| { |
| "paper_id": "Y95-1020", |
| "header": { |
| "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", |
| "date_generated": "2023-01-19T13:38:55.649790Z" |
| }, |
| "title": "PREDICATE-ARGUMENT STRUCTURE OF ENGLISH ADJECTIVES", |
| "authors": [ |
| { |
| "first": "Chiba", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "Pref", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": {}, |
| "email": "" |
| }, |
| { |
| "first": "", |
| "middle": [], |
| "last": "Japan", |
| "suffix": "", |
| "affiliation": {}, |
| "email": "" |
| } |
| ], |
| "year": "", |
| "venue": null, |
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| "abstract": "This paper will argue the following points. 1) What is a semantic status of prepositional phrases in such sentences as \"Tom is good at tennis,\" \"It is wise of Tom to go there,\" \"This book is easy for John to read. \"? 2) What is the semantic status of to infinitive (henceforth, to VP) in the following sentences : \"He is honest to bring back the money,\" \"He is sure to win.\" 3) Is there a semantic difference in such sentences as \"It is wise of Peter to go home\", \"Peter is wise to go home?\" If there is any, what is it? 4) What is the predicateargument structure of a sentence containing a predicate adjective like \"John is easy for Mary to please?\" Is it one-place, two place or three-place-structure? 5) By introducing the notion of a predicate modifier we can solve these problems. 6) We conclude that adjectives are simply a one place predicate.", |
| "pdf_parse": { |
| "paper_id": "Y95-1020", |
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| "abstract": [ |
| { |
| "text": "This paper will argue the following points. 1) What is a semantic status of prepositional phrases in such sentences as \"Tom is good at tennis,\" \"It is wise of Tom to go there,\" \"This book is easy for John to read. \"? 2) What is the semantic status of to infinitive (henceforth, to VP) in the following sentences : \"He is honest to bring back the money,\" \"He is sure to win.\" 3) Is there a semantic difference in such sentences as \"It is wise of Peter to go home\", \"Peter is wise to go home?\" If there is any, what is it? 4) What is the predicateargument structure of a sentence containing a predicate adjective like \"John is easy for Mary to please?\" Is it one-place, two place or three-place-structure? 5) By introducing the notion of a predicate modifier we can solve these problems. 6) We conclude that adjectives are simply a one place predicate.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Abstract", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "body_text": [ |
| { |
| "text": "The Semantic Structure of Adjectives", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "1.", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In English as well as in Japanese there is a group of what is called degree adjectives whose interpretation is heavily dependent on contexts, pragmatic or linguistic. One of such contextual factor is termed THEMATIC DIMENSION by Bartsch [1] . In addition to this dimension it was proposed in Ikeya [4] that it is necessary to recognize two other such dimensions, which are termed COMPARATIVE DIMENSION and DEGREE DIMENSION. It is only after these three vectors are specified, is it possible to determine the truth condition of a sentence which contains a degree adjective. When we say he is good, this sentence has to be specified in what respect he is good, as compared to what he is good, and to what degree he is good For example, in He is very good at basketball for a short Japanese all these dimensions are expressed: at basketball is what we call THEMATIC DIMENSION (TD), for a short Japanese is a so called CD, and very is our DEGREE DIMENSION (DD).", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 237, |
| "end": 240, |
| "text": "[1]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF0" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 292, |
| "end": 301, |
| "text": "Ikeya [4]", |
| "ref_id": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Three Dimensions", |
| "sec_num": "1.1" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In English TDs have the following varieties.", |
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| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TD in English Adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "1.2" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "(1) a. John is good at tennis.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TD in English Adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "1.2" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "b. John is fine in terms of health. c. John is blind of one eye. d. John is quick at words. e. John is cautious with respect to the standard theory.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TD in English Adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "1.2" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "As these examples show, in English TDs are expressed by such expressions like in terms of as regards, or other prepositional phrases headed by of at, about, off in and the like. All these expressions give a semantic specification to adjectives in what respect John is good, fine or quick. It should be noticed that all these expressions grammatically correspond to adverbials. It should be remarked that TD is not obligatory. In such sentence as the business is very slow no TD is expressed.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "TD in English Adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "1.2" |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "A degree adjective like tall implicitly encodes a comparison dimension like taller than X, with X being specified either by a linguistic or non-linguistic context. Take for example, the following sentences.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "CD in English Adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "1.3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "(2) a. He is tall. b. For a Japanese, he is tall.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "CD in English Adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "1.3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In (2)a a size like \"tallness\" is always relative to some implicit measure such as the height of average persons and it is nonsense to talk of tallness except relative to such a comparison class.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "CD in English Adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "1.3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "On the other hand, in (2)b a comparison class is explicitly encoded in the form of for a Japanese. This is the case of a linguistic specification of a comparison dimension, while (2)a is the case of non-linguistic contextual specification of a comparison dimension.", |
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| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "CD in English Adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "1.3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "(3) He is very good at tennis for his age.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "CD in English Adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "1.3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In terms of a tree diagram, (3) has the following semantic structure. There are two cases of parentheses: the first case is where TD is optional; the second case is where a lexical item corresponding to DD is optional. In what follows, we are going to stipulate that the semantic structure shown just above is the basic one and therefore unmarked one, and the one corresponding to He is very good at tennis for his age is the marked one, whose semantic structure has all the three dimensions.", |
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| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "CD in English Adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "1.3." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In the preceding section we have tried to differentiate between \"authentic arguments\" and \"pseudo arguments\" by positing the semantic structure of adjectives shown above. For example, we have shown that in sentence John is good at tennis, the prepositional phrase at tennis is not an argument of good but a predicate modifier named TD. In this section we will try to further distinguish \"genuine arguments\" from \"seeming arguments\".", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Predicate-argument structure of English Adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "2." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Jacobson [7] argues that the tough predicates denote a three-place semantic structure when there is a PP among two individuals and an action. Arguing against this position, Ikeya [6] asserts that the tough predicates denote a one-place predicate. This contention can be summarized as follows:", |
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| "start": 9, |
| "end": 12, |
| "text": "[7]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF6" |
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| { |
| "start": 179, |
| "end": 182, |
| "text": "[6]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF5" |
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| "section": "Tough Predicates or Silva and Thompson's Class E", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "By treating tough predicates as a head in the sense of HPSG, the head can take only \u00e0 surface' NP as a Subcat value, the other elements such as to VP and for NP being treated syntactically as adjuncts. Semantically to VP and for NP are treated as predicate modifiers, whose type is <<e, t>,<e, t>>.", |
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| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Tough Predicates or Silva and Thompson's Class E", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The reason for treating these two elements as predicate modifiers is as follows:", |
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| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Tough Predicates or Silva and Thompson's Class E", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "(4) a. This book is very easy for me to read.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Tough Predicates or Silva and Thompson's Class E", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "b. This book is very easy for me. c. This book is very easy to read.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Tough Predicates or Silva and Thompson's Class E", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Set theoretically, the set defined by very easy, which is itself a subset of easy, is mapped either by for NP or to VP to its subset defined by very easy for me or very easy to read. Therefore, Jespersen [8] is quite right when he says that \"the infinitive often serves to specify or give a supplementary determination to a word which in itself has a somewhat vague signification.\" In our terms a supplementary determination to a word means giving a subset defined by for NP or to VP. On the difference of the sentences (i) and (ii) , Berman [2] also comments as follows. \"(i) Mary is unpleasant to argue with. (ii) Mary is unpleasant. It is clear that the meaning of (i) is equivalent to that of (iii) Arguing with Mary is unpleasant. That is, (i) does not imply that Mary is unpleasant in general, just as (iii) does not. Note that we can say (iv) Mary is really nice, but she's unpleasant to argue with.\" This comment also confirms our view that to VP is playing the function of specifying in what way or point the predicate pleasant is true.", |
| "cite_spans": [ |
| { |
| "start": 542, |
| "end": 545, |
| "text": "[2]", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF1" |
| } |
| ], |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Tough Predicates or Silva and Thompson's Class E", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "So all the sentences in (4) boil down to one and the same predicate-argument structure, which can be represented as follows:", |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Tough Predicates or Silva and Thompson's Class E", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
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| { |
| "text": "tough predicate + for NPpred. modifier + to VP pred. modifier [entityjargument Very tough + for me + to read as a whole functions as a complex predicate, for me and to read serving as optional predicate modifiers, and this book plays the role of an argument. The square brackets represent the argument position. Therefore we assert that all the occurences of easy in (4) is a one-place predicate having an entity as its argument, quite irrespective of whether there is for NP or to VP as a predicate modifier. In addition to this type, which has an entity as an argument of one-place predicate, there are two other types of argument: one is nominalized property, which is a syntactic counterpart of a verb phrase, and the other is a proposition, which is a syntactic counterpart of a sentence with that or for to complementizer. These two types are exemplified as follows.", |
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| "section": "Tough Predicates or Silva and Thompson's Class E", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "(5) a. To read this book is very tough for me.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Tough Predicates or Silva and Thompson's Class E", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "b. It is tough to read this book.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Tough Predicates or Silva and Thompson's Class E", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "(6) a. It was tough for John to fail the exam. b. To fail the exam was tough for John. c. Talking to Mary is easy for John. (7) a. For his wife to accept this view would be tough for John.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Tough Predicates or Silva and Thompson's Class E", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "b. It would be tough for John for his wife to accept this view.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Tough Predicates or Silva and Thompson's Class E", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "The predicate argument structures of (5), (6) and 7are as follows. It should be noticed that although a tough predicate in the sentences (5), (6) and 7is different in terms of the kind of an argument, all these sentences are the same in that they are a one-place predicate, with a predicate and predicate modifier forming a complex predicate. It should be mentioned that the difference of (8)a and (10)a is that in the former there is an explicit of NP denoting an agent, while in the latter there is an implicit of NP denoting a contextually specifiable agent. The difference between (8)a and (10)b is that while in the former the subject of a verb phrase is denoted in the form of of NP, in the latter the NP, that is, Peter is a subject of wise, not to VP. Furthermore, to VP in (10)b functions as a predicate modifier of wise, not as a subject as in (8)a.", |
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| { |
| "start": 42, |
| "end": 45, |
| "text": "(6)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF5" |
| }, |
| { |
| "start": 142, |
| "end": 145, |
| "text": "(6)", |
| "ref_id": "BIBREF5" |
| } |
| ], |
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| "section": "Tough Predicates or Silva and Thompson's Class E", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "In addition, wise has following patterns. (14)a is quoted by Silva and Thompson as belonging to class A and (14)b to the class S predicate. Therefore, (14)a has the same predicate-argument pattern as (8)a, and (14)b to (9)a.", |
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| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Tough Predicates or Silva and Thompson's Class E", |
| "sec_num": "2.1." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "There are in English a few adjectives which obligatorily take PP or that clause or to VP. These are never used without these elements. c. The incident is worthy to be remembered. d. We are desirous of such result. e. He is desirous that I should go there to help the needy.", |
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| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Fond of type adjectives", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "These can be treated as cases of genuine two-place predicates since some adjective such as fond of can be replaced by a transitive verb like, a typical two-place predicate. It should be pointed out, however, that it is sometimes difficult to decide what role should be assigned to to PP, to VP and that clause: these can be given the status of predicate modifiers modifying the meaning of fond, worthy, and desirous. Or fond of, worthy of and desirous of can be treated as constituting a complex phrases equivalent to a transitive verb. We treat to PP, to VP and that clause as constituting predicate modifiers since not all adjectives + PP cannot be replaced by corresponding transitive verbs. Moreover, it is not always easy to make a distinction between the role of to VP in such phrases as easy to read and worthy to be remembered: both cases can be viewed as a case of a predicate modifier. If it is correct to treat the phrases PP, to VP and that clause as predicate modifiers, those adjectives taking these elements obligatorily can be considered as a one-place predicate, not a two-place predicate.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Fond of type adjectives", |
| "sec_num": null |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "There is a small group of adjectives which seems to be a genuine type of two-place predicate. Similar to is a typical example, as shown below.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Similar to type adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "2.5." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "(16) This car is similar to mine.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Similar to type adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "2.5." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "Similar to seems to have two arguments: this car and mine. Similar examples can be multiplied.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Similar to type adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "2.5." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "(17) a. The railroad is parallel to the road.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Similar to type adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "2.5." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "b. This car is the same as mine. c. Man is different from animals in having the faculty of speech. d. Such acts are equivalent to murder.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Similar to type adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "2.5." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "We assert that these adjectives are not the case of a two place predicate but assume that they are simply a one-place predicate with a restriction that the subject of these adjectives always denotes two entities as can be attested by the following examples.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Similar to type adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "2.5." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "(18) a. The two railroads are parallel. b. These cars are the same. c. These cases are completely different. d. They are morally equivalent acts.", |
| "cite_spans": [], |
| "ref_spans": [], |
| "eq_spans": [], |
| "section": "Similar to type adjectives", |
| "sec_num": "2.5." |
| }, |
| { |
| "text": "By assuming a semantic structure proposed in Ikeya [4] , we have reached a conclusion that adjectives are basically a one-place predicate. In the process of our argumentation, we tried to sort out the genuine argument and pseudo-argument so that what was traditionally treated as an argument is assigned the status of a predicate modifier in our framework.", |
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| { |
| "start": 51, |
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| "text": "[4]", |
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| "section": "Conclusion", |
| "sec_num": null |
| } |
| ], |
| "back_matter": [], |
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| "BIBREF0": { |
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| "FIGREF0": { |
| "type_str": "figure", |
| "uris": null, |
| "text": "15) a. He is fond of children. b. His behavior is worthy of reverence.", |
| "num": null |
| }, |
| "TABREF2": { |
| "type_str": "table", |
| "content": "<table><tr><td>2.2. 2.2.1. Type II: (9) a. It is dangerous for Godfather to get angry. Class A Type I Adjectives ' \u2022:)1 L-Nl'] [(for NP) to VP] b. It was nice for Sven to continue working. c. It was important for Warren to leave home. d. It was pleasant for Mona to say it. e. It would be unpleasant for us for it to rain now. 2.2.2. Semantic function vs. Thematic role It would be convenient to make a distinction between a thematic role and a semantic function thematic role for NP predicate modifier experiencer (TD) of NP predicate modifier agentive (TD) 2.2.3. Predicate-argument structure of class A adjectives 2.2.3.1. Type I Adjectives We stipulate that [proposition] arg-g-{wise predicate) [proposition] arg. when we talk about semantic function (10)</td></tr></table>", |
| "html": null, |
| "num": null, |
| "text": "All these factors play the semantic function of a predicate modifier which specifies the denotation of a predicate. This can be summarized as follows: the of NP in type I adjectives in (8) plays the role of TD and we state that the thematic role of the phrase is experiencer by following Silva and Thompson[10]. Alongside the sentence (8)a, we have the following varieties.(10) a. It was wise to go home. ' a. {wise predicate + (implicit of NP) pre\u2022 mod ." |
| } |
| } |
| } |
| } |
