Base_JSON/prefixW/json/W13/W13-0120.json

{
    "paper_id": "W13-0120",
    "header": {
        "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0",
        "date_generated": "2023-01-19T04:56:03.667844Z"
    },
    "title": "Regular Meaning Shifts in German Particle Verbs: A Case Study",
    "authors": [
        {
            "first": "Sylvia",
            "middle": [],
            "last": "Springorum",
            "suffix": "",
            "affiliation": {
                "laboratory": "",
                "institution": "Sprachverarbeitung Universit\u00e4t Stuttgart",
                "location": {}
            },
            "email": ""
        },
        {
            "first": "Jason",
            "middle": [],
            "last": "Utt",
            "suffix": "",
            "affiliation": {
                "laboratory": "",
                "institution": "Sprachverarbeitung Universit\u00e4t Stuttgart",
                "location": {}
            },
            "email": ""
        },
        {
            "first": "Sabine",
            "middle": [],
            "last": "Schulte",
            "suffix": "",
            "affiliation": {
                "laboratory": "",
                "institution": "Sprachverarbeitung Universit\u00e4t Stuttgart",
                "location": {}
            },
            "email": ""
        }
    ],
    "year": "",
    "venue": null,
    "identifiers": {},
    "abstract": "This paper provides a corpus-based study on German particle verbs. We hypothesize that there are regular mechanisms in meaning shifts of a base verb in combination with a particle that do not only apply to the individual verb, but across a semantically coherent set of verbs. For example, the syntactically similar base verbs brummen 'hum' and donnern 'rumble' both describe an irritating, displeasing loud sound. Combined with the particle auf, they result in near-synonyms roughly meaning 'forcefully assigning a task' (in one of their senses). Covering 6 base verb groups and 3 particles with 4 particle meanings, we demonstrate that corpus-based information on the verbs' subcategorization frames plus conceptual properties of the nominal complements is a sufficient basis for defining such meaning shifts. While the paper is considerably more extensive than earlier related work, we view it as a case study toward a more automatic approach to identify and formalize meaning shifts in German particle verbs. with BVs bellen, kl\u00e4ffen, pissen, schei\u00dfen 3. auf: \"negative social pressure\" BV {loud/heavy pressure} + PM {vert. contact} \u2192 PV {negative social pressure} with BVs brummen, b\u00fcrden, donnern, lasten, zw\u00e4ngen 4. auf: \"initialization of perceivables (vision & emotion)\" BV {bright, vision} + PM {sudden, initial}\u2192 PV {initialization of visual perceivable} with BVs flammen, glimmen, gl\u00fchen, lodern 5. auf: \"intensification of perceivables (emotion)\" BV {int. caused motion} + PM {sudden, initial} \u2192 PV {intensification of emotions} with BVs brausen, brodeln, kochen, schaukeln, wallen 6. ab: \"successive task completion\" BV {repetitive, sound} + PM {mereol. reduction}\u2192 PV {successive task completion} with BVs klappern, rattern, stottern",
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        "paper_id": "W13-0120",
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        "abstract": [
            {
                "text": "This paper provides a corpus-based study on German particle verbs. We hypothesize that there are regular mechanisms in meaning shifts of a base verb in combination with a particle that do not only apply to the individual verb, but across a semantically coherent set of verbs. For example, the syntactically similar base verbs brummen 'hum' and donnern 'rumble' both describe an irritating, displeasing loud sound. Combined with the particle auf, they result in near-synonyms roughly meaning 'forcefully assigning a task' (in one of their senses). Covering 6 base verb groups and 3 particles with 4 particle meanings, we demonstrate that corpus-based information on the verbs' subcategorization frames plus conceptual properties of the nominal complements is a sufficient basis for defining such meaning shifts. While the paper is considerably more extensive than earlier related work, we view it as a case study toward a more automatic approach to identify and formalize meaning shifts in German particle verbs. with BVs bellen, kl\u00e4ffen, pissen, schei\u00dfen 3. auf: \"negative social pressure\" BV {loud/heavy pressure} + PM {vert. contact} \u2192 PV {negative social pressure} with BVs brummen, b\u00fcrden, donnern, lasten, zw\u00e4ngen 4. auf: \"initialization of perceivables (vision & emotion)\" BV {bright, vision} + PM {sudden, initial}\u2192 PV {initialization of visual perceivable} with BVs flammen, glimmen, gl\u00fchen, lodern 5. auf: \"intensification of perceivables (emotion)\" BV {int. caused motion} + PM {sudden, initial} \u2192 PV {intensification of emotions} with BVs brausen, brodeln, kochen, schaukeln, wallen 6. ab: \"successive task completion\" BV {repetitive, sound} + PM {mereol. reduction}\u2192 PV {successive task completion} with BVs klappern, rattern, stottern",
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                "section": "Abstract",
                "sec_num": null
            }
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            {
                "text": "Our focus of interest is on German particle verbs. We hypothesize that there are regular mechanisms that trigger a meaning shift of a base verb (such as brummen 'hum') in combination with a particle (such as auf, in this case referring to a contact relation) that do not only apply to the individual verb, but across a semantically coherent set of verbs. For example, donnern 'rumble' agrees with brummen in properties at the syntax-semantic interface in that both verbs are intransitive, and both describe an irritating, displeasing loud sound that the typically non-agentive, non-living subject produces. In addition, the resulting particle verbs aufbrummen and aufdonnern are near-synonyms, roughly meaning 'forcefully assigning a task' (in one of their senses). Furthermore, they agree in properties at the syntax-semantic interface in that both verbs (again, in one of their senses) are ditransitive, with an agentive subject imposing something on another person.",
                "cite_spans": [],
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                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "1"
            },
            {
                "text": "The example demonstrates that a coherent set of base verbs in combination with a particle meaning 1 may result in a coherent set of particle verbs. Equation (1) illustrates this pattern: a base verb BV with properties pBV i in combination with a particle with meaning PM results in a particle verb PV with properties pP V j .",
                "cite_spans": [],
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                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "1"
            },
            {
                "text": "(1) BV {pBV 1 , pBV 2 , ..., pBV n } + PM",
                "cite_spans": [],
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                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "1"
            },
            {
                "text": "\u2192 PV {pP V 1 , pP V 2 , ..., pP V m }",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "1"
            },
            {
                "text": "The goal of this paper is to demonstrate that we can find such regular meaning shifts across semantically coherent verb groups and across particle meanings by using a property selection process. Our work is corpus-based, i.e., we identify coherent verb groups and particle meanings on the basis of large-scale corpus data. The empirical data is used to describe the base verbs as well as the particle verbs with regard to common properties at the syntax-semantic interface. Covering 6 base verb groups with 3 particles and 4 particle meanings, we consider this paper as considerably more extensive than earlier related work, but at the same time we view it as a case study toward an even more extensive, and also more automatically driven identification of meaning shifts in particle verbs. We therefore combine the corpus-based analyses with advice on future elaborations, mainly with regard to applying approaches of regular polysemy.",
                "cite_spans": [],
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                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "1"
            },
            {
                "text": "The paper is organized as follows. Section 2 presents related work. Section 3 represents the core of the paper: We describe our corpus-based acquisition method, the empirical behavior for each of our BV-PV groups, and regularities in the meaning shift. In Section 4, we generalize over the concrete patterns in meaning shift, discuss elaborations of the existing method, and hypothesize about a more automatic approach to identifying and formalizing meaning shifts in German particle verbs.",
                "cite_spans": [],
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                "section": "Introduction",
                "sec_num": "1"
            },
            {
                "text": "Previous work on meaning shifts of semantically coherent groups of verbs has shown that there are regularities at the syntax-semantic interface with regard to the literal vs. transferred meanings of the verbs. For example, Morgan (1997) uses schematic diagrams to illustrate the meaning shifts of particle verb constructions with English out. She claims that the source domain in a shift is systematically determined by the base verb, and the particle meanings are instantiated by cognitive image schemas. Ibarretxe-Antu\u00f1ano (1999) describes systematic non-prototypical meanings of perception verbs cross-linguistically for English, Spanish, and Basque. She investigates the meaning shifts on the basis of corpus examples and introspection.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 223,
                        "end": 236,
                        "text": "Morgan (1997)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF15"
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Related Work",
                "sec_num": "2"
            },
            {
                "text": "Given that there is substantial theoretical evidence for regular patterns in verb meaning shifts, it is surprising that-to our knowledge-no empirical, corpus-based work so far has applied approaches of regular polysemy to a large, coherent group of verbs. On the one hand, there has been an impressive increase in empirical work on modeling meaning shifts in recent years (mostly with regard to metonymy and metaphor). For example, Stefanowitsch and Gries (2006) edited a volume on corpusbased approaches and Markert and Nissim (2007) provided a shared task for metonymy resolution at SemEval 2007. On the other hand, the research has, in general, been restricted to small groups of target items. For example, the shared task by Markert and Nissim (2007) comprised only locations and organizations; L\u00f6nneker-Rodman (2008) describes the working environment and result of developing the Hamburg Metaphor Database, comprising a respectable framework that, up to now, covers few targets and less than 2,000 annotated sentences. Work by Birke (2005) provided an extensive automatic detection of non-literal use of English verbs in context, but did not specifically look at regular shifts in meanings across multiple verbs.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 509,
                        "end": 534,
                        "text": "Markert and Nissim (2007)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF14"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 729,
                        "end": 754,
                        "text": "Markert and Nissim (2007)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF14"
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                        "start": 1032,
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                        "text": "Birke (2005)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF1"
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                ],
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                "section": "Related Work",
                "sec_num": "2"
            },
            {
                "text": "Our strategy to identify meaning shifts in BV-PV transfer is as follows. We searched our corpus for examples of base verbs and particle verbs, concentrating on one specific particle at a time. As corpus data, we rely on the SDEWAC corpus (Faa\u00df et al., 2010) , a cleaned version of the German web corpus DEWAC created by the WACKY group (Baroni et al., 2009) . The SDEWAC contains approximately 880 million tokens and has been parsed by Bohnet's MATE dependency parser (Bohnet, 2010) . The information we used for our search was effectively verb subcategorization information that had been extracted and quantified automatically from the corpus parses. That is, for each verb (including BVs as well as PVs), we have quantitative information about how often the verb appeared with a specific subcategorization frame, and how often and which nominal complements appeared within the frames.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 238,
                        "end": 257,
                        "text": "(Faa\u00df et al., 2010)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF6"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 336,
                        "end": 357,
                        "text": "(Baroni et al., 2009)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF0"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 468,
                        "end": 482,
                        "text": "(Bohnet, 2010)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF2"
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Corpus-based Acquisition of Base and Particle Verb Groups with a Meaning Shift",
                "sec_num": "3"
            },
            {
                "text": "In a first step, we searched the subcategorization database for all occurrences of particle verbs with a specific particle (such as auf ), the particle verbs' subcategorization frames, and the nominal fillers of the various verb complements in the frames. In parallel, we searched for the same information with regard to all base verbs that combine with that particle. We focused on the empirically strongest subcategorization frames, and on the most dominant nominal complements, where empirical strength was determined by Local Mutual Information (LMI), cf. Evert (2005) .",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 560,
                        "end": 572,
                        "text": "Evert (2005)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF5"
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Corpus-based Acquisition of Base and Particle Verb Groups with a Meaning Shift",
                "sec_num": "3"
            },
            {
                "text": "On the basis of the parallel data on subcategorization frames and nominal complements for base verbs and for particle verbs, we then manually identified semantically coherent groups of base verbs and the respective particle verbs which showed regularities with regard to a meaning shift. For each of the regular meaning shifts that we identified, the following subsections present the corpus data on the base verbs and the particle verbs, and a description of the meaning shift. The corpus data is provided in tables capturing the following information:",
                "cite_spans": [],
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                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Corpus-based Acquisition of Base and Particle Verb Groups with a Meaning Shift",
                "sec_num": "3"
            },
            {
                "text": "\u2022 the base/particle verbs in the respective verb group, identified via a particular particle meaning;",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Corpus-based Acquisition of Base and Particle Verb Groups with a Meaning Shift",
                "sec_num": "3"
            },
            {
                "text": "\u2022 the predominant subcategorization frame that is relevant for the meaning shift;",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Corpus-based Acquisition of Base and Particle Verb Groups with a Meaning Shift",
                "sec_num": "3"
            },
            {
                "text": "\u2022 one illustrative example complement per literal and shifted sense, within a relevant slot for the meaning shift;",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Corpus-based Acquisition of Base and Particle Verb Groups with a Meaning Shift",
                "sec_num": "3"
            },
            {
                "text": "\u2022 the strongest connotations, and",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Corpus-based Acquisition of Base and Particle Verb Groups with a Meaning Shift",
                "sec_num": "3"
            },
            {
                "text": "\u2022 the concepts that play a role in the meaning shift.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Corpus-based Acquisition of Base and Particle Verb Groups with a Meaning Shift",
                "sec_num": "3"
            },
            {
                "text": "Concerning base verb and particle verb senses, note that many of the verbs are ambiguous. Our analyses focus on those senses that are relevant for the meaning shift, i.e., we only refer to the subcategorization and conceptual information with regard to (a) the base verb sense that undergoes the meaning shift, (b) the literal meaning of the particle verb in relation to the base verb, if there is any, and (c) the particle verb sense that represents the respective meaning shift. For example, we find (a) Die Sonne strahlt 'The sun is shining' as a base verb example, with (b) a literal particle verb extension Die Sonne strahlt das Gebirge an 'The sun shines on the mountains' and with (c) a meaning shift in Die Frau strahlt den Mann an 'The woman smiles at the man'.",
                "cite_spans": [],
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                "section": "Corpus-based Acquisition of Base and Particle Verb Groups with a Meaning Shift",
                "sec_num": "3"
            },
            {
                "text": "The German verb particle an has one very prominent meaning (among others), where it ascribes a direction to the verb complement realized as its direct object. All PVs with this meaning of an are transitive, and combining this an with communication verbs such as sprechen 'talk' or schreiben 'write' is productive.",
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                "section": "an: Emotional Communication",
                "sec_num": "3.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "However, there are PVs such as anstrahlen in Example (3) that can also be characterized as directed communication verbs, but the BVs do not themselves carry a communication meaning, cf. Example (1). The sun (as well as other intransitive subjects of the base verb strahlen which occurred in the data) does not communicate through shining. So there must be an additional extended particle reading which includes communication semantics to get a shift from a literal PV meaning, as exemplified in Example (2), which describes a directed shining event of the uplighter toward the ceiling, to a metaphorical PV meaning with a directed communication action between two persons, cf. Example (3). In this example, the girl has an intention to smile in the direction of the grumpy person and therefore she must also expect him to be a potential experiencer. Compare *'He smiled at the chair', which is odd. While there are many other verbs that describe the manner in which an object may shine, it is necessary for the verb to allow for a directed communication reading: One could assume that verbs such as glitzern 'glitter' and gl\u00e4nzen 'gleam' which are similar to funkeln 'twinkle' also allow such a reading, however, these verbs denote the reflection of light instead of emission, i.e. the object itself is the light source. The verb scheinen 'shine' is a near-synonym of strahlen 'beam'/'shine', while the latter suggests directed communication, the former does not necessarily.",
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                "section": "an: Emotional Communication",
                "sec_num": "3.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "(1) Die Sonne strahlt. 'The sun is shining.'",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "an: Emotional Communication",
                "sec_num": "3.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "(2) Der Deckenfluter strahlt den Deckenbereich an. 'The uplighter shines at the ceiling area.'",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "an: Emotional Communication",
                "sec_num": "3.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "(3) Das M\u00e4dchen strahlt den Obermuffel an. ' The girl smiles at the grumpy person.'",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "an: Emotional Communication",
                "sec_num": "3.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "There are four different categories of non-communication BVs with such a shift to communication PVs. They can be sub-divided into two groups, one with a positive connotation as in Tables 1 & 2 , and one with a negative connotation as in Tables 3 & 4 It is striking that positively connoted BVs are all perceivable by vision, either because of the brightness ('beam', 'twinkle') or because of a facial expression ('smile', 'grin'), and lead to a positive communication reading in Table 2 . The negatively connoted BVs are either sound-related or refer to animal sounds ('bark', 'growl') that are frightening or bear an acoustic intensity, cf. Table 3 . In contrast, the PV anzwitschern, derived from the rather quiet and non-threatening BV zwitschern ('tweet') does not exist in this communication reading, because it is missing the negative connotation. 2 These observations are in line with Ibarretxe-Antu\u00f1ano (1999) , who claims that auditory as well as olfactory perception often comes with a negative connotation, since these senses can be overloaded. This is not the case for the visual sense, which can easily be regulated and effectively 'shut off'. Furthermore, there are negative communication PVs which are not derived by sounds, but by vulgar expressions like 'shit' or 'piss', with an inherent negative polarity, cf. Table 3 . Taking the non-vulgar synonym pinkeln 'tinkle' for pissen results in the odd PV anpinkeln, which cannot be readily interpreted except literal. So again, the missing negative connotation excludes the PV from the meaning shift. The BV subjects in the negative cases are mostly animals, whereas the subjects and also the objects in the corresponding PVs are persons (e.g., Gegner 'opponent', Fan 'fan') if the reading is metaphorical, cf. Table 4 . In the literal meaning of, for example, anbellen 'bark at', the subject is a dog and we can find also inanimate objects such as Mond 'moon' as objects. ",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 892,
                        "end": 917,
                        "text": "Ibarretxe-Antu\u00f1ano (1999)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF8"
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                ],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 180,
                        "end": 192,
                        "text": "Tables 1 & 2",
                        "ref_id": "TABREF1"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 237,
                        "end": 249,
                        "text": "Tables 3 & 4",
                        "ref_id": "TABREF5"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 479,
                        "end": 486,
                        "text": "Table 2",
                        "ref_id": "TABREF3"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 642,
                        "end": 649,
                        "text": "Table 3",
                        "ref_id": "TABREF5"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 1329,
                        "end": 1336,
                        "text": "Table 3",
                        "ref_id": "TABREF5"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 1775,
                        "end": 1782,
                        "text": "Table 4",
                        "ref_id": "TABREF6"
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "an: Emotional Communication",
                "sec_num": "3.1"
            },
            {
                "text": "We now investigate a meaning shift in PVs with the particle auf that have a social pressure reading. The BVs which belong to this group (cf. Table 5 ) are on the one hand force verbs which bring about a state that would not come about on its own, e.g., zw\u00e4ngen 'pressure/wedge' or lasten 'charge/weight'. On the other hand, there are the verbs brummen 'hum' and donnern 'rumble' which describe a heavy and intense sound. Their complements are affected with a heavy sound in the literal meaning ('skull', 'cannon') and with heavy activity in a metaphorical meaning ('business'). The complements of zw\u00e4ngen all indicate a literal meaning (cf. Example 5), whereas lasten has direct objects that indicate a literal (Gewicht 'weight') and a less literal (Verantwortung 'responsibility') meaning. Table 5 : Base verbs that combine with auf to mean transfer of negative social pressure.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 141,
                        "end": 148,
                        "text": "Table 5",
                        "ref_id": null
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                        "start": 791,
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                        "text": "Table 5",
                        "ref_id": null
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                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "auf : Social Pressure",
                "sec_num": "3.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "Combining these verbs with the social pressure triggered by auf, we only find abstract objects such as Risiko 'risk', Strafe 'penalty', etc. (cf. Table 6 ). Thus we have a meaning shift from an interpretation mostly ascribed to the physical domain to an interpretation within an abstract social domain.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 146,
                        "end": 153,
                        "text": "Table 6",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "auf : Social Pressure",
                "sec_num": "3.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "The fact that the verbs *aufquetschen and aufschieben do not have this reading shows that there must be another constraint. In comparison to the previous BVs, quetschen 'squeeze' suggests equally opposed forces and schieben 'push' one single moving force. The verbs zw\u00e4ngen, b\u00fcrden and lasten all imply power inequality with some kind of resistance (e.g. non-compliance if it is a person or inertial/spatial opposition otherwise). In light of this, we can compare the social pressure meaning with the support meaning of auf. In both cases we have the concept that something is above something else. In Example (6), with its abstract social pressure reading, Maria bears a more powerful social position and thus is, metaphorically speaking, above her friends. Here, the equivalent of contact is expressed in her friends being the supporter because they have to carry the abstract pressure of the will of somebody else. However, the sound verbs are not restricted to the power inequality constraint; instead, only the semantics of something heavy being involved plays a role. The non-existence of auf together with summen 'sum', which sounds similar to brummen (but with higher sound frequencies and therefore not as heavy) is evidence for this assumption. Similarly, such loud sounds as those denoted by krachen ('crash') and knallen ('bang') lack a clear presence of a long, low-frequency sound. By contrast, while not present in the standard German dictionary Duden 3 , the heavy sound of dr\u00f6hnen ('drone'), gives rise to aufdr\u00f6hnen, which is attested on the web:",
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                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "auf : Social Pressure",
                "sec_num": "3.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "(4) Gehen wir einmal davon aus, Ihnen wird kein Fahrtenbuch aufgedr\u00f6hnt, um den privaten Nutzungsanteil nachzuweisen. 'Let's assume you are not forced to keep a driver's logbook in order to account for private use.'",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "auf : Social Pressure",
                "sec_num": "3.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "The social pressure meaning as in Example (7) can only come from auf. The shift occurs here from being a sound verb to a verb describing somebody exerting negative social force upon somebody else.",
                "cite_spans": [],
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                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "auf : Social Pressure",
                "sec_num": "3.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "(5) Der Fahrer zw\u00e4ngt den Bus in eine kleine Parkl\u00fccke. 'The driver wedges the bus in a small parking space.' ",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "auf : Social Pressure",
                "sec_num": "3.2"
            },
            {
                "text": "The second reading of PVs with auf we take into account describes a transient change in which something suddenly appears and usually shortly after disappears. In Example (8), it is Micha's cry which abruptly appears and shortly afterwards becomes silent. Table 6 : Transfer of negative social pressure particle verbs with auf.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 255,
                        "end": 262,
                        "text": "Table 6",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "auf : Initialization/Intensification of Visual Perceivables",
                "sec_num": "3.3"
            },
            {
                "text": "(8) Als Micha das Buch auf den Fu\u00df fiel, schrie er auf. 'Micha let out a cry when the book fell on his foot.' Table 7 groups BVs that are intransitive and visually perceivable.The subjects can thereby be seen as the source of the perceivable impulse, e.g. a lamp or a star. In some cases this visually perceivable source optionally produces heat like in Example (9). Other subjects we found in this context are blaze, spark, flame, light, etc. Such stimuli can grow in intensity very quickly. Therefore we can already find some non-literal usages in the BVs describing an intense emotion like hate, however only with flammen and lodern (the heat-related verbs). intrans Feuer 'fire' intense, bright Table 7 : Base verbs that combine with auf to mean initialization/intensification of visual perceivable.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 110,
                        "end": 117,
                        "text": "Table 7",
                        "ref_id": null
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 699,
                        "end": 706,
                        "text": "Table 7",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "auf : Initialization/Intensification of Visual Perceivables",
                "sec_num": "3.3"
            },
            {
                "text": "Combining these BVs with the particle auf, the metaphorical meaning turns out to be prominent. This is consistent with the characteristics of emotions which can appear and disappear very quickly. Comparing something like anger with a heat source is very common and captured in Lakoff et al.'s (2005) INTENSE EMOTIONS ARE HEAT conceptual metaphor. Therefore the parallel usage sharing one PV is not surprising. The only difference between the literal Example (10) and the non-literal Example (11) is that the perceived heat belongs to another domain. Other examples of emotion subjects are Hoffnungsschimmer, 'glimpse of hope', Mitleid 'pity' and Debatte 'debate', which is not an emotion, but in context of the auf -verb it refers to an intense discussion which involves emotions. In summary, we can say that both light and heat in these verbs seems to be central. While there is a wide class of BVs that allow for such a meaning shift (including most verbs applicable to light coming from a fire, e.g., flackern 'glint'), we find counterexamples where such an emotional metaphorical meaning is not present: aufleuchten 'light up', aufblinken 'flash', auffunkeln 'twinkle', aufglitzern '(suddenly) glitter'-all of which do not necessitate a notion of heat. It seems the 'light' property, as opposed to 'heat', is more involved in the perception and cognition domain (cf. the conceptual metaphors IDEAS ARE LIGHT SOURCES, UNDERSTANDING IS SEEING). The mental enlightenment is more a process than a sudden appearance which explains the incompatibility with this particle meaning.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 277,
                        "end": 299,
                        "text": "Lakoff et al.'s (2005)",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "auf : Initialization/Intensification of Visual Perceivables",
                "sec_num": "3.3"
            },
            {
                "text": "A completely different class of base verbs leads to the same reading of a quick increase in intensity as the 'flare up' verbs. These are verbs which describe internally caused processes, such as brausen Table 8 : Initialization/intensification of perceivable particle verbs with auf.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 203,
                        "end": 210,
                        "text": "Table 8",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "auf : Intensification/Initialization of Emotion",
                "sec_num": "3.4"
            },
            {
                "text": "'roar', kochen 'boil' which denote a forceful movement, cf. Examples (12,13). The force involved can be physical (e.g., schaukeln 'swing') but can also be conceptualized as emotional, as in the metaphorical meaning in Example 14: All such 'forceful movement' BVs have an intransitive frame that has as subject in the literal sense (a) the entity being moved (e.g., Schiff 'ship'), or (b) a mass which is in motion (e.g., Wasser 'water'). The metaphorical reading can involve strong emotions (Blut 'blood'), intense activity (Verkehr 'traffic'), or both (Ger\u00fcchtek\u00fcche 'rumor mill'); the activity in the latter is also showing up in the term for those involved in spreading rumors, namely 'busybodies'. Wasser 'water' / Wut 'anger' emotion Table 10 : Initialization/intensification of emotions particle verbs with auf.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 739,
                        "end": 747,
                        "text": "Table 10",
                        "ref_id": "TABREF1"
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "auf : Intensification/Initialization of Emotion",
                "sec_num": "3.4"
            },
            {
                "text": "(",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "auf : Intensification/Initialization of Emotion",
                "sec_num": "3.4"
            },
            {
                "text": "The shared property between the visual BV group and these motion verbs is that heat is understood to be conceptually linked to emotions (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980) . The contribution of auf in this context is a notion of surging up, i.e., things are coming from below (hidden) to the surface (perceivable). These are terms that are commonly used to describe emotions, when they cannot be perceived (i.e., when they are not intense enough), they are 'hidden'. If they grow in intensity, they are said to 'surface' (Gef\u00fchle aufw\u00fchlen 'churn up feelings'). It is worth noting that aufschaukeln gives rise to a 'discussion' image, as it describes a constant to and fro between two opposing sides.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 136,
                        "end": 162,
                        "text": "(Lakoff and Johnson, 1980)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF12"
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "auf : Intensification/Initialization of Emotion",
                "sec_num": "3.4"
            },
            {
                "text": "The compositional reading is dispreferred, since it is not typical to have both a back and forth and an upwards motion combined. As expected, base verbs that describe a subsiding of motion (e.g., flachen 'flatten', ebben 'ebb', sinken 'sink') combined with the particle expressing the opposite of this auf reading (i.e., ab), give exactly the opposite meaning, namely to lessen, abate, diminish; both in a physical as well as emotional sense.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "auf : Intensification/Initialization of Emotion",
                "sec_num": "3.4"
            },
            {
                "text": "Although it is not attested in the corpus, there exists the same metaphor in German and English Das bringt mich zum Kochen 'It makes my blood boil', of an intense emotion-in this case, fury-being conceptualized as something seething within the experiencer.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "auf : Intensification/Initialization of Emotion",
                "sec_num": "3.4"
            },
            {
                "text": "One of the multiple meanings of the particle ab involves the concept of a sequence of similar actions leading to the completion of a complex task. Kliche (2011) terms this the 'mereological reduction' sense of ab. On the one hand, this meaning can come from verbs that generally entail some form of work (e.g., arbeiten 'work', leisten 'perform'). On the other hand, there are verbs that suggest the actual event structure of the chain of sub-tasks being completed. Table 11 : Base verbs that combine with ab to mean successive task completion.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 147,
                        "end": 160,
                        "text": "Kliche (2011)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF9"
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 466,
                        "end": 474,
                        "text": "Table 11",
                        "ref_id": "TABREF1"
                    }
                ],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "ab: Successive Tasks",
                "sec_num": "3.5"
            },
            {
                "text": "This can arise when (a) the actions are performed on an area that is successively covered along the event chain (e.g., grasen 'graze', k\u00e4mmen 'comb', suchen 'search'); or (b) when the verb that is combined with ab suggests a mass that diminishes progressively due to the performed action until it is completely gone (e.g., abbezahlen, abstottern 'pay off'). The successive character of the mereological reduction sense is thus already inherently present in these verbs. Interestingly enough, it is sufficient for the mereological reduction ab to be available that only the event structure itself to be conveyed, even without the concept of work being present in the base verb. In our everyday experience, the rapid succession of similar short events can give rise to a particular repetitive acoustic pattern, which is captured in the onomatopoetic verbs: klappern/rattern 'clatter' and stottern 'stutter'. These verbs combined with ab then give the expected reading, namely a chain of similar actions being performed. However, this does not work with semelfactive sound verbs like klicken 'klick' or ticken, even if they can provide a repetitive reading by multiplying the single verb events. The verbs in this class are iterative and cannot be interpreted as semelfactive.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "ab: Successive Tasks",
                "sec_num": "3.5"
            },
            {
                "text": "It is clear that the acoustic signal lends itself to a mapping to the event structure, since both are organized linearly in time. This also explains the inaccessibility of the same meaning for a visual signal, since there is no straightforward mapping of the visual field to the time axis. The only counterexample of a visual mereological reduction verb that we are aware of is absuchen 'scan'; which suggests a linear process of visual perception; e.g., along a linear path through a room, or via the linear searching through a telescope or magnifying glass.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "ab: Successive Tasks",
                "sec_num": "3.5"
            },
            {
                "text": "The analyses were performed across several semantically coherent groups of verbs. We demonstrated that corpus-based information on the verbs' subcategorization frames and nominal complements (combined with intuitions about generalizations of the noun complements) is a sufficient basis for defining BV-PV meaning shifts. We thus confirmed our initial hypothesis that there are regular mechanisms with regard to the syntax-semantic interface that trigger a meaning shift of a base verb in combination with a particle meaning and that do not only apply to the individual verb but across a semantically coherent set of verbs. The identified meaning shift classes are effectively larger than those presented in the tables in Section 3 because the classes are productive. Relying on the productivity, we could easily enlarge our meaning shift classes with new members (which will be discussed below).",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "ab: Successive Tasks",
                "sec_num": "3.5"
            },
            {
                "text": "We briefly summarize the main findings from our analyses, with regard to the BV, PV and particle properties: (i) There is a very strong agreement across verbs (both BVs and PVs) within a meaning shift class with regard to the subcategorization frame types. This is a very impressive indicator for semantically coherent groups, where we had expected more diversity. (ii) Even restricting the nominal complements to only the 10-20 most strongly LMI-based associated types is a sufficient basis for investigating the conceptual properties that determine the respective slot. (iii) To our knowledge, a new aspect to meaning shifts in (German) particle verbs has been discovered: We found that particles actually adopt meaning aspects from the base verbs they combine with. For example, the particle an in meaning shift classes 1 and 2 a priori refers to a direction meaning. However, it obviously incorporates meaning aspects from communication base verbs that it typically combines with (when no meaning shift is involved), such as ansprechen 'speak to' and anreden 'address someone'. As a result, the particle meaning within the particle verbs in classes 1 and 2 contributes meaning aspects of direction as well as communication. To go deeper into this issue, future work will investigate the diachronic development of particle roots with regard to the particle meanings.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "ab: Successive Tasks",
                "sec_num": "3.5"
            },
            {
                "text": "Our strategy can easily be replicated for another BV-PV data set in German or other languages, given that parsed corpus data is available. In addition, there are easy extensions to the strategy that however make the identification and factors of meaning shifts more objective: (i) co-occurrence of the BVs and PVs with particular adverbs should be useful as indicators of meaning shifts, as they are expected to agree across the respective base and particle verbs but might be different between the literal and shifted meanings of the particle verbs. (ii) Similarly, we expect 2nd-order co-occurrence adjectives, i.e., those adjectives that modify the nominal complements of the verbs (Schulte im Walde, 2010), to be useful indicators of the kinds of connotations we so far collected manually. For example, concerning meaning shift class 4 above, strong adjectival modifiers of both Feuer 'fire' and Flamme 'flame' are ewig 'eternal' lodernd 'blazing', and offen 'open', while strong adjectival modifiers of both Konflikt 'conflict' and Diskussion 'discussion' are aktuell 'current', politisch 'political', and weit 'wide'. (iii) Instead of subjective definitions of conceptual generalizations over nominal complements, one could apply GermaNet (Kunze, 2000) , the German pendant to WordNet (Fellbaum, 1998) . For example, both Feuer 'fire' and Flamme 'flame' are generalized to Ereignis 'event' by GermaNet on level 3 (starting from the top node level) and to Ph\u00e4nomen 'phenomenon' on level 4, while both Konflikt 'conflict' and Diskussion 'discussion' are generalized to Kommunikation 'communication' and Gespr\u00e4ch 'conversation' on levels 3 and 4, respectively. (iv) A simple way to enlarge meaning shift classes is by looking up synonyms of the base and/or particle verbs in dictionaries. For example, Bulitta and Bulitta (2003) defines aufdr\u00e4ngen, aufn\u00f6tigen, and aufoktroyieren as near-synonyms to aufzw\u00e4ngen, so we could check whether these three particle verbs fall into meaning shift class 3.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 1245,
                        "end": 1258,
                        "text": "(Kunze, 2000)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF10"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 1291,
                        "end": 1307,
                        "text": "(Fellbaum, 1998)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF7"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 1805,
                        "end": 1831,
                        "text": "Bulitta and Bulitta (2003)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF4"
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "ab: Successive Tasks",
                "sec_num": "3.5"
            },
            {
                "text": "A long-term goal of our work is to extend it toward a more automatically driven identification of meaning shifts in particle verbs. Three examples of approaches that are potentially useful to complement our corpus-based search are the following: Reisinger and Mooney (2010) presented a multiprototype vector-space model that discriminates multiple senses of a word by clustering contexts, an idea adopted from Sch\u00fctze (1998) . We could reduce their \"contexts\" to the crucial information about the BV and PV properties we identified, i.e., subcategorization frame types and concept properties, possibly refined by further meaning aspects as suggested above. The framework would then allow us to determine the similarity between the \"contexts\" of base verbs and particle verbs, and thus to identify the semantically coherent groups of base verbs as well as literal meanings of particle verbs with regard to their base verbs. To do this we could use a clustering approach similar to Reisinger and Mooney (2010) . Birke (2005) also relied on clustering to discover literal and non-literal uses of English verbs in context. However, while her approach required a manually labeled set, we could envision an automatic detection of literality as done by Turney et al. (2011) . Boleda et al. (2012) presented an approach to regular polysemy where meta-alternations capture regularities in meaning shifts. In a first step, the meta-alternations are instantiated by monosemous words exhibiting the respective meaning shift. In a second step, the meta-alternations are used to predict a meaning shift for a new item. With regard to our research, a meta-alternation should capture the BV and PV properties of a certain meaning shift. As in Boleda et al. (2012) , we would instantiate the meta-alternations through monosemous base and particle verbs. For a new BV-PV pair, we could then predict the (non-)existence of the meaning shift by comparing the pair's conceptual properties to the properties of the meta-alternation. Note that this approach requires prior knowledge about some seed BV-PV pairs and their meaning shifts.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 410,
                        "end": 424,
                        "text": "Sch\u00fctze (1998)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF18"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 980,
                        "end": 1007,
                        "text": "Reisinger and Mooney (2010)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF16"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 1010,
                        "end": 1022,
                        "text": "Birke (2005)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF1"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 1246,
                        "end": 1266,
                        "text": "Turney et al. (2011)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF20"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 1269,
                        "end": 1289,
                        "text": "Boleda et al. (2012)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF3"
                    },
                    {
                        "start": 1727,
                        "end": 1747,
                        "text": "Boleda et al. (2012)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF3"
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "ab: Successive Tasks",
                "sec_num": "3.5"
            },
            {
                "text": "Last but not least, a major challenge in the automation of our work is in distinguishing between BV and PV verb polysemy vs. meaning shift. That is, most computational approaches such as Reisinger and Mooney (2010) will provide us with knowledge about the various meanings of the base and/or particle verbs. However, we not only want to detect different senses (e.g., the particle verb abnehmen has several senses with overlapping subcategorization properties that all but one differ from the literal meaning), but in addition which of the senses is a meaning shift, and why. Our goals are more addressed by the Boleda et al. (2012) approach, which however requires manual work in the outset.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 612,
                        "end": 632,
                        "text": "Boleda et al. (2012)",
                        "ref_id": "BIBREF3"
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "ab: Successive Tasks",
                "sec_num": "3.5"
            },
            {
                "text": "Note that particles in German particle verbs are in general highly ambiguous.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "Nowadays, it can have a special communication reading because of the social web service Twitter.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "http://www.duden.de",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "",
                "sec_num": null
            }
        ],
        "back_matter": [
            {
                "text": "We are thankful for the very fruitful discussions with Antje Ro\u00dfdeutscher and Alessandra Zarcone as well as for the helpful suggestions made by the reviewers. The work has been supported by the DFG, with the SFB 732 funding Jason Utt and Sylvia Springorum, and the DFG Heisenberg Fellowship SCHU-2580/1-1 funding Sabine Schulte im Walde.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Acknowledgements",
                "sec_num": "5"
            }
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        "ref_entries": {
            "FIGREF0": {
                "type_str": "figure",
                "num": null,
                "uris": null,
                "text": "Maria zw\u00e4ngt ihren Freunden ihren Willen auf. 'Maria imposes her will on her friends.' (7) Der Richter hat dem Einbrecher eine gerechte Strafe aufgebrummt. 'The judge inflicted a justified punishment on the burglar.'"
            },
            "FIGREF1": {
                "type_str": "figure",
                "num": null,
                "uris": null,
                "text": "Das Feuer flammt. 'The fire flames.' (10) Das Feuer flammt auf. 'The fire flared up.' (11) Die Debatte flammt auf. 'The debate flared up.'"
            },
            "FIGREF2": {
                "type_str": "figure",
                "num": null,
                "uris": null,
                "text": "12) Der Sturm braust. 'The storm is roaring.' (13) Der Sturm braust auf. 'The storm is roaring up.' (14) Der Jubel braust auf. 'The cheering is roaring up.'"
            },
            "TABREF0": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "table",
                "html": null,
                "text": ".",
                "content": "<table><tr><td>verbs</td><td colspan=\"2\">frames complements</td><td>connotations</td><td>properties</td></tr><tr><td>strahlen 'beam'</td><td>intrans</td><td>Sonne 'sun' / Auge 'eye'</td><td>bright, warm</td><td>light</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">funkeln 'twinkle' intrans</td><td colspan=\"2\">Sternlein 'little star' / Auge 'eye' pleasing, valuable</td><td>emission</td></tr><tr><td>l\u00e4cheln 'smile'</td><td>intrans</td><td>M\u00e4dchen 'girl'</td><td>happy, friendly</td><td>positive</td></tr><tr><td>grinsen 'grin'</td><td>intrans</td><td>Freund 'friend'</td><td>expression</td><td>emotion</td></tr></table>"
            },
            "TABREF1": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "table",
                "html": null,
                "text": "",
                "content": "<table/>"
            },
            "TABREF3": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "table",
                "html": null,
                "text": "Positive directed communication particle verbs with an.",
                "content": "<table/>"
            },
            "TABREF5": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "table",
                "html": null,
                "text": "Base verbs that combine with an to mean negative directed communication.",
                "content": "<table><tr><td>verb</td><td colspan=\"2\">frame complements</td><td>connotations</td><td>properties</td></tr><tr><td>anbellen 'bark at'</td><td>trans</td><td>Mond 'moon'</td><td>negative,</td><td/></tr><tr><td/><td/><td colspan=\"2\">Gutachter 'surveyor' intense,</td><td>neg. directed</td></tr><tr><td>ankl\u00e4ffen 'yap at'</td><td>trans</td><td>Gegner 'opponent'</td><td>aggressive,</td><td>communication</td></tr><tr><td>anpissen 'irritate'</td><td>trans</td><td>Fan 'fan'</td><td>vulgar</td><td/></tr><tr><td>anschei\u00dfen 'pester'</td><td>trans</td><td>Bulle 'cop'</td><td/><td/></tr></table>"
            },
            "TABREF6": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "table",
                "html": null,
                "text": "Negative directed communication particle verbs with an.",
                "content": "<table/>"
            },
            "TABREF8": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "table",
                "html": null,
                "text": "aufbrummen 'force s.o. to do s.th.' ditrans Strafe 'penalty' strenuous aufdonnern 'force s.o. to do s.th.' ditrans -",
                "content": "<table><tr><td>verbs</td><td colspan=\"2\">frames complements</td><td colspan=\"2\">connotations properties</td></tr><tr><td>aufzw\u00e4ngen 'impose on'</td><td>ditrans</td><td>Wille 'will'</td><td>negative</td><td/></tr><tr><td>aufb\u00fcrden 'impose on'</td><td>ditrans</td><td>Schuld 'blame/debt'</td><td>pressure,</td><td>negative</td></tr><tr><td>auflasten 'impose on'</td><td>ditrans</td><td colspan=\"2\">Verantwortung 'responsibility' burden,</td><td>social</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td/><td/><td>pressure</td></tr></table>"
            },
            "TABREF12": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "table",
                "html": null,
                "text": "Base verbs that combine with auf to mean initialization/intensification of emotions.",
                "content": "<table><tr><td>verbs</td><td colspan=\"2\">frames complements</td><td>connotations</td><td>properties</td></tr><tr><td>aufschaukeln 'build up'</td><td>intrans</td><td>Papierboot 'paper boat'</td><td>to and fro,</td></tr><tr><td/><td/><td>Konflikt 'conflict'</td><td>intense</td></tr><tr><td>aufwallen 'surge up' aufbrausen 'flare up'</td><td>intrans intrans</td><td colspan=\"2\">Staub 'dust' / Zorn 'fury' Sturm 'storm' / Jubel 'cheering' strong motion,</td><td>intensification</td></tr><tr><td>aufbrodeln 'bubble up'</td><td>intrans</td><td>Milch 'milk' / Hass 'hate'</td><td>negative</td></tr><tr><td colspan=\"2\">aufkochen '(bring to a) boil' intrans</td><td/><td/></tr></table>"
            },
            "TABREF15": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "table",
                "html": null,
                "text": "Successive task completion particle verbs with ab.",
                "content": "<table/>"
            }
        }
    }
}