Cement
Caskets
Soft Drinks
Glider Rockers

Today on "how it's made"...

Cement...

Caskets...

Soft drinks...

And glider rockers.

Many people confuse the terms "cement" and "concrete".

Cement is a fine, gray powder that's used to make concrete.

It's also an ingredient in the mortar that masons use to lay brick and stone.

Cement also goes into soil cement, a material that's used in paving roads, building dams, and lining reservoirs.

The action begins at the limestone quarry.

The limestone near the surface has a high content of the minerals silica, iron, and aluminum oxide.

Deeper down, the limestone is more pure, containing less of those minerals and more calcium carbonate.

The plant uses both types of rock, altering their proportions to make different types of cement.

Workers drill holes in the rock wall, in which they plant powerful explosives.

For safety, the workers have to position themselves behind the area they're blasting, maintaining a distance of at least 150 feet.

After the explosion, loaders move in.

They transfer the limestone rocks to 50-ton-capacity dump trucks.

The trucks then haul their cargo to the cement plant nearby.

At the plant, the trucks dump the rocks into what's called the primary crusher.

The rocks can be as big as a piano.

The primary crusher reduces them to about the size of softballs.

There's a constant spray of water to keep the dust from billowing up and settling on the chutes.

From there, a conveyor transports the rocks to the secondary crusher.

It reduces them further to about the size of golf balls.

Rock high in calcium carbonate and rock low in calcium carbonate are crushed separately.

Now it's time to mix the two.

The ratio varies according to the type of cement they're making.

This overhead machine, called a tripper, makes piles of the required proportions.

They call this the raw mix.

Then a reclaimer loads the raw mix into a grinding machine called a roller mill.

Depending on what minerals are already naturally in the crushed rock, the factory adds extra minerals such as silica and iron.

Certain types of cement also require aluminum oxide.

The roller mixes and grinds the ingredients uniformly, producing a dry rock powder called the raw meal.

Now the powder goes into a preheater.

The temperature of the powder is 180 degrees fahrenheit upon entering.

Within 40 seconds, it gets more that 10 times hotter.

This begins the process of binding the minerals together so that they'll later harden when hydrated with water.

The preheater is equipped with what's called a flash calciner.

In about 5 seconds, it removes 95% of the carbon dioxide in the powder through a chemical reaction.

This isolates the lime, which is the most important element in cement.

From there, the powder moves into a rotary kiln, a huge, cylindrical furnace.

It's set on an angle so that the powder moves from top to bottom, a distance of 160 feet.

The kiln rotates about 2 turns a minute to ensure the materials travel through at the right speed.

The burner's gas flame at the bottom reaches a scorching 2,900 to 3,000 degrees fahrenheit.

As the powder approaching it reaches the 1,500-degree mark, it fuses into pieces about the size of marbles.

These pieces are called clinker.

As the clinker leaves the kiln, large fans cool it down to between 140 and 180 degrees fahrenheit.

It's important to cool the clinker quickly in order to have quality cement.

From here, the clinker goes to the storage area.

The last stage of cement making is called finish grinding.

They add some gypsum to the clinker.

The precise amount varies with the type of cement they're making.

Gypsum delays the cement's setting time, so it can be worked for up to two hours before hardening.

The cement mills are called ball mills because they contain metal balls, about 150 tons of them, in the largest mill.

As the mill rotates, the balls crush and grind the clinker and gypsum into a fine powder.

The terms "casket" and "coffin" are often used interchangeably, but there are distinct differences between the two.

Coffins are actually those eight-sided burial boxes that are narrower at the bottom-- think "dracula"-- whereas caskets are rectangular.

They can be made of metal, plastic, or wood.

Whether the wood is ash, oak, mahogany, or something else, the casket's construction is generally the same.

First they run wood slats through a machine called a molder.

This profiles the edges, carving a tongue on one side of each slat and a groove on the other.

A worker applies glue to these edges, then positions the slats in a rounded vise that locks the tongues and grooves together.

The glue dries in an hour and a half, bonding the slats permanently into a large, curved piece.

This piece will form the top and long sides of the casket's rectangular cover.

To complete the rectangle, a worker now makes a v-shaped cut on each side and glues in a triangular piece of slatted wood.

While a press clamps the components tightly together, he secures the end pieces in place with joint fasteners, which are like heavy-duty staples.

Now a machine carves a groove into the cover's underside at the midpoint.

A worker glues in a wooden piece, securing it with joint fasteners.

This piece is called the bridge, and it's the point at which the cover will be cut in half later on.

They transfer the casket cover to an automated machine that gives it a rough sanding, then a finer sanding.

The next step is to attach a decorative molding to the base of the casket cover.

This molding has a groove on the inside into which they'll later tuck the edge of the casket's upholstery fabric.

A worker glues a small piece of wood in the groove at the midpoint so the groove won't show when the cover is open.

Now he saws the casket cover in two, right through the bridge.

Meanwhile, another worker assembles the bottom of the casket, called the box.

He glues together the sides and applies a bottom molding, securing everything with joint fasteners.

At this point, the box is upside down.

He attaches the bottom, then flips the box right-side up.

Now it's time to join the cover and box, using four hinges.

They spray the casket with one of countless shades of wood stain, then rub it in equally over the entire surface.

The casket goes into an oven for an hour to dry the stain.

Next a worker sprays on two coats of lacquer, with 40 minutes drying time between applications.

This happens to be a high-gloss finish, but many models have a duller sheen.

Once the lacquer dries, a worker attaches handles.

The more expensive the casket, the fancier the features.

This higher-end oak model with decorative corners has wood and metal swing handles.

Other models have all-metal swing handles or fixed bars made of wood, metal, or both.

The fancier caskets also have an adjustable wooden bed inside, with a mechanism to adjust the height.

A worker covers the bed in fabric.

The base-model bed is made of absorbent paper laid over a product called wood wool, which is simply shredded wood.

The upholsterer lines the inside of the casket with foam, covering it with either velvet, satin, or silk polyester crepe.

By folding, nailing, and stapling this fabric a certain way, she creates pleats, tufting, and other design details.

Generally, the more expensive the casket, the finer the fabric, and the more ornate the upholstery.

A decorative trim hides the staples.

Fabric straps, or metal elbow brackets, hold the cover open.

There's just no limit to how beautiful and elaborate caskets can be.

The soft drink was born at the drugstore soda fountain, where pharmacists would serve up various flavors of carbonated water, initially considered a medicinal drink.

These sodas became so popular that customers wanted to be able to buy them in bottles to take home.

That demand spawned the soft-drink industry.

In 2003, almost 195 billion liters of soft drinks were sold around the world.

That's 30 liters for every person on earth.

These 2-liter plastic bottles have just arrived from the bottle factory.

Even though they're brand-new bottles, the soft-drink plant still has to clean them before filling them.

This rinsing machine turns the bottles upside down, then flushes them with water the plant filters on-site.

Once the water drains out, the machine turns the bottles right-side up again.

And they make their way to the filling station.

Meanwhile, in the mixing room, technicians prepare whatever soft drink they'll be bottling in this production run.

Each recipe begins with filtered water.

It makes up 86% of the drink.

The rest is syrup.

Each syrup recipe is a combination of carefully measured ingredients, natural and artificial coloring and flavoring, and one or more various types of sugar, such as glucose or fructose extracted from beets, corn, or cane.

This machine releases the right proportion of syrup to filtered water, creating the final soft drink minus the bubbles.

The drink now travels to a pressurized tank called the carbonator.

There an injection of carbon dioxide infuses the drink with gas bubbles.

The carbonated soft drink now travels to the reservoir of the bottling machine.

The bottles arrive and travel its carousel.

The machine removes the air in each bottle, then fills it with, in this case, two liters of cola.

Now on to the capping machine.

The caps come down a chute propelled by filtered air.

The machine twists a cap on the part of the bottle called the crimp, intertwining the threads of the cap and crimp tightly to hermetically seal the bottle.

Next stop, labeling.

The machine's roller applies cold glue to one metal plate after another.

Each plate then grabs a label and applies it to a bottle.

Brushes smooth edges down, ensuring the labels adhere well.

Elsewhere in the plant, a machine called the uncaser unloads cases of refillable glass bottles that have come back to the factory.

The cases continue toward a case-washing machine.

The dirty bottles head toward the bottle-washing machine, where devices called cells line them up in rows of 16.

Each bottle tilts and enters the washer neck-first.

Inside, a combination of powerful water jets and soap remove dirt and germs.

Then water jets rinse off all traces of soap.

As they exit, they pass in front of a neon inspection light.

Workers pull any problem bottles off the line.

Now the bottles head to the same bottling machine as before, only now it's been adjusted to fill each bottle with 10 fluid ounces of drink--  in this case, orange soda.

This factory takes a sample from each production run for quality-control testing.

The lab technicians check such things as the dilution ratio of syrup to water, the carbonization level, and the airtight seal.

They also analyze the purity of the drink and container by running the sample through a paper filter.

They put the filter in a petri dish containing the nutrients needed to grow micro-organisms.

Then they incubate at a precise temperature and observe if any bacteria grow.

These glass bottles have old-fashioned bottle caps, not the twist caps the plastic bottles have.

As each cap drops down onto a bottle, the machine squeezes it tightly, creating an airtight seal.

Once the bottles are filled and capped, they go into shipping cases.

A glider rocker combines the back-and-forth movement of a traditional rocking chair with the gliding motion of a swing.

Parents often buy them to rock their infants to sleep or soothe them while feeding.

Other models are designed for people who like to rock and glide while having a conversation, reading a book, or watching tv.

Glider rockers come in a few different styles.

Some are made of solid wood with a variety of cushions.

Others have a metal frame that's partially or fully upholstered.

The first step is to cut the dried wood to the required dimensions using laser- and computer-guided saws.

The species this factory uses for its wooden models are maple, oak, and ash-- hardwoods known for their strength and durability.

Then a computerized, industrial router/shaper forms tenons.

A tenon is a projection on the end of one piece that fits into a cavity, called a mortise, on another piece.

Another shaper profiles the seat-frame pieces four at a time.

Workers glue each tenon and mortise together by hand, then clamp the joint.

Once the glue cures, these joints will be virtually indestructible.

With the glue dry, the seat frame moves on to the next phase.

Another automated router/shaper gives it the final contour.

Next they smooth the surface of the wood using successively finer sandpapers.

Now they bore a series of holes for attaching the armrests and back of the chair.

Precision is critical here.

They assemble those pieces in a custom-made assembly jig to ensure their exact position and angle before screwing them in place.

Now they attach what's called the multiposition mechanism.

This enables the glider-rocker to lock in six different comfort positions.

This part, called a trammel, controls the angle.

Ball bearings located at the top and bottom of the chair's arms are key to a smooth, gliding motion.

Secured solidly, they'll last a lifetime.

Workers assemble the parts that make up the rocking/gliding mechanism.

Finally, they slide it under the seat frame and attach it to the multiposition mechanism.

It's critical that the fit be precise for the chair to operate properly.

Meanwhile, work is under way in the upholstery department.

There are many different styles and colors of fabric available.

Workers stack several layers of seat-cover fabric for a given model in a pile to cut several in one shot.

The pile lies on a textured rubber mat held steady by a vacuum press so it won't move while the computerized cutter does its work.

After the pieces are cut, a seamstress sews the zippered seat cushions.

Another vacuum press temporarily squashes the seat cushions, enabling workers to insert one in each cover.

The cushion isn't a simple block of foam.

Rather, it's a triple-decker sandwich composed of two different densities of foam glued together with a multilayered polyester fiber.

The fiber gives the cushion more depth and smoothness.

The different foams maximize comfort and durability.

The plastic wrapping has no structural role.

It's merely part of the vacuum system.

Relaxing in a glider rocker can be a very soothing experience.

Picture yourself in front of the fireplace, legs resting on a gliding ottoman, relaxing your back after a long day, reading, listening to music, or just daydreaming.


Combination Wrenches
Deli Meats
Golf Carts
Airships

Whether tightening the wheels on your bike or working on your car, a combination wrench can make the toughest jobs safe and easy.

The best combination wrench gives you reach and strength and won't bust your knuckles when you're working in those hard-to-reach places.

A high-quality combination wrench can last you a lifetime.

A combination wrench tightens and loosens nuts and bolts using its u-shaped open end or its enclosed box end with a hexagonal shape.

Combination wrenches come in imperial and metric sizes.

To start, a steel bar travels into a die-cutting machine that cuts it into lengths called billets.

Each billet will become a wrench.

One by one, a machine feeds the billets into an induction heater.

It heats them to more than 1,800 degrees fahrenheit, then sends them into a forging press, where the first die creates the wrench's general shape.

The second die gives it its finished shape.

And the third trims off the excess metal.

The wrenches exit the forge press and cool off on their way into a collection box.

Then a worker grinds off the trim line, a thin line of excess metal created when the top and bottom dies come together.

He loads the wrenches into an automatic edge-polishing machine.

Using an 80-grit sanding belt, the machine grinds the trim line on both sides of the handle.

The wrenches leave the edge-polishing machine trim-line-free.

A worker then places each wrench onto a 75-ton hydraulic press, which stamps it with the brand name, size, and part number.

This bend machine gives the box end a 15-degree angle.

A vertical milling machine then drills a hole into the box end, using coolant to keep the drill from overheating.

This is a hydraulic hex broach machine.

The broach tool is what gives the hole a hexagonal shape.

Open-end wrenches also go through a broaching operation.

In this case, the broach tool shapes the open end into the desired size.

A worker then grinds the open end of the wrenches and makes sure they're perfectly smooth.

The wrenches now undergo a three-stage heat-tempering procedure to harden and strengthen the metal.

For some combination wrenches, a sliding machine cuts an opening out of the box end that has the hex shape broached into it.

This turns the wrench into a flare nut wrench that's ideal for working on hard-to-reach bolts, like on a hydraulic line.

Ceramic stones and a chemical solution polish the wrenches for eight hours, giving them a bright luster finish.

A machine then dips the wrenches into a nickel-plating solution that helps make them corrosion-resistant.

This series of baths then plate the wrenches with trivalent chrome, which is a safer, more environmentally friendly alternative to traditional plating methods.

After a final rinse in water, the wrenches come out with a bright cosmetic finish.

Combination wrenches are available in a variety of sets, all conveniently organized and neatly stored.

Since the 1920s, this company has been making combination wrenches of all shapes and sizes for jobs of all shapes and sizes.

In a time of health-conscious eating, deli meats remain a mealtime favorite.

Almost everyone loves a great-tasting sandwich or sausage hot off the grill.

Today, the best deli meats are prepared from the leanest cuts.

They have no trans fat, they are low in sodium and saturated fat, and contain no fillers.

Some companies prepare deli meats largely by hand to maintain that old-world tradition.

Sausages begin as cuts of fresh meats in a grinder.

The ground meat falls into a collection tub...

Which then deposits the meats into a mixer.

Adding ice keeps the meats cold and fresh.

A worker then adds salt and all-natural spices and seasonings.

The mixer blends it all together.

A worker feeds a natural sausage casing into a machine called a sausage linker that forms and links the sausages.

A look inside the sausage linker reveals where the meat is pumped into the natural casing and shaped into the desired sausage size.

As the sausages come out of the linker, they hook onto a conveyor system.

They're ready to go into the smokehouse for cooking.

Workers send the cooked sausage into an oven that destroys any possible surface bacteria.

They pack the sausages into plastic bags, which are date-stamped.

Then a machine vacuum-seals the packages, making them ready for the store.

An olive loaf begins with a mixture of olives, pickles, and pimientos.

Again, a worker adds salt and all-natural seasonings, mixing it together with blended fresh beef and pork.

This stuffer machine fills loaf pans with the season-blended meats.

Another worker puts a rack filled with uncooked olive loaves into a smokehouse oven.

After an initial cooking that sets the loaf shape, he removes the loaves from the oven.

At this time, only the exposed part of the loaves is browned.

After he takes them out of the pans, they will go back into the oven to brown all sides.

It takes about 10 hours to cook these special european-style loaves.

Another worker loads pepperoni into a machine called a revolving horn.

It stuffs a casing with a mixture of beef and pork seasoned with italian spices.

The horn stuffs the casing with the precise amount of meat and seals both ends.

The pepperoni is then hung up on a rack and taken into a smokehouse for cooking.

Another worker prepares german bologna by slipping a natural beef casing onto a machine called a stuffing horn.

He stuffs the casing with a mixture of beef and pork and all-natural spices and seasonings.

He seals the end of the casing with aluminum clips.

Another worker, using a paddle with spikes, perforates the casing to allow air to escape during cooking to ensure even cooking and browning.

Now it's the german bologna's turn for a stay in the smokehouse.

About eight hours later, the german bologna is evenly cooked.

Using a guide, a worker slices the sausage into even cuts, which are then packed and date-stamped.

From authentic german bologna to all types of sausages and distinctive deli loaves, deli meats are served around the world.

Scotland is the birthplace both of golf and the motorized golf car, invented in 1946 by a dentist named john "doc" keegan.

Since the late 1950s, golf cars have become widely used on courses everywhere.

They're built low to the ground to remain steady, even over the most uneven terrain.

This battery-powered golf car has everything to get you around in comfort and style.

It can't help you with your swing, but it canget you to the next hole in a jiffy.

To make a golf car, the first step is to build the frame with lightweight aluminum i-beams.

They go through two separate machines to bend them into shape.

Metal forms press down into vinyl and stretch it into the shape of the front and back seats.

Workers cut and staple the vinyl over a plywood base covered with a layer of foam padding.

They trim away the excess vinyl and set the finished seats aside.

Now it's time to assemble the power train.

Here, workers place an axle onto the differential, which rotates the wheels.

They cover it with a staff ring...

Then bolt the car's 48-volt electric motor onto the transaxle, the assembled transmission, differential, and drive axle.

They assemble the car's frame on a fixture, starting with the driver side, then the passenger side...

Then the center i-beam that holds the two sides together.

They set the assembled frame onto the power train and bolt the car's front suspension mechanism onto it.

As the car moves on to the next assembly station, a plastic underbody comes down to cover the front part of the frame.

Workers now set in the accelerator and brake pedal.

Then they lower the power compartment that holds the car's battery at the vehicle's rear.

They connect the battery to the motor with four separate wires, then hook them up to the electric control module that commands the engine.

Now they can cover the rear working parts with the plastic underbody.

The underbody provides the support on which to install the car's working parts, like this pedal mechanism or the steering column.

All the electric tools that apply torque are computer-monitored.

If the amount of torque applied at any of the 130 assembly stations is incorrect, the system prevents the car from advancing to the next station until they get it right.

This eliminates any problems that might arise with over-tightened or loose bolts.

Workers now tighten the battery wires, then check the accelerator.

Golf cars may not attain speeds higher than 15 miles per hour in compliance with industry regulations.

Next, they set in the front and back seats that fit snugly into the molded plastic rear body and screw in the front fascia that covers the underbody.

They set the brake rod in place, make sure it moves the brake pedal properly, and tighten it.

The screen located overhead indicates when they've applied just the right amount of torque.

Finally, they hammer in the hubcaps and set in the front beauty panel, also made of molded plastic.

The car's now fully assembled and ready to roll.

The finished golf cars offload automatically from the assembly line thanks to a hydraulic lift.

They get a final inspection from every angle-- even under the seat.

Finally, workers drive them to an outdoor lot.

No worries--  their aluminum chassis ensures they can endure even the harshest weather conditions.

Soon, they'll carry eager golfers across courses throughout the world.

An airship is basically a large helium balloon with an engine for propulsion.

The passengers and crew ride in a gondola suspended underneath.

When there's an inside frame supporting it, the airship is called a rigid type.

When there's no framework, it's called a nonrigid type, or blimp.

The envelope material is made of five polyester-based fabrics bonded together.

It's lightweight, yet resistant to harsh weather and u.v. rays.

The crew inflates the envelope with helium, an inert, nonflammable gas.

At the back of the envelope are a rudder and fins for steering.

The factory constructs each fin's frame out of tough, lightweight carbon fiber.

Workers coat it with adhesive, then apply a polyester aircraft fabric, adding extra adhesive to seal the seams.

Then, using an iron, they heat-shrink the fabric until it's taut.

They repeat this process with two additional layers of fabric, then paint it white.

They mount the fins to the airship envelope with a combination of steel cables and rope.

The steel cables are rigid, but the rope has some give when the envelope flexes in flight.

A system of cables and pulleys connect the rudder and fin to the cockpit.

The pilot manipulates them with yokes.

The flaps control up-and-down movement, the rudder, sideways movement.

Engineers inspect the envelope inside and out for pinholes to ensure no helium can leak out.

To repair a pinhole, technicians first cover it with a piece of tape, then brush on some adhesive in a circular pattern.

They apply a circular patch made of the same five-layer fabric as the envelope.

Using a spatula, they push out air and excess glue to ensure airtight adhesion.

The airship runs on two gasoline-powered engines.

Workers hoist them into the engine bay at the back of the gondola.

The propeller's sharp blades are encased in a duct for safety.

One propeller goes on each side.

The blades of the propeller pivot to move the airship in reverse without having to stop the engine.

The cockpit electrical panel has gas-management gauges because as the airship rises, the helium expands.

So the pilot has to reduce air pressure inside the envelope to keep it from bursting.

In a pinch, the pilot can also open a valve to vent helium.

To test the helium valve, technicians blow in pressurized air while brushing liquid along the edge.

Any bubbles indicate leaks that need sealing.

The valve opens and closes with levers and cables.

Unlike electronic controls, cables can be repaired in midair if something breaks.

Inside the envelope, they install air sacks called ballonets, the gray areas in this diagram.

The pilot deflates the ballonets to rise and inflates them to descend.

Workers attach the envelope and gondola with cables, belts, and braces and fill a ballast tank under the gondola with water.

In an emergency, the crew can dump the water for a boost of buoyancy.

The gondola also has compartments for shot bags, 22-pound bags of lead.

Before takeoff, the pilot checks the weight with passengers, equipment, and fuel on board.

Then the crew loads enough shot bags to balance the airship.

To park the airship, they lock its nose onto a mast.

Just before flight time, a truck tows the mast out of the hangar.

Then it's all hands on deck.

Well, actually, all hands on gondola, until takeoff.


Combination Locks
Pottery
Recreational Vehicles
Erasers

Today on "how it's made"...

.combination locks...

Pottery...

Recreational vehicles...

And erasers.

Combination padlocks are what students depend on to protect their lockers from thieves and pranksters.

Combo locks are functional yet fashionable.

Like everything else marketed to teenagers these days, they come in a variety of trendy colors and designs.

The combination lock's main locking mechanism is called the baseplate, and it's comprised of seven components.

That black piece, called the lock bolt, is what slides open to free the shackle when someone dials the correct combination.

They rivet the baseplate components into place so the lock will stand up to repeated use.

Here are those components before assembly and after.

They secure the assembled baseplate into the casing.

Then they install the trip-lever spring.

It's what automatically scrambles the mechanism every time the lock is closed.

They fit the shackle through holes in the casing, positioning one end against the trip lever.

They fasten the other side with a tiny steel bar called a yoke.

The lock's combination function is made up of three stacked disks called tumblers.

Here, the first two go in.

Next, they grease the shackle so it will slide in and out easily.

Sometimes they customize the face of the lock.

Those numbered dials used to come in just boring standard-issue steel.

Today, they can have colorful designs-- even a school's logo.

The printing machine uses a four-color printing process, applying one color at a time.

The painted dials get two coats of clear varnish to harden and protect the paint.

While that's happening, other workers assemble the dial components.

First they take the indicator button and attach it to the dial.

Then they take the third tumbler and rivet it to the back of the dial.

This tumbler will control the movement of the two other tumblers inside the lock's casing.

All three tumblers have "v"-shaped indentations.

The correct combination aligns those v's, allowing the lock bolt to slide over and free of the shackle.

Each tumbler has a code number stamped on the back.

The number corresponds to the location of its indentation.

They program each lock's three tumbler codes into a computer.

The computer then randomly creates a combination that will align the three indentations.

There are more than 50,000 possible combinations.

The system prints the combination on a sticker along with a bar code.

The bar code is programmed into a central computer, where it's recorded with the lock's serial number.

The guts of the combination lock are finished.

Now it's time for the final assembling.

They put the dial onto the casing.

Then a forming tool presses down on the casing's rim, folding it tightly over the dial.

A computer-guided machine then engraves a serial number on each lock.

Some factories do random quality-control checks, but this company verifies each and every combination lock by hand.

That's quite the procedure, considering this plant produces more than 10,000 locks a day.

You can bet somebody's got pretty sore fingers by quitting time.

As early as 11,000 b.c., man was making utensils out of clay.

This was the birth of pottery.

Modern pottery is divided into three categories-- porcelain, stoneware, and earthenware.

What differentiates them is the mixture of clays and the firing process.

This earthenware piece starts with a technical drawing based on an artist's conception.

Following the specs, they use a series of specialized tools to sculpt a plaster model on an electric potter's wheel.

They check the diameter with calipers.

The model is 7% larger than the finished piece will be to compensate for shrinkage that will occur during drying and firing.

They sculpt some parts by hand and glue them on.

Using this model, they cast a master mold, made out of a rigid type of plaster called gypsum.

They now use this master mold to cast a production mold out of rubber or, in this case, plaster.

First they pour in the plaster, using their hands to break up any air bubbles that would cause defects in the casting.

The leave it to air-dry in a warm room overnight.

Once it's ready, they can extract it-- a delicate operation that takes 15 minutes.

This production mold has to cure for 48 hours before going into service.

It will be good for 200 castings.

And it will be identified by the model number on its side.

Earthenware is made of talc, a mineral called nepheline syenite, a dark-beige clay known as ball clay, another mineral called silicon, and a white clay known as kaolin, all mixed with 40% water.

They pour the mix into the production mold with careful, even pressure, again to avoid creating air bubbles.

The plaster mold slowly absorbs the water, leaving behind a moist earthenware lining 2/10 of an inch thick.

After about a half-hour, this lining hardens, and they can dump out the surplus liquid.

They cut off the excess earthenware at the top...

Then, after another 45 minutes or so, extract the piece from the mold.

Workers have to handle the earthenware gingerly with even pressure.

If one finger presses just a bit too hard, it will show up as a dent, but only after the piece is fired.

After a 24-hour drying period, workers then carefully shave off the seam left by the two halves of the mold.

They rub the piece on a wet stone to even out the top and bottom.

Then they smooth the surface with a wet sponge.

Unlike stoneware, which comes out glossy after firing, earthenware remains dull.

So, to make it shiny and colorful, they apply specialized glazes and enamel paints.

Finally, they spray the piece from top to bottom in a transparent glaze to give it an overall sheen.

Then it's off to a room-sized oven called a kiln for an eight-hour firing, during which time the temperature climbs to more than 1,800 degrees fahrenheit.

Then a two-hour cooldown.

The intense heat activates the pigments in the paints and makes the colors come alive, turning what was once a lump of clay into a work of art.

Traveling in a recreational vehicle is like having your own personal motel on wheels.

R.v.s are either motorized or towable.

Towable ones range from folding-tent trailers, known as pop ups, to more elaborate travel trailers complete with fully equipped bathrooms and kitchens.

To make a travel trailer, workers first cut steel bars to build a frame.

The saw has to be drenched in coolant, or it will overheat due to the intense friction.

They drill holes for the bolts and screws they'll later use to attach certain components.

Then they weld the frame parts together.

They run electrical wires through the frame, lining the holes with rubber grommets to keep the wires from rubbing on the sharp metal edge.

Next they install metal brackets to hold the water and septic tanks in place underneath the trailer.

Then they torque the wheels to the axle.

Now they install the gas lines.

The stove, the fridge, and the heating system all run on propane.

Next come the water and septic tanks, made of polyethylene, a heavy-duty plastic.

They cut a hole in each tank and screw on a fitting.

The tank sits directly on the frame.

The white one's for drinking water.

The first black one's for the shower and sinks, and the second black one's for the toilet.

To build the floor, they put down a waterproof membrane, then a spruce frame insulated with fiberglass wool, then 5/8 plywood, cutting vent holes for the forced-air heating system.

After sanding the joints and gluing down linoleum, they install the cabinetry and furniture.

The plumbing fixtures come next.

They connect to water lines coming up from the tanks beneath the floor.

The water system is driven by an electric pump.

While some workers put up the preassembled walls, others run wiring for lights and appliances.

The inside wall surface is vinyl paneling.

Drywall would be far too heavy for an r.v. the paneling's mounted on a pine structure insulated with fiberglass wool.

They cover the outside in aluminum siding, then they complete the electrical wiring for the lights and appliances.

Now it's time to install the roof-- another pine structure with fiberglass-wool insulation covered with a thin wood called lauan that's reinforced to withstand the extra weight of roof cargo.

They cut out the various ventilation holes...

Then apply a layer of glue...

Then lay down a high-performance waterproof rubber membrane...

Nailing it down along the perimeter.

They install vents for the toilet, the refrigerator, and for air circulation.

They caulk all the joints and around all the vents.

Last but not least-- the windows, doors, awnings, and any optional equipment.

Workers check the water, gas, and electrical systems, then do what's called a seal test.

A special machine applies air pressure from the inside out.

Wherever water bubbles, there's a leak to be repaired.

With all the upholstery and other decorative elements in place, this comfortable travel trailer is ready to hit the road.

Make no mistake about it-- an eraser is a student's best friend.

Whether it's attached to the top of a pencil or on its own, only an eraser can quickly rub out an error.

White erasers are made of flexible vinyl, while pink erasers are made of synthetic rubber.

In 1736, a french explorer observed south american native indians using a certain tree resin to make bouncing balls.

He brought this resin back home, and before long, europeans discovered it could rub out lead pencil marks, hence the term "rubber".

There was just one problem--  after a while, rubber would rot.

That dilemma was solved a century later by one charles goodyear, who developed a curing process to keep rubber from rotting.

A lot of ingredients go into making a simple pink eraser-- carefully measured fillers, accelerators, curing agents, oils, coloring, and the main ingredient--  synthetic rubber.

They start by putting a batch of rubber into a mill.

The rubber passes repeatedly between large heated rollers.

They throw in any defective erasers from the last production run, recycling them into this new batch.

Then they add sulfur as a curing agent, accelerators to help the sulfur do its job, and red coloring.

They blend everything for 5 to 10 minutes until the mixture is the consistency of heavy dough.

Next, vulcanized vegetable oil-- that's vegetable oil treated with sulfur.

Then regular vegetable oil.

Then calcium carbonate as a filler.

When the color and thickness are just right, workers remove the rubber, which, by now, is hot and soft as a result of all that milling.

They leave it to cool and harden at room temperature for about half a day.

When the rubber's ready, they cut out large squares, each weighing between 11 and 18 pounds, depending on the thickness of eraser the client has ordered.

The squares go into a steam-heated press to cure for about 20 minutes at 325 degrees fahrenheit.

The pressure compacts the rubber, while the intense heat hardens it.

They trim off the excess then submerge the hot rubber squares in cold water to stop the curing process.

To make erasers that erase both lead and ink, they cut beveled strips from two batches of rubber, one pink and one blue.

The blue contains pumice, which gives it extra abrasiveness to erase ink.

They pair up each pink with a blue to form a two-color strip.

Then it's into the steam press.

After 12 minutes, workers remove the trays, trim off the excess, and submerge the strips in cold water to stop the curing process.

Then an automated machine chops the strips into pieces the size of erasers.

Now back to the all-pink erasers.

The rubber squares come out of their cold-water bath and go through a machine that cuts strips with beveled edges...

Then chops the strips into erasers.

From there, the erasers drop into a giant barrel.

Workers throw in some talc to prevent them from sticking together.

Then they set the barrel spinning for three to five hours.

As the erasers tumble against each other, the abrasion rounds off their edges.

The last step is printing.

A machine stamps each eraser with the company name and the model number.

It's not the rubber that gives the eraser the ability to erase, but rather the vulcanized vegetable oil that's in it.

That's what makes the eraser crumble when rubbed on paper, taking away the pencil marks with it.


Steel Shipping Drums
Police Whistles
Miniature Train Wagons
Glass Blocks

Today, on "how it's made"...

Steel shipping drums...

Police whistles...

Miniature-train cars...

And glass blocks.

The steel shipping drum was invented in the late 19th century for the oil industry, which needed an alternative to leaky wooden barrels.

But those first steel drums also leaked from their soldered seams.

Welding them proved to be the solution, giving this container an airtight reputation.

It's a product that really delivers the goods.

A punch press first cuts and forms the drum's bottoms in one swoop.

A conveyer shuttles the bottoms down the line to a turntable.

As a drum bottom rotates on the turntable, a nozzle sprays sealant onto it, coating it completely.

Then the drum bottoms are stacked up.

Meanwhile, another punch press shapes steel discs into tops for the drums.

Rollers turn up the outer edge to a precise measurement.

Next, steel fittings tumble down a vibratory conveyer to a machine that simultaneously punches threaded openings in the tops and inserts the fittings.

One hole is for opening and closing the drum.

The other is a vent.

At this station, workers check the thickness of sheet steel that will be used for the body of the drum.

The thickness varies depending on what the container is to hold.

A machine called a shear slices the the coiled steel into sheets.

The steel sheets then move on to a forming machine, where rollers curl them into the drum's shell.

Automated pushers then move each shell through an electric-resistance welder.

It generates heat to weld the side seam, bonding it from both the inside and the outside so it won't leak.

The shells roll down to a machine called a flanger.

The flanger stretches and presses on the outer rims at both ends, creating a lip.

Then it's over to the beater.

Its rollers bear down on the shells to make grooves called rolling hoops.

These rolling hoops add rigidity to the shells.

The shells now travel down another conveyer and merge with the drum tops.

Automated pushers deliver a top to the base of a shell.

The shell rotates in a spinning clamp as rollers curl the edges of the top and shell together.

This creates an interlocked seam called a chime, which is then flattened by another roller.

Mechanized arms flip the shells so the bottoms can now be installed.

To join the bottoms to the shells, rollers form another chime.

These interlocking seams are comprised of seven layers of steel, making them leakproof.

That's critical, since the steel drums may be used to transport hazardous goods.

The steel drums now move forward to a testing station.

Here, inspectors inject air into each drum and check the seams for leaks.

The seams have been soaked up, so if bubbles materialize, it signifies a problem.

The steel drums then go for a whirl under the paint gun.

It sprays them with enamel paint for a protective sheen.

Black is the most common color for these shipping containers.

But custom colors can be ordered, too.

The steel drums then journey through an oven that bakes the paint to a hard finish.

The thickness of the paint is gauged with a special tool that makes sure it's thick enough to withstand rusting.

Workers plug both openings and put a temporary seal on the vent to prevent tampering.

After that, these steel shipping drums are ready for the long haul.

Next, get the blow-by-blow at a police-whistle factory.

It was in the late 19th century that london police started using a special whistle to get attention.

It was lightweight and had a piercing sound-- a real improvement over the hand rattles they had been using before.

That same design is still used today.

They may be a blast from the past, but there's nothing better for blowing the whistle on lawbreakers.

The average traffic cop blows his whistle thousands of times a day, so the whistles have to resist a lot of spit.

The whistle's body is made of high-grade brass tubing, in which two slots are punched.

These are sound holes that will allow the noise to escape.

Using hydraulic pressure, the brand name is stamped onto the tube.

Next comes the mouthpiece.

Rollers sculpt a piece of spinning brass into a shape that's a bit like an hourglass.

With the mouthpiece complete, a hydraulic punch is used to bend a piece of brass into a part called the slab.

The slab will be used to create two sound chambers inside the whistle.

A loop is fitted on to an endcap to make the whistle easier to hang on to.

A rotating press bends the loop's tab against the inside of the cap to fasten them together permanently.

Next, an endcap is attached to the slab, and then the slab is forced into the cavity of the whistle, splitting it into two chambers.

A police whistle actually produces two notes at once, giving it that distinctive timbre.

These two separate sound chambers will produce two different pitches.

Now the ends of the whistle are dipped in solder paste and then the looped cap and mouthpiece are hammered onto the pasted the solder paste is a special lead-free compound so the whistle-blower won't be exposed to toxins.

Solder wires are also inserted in the whistle chambers before capping the ends.

These solder wires will act in conjunction with the solder paste to seal the whistle in a process that happens next.

The whistles move through an electromagnetic conduction coil, which heats them to a smoking 425 degrees.

This causes the solder paste and wires inside to melt and flow into the whistle's seams.

Each whistle is then dipped in an acid bath, which hardens the solder, sealing the whistle's seams.

Next, the whistles are lowered into a nickel bath, where positively charged nickel ions migrate to the negatively charged whistles.

Now it's time to make some noise.

Each whistle is tested with compressed air.

The tiniest pinhole will cause a whistle to fail, and that happens in 3% of them.

Failure is a crushing experience.

The rejects get flattened and sent to a company that reclaims the metal.

On both land and sea, whistles are the sound of authority.

Here, workers assemble a boatswain's pipe, used by naval officers to issue commands and salute dignitaries.

There's a tiny hole in the ball at the end of this pipe.

The player opens and closes that hole with his hands to change the whistle's pitch.

And with that, production at this whistle factory comes to a screeching halt.

Up next, all aboard.

You're about to see how raw plastic is transformed into a miniature train car.

Making miniature train cars is all about the details.

Every feature is scaled-down to a fraction of the real thing, and nothing is too small to replicate.

The miniature train car is more than just a toy.

It's a work of art and a collectible.

On a miniature train track, the past comes full circle with replicas of trains from days gone by.

Craftsmen start with historical photos and drawings of actual train cars and scale them down to 1/48th size.

They feed polystyrene pellets like these into an injection-molding machine.

It melts the pellets into a thick paste.

The four sections of the mold close and nozzles pump in the plastic.

It oozes into all the grooves and hardens almost instantly into the shape of a train car.

Then the excess plastic gets clipped off.

Here's a view of how the four parts of the mold come together to shape melted plastic into a boxcar.

They even create holes in the boxcar to attach accessories and they impress details like ridging that mimics the steel ribs of the life-size train car.

More molds are used to replicate door rails, brake wheels, and other accessories.

The assembler clips the parts off the framework and files down the rough sections.

That is the brake wheel she's snapping onto the end of the model.

Using a hobby knife, she trims excess plastic from the train car's step.

She then glues a steel weight to the bottom of the train car to make it 1/48th the weight of the real thing.

Making something to scale is a bit of a balancing act.

Finally, she attaches air-brake tanks to the underframe of the car, and it's time to spray-paint the model train car vivid orange.

It's a color that would have been used on an actual boxcar, combined with white.

For that two-toned look, the model is held in a paint shield, which protects the orange sections as they spray on the white.

This technique ensures the paint job has clean lines.

The car is left to dry overnight.

Not all paint jobs are so flashy.

This car is basic black, the perfect canvas for white lettering.

A pad picks up the ink from letter engravings on a printed plate and transfers the image to the car.

Metal wheels now roll off a revolving conveyer.

They funnel into mechanisms that press-fit them onto each end of metal axles.

The wheel-and-axle assemblies drop into a bin below.

Two sets of wheels are now installed on a plastic framework.

The framework is then attached to a coupler, the device that links train cars.

The wheels-and-coupler assembly are screwed on to one end of the car.

Then the process is repeated on the other end.

The couplers are snapped together to connect two train cars.

In the world of train models, a little grime is just fine.

A misting of paint makes the cars look dusty and aged on purpose.

The painter layers colors to get just the right effect.

This technique adds the element of realism to the model train car.

It's all a matter of preference.

Some hobbyists prefer this weathered look, while others like their model trains shiny and new.

The model train cars have now rolled off the assembly line, and they're ready to hit the tracks for a whistle-stop tour of another era.

Coming up, the hot scoop on one of the world's favorite building blocks.

When it comes to building materials, glass blocks are clearly a classic.

In the 1920s and '30s, they were a cornerstone of the art-deco style of architecture.

Today, glass blocks are still popular for creating walls, windows, and stunning design features, a stylish way to build a privacy barrier that still lets in light.

Glass blocks aren't just decorative.

They insulate from heat, cold, and noise.

Production begins with just four ingredients-- recycled glass pieces called cullet, sand, soda ash, and limestone.

A computerized system portions out each one and feeds them into a melter.

This giant furnace heats the batch of ingredients to a fiery 2,700 degrees, transforming them into molten glass.

The melter pumps out enough molten glass to make one half block at a time.

Automated shears slice just the right amount.

The gob of glass then slides into a waiting mold.

A plunger pushes the gob down, spreading glass throughout the mold cavity.

Its waffled surface imprints that pattern into the glass.

A blast of ambient air cools down the molten glass drastically, from 1,800 degrees to 1,100 in just a few seconds.

This way they don't lose their shape when a retractable arm extracts them from the mold and lays them on a conveyer belt, leading into a sealing machine.

This is where two half blocks join together to form a full block.

Entering the machine, each piece passes over a series of burners that keep the glass temperature constant.

Sudden cooling could crack or shatter the glass.

The machine then slowly reheats the half blocks until their edges start melting.

Next, they enter the part of the machine called the squeeze station.

Here, an automated press forces a top half and bottom half together.

Their melted edges fuse, forming a single block.

The blocks now travel into a leer, an oven that cools the glass at regulated temperatures over several hours.

This annealing process prevents cracking and allows the glass time to set properly.

The glass goes in at about 1,800 degrees.

Coming out, it's down to 175.

The blocks are now ready for inspection.

Workers use digital-alignment gauges to make sure both halves are flush.

Then they run a straight piece of steel along the block's surface to check for any distortion.

Every block must meet precise standards for both size and shape-- a 71/2-inch square that's 4 inches thick.

Building with glass blocks is similar to building with bricks-- you use mortar to stick them together.

To prep the blocks for mortaring, workers now place each one onto a separate station.

As it spins, nozzles spray the edges with liquid vinyl.

This coating will help the mortar stick to the glass surface.

Just one last step.

An ink-jet printer applies the product code along with the manufacturing date and time.

The quality-control department runs samples through an impact test.

A worker drops a weight through a tube onto the side of the block.

This verifies the strength of the sidewall and the seal between the two halves.

Finally, the glass blocks are ready for shipping.

Workers pack them into cardboard boxes that have block-sized sections to keep them safe during transport.

Glass blocks come in so many shapes, sizes, and patterns that the design possibilities are endless.

Both practical and beautiful, it's no wonder they're so popular with builders and decorators alike.


being eaten alive by mosquitos is no picnic...

Well, except to the mosquitos.

Not only are the bugs annoying, but just one bite from an infected mosquito can transmit potentially debilitating or fatal diseases such as the west nile virus, malaria, and dengue fever.

One way to ward off mosquitos is to light a coil that releases mosquito-repelling vapors.

These coils, manufactured in thailand, contain three natural ingredients traditionally used in this country to keep those biting bugs at bay-- eucalyptus, citronella, and turmeric.

The first step is to mix them with certain nonactive natural ingredients which form the coil-- coconut shell powder, sawdust, tapioca starch, and joss powder, an adhesive made from the bark and leaves of the litsea glutinosa tree.

After blending all these powdered ingredients for 10 to 15 minutes, workers bag the mix in an empty ingredient sack, then empty the contents in a kneading tank.

They add fragrance and dye.

The coil comes in four varieties.

This batch of coils will be pink and cherry blossom scented.

Then, they add the coil's only chemical active ingredient, metofluthrin.

Its vapors are toxic to mosquitos' nervous systems, yet harmless to humans in low doses.

Metofluthrin makes up less than 1% of the mosquito coil.

After about 10 to 15 minutes of kneading, the mix exits the tank as a formable paste.

A conveyer belt transports it to an extruder, which squeezes the paste through a slot-shaped die, producing sheets approximately 4 millimeters thick.

A stamping machine then punches out seven coils per sheet.

The leftover paste travels back to the extruder to be reformed into fresh sheets ready for stamping while the stamping machine ejects the paste coils onto a mesh tray.

Workers conduct a visual inspection and remove any coils which are misshapen.

Then they stack the trays onto trolleys.

They roll the trolleys into the drying chamber, which they heat to a temperature of 131 degrees fahrenheit.

After 5 1/2 hours, the coils come out of the drying chamber hard and sturdy.

After conducting another visual inspection, workers transfer the dried coil to the automated packing line.

The machine's first station stacks the coils in piles of five.

Workers place a metal coil stand on each stack.

Then, the machine's next station packages each stack in clear plastic film.

The package holds the five coils tightly together so they don't rattle against each other and get damaged.

It also prevents the scent from dissipating before use.

At the next station, a high-speed robotic arm grabs and opens the retail boxes, aligning them opposite the arriving packages of coils.

The machine inserts a package of coils into each box...

Then closes the box.

Before packaging the mosquito coils, the company lab tests randomly selected samples from the batch.

The chemist lights a piece of coils and places it in the center of a sealed test chamber.

Five minutes after the coil has completely burned, she releases mosquitos into the chamber and clocks how much time elapses until they're debilitated.

The lab also conducts a burn performance test.

This verifies that the coils take between 7 and 8 hours to burn completely.

These mosquito coils also come in lavender, rosemary, and herbal blend scents.

Provided they're kept sealed in their plastic package and stored away from moisture, the active ingredients remain effective for at least 10 years.

The solar-assist tricycle takes urban commuting in a whole new direction.

It's part tricycle and part motorized vehicle.

The motor runs on a lithium-ion battery that gets its juice from the solar panel on the roof.

And it can also be plugged into an electrical outlet for a charge.

The solar-assist tricycle is a vehicle for change.

Propelled by both pedal power and solar energy, it's an alternative way to get around town.

Making a solar-assist tricycle starts with the side panels for the cab.

They've been thermoformed from rugged plastic.

An employee cuts open doorways in the panels using a router.

A fender was molded into the cutout to minimize waste.

He cuts a hole in the panel to assemble that fender.

Another employee then peels off the plastic film that has protected the panel during the cutting process.

She attaches led signal lights and headlights to the tricycle body.

She connects the lights to the wiring harness.

The molded fender completes the tricycle side panel.

She hangs it on a rack to await the next stage of production and writes the order number on it in order to keep track of it.

They build the frame from tempered aircraft-grade aluminum.

An employee mounts crank arms and chain rings to the front and then attaches pedals.

The crankset transmits human pedal power to the drivetrain.

Next up is the antlers, an assembly of metal tubes that includes the suspension mechanisms and steering linkage.

They install steering arms at the ends of the antlers, then mount an aluminum dashboard support to the antlers.

He inserts the steer tube for the handlebars into the slot in the dashboard support.

He connects the steering linkage to the antlers using swiveling joints for precise handling.

He inserts the handlebar into the steer tube.

The team then secures two rugged bicycle wheels to the axle using cap bolts.

They position the 1-horsepower motor and transmission between the tricycle's parallel spines and attach them with brackets and bolts.

They loop a roller chain from the crank to the transmission and another one from the transmission to the rear drive wheel.

They also link the motor to the rear wheel with a roller chain.

They equip all three wheels with disc brakes.

They install aluminum casing over part of the rear wheel and driveline.

This protects these components and also provides structural support.

A computerized tool now carves into corrugated polypropylene to create a box for the vehicle battery.

An assembler then rivets the battery box to the front of the solar-assist tricycle.

The team attaches metal struts to serve as supports for the vehicle body.

They're now ready to assemble the body parts to the chassis.

They align each panel to the frame and bolt it in nine locations.

The fenders frame the wheels to keep road spray down.

They fasten side mirrors to the vehicle, drilling the bolts through the body to the dashboard support.

The employee then applies decals that identify the product.

He protects the motor and transmission with a rugged plastic bonnet.

And he screws the adjustable seat to the tricycle's aluminum spine.

The team curves the flexible solar panel to the top.

They attach the windshield to the front using high-strength double-sided tape.

The windshield is made of polycarbonate that's optically clear and shatterproof.

After the installation, he peels off the protective liner.

The next worker inserts the battery in its compartment.

He clips it shut, and the solar-assist tricycle is ready for the road.

With its egg-shaped cab, it's certainly unusual-looking.

And that's fitting because this hybrid vehicle is something entirely different.

Most people use palm oil daily and don't realize it because it just blends in.

It's a component of half of packaged food products.

And it's also used in cosmetics, detergents, and even biofuels.

It has a smooth texture, a natural taste.

And it's a natural preservative.

Brought to southeast asia from africa a century ago, oil palms have thrived here.

Today, this region generates 85% of the world's palm oil supply.

At the heart of this palm oil boom are breeding programs that ensure high yields.

Technicians start by dissecting the fruit bunches.

They analyze the quality of the fruit fibers, kernels, and nuts.

They also assess their oil content.

This identifies the most productive palms, as well as the trees best suited to particular growing environments.

Next, the research team climbs the selected mother palms and pollinates the female flowers with pollen from high-quality male palms.

They cover the flowers with thick fabric that allow light in but shields them from accidental pollination by insects and from other flowers.

This ensures that hybrid seed will be the product of the selected parents only.

It takes 6 months for the new hybrid seeds to be produced.

Then it's into a heat chamber for 3 months to break the seeds' dormancy.

They soak the awakened seeds in water.

Along with the heat treatment, this rehydrating accelerates germination-- a process that takes many years in nature.

They place the seeds in drawers and regularly mist them with water.

After a few days, the seeds begin to sprout.

Skilled staff sort through the sprouted seeds.

They reject any that haven't germinated completely or that have crooked shoots.

The seed on the left is the ideal specimen.

They plant the selected seeds in small bags of soil outside.

They shade them during this initial period of growth, protecting them from harsh sunlight.

After 3 months, the seedlings develop roots and leaves.

They transfer them to larger bags of soil, and 6 to 9 months later, they're 3 feet tall and ready for planting in farmers' fields.

After 3 years of growth, the young palms bear fruit.

The time is now ripe to tap into the oil-generating potential of these huge fruit bunches.

The farmer loads the oil palm fruit onto a tractor cart.

And it's on its way to the palm oil factory.

Here, fruit from many farms accumulates in the receiving area.

When the factory is ready to process the next batch, they open a gate.

The fruit spills onto a conveyer.

And it delivers it to giant pressure cookers.

Cooking the fruit sterilizes it.

It stops enzyme activity that would degrade the quality of the oil that's to be extracted.

It also loosens the fruit from the stalks, and some break away.

A spiraling blade moves them onto a grid screen that sorts the fruit from the stalks.

The loose fruit drops into a bin below.

And the stalks with remaining fruit go for further separating.

Next, presses crush the fruit to squeeze out the crude palm oil.

The oil flows into a vat.

Impurities will now be spun out in a centrifuge and also filtered out.

Meanwhile, the fibers and palm nuts toss in a drum.

This knocks off fibers that are stuck to the nuts.

A fan sucks up the lighter fibers, which will be used as factory fuel.

They crack the nuts, and then a vibrating system separates the shells from the actual kernels.

The shells will also be used as factory fuel.

And the kernels will be crushed into palm kernel oil.

In the lab, they now test samples to determine the oil extraction rate and confirm that the yield is good.

They also analyze the oil's purity and the amount of free fatty acids.

They confirm that the batch is of good quality.

This crude palm oil has gone through many stages of purification.

And although tests confirm it, the difference is also plain to see.

Today, everything from boats to outdoor furniture to shower stalls are molded out of fiberglass-reinforced plastic resin.

This wouldn't be possible without a tool called a chopper gun.

It shreds the fiberglass into thin, loose fibers and impregnates them with resin while shooting them into the mold.

A fiberglass chopper gun has a chopper that shreds and shoots the fibers, a nozzle that sprays those fibers with resin, and a catalyst to harden it, an air cylinder that drives the entire system, and separate pumps for the resin and catalyst.

The make the resin pump, they first cut a stainless steel tube to a length of about 10 inches.

All the pump's key components are made of stainless steel, which is very durable and doesn't rust.

This tube will become the cylinder for the resin pump.

They turn it on a computer-guided lathe.

The first machining tool reduces the tube to the required diameter.

The second machining tool cuts a groove in the cylinder for an assembly pin.

They manually file the edges of the cylinder smooth, then polish the entire surface with sandpaper to remove marks left by the machining.

Once all the components are ready, they begin assembling the resin pump.

It has a ball valve at the top and another at the bottom, which open with suction and close with pressure to enable or block the flow of resin.

Workers fit a rubber o-ring seal around the seat for the bottom ball, then insert the seat into the bottom of the pump.

This retaining clip holds the seat in position.

They fit another o-ring seal on top, then place the ball, about 10 inches in diameter, in the seat.

This spring retainer limits how high the ball can rise when it's lifting to open the valve.

Next, they attach the pump cylinder.

They take a preassembled upper ball valve, attach a thermoplastic piston seal, then a retainer that holds the seal in position as the pump's piston, which they now screw on, moves up and down with the pumping action.

They insert the piston into the cylinder.

The tight fit creates a vacuum when the piston moves upward, drawing resin into the pump and pressure when the piston moves downward, pushing the resin out.

Next, they add the top of the pump, then assemble the top seal, which contains a guide held in place by a retaining clip that aligns the vertical movement of the piston.

They screw the top seal to the pump top.

They secure the top by inserting a pin into the cylinder groove.

The chopper's main components are the cutting head, the anvil sleeve, and a hard rubber roller, which the chopper's air-driven motor spins, rotating the cutting head at 4,000 revolutions per minute.

This bearing pulls the woven fiberglass yarn, called roving, into the cutting head, which has slots for up to eight supersharp stainless steel blades.

The more blades you use, the shorter the chopped fibers.

This safety cover prevents fingers from accidentally getting chopped in the process.

They mount the chopper to this spray gun.

The lines from the resin and catalyst pumps connect to the back of the gun.

At the front of the gun, dual nozzles simultaneously spray these chemicals onto the fibers right after they exit the chopper.

Workers mount the resin pump on a stand along with a filter that prevents the nozzle from clogging.

They install the air cylinder, then mount the catalyst pump and hook up lines from both pumps to the spray gun.

To operate the machine, you hook up an air compressor to the machine's air input, connect the pumps to the resin and catalyst reservoirs, and set how much catalyst to deliver.

Then you insert a strand of fiberglass roving into the chopper and let her rip.

No resin and catalyst in this demonstration, but normally, they hit the fibers about 4 inches in front of the chopper gun, which shoots a stream of fiberglass-reinforced resin into your mold.


Plastic Bottles and Jars
Mail
Eggs
Handcrafted Wooden Pens

Today on "how it's made"...

Plastic bottles and jars...

Mail...

Eggs...

And handcrafted wooden pens.

Whether you're buying apple juice or peanut butter, you've probably noticed that fewer products come in glass containers these days.

Plastic packaging is becoming more common.

Plastic bottles and jars are lighter to carry and leave no shards of glass to clean up if you drop your grocery bag.

Many transparent bottles and jars are made from a type of plastic called polyethylene terephthalate, or p.e.t. an automated mixer combines p.e.t. pellets with flakes of recycled p.e.t. reprocessed plastic loses some of its physical properties, so the recycled content can't exceed 10%.

The p.e.t. drops from the mixer into a plastic injection machine that heats it to a piping 600 degrees fahrenheit.

The dry raw material melts into thick and gooey liquid plastic.

The machine then shoots it at high pressure into a mold.

This plastic injection molding process casts pieces of plastic called preforms, starter shapes that subsequent machines will transform into bottles or jars.

The molded preforms harden almost instantly, thanks to a built-in cooling system.

These preforms are now on their way to becoming single-serving juice bottles.

This is another plastic injection molding machine.

It uses the same method to make preforms for a different model--  1 1/2- to 2-liter bottles.

The preform's next stop is a machine called a reheat stretch-blow molder.

In a matter of seconds, it heats each preform just enough to make the plastic malleable, then inserts a rod to stretch the preform lengthwise while at the same time blowing in air at extremely high pressure.

This forces the preform into a bottle-shaped mold.

Cold water circulates within the mold to cool and set the plastic almost instantly.

This lightning-fast machine churns out 10,600 bottles per hour.

No wonder we've had to show it to you in slow motion.

A conveyor belt transports the finished bottles to the packaging area.

Before blow molding, the preforms for certain models first pass through an oven.

A technician sets the heat level of each infrared oven lamp individually, applying more or less heat at various points to influence the thickness and shaping of the plastic.

From the oven, the preforms go into another reheat stretch-blow molder that transforms them into peanut jars.

It's the same process for this peanut butter jar.

After molding, the machine instantly cools the plastic, locking in the shape.

The factory pulls samples off the line at regular intervals for quality-control testing.

Technicians measure the thickness of the plastic and perform a compression test to gauge its strength.

They verify the sample's dimensions and capacity.

They also evaluate resistance to vacuum pressure because containers are often vacuum sealed after filling.

Some models must also be strong enough to resist the pressure of their contents-- carbonated soft drinks, for instance.

The recycled material used in making these bottles and jars doesn't come from used plastic containers.

For hygienic reasons, the factory recycles only new plastic left over from its manufacturing process.

The finished containers, of course, are fully recyclable.

They're typically reprocessed into other plastic products or into products that contain some plastic.

What do the letters "f," "d," "i," "o," and "u" have in common?

They're all part of postal codes used in abbreviations for state names.

These letters and numbers are read by high-tech machines that sort our mail.

The trucks unload the containers picked up from postal outlets...

And bags of mail that were collected from public mailboxes.

The containers go straight to automated sorting.

Their contents have already been classified by size.

Not so for the bags.

Postal workers empty them and put standard-size envelopes on a conveyor belt leading to one sorting machine...

And large envelopes into a bin destined for another.

The standard-sized letters travel to a high-speed, high-tech machine that checks for postage.

Stamps contain an invisible fluorescent material that illuminates under ultraviolet light.

The machine's u.v. sensor scans both sides of every envelope.

No glow, no go.

Letters with postage are canceled with a postmark so the stamps can't be reused.

The postal mark contains the date, the state, and the sorting plant's postal code.

Next stop, a machine called the multiline optical character reader...

An impressive piece of equipment that processes up to 30,000 letters per hour.

It reads and digitally photographs each destination address, matching it to the computer's address database.

Then it prints the postal code in barcode format on the front of the envelope.

A scanner now reads the barcodes and does a preliminary sorting.

Local and regional mail stays here and moves on to the next sorting machine for a more detailed breakdown.

Letters addressed to other regions go to the postal plants there, where a thorough sorting will take place.

But what happens when all this sophisticated technology just can't make out the address due to, say, sloppy handwriting or smudged ink?

The optical character reader machine puts the letter on hold and sends the address photo to the video encoding system.

A postal worker deciphers the writing and types in the postal code, sending the letter back into the sorting system.

Now the local and regional mail goes through what's called the bcs-- the barcode sorter.

This performs a more detailed sorting by postal route.

The machine scans the barcodes at a rate of 30,000 letters per hour, sending the mail to the corresponding letter carrier's bin.

A worker preps the mail for each route, grouping and labeling it by sector.

Meanwhile, the large envelopes go through what's called the flat sorting machine.

It does what three machines did for the standard-sized letters-- postmarks the stamp, reads the address, applies a barcode sticker, reads the barcode, sorts the mail, and drops it into the corresponding letter carrier's bin.

If the machine can't make out an address, the envelope goes for manual sorting.

In manual sorting, postal workers handle more than just illegible addresses.

They also hand sort mail going out of country and envelopes that are too thick or bulky to go through the automated machines.

At all stages of mail processing and delivery, workers are on the lookout for envelopes bearing insufficient postage.

Those letters are returned to sender.

Letter carriers sort the mail for the routes by street and house number.

If they have a walking route, they load up their first bagful and head off.

A truck delivers the rest to a locked box along the route called a relay box.

Carriers pick up the rest of their mail when they pass by it.

Some letter carriers have what's called a motorized route.

They deliver all their customers' mail by truck, which sure beats walking door-to-door in a blizzard.

Hens don't have to mate to lay eggs, and as long as there's no rooster in the vicinity, the eggs will remain unfertilized and edible.

The color of the shell is determined by the breed of hen, but there's no pecking order when it comes to shell color.

White or brown, all eggs are the same inside.

The action begins in the hen house, where female chickens start laying eggs when they're 19 weeks old.

The building is well-ventilated, and the temperature and humidity are strictly controlled.

To stimulate laying, fluorescent lighting simulates 15 hours of daylight.

The hens eat a measured amount of food three times a day.

Their feed is made up of various grains mixed with soybeans for protein.

It's fortified with vitamins and minerals and contain calcium to strengthen the eggshells.

The hens drink water from nipple-ended tubes attached to their cages.

All these carefully monitored conditions are designed to maximize the yield.

The average hen lays about 300 eggs a year.

The cage floor is sloped so the eggs automatically roll onto a conveyor belt.

Then it's onto a larger conveyor belt, which transports the eggs to the packing room.

The hens' manure drops through the bottom of their cages onto a conveyor below.

Even so, some eggs get dirty.

They'll be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected later on.

Automated equipment transfers the eggs onto plastic flats.

It places them wide-end up to keep the yolks properly centered.

The flats go into a cold room until a refrigerated truck ships them to the grading station, whose job is to classify the eggs by quality.

The best, grade "a," end up on supermarket shelves.

Lesser grades go to processing plants to be turned into ingredients used in foods, pharmaceuticals, and products such as shampoos.

This automated station is high-tech and high-speed, processing 144,000 eggs per hour.

First, a suction machine lifts the eggs off the flats and transfers them onto a moving track leading to the cleaning station.

There, a washer gently scrubs the eggs with soap and disinfectant.

The water is just over 100 degrees fahrenheit.

Anything hotter would cook the eggs.

Then, it's into a dryer for five seconds, where a fan sucks up the moisture.

The eggs then pass over a bright light, which highlights the condition of the shells.

Workers do a preliminary visual inspection, removing any that are cracked.

A grading camera above assesses the condition and quality of the shell's exterior.

Further down the line, other cameras will inspect the interior for blood.

To check the strength of the eggshells, acoustic sensors tap on the eggs.

They detect brittle shells by the different sound of the tap.

The inspection machines mark and reject any egg that doesn't make the grade--  grade "a," that is.

The approved eggs move on to electronic scales, which register their weight class from peewee to jumbo.

Pressure-controlled claws then transport them to the corresponding packaging line.

On the way, every egg gets stamped with a lot number for quality-control tracking.

The packing machine stamps the egg cartons with a "best before" date.

The eggs have a shelf life of 35 days.

As for the hens, their expiration date comes at 72 weeks, when the eggs they lay are no longer consumption-quality.

For all their hard work, they win an all-expenses-paid trip to the slaughterhouse.

A pen set is a classic gift for any occasion, be it a birthday, graduation, or promotion.

We're not talking pens of the inexpensive, ball-point variety...

But rather those cadillac models in sleek metal or sumptuous wood.

The quill dates back to about 700 a.d. made from a bird feather, it's tip had to be repeatedly dipped in ink.

Messy and inefficient, the quill remained the norm for more than 1,000 years.

In 1884, an american invented the fountain pen, with its built-in refillable ink barrel.

But the true revolution came with the no-fuss ball-point pen patented by two hungarian brothers in 1938.

Handcrafted wooden pens can be made from just one type of wood or from a combination of woods.

This artisan uses some 50 different kinds, ranging from domestic maple and oak to imported rosewood, ebony, olive wood, and purpleheart.

When using just one type of wood, he runs the block through a band saw, cutting a strip 6/10 of an inch wide.

Then, with a radial saw, he cuts that strip into two pieces, each about two inches long.

These will become the pen's top and bottom casings.

Using a tool called a drill press, he bores a hole roughly 3/10 of an inch in diameter right through each piece.

Making a pen from a combination of woods takes a little more work.

Instead of using a block of solid wood, he constructs a block by gluing together thin planks of contrasting woods.

Once the glue dries, he uses a wood planer to remove the excess and smooth out the sides.

Then, just as he did for the single-wood pen, he cuts the block into strips 6/10 of an inch wide.

This time, he slices diagonally so that each strip showcases the multiple woods.

Again, he cuts pieces for the top and bottom casings, then drills a hole through them.

From this point on, whether he's using one or more woods, the process is the same.

He coats two brass tubes with glue and inserts one in each casing.

A few drops of water are added to expand the adhesive into any gaps between the tube and surrounding wood.

These brass tubes will house the pen's mechanism.

The glue takes about an hour to dry.

Then he uses what's called a hand mill to square all the angles and remove the excess glue.

Now for the artistic part.

He turns the casings on a lathe to shape them.

First, he rounds them out.

Then, using a series of tools, he gives each casing unique detailing.

He highlights the grooves by using the heat that friction generates to burn them dark.

When the design work's done, he runs sanding cord inside the grooves.

Then he sands the surface three times with progressively finer sandpaper.

To protect the wood, he varnishes the casings with four coats of hardwood-floor varnish, sanding between each application.

When the last coat dries, he can assemble the pen, starting with the tip.

He glues it to the bottom casing, tapping it with a mallet to ensure it's fully inserted.

The tip is made of titanium, a very resilient metal.

Next comes the clip, also made of titanium.

He glues it into the top casing.

Finally, using a vise, he forces in the pen's mechanism.

The mechanism houses a replaceable ink cartridge.

A titanium ring joins the two casings.

As an added touch, the pen can be personalized with an engraved clip.

And the gift box can bear the recipient's name or a corporate logo.


Vibrating Mining Screens
Whoopie Pies
Wood Utility Poles
Roller Conveyors

Mines and quarries use crushers to break down raw material.

Those raw materials go through a vibrating screen to separate the particles by size.

The vibrations cause the smaller pieces to fall through the screen while the larger pieces remain on top.

This limestone quarry uses a vibrating screen with three decks.

The top deck filters out the largest stones, which will be used to make concrete.

The second deck collects half-inch rocks.

They'll be used to make asphalt.

The final deck gathers the smallest materials to product limestone sand.

The screen mesh is made from steel wire.

This steel contains carbon, making it more durable than regular steel.

A pair of wheel dyes crimp it into a wave pattern.

The diameter of the wire and crimp pattern determine the shape and size of the screen mesh openings.

Workers can change the dyes to crimp different patterns.

The machine cuts the crimped wire to a specific length.

Then, workers take the pieces over to a loom.

It weaves screens the same way a textile loom weaves cloth.

They lay the crimped wires vertically, playing one in between each of the loom's heddles.

They line up the crimped wire so that the bottom of one crimp faces the top of the next.

Then they weave a straight wire horizontally across the vertically crimped wires.

They continue to feed straight wires across.

Then use the loom to secure each one in position.

The vertical and horizontal wires interlock to form the mesh.

Once they've woven a section to the required length, a sheer cuts it off the loom.

Another sheet cuts the section to the customer's requested dimensions.

This is the final size of the screen mesh section.

Next, workers insert one set of the screen into an electromagnetic induction heater.

The device evenly generates heat inside the steel.

This is critical because heating unevenly can weaken the steel.

They inset the heated edge in a steel strip mounted in a press.

The press clamps the strip over the edge then vents it into a hook strip.

They repeat the process on the opposite site side.

The two hook strips attach the mesh section to the vibrating screen.

The loom can weave many different types of screen mesh.

This one is made of finer wire that's crimped in a different pattern.

The openings of the screen mesh are larger and more rectangular.

It's designed for a less precise sorting process.

For both screens, the weaving and cutting processes are the same.

They even use the same technique to attach the hook strips.

The only thing that changes is the crimping pattern.

Next, they connect the hook strips to the vibrating screen.

Installers lay the sections end-to-end on each of the machine's decks.

Then they fashion the hook strips to the machine with tension rails and secure those rails with large bolts.

When the mine or quarry needs to change the screening parameters, they simply replace these screens with different ones.

Whoopie pies are not pies at all.

This all-american treat is made of vanilla cream frosting sandwiched between two pieces of round chocolate cake.

The whoopie pie was invented in new england.

And today, it is the official state treat of maine.

This company adds a modern twist to the classic whoopie pie recipe.

In addition to traditional chocolate and vanilla, the company makes four other all-natural flavors.

The ingredients are certified vegan, non-gmo, gluten-free, kosher and free of many common food allergens.

Workers begin by making the chocolate cakes.

The first ingredient is water followed by apple cider vinegar.

Then, they add either canola or sunflower oil.

They mix the liquid ingredients in a large bowl.

Then they add the dry ingredients, starting with tapioca starch, bean flour, and sorghum, a gluten-free grain.

Next, they mix in cocoa powder, granulated cane sugar, and light brown sugar.

They run the mixer at a very high speed to incorporate air in the batter.

This will make the cake lighter and fluffier.

After about 4 minutes of mixing, the batter is ready.

They test a sample using a viscometer, a device that measures the thickness.

If the batter is the right consistency, they pump it through a hopper into a multi-head depositer.

Each of its five nozzles shoot one ounce of batter onto a moving baking sheet.

A finished sheet contains seven rows of batter.

Workers load multiple sheets of batter into an oven.

The sheets rotate for 15 minutes at 75 degree fahrenheit, evenly baking the cakes.

The precise combination of ingredients allows the acids in the apple cider vinegar to react with the cocoa powder.

The result is a perfect little chocolate cake that's rich in flavor and moist in texture.

The main ingredient for the filling is shortening.

It's made from sustainable palm oil.

This means the palm tress were responsibly harvested.

They mix the shortening well, incorporating enough air to make it light and fluffy.

Then they add powdered cane sugar and organic rice milk as a dairy-free substitute.

The rice milk makes the frosting creamy.

For vanilla frosting, they simply add pure vanilla extract.

This is a batch of raspberry frosting, so they add pure raspberry extract and beet juice for color.

When they make mint frosting, they use pure mint extract and alfalfa extract for green color.

Lemon frosting is made from pure lemon extract and turmeric for color.

They check the shade against a color chart to ensure the correct flavor.

The multi-head depositer drops frosting on the baking sheets in the same configuration as the batter.

Then they assemble the final pie.

Workers start by placing a piece of cake on top of the frosting.

They press down hard enough to spread the frosting just shy of the cake's edge.

They cover the top with a sheet of parchment paper then place a baking sheet on top and flip it over.

They remove the top baking sheet and the parchment paper.

Then, they carefully place the second cake onto the frosting.

Workers roll the trays of whoopie pies into a cooler where the desserts chill for about 15 minutes.

This hardens them so they won't get squished during packaging.

Workers place the whoopie pies on a conveyer belt that leads to an automated wrapping machine.

It wraps double-printed packaging around each pie and seals them underneath.

Then the machine cuts the film between each pie.

The next machine packages four sealed whoopie pies per retail box.

There are zero preservatives in these whoopie pies.

They're shipped frozen to the grocery store and sold in the freezer section.

When it's time for a treat, simply let them thaw to room temperature and enjoy.

Wooden utility poles are a constant presence in our lives.

They were originally built in the mid-19th century to suspend telegraph lines.

Now, they hold up power and phone lines as well as fiber-optic and coaxial cables for television and computer networking.

Builders use many different types of pine or fir trees to make utility poles.

In the us, southern yellow pine is the most popular choice.

Foresters select trees that are 10 to 20 inches in diameter and at least 30 feet high.

They look for a straight, healthy trunk with few limbs.

The foresters mark the selected tress with spray paint.

Then, the tree harvester saws them down at the base.

After the loggers saw off the limbs and cut the trees to a specified length, a log truck delivers the poles to the mill.

There, a truck scale weighs the load.

Then, workers ticket it with a tracking number.

The truck enters the yard and the poles are unloaded into piles.

A loader feeds the poles to a debarking machine.

The machine's razor-sharp cutters shave of the bark and the layer of tissue beneath the bark called the cambium.

Next, a saw trims one inch off the bottom of the log to make it square.

At the same time, nozzles spray lines of red food coloring at set intervals along the pole.

These mark indicate different lengths.

Another worker inspects the quality and measures the circumference.

This assessment determines the wood's class.

He marks the length and class on the bottom of the pole.

The bark and shavings removed from the poles don't go to waste-- a grinding mill reduces them to small fibers.

The factory uses those fibers to power the boiler.

The fire in the boiler will product heat, which dries the poles.

After the poles have been sorted by length and class, loaders stack them on large trams.

They place spacer sticks in between each pole to allow air to flow around them.

Then, the loaders push the trams into a large kiln.

The steam from the boiler flows through the trams, heating the inside of the kiln to 200 degree fahrenheit.

Large fans blow the hot air around the poles for 3 days until the wood is dry.

When the poles come out of the kiln, workers brand them with product information.

Next, they cut a flat surface on one side of the pole.

Then, they drill holes to attach a crossarm.

After they drill the holes, they stack the poles in another tram.

This one takes them to a 125-foot-long treatment cylinder.

They lock the door and vacuum all the air out of the cylinder.

They fill the cylinder with a liquid that's 98% water and 2% chemical preservative.

The preservative is a mixture of chrome, copper and arsenic.

Once the cylinder is full, the pumps start running to pressurize the liquid, infusing the wood with the chemical solution.

The 2-hour process leaves the wood resistant to rot, fungus and termites.

Next, inspectors bore 3-inch holes into each pole to collect a sample.

The inspectors check to make sure the preservative saturated the wood to the target depth.

Then, they send the samples to the on-site laboratory, where they're dried in a microwave oven and ground up.

They also put the sample in an x-ray machine to analyze the chrome, copper and arsenic levels.

These quality control steps ensure that every utility pole contains the right amount of chemical preservatives.

These finished poles will assist for at least 45 to 60 years.

Humans have been using roller conveyors for thousands of years.

The ancient egyptians used wood rollers to move the large stones needed to build the pyramids.

Today's conveyors are more complex.

But the basic concept is still the same.

Many factories use roller conveyors to transfer materials from one station to another during assembly.

They can move heavy loads up to 65 feet in a minute.

To make the conveyer rollers, this factory starts with hollow steel tubes.

They deliver to the factory in batches.

After they arrive, a band saw cuts the tubes to length.

The diameter can vary from batch to batch.

So an employee obtains the exact measurements.

He inputs the measurements into a computer that controls this laser.

The laser etches the company logo onto a sheet of thick steel and cuts out support disks for the roller axles.

The support disks fit perfectly into the hollow rollers.

An employee feeds a flat sheet of steel to a computerized break press.

It bends the sheet into a vertical rail for the conveyer frame.

Here's the steel before and after bending.

A worker joins two vertical rails with steel supports called crossmembers.

He welds them where they meet.

This creates the frame for the roller conveyer.

Then, they paint the frame.

The paint isn't just for decoration.

It also protects against rust.

Next, they install the chain-driven axle that will spin the roller.

An employee measures it and confirms its dimensions.

Another worker slides three support disks on to the axle.

He welds the disks in place.

The disks on the end fit snugly to the roller rims.

This is why premeasuring is so important.

He welds the disks to the ends of the tubes.

He slides roller chain sprockets onto the end of the axle and welds them in place.

He uses a dial indicator to measure the circumference of the roller and confirm that it's sufficiently round.

Using a forklift, the team lifts the motor and places it in the conveyer frame.

They slide the motor's threaded rods into holes drilled in the frame.

An employee places metal washers on the threaded rods.

Then he screws nuts to them, securing the motor to the frame.

He installs a bearing on the end of the roller axle.

Next, workers arrange the rollers on the conveyer frame.

They place the bearings on the flange of one of the vertical rails.

They attach the bearings to the rail with socket screws.

One of the workers attaches the welded steel chain to the teeth of sprocket wheels.

He joins the sections of the roller chain with links.

Then he drops the ends of the chains down to the motor.

The worker loops the chains around the motor sprockets...

And connects the ends with the joiner plate and retaining clip.

Now, they're ready to put this roller conveyer to the test.

An employee measures the rotational speed of the rollers with an instrument called a tachometer.

He also tests the conveyor's ability to move heavy objects.

Once approved, the roller conveyer will be shipped to another factory, where it will be an important part of the manufacturing process.