{ "paper_id": "P85-1003", "header": { "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", "date_generated": "2023-01-19T09:39:21.566124Z" }, "title": "Tense, Aspect and the Cognitive Representation of Time", "authors": [ { "first": "Man-Kam", "middle": [], "last": "Kenneth", "suffix": "", "affiliation": { "laboratory": "Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Massachusetts", "institution": "", "location": { "postCode": "02139", "region": "MA" } }, "email": "" }, { "first": "", "middle": [], "last": "Yip", "suffix": "", "affiliation": { "laboratory": "Artificial Intelligence Laboratory Massachusetts", "institution": "", "location": { "postCode": "02139", "region": "MA" } }, "email": "" } ], "year": "", "venue": null, "identifiers": {}, "abstract": "This paper explores the relationshiDs between a computational meory of temporal representation (as developed by James Alien) and a Iormal linguiStiC theory Of tense (as developed by NorOert Hornstem) and aspect. It aims tO prowde exphcit answers to four lundamental Questions: (1) what ts the computational lustd~cat=on for me or=mmves of a hngu=stIc theory;", "pdf_parse": { "paper_id": "P85-1003", "_pdf_hash": "", "abstract": [ { "text": "This paper explores the relationshiDs between a computational meory of temporal representation (as developed by James Alien) and a Iormal linguiStiC theory Of tense (as developed by NorOert Hornstem) and aspect. It aims tO prowde exphcit answers to four lundamental Questions: (1) what ts the computational lustd~cat=on for me or=mmves of a hngu=stIc theory;", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Abstract", "sec_num": null } ], "body_text": [ { "text": "(2) what ~s the computational explanation of the formal grammatical constraints;", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "(3) what are the processing constraints ~ml3osed on the learnabdity and marKedness of these theoretical construCtS: and (4) what are the constramnts that a hnguist=c theory imposes or. representat\u00a2ons. We show that one can effectively exploit (n~ ,nterface between the language faculty and the cognmve faculties by using hngu=stic constra,nts tO determine restrtcuons on tile cognitive representations and wce versa.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Three mare results are cbtalned: (1) We derive an explanation of an oOserved grammabcal constrmnt on tense .. the Linear Order Constraint --from the reformation monotonicity property of the constraint propagation algorithm of Allen's temPoral system: (2) We formulate a principle of mart~edness for the 13as=c tense structures Ioased on the computational efficiency of the temporal representations: and (3) We snow Allen's interval-Oased temporal System =s not arbitrary, bul it can be used to exolair, ;nctependently motwated lingulst~c constraints on tense and aspect interpretatmns.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "We also claim that the methodology of research developed in tins study --\"cross-lever' investigation of independently motivated formal grammatical theory and computational moclets -. is a \u00a2owerful paradigm with which to attack representational problems =n oaslc cognitive domains, e.g.. space, t~me, c~u:~ality, etc.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "One malor effort m moclern hnguistlcs Is tO hmlt the class of possible grammars to those that are psychologically real. A grammar Is PSyChOlOgiCally/real if it ts (a) realizaole -possessing a computational model that can reproduce certain psychological resource complexity measures, and (b) learnable . capable of Oemg acquired (at least, m principle) despite the poor quality of input linguistic data.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Objectives and Main Results", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "A shift of eml3nasis from the pure characterization problem of grammar to the realization and leamability problems naturally bnnga linguistics closer tO AI work in na:ural language understanding Concerned wfth computational models of language use and language acquisition Computational study =Sm principle complementary tO more formal and aOstract grammatical theory. Each should contribute to the other.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Objectives and Main Results", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "The purpose of this loader ~s to work Out an example of how formal grammatical meory and computational models can effectively constrain eacn diner s reoresematJons. In ~3artJcular, I", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Objectives and Main Results", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "seek to exolore four !undamental ~ssues:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Objectives and Main Results", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "t. How ~s the cho=ce of onmmve structures m grammatical theory to be lustified?", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Objectives and Main Results", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "2. What ~s the explanation of the rules and constramts that have to Oe stiI3ulated at the grammatical level?", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Objectives and Main Results", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "3. HOw are these knowledge structures acau~red?", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Objectives and Main Results", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "4. What are the theoretical constraints ~moosed by the grammar on the representational scheme of the computation theory?", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Objectives and Main Results", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "What I hope tO snow is that structures and prmcJoles that have to be sttoulatgG '~t the grammatical level fall out nalurally as consequences of the proDert=es of the algorithms and representations of the underlying comoutahonal model. In sO doing, I will also restnct the class of plausmle computational models tO those that can exclam or incorporate the constraints =m;3osed by the formal grammatical theory.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Objectives and Main Results", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "There are a numoer of requirements that must be met m order for such \"cross.lever' study to succeed. First, there is a sizable collection of fzcts and data from the target domain to be explained. Second. there =s ,ndeDendent motwauon for the theory of grammar .. =t ~s empmca:ly adequate.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Objectives and Main Results", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "And, third, the computational model =s also ,nrJeoendently motivated by ioemg sufhc=ently express=re and computatlonally efficient.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Objectives and Main Results", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "With these considerations, I have chosen two domains: (1) tense and (2) aspect. Tense concerns the Chronological ordering Of situations with resnect tO some reference moment, usually the moment of s!3eech. Aspect =S the study of situation types and perspectives from which a particular situation can be viewed or evaluated (cf. Comrie75) The point of departure of this study is two papers: (1) for tl~e theory of tense, Hornstetn's \"Towards a theory of Tense\" (Homstem77) and (2) tor the cognitive theory of time. James Allen's \"\u00b0Towarcls a General Theory ot Action and Time\" (Allen84).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Objectives and Main Results", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "In the following, I shall list the main results of this study: 1.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Objectives and Main Results", "sec_num": "1." }, { "text": "A better theory of tense with revised primitive tense structures and constraints.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "2.", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "We derive an exDlanatmn of Hornstein's Linear Order Constraint, an oioserved formal constraint on lingu=stic tense, from propert=es of the constraint propagat=on algorithm of Allen's temporal system. This shows this formal grammatical constraint need not be learned at =1. We also show that the rule of R.germanence follows from the hypothes=s that only the matrix clause anti tl~e suocategortzaDle SCOMP or VCOMP can introduce distract S and R points. Finally, we prove that certain boundedness condition on the flow of mformatmon Of a grocassmg system leads d=rectly to the locality properly of a constraint on secluences of tense.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "2.", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "A prmczole of markedness for tense structures based on the comoutat=onal efficiency of the temporal representation. The prmciple pred,cts that (1) of the stx basic tenses m Enghsh, future perfect =s the only marked tense, and (2) the not=on of a dastant future tense, lust like the s=mple future. =s alSO unmarked.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "3.", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "A better account of the state/event/process d=st=nct=on based on Allen's interval-based temporal Iogac and the =dea that the progress=ve aspect sl~ec,hes the perspect*ve from wh=ch the truth of a s~tuation is evaluated.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "3.", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "An account of theoretical constraints on the representation of hme at the comDutat=onal level, e.g., three distract t=me points are necessary to charactenze an elementary tensed sentence, and the d~stmctmn between instantaneous and non-instantaneous t=me intervals.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "3.", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "We begin Dy hrst outhmng Hornstem's theory of tense. In sect=on 2.1. we describe the 13rtmtt,ves and constramnts on tense of h~s theory. In sectzons 2.2 and 2.3. we snow how the 0nmit=ves and constraints can be denved from computat=onal conszderat=ons.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Tense", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "Hornstem develops a theory of tense w#th#n the Re~cnenbachlan framewcrk whtch postulates three-theoretical entit~es: S (the moment of speech}, R (a relerence point}, and E (the moment of event). The key ~dea =s that certain linear orOenngs of the three t~me I:}o=nts get grammat=cahz.,~l mid the smx bas=c tenses oi Engl,sh. 1 The following ~s the last of basic tense strOctures:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Revcs,ons to Hornstem's Theory of Tense", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "1. SIMPLE PAST E,R_S 2. PAST PERFECT E_.R_S 3. SIMPLE PRESENT S,R,E 4. PRESENT PERFECT E_S.R 5. SIMPLE FUTURE S_R,E 6. FUTURE PERFECT S_E~R", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Revcs,ons to Hornstem's Theory of Tense", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "The notation here demands some explanation. The underscore symbol \"~\" is interpreted as the \"less-than\" relation among time points whereas the comma symbol .... stands for the \"teas-than-or-eQual-to\" relatmn. As an illustration, the present perfect tense denotes a situation in winch the moment of speech is either cotemporaneous or precedes the reference point, while the moment of event =s strictly before the other two moments. Note that Hornstem also uses the term \"assoc=ation\" to refer to the comma symbol \",\".", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Revcs,ons to Hornstem's Theory of Tense", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "Geven the bas=c tense structure for a s=mole tensed sentence, the mterpretat=on of the sentence that arises from the interact=on of tense and time adverbs ~s represented by the modihcatmn of the posit=on of the R or E points to form a new tense structure wh=Ch we call a aermeO lense structu,e. In two papers (Hornstem77 & Hornstem81), Hornstem proposes three formal constraints that hmlt the class of derived tense structures that can be generated from the bas=c tense structures m SuCh a way as to capture the acceptabd=ty of sentences containing temporal adverbs (e.g.. now, yesterday, tomorrow), temporal connechves (e.g., when. before, after), and md=rect speech. In the rest of tins sect=on, I shall examine the adeouacy of these constraints.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Revcs,ons to Hornstem's Theory of Tense", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "The Linear Order Constraint (LOC) states that t!~.523-4):", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Linear Order Constraint", "sec_num": "2.1.1" }, { "text": "(1) The linear order of a clenved tense structure must be the same as the hnear order of the basic structure.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Linear Order Constraint", "sec_num": "2.1.1" }, { "text": "(2) NO new assoc=at=on ~s ;roduced =n the clerfved tense structure.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Linear Order Constraint", "sec_num": "2.1.1" }, { "text": "LOG IS st=oulated to account for examoles cons=st=ng Of a single temporal adverb such as (4a) and those w~th two hme adverbs such as ~'32 For a sentence of the form Pl.conn-P 2 where \"conn\" ~s a temporal connectmve such as \"when\" \"before\", \"after\" etc.. line up the S pomt~ of Pt and F 2, that IS. wnte the tense structure of Pl and P2' lining uP the S points. Move R 2 to under R 1, placing E 2 accorc=ngiy to preserve LOC on the bes=c tense structure.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Linear Order Constraint", "sec_num": "2.1.1" }, { "text": "It can be easily seen that my proposed tense structure for present perfect does not work with RTC since it produces the wrong predictions for the following two sentences:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Linear Order Constraint", "sec_num": "2.1.1" }, { "text": "[1 ] \"John came when we have arrived.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Linear Order Constraint", "sec_num": "2.1.1" }, { "text": "[2] John comes when we have arrived. We can see that the proposed theory correctly predicts all ol the five cases. There ts. however, an apparent counter.example to RP which, unlike RTC, is symmetncal, Le., it does not ma~ter which Of the Pi's =s put on the top. Cons=der the following two sentences:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Linear Order Constraint", "sec_num": "2.1.1" }, { "text": "[5] i. John will come when we arrive.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Linear Order Constraint", "sec_num": "2.1.1" }, { "text": "if. \"John arrives when we wi11 come.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Linear Order Constraint", "sec_num": "2.1.1" }, { "text": "RP predicts both 5i and 5if will be unacceptable, but 5i seems to be good. It ts examples like 5i and 5if, I believe, that lead Hornstem to propose the asymmetrical rule RTC. But I think the data are m~slead=ng because =t seems to be an ,diosyncrasy of Enghsh grammar that 5i =s acceptable. In French, we have to say an ecluwatent of \"John will come when we wdl arrive\" with the temporal adverb=al expl=c~tly marked with the future tense (Jespersen6~, p.264). Thus. the acceptability of sentences like 5i can be explained Oy a !ormc=ple of Economy of Speech allowing us to om=t the future tense of the temporal adverbial if the matrix clause is already marked w~th the tuture tense.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Linear Order Constraint", "sec_num": "2.1.1" }, { "text": "Now, we clescribe the third and final grammatical constraint on sequences of tense. Consider the following sentences:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sequences of Tense", "sec_num": "2.1.3" }, { "text": "[6] John said a week ago that Mary (a) will leave in 3 days. {b) would", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sequences of Tense", "sec_num": "2.1.3" }, { "text": "In the (a) sentence, the temporal interpretatmn of the embedded sentence is evaluated w=th respect to the moment of speech. Thus. for instance, [6a] means that Mary's leaving is 3 days alter present moment of speech. On the other hand, the (b) sentence has the temporal intemretatlon of the embedded sentence evaluated with respect to the interpretation of the matrix clause, Le., [6b] means that Mary's leaving is 4 days before the moment of speech.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 381, "end": 385, "text": "[6b]", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sequences of Tense", "sec_num": "2.1.3" }, { "text": "To account for the sequence of tense in reported speeCh, Hornstein proposes the following rule: (SOT): For a sentence of the form \"P1 that P2\"' assign S 2 with E 1 \u2022 In general, for an n.level embedded sentence, SOT states that: assign S n with En. 1 (Hornslem81, p.140 that Mary", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 251, "end": 269, "text": "(Hornslem81, p.140", "ref_id": null } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sequences of Tense", "sec_num": "2.1.3" }, { "text": "(i) will leave for London in 2 days (c) (ii) would has only two temporal readings: (1) sn 7(ci). Mary's leaving is two days after the moment of speech, and (2) m 7(cii), Mary's leaving Js two clays Oetore the moment Of speech. In part=cular, there ~s not a temporal reading corresponding to the situatmon fn which Mary's leaving ms hve days before the moment of speech. We would obta,n the th=rd reading if SOT allowed non-local hnking, e.g., ass=gned S 3 with E 1 .", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sequences of Tense", "sec_num": "2.1.3" }, { "text": "In the prewous section, we have examined three formal constraints on the denvatmn of complex tense structures from the Oas,c tense structures: (1) LOC. (2) RP, and (3) SOT. NOw, I want to show how the LOC falls out naturally from the computat=onal propertms of a temporal reasoning system along the line suggested by Allen (Allen84, Allen83), and also how the RP and SOT constraints have mtuitwe computat=onal motwation. The reasoning scheme tsa form of constraint propagation in a network of event nodes hnKed by temporal relat,onsmps. For instance, the situat=on as clescribed in the sentence \"John arrived when we came\" is represented by the network:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Explanations of the Formal Constraints", "sec_num": "2.2" }, { "text": "A --(> < m mi =) --> B \\ / (<)~,~ (<1 L/ NOW", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Explanations of the Formal Constraints", "sec_num": "2.2" }, { "text": "where A = John's arrival and B = Our coming This network means that both event A and event B are before now, the moment of speech, while A can be before, alter or s=multaneous with B.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Explanations of the Formal Constraints", "sec_num": "2.2" }, { "text": "When new temporal relatlonsmos are added, the system maintains consistency among events by orooagat,ng the effects of the new relatmnsmos wa a TaO/e ol Translt~wty Re/at~onsmps that tells the system how to deduce the set of adm=ss=ble relat=onsmos between events A and C given the retatlonsh=ps between A and B, and between B and C. Thus, for instance, Irom the relationships \"A during B\" and \"B < C\", the system can deduce \"A < C\".", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Explanations of the Formal Constraints", "sec_num": "2.2" }, { "text": "One orooerty of the constraint propagation algorithm generally =s that further mlormatlon only causes removal of members from the set of admissible labels, i.e., teml=orat relatlonsmDs, between any two old events (Allen83, p.8,35). NO new label can De added to the admissible set once it is created. Let us call Ires property of the constraint propagntlon algor, tnm the Delete Labei Condit=on (DLC). DLC can be mteroreted as a k=nd of reformation monotonicity condition on the temocral representation.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Explanations of the Formal Constraints", "sec_num": "2.2" }, { "text": "Let u5 further restrict Allen's temooral logic to instantaneous intervals. ~.e.. each event corresponds to a single moment of time. The restricted logic has only one or,mitwe relat,on, <, and three ctner denved relat,ons: <, >, and >. There is a straightforward :ranslat=on of Hornstein's SRE notation =nto the network re=)resenta'Jon, namely, replace each comma symbol \",\" by < (or >. witr the event symbols reverse their roles) and each underscore symbol \"~\" by > (or < with similar a\u00a2liustment on the event symbols). Thus, a tense structure such as: E_R,S can be ", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Explanations of the Formal Constraints", "sec_num": "2.2" }, { "text": "We can see that each of these cases ~s a v=olatlon of the DLC. To spell this out. we have tt~e following operations on the constraint network corresponding tO the above vlolat=ons of the LOC:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A,B --B,A 5. A,B -., B_A", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "In each of these cases, the operation involves the addihon of new members to the adm=ss=Dle set. Th=s =s ruled out Ioy DLC. Thus, we have the result that if LOC =s wolated, then DLC =s v=olated. In other words. DLC --LOC. 5 --I The second constraint :o be accounted for is the RP which effecbvely states that (a) the 50omts of the matrix clause and the temporal adverb=al must be ~clent=cal. and (b) the IR !0dints of the matrix clause and the temporal aOverbml must be ~dent=cal. One nypothests for th,s rule is that: (H1) Only the matrix clause mtrocluces distract S and R points. in other words, the non-subcate)->B 2'.A-(<)->B --A.(< = ).)B 3'.A.(<).>B --A.(> = )->B 4'.A.(< = ).>B --A-t> = )->B 5\".A.(< = )->B --A.(>)->B", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "where SCOMP and VCOMP stand for sentent=al complement and S. The \u00a2om,e~e o~ thss Ihe~n ~' nm true. verbal complement respectively. The interesting point is that both the rewsed RP and the locality property of SOT can be easily implemented ,n processing systems which have certain Oounoeoness constraint on the phrase structure rules (e.g., ,nformation cannot move across more than one bounding node). To illustrate this. let us consider the following tense interpretation rules embedded in the phrase structure rules Of the Lexlcal-Funct,onal Grammar: The S rule introduces a new S point and sets its value to now, The VP rule has two effects: (I) it does not introduce new S or R points for the temooral adveriolal phrase, thus imohcltly incorporating the revised RP rule, and (2) it looks at the tense of the embedded sentential comolement, setting the value of its S point to that of the E point of the higher clause if the tense is past, and to now, otherwise. Thus. tn th~s way, the second effect accomplishes what the SOT rule demands.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "f'.A-(<)-)'B --A-(>)->B 2'.A-(<)->B --A.(< = ).)B 3'.A.(<).>B --A.(> = )->B 4'.A.(< = ).>B --A-t> = )->B 5\".A.(< = )->B --A.(>)->B", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "If the revisions to Hornstem's theory Of tense are correct, the natural cluest=on to de asked is: FlOW dO speakers attain such Knowledge? This Question has two Darts: (1) How do spea~ers acquire the formal constraints on SRE derivation? and (2) How do speakers learn to associate the appropriate SRE structures with the baszC tenses of the language?", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Implications for Learning", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "Let us consider the first sub-Question. In the case of LOC, we have a neat answer .. the constraint need NOT be learned at all! We have shown that LOC falls out naturally as a consequence of the architecture and processing algorithm ot the computational system. AS regards the constraint RP. the learner has tO acquire something similar to Hr. But H1 IS a fairly simple hypothes~s that does not seem to require induct=on on extenswe hngmstic data. Finally, as we have shown =n the previous section, the boundeQness of the flow of information ol a orocessmg system leads directly to ~he locality orooerty of the SOT. The partTcular linking of S and E points as stipulated by the SOT, however, is a parameter of the iJnwersal Grammar that has tO be fixed.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Implications for Learning", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "What about the second sub.question? How do speake~ ~earn to pair SRE conhguratlons wllh the basic tenses? There are 24 possible SRE configurations seven of which get grammat,calized. Here I want to prooose a principle of marKeOness ol SRE structures that has a natural computational motivation.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Implications for Learning", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "Let us recall our restrictive temporal logic of instantaneous interval with one primitive relation, <, and three derived relations: <, >, and >. Represent a SRE configuration as follows:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Implications for Learning", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "The admissible labels are among { <. < =, >, > = }. So there are altogether 64 possible configurations that can be classified into three types:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "S ~ E", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "(1) Inconsistent labelings (16). e.g.. ", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "S ~ E", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "-", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "S\\--( > )", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "R If we assume that labehngs of the third type corresPOnd tO the unmark, ed SRE configurations, the following division of unmarKeO and marked configurations is obtained:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "s -(<)-> E (<) (<)", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "UNMARKED MARKED E~R~S E. RoS EIR.S E,R.S S,R.E S, RoE S~R.E S~RoE PAST PERFECT E~SoR SIMPLE PAST E.SoR PRESENT PERFECT EoS,R SIMPLE PRESENT E.S,R SIMPLE PRESENT SIEoR SIMPLE FUTURE SoE. R S, EmR S.E.R RoSoE Ro$.E R~E~S R~E,S R, E~S R.SmE R,E.S R.S.E", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "s -(<)-> E (<) (<)", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "There are only eight unmarked tense structures corresponding to the sixteen SRE netwo~ configurations of type 3 because a tense structure can be interpreted by more than one network rebresentations, e.g., the Past Perfect (E_R_S) has the tollowing two configurations:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "FUTURE PERFECT", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "S--t:>).-* E S-i(> =)--> E (>) .,VI (>) (>)~ ;>) R", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "FUTURE PERFECT", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The interesting result is that five out of the six basic tenses have unmarked SRE configurations. This agrees largely with our pretheoretlcal intuit=on that the SRE configurations that correspond to the basic tenses should be more \"unmarked\" than other possible SRE configurations. The fit. however, is not exact because the future perfect tense becomes the marked tense in this classification.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "FUTURE PERFECT", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Another prediction by this principle of markedneas is that both the simple future (S_R.E') and distant luture (S_R_E) are unmarked. It would 0e interesting to find out whether there are languages =n which the distant tuture actually gets grammat=calized.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "FUTURE PERFECT", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The final point tO be made =s about the second type of labelmgs. There are two Other possible ways of grouping the laOehngs: (1) given SR and SE. those labehngs ~n winch RE ~s constrained, and (2) given SE and HE. those in which SR is constrained. But these types of grouping are less likely because they would yield me s~mple present tense as a marked tense. Thus. they can be ruleO out iOy relatively few linguistic data.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "FUTURE PERFECT", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "In cons=clenng the problem of tense, we have restricted ourselves to a subset of Aliens temporal logic, namely, using a temporal structure <:T._<> with hnear oraenng of time points. TO make use of the full Dower of Allen's temporal logic, we now turn to the problem of verb aspect.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Verb Aspect", "sec_num": "3." }, { "text": "The two mare problems of the study of verb aspect are the correct charac!erizat~on of (1) the three funclamental types of verb predtcatlon according to the situation types that they signify .. state, process and event, and (2) the p(=rspectwes from which a situation ts viewed, or its truth evaluated --s~mpte or progreSSive. 6 in the first part of his paper. Allen attempts to prowde a formal account of *he state/process/even', d~s~mctlon using a temDoral logic. However. I beheve that htS charactenzahon fa\u00a2ls to capture welt.Known patterns of tense =mot;cations, and does not make the distinction ioetween situation types and perspective types funclamental to any adequate account of verb aspect. In the next 3ect=on. I will present some data that an,/ theory of verb aspect must be able to explain.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Verb Aspect", "sec_num": "3." }, { "text": "3.1.1 Tense Implications 1, Statives rarely take the progressive aspect 7 , e.g.,", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Data", "sec_num": "3.1" }, { "text": "I know the answer. \"1 am knowing the answer, 2. For verb predications denoting processes, the progressive of the verb form entails the perfect form, i.e., x is V.ing --x has V-ed.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Data", "sec_num": "3.1" }, { "text": "For instance, John ts walking ---, John has walked.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Data", "sec_num": "3.1" }, { "text": "3. For verb predications denoting events, the progresswe of the verb form entads the negation of the perfect form, Le.,", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Data", "sec_num": "3.1" }, { "text": "x is V.mg --x has not V.ed.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Data", "sec_num": "3.1" }, { "text": "For instance, John ~s bumidmg a house ~ John has not budt the house.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Data", "sec_num": "3.1" }, { "text": "Sentences containing clauses connected by a connective such as \"when\" have different aspect tnterpretat~ons depending on the s~tuatlon types and perspective types revolved.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sentences containing When", "sec_num": "3.1.2" }, { "text": "[9] John laughed when Mary drew a circle.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sentences containing When", "sec_num": "3.1.2" }, { "text": "Situation/Per~oechve type: X = process/simple; Y = event/s~mple Inl[ernretatlon: X can oe before, after or s=multaneous with Y", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sentences containing When", "sec_num": "3.1.2" }, { "text": "[10] ,;ohn was laugnmg when Mary drew a circle, Situation/P~rsoective type: X = orocess/progresswe; Y = event/s=mble Int~roretatte, n: Y occurs during X.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sentences containing When", "sec_num": "3.1.2" }, { "text": "[11 } ,John was angr'! when Mary drew a cwrcle. Situanon/Persoectwe Woe: X = s=ate/slmole: Y = event/simple Interr~retatton: X can Ioe before, after, simultaneous with or during Y.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sentences containing When", "sec_num": "3.1.2" }, { "text": "[ 12] John was laugnmg when MaP/was drawing a circle. ~it~atmn/Pe~cective Woe: X = croces~/~rogresswe: Y = event/progresswe Inte,pr~ta'~lon: X must be s~multaneous with Y. ", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sentences containing When", "sec_num": "3.1.2" }, { "text": "A process verb can be true only at an interval larger than a single moment. This property differs crucially from mat of the statwes.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Process", "sec_num": "3.2.3" }, { "text": "(Pl): OCCUR(p,t) --per(t) (P2): OCCUR(p,t) --(V t')(per(t') A r C_ t --OCCUR(p,t'))", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Process", "sec_num": "3.2.3" }, { "text": "The following theorem shows that for a process verb, the progressive verb form entails the perfect form. Proof AS in the ~roof of (P.THEOREM). we can find a non-~nstantaneous interval t\" such that t\" < t and t\" C t' But |or any such t\". we have OCCUR(e.t\") Pecause of (E2). That is. it cannot be the case t11at e has occurred. --I.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Process", "sec_num": "3.2.3" }, { "text": "Again the crucial property (El) is not captured by Allen's charactenzat=on of events (ms O.1 ).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Process", "sec_num": "3.2.3" }, { "text": "To account for the variety of aspect interpretations as presented in section 3.1.2, I propose the following constraint on situation/perspective type:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Constraint on temporal interpretations involving When", "sec_num": "3.3" }, { "text": "(C-ASPECT]: Let \"dynamic\" stand for a process or event.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Constraint on temporal interpretations involving When", "sec_num": "3.3" }, { "text": "(a) simple/dynamic .-* morn(t) (b) simple/state ..-per(t) (c) progressive/dynamic -.-* per(t)/k _C PerspeCtive is a way of looking at the situateon type. For process or event, the simple aspect treats U~e situation as an instantaneous interval even though the situation ~tself may not be instantaneous. For state, the simple aspect retains its duration. The progressive aspect essentially views a process or event from its inter=or, thus requiring a stance in which the situation is a non.instantaneous interval and the admissible temporal relationship to be the C_ relations, i.e., s, s~, I, fi.d. di, eoual.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Constraint on temporal interpretations involving When", "sec_num": "3.3" }, { "text": "Let me show graphically how C.ASPECT accounts for the aspect interpretations of sentences {9] to {12].", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Constraint on temporal interpretations involving When", "sec_num": "3.3" }, { "text": "[g'] simple/process WHEN simple/event ", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Constraint on temporal interpretations involving When", "sec_num": "3.3" }, { "text": "In this paper, I nave exam=ned two problems regarding linguistic semantics: tense and asDect. Important relationships between al~s;ract constra,nts governing lingu=st,c behavior and a computational scheme to reason aDout temporal relationships are discussed.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Conclusion", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "In particular, I have shown that certain formal constraints, such as the Linear Order Constraint on tense, fall out naturally as a consequence of some computational assumptions. The interesting result =s that this formal constraint need not be learned at all, Another important role of a representation scheme in explaining phenomena that exist on a entirely different -. linguustic --level is illustrated by the formulation of the C-ASPECT constraint to account for ~nterpretatlons of sentences conta,ning temporal connectwes.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Conclusion", "sec_num": "4." }, { "text": "The study of linguistic semanhcs also sheds light on a representation of tJm~ hy reveahng the fundamental distractions that must be made, e.g.. a tensed sentence revolves three distract time points, and the aspectual interpretations reclu~re instantaneous/non-instantaneous ~nterval distinction.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Conclusion", "sec_num": "4." } ], "back_matter": [ { "text": "; would like to lh:.mk Prof Robert C. BerwIck lor his insi(.Jhtful sugge'.';hon Ihat lhe r(flahonshlp t)~.~lwHP.n a co(jnd~ve mP..ory Of lime all(l a hll(llLll.'3tlC theory of lense ts a Irullhll 'and mq)ortam area for research. He also contrtbuled 5ut)stam~;.llly to lhP. presenlalion of lhLs paper Finally, I LIIso thank Nort)eft Hornstem who prowded useful comments durm(j the revision el this paper.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Acknowledgments", "sec_num": null } ], "bib_entries": { "BIBREF0": { "ref_id": "b0", "title": "Towards a General Theory of Action and Trine", "authors": [ { "first": "Allen", "middle": [], "last": "James", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1983, "venue": "AlienS,3} \"Maintaining Knowledge aJ3out Temporal Intervals", "volume": "23", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "james Allen, \"Towards a General Theory of Action and Trine\", AI JournBI , Vol 23, No. 2, July, 1984. [AlienS,3} \"Maintaining Knowledge aJ3out Temporal Intervals\". CACM Vol 26. No. 11. NOV, 1983.", "links": null }, "BIBREF2": { "ref_id": "b2", "title": "The study of meaning m natural language", "authors": [ { "first": "Norioert", "middle": [], "last": "Hornstem", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1977, "venue": "", "volume": "8", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Norioert Hornstem. \"The study of meaning m natural language\", in: Exolanabon tn (~tnculstlcs, Longman, 1981. [Hornstem77} \"Towards a Theory of Tense\", Lmqu~st\u00a2c InQuiry, Vol 8, No. 3, Summer 1977.", "links": null }, "BIBREF3": { "ref_id": "b3", "title": "The Phdosoohv of Grammar", "authors": [ { "first": "Otto", "middle": [], "last": "Jcspersen", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1965, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Otto Jcspersen, The Phdosoohv of Grammar, Norton L~brary 1965.", "links": null }, "BIBREF4": { "ref_id": "b4", "title": "Events, processes and soates '', L.:noutsttC3 and Ph=losoohv 2", "authors": [ { "first": "Ap", "middle": [ "D" ], "last": "Imoure=;~tos78}", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "", "middle": [], "last": "Mouremtos", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1978, "venue": "", "volume": "", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "IMoure=;~tOS78} AP.D. Mouremtos, \"Events, processes and soates '', L.:noutsttC3 and Ph=losoohv 2, 1978.", "links": null }, "BIBREF5": { "ref_id": "b5", "title": "Tense and AsPect Of Present Day American Enqil~h", "authors": [ { "first": "Kjra", "middle": [], "last": "Eta", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1963, "venue": "LinQuistics and Philosochv", "volume": "1", "issue": "", "pages": "", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "KJra eta, Tense and AsPect Of Present Day American Enqil~h, Tokyo. 1963. [TaylorTTJ ~arry Taylor, \"Tense and Continuity\", LinQuistics and Philosochv 1, 1977.", "links": null } }, "ref_entries": { "FIGREF0": { "uris": null, "num": null, "text": "See-toot;tote 7 ~ 11 Of Morn~Itein'$ ~IO~'. 4 There rely Oe clouOts ~ re0a~s II~ ac=~ta~ilily of 5dii. An ~ui\u00a51m~ t~ ot 5\u00a2iii ~ a\u00a2clmtal~ ,~ Dan~ (JeSl~lrJI4ll~. D.271]. A~IO. in French, IRe I ~'e~t moment (Comne76, D.al).", "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF1": { "uris": null, "num": null, "text": "The bes,s of Allen's comDutat=onal system ts a temporal logic based on intervals instead of time points. The temporal logic cons=stS of seven basic relations and their mveraes (Allen84, D.129, figure 1):", "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF2": { "uris": null, "num": null, "text": "B range over { S, A1 E } and A = B. There are five bas=c types ol violations of the LOC: 1. A_B --B_A 2. A B -, A,B 3. A_B --., B.A", "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF3": { "uris": null, "num": null, "text": "-REL) = { <.>.=,m.mi } before (T T-REL) = { > }", "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF4": { "uris": null, "num": null, "text": "Labelings that do not constrain the SE given the labelings of SR and RE (32), e.g.: Labelings that are consistent and the SE )ink is c0nstra~ned by the SR and RE ]~nk (16), e.g..", "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF5": { "uris": null, "num": null, "text": "Some of tl~ oener worlu~ are: Vcmdledr/. C~mne78. ~78. ?. It ~ ofllm been ~ OUl trill some Slal~ves do ta~e the oro~'es..~ve form. E.G., \"I am rnmkmg aOoul U~ exam.'. \"The doctor ts se~ng a pauenl.\" Ploweves,. a ~lut=l~l\u00a2~ slucly ~ ~ that ~ tam*~ar stal,ve= rarely occur ~ln the prl)gress~ve aspect -. ~ thin 2% ol me lm~ (01,1~=3. secUon 2.2){a) X C Y ,,.-* Xd Y V XsY V Xf Y (b) X C Y *-, X C Y V X e~ualY(c) mom(t) \".-. t is an instantaneous ,nterval, i.e., consists of a smgle moment of time(d) per(t) '--t is a non-instantaneous interval 8where X and Y are generic symbols denoting state, event or process.3.2.1 Progressive(PROG): OCCUR(PROG(v,t)) --morn(t) A ~ OCCUR(v,I) A (3 r)(t d t' A OCCUR(v,t')) 9The progresswe aspect ss the evaluation of a situation from an interior oOmt t of the s~tuatlon which has the prooerty that though the sentence ts not true at that instantaneous ~nterval, ~t =s true m a nonqnstantaneous ~nterval r properly containing t.3.2.2 State(Sl): OCCUR(s,t) --(V t')(mom(t') A t' C t --OCCUR(s,t'))A state verb is true at every instantaneous interval of t. The clefmitlon is slmttar to Aliens H. 1(Allen84, 13.130).The following theorem shows that state verbs do not occur with the progressive aspect.(S.THEOREM): \"OCCUR(PROG(s,t)) Proof CCCUR(PROG(s.t)) morn(t) A -'~ OCCUR(s,t) A (~1 t')(t dt' A OCCUR(s.t')) --OCCUR(s.t') tor some t containing t --OCCUR(s.t) (by S1) '. contradiction. -t This theorem raises the tollow=ng quest=on: Why do some statlves occur w~th the orogresswe? I th~nK there are two answers.First, the verb in question may nave a use other than the statwe use (e.g. \"have\" is a statJve when tt means \"possess=on\", and not a s,*atlve when it means \"experiencing\" as ~n \"John =s having a good time tn Paris.\") Second. the English progressive may have a second meamng m addit,on to that cnaractenzed by PROG above.A freouent usage of the progresSwe =s to and=care short duration or temporariness, e.g., m \"They are hying m CamDrldge\"/\"They live =n Cambridge\".", "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF6": { "uris": null, "num": null, "text": "(p,t)) --morn(t) A \"~ OCCUR(p.t) A (3 t')(t d t' A OCCUR(p.t')) --... OCCUR(p.t') for some r such that t d t' --3m 1 Et'.m lThe corresponding analysisisasfollows:For [1] the new analysis is:E.R~S ---E,R~S[4'] i. E__R.S E. RmS(BAD)I E~R. SEIR~SIif. E__R.S E__R__S(BAD)which does not violate the RTC and hence predicts (wrongly) that [1 ] =s acceptable. Similarly, for [2], the new analys,s is:iii. E__R.S E.R.S(OK)S.R,E I E~R. S--S.R.E I EIS, R. (violatesRTC)iv. E~R.S(OK)EoR, Sv. E~R,S(BAD)S~R.EThus sentence [3l:{3] .John came when we had arrivecl.~s acceptable because its tense structure does not v=otate RP:E.R__S(OK: S and R points areEIRI$already aligned)NOW, ~et us reconsider sentences [1] and [2]. Sentence [1] is notacceptable uncler RP and the new tense structure for presentperfect since:E.R._S(violates RP: r.ne two R'sEIR.Sare not aligned)Sentence [2] ,s still a problem. Here I snail maKe my thirdproposal, namely, that tne simple present admits Iwo Ioas~c tensestructures:SIMPLE PRESENTS.R.EandE.R,SGiven this modification, sentence [2] will now be acceptable since:E.R,S(S and R points are aligned)E~R. S", "type_str": "table" }, "TABREF4": { "num": null, "text": "8. This SeCtIOn loenehL~ from the Ins~lhtS o! ear~ Taylor (\"rayldrT~. 9 & rewewet O! this oaOer po,nts out tnot me PI::IOG axiom seems to imDty tRat if something IS IO I~rOCJtlL~, II f'flg..~l complete. Thus. ,f Max is Oraw,ng a circle. II'=en at some. tuture time. ne must nave drawn the cIn:le. This =nt~ence =S clearty false because ;~efe ~ noth,ng contradiCtOry aJoou! \"Max was Orawmg a ca:tie Out he never drew ,t.\" For ,ns[aoce. Max ml(Jnt su!tef a heart altaclL anti ~J auOOe~y. This =met.ante problem of the orogressNe 'orm ot a evenl veto =s xnown as If~", "html": null, "content": "", "type_str": "table" } } } }