Base_JSON/prefixW/json/W79/W79-0113.json

{
    "paper_id": "W79-0113",
    "header": {
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        "date_generated": "2023-01-19T06:44:14.635530Z"
    },
    "title": "",
    "authors": [],
    "year": "",
    "venue": null,
    "identifiers": {},
    "abstract": "AUTOMATISK LEMMATISERING UTAN STAMLEXIKON N\u00e5gra synpunkter tio \u00e5r efter\u00e5t En tillbakablick F\u00f6r precis tio \u00e5r sedan, h\u00f6sten 1969, genomf\u00f6rdes det f\u00f6rsta stora leiranatiseringsarbetet vid Spr\u00e5kdata. Det var den bearbetning som",
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        "paper_id": "W79-0113",
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        "abstract": [
            {
                "text": "AUTOMATISK LEMMATISERING UTAN STAMLEXIKON N\u00e5gra synpunkter tio \u00e5r efter\u00e5t En tillbakablick F\u00f6r precis tio \u00e5r sedan, h\u00f6sten 1969, genomf\u00f6rdes det f\u00f6rsta stora leiranatiseringsarbetet vid Spr\u00e5kdata. Det var den bearbetning som",
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                "section": "Abstract",
                "sec_num": null
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        "body_text": [
            {
                "text": "Computerized Lemmatization without the Use of a Dictionary: A Case Study from Swedish Lexicology",
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                "text": "J_^emniatizatjon, i.e., the bringing together of the inflectional forms (and variant forms) of a word under one heading, is one of the problems when making a frequency dictionary out of a large text corpus with the aid of a computer. Attempts have generally gone in the direction of confronting the material with an ordinary dictionary, presupposing that this dictionary would have an entry for practically every form in the corpus. This may be true for some texts, e.g., the classical ones, but it is definitely not true for a newspaper text corpus in a language like Swedish, which not only shows brand-new loan-words but is abundant in compounds of the more or less casual sort that will never appear in ordinary dictionaries. So the task we undertook in 1969-70 at the Research Group for Modern Swedish, University of G\u00f6teborg, was to lenunatize automatically about 112,000 different word forms without direct access to any existing dictionary. Homographs had been previously separated with the aid of a K W ic-index (the original number of different graphic words was about 103,000), a fact which meant that about one-third of the forms had been assigned grammatical information (word class and, roughly, gender or conjugation).'",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Staffan Hellberg",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "As Swedish contains no inflectional prefixes, the procedure can operate with an alphabetically sorted version of the material. The computer passes through that version, successively grouping the forms into lemmas and printing them out, so that the whole lemmatization can be checked manually afterwards.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
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                "section": "Staffan Hellberg",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "The program tests the first form in the projected lenuna against the ones following alphabetically, one at a time, providing they have not already been included in a previously finished lemma. As soon as a form appears which is not identical with the first form as far as the stem of the latter goes, the testing is stopped and the lemma finished. The form that heads the remainder of forms alphabetically is then chosen as the first form of the next lemma, and the procedure is repeated. Computen and the Humanities/Vol. 6, No. 4/March 1972 The \"stem\" of a lemma thus had to be defined as the part of the word that was identical in all its inflectional forms. The remnants of the forms were called \"endings.\" Obviously, these definitions don't altogether coincide with the usual linguistic ones: the word titel, 'title,* plural titbr, for instance, got the stem titand the endings -el,-lar, etc., though linguistically, the stem should rather be tilland the plural ending -cr. An index was set up of those graphic sequences that might be endings in regular paradigms.^ Lexical regularity proved not to be the same thing as grammatical regularity; for instance, an irregular noun occurring as the latter element in many compounds had to be taken account of. The word man 'man,' plural m\u00e4n, is as irregubr as in English, but it appeared in over 1 SO compounds in the corpus, e.g., adelsman, 'nobleman,' plural adelsm\u00e4n, and so a paradigm -an, -\u00e4n, etc. was established. In all, S3 different paradigms were made the basis of the index, which contained 98 different endings. The flgures give a somewhat exaggerated idea of the complexity of Swedish morphology, as one linguistic paradigm often had to be split into two or more paradigms here: compare titel, titbr (above) with the endings -el, -br, etc. to stol, 'chair,' plural stobr with the endings -o, -or, etc.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 506,
                        "end": 541,
                        "text": "Humanities/Vol. 6, No. 4/March 1972",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Staffan Hellberg",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "For two forms to be brought into the same lermna, they were required to have an identical stem and compatible endings, i.e., such as could belong to the same paradigm. Whether the identity actually covered the whole stem was decided by checking whether the remnants of the forms were possible endings. So the index here served two purposes: to identify the latter parts of the forms as endings, and to give access to what was called the alpha-list, where for each ending the endings compatible with it were stored. But for the former procedure to function properly, it was necessary that every graph or graphic sequence Y which could not itself be an ending but which had a counterpart X Y that was a possible ending appear in the index, where it was stored as a pseudo-ending with an empty alpha-row. An example is the final -/ which didn't occur in any paradigm, while the sequence -el did (see titel, titbr above). In all, 14 pseudo-endings were required.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Staffan Hellberg",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "If the alpha test gave a negative result, it was repeated with the rightmost graph (roughly: letter) of the stem brought over to the endings, provided, of course, that these new endings were to be found in the index at all. But once a shorter stem had been recognized by a successful test of that kind, it was not allowed to be lengthened again as a result of a comparison with yet another form, because that would mean an obvious mixing of two paradigms.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Staffan Hellberg",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "The index served its third purpose when giving entry to the so-called beta-list, where the possible grammatical labels were given for each ending. The beta-list was consulted when one of the tested forms, or both, was a homograph and thus \"marked\" for grammatical category, and so a number of wrong lemmatizations could be prevented through the demand for grammatical compatibility. The beta-list was also used in the subprogram of automatic attributing of head forms and grammatical labels to all the lemmas, which will not be reported here.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Staffan Hellberg",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "The main course of the procedure is shown in the flow chart. Several improvements were suggested by our programmer, Rolf Gavare, who wrote the program in DATASAAB/ALGOL-GENIUS and DAC.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Staffan Hellberg",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "Some measures were taken to compress the lists. One of these made use of the structure of the Swedish inflectional system, where the ending -s plays a unique role. It always occupies the last position in the form, and it can be added to practically every form of nouns, adjectives, and verbs, having either a genitive or a passive function. If all those s-variants of the endings had been accounted for in the normal way, it would have meant nearly a doubling of the index and a considerable enlarging of the alpha-list. ",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Staffan Hellberg",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "Instead, all forms ending with an -s were treated as if the -s wasn't there, except those where the -s belonged to the stem and which could be readily sorted out, as they were homographs intemaUy with their own genitives and thus had a special \"marking.\"",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Figure 1",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "There were also quite a few ad h o c measures taken to obtain a better result, as several minor defects could be foreseen during the construction of the lists and by scrutinizing the result of test computations. Some of the measures simply meant omitting Computers and the Humanities/Vol. 6, No. 4jMarch 1972 an item from one of the lists, thereby repladng a number of wrong lemmatizations by a smaller number of missing correct ones. A measure of a different kind worth mentioning was the rearrangement of the alphabetically ordered material so that out of two homographs, one noun and one verb, the verb was placed before the noun. That saved a fair number of lemmas from going wrong.",
                "cite_spans": [
                    {
                        "start": 273,
                        "end": 308,
                        "text": "Humanities/Vol. 6, No. 4jMarch 1972",
                        "ref_id": null
                    }
                ],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Figure 1",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "The lemmatization yielded about 71,000 letmnas in all. The figure reveals that a large number of lemmas appeared in only one form. These lemmas did not cause any special troubles to the program, as a projected lemma could often be fmi^ed after its first form had been compared to-and shown too little similarity to-its nearest neighbor in the alphabetical order. A different subprogram had to be designed, though, for the attribution of head forms and grammatical labels (see above), as the beta-list gave no information in this case, where no boundary between stem and ending had been definitely established.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Figure 1",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "Though the v^ole corpus was treated in the manner now described, not all lemmas could, of course, be made to come out conectly from the computer. The program would have been hopelessly dow and complex if it had had to account for strong verbs, regular though they might be. There were also very rare paradigms that would have done more harm than good if they had been brought into the lists. In fact, the accomplished wrong lemmatizations are more notable than the missing correct ones. Not all clashes could be prevented by the above-mentioned ad hoc measures. And as the material also contained foreign words occurring in the newspaper corpus, there appeared a number of ridiculous lemmas, such as the one consisting of (English)/air and (French)/aire.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Figure 1",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "The manual check of the computer output showed that 3.S percent of the forms were in the wrong i^ce and had to be moved. As this check was done with relative ease, the lemmatization program may well be said to have saved us from a considerable amount of dull routine work. Still, it could be asked whether the automatic procedure has actually been optimized. The number of wrong lemmatizations indicates that the alpha-list didn't have a sufficient discriminating function. This is actually natural for Swedish, where some sequences are very common as endings in different functions: the ending -er, for instance, occurs in 12 paradigms and is compatible with 29 other endings.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Figure 1",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "In dosing, I wfll give a brief account of an alternative solution that I outlined after the computing of our material had been accomplished. In this solution, the ideas of alphabetical procedure and of an index of possible endings are taken over from the system used. But the alpha-and beta-lists are replaced by what could be called the gamma-list. That is, for each ending information is now given about which paradigms this ending can occur in, the paradigms having numbers from 1 to S3. For two forms to be brought together, it is now required that they have an identical stem and at least one paradigm number in common. If the common number or numbers are stored, a third form can be tested against them, and that means that any new tentative form wfll be tested against all the previously accepted forms in the lemma, which wasn't possible in the system used.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Figure 1",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "The beta-list is made superfluousby the grammatical labels being brought into the index and assigned paradigm numbers. So when two forms are tested, one of which is a homograph, it is required that at least one number occur three times in the gamma-list: with the two endings and with the grammatical label.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Figure 1",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "Most of the measures taken to improve the system used can be kept, as for instance the special treatment of forms ending in inflectional -s. Though the alternative solution hasn't been tested on the material, it seems fairly clear that it would have surpassed the one we chose. Of 12 different kinds of clashes that had been registered before the new system was developed, seven would have been avoided. What this would mean in figures is harder to guess. A reduction of the number of wrong lemmatizations by one-half is perhaps a somewhat too optimistic estimation.",
                "cite_spans": [],
                "ref_spans": [],
                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "Figure 1",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "Proceedings of NODALIDA 1979",
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                "eq_spans": [],
                "section": "132",
                "sec_num": null
            },
            {
                "text": "Proceedings of NODALIDA 1979",
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                "section": "",
                "sec_num": null
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            "FIGREF0": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "kom att bilda grundmaterialet till Nusvensk frekvensordbok 2. Tv\u00e5 \u00e5r senare gjordes en lemmatisering av Svenska psalmboken, med of\u00f6r\u00e4ndrad programvara men med lite andra f\u00f6ruts\u00e4ttningar, vilket jag skall \u00e5terkomma till. Trots att s\u00e5v\u00e4l datortekniken som de datalingvistiska metoderna utvecklats starkt under de \u00e5r som g\u00e5tt, har erfarenheterna fr\u00e5n det n\u00e4mnda projektet fortfarande stor ak tualitet. Jag skall f\u00f6rst belysa n\u00e5gra av de speciella omst\u00e4ndig heter som g\u00e4llde vid de b\u00e5da n\u00e4mnda k\u00f6rningarna, f\u00f6r att sedan skissera en modern implementering av interaktiv lemmatisering, som en vidareutveckling av den gamla modellen. Grunddragen i lemmatiseringsmodellen framg\u00e5r av Staffan Hellbergs bifogade artikel Computerized Lemmatization without the Use of a Dictionary. Sammanfattningsvis kr\u00e4vs enligt denna modell att de komponenter som skall ing\u00e5 i lemmat uppfyller de tre huvudkriteri erna; (1) alla enheterna skall ha en identisk stam, (2) \u00e4ndelserna skall tillh\u00f6ra samma paradigm och (3) eventuella ordklass/lemmabeteckningar skall vara lika och dessutom passa till samtliga kompo nenters \u00e4ndelser. N\u00e5gra speciella f\u00f6ruts\u00e4ttningar som g\u00e4llde det aktuella projektet b\u00f6r h\u00e5llas i minnet. Algoritmen var utformad f\u00f6r att anv\u00e4ndas p\u00e5 ett alfabetiskt sorterat, tidigare homografseparerat material. (Att det var alfabetiskt ordnat betyder f\u00f6r st\u00e5s inte att de enheter som skall grupperas samman beh\u00f6vde st\u00e5 intill varandra.) Det material som redovisas i Nusvensk frekvens ordbok omfattade 1 miljon l\u00f6pande ord, vilket gav 103 000 olika graford och 112 000 homografkomponenter (cirka 30 % av de olika graforden var homografa). N\u00e4ra 97 % av homografkomponenterna pla cerades automatiskt i r\u00e4tt lemma. Av de r\u00e4tt avgr\u00e4nsade lemmana fick 85 % ocks\u00e5 r\u00e4tt rubrik med uppslagsform, ordklass-och lemmabeteckning. Svenska psalmbokens 8500 olika graford (av c. 110 000 Automatisk lemmatisering utan stamlexikon Rolf Gavare Proceedings of NODALIDA 1979, pages 123-132 l\u00f6pande ord) var inte homografseparerade och gav d\u00e4rf\u00f6r ett s\u00e4mre resultat -omkring 80 % av de oseparerade orden hamnade i r\u00e4tt lem ma (d.v.s. r\u00e4tt f\u00f6r \u00e5tminstone n\u00e5gon homografkomponent av det gra fiska ordet). Ytterligare sk\u00e4l till att psalmbokslemmatiseringen gav s\u00e4mre utfall \u00e4r att paradigmtabellerna var utformade med tanke p\u00e5 sannolikheter f\u00f6r upptr\u00e4dande i modern svenska och framf\u00f6r allt, ju st\u00f6rre ordmaterialet \u00e4r, ju fler olika b\u00f6jningsformer \u00e4r belagda inom varje lemma, vilket i sin tur ger en st\u00f6rre s\u00e4kerhet vid s\u00e5v\u00e4l sammanf\u00f6ringen av b\u00f6jningsformer som etableringen av en lemmarubrik. Algoritmen \u00e4r inte utformad f\u00f6r lemmatisering av enstaka ord. Bland de tekniska f\u00f6ruts\u00e4ttningarna m\u00e4rks s\u00e4rskilt att vi vid den aktuella tidpunkten saknade direktaccessminne (skivminne). I st\u00e4l let fick magnetbandstationer utnyttjas f\u00f6r lagring av arbetsfiler, vilket ocks\u00e5 i viss m\u00e5n kom att \u00e5terspeglas i programlogiken. Pro gramutrymmet var ocks\u00e5 begr\u00e4nsat. N\u00e5gon m\u00f6jlighet till interaktion via terminaler fanns inte. Trots de praktiska begr\u00e4nsningarna f\u00e5r man \u00e4nd\u00e5 anse att den automatiska lemmatiseringen lyckades v\u00e4l. Dags l\u00e4ge t Jag skall nu \u00f6verg\u00e5 till att skissera huvuddragen av hur en lemma tisering (inklusive homografseparering), byggd p\u00e5 dessa principer, skulle kunna g\u00e5 till idag. 1. Antag att vi har ett stort, obearbetat textmaterial (p\u00e5 grafordsniv\u00e5). En f\u00f6rsta \u00e5tg\u00e4rd blir att ta fram en komplett kon kordans i radskrivarutskrift (eller p\u00e5 mikrokort). Om m\u00f6jligt skall konkordansen ocks\u00e5 vara tillg\u00e4nglig i datorn f\u00f6r s\u00f6kning direkt fr\u00e5n terminalen. B\u00e5de versaler och gemena tecken skall \u00e5terges i utskriften f\u00f6r att underl\u00e4tta bed\u00f6mningen av egennamn,",
                "uris": null
            },
            "FIGREF2": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "' Alien, Nusvensk ft-ekvensordbok/Frequency dictionary o f present-day Swedish I, Stockholm: Almqvist and Wiksell, 1970, {vaenta the material on the level where homographs had been separated but no lemmatization done. The lemmatized version was published in 1971 as All\u00e9n, Nusvensk frekvensordbokIFrequency dictionary o f present-day Swedish Z A more detailed report o f the lemmatization has been made (In Swedish) in Staffan Hellberg, A utorratisk lemmatlsering, 1971 (mimeographed). A general survey o f the work at the Research Group will be found in Sture All\u00e9n, \"Vocabulary data processing,\"fyocee(ifngs o f the Interruitlonat Conference o f N ordic and General Linguistics, R eykjavik, 1969, ed. Hrelnn Benediktsson, Reykjavik 1970. Staffan Hellberg is a m em ber o f the Research Group fo r M odem Swedish at the University ofG oteborg.",
                "uris": null
            },
            "FIGREF3": {
                "num": null,
                "type_str": "figure",
                "text": "The bulk of the paradigms were taken from Bj\u00f6rn Hammarberg, \"Maskinell generering av b\u00f6jningsformer och Identifikation av ordUass' ,'F\u00f6rhandlingar vid sam mankorait /S r a tt dryfta flig o r r\u00f6rande svenskans beskrivning 3, G\u00f6teborg, 1 965, ed. Sture All\u00e9n, G\u00f6teborg, 1966 (mimeographed). 130 Proceedings of NODALIDA 1979 Hellberg/Lemmitkation 211",
                "uris": null
            }
        }
    }
}