{ "paper_id": "P96-1023", "header": { "generated_with": "S2ORC 1.0.0", "date_generated": "2023-01-19T09:03:04.505866Z" }, "title": "INVITED TALK Head Automata and Bilingual Tiling: Translation with Minimal Representations", "authors": [ { "first": "Hiyan", "middle": [], "last": "Alshawi", "suffix": "", "affiliation": { "laboratory": "", "institution": "AT&T Research", "location": { "addrLine": "600 Mountain Avenue", "postCode": "07974", "settlement": "Murray Hill", "region": "NJ", "country": "USA" } }, "email": "hiyan@research.att.com" } ], "year": "", "venue": null, "identifiers": {}, "abstract": "We present a language model consisting of a collection of costed bidirectional finite state automata associated with the head words of phrases. The model is suitable for incremental application of lexical associations in a dynamic programming search for optimal dependency tree derivations. We also present a model and algorithm for machine translation involving optimal \"tiling\" of a dependency tree with entries of a costed bilingual lexicon. Experimental results are reported comparing methods for assigning cost functions to these models. We conclude with a discussion of the adequacy of annotated linguistic strings as representations for machine translation.", "pdf_parse": { "paper_id": "P96-1023", "_pdf_hash": "", "abstract": [ { "text": "We present a language model consisting of a collection of costed bidirectional finite state automata associated with the head words of phrases. The model is suitable for incremental application of lexical associations in a dynamic programming search for optimal dependency tree derivations. We also present a model and algorithm for machine translation involving optimal \"tiling\" of a dependency tree with entries of a costed bilingual lexicon. Experimental results are reported comparing methods for assigning cost functions to these models. We conclude with a discussion of the adequacy of annotated linguistic strings as representations for machine translation.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Abstract", "sec_num": null } ], "body_text": [ { "text": "Until the advent of statistical methods in the mainstream of natural language processing, syntactic and semantic representations were becoming progressively more complex. This trend is now reversing itself, in part because statistical methods reduce the burden of detailed modeling required by constraint-based grammars, and in part because statistical models for converting natural language into complex syntactic or semantic representations is not well understood at present. At the same time, lexically centered views of language have continued to increase in popularity. We can see this in lexicalized grammatical theories, head-driven parsing and generation, and statistical disambiguation based on lexical associations.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "These themes --simple representations, statistical modeling, and lexicalism --form the basis for the models and algorithms described in the bulk of this paper. The primary purpose is to build effective mechanisms for machine translation, the oldest and still the most commonplace application of nonsuperficial natural language processing. A secondary motivation is to test the extent to which a non-trivial language processing task can be carried out without complex semantic representations.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "In Section 2 we present reversible mono-lingual models consisting of collections of simple automata associated with the heads of phrases. These head automata are applied by an algorithm with admissible incremental pruning based on semantic association costs, providing a practical solution to the problem of combinatoric disambiguation (Church and Patil 1982) . The model is intended to combine the lexical sensitivity of N-gram models (Jelinek et al. 1992) and the structural properties of statistical context free grammars (Booth 1969) without the computational overhead of statistical lexicalized treeadjoining grammars (Schabes 1992 , Resnik 1992 .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 336, "end": 359, "text": "(Church and Patil 1982)", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 436, "end": 457, "text": "(Jelinek et al. 1992)", "ref_id": "BIBREF13" }, { "start": 525, "end": 537, "text": "(Booth 1969)", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 623, "end": 636, "text": "(Schabes 1992", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 637, "end": 650, "text": ", Resnik 1992", "ref_id": "BIBREF15" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "For translation, we use a model for mapping dependency graphs written by the source language head automata. This model is coded entirely as a bilingual lexicon, with associated cost parameters. The transfer algorithm described in Section 4 searches for the lowest cost 'tiling' of the target dependency graph with entries from the bilingual lexicon. Dynamic programming is again used to make exhaustive search tractable, avoiding the combinatoric explosion of shake-and-bake translation (Whitelock 1992 , Brew 1992 .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 487, "end": 502, "text": "(Whitelock 1992", "ref_id": "BIBREF17" }, { "start": 503, "end": 514, "text": ", Brew 1992", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "In Section 5 we present a general framework for associating costs with the solutions of search processes, pointing out some benefits of cost functions other than log likelihood, including an error-minimization cost function for unsupervised training of the parameters in our translation application. Section 6 briefly describes an English-Chinese translator employing the models and algorithms. We also present experimental results comparing the performance of different cost assignment methods.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "Finally, we return to the more general discussion of representations for machine translation and other natural language processing tasks, arguing the case for simple representations close to natural language itself.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Introduction", "sec_num": "1" }, { "text": "Head automata mono-lingual language models consist of a lexicon, in which each entry is a pair (w, m) of a word w from a vocabulary V and a head automaton m (defined below), and a parameter table giving an assignment of costs to events in a generative process involving the automata.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Lexieal and Dependency Parameters", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "We first describe the model in terms of the familiar paradigm of a generative statistical model, presenting the parameters as conditional probabilities. This gives us a stochastic version of dependency grammar (Hudson 1984) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 210, "end": 223, "text": "(Hudson 1984)", "ref_id": "BIBREF10" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Lexieal and Dependency Parameters", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "Each derivation in the generative statistical model produces an ordered dependency tree, that is, a tree in which nodes dominate ordered sequences of left and right subtrees and in which the nodes have labels taken from the vocabulary V and the arcs have labels taken from a set R of relation symbols. When a node with label w immediately dominates a node with label w' via an arc with label r, we say that w' is an r-dependent of the head w. The interpretation of this directed arc is that relation r holds between particular instances of w and w'. (A word may have several or no r-dependents for a particular relation r.) A recursive left-parent-right traversal of the nodes of an ordered dependency tree for a derivation yields the word string for the derivation. A head automaton m of a lexical entry (w, m) defines possible ordered local trees immediately dominated by w in derivations. Model parameters for head automata, together with dependency parameters and lexical parameters, give a probability distribution for derivations.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Lexieal and Dependency Parameters", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "A dependency parameter P ( L w'lw, r') is the probability, given a head w with a dependent arc with label r', that w' is the r'-dependent for this arc.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 25, "end": 38, "text": "( L w'lw, r')", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Lexieal and Dependency Parameters", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "A lexical parameter P (m, qlr, t, w) is the probability that a local tree immediately dominated by an r-dependent w is derived by starting in state q of some automaton m in a lexieal entry (w, m). The model also includes lexieal parameters P(w,m, qlt>) for the probability that w is the head word for an entire derivation initiated from state q of automaton m.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 22, "end": 36, "text": "(m, qlr, t, w)", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 240, "end": 252, "text": "P(w,m, qlt>)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Lexieal and Dependency Parameters", "sec_num": "2.1" }, { "text": "A head automaton is a weighted finite state machine that writes (or accepts) a pair of sequences of relation symbols from R:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Head Automata", "sec_num": "2.2" }, { "text": "((rl...", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Head Automata", "sec_num": "2.2" }, { "text": "These correspond to the relations between a head word and the sequences of dependent phrases to its left and right (see Figure 1 ). The machine consists of a finite set q0, \u2022 \u2022 \", qs of states and an action table specifying the finite cost (non-zero probability)", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 120, "end": 128, "text": "Figure 1", "ref_id": null } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "r,)).", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "actions the automaton can undergo. There are three types of action for an automaton m: left transitions, right transitions, and stop actions. These actions, together with associated probabilistic model parameters, are as follows. \u2022 Left transition: if in state qi-1, m can write a symbol r onto the right end of the current left sequence and enter state qi with probability P (~, qi, rlqi-1, m) . \u2022 Right transition: if in state qi-1, m can write a symbol r onto the left end of the current right sequence and enter state qi with probability P (--* , qi, rlqi-1, m) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 376, "end": 394, "text": "(~, qi, rlqi-1, m)", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 544, "end": 565, "text": "(--* , qi, rlqi-1, m)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "r,)).", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "\u2022 Stop: if in state q, m can stop with probability P(t31q , m), at which point the sequences are considered complete.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "r,)).", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "For a consistent probabilistic model, the probabilities of all transitions and stop actions from a state q must sum to unity. Any state of a head automaton can be an initial state, the probability of a particular initial state in a derivation being specified by lexical parameters. A derivation of a pair of symbol sequence thus corresponds to the selection of an initial state, a sequence of zero or more transitions (writing the symbols) and a stop action. The probability, given an initial state q, that automaton m will a generate a pair of sequences, i.e. P ((rl'.. rk) ", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 563, "end": 574, "text": "((rl'.. rk)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "r,)).", "sec_num": null }, { "text": ", (rk+l\"'' rn)Ira, q)", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "r,)).", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "is the product of the probabilities of the actions taken to generate the sequences. The case of zero transitions will yield empty sequences, corresponding to a leaf node of the dependency tree.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "r,)).", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "From a linguistic perspective, head automata allow for a compact, graded, notion of lexical subcategorization (Gazdar et al. 1985) and the linear order of a head and its dependent phrases. Lexical parameters can control the saturation of a lexical item (for example a verb that is both transitive and intransitive) by starting the same automaton in different states. Head automata can also be used to code a grammar in which states of an automaton for word w corresponds to X-bar levels (Jaekendoff 1977) for phrases headed by w.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 110, "end": 130, "text": "(Gazdar et al. 1985)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "r,)).", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Head automata are formally more powerful than finite state automata that accept regular languages in the following sense. Each head automaton defines a formal language with alphabet R whose strings are the concatenation of the left and right sequence pairs written by the automaton. The class of languages defined in this way clearly includes all regular languages, since strings of a regular language can be generated, for example, by a head automaton that only writes a left sequence. Head automata can also accept some non-regular languages requiring coordination of the left and right sequences, for example the language anb ~ (requiring two states), and the language of palindromes over a finite alphabet.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "r,)).", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Let the probability of generating an ordered dependency subtree D headed by an r-dependent word w be P(D]w, r). The recursive process of generating this subtree proceeds as follows:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Derivation Probability", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "1. Select an initial state q of an automaton m for w with lexical probability P (m, q[r, ~, w) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 80, "end": 94, "text": "(m, q[r, ~, w)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Derivation Probability", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "2. Run the automaton m0 with initial state q to generate a pair of relation sequences with probability P((rl... rk), (rk+l-\"\" r,,)lm, q).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Derivation Probability", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "3. For each relation ri in these sequences, select a dependent word wi with dependency probability P (l, wi[w, ri) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 101, "end": 114, "text": "(l, wi[w, ri)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Derivation Probability", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "4. For each dependent wi, recursively generate a subtree with probability P(D~ Iwi, ri).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Derivation Probability", "sec_num": "2.3" }, { "text": "We can now express the probability P(Do) for an entire ordered dependency tree derivation Do headed by a word w0 as P(Do) = P(wo, too, q0[ 1>) P ( (rl . . . rl,) , (rk+l \" . . rnl Imo, qo) YIl ).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Generation", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "2. Execute a path through the head automaton m starting at state q and ending at state q' with a finite stop action cost C(Olq' , m). When making a transition with relation ri in the path, select a graph edge with label ri from w to some previously unvisited node wi with finite dependency cost C (~,wilw, ri) . Include the cost of the transition (e.g. C(---% ql, rilqi-1, m)) in the running total for this derivation.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 297, "end": 309, "text": "(~,wilw, ri)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Generation", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "3. For each dependent node wi, select a lexical entry with cost C(mi, qilri, J., wi), and recursively apply the machine rni from state ql as in step 2.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Generation", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "4. Perform a left-parent-right traversal of the nodes of the resulting dependency tree, yielding a target string.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Generation", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "The target string resulting from the lowest cost tree that includes all nodes in the graph is selected as the translation target string. The independence assumptions implicit in head automata models mean that we can select lowest cost orderings of local dependency trees, below a given relation r, independently in the search for the lowest cost derivation. When the generator is used as part of the translation system, the dependency parameter costs are not, in fact, applied by the generator. Instead, because these parameters are independent of surface order, they are applied earlier by the transfer component, influencing the choice of structure passed to the generator. The transfer parameter table specifies costs for the application of transfer entries. In a contextindependent model, each entry has a single cost parameter. In context-dependent transfer models, the cost function takes into account the identities of the labels of the arcs and nodes dominating wi in the source graph. (Context dependence is discussed further in Section 5.) The set of transfer parameters may also include costs for the null transfer entries for wi, for use in derivations in which wi is translated by the entry for another word v. For example, the entry for v might be for translating an idiom involving wi as a modifier.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Generation", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "Each entry in the bilingual lexicon specifies a way of mapping part of a dependency tree, specifically that part \"matching\" (as explained below) the source fragment of the entry, into part of a target graph, as indicated by the target fragment. Entry mapping functions specify how the set of target fragments for deriving a translation are to be combined: whenever an entry is applied, a global node-mapping function is extended to include the entry mapping function.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Generation", "sec_num": "3.2" }, { "text": "Transfer mapping takes a source dependency tree S from analysis and produces a minimum cost derivation of a target graph T and a (possibly partial) function f from source nodes to target nodes. In fact, the transfer model is applicable to certain types of source dependency graphs that are more general than trees, although the version of the head automata model described here only produces trees.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Matching, Tiling, and Derivation", "sec_num": "4.2" }, { "text": "We will say that a tree fragment H matches an unordered dependency tree S if there is a function g (a matching function) from the nodes of H to the nodes of S such that \u2022 g is a total one-one function;", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Matching, Tiling, and Derivation", "sec_num": "4.2" }, { "text": "\u2022 if a node n of H has a label, and that label is word w, then the word label for g(n) is also w;", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Matching, Tiling, and Derivation", "sec_num": "4.2" }, { "text": "\u2022 for every arc in H with label r from node nl to node n2, there is an arc with label r from g(nz) to g(n2).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Matching, Tiling, and Derivation", "sec_num": "4.2" }, { "text": "Unlike first order unification, this definition of matching is not commutative and is not deterministic in that there may be multiple matching functions for applying a bilingual entry to an input source tree. A particular match of an entry against a dependency tree can be represented by the matching function g, a set of arcs A in S, and the (possibly context dependent) cost c of applying the entry. \u2022 k is the number of nodes in the source tree S.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Matching, Tiling, and Derivation", "sec_num": "4.2" }, { "text": "\u2022 Each Ei, 1 < i ~ k, is a bilingual entry (wi, Hi, hi, Gi, fil matching S with function gi (see Figure 2 ) and arcs Ai. A tiling of S yields a costed derivation of a target dependency graph T as follows:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 97, "end": 105, "text": "Figure 2", "ref_id": "FIGREF2" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Matching, Tiling, and Derivation", "sec_num": "4.2" }, { "text": "\u2022 The cost of the derivation is the sum of the costs ci for each match in the tiling.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Matching, Tiling, and Derivation", "sec_num": "4.2" }, { "text": "\u2022 The nodes and arcs of T are composed of the nodes and arcs of the target fragments Gi for the entries Ei.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Matching, Tiling, and Derivation", "sec_num": "4.2" }, { "text": "\u2022 Let fi and fj be the mapping functions for entries Ei and Ej. For any node n of S for which target nodes fi(g[l(n)) and fj(g~l(n)) are defined, these two nodes are identified as a single node f(n) in T.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Matching, Tiling, and Derivation", "sec_num": "4.2" }, { "text": "The merging of target fragment nodes in the last condition has the effect of joining the target fragments in a consistent fashion. The node mapping function f for the entire tree thus has a different role from the alignment function in the IBM statistical translation model (Brown et al. 1990 (Brown et al. , 1993 ; the role of the latter includes the linear ordering of words in the target string. In our approach, target word order is handled exclusively by the target monolingual model.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 274, "end": 292, "text": "(Brown et al. 1990", "ref_id": "BIBREF0" }, { "start": 293, "end": 313, "text": "(Brown et al. , 1993", "ref_id": "BIBREF1" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Matching, Tiling, and Derivation", "sec_num": "4.2" }, { "text": "The main transfer search is preceded by a bilingual lexicon matching phase. This leads to greater efficiency as it avoids repeating matching operations during the search phase, and it allows a static analysis of the matching entries and source tree to identify subtrees for which the search phase can safely prune out suboptimal partial translations.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Transfer Algorithm", "sec_num": "4.3" }, { "text": "Transfer Configurations In order to apply target language model relation costs incrementally, we need to distinguish between complete and incomplete arcs: an arc is complete if both its nodes have labels, otherwise it is incomplete. The output of the lexicon matching phrase, and the partial derivations manipulated by the search phase are both in the form of transfer configurations (S,R,T,P,f,c,I) where S is the set of source nodes and arcs consumed so far in the derivation, R the remaining source nodes and arcs, f the mapping function built so far, T the set of nodes and complete arcs of the target graph, P the set of incomplete target arcs, c the partial derivation cost, and I a set of source nodes for which entries have yet to be applied.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 384, "end": 399, "text": "(S,R,T,P,f,c,I)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Transfer Algorithm", "sec_num": "4.3" }, { "text": "Lexical matching phase The algorithm for lexical matching has a similar control structure to standard unification algorithms, except that it can result in multiple matches. We omit the details. The lexicon matching phase returns, for each source node i, a set of runtime entries. There is one runtime entry for each successful match and possibly a null entry for the node if the word label for i is included in successful matches for other entries. Runtime entries are transfer configurations of the form (Hi, \u00a2, Gi, Pi, fi, ci, {i}) in which Hi is the source fragment for the entry with each node replaced by its image under the applicable matching function; Gi the target fragment for the entry, except for the incomplete arcs Pi of this fragment; fi the composition of mapping function for the entry with the inverse of the matching function; ci the cost of applying the entry in the context of its match with the source graph plus the cost in the target model of the arcs in Gi.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 505, "end": 533, "text": "(Hi, \u00a2, Gi, Pi, fi, ci, {i})", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Transfer Algorithm", "sec_num": "4.3" }, { "text": "Transfer Search Before the transfer search proper, the resulting runtime entries together with the source graph are analyzed to determine decomposition nodes. A decomposition node n is a source tree node for which it is safe to prune suboptimal translations of the subtree dominated by n. Specifically, it is checked that n is the root node of all source fragments Hn of runtime entries in which both n and its node label are included, and that fn(n) is not dominated by (i.e. not reachable via directed arcs from) another node in the target graph Gn of such entries.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Transfer Algorithm", "sec_num": "4.3" }, { "text": "Transfer search maintains a set M of active runtime entries. InitiMly, this is the set of runtime entries resulting from the lexicon matching phase. Overall search control is as follows:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Transfer Algorithm", "sec_num": "4.3" }, { "text": "1. Determine the set of decomposition nodes.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Transfer Algorithm", "sec_num": "4.3" }, { "text": "that if nl dominates n2 in S then n2 precedes nl in D.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sort the decomposition nodes into a list D such", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "3. If D is empty, apply the subtree transfer search (given below) to S, return the lowest cost solution, and stop. 4. Remove the first decomposition node n from D and apply the subtree transfer search to the subtree S ~ dominated by n, to yield solutions (s', \u00a2, T', \u00a2, f', c', \u00a2).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sort the decomposition nodes into a list D such", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "5. Partition these solutions into subsets with the same word label for the node fl(n), and select the solution with lowest cost c' from each subset. 6. Remove from M the set of runtime entries for nodes in S ~. 7. For each selected subtree solution, add to M a new runtime entry (S', \u00a2, T', f', c', {n}). 8. Repeat from step 3. The subtree transfer search maintains a queue Q of configurations corresponding to partial derivations for translating the subtree. Control follows a standard non-deterministic search paradigm:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sort the decomposition nodes into a list D such", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "1. Initialize Q to contain a single configuration (\u00a2, R0, \u00a2, \u00a2, \u00a2, 0, I0) with the input subtree R0 and the set of nodes I0 in R0. 2. If Q is empty, return the lowest cost solution found and stop. 3. Remove a configuration iS, R, T, P, f, c, I) from the queue. 4. If R is empty, add the configuration to the set of subtree solutions. 5. Select a node i from I. 6. For each runtime entry (Hi, \u00a2, Gi, Pi, fi, cl, {i}) for i, if Hi is a subgraph of R, add to Q a configuration iS 0 Hi, T O Gi 0 G', fO fi, c +ci +cv, , , where G' is the set of newly completed arcs (those in P t3 Pi with both node labels in T U Gi O P 0 Pi) and cg, is the cost of the arcs G' in the target language model. 7. For any source node n for which f(n) and fi(n)", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 387, "end": 415, "text": "(Hi, \u00a2, Gi, Pi, fi, cl, {i})", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 483, "end": 495, "text": "T O Gi 0 G',", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 496, "end": 502, "text": "fO fi,", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 503, "end": 513, "text": "c +ci +cv,", "ref_id": null }, { "start": 514, "end": 515, "text": ",", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sort the decomposition nodes into a list D such", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "are both defined, merge these two target nodes. 8. Repeat from step 2. Keeping the arcs P separate in the configuration allows efficient incremental application of target dependency costs cv, during the search, so these costs are taken into account in the pruning step of the overall search control. This way we can keep the benefits of monolingual/bilingual modularity (Isabelle and Macklovitch 1986) without the compu-tationM overhead of transfer-and-filter (Alshawi et al. 1992) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 460, "end": 481, "text": "(Alshawi et al. 1992)", "ref_id": "BIBREF0" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sort the decomposition nodes into a list D such", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "It is possible to apply the subtree search directly to the whole graph starting with the initial runtime entries from lexical matching. However, this would result in an exponential search, specifically a search tree with a branching factor of the order of the number of matching entries per input word. Fortunately, long sentences typically have several decomposition nodes, such as the heads of noun phrases, so the search as described is factored into manageable components.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Sort the decomposition nodes into a list D such", "sec_num": "2." }, { "text": "Cost Functions", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "5", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The head automata model and transfer model were originally conceived as probabilistic models. In order to take advantage of more of the information available in our training data, we experimented with cost functions that make use of incorrect translations as negative examples and also to treat the correctness of a translation hypothesis as a matter of degree.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Costed Search Processes", "sec_num": "5.1" }, { "text": "To experiment with different models, we implemented a general mechanism for associating costs to solutions of a search process. Here, a search process is conceptualized as a non-deterministic computation that takes a single input string, undergoes a sequence of state transitions in a non-deterministic fashion, then outputs a solution string. Process states are distinct from, but may include, head automaton states.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Costed Search Processes", "sec_num": "5.1" }, { "text": "A cost function for a search process is a real valued function defined on a pair of equivalence classes of process states. The first element of the pair, a context c, is an equivalence class of states before transitions. The second element, an event e, is an equivalence class of states after transitions. (The equivalence relations for contexts and events may be different.) We refer to an event-context pair as a choice, for which we use the notation", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Costed Search Processes", "sec_num": "5.1" }, { "text": "borrowed from the special case of conditional probabilities. The cost of a derivation of a solution by the process is taken to be the sum of costs of choices involved in the derivation.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "(efc)", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "We represent events and contexts by finite sequences of symbols (typically words or relation symbols in the translation application). We write C(al'\"anlbl'\"bk) for the cost of the event represented by (al ..-a,~) in the context represented by(b1 ..-bk).", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 143, "end": 159, "text": "C(al'\"anlbl'\"bk)", "ref_id": null } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "(efc)", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "\"Backed off\" costs can be computed by averaging over larger equivalence classes (represented by shorter sequences in which positions are eliminated systematically). A similar smoothing technique has been applied to the specific case of prepositional phrase attachment by Collins and Brooks (1995) . We have used backed off costs in the translation application for the various cost functions described be-low. Although this resulted in some improvement in testing, so far the improvement has not been statistically significant.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 271, "end": 296, "text": "Collins and Brooks (1995)", "ref_id": "BIBREF4" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "(efc)", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Taken together, the events, contexts, and cost function constitute a process cost model, or simply a model. The cost function specifies the model parameters; the other components are the model structure.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Model Cost Functions", "sec_num": "5.2" }, { "text": "We have experimented with a number of model types, including the following.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Model Cost Functions", "sec_num": "5.2" }, { "text": "In this model we assume a probability distribution on the possible events for a context, that is, E~ P(elc) = 1.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Probabilistic model:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The cost parameters of the model are defined as:", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Probabilistic model:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "C(elc) = -ln(P(elc)).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Probabilistic model:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Given a set of solutions from executions of a process, let n+(e]e) be the number of times choice (e[c) was taken leading to acceptable solutions (e.g. correct translations) and n+(c) be the number of times context c was encountered for these solutions. We can then estimate the probabilistic model costs with C(elc ) ~ ln(n+(c)) -ln(n+(elc)). Mean distance model: In the mean distance model, we make use of some measure of goodness of a solution ts for some input s by comparing it against an ideal solution is for s with a distance metric h: h(t,,i,) ~ d in which d is a non-negative real number. A parameter for choice (e]c) in the distance model", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Probabilistic model:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "C(elc) = Eh(elc)", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Probabilistic model:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "is the mean value of h(t~,t~) for solutions t, produced by derivations including the choice (eIc).", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Probabilistic model:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The mean distance model does not use the constraint that a particular choice faced by a process is always a choice between events with the same context. It is also somewhat sensitive to peculiarities of the distance function h. With the same assumptions we made for the mean distance model, let that is, the ratio of the expected distance for derivations involving the choice and the expected distance for all derivations involving the context for that choice.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Normalized distance model:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Reflexive Training If we have a manually translated corpus, we can apply the mean and normalized distance models to translation by taking the ideal solution t~ for translating a source string s to be the manual translation for s. In the absence of good metrics for comparing translations, we employ a heuristic string distance metric to compare word selection and word order in t~ and ~s.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Normalized distance model:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "In order to train the model parameters without a manually translated corpus, we use a \"reflexive\" training method (similar in spirit to the \"wakesleep\" algorithm, Hinton et al. 1995) . In this method, our search process translates a source sentence s to ts in the target language and then translates t~ back to a source language sentence #. The original sentence s can then act as the ideal solution of the overall process. For this training method to be effective, we need a reasonably good initial model, i.e. one for which the distance h(s, #) is inversely correlated with the probability that t~ is a good translation of s.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 163, "end": 182, "text": "Hinton et al. 1995)", "ref_id": "BIBREF9" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Normalized distance model:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "We have built an experimental translation system using the monolingual and translation models described in this paper. The system translates sentences in the ATIS domain (Hirschman et al. 1993) between English and Mandarin Chinese. The translator is in fact a subsystem of a speech translation prototype, though the experiments we describe here are for transcribed spoken utterances. (We informally refer to the transcribed utterances as sentences.) The average time taken for translation of sentences (of unrestricted length) from the ATIS corpus was around 1.7 seconds with approximately 0.4 seconds being taken by the analysis algorithm and 0.7 seconds by the transfer algorithm. English and Chinese lexicons of around 1200 and 1000 words respectively were constructed. Altogether, the entries in these lexicons made reference to around 200 structurally distinct head automata. The transfer lexicon contained around 3500 paired graph fragments, most of which were used in both transfer directions. With this model structure, we tried a number of methods for assigning cost functions. The nature of the training methods and their corresponding cost functions meant that different amounts of training data could be used, as discussed further below.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 170, "end": 193, "text": "(Hirschman et al. 1993)", "ref_id": "BIBREF11" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Experimental System", "sec_num": "6" }, { "text": "The methods make use of a supervised training set and an unsupervised training set, both sets being chosen at random from the 20,000 or so ATIS sentences available to us. The supervised training set comprised around 1950 sentences. A subcollection of 1150 of these sentences were translated by the system, and the resulting translations manually classified as 'good' (800 translations) or 'bad' (350 translations). The remaining 800 supervised training set sentences were hand-tagged for prepositional attachment points. (Prepositional phrase attachment is a major cause of ambiguity in the ATIS corpus, and moreover can affect English-Chinese translation, see Chen and Chen 1992 .) The attachment information was used to generate additional negative and positive counts for dependency choices. The unsupervised training set consisted of approximately 13,000 sentences; it was used for automatic training (as described under 'Reflexive Training' above) by translating the sentences into Chinese and back to English.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 661, "end": 679, "text": "Chen and Chen 1992", "ref_id": "BIBREF2" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Experimental System", "sec_num": "6" }, { "text": "In this model, all choices were assigned the same cost except for irregular events (such as unknown words or partial analyses) which were all assigned a high penalty cost. This model gives an indication of performance based solely on model structure.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "A. Qualitative Baseline:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Counts for choices leading to good translations for sentences of the supervised training corpus, together with counts from the manually assigned attachment points, were used to compute negated log probability costs.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "B. Probabilistic:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The positive counts as in the probabilistic method, together with corresponding negative counts from bad translations or incorrect attachment choices, were used to compute log likelihood ratio costs.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "C. Discriminative:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "In this fully automatic method, normalized distance costs were computed from reflexive translation of the sentences in the unsupervised training corpus. The translation runs were carried out with parameters from method A.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "D. Normalized Distance:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The same as method D except that the system used to carry out the reflexive translation was running with parameters from method C. Table 1 shows the results of evaluating the performance of these models for translating 200 unrestricted length ATIS sentences into Chinese. This was a previously unseen test set not included in any of the training sets. Two measures of translation acceptability are shown, as judged by a Chinese speaker. (In separate experiments, we verified that the judgments of this speaker were near the average of five Chinese speakers). The first measure, \"meaning and grammar\", gives the percentage of sentence translations judged to preserve meaning without the introduction of grammatical errors. For the second measure, \"meaning preservation\", grammatical errors were allowed if they did not interfere with meaning (in the sense of misleading the hearer). In the table, we have grouped together methods A and D for which the parameters were derived without human supervision effort, and methods B, C, and E which depended on the same amount of human supervision effort. This means that side by side comparison of these methods has practical relevance, even though the methods exploited different amounts of data. In the case of E, the supervision effort was used only as an oracle during training, not directly in the cost computations.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 131, "end": 138, "text": "Table 1", "ref_id": "TABREF1" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "E. Bootstrapped Normalized Distance:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "We can see from Table 1 that the choice of method affected translation quality (meaning and grammar) more than it affected preservation of meaning. A possible explanation is that the model structure was adequate for most lexical choice decisions because of the relatively low degree of polysemy in the ATIS corpus. For the stricter measure, the differences were statistically significant, according to the sign test at the 5% significance level, for the following comparisons: C and E each outperformed B and D, and B and D each outperformed A.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [ { "start": 16, "end": 23, "text": "Table 1", "ref_id": "TABREF1" } ], "eq_spans": [], "section": "E. Bootstrapped Normalized Distance:", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "Language Processing and Semantic Representations", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "7", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The translation system we have described employs only simple representations of sentences and phrases. Apart from the words themselves, the only symbols used are the dependency relations R. In our experimental system, these relation symbols are themselves natural language words, although this is not a necessary property of our models. Information coded explicitly in sentence representations by word senses and feature constraints in our previous work (Alshawi 1992 ) is implicit in the models used to derive the dependency trees and translations. In particular, dependency parameters and context-dependent transfer parameters give rise to an implicit, graded notion of word sense. For language-centered applications like translation or summarization, for which we have a large body of examples of the desired behavior, we can think of the task in terms of the formal problem of modeling a relation between strings based on exampies of that relation. By taking this viewpoint, we seem to be ignoring the intuition that most interesting natural language processing tasks (translation, summarization, interfaces) are semantic in nature.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 454, "end": 467, "text": "(Alshawi 1992", "ref_id": "BIBREF0" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "7", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "It is therefore tempting to conclude that an adequate treatment of these tasks requires the manipulation of artificial semantic representation languages with well-understood formal denotations. While the intuition seems reasonable, the conclusion might be too strong in that it rules out the possibility that natural language itself is adequate for manipulating semantic denotations. After all, this is the primary function of natural language.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "7", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "The main justification for artificial semantic representation languages is that they are unambiguous by design. This may not be as critical, or useful, as it might first appear. While it is true that natural language is ambiguous and under-specified out of context, this uncertainty is greatly reduced by context to the point where further resolution (e.g. full scoping) is irrelevant to the task, or even the intended meaning. The fact that translation is insensitive to many ambiguities motivated the use of unresolved quasi-logical form for transfer (Alshawi et al. 1992) .", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 553, "end": 574, "text": "(Alshawi et al. 1992)", "ref_id": "BIBREF0" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "7", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "To the extent that contextual resolution is necessary, context may be provided by the state of the language processor rather than complex semantic representations. Local context may include the state of local processing components (such as our head automata) for capturing grammatical constraints, or the identity of other words in a phrase for capturing sense distinctions. For larger scale context, I have argued elsewhere (Alshawi 1987 ) that memory activation patterns resulting from the process of carrying out an understanding task can act as global context without explicit representations of discourse. Under this view, the challenge is how to exploit context in performing a task rather than how to map natural language phrases to expressions of a formalism for coding meaning independently of context or intended use.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 425, "end": 438, "text": "(Alshawi 1987", "ref_id": "BIBREF0" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "7", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "There is now greater understanding of the formal semantics of under-specified and ambiguous representations. In Alshawi 1996, I provide a denotational semantics for a simple under-specified language and argue for extending this treatment to a formal semantics of natural language strings as expressions of an under-specified representation. In this paradigm, ordered dependency trees can be viewed as natural language strings annotated so that some of the implicit relations are more explicit. A milder form of this kind of annotation is a bracketed natural language string. We are not advocating an approach in which linguistic structure is ignored (as it is in the IBM translator described by Brown et al. 1990 ), but rather one in which the syntactic and semantic structure of a string is implicit in the way it is processed by an interpreter.", "cite_spans": [ { "start": 695, "end": 712, "text": "Brown et al. 1990", "ref_id": "BIBREF0" } ], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "7", "sec_num": null }, { "text": "One important advantage of using representations that are close to natural language itself is that it reduces the degrees of freedom in specifying language and task models, making these models easier to ac-quire automatically. With these considerations in mind, we have started to experiment with a version of the translator described here with even simpler representations and for which the model structure, not just the parameters, can be acquired automatically.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "7", "sec_num": null } ], "back_matter": [ { "text": "The work on cost functions and training methods was carried out jointly with Adam Buchsbaum who also customized the English model to ATIS and integrated the translator into our speech translation prototype. Jishen He constructed the Chinese ATIS language model and bilingual lexicon and identified many problems with early versions of the transfer component. I am also grateful for advice and help from Don Hindle, Fernando Pereira, Chi-Lin Shih, Richard Sproat, and Bin Wu.", "cite_spans": [], "ref_spans": [], "eq_spans": [], "section": "Acknowledgments", "sec_num": null } ], "bib_entries": { "BIBREF0": { "ref_id": "b0", "title": "Letting the Cat out of the Bag: Generation for Shake-and-Bake MT", "authors": [ { "first": "H", "middle": [], "last": "Alshawi", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "", "middle": [], "last": "Cambridge", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "", "middle": [], "last": "England", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "H", "middle": [ "; K" ], "last": "Alshawi", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "S", "middle": [], "last": "Van Deemter", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "", "middle": [], "last": "Peters", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "", "middle": [], "last": "Publications", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "California", "middle": [], "last": "Stanford", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "H", "middle": [], "last": "Alshawi", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "H", "middle": [], "last": "Alshawi", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "D", "middle": [], "last": "Carter", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "B", "middle": [], "last": "Gamback", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "M", "middle": [], "last": "Rayner ; Brown", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "P", "middle": [], "last": "", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "J", "middle": [], "last": "Cocks", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "S", "middle": [ "Della" ], "last": "Pietra", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "V", "middle": [ "Della" ], "last": "Pietra", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "F", "middle": [], "last": "Jelinek", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "J", "middle": [], "last": "Lafferty", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "R", "middle": [], "last": "Mercer", "suffix": "" }, { "first": "P", "middle": [], "last": "Rossin", "suffix": "" } ], "year": 1969, "venue": "Proceedings of COL-ING92, the International Conference on Computational Linguistics", "volume": "16", "issue": "", "pages": "79--85", "other_ids": {}, "num": null, "urls": [], "raw_text": "Alshawi, H. 1987. 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Information and Control, 10, 189-208.", "links": null } }, "ref_entries": { "FIGREF0": { "uris": null, "text": "Head automaton m scans left and right sequences of relations ri for dependents wi of w.", "num": null, "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF1": { "uris": null, "text": "mapping function, i.e. a (possibly partial) function from the nodes of Hi to the nodes of Gi.", "num": null, "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF2": { "uris": null, "text": "tiling of a source graph with respect to a transfer model is a set of entry matches {(El, gz, A1, cl), \u2022 \u2022 \", (E~, gk, At, ck)} which is such that gi Transfer matching and mapping functions", "num": null, "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF3": { "uris": null, "text": "For primary nodes nl and nj of two distinct entries Ei and Ej, gi(ni) and gi(nj) are distinct. \u2022 The sets of edges Ai form a partition of the edges of S. \u2022 The images gi(Li) form a partition of the nodes of S, where Li is the set of labeled source nodes in the source fragment Hi of Ei. \u2022 ci is the cost of the match specified by the parameter table.", "num": null, "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF4": { "uris": null, "text": "Discriminative model: The costs in this model are likelihood ratios comparing positive and negative solutions, for example correct and incorrect translations. (See Dunning 1993 on the application of likelihood ratios in computational linguistics.) Let n-(elc ) be the count for choice (e]c) leading to negative solutions. The cost function for the discriminative model is estimated as C(elc) ~ In(n-(elc)) -ln(n+(ele)).", "num": null, "type_str": "figure" }, "FIGREF5": { "uris": null, "text": "Eh(c) be the average of h(t~, ts) for solutions derived from sequences of choices including the context c. The cost parameter for (elc) in the normalized distance model is C(elc) = Bh(c) '", "num": null, "type_str": "figure" }, "TABREF0": { "type_str": "table", "content": "
4Transfer Maps
4.1 Transfer Model Bilingual Lexicon
The transfer model defines possible mappings, with
associated costs, of dependency trees with source-
language word node labels into ones with target-
language word labels. Unlike the head automata
monolingual models, the transfer model operates
with unordered dependency trees, that is, it treats
the dependents of a word as an unordered bag. The
model is general enough to cover the common trans-
lation problems discussed in the literature (e.g. Lin-
dop and Tsujii 1991 and Dorr 1994) including many-
to-many word mapping, argument switching, and
head switching.
A transfer model consists of a bilingual lexicon
and a transfer parameter table. The model uses de-
pendency tree fragments, which are the same as un-
ordered dependency trees except that some nodes
may not have word labels. In the bilingual lexicon,
an entry for a source word wi (see top portion of
Figure 2) has the form
(wi, Hi, hi, Gi, fi)
", "num": null, "html": null, "text": "Hi is a source language tree fragment, ni (the primary node) is a distinguished node of Hi with label wi, Gi is a target tree fragment, and fi is a" }, "TABREF1": { "type_str": "table", "content": "
MethodMeaning andMeaning
Grammar (%)Preservation (%)
A'2971
D3771
B4682
C5283
E5483
", "num": null, "html": null, "text": "Translation performance of different cost assignment methods" } } } }