }, |
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| "start": 280, |
| "end": 290, |
| "text": "Xia, 1999)", |
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| }, |
| { |
| "start": 429, |
| "end": 459, |
| "text": "(Chen and Vijay-Shanker, 2000;", |
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| "start": 460, |
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| "text": "Chiang, 2003;", |
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| "start": 474, |
| "end": 484, |
| "text": "Xia, 1999)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF17" |
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| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 134, |
| "end": 141, |
| "text": "Table 1", |
| "ref_id": "TABREF1" |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "ITAG Extraction from Treebank", |
| "sec_num": "2.2" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This section describes probabilistic ITAG (PITAG) which is utilized by evaluating partial parse trees in incremental parsing. PITAG assigns a probability to the event that an elementary tree is combined by substitution or adjunction with another tree. We induce the probability by maximum likelihood estimation. Let \u03b1 be an initial tree and X be the root symbol of \u03b1. The probability that \u03b1 is substituted is calculated as follows:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Probabilistic ITAG", |
| "sec_num": "2.3" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "EQUATION", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 8, |
| "text": "EQUATION", |
| "ref_id": "EQREF", |
| "raw_str": "P (s \u03b1 ) = C(s \u03b1 ) \u03b1 \u2208I(X) C(s \u03b1 )", |
| "eq_num": "(2)" |
| } |
| ], |
| "section": "Probabilistic ITAG", |
| "sec_num": "2.3" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "where C(s \u03b1 ) is the count of the number of times of applying substitution s \u03b1 in the treebank, and I(X) is the set of initial trees whose root is labeled with X.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Probabilistic ITAG", |
| "sec_num": "2.3" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "1 For example, the tree extraction based on head information splits the parse tree #18 at the node labeled with dt to obtain the elementary tree [a] dt for \"a\". However, the tree [a] dt cannot be combined with the partial parse tree for \"I found\", since substitution node labeled with dt exists in the initial tree [dt[dime] nn ] np for \"dime\" and not the partial parse trees for \"I found\".", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Probabilistic ITAG", |
| "sec_num": "2.3" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Let \u03b2 be a auxiliary tree and X be the root symbol of \u03b2. The probability that \u03b2 is adjoined is calculated as follows:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Probabilistic ITAG", |
| "sec_num": "2.3" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "EQUATION", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 8, |
| "text": "EQUATION", |
| "ref_id": "EQREF", |
| "raw_str": "P (a \u03b2 ) = C(a \u03b2 ) C(X)", |
| "eq_num": "(3)" |
| } |
| ], |
| "section": "Probabilistic ITAG", |
| "sec_num": "2.3" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "where C(X) is the count of the number of occurrences of symbol X. The probability that adjunction is not applied is calculated as follows:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Probabilistic ITAG", |
| "sec_num": "2.3" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "EQUATION", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 8, |
| "text": "EQUATION", |
| "ref_id": "EQREF", |
| "raw_str": "P (nil X ) = 1 \u2212 \u03b2\u2208A(X) P (a \u03b2 )", |
| "eq_num": "(4)" |
| } |
| ], |
| "section": "Probabilistic ITAG", |
| "sec_num": "2.3" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "where nil X means that the adjunction is not applied to a node labeled with X, and A(X) is the set of all auxiliary trees whose root is labeled X. In this PITAG formalism, the probability that elementary trees are combined at each node depends only on the nonterminal symbol of that node 2 . The probability of a parse tree is calculated by the product of the probability of the operations which are used in construction of the parse tree. For example, the probability of each operation is given as shown in Table 2 . The probability of the partial parse tree #12, which is constructed by using s \u03b1 1 , s \u03b1 2 , s \u03b1 5 , s \u03b1 7 , nil N P and a \u03b2 2 , is 1 \u00d7 0.7 \u00d7 0.3 \u00d7 0.5 \u00d7 0.7 \u00d7 0.7 = 0.05145.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 508, |
| "end": 515, |
| "text": "Table 2", |
| "ref_id": "TABREF2" |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Probabilistic ITAG", |
| "sec_num": "2.3" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "We write P (\u03c3) for the probability of a partial parse tree \u03c3. ", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Probabilistic ITAG", |
| "sec_num": "2.3" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "1.0 s \u03b1 2 0.7 s \u03b1 7 , s \u03b1 10 0.5 s \u03b1 5 , s \u03b1 8 0.3 s \u03b1 4 , s \u03b1 6 , s \u03b1 9 0.2 s \u03b1 3 0.1 a \u03b2 1 0.3 a \u03b2 2 0.7 nil N P 0.7 nil V P 0.3", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Probabilistic ITAG", |
| "sec_num": "2.3" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In order to improve the efficiency of the parsing, we adapt two parsing strategies as follows:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Parsing Strategies", |
| "sec_num": "2.4" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "\u2022 If two partial parse trees have the same sequence of nodes to which ITAG operations are applicable, then the lower probability tree can be safely discarded.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Parsing Strategies", |
| "sec_num": "2.4" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "\u2022 The parser only keeps n-best partial parse trees.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Parsing Strategies", |
| "sec_num": "2.4" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "This section gives some definitions about the validity of a partial parse tree. Before describing the validity of a partial parse tree, we define the subsumption relation between partial parse trees.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Validity of Partial Parse Trees", |
| "sec_num": "3" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Definition 1 (subsumption relation) Let \u03c3 and \u03c4 be partial parse trees. Then we write \u03c3 \u00a3 \u03c4 , if s \u03b1 (\u03c3) = \u03c4 , for some initial tree \u03b1 or a \u03b2 (\u03c3) = \u03c4 , for some auxiliary tree \u03b2. Let \u00a3 * be the reflexive transitive closure of \u00a3. We say that \u03c3 subsumes \u03c4 , if \u03c3 \u00a3 * \u03c4 . P", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Validity of Partial Parse Trees", |
| "sec_num": "3" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "That \u03c3 subsumes \u03c4 means that \u03c4 is the result of applying a substitution or an adjunction to \u03c3. Figure 2 shows the subsumption relation between the partial parse trees constructed for the sentence (1). If a partial parse tree for an initial fragment represents a syntactic relation correctly, the partial parse tree subsumes the correct parse tree for the input sentence. We say that such a partial parse tree is valid. The validity of a partial parse tree is defined as follows: For example, assume that the #18 is correct parse tree for the sentence (1). Then partial parse tree #3 is valid for the sentence (1), because #3 \u00a3 * #18. On the other hand, partial parse tree #4 and #5 are not valid for (1). Figure 3 shows the valid partial parse trees for the sentence (1).", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 95, |
| "end": 103, |
| "text": "Figure 2", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 705, |
| "end": 713, |
| "text": "Figure 3", |
| "ref_id": "FIGREF1" |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Validity of Partial Parse Trees", |
| "sec_num": "3" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The validity of a partial parse tree for an initial fragment depends on the rest of the sentence. For example, the validity of the partial parse trees #3, #4 and #5 depends on the remaining input that follows the word \"found.\" This means that the validity dynamically varies for every word input. We define a conditional validity of partial parse tree:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Evaluating the Validity of Partial Parse Tree", |
| "sec_num": "4" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "EQUATION", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 8, |
| "text": "EQUATION", |
| "ref_id": "EQREF", |
| "raw_str": "V (\u03c3 | w 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 w j ) = \u03c4 \u2208Sub(\u03c3,w 1 \u2022\u2022\u2022w j ) P (\u03c4 ) \u03c4 \u2208T (w 1 \u2022\u2022\u2022w j ) P (\u03c4 )", |
| "eq_num": "(5)" |
| } |
| ], |
| "section": "Evaluating the Validity of Partial Parse Tree", |
| "sec_num": "4" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "where \u03c3 is a partial parse tree for an initial fragment", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Evaluating the Validity of Partial Parse Tree", |
| "sec_num": "4" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "w 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 w i (i \u2264 j), T (w 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 w j )", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Evaluating the Validity of Partial Parse Tree", |
| "sec_num": "4" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "is the set of constructed partial parse trees for the initial fragment", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Evaluating the Validity of Partial Parse Tree", |
| "sec_num": "4" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "w 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 w j and Sub(\u03c3, w 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 w j ) is the subset of T (w 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 w j )", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Evaluating the Validity of Partial Parse Tree", |
| "sec_num": "4" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "whose elements are subsumed by \u03c3. The equation 5represents the validity of \u03c3 on the condition w 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 w j . \u03c3 is valid for input sentence if and only if some partial parse tree for", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Evaluating the Validity of Partial Parse Tree", |
| "sec_num": "4" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "w 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 w j", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Evaluating the Validity of Partial Parse Tree", |
| "sec_num": "4" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "subsumed by \u03c3 is valid. The equation 5 is the ratio of such partial parse trees to the constructed partial parse trees.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Evaluating the Validity of Partial Parse Tree", |
| "sec_num": "4" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Kato et al. proposed a method of delaying the decision of which partial parse trees should be returned as the output, until the validity of partial parse trees are guaranteed (Kato et al., 2000) . The idea of delaying the decision of the output is interesting. However, delaying the decision until the validity are guaranteed may cause the loss of incrementality of the parsing.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 175, |
| "end": 194, |
| "text": "(Kato et al., 2000)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF8" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Output Partial Parse Trees", |
| "sec_num": "4.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "To solve the problem, in our method, the incremental parser returns high validity partial parse trees rather than validity guaranteed partial parse trees.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Output Partial Parse Trees", |
| "sec_num": "4.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "When the j-th word w j is scanned, our incremental parser returns the following partial parse:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Output Partial Parse Trees", |
| "sec_num": "4.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "EQUATION", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 8, |
| "text": "EQUATION", |
| "ref_id": "EQREF", |
| "raw_str": "argmax {\u03c3:V (\u03c3,w 1 \u2022\u2022\u2022w j )\u2265\u03b8} l(\u03c3)", |
| "eq_num": "(6)" |
| } |
| ], |
| "section": "Output Partial Parse Trees", |
| "sec_num": "4.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "where \u03b8 is a threshold between [0, 1] and l(\u03c3) is the length of the initial fragment which is yielded by \u03c3. The output partial parse tree is the one for the longest initial fragment in the partial parse trees whose validity are greater than a threshold \u03b8.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Output Partial Parse Trees", |
| "sec_num": "4.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Let us consider a parsing example for the sentence (1). We assume that the threshold \u03b8 = 0.8. Let us consider when the partial parse tree #3, which is valid for (1), is returned as output. When the word \"found\" is scanned, partial parse trees #3, #4 and #5 are constructed. That is, T (I found) = {#3, #4, #5}. As shown in Figure 2 , Sub(#3, I found) = {#3}. Furthermore, P (#3) = 0.7, P (#4) = 0.1 and P (#5) = 0.2. Therefore, V alidity(#3, I found) = 0.7/(0.7 + 0.1 + 0.2) = 0.7. Because V alidity(#3, I found) < \u03b8, partial parse tree #3 is not returned as the output at this point. The parser only keeps #3 as a candidate partial parse tree.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 323, |
| "end": 332, |
| "text": "Figure 2", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "An Example", |
| "sec_num": "4.2" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "When the next word \"a\" is scanned, partial parse trees #6, #7, #8 and #9 are constructed, where P (#6) = 0.21, P (#7) = 0.14, P (#8) = 0.03 and P (#9) = 0.02. Sub(#3, I found a) = {#6, #7}. Therefore, V alidity(#3, I found a) = (0.21 + 0.14)/(0.21+0.14+0.03+0.02) = 0.875. Because V alidity(#3, I found a) \u2265 \u03b8, partial parse tree #3 is returned as the output. Table 3 shows the output partial parse tree for every word input.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 360, |
| "end": 367, |
| "text": "Table 3", |
| "ref_id": "TABREF4" |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "An Example", |
| "sec_num": "4.2" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Our incremental parser delays the decision of the output as shown in this example. ", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "An Example", |
| "sec_num": "4.2" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "To evaluate the performance of our proposed method, we performed a parsing experiment. The parser was implemented in GNU Common Lisp on a Linux PC. In the experiment, the inputs of the incremental parser are POS sequences rather than word sequences. We used 47247 initial trees and 2931 auxiliary trees for the experiment. The elementary trees were extracted from the parse trees in sections 02-21 of the Wall Street Journal in Penn Treebank (Marcus et al., 1993) , which is transformed by using parent-child annotation and left factoring (Roark and Johnson, 1999) . We set the beam-width at 500. The labeled precision and recall of the parsing are 80.8% and 78.5%, respectively for the section 23 in Penn Treebank. We used the set of sentences for which the outputs of the incremental parser are identical to the correct parse trees in the Penn Treebank. The number of these sentences is 451. The average length of these sentences is 13.5 words.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 442, |
| "end": 463, |
| "text": "(Marcus et al., 1993)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF10" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 539, |
| "end": 564, |
| "text": "(Roark and Johnson, 1999)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF15" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Experimental Results", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "We measured the delays and the precisions for validity thresholds 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9 and 1.0.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Experimental Results", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "We define the degree of delay as follows: Let s = w 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 w n be an input sentence and o j (s) be the partial parse tree that is the output when the j-th word w j is scanned. We define the degree of delay when j-th word is scanned as follows:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Experimental Results", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "EQUATION", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 8, |
| "text": "EQUATION", |
| "ref_id": "EQREF", |
| "raw_str": "D(j, s) = j \u2212 l(o j (s))", |
| "eq_num": "(7)" |
| } |
| ], |
| "section": "Experimental Results", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "We define maximum delay D max (s) and average delay D ave (s) as follows:", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Experimental Results", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "EQUATION", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 0, |
| "end": 8, |
| "text": "EQUATION", |
| "ref_id": "EQREF", |
| "raw_str": "D max (s) = max 1\u2264j\u2264n D(j, s) (8) D ave (s) = 1 n n j=1 D(j, s)", |
| "eq_num": "(9)" |
| } |
| ], |
| "section": "Experimental Results", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The precision is defined as the percentage of valid partial parse trees in the output.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Experimental Results", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Moreover, we measured the precision of the parsing whose delay is always 0 and which returns the Table 4 : Precisions and delays precision(%) D max D ave \u03b8 = 1.0 100.0 11.9 6.4 \u03b8 = 0.9 97.3 7.5 2.9 \u03b8 = 0.8 95.4 6.4 2.2 \u03b8 = 0.7 92.5 5.5 1.8 \u03b8 = 0.6 88.4 4.5 1.3 \u03b8 = 0.5 83.0 3.4 0.9 baseline 73.6 0.0 0.0 Figure 4 : Relation between precision and delay partial parse tree having highest probability. We call it the parsing baseline. Table 4 shows the precisions and delays. Figure 4 illustrates the relation between the precisions and delays.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 97, |
| "end": 104, |
| "text": "Table 4", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 304, |
| "end": 312, |
| "text": "Figure 4", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 432, |
| "end": 439, |
| "text": "Table 4", |
| "ref_id": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 473, |
| "end": 482, |
| "text": "Figure 4", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Experimental Results", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "D max Q Q Q Q Q Q Q D ave \u00d7 \u00d7 \u00d7 \u00d7 \u00d7 \u00d7 \u00d7 baseline P P", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Experimental Results", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The experimental result demonstrates that there is a precision/delay trade-off. Our proposed method increases the precision in comparison with the baseline, while returning the output is delayed. When \u03b8 = 1, it is guaranteed that the output partial parse trees are valid, that is, our method is similar to the method in the literature (Kato et al., 2000) . In comparison with this case, our method when \u03b8 < 1 dramatically decreases the delay.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 335, |
| "end": 354, |
| "text": "(Kato et al., 2000)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF8" |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Experimental Results", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Although the result does not necessarily demonstrates that our method is the best one, it achieves both high-accuracy and short-delay to a certain extent.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Experimental Results", |
| "sec_num": "5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In this paper, we have proposed a method of evaluating the validity that a partial parse tree constructed in incremental parsing becomes valid. The method is based on probabilistic incremental parsing. When a word is scanned, the method incrementally calculates the validity for each partial parse tree and re-turns the partial parse tree whose validity is greater than a threshold. Our method delays the decision of which partial parse tree should be returned.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Concluding Remarks", |
| "sec_num": "6" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "To evaluate the performance of our method, we conducted a parsing experiment using the Penn Treebank. The experimental result shows that our method improves the accuracy of incremental parsing.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Concluding Remarks", |
| "sec_num": "6" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The experiment demonstrated a precision/delay trade-off. To evaluate overall performance of incremental parsing, we would like to investigate a single measure into which delay and precision are combined.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Concluding Remarks", |
| "sec_num": "6" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The PITAG formalism corresponds to SLG(1) in the literature(Carroll and Weir, 2003).", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "back_matter": [ |
| { |
| "text": "This work is partially supported by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research of the Ministry of Education, Science, Sports and Culture, Japan (No. 15300044), and The Tatematsu Foundation.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Acknowledgement", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
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| "FIGREF1": { |
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| "text": "Valid partial parse trees", |
| "type_str": "figure" |
| }, |
| "TABREF1": { |
| "text": "Incremental parsing process of \"I found a dime in the wood.\" prp ] np vp] s found 3 [[[I] prp ] np [[f ound] vb np] vp ] s prp ] np [[f ound] vb [[a] dt nn] np ] vp ] s 7 [[[I] prp ] np [[f ound] vb [[a] dt jj nn] np ] vp ] s 8 [[[I] prp ] np [[f ound] vb [[a] dt nn] np adjp] vp ] s 9 [[[I] prp ] np [[f ound] vb [[a] dt jj nn] np adjp] vp ] s dime 10 [[[I]prp]np[[f ound] vb [[a] dt [dime]nn]np]vp]s 11 [[[I]prp]np[[f ound] vb [[a] dt [dime]nn]npadjp]vp]s in 12 [[[I] prp ] np [[[f ound] vb [[a] dt [dime] nn ] np ] vp [[in] in np] pp ] vp ] s 13 [[[I] prp ] np [[f ound] vb [[[a] dt [dime] nn ] np [[in] in np] pp ] np ] vp ] s", |
| "html": null, |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>word</td><td>#</td><td>partial parse tree</td></tr><tr><td/><td>1</td><td>s</td></tr><tr><td>I</td><td colspan=\"2\">2 [[[I] 4 [[[I]prp]np[[f ound] vb np adjp]vp]s</td></tr><tr><td/><td>5</td><td>[[[I]prp]np[[f ound] vb ]vp]s</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"3\">a [[[I] the 6 14 [[[I]prp]np[[[f ound] vb [[a] dt [dime]nn]np]vp[[in]in[[the] dt nn]np]pp]vp]s</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"2\">15 [[[I]prp]np[[[f ound] vb [[a] dt [dime]nn]np]vp[[in]in[[the] dt jj nn]np]pp]vp]s</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"2\">16 [[[I]prp]np[[f ound] vb [[[a] dt [dime]nn]np[[in]in[[the] dt nn]np]pp]np]vp]s</td></tr><tr><td/><td colspan=\"2\">17 [[[I]</td></tr></table>", |
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| "TABREF2": { |
| "text": "Probability of operations", |
| "html": null, |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>operation</td><td>probability</td></tr><tr><td>s \u03b1 1</td><td/></tr></table>", |
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| "text": "Let \u03c3 be a partial parse tree and w 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 w n be an input sentence. We say that \u03c3 is valid for w 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 w n if \u03c3 subsumes the correct parse tree for w 1 \u2022 \u2022 \u2022 w n .", |
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| "content": "<table><tr><td>I</td><td/><td>found a</td><td>dime</td><td>in</td><td>the</td><td colspan=\"2\">wood</td></tr><tr><td>#1</td><td>#2</td><td>#3</td><td>#6</td><td>#10</td><td>#12</td><td>#14</td><td>#18</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>#7</td><td/><td/><td>#15</td><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>#4</td><td>#8</td><td>#11</td><td>#13</td><td>#16</td><td>#19</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>#9</td><td/><td/><td>#17</td><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>#5</td><td/><td/><td colspan=\"3\">subsumption relation</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"8\">Figure 2: Subsumption relation between partial</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">parse trees</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr><tr><td>I</td><td colspan=\"2\">found a</td><td>dime</td><td>in</td><td>the</td><td colspan=\"2\">wood</td></tr><tr><td>#1</td><td>#2</td><td>#3</td><td>#6</td><td>#10</td><td>#12</td><td>#14</td><td>#18</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>#7</td><td/><td/><td>#15</td><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>#4</td><td>#8</td><td>#11</td><td>#13</td><td>#16</td><td>#19</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td>#9</td><td/><td/><td>#17</td><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>#5</td><td/><td/><td colspan=\"3\">subsumption relation</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td colspan=\"3\">valid partial parse tree</td></tr><tr><td>P</td><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/><td/></tr></table>", |
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| "content": "<table><tr><td/><td>Output partial parse trees</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">input word output partial parse tree</td></tr><tr><td>I</td><td>#2</td></tr><tr><td>found</td><td/></tr><tr><td>a</td><td>#3</td></tr><tr><td>dime</td><td>#10</td></tr><tr><td>in</td><td>#12</td></tr><tr><td>the</td><td/></tr><tr><td>wood</td><td>#18</td></tr></table>", |
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