{ "paper_id": "P80-1005", "header": { "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", "date_generated": "2023-01-19T08:43:03.357705Z" }, "title": "", "authors": [ { "first": "Jon", "middle": [ "M" ], "last": "Slack", "suffix": "", "affiliation": { "laboratory": "", "institution": "Open University", "location": { "country": "U.K" } }, "email": "" } ], "year": "", "venue": null, "identifiers": {}, "abstract": "", "pdf_parse": { "paper_id": "P80-1005", "_pdf_hash": "", "abstract": [], "body_text": [ { "text": "The paper addresses the question of whether a complete language understanding system requires special procedures in order to comprehend metaphorical language.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "To answer this question it is necessary to delineate the processes involved in metaphor comprehension and to determine the uniqueness of such processes in the context of existing language understanding systems.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "For the purposes of this paper a metaphor is defined as a linguistic input containing elements which result in a mismatch at the semantic level which the language understanding system attempts to interpret. For example, the sentence Billboards are warts on the landscape . 1 results in a semantic mismatch represented by the sentence Billboards are not a member of the category warts .... 2 which is encountered when the underlying conceptual.structure is built for the sentence. However, the mismatch need not be restricted to elements of the sa/ne sentence.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "I. DEFINING THE PROBLEM", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Even though the elements of a particular sentence may not result in a semantic mismatch, the whole sentence itself can be metaphorical with respect to its linguistic context.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "I. DEFINING THE PROBLEM", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "In this case the semantic mismatch is encountered when the interpreter has difficulty connecting the conceptual representation of the sentence to the existing structure representing the context.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "I. DEFINING THE PROBLEM", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Metaphor comprehension is defined as the process of mapping input metaphors onto connected conceptual representations.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "I. DEFINING THE PROBLEM", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "A model of metaphor comprehension is defined as the set of processes required to interpret elements of linguistic input which semantically mismatch their linguistic context.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "I. DEFINING THE PROBLEM", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The mismatching elements are referred to as the vehicle of the metaphor, while the linguistic context is known as the topic of the metaphor.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "I. DEFINING THE PROBLEM", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "For the purposes of describing the model only sentences which contain both the vehicle and topic elements of the metaphor are considered. However, the comprehension processes described should apply to all classes of metaphor, including copula form (e.g. The world is a chessboard~ and verb-based metaphors (e.g. His words were dried by the sun).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "The model to be outlined is based on the analysis of a large sample of paraphrases produced by twenty subjects for a collection of over fifty metaphors.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "It is necessary to distinguish between different types of comprehension task.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "Although the comprehension processes are generally applicable, whether the metaphorical input is in isolation or part of a larger linguistic input greatly influences the choice of comprehension strategy.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "In llne with most language comprehension systems, the goal of metaphor comprehension is to build an integrated conceptual structure but from mismatching components.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "The model is based on the notion that the existence of the semantic mismatch makes it necessary to build a conceptual structure which embodies all the salient knowledge structures associated with the vehicle element.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "This process is referred to as vehicle expansion.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "Briefly, the comprehension process proceeds as follows:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "The elements of the sentence are mapped onto their dictionary entries and in attempting to build a conceptual structure a semantic restriction violation (semantic mismatch) is encountered -the subject, or object, or both do not conform to the semantic restrictions associated with the verb.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "The decision of which element represents the topic and which the vehicle of the metaphor is usually determined by the extra-sentential context. However, for isolated metaphors the vehicle is usually the element which has the minimal match with the other elements.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "The knowledge structures which constitute the vehicle element concept are temporarily built into the conceptual structure representing the meaning of the sentence.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "This generated conceptual structure (C~S) is also connected to the topic knowledge structures (TKS).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "Comprehension is complete when the GCS and TKS are integrated into a single conceptual structure.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "Vehicle expansion generates a relatively large conceptual structure which is pruned by means of the processes which integrate the GCS and TKS.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "For example, those knowledge structures which gave rise to the semantic mismatch are deleted from the conceptual structure because they contradict what is known about the topic. Metaphor comprehension involves interpreting the GCS in terms of the TKS. This is achieved by means of a matching process and the comprehension strategies described below.\"", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "The matching process searches for matching knowledge structures in the GCS and TKS.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "Various forms of the process are considered -fuzzy matching procedures, a spreading activation process.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "The outcome of the process is typically, (a) an element of the GCS matches a lowsaliency TKS element, (b) an element of the GCS contradicts a TKS element, or (c) a GCS element matches nor contradicts any TKS element.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "Outcome (b) prunes the GCS; outcomes (a) and (c) connect it to the TKS.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "In addition, certain input metaphors require other comprehension strategies to be invoked, such as context construction or recursive metaphor interpretation.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "Context construction -in some cases, although the matching procedure has constructed a number of important connections between the GCS and the TKS, it is necessary to search for additional knowledge structures which represent context information which was missing in the original input.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "The goal of the context construction procedure is to provide a context information in which the GCS-TKS connections are fully interpreted, that is, more fully integrated. The paper discusses the conditions necessary for the strategy to be employed.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "Recursive metaphor interpretation -many of the elements of the GCS are themselves metap~s in that they contain implicit semantic mismatches.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "These metaphoric elements are interpreted as metaphor inputs thereby making the comprehension process recursive.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "Due to the limited processing capacity and memory constraints of language understanding systems, the metaphor comprehension process requires a complex control structure. This control structure governs the use of the comprehension strategies and orders the vehicle expansion and matching processes.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "BUILDING A MODEL OF METAPHOR COMPREHENSION", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "The paper compares the model of metaphor comprehension with established theories of metaphor within linguistics and psychology.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "COMPARISON WITH OTHER THE?RIES", "sec_num": "3." }, { "text": "The final part of the paper examines the relationship between metaphor comprehension and existing language comprehension systems. The processes which constitute the model of metaphor comprehension are common to many language understanding systems (Schank, Wilks, L)IR group, etc.). The comprehension of metaphor does not require a special set of processes to be developed, although the comprehension strategies may be specific to the comprehension task.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "CONCLUSIONS", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "Rather, a metaphor input forces the comprehension system to invoke a complex control structure to cope with the larger and richer knowledge domains which have to be handled.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "CONCLUSIONS", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "The main conclusion of the paper is that the notions of processing capacity, memory constraints and control structure are the most salient constructs in sLmulation metaphor comprehension.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "CONCLUSIONS", "sec_num": "4." } ], "back_matter": [], "bib_entries": {}, "ref_entries": {} } }