ypes, sizes, and shapes of the aeroponic systems. We found that the available structures were expensive, and they were providing services for limited countries of the world. Guizhen[103], Gao[104], and NASA[105] reported that the aeroponic system has mainly four types of struc


tures, including seedbed type, vertical barrel type, prototype, and pyramid type. These types are commonly practiced around the globe for growing the various types of fruits, vegetables, and medicinal based plants. These structures are the basic structures of the aero

Overview of the aeroponic agriculture: An emerging technology for global food security

Imran Ali Lakhiar, Jianmin Gao, Tabinda Naz Syed, Farman Ali Chandio, Mazhar Hussain Tunio, Fiaz Ahmad, Kashif Ali Solangi


ponic system and simple to build by using wood, aluminum, and plastic material. 4 Development of the aeroponic systems Throughout this review, it was found that no scientifically recommended and convenient aeroponic system developed for plant growth. Several researcher


s, scientists, and local farmers developed aeroponic systems according to their requirements and available space. A study by Juncal et al.[106] informed that aeroponic had been in use for decades, besides up to now, no adequate structural arrangements are created


and recommended for designing the aeroponic system. In addition, the aeroponic 4 January, 2020 Int J Agric & Biol Eng Open Access at https://www.ijabe.org Vol. 13 N


o. 1 systems are mainly comprised of the three main portions, including 1) growth chamber, 2) plant supporting portion, and 3) nutrient supply system. For the present study, we selected two types of aeroponic structures (seedbed type and pyramid type), and a total


of eight different aeroponic systems were developed. Among them, seven systems were the seedbed type, and one system was the pyramid type. Aeroponic systems were developed by using two types of atomization nozzles (mechanical atomizer and ultrasonic foggers)


. The mechanical nozzles were included three The air-assisted atomizers and one centrifugal atomizer. ultrasonic nozzles were included three atomization ultrasonic frequencies high-frequency medium-frequency and low-frequency. Furthermore, the aeroponic systems were


built with mechanical atomizers and one low-frequency ultrasonic atomizer developed in three main portions, including a growth chamber, nutrient reservoir, and stand to fix the growth box. The aeroponic system with high-frequency and medium-frequency ultrasonic aeroponic atomi


zers was developed in two main portions, including the growth chamber and a stand Additionally, the aeroponic system developed with wood is considered as more durable and cheaper, but the system developed with wooden frames is easily susceptible to rapid water damages


. Therefore, aluminum frame and plastic material were used to develop different aeroponic systems. 4.1 Main parts and required material of the aeroponic system In an aeroponic system, the growth chamber and a nutrient reservoir are the same types of containers that are used


to hold the plant roots, aeroponic atomization nozzles, and store the nutrient solution. Therefore, the growth chamber and nutrient reservoir can be considered as one of the important parts of the aeroponic system. Moreover, the growth chamber is designed to


openly hold the plant roots in the air under complete darkness and to provide suitable growth conditions for the plants such as humidity, temperature, dissolved oxygen, and nutrient spray. Also, the aeroponic atomization nozzles are assembled in the growth chamber w


here atomizers atomize the direct nutrient spray on the the growth chamber. to fix plant roots. The growth chamber and nutrient solution reservoir can be made from wood, plastic, and aluminum materials. However, wooden frames must be lined with plastic


sheeting for avoiding the water leakages from both reservoirs. Another important consideration is the color of the reservoirs, the dark color is recommended, but any significantly opaque plastic can be used to develop both reservoirs. It should be avoided to use the


translucent plastic as it allows light to enter the reservoirs, and encourage the growth of algae. Also, it should be ensured to protect both reservoirs to prevent light penetration and to reduce the amount of dirt and debris. In an aeroponic system, plant root


s receive direct nutrient mist supply ejecting from the different types of the atomization nozzles (air-assisted, centrifugal and ultrasonic high-, mediumand low-frequency)[108-110]. Until now, several research studies developed the different types and sizes of the aer


oponic systems. However, no single study had intensely focused and briefly discussed the selection of the suitable aeroponic atomization nozzles[111-116]. Moreover, this study was first to develop the aeroponic system using electrostatic spray technology in the


aeroponic system. Samuel et al.[117] reported that electrostatic spray technology is the process of spraying an electrostatically charged mist into the surfaces and selected objects. The electrostatic spray uses a specialized solution combined with air and atomized


by an electrode inside the sprayer. The air-assisted electrostatic sprayers can produce the droplets smaller than those produced by conventional or hydraulic sprayers[118,119]. In addition, the selected atomizers were such as Hartmann air-assisted atomization nozzle w


ith resonance tube; air-assisted atomization nozzle with and without electrostatic spray; centrifugal atomization nozzle; 1.7 MHz high-frequency ultrasonic fogger atomization nozzle with three ultrasonic transducers, 1.7 MHz high-frequency ultrasonic fogger atomization nozzle


with one ultrasonic transducers, 107 kHz medium-frequency ultrasonic fogger atomization nozzle, and 28 kHz low-frequency ultrasonic fogger atomization nozzle. The additional required material is shown in Figure 4. A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11


A12 A13 A14 A15 A16 A17 A18 A19 A20 A21 A22 A23 A24 Figure 4 Components and material required for developing the aeroponic system Moreover, the additional required material for developing the aeroponic systems were A1 = aluminum frame 745 mm × 550 m × 800 mm


and 745 mm × 450 mm × 800 mm, A2 = stainless steel growth box 800 mm × 300 mm × 800 mm with total height 1100 mm, A3 = plant supporting tray 800 mm × 300 mm × 800 mm, A4 = plastic box 740 mm × 540 mm × 400 mm, A5 = polystyrene foam box 740 mm × 440 mm × 300 mm, A6


13 No.1 5 lights cup to hold the plant 45 mm × 30 mm × 45 mm, A8 = cotton round hole 25 mm × 25 mm × 25 mm, A9 = plastic tank for nutrient solution 50 L and 25 L, A10 = LED (Model: WT-ZWD-3R2B1W-600MM-9W, 900 lm, Xiamen Plants Agricultural Photoelectricity T


echnology Co., Ltd. P.R China), A11 = 12 V axial fan, A12 = 12 V high voltage electrostatic generator, A13 and A14 = demographic pumps, model name (Model PLD1204 and 1206, 12 V, 0.45 MPa and 1 MPa, Shijiazhuang City Prandy Electromechanical Equipment Co., Ltd.)


, A15 = air compressor (Model 750-30<2530>, Zhejiang Shengyuan Air Compressor Manufacturing Co., Ltd.), A16 = demographic pump pressure regulator, A17 = demographic pump pressure meter, A18 = water flow meter, A19 = air flow meter, A20 = air pressure meter, A21 = flexible polyethylene wa


ter supply line 6 mm × 8 mm, 8 mm × 10 mm and 12 mm × 14 mm, A22 = plastic filter with stainless steel net, A23 = pneumatic three-way connector 6 mm × 6 mm × 6 mm, A24 = pneumatic reducer air pipe joint 8 mm × 12 mm. 4.2 Manufacturing of the different aer


oponic systems The aeroponic systems developed with Hartmann air-assisted atomization nozzle with resonance tube, air-assisted atomization nozzle with and without electrostatic spray were mainly composed of a growth chamber, a plant supporting tray, an atomization nozzle, a nutr


ient delivery line, a nutrient drain line, and a nutrient reservoir. Firstly, the dimensions of the aeroponic systems were finalized, which were based on the experiment requirement and available space. The system can be any size and shape. However, the fur


ther procedure is given in the below sections. 4.2.1 Aeroponic system developed with air-assisted atomizers The aeroponic systems with air-assisted atomizers were developed by using one atomization nozzle. The selected nozzle was placed into the center of the growth chambers.


However, the selected dimensions of the aeroponic growth chambers, stand frames, and the nutrient reservoirs were 740 mm × 540 mm × 400 mm (A4), 745 mm × 550 mm × 800 mm (A1), 50 L capacity (A9), respectively. In addition, firstly, the drill machine was used to make th


e holes for the atomization nozzle, and the water recycles line in the growth chamber (A4). After that, the one atomization nozzle and one pneumatic male thread joint connector were located in the center of the growth box (A4). Further, the two pneumatic male thread joint connectors (8


mm × 10 mm) were assembled within the atomization nozzle water inlet valve and the air inlet valve. In order to avoid the water and air leakages from the air and water inlet valves, the thread joint connectors were wrapped with a couple of layers of


Teflon tape before assembly. The nozzle water inlet and air inlet valves connected with the pneumatic copper male thread joint connectors (8 mm × 10 mm) were further linked with the flexible polyethylene line (A21 (8 mm × 10 mm)) to receive the water and air supply. The water


supply line was further linked with the nutrient storage tank (A9) through the water supply system. However, the water supply system consisted of the pressure pump (A13), fluid pressure measuring pump (A17), and liquid flow meter (A17). Briefly, the pressure pump s


uction side and water delivery portion were connected with a flexible polyethylene water line (A21 (12 mm × 14 mm)). The suction line was further connected with the filter (A22) and dipped in the nutrient reservoir (A9), whereas the water delivery portion of the


pressure pump (A13) was connected with the pneumatic reducer air pipe joint (A24). Further, the pneumatic joint (A24) was connected with a flexible polyethylene water supply line (A21 (8 mm × 10 mm)). In next step, the flexible polyethylene line (A21 (8 mm


× 10 mm)) coming from the pressure pump was connected with the fluid pressure measuring pump (A17), and liquid flow meter (A18) through the pneumatic copper male thread joint connector (8 mm × 10 mm). Furthermore, the flexible polyethylene line (A21 (8 mm × 10


mm)) coming from the fluid pressure measuring pump (A17) was attached with the nozzle through the pneumatic copper internal thread straight connector (8 mm × 10 mm). Moreover, the air supply system consisted of the air compressor (A15), air pressure meter


(A20), and airflow meter (A19). The air compressor connected with the flexible polyethylene line (A21 (8 mm × 10 mm)) was further connected with the air pressure meter (A20) and airflow meter (A19) through the pneumatic copper male thread joint connectors (8 mm ×


10 mm). After that, the air supply line coming from airflow meter (A19) was further connected with the flexible polyethylene line (A21 (8 mm × 10 mm)) and finally attached with the nozzle air inlet valve through pneumatic copper male thread joint connector


(8 mm × 10 mm). Besides, for nutrient solution recycling from the growth chamber (A4), the flexible polyethylene line (A21 (8 mm × 10 mm)) was coupled in the pneumatic male thread joint connector and fixed in the center of the aeroponic growth chamber. After that,


the nutrient solution recycling line was placed in the nutrient reservoir (A9). In the next step, the PVC pipe (25 mm) was fastened with the aluminum frame (A1) to provide support to the LED lights (A10). Therefore, the PVC elbow and tee (25 mm) were used to make the f


rame of the PVC pipes (25 mm). Moreover, the PVC pipes were tightly fastened with a plastic strip. Three LED lights (A10) were placed on the developed PVC frame. The LED lights were further tightly fastened with PVC pipes with the plastic strips. The final step was to prepare the


artificial plant supporting layer for holding the plants in the aeroponic growth chamber. Therefore, Styrofoam (A6 (760 mm × 560 mm × 10 mm)) sheet was chosen as an artificial plant supporting layer for the aeroponic growth chamber. Further, the drill machine


connected with the steel hole (25 mm diameter) maker was used to make the holes in the Styrofoam (A6 (760 mm × 560 mm × 10 mm)) sheet. During making holes in the Styrofoam (A6) sheet, the drill machine must be held tightly in the selected place. After making the holes


in the Styrofoam sheet, the second step was to place the plant holders in the Styrofoam sheet. Therefore, the plastic cups (A7 (45 mm × 30 mm × 45 mm)) and cotton round holes (A8 (25 mm × 25 mm × 25 mm)) were selected as a plant holder material.


Finally, the power supply line of the pressure pump, air compressor, and LED lights were attached in the extension to supply the power while the timer was used to control the spraying time and spraying interval of the atomization nozzle. Furthermore, the same material, me


thodology and strategy were used to develop the three aeroponic systems with the air-assisted atomizers. The mean difference between the three aeroponic systems was the type of the aeroponic atomization nozzle, whereas the air-assisted atomization nozzle with electrosta


tic spraying technology was additionally attached to the electrostatic generator (A12) and voltage distributor. 4.2.2 Aeroponic system developed with centrifugal atomization nozzle The aeroponic system with centrifugal atomization nozzle was developed by using five atomizati


on nozzles. Four nozzles were located in the middle and one nozzle was located at the center of the growth chamber (A4). In the developing process, firstly, the drill machine was used to make the holes in the growth chamber (A4) for fixing the atomization


nozzles and the drain line. 6 January, 2020 Int J Agric & Biol Eng Open Access at https://www.ijabe.org Vol. 13 No. 1 internal Besides, the copper internal thread str


aight connectors integrated with the centrifugal atomization nozzle (D) were tightly fixed in the growth chamber with a screw nut. Also, the pneumatic copper male thread joint connector was fixed into the nutrient drain line. Further, the pneumatic copper internal t


hread straight connectors thread straight were assembled with each copper connectors to receive the nutrient supply. However, to prevent the water leakages, all the threads were wrapped with a couple of layers of Teflon tape before assembly. After that, the flexib


le polyethylene water supply line (A21 (6 mm × 8 mm)) was connected with each atomization nozzle through a pneumatic three-way connector (A23). Besides, the flexible polyethylene line (A21 (6 mm × 8 mm)) was connected to the pneumatic copper male thread joint connector


for recycling the nutrient solution. In the second step, the growth chamber (A4) assembled with the nutrient solution supply system and nutrient recycling line was placed above the aluminum frame (A1 (745 × 550 × 800)). In addition, the water supply system c


onsisted of the diaphragm pressure pump (A14), liquid pressure measuring pump (A18), and liquid flow meter (A17). Briefly, the diaphragm pressure pump (A14) water suction and water delivery portions were connected with a flexible polyethylene water line (A21 (12 mm × 14 mm)


), respectively. After that, the diaphragm pressure pump (A14) water delivery section line (A21 (12 mm × 14 mm)) was further combined with flexible polyethylene water line (A21 (6 mm × 8 mm)) through the pneumatic reducer air pipe joint (A24 (6 mm × 12mm)).


Then, the flexible polyethylene line (A21 (6 mm × 8 mm)) coming from the pressure pump was connected with the fluid pressure measuring pump (A17), and liquid flow meter (A18) through the pneumatic copper male thread joint connector (6 mm × 10 mm).


Furthermore, the flexible polyethylene line (A21 (6 mm × 8 mm)) coming from the fluid pressure measuring pump (A17) was attached with the centrifugal atomizer through the pneumatic copper internal thread straight connector. The water suction line of the diaphragm pres


sure pump (A14) was further connected with the filter (A22) and then dipped in the nutrient reservoir (A9). In the last step, the flexible polyethylene line (A9 (6 mm × 8 mm)) was connected with the aeroponic growth chamber (A4) through the pneumatic copper male


thread joint connector and disposed of in the nutrient reservoir (A9) for nutrient recycling. Additionally, LED light (A10) stand and artificial plant supporting layer were developed by following the same methodology as reported for the aeroponic system developed wi


th air-assisted atomizers. 4.2.3 Aeroponic system developed with ultrasonic atomization nozzle fogger The aeroponic systems developed with E and F ultrasonic foggers were the same in the size and shape, but the difference was the nozzle type and number of the nozzl


e. While four E, six F, eight G, and four H ultrasonic foggers were located in each aeroponic system. The aeroponic systems developed with E and F were mainly composed of a growth chamber, plant supporting tray, and aluminum frame. The aeroponic systems developed wit


h G and H were mainly composed of a growth chamber, plant supporting the aeroponic systems with ultrasonic fogger Furthermore, atomization nozzles were developed by following a similar methodology, as reported for air-assisted and centrifugal aeroponic atomization nozzl


es. However, the aeroponic systems developed with E and F ultrasonic foggers were easy to develop compared to the air-assisted, centrifugal atomizer, and other ultrasonic foggers. frame, and nutrient tray, aluminum reservoir. In this system, the polystyrene foam (A5) was use


d to develop the aeroponic growth chamber. At the same, the growth chamber was used as a nutrient solution reservoir. Briefly, the drill machine was used to make the hole in the polystyrene foam (A5) for crossing the power lines of the ultrasonic foggers. After that,


we placed the E and F ultrasonic foggers in aeroponic growth chambers, respectively, and placed the growth chambers on the aluminum frames (A1). Additionally, the plant supporting trays (A6 (745 mm × 445 mm × 10 mm)) and LED frames were developed by follo


wing a similar procedure as reported for air-assisted atomization nozzle and centrifugal atomization nozzle. Finally, the axial fans (A11) were placed into the plant supporting trays (A6 (745 mm × 445 mm × 10 mm)) for spreading the nutrient fog in the growth chambers (A5). The a


eroponic system developed with medium-frequency ultrasonic nozzle (G) was mainly composed of a growth chamber, nutrient supply line, nutrient recycles line, nutrient reservoir, and an axial fan. Briefly, the growth chamber (A2) combined with a plant supporting tray (A


3) and pneumatic copper male thread joint connector for nutrient recycling was manufactured from the local market. Firstly, the PVC pipe (A38 (75 mm)) was connected with the growth chamber (A2) by using PVC tee (75 mm). Further, the PVC pipe (75 mm) was fixed in the wooden sheet.


After that, the PVC pipe (75 mm) attached to the wooden sheet was located above the nutrient reservoir (A9). Besides, an axial fan (A11) with a PVC pipe (75 mm) was set on the wooden sheet. At the same time, the flexible polyethylene line (8 mm × 10


mm) was fixed with the growth chamber by using the pneumatic copper male thread joint connector for recycling the used nutrient solution. In the second step, the medium-frequency ultrasonic nozzles (G) were placed within the nutrient reservoir (A9). Moreover


, the working developed with principle system medium-frequency atomizer was: firstly, the foggers were subjected to work in the nutrient reservoir and create a fog. The axial fan was used for spreading the small nutrient fog into the air like a cloud and transfer the fog into th


e growth chamber through the PVC pipe. Finally, the aeroponic system developed with low-frequency ultrasonic atomization nozzle (H) was mainly composed growth chamber, nutrient reservoir, plant supporting tray, and axial fan. Briefly, the system was developed by using


four atomization nozzles (H). The atomization nozzles were located in the middle of the growth chamber (A4). The distance between each nozzle was 240 mm × 180 mm apart from each other. The total height of the proposed aeroponic system was 1000 mm above the ground le


vel. Moreover, we followed a similar procedure discussed in the above sections to make the holes in the growth chamber (A4). Besides, the LED light frame, plant supporting tray, and axial fans were developed by the same procedure as reported for the othe


r aeroponic systems. In the first step, we developed the growth chamber, plant supporting tray, and LED light stand and fixed the low-frequency ultrasonic nozzles (H) in the growth chamber (A4) by using the sealed plastic glue gun. After that, we connecte


d the water supply system line and water recycles line with the atomization nozzles and growth chamber, respectively. The water supply and water recycle lines were developed as reported for the centrifugal atomization nozzles. In addition, the low-frequency ultrasonic


nozzle (H) working principle was different as compared to the high-frequency ultrasonic and medium-frequency ultrasonic nozzles. low-frequency ultrasonic nozzles were receiving the nutrient solution through the pressure pump (A14). aeroponic The the of January, 2020


Lakhiar I A, et al. Overview of the aeroponic agriculture – An emerging technology for global food security Vol. 13 No.1 7 5 Evaluation of the proposed aeroponics system In order to evaluate the performance of the proposed aeroponics system, the


systems were used to grow the lettuce and tomato plant in the greenhouse environment and under control conditions. It was observed that the plants successfully grew in the designed system. In addition, based on the obtained result, it could be concluded that the prop


osed design revealed a good sturdiness and relevance for plant cultivation in the future. The proposed design has a perspective for a sustainable future. The system is easy to design and has competed for structure. Thus, peoples could grow the plant in


the system on their balconies, terrace, and rooms. 6 Technical challenges The development of aeroponic system can be considered as a highly multidisciplinary approach drawing from environmental, mechanical, and civil engineering design concepts and plant-related biolog


y, biochemistry, and biotechnology. Sometimes, specific measurements, schematic view, and control technologies also required abundant knowledge of subjects related to the field of computer science for automatic control systems. This high level of complexity nece


ssarily demands in-depth knowledge and expertise of all involved fields. Furthermore, the electricity connection should be independent of the aeroponic system. Besides, in case of an emergency, additional power titles such as a stand-by generator or battery should al


ways be ready with the system. For those places where power failures are frequent, that areas must need a good generator with an automatic startup system. Considering, the initial costs for components and installation, the aeroponic systems with air-assisted and cen


trifugal atomization nozzle are more expensive than ultrasonic fogger (high-frequency atomization nozzle). In addition, over time, if components are well maintained and used for many years, these higher initial costs can be recovered by reducing the labor costs, minimum


inputs of fertilizers and pesticides with significantly higher plant yields. 7 Routine and preventative maintenance of the aeroponic system In order to consider the aeroponic system, an efficient, trouble-free operation, low-cost, high production of plants for the


long term, a routine, and regularly scheduled maintenance program must be carried out according to the requirements. Furthermore, it must be ensured that the aeroponic system is functional and protected from extreme weather conditions. Because of aeroponic cultivation is suscep


tible to the extreme or low climatic condition of the growth chamber. However, some of the key routine and preventative maintenance points are given below: 1) check that the power title is okay; 2) check that the nutrient reservoir tank is full; 3) change the nut


rient solution on time; 4) check that the air pressure pumps are working properly; 5) check the leakages such as nutrient delivery and drain line; 6) check that atomization nozzles are working under satisfactory conditions such as clogging of the nozzles; 7) check that


the chemical properties of the nutrient solution are in desired range; 8) check the environmental parameters are under the suitable range. 8 Advantages of the proposed aeroponic systems The aeroponic systems proposed in this study are easy to redevelop. Even the local


growers and untrained person can redevelop the proposed aeroponic systems. quickly The aeroponic systems were developed by purchasing the material from local markets. However, the system was developed in three main portions included a growth chamber, nutrient reservoir


and the frame for growth chamber. The proposed systems had a compact structure, which makes the systems more efficient, easier to operate, and maintain. Moreover, it is suitable for big cities having less arable space and increasing rapid urbanization. 9 Future prospectuses


In a short time, aeroponic was adopted in many situations, from indoor laboratory experimental analysis to greenhouse cultivation. Several research studies developed aeroponic systems and used for the laboratory-scale plant cultivation. Few studies involved aeropo


nic systems that are representative of commercial or home operations. Until now, the system is not popular among the local growers, but the concept is dominated in the literature for laboratory-scale plant cultivation. The aeroponic has not yet been adopted on a broader scale and is


still mostly unknown in several countries of the world because still many information about the system is hidden, such as the maintenance tasks and development of the aeroponic system. Therefore, the attempts would be made to provide brief information about the develop


ment, maintenance task, and benefits of the aeroponic system among farmers and the local community. 10 Conclusions This study concluded that the adoption of modern farming techniques in traditional agriculture could be an alternative solution to deal with the increasing food se


curity. The modern techniques involve much higher use of advanced technology and automation for land-use optimization. The aeroponic system is one of the revolutionary and more sustainable methods of the soilless system as it lowers the requirement of water and saves consid


erable space and soil. This study can provide important information about the aeroponic system to the researchers, farmers, and the local community interested in the aeroponic system but they think that aeroponic system design and maintenance is a very complicated ta


sk. They can develop the aeroponic system by purchasing the material from the local market anywhere in the world. Acknowledgements This work is financially supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China Program (No. 51975255), Jiangsu Agriculture Sci


ence and Technology Innovation Funds（JASTIF） (CX (18)3048), Major Projects of Jiangsu University Natural Science Fund (No. 17KJA416001) and the “Project Funded by the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions (No. 37(2014)). [References] [1] L


akhiar I A, Gao J, Syed T N, Chandio F A, Buttar N A. Modern plant cultivation technologies in agriculture under controlled environment: A review on aeroponics. J. Plant Inter., 2018; 13: 338–358. [2] Lakhiar I A, Jianmin G, Syed T N, Chandio F A, Buttar N A, Qureshi W A. Monit


oring and control systems in agriculture using intelligent sensor techniques: A Review of the aeroponic system. J. of Sensors, 2018; Article ID 8672769. doi: 10.1155/2018/8672769. Iizumi T, Rahmankutty N. How do weather and climate influence cropping area and intensity?


G. Food Sec., 2015; 4: 46–50. Fedoroff N. Food in a future of 10 billion. Agri & Food Sec., 2015; 4: 1. [3] [4] 8 January, 2020 Int J Agric & Biol Eng Open Access at https://www.ijabe.org


Vol. 13 No. 1 [5] Qiu R C, Wei S, Zhang M, Sun H, Li H, Liu G. Sensors for measuring plant phenotyping: A review. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2018; 11(2): 1–17. [6] Benke K, Tomkins B. Future food-production systems: vertical farming and controlled-environment agr


iculture. Sus: Sci, Pra and Pol., 2017; 13: 13–26. [7] Li P F, Yang G, He X L, Li F D, Yan K, Wang Z L. Effects of drip irrigation on components of water cycle in arid inland areas: A case study of Manas river basin in northwestern China. Int J Agric & Bio


l Eng, 2019; 12(1): 132–138. [8] Lam H, Remais J, Fung M, Xu L, Sun S S. Food supply and food safety issues in China. The Lancet, 2013; 8(9882): 381. [9] Xiao Y, Song Y, Wu X. How far has China’s urbanization gone? Sustainability, 2018; 10(8): 2953. [10] Nationa


l Bureau of Statistics of China National Data, 1982–2016. http://data.stats.gov.cn/english/easyquery.htm?cn= online: Available C012017. Accessed on [2018-03-23]. [11] Bai X M, Shi P J, Liu Y S. Realizing China’s urban dream. Nature, 2014; 509: 158–160. [12]


United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision, Highlights and Advance Tables. Working Paper No. ESA/P/WP.228. 2013. https://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/publications/files/ Available wpp2012_hig


hlights.pdf. Accessed on [2018-05-23]. online: [13] Qu D Y, Wang X B, Kang C P, Liu Y. Promoting agricultural and rural modernization through application of information and communication technologies in China. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2018; 11(6): 1–4. [14] Pimentel D, Ber


ger B, Filiberto D. Water retitles: agricultural and environmental issues. BioSci., 2004; 54(10): 909–918. [15] Taher M, Kahil M T, Albiac J, Dinar A. Improving the performance of water policies: evidence from drought in Spain. Water, 2016; 8(2): 34. [16] Shamshiri R R,


Kalantari F, Ting K C, Thorp K R, Hameed I A, Weltzien C, et al. Advances in greenhouse automation and controlled environment agriculture: A transition to plant factories and urban agriculture. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2018; 11(1): 1–22. [17] Shamshiri R R, Weltzien C, Hameed I A


, Yule I J, Grift T E, Balasundram S K, et al. Research and development in agricultural robotics: A perspective of digital farming. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2018; 11(4): 1–14. [18] Shamshiri R R, Hameed I A, Pitonakova L, Weltzien C, Balasundram S K, Yule I J, et a


l. Simulation software and virtual environments for acceleration of agricultural robotics: Features highlights and performance comparison. Int J Agric & Biol Eng., 2018; 11(4): 15–31. [19] Badgery-Parker J. The greenhouse. Agnote DPI/249. New South Wales. 1999. [20] S


hamshiri R R, Jones J W, Thorp K R, Ahmad D, Man H C, Taheri S. Review of optimum temperature, humidity, and vapour pressure deficit for microclimate evaluation and control in greenhouse cultivation of tomato: a review. Int. Agrophys., 2018; 32: 287–302. [21] Shamshir R,


Ismail W I W. A Review of greenhouse climate control and automation systems in tropical regions. J. Agric. Sci. Appl., 2013; 2(3): 176–183. [22] FAO. World Agriculture: Toward 2015/2030. Summary report. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, 2002. [23


] Chang T, Zhang Y, Zhang Z, Shao X, Wang W, Zhang J, et al. Effects of irrigation regimes on soil NO3--N, electrical conductivity and crop yield in plastic greenhouse. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2019; 12(1): 109–115. [24] Pardossi A, Tognoni F, Incrocci L. Mediterranean greenhous


e technology. Chronica Horticulturae, 2004; 44(2): 28–34. [25] Diego A, Moreno D A, Gemma V, Joaquín H, Nicolás C, Luis R. Accumulation of Zn, Cd, Cu, and Pb in Chinese cabbage as influenced by climatic conditions under protected cultivation. J Agric Food Chem., 20


02; 50(7): 1964–1969. [26] Pulgar G, Moreno D A, Víllora G, Hernandez J, Castilla N, Romero L. Production and composition of Chinese cabbage under plastic row covers in southern. Spain J Hortic Sci Biotech., 2001; 76(5): 608–611. UK Controlled Environment Users' Group, 2002;


13: 2–5. [30] Bot G P A. Greenhouse climate: From physical processes to a dynamic model. Ph.D. Thesis. Agricultural University. Wageningen, 1983. [31] Zhang Y, Mahrer Y, Margolin M. Predicting the microclimate inside a greenhouse: an application of a one-dimensional n


umerical model in an unheated greenhouse. Agri. and Forest Meteo., 1997; 86: 291–297. [32] Bakker J C. Model application for energy efficient greenhouses in The Netherlands: Greenhouse design, operational control and decision support systems. Acta Hortic., 2006; 718: 191–202.


[33] Shamshiri R. Measuring optimality degrees of microclimate parameters in protected cultivation of tomato under tropical climate condition. Measurement, 2017; 106: 236–244. [34] Heravi A, Ahmad D, Hameed I A, Shamshiri R R, Balasundram S K, Yamin M. Developmen


t of a field robot platform for mechanical weed control in greenhouse cultivation of cucumber. In Zhou J, Zhang B H Eds, Agri. Rob-Fund and Appli., IntechOpen, 2018; pp.1–29. [35] Sultan M. Miyazaki T, Saha B B, Koyama S. Steady-state investigation thermally driven


adsorption-based of water vapor adsorption for greenhouse air-conditioning system. Rene. Ener., 2016; 86: 785–795. [36] Sultan M. Miyazaki T, Saha B B, Koyama S, Maisotsenko V S. Steady-state Analysis on Thermally Driven Adsorption Air-conditioning System for Agricu


ltural Greenhouses. Proc. Engi., 2015; 118: 185–192. [37] Sultan M. Miyazaki T. Energy-efficient air-conditioning systems for In: Refrigeration; InTechOpen Publisher; nonhuman applications. ISBN# 978-953-51-3498-5; ISBN(Print)# 978-953-51-3497-8. [38] Johnson W C, Jack


son L E, Ochoa O, van Wijk R, Peleman J, Clair D A S, Michelmore R W. Lettuce, a shallow-rooted crop, and Lactuca serriola, its wild progenitor, differ at QTL determining root architecture and deep soil water exploitation. Theor. Appl. Genet., 2000; 101: 1066–1073. [39] Bozkurt S, Ma


nsuroglu G S. The effects of drip line depths and irrigation levels on yield, quality and water use characteristics of lettuce under greenhouse. Afr. J. Biotechnol., 2011; 10: 3370–3379. [40] Gözener B, Dereli H. Greenhouse tomato producers’ views on soilless ag


riculture in Antalya. Turk. J. of Agri. Food Sci. and Techno., 2018; 6(4): 460–463. [41] Otazú V. Manual on quality seed potato production using aeroponics. 2014. Peru. Potato Center http://cippotato.org.research/publication/manaul-on-quality-seed-potato-pr oduction-usin


g-aeroponics. Accessed on [2018-05-23]. International (CIP), Lima, [42] Calor A H, Factor T L, Feltran J C, Watanabe E Y, de Moraes C C, Purquerio L F V. Electrical conductivity of the nutrient solution and plant density in aeroponic production of seed po


tato under tropical conditions (winter/spring). Bragantia, Campinas., 2017; 76: 23–32. [43] Savvas D, Gianquinto G, Tuzel Y, Gruda N. Soilless culture. Good agricultural practices for greenhouse vegetable crops, principles for mediterranean climate areas. FAO Plant Pr


o and Prot Paper., 2013; 217: 303–354. [44] Grafiadellis I, Mattas K, Maloupa E, Tzouramani I, Galanopoulos K. An economic analysis of soilless culture in Gerbera production. HortSci., 2000; 35(2): 300–303. [45] Raviv M, Lieth J H. Significance of soilless cultivati


on in agriculture. In: Raviv M, Lieth J H. (Eds.), Soilless culture: Theory and practice. academic press, San Diego, USA, 2008; pp.1–11. [46] Nejad A R, Ismaili A. Changes in growth, essential oil yield and composition of geranium (Pelargonium graveolens L.)


as affected by growing media. J. Sci. Food Agric., 2014; 94(5): 905–910. [47] Butler J D, Oebker N F. Hydroponics as a Hobby— Growing Plants without Soil‖. Circular 844. Information Office, College of Agriculture, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, 2006. [48] Pua


l C. Heath and hydroponic. Practical Hydroponic and Greenhouse., 2000; 53: 28–30. [49] Barrett G E, Alexander P D, Robinson J S, Bragg N C. Achieving environmentally sustainable growing media for soilless plant cultivation systems – A review. Sci. Horti., 201


6; 212: 220–234. [50] Dorais M, Menard C, Begin E. Risk of phytotoxicity of sawdust [27] Song J X, Meng Q W, Du W F, He D X. Effects of light quality on substrate for greenhouse vegetables. Acta Horti., 2007; 761: 589–594. growth and development of cucumb


er seedlings in controlled environment. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2017; 10(3): 312–318. [28] Shamshiri R R, Mahadi M R, Thorp K R, Ismail W I W, Ahmad D, Man H C. Adaptive management framework for evaluating and adjusting microclimate parameters in tropical greenhouse crop production


systems. Plant Engin., 2017; pp.167–191. doi: 10.5772/intechopen.69972 [29] Bailey B J. Control and monitoring of glasshouses. Proceedings of the [51] Ehret D L, Helmer T. A new wood fibre substrate for hydroponic tomato and pepper crops. Can J. of Plant Sci., 2009; 89(6):


1127–1132. [52] Mahamud S, Manisah M D. Preliminary studies on sago waste as growing medium for tomato. Acta Horti., 2007; 742: 163–168. [53] Nurznski J. The yield of greenhouse tomato grown in straw and rockwool. Folia Horti., 2006; 18(2): 17–23. [54] Donn


an R. Hydroponics around the world. In: Practical Hydroponics January, 2020 Lakhiar I A, et al. Overview of the aeroponic agriculture – An emerging technology for global food security Vol. 13 No.1 9 & Greenhouses. July/August, 1998. [


55] Seymour G. Review of commercial hydroponic crop production system. In: Commercial Hydroponics in Australia: A Guide for Growers, Pro-Set Pty Ltd, Hobart; 1993. [78] Schröter I. Mergenthaler M. Neuroeconomics meets aquaponics: An eye-tracking pilot study on perception of


information about aquaponics. Sus., 2019; 11: 3580. [79] Despommier D. The vertical farm: Feeding the world in the 21st century; [56] Raviv M. The future of composts as ingredients of growing media. Thomas Dunne Books: New York, NY, USA, 2010. Acta Horti., 2011; 891


: 19–32. [80] Healy R G, Rosenberg J S. Land use and the states; Routledge: New [57] Raviv M. Suppressing soil-borne disease of container-grown plants York, NY, USA, 2013. using composts. Acta Horti., 2011; 893: 169–181. [81] Evolving science. Vertical farms


in cities are the future of urban farming. [58] Bilderback T E, Warren S L, Owen J S, Albano, J P. Healthy substrates need physicals too! Hort techn., 2005; 15(4): 747–751. [59] Asaduzzaman M d, Saifullah M d, Mollick A S R, Hossain M d, Halim G M A, Asao T. Influence of Soilless C


ulture Substrate on Improvement of Yield 2015. and Produce Quality of Horticultural Crops. https://www.intechopen.com/books/soilless-culture-use-of-substrates-for-t he-production-of-quality-horticultural-crops. Accessed on [2018-05-23]. [60] Palande V, Zaheer A, George K. Full


y automated hydroponic system for indoor plant growth. Pro. Comp. Sci., 2018; 129: 482–488. [61] Kheir Al-Kodmany. The vertical farm: A review of developments and implications for the vertical city. Build, 2018; 8: 24. [62] Harris D. Hydroponics: A Practical Guide for t


he Soilless Grower, 2nd ed.; NewHolland Publishing: London, UK, 1992. [63] Munoz H, Joseph J. Hydroponics: Home-based vegetable production system, inter-american institute for cooperation on agriculture (IICA). June http://legacy.iica.int/Eng/regiones/caribe/guyana/ IICA%


20Office%20Documents/Hydroponics%20Manual/Hydroponics%2 0Manual.pdf. Accessed on [2018-05-23]. 2010. [64] Hedenblad E, Olsson M. Urban growth analysis of crop consumption and development of a conceptual design to increase consumer adoption of vertical greenhouses. Master’s The


sis, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden, 2017. http://www.tekniskdesign.se/ download/ Hedenblad_Olsson.pdf. Accessed on [2018-05-23]. [65] Pullano G. Indoor vertical grower touts concept’s benefits. VGN vegetable grower news, 15 August 2013. http://ve


getablegrowersnews.com/ index. php/magazine/article/indoor-vertical-growertouts-concepts-benefits. Accessed on [2018-05-23]. [66] Green Spirit Farms. Sustainable Vertical Farming. Available online: on Accessed http://www.greenspiritfarms.com/inthe-news. [2017-07-15]. [67] Rig


gio G M, Jones S L, Gibson K E. Risk of human pathogen internalization in leafy vegetables during lab-scale hydroponic cultivation. Horticulture, 2019; 5: 25. [68] Resh H M. Hydroponic food production: a definitive guidebook for the advanced home gardener and the co


mmercial hydroponic grower, 7th ed.; CRC Press Taylor and Francis Group: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2012; ISBN 9781439878675. [69] Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations. Good agricultural practices for greenhouse vegetable crops: principles for mediterranean climat


e areas; FAO: Rome, Italy, 2013. [70] Palm H W, Knaus U, Appelbaum S, Goddek S, Strauch S M, Vermeulen T, et al. Towards commercial aquaponics: A review of systems, designs, scales and nomenclature. Aquac. Int., 2018; 39: 510. [71] Delaide B, Goddek S, Gott J, Soyeurt H, Haissam


J M, Lalman J, et al. in Lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. var. Sucrine) growth performance complemented aquaponic solution outperforms hydroponics. Water, 2016; 8: 467. [72] Rakocy J E. Aquaponics-integrating fish and plant culture. In Aquaculture Production Systems, T


idwell J H, Ed., John Wiley and Sons: Hoboken, NJ, USA, 2012; pp.343–386. [73] Rakocy J E, Masser M P, Losordo T M. Recirculating aquaculture tank production systems: Aquaponics integrating fish and plant culture. SRAC Publ. South Reg. Aquac. Cent., 2006; 16: 454. [74] Delaide


B, Delhaye G, Dermience M, Gott J, Soyeurt H, Jijakli M H. Plant and fish production performance, nutrient mass balances, energy and water use of the PAFF Box, a small-scale aquaponic system. Aquac. Eng., 2017; 78: 130–139. [75] Buzby K M, Lin LS. Scaling aquapo


nic systems: Balancing plant uptake with fish output. Aquac. Eng., 2014; 63: 39–44. [76] Turcios A E, Papenbrock J. Sustainable treatment of aquaculture effluents-what can we learn from the past for the future?. Sus., 2014; 6: 836–856. [77] Schmautz Z, Loeu F, Liebisc


h F, Graber A, Mathis A, Bulc T G, et al. Tomato productivity and quality in aquaponics: Comparison of three hydroponic methods. Water, 2016; 8: 533. June 20, 2017. https://www.evolving-science.com/ Environment. environment/vertical-farms-cities-are-future-urban-farm


ing-00288. Accessed on [2018-05-23]. [82] Clawson J M, Hoehn A, Stodieck L S, Todd P. NASA review of for spaceflight plant growth, society of http://aeroponicsdiy.com/ aeroponics, Aeroponics automotive engineers, nasa-review-of-aeroponics/. Accessed on [2018-05-23].


2000, Inc, [83] Nichols M A, Christie C B. Continuous production of greenhouse crops using aeroponics. Proc. IS on Trop. Subtrop. Greenhouses. Eds. S. Chen and T.T. Lin. Acta Hort., 2002; 578: 289–291. [84] Martin-Laurent F, Lee S K, Tham F Y, He J, Diem H G, Durand P.


A new approach to enhance growth and nodulation of Acacia mangium through aeroponic culture. Biol Fertile Soil, 1997; 25: 7–12. [85] Martin-Laurent F, Tham F Y, Lee S K, He J, Diem H G. Field assessment of aeroponically grown and nodulated acacia mangium. Aust


J Bot., 2000; 48: 109–114. [86] Nir I. Growing plants in Aeroponics growth system. Acta Hort., 1982; 126: 435–445. [87] Ritter E, Angulo B, Riga P, Herran J, Relloso J, San Jose M. Comparison of hydroponic and aeroponic cultivation systems for the product


ion of potato minitubers. Potato Res., 2001; 44: 127–135. [88] Farran I, Mingolo-Castel A M. Potato minituber production using aeroponics: Effect of plant density and harvesting intervals. Amer J of Potato Res, 2006; 83: 47–53. [89] NASA Spinoff. Progressive plant


growing has business blooming. In: Environmental and Agricultural Retitles. New York: NASA Spinoff, 2006; pp.64–77. [90] Stoner R J, Clawson J M. A high performance, gravity insensitive, enclosed aeroponic system for food production in space. Principal Investigato


r, NASA SBIR NAS10-98030, 1998. [91] Peterson L A, Krueger A R. An intermittent aeroponics system. Crop Sci., 1998; 28: 712–713. [92] Buer C S, Correll M J, Smith T C, Towler M J, Weathers P J, Nadler M, et al. Development of a nontoxic acoustic window nutrient-mist bioreactor


and relevant growth data. in vitro cell. Dev Biol-Plant, 1996; 32: 299–304. [93] Clayton M F, Lamberton J A. A study of root exudates by the fog-box technique. Aust J Biol Sci, 1964; 17: 855–866. [94] Park H S, Chiang M H. Effects of form and concentration of nit


rogen in aeroponic solution on growth, chlorophyll, nitrogen contents and enzyme activities in Cucumissativus L. Plant J of the Kore Soci for Horti Sci., 1997; 38: 642–646. [95] Burgess T, McComb J, Hardy G, Colquhoum I. Influence of low oxygen infected with in aeroponics c


hambers on eucalypt roots levels phytophthora cinnamomi. Plant Dis., 1998; 82: 368–373. [96] Garrido I, Espinosa F, Paredes M A, Alvarez-Tinaut M C. Effect of some electron donors and acceptors on redox capacity and simultaneous net H+/K + fluxes by aeropon


ic sunflower seedling roots: evidence for a CN--resistant redox chain accessible to nonpermeative redox compounds. Protoplasma, 1998; 205: 141–155. [97] Garrido I, Espinosa F, Paredes M A, Alvarez-Tinaut M C. Net simultaneous hydrogen and potassium ion flux kinetics in


sterile aeroponics sunflower seedlings roots: effects of potassium ion supply, valinomycin, and dicyclohexylcarbodiimide. J. plant Nutr., 1998; 21(1): 115–137. [98] Mirza M, Younus M, Hoyano Y, Currie R. Greenhouse production of Echinacea and other medicinal plants.


Paper presented at Opportunities and Profits II: Special Crops into the 21st Century, Edmonton, AB, Canada, 1998. [99] Mohammad A, Khan A G, Kuek C. Improved aeroponic culture of inocula of arbuscularmycorrhizal fungi. Mycorrhiza, 2000; 9: 337–339. [100] Stoner


R J. Aeroponics versus bed and hydroponic propagation. Florists Review, 1983; 173: 4477. [101] Button T, Wood M E. The O'Hare urban garden: A sustainable airport food & beverage supply chain initiative. environmental management of View publication stats 10


January, 2020 Int J Agric & Biol Eng Open Access at https://www.ijabe.org Vol. 13 No. 1 international tourism development, E-118 Harvard University Extension School, 2011. [


102] Anitha P, Periasamy P S. Energy efficient greenhouse monitoring in the aeroponics system using Zigbee networks. Asian J. of Res. in Soc. Sci. and Hum., 2016; 6(6): 2243–2250. [103] Guizhen H. Multi-physical field simulation and structure optimization design of ultrasonic a


tomization cultivator. Master’s Thesis, Institute of Agricultural Equipment Engineering, Jiangsu University, 2013. (in Chinese). [104] Gao J, Guizhen H, Wenhu Y. Variation of root-zone droplet deposition, temperature and humidity of truss ultrasonic atomization cultivator.


Transaction of the CSAE, 2013; 29(6): 185–192. (in Chinese). [105] Nasa. Progressive Plant Growing Has Business Blooming. 2006. [106] Juncal S, Ferguson A, Berruti M. Commercial Aeroponics System. 2016. Patent No.: US 9,345,207 B2 [107] David R. Aeroponic growing app


aratus and method. 2011. (US Patent Publication No 2011/0023359 A1). [108] Rajan R, Pandit A B. Correlations to predict droplet size in ultrasonic atomization. Ultrasonics, 2001; 39(4): 235–255. [109] Avvaru B, Patil M N, Gogate P R, Pandit A B. Ultrasonic atomizati


on: effect of liquid phase properties. Ultrasonics, 2006; 44(2): 146–158. [112] Buckseth T, Sharma A K, Pande K K, Singh B P, Muthuraj R. Methods of pre-basic seed potato production with special reference to aeroponica review. Sci Horti., 2016; 204: 79–87. [113] Lakhiar I


A, Liu X D, Wang G Q, Gao J M. Experimental study of ultrasonic atomizer effects on values of EC and pH of nutrient solution. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2018; 11(5): 59–64. [114] Chiipanthenga M, Maliro M, Demo P, Njoloma J. Potential of aeroponics system in


the production of quality potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) seed in developing countries. African J. of Biotechn., 2012; 11(17): 3993–3999 [115] Christie C B, Nichols M A. Aeroponics – A production system and research tool. South Pacific Soilless Culture Conference. Acta


Hort., 2004; 648: 185–190. [116] Lakhiar I A, Gao J, Xu X, Syed T N, Chandio F A, Jing Z, et al. Effects of various aeroponic atomizers (droplet sizes) on growth, polyphenol content, and antioxidant activity of leaf lettuce (Lactuca sativa L). Transactions of the ASABE


, 2019; 62(6): 1475–1487. [117] Appah S, Wang P, Ou M X, Gong C, Jia W D. Review of electrostatic system parameters, charged droplets characteristics, and substrate impact behavior from pesticides spraying. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2019; 12(2): 1–9. [110] Zhai C Y, Zhao C J, Wang


X, Li W, Li W, Zhu R X. Nozzle test system for droplet deposition characteristics of orchard air-assisted sprayer and its application. Int J Agric & Biol Eng, 2014; 7(2): 122–129. [118] Law S E. Agricultural electrostatic spray application: a review of significant research a


nd development during the 20th century. J. of Electr., 2001; 52: 25–42. [111] Gao J, Zhang J, Lu D. Design and atomization experiments of an ultrasonic atomizer with a levitation mechanism. Appl. Eng. in Agric., 2016; 32(4): 353–360. [119] Law S E. Embe


dded-Electrode electrostatic-induction spray charging ASABE, 1978; 21: nozzle: Theoretical and engineering design. 1096–1104.


Relevancy and Engagement agclassroom.org/ Aeroponic Engineering and Vertical Farming (Grades 6-8) Grade Level 6 8 Purpose Students will use the Engineering Design Process to develop and construct an aeroponic garden to grow a food crop. Students will develop and apply an understanding of plan


t anatomy and physiology related to plant growth and ultimately discuss the possibilities and limitations of using vertical farming to produce our food. Grades 6-8 Estimated Time 2-3 class periods for preparation and construction followed by 3-4 weeks of observation Materials Needed Engage: Far


m of the Future (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-_tvJtUHnmU) video Activity 1: What do Plants Need? Aeroponic Farming PowerPoint (https://cdn.agclassroom.org/media/uploads/2019/04/09/Aeroponic_Farming_PowerPoint.pptx) slides Activity 2: Vertical Garden Engineering Design Challenge Aeroponic Far


ming PowerPoint (https://cdn.agclassroom.org/media/uploads/2019/04/09/Aeroponic_Farming_PowerPoint.pptx) Aeroponic Garden Design Challenge handout (https://cdn.agclassroom.org/media/uploads/2019/03/07/Aeroponic_Garden_Design_Challenge_Student_Handout.pdf), 1 per student -ORDesign notebooks (compos


ition books), 1 per student Per group of 3-4 students: 5 gallon bucket, with lid 5-7 seedling plants (ideally plants that are edible or produce edible fruit) 150-300 gph submersible water pump 360° shrub sprinkler heads (½", threaded) 6" x ½" threaded sprinkler risers 5-7 net pots and foam collars (


2" or 3") Hydroponic nutrient solution This can be purchased (we tested General Hydroponics FloraGro) or you can mix your own (https://www.maximumyield.com/how-tomake-the-perfect-hydroponic-nutrient-solution/2/3239)) Grow lights or greenhouse Assorted tools Drill hole saw (2" or 3" to match ne


t pot size) Drill Electrical timer that can be programmed in 30 minute increments Extension cords and/or power strip to plug in the pump in each bucket Optional Activity: Programming Activity 6 ft extension cord Wall adapter power supply* Arduino and breadboard holder* Small breadboard (https://ww


w.amazon.com/microtivity-IB400-400-point-Experiment-Breadboard/dp/B0084A7PI8/ref=sr_1_9? ie=UTF8&qid=1513123082&sr=8-9&keywords=breadboard)* Screwdriver* Craft knife Wire stripper/cutter/crimping tool A to MiniB USB cable (https://www.amazon.com/UGREEN-Controller-Players-Digital-Receiver/dp/B00P0GI6


8M/ref=sr_1_1_sspa? ie=UTF8&qid=1513120568&sr=8-1-spons&keywords=auto+mini+b&psc=1)* Solid State Relay (https://www.mouser.com/ProductDetail/Omron-Automation-and-Safety/G3NA-210B-UTU-DC5-24/? qs=fQQAKcphggoLO9Tqh7PZsw%3D%3D)* Electrical tape or shrink tube Sparkfun RedBoard Microcontroller (https://


www.sparkfun.com/products/13975)* (or any Arduino Uno device is equivalent) Hook-up wire* (black and red, 22 AWG) 6 Copper wire ends* Jumper wires PC or laptop (Windows, Mac OS, Linux) Aeroponic Garden Programming Activity instructions (https://cdn.agclassroom.org/media/uploads/2019/03/07/Programmin


g_Activity.pdf)  *These items are included in the Arduino Controlled Relay kit (https://agclassroomstore.com/arduino-controlled-relay/), which is available for purchase from agclassroomstore.com. Vocabulary aeroponics: a technique for growing plants without soil or sunlight in which the roots of


the plant are suspended in the air and misted periodically with nutrient-rich water and light is provided by specialized grow lights aquaponics: a system of aquaculture in which the waste produced by farmed fish or other aquatic animals supplies nutrients for plants grown hydroponically, which in t


urn purify the water carbon dioxide: a gas consisting of one carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms; the byproduct of cellular respiration in animal cells and combustion of organic materials; essential to the process of photosynthesis in plant cells hydroponics: the method of cultivating plants us


ing a mineral nutrient solution in a water solvent without the use of soil photosynthesis: the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide, water, and light energy into sugars and oxygen in order to store energy; the opposite of cell respiration stomata: small openings in the leaves and stems o


f plants which can open and close to exchange oxygen and water vapor for carbon dioxide transpiration: the process by which plants release water vapor back into the atmosphere through their stomata water cycle: the series of conditions through which water naturally passes from water vapor in the a


ir to being deposited (as by rain or snow) on earth’s surface and finally back into the air through evaporation and transpiration Did You Know? Agriculture accounts for approximately 70% of freshwater use worldwide, and 80% in the United States.1 Under optimum conditions, it takes a minimum of 100


gallons of fresh water to grow enough grain to produce one loaf of bread.2  A diet consisting of 25% animal products more than doubles the amount of land required to feed a single human being.2 Background Agricultural Connections Factors in Plant Growth There are six major factors that contribute


to plant growth—carbon dioxide, light, nutrients, temperature, and water.  Photosynthesis is the process by which plants store energy by converting carbon dioxide, water, and light energy into carbohydrates (sugars), oxygen, and water. This process requires carbon dioxide, water, and light energy,


particularly blue and red light. In addition, plants need nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, and sulfur, along with seven other trace elements (iron, boron, chlorine, manganese, zinc, copper, molybdenum) as reagents for other processes or cellular structure. Tempe


rature is also important, because different species have different tolerances when it comes to the environmental temperature in which they grow. Aeroponics Aeroponics is the technique of growing plants in the air with no soil or other growth medium (a.k.a., "geoponics"). This is done by suspending


the roots of the plant in a closed or semi-closed container, and misting them periodically with nutrient-rich water. Aeroponics is similar to hydroponics, without the need to artificially oxygenate the roots, since the roots are suspended in oxygen-rich air instead of water. Aeroponics has found pop


ularity in the form of home gardening as well as in some major commercial farming operations, due to it's very low water use and the ability to grow crops year-round in a tightly controlled, often automated environment that some say leads to greater yields. In addition, aeroponics makes use of verti


cal as well as horizontal space. It is easy to stack grow beds on top of one another, thus maximizing the crop yield while minimizing the environmental footprint.  Aeroponic Farming/Gardening at Home Aeroponics can easily be done at home and even on a small space such as a countertop. When pursued


as a hobby, not a livelihood, the term "farming" is changed to "gardening." Desktop and home garden units are sold commercially or can be constructed from readily available materials. Commercial Aeroponics Aeroponic farming has seen mixed results in the commercial arena. Though several large-scale


aquaponic farms have been started, many have fallen on hard times and closed their doors, in part due to relatively high operating costs compared to traditional farming methods. However, some small-scale operations have seen success, especially in areas where there is a demand for fresh, local, high


-value produce in urban areas where land is very limited. Interestingly, the legalization of cannabis in several states may lead to a boom in aeroponic farming, as many of these states require cannabis plants to be grown indoors under tightly controlled conditions. Successful Aeroponic Gardening Su


ccessful aeroponic gardening depends on a number of factors. In addition to meeting the general needs of the plants (correct lighting, nutrient levels, etc.), it is important that the drop sizes of the mist be of the optimum size for root absorption. Although some success will be had with traditiona


l sprinklers, a serious aquaponic operation should use misters that produce drop sizes of approximately 50 microns. Optimizing the drop sizes may not be cost effective for the purposes of this classroom design challenge, but the systems produced by the students should still work reasonably well. Get


ting the timing right for the mist cycle is also crucial—water too often and the roots suffocate from too much water, too little and they will dry out. A general rule of thumb is approximately 3-5 seconds every 5 minutes; however, with a much larger drop size, it may be desirable to significantly in


crease the wait time between mistings to prevent roots from becoming waterlogged and drying out. It may be beneficial to experiment with misting intervals and duration to obtain the optimum cycle. Temperature is also critical. The temperature of the root zone should be cooler than the leaf zone, as


this optimizes nutrient uptake and photosynthesis.  Root zone temperatures should be between 17° and 22°C (62° 71°F).  Engage 1. Ask students where their food comes from. (farms) Follow up by asking them to describe what they think a farm looks like. If needed, provide prompts to lead students


to think about the need for open space, availability of water, adequate climate for plant growth, etc. Most likely, students will begin describing a traditional farm with acres of open space. 2. Ask students if this type of farm land is abundantly available or if it is limited. (limited and growing


more limited as population increases) 3. Explain to students that you are going to give them a list of criteria for a "Farm of the Future." Instruct them to think about each criteria as you read it and raise their hand IF they think it can be done. The farm can be located in any climate and still


produce food year-round. The farm can be located in a large, urban city with very little open space. No soil is used for plant growth. The farm will use 95% less water than a traditional farm. 4. Show the video Farm of the Future (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-_tvJtUHnmU) on the projector or vi


ew screen.  5. After the video, ask reflection questions such as: Do you think farms of the future will shift to this design? Do you think it will be feasible to grow ALL types of plants for food in this way? (fruits, vegetables, and grains) What kind of benefits and drawbacks to this type of farmi


ng could there be? Three Dimensional Learning Proficiency: (https://www.nextgenscience.org/three-dimensions) Science and Engineering Practices Asking Questions and Defining Problems: (https://ngss.nsta.org/Practices.aspx?id=1&exampleid=319) Define a design problem that can be solved through the de


velopment of an object, tool, process or system and includes multiple criteria and constraints, including scientific knowledge that may limit possible solutions. Explore and Explain Activity 1: What do Plants Need? 1. Open the attached Aeroponic Farming PowerPoint presentation on the screen or pr


ojector. Use the presentation to guide a discussion on the needs of plants, addressing common misconceptions about what plants really need to survive and grow. 2. Take 2 minutes and ask students to use their prior knowledge to list everything plants really need to survive and grow. (Slide 3) 3. Be


fore moving to the next slide, ask several students to share at least one item they wrote down. 4. Explain that most people probably wrote things like water, soil, air, sunlight, and heat, but there's more to the story. (Slide 4) 5. Explain that air, water, and heat are definitely things that plants


need. Carbon dioxide is obtained from the air, water is taken up by plant roots, and all plants need to be in a temperature that they have adapted to. Ask students about sunlight and soil—do plants really need these? (Slide 5) 6. Explain that plants do not actually need sunlight or soil to thrive.


However, plants do need light and nutrients. These can be provided in ways other than traditional soil and sunlight. (Slide 6) 7. Describe how plants can be grown without soil in a variety of ways, including hydroponics, aquaponics, and aeroponics. Explain a little about what each of these terms


mean. Explain that special lights called "grow lights" emit certain colors of light that can be used to provide the optimum light for growing plants indoors. (Slide 7) 8. Review the five things that plants need for healthy growth—air, water, heat, nutrients, and light. Explain how each of these ess


ential components for plant life can be provided. (Slide 8) Three Dimensional Learning Proficiency Disciplinary Core Ideas: Engineering Design: (https://ngss.nsta.org/DisciplinaryCoreIdeas.aspx?id=40&detailid=120) The more precisely a design task’s criteria and constraints can be defined, the mo


re likely it is that the designed solution will be successful. Specification of constraints includes consideration of scientific principles and other relevant knowledge that is likely to limit possible solutions. Activity 2: Aeroponic Garden Design Challenge 1. Once your students have completed Ac


tivity 1 and can identify all the factors impacting plant growth, project the Aeroponic Farming PowerPoint (https://cdn.agclassroom.org/media/uploads/2019/04/09/Aeroponic_Farming_PowerPoint.pptx) beginning with slide 9. Introduce the design challenge by explaining the problem (slide 10) and a possib


le solution (slide 11). Explain your students' role (slide 12) and the steps they will take for their assignment (slide 13). 2. Students will proceed by using the Engineering Design Process (https://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/engineering-designprocess/engineering-design-process


-steps#theengineeringdesignprocess) to guide their steps in designing their aeroponic garden. Choose one of the following options to guide students through the process. Option 1 is more simple, outlining each step of the process and allowing students to make all of their notes in their handout. Opti


on 2 requires students to create a design notebook and use it throughout the entire process. This option requires more thought and organization, but allows students more creative liberty. Choose the option that fits your class best. Option 1: Give each student one copy of the Aeroponic Garden Desig


n Challenge handout. Inform students that they will follow each step precisely and keep all their notes and observations in this handout. Option 2: Give each student a design notebook (or use existing notebooks) and explain your expectations using the Aeroponic Garden Design Notebook Rubric found in


the Essential Documents section of the lesson. You may also provide a good example (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YJqG15o-aqs) of a design notebook for students to model. 3. Now that students understand their goal (to create an aeroponic garden) and that they will be keeping all of their notes o


n their handout (option 1) or in the design notebook (option 2), teach the Engineering Design Process in greater depth. 4. Discuss the career of an engineer (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineer) as well as the process of engineering (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering). Discuss how scie


nce and engineering are connected. Referring to the aeroponic garden students will soon be designing, ask, "Could an engineer successfully design an aeroponic garden if he/she did not understand the science of plant growth?" (No, knowledge of both plant science and technology/engineering are require


d for success.) 5. Show the Engineering Design Process (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b0ISWaNoz-c#action=share) video. 6. Using the Aeroponic Garden Design Challenge handout (https://cdn.agclassroom.org/media/uploads/2019/03/07/Aeroponic_Garden_Design_Challenge_Student_Handout.pdf), review the e


ntire Engineering Design Process in the context of an aeroponic garden. Inform students they will be following each of these steps shortly. Encourage students to ask questions as you go. 7. Divide students into small groups. 3-4 students is ideal, but larger groups may be necessary depending on bud


get and availability of supplies. 8. Assign students to complete steps 1-4 of the design process. To save on materials and cutting mistakes on the buckets, require students to have their plans signed off before they begin construction. 9. Once students have their design plans signed off, provide s


tudents with the materials and allow them to begin building their prototype. Once students have completed step 5, they should have their bucket constructed, water should be flowing, plants will be in place, and they will have taken all of their beginning measurements and pictures. Remind students o


f the importance of this step to accurately document the starting point of their aeroponic garden. This step is crucial to accurately evaluate the success of their design. The watering system in each bucket will need to be programmed and controlled so that the water is on for 30 minutes and off for


30 minutes. This can be accomplished using an electric timer with 30 minute increments. However, to expose students to computer programming, complete the Optional Programming Activity below (using the instructions (https://cdn.agclassroom.org/media/uploads/2019/03/07/Programming_Activity.pdf) and P


owerPoint (https://cdn.agclassroom.org/media/uploads/2019/04/16/Aeroponic_Engineering_Programming_Activity.pptx)) to allow students to build and program their own timers. Review Tips for Classroom Aeroponics (https://cdn.agclassroom.org/media/uploads/2019/04/08/Tips_for_Classroom_Aeroponics.pdf) for


a list of tips and best practices for success in the classroom.  10. Over the next 3 or more weeks, students should monitor their aeroponic gardens. They should add nutrient solution as needed and record regular measurements and observations. 11. Once the time period has lapsed, have students co


mplete steps 6 and 7 of the Engineering Design Process on their handout or in their notebook. 12. Discuss with students the results and what innovations may have led to the best results. Discuss how the various solutions (including the best solutions) might be improved to result in more plant gro


wth. 13. Once optimal conditions have been discussed, return to the original introduction to the problem and ask your students, "Would it be feasible to grow large quantities of food using aeroponics to conserve land and water?" 14. Have students turn in their completed handout or their Design No


tebook for grading. Three Dimensional Learning Proficiency: (https://www.nextgenscience.org/three-dimensions) Crosscutting Concepts Connections to Engineering, Technology and Applications of Science: (https://ngss.nsta.org/ETSforCC.aspx? id=1&detailid=16) All human activity draws on natural resour


ces and has both short and long-term consequences, positive as well as negative, for the health of people and the natural environment. Optional Programming Activity (50-60 minutes) This activity will enable students to program the watering cycle in the aeroponic system they designed in Activity 2.


This activity is a great candidate for the "Hour of Code" or other initiatives to expose students to computer programming. 1. Give each team one copy of the Aeroponic Garden Programming Activity instructions (or make it available electronically). Explain to students that this activity will help th


em learn how to program a microcontroller to manage the watering cycle of their vertical garden. 2. Pass out the supplies listed in the Materials section of the lesson plan and pictured below. Be advised that students do not actually need the water pump to complete the coding assignment. They shoul


d complete the programming and then they can test it with the actual pump later during the design challenge.  3. Allow students time to work on the activity, and provide help where needed. If you need additional retitles to troubleshoot, check out these retitles: https://www.arduino.cc/referenc


e/en/ (https://www.arduino.cc/reference/en/) https://forum.arduino.cc/ (https://forum.arduino.cc/) https://www.arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/Foundations (https://www.arduino.cc/en/Tutorial/Foundations) 4. Some students who have been exposed to coding may finish much earlier than the time allotted. Have th


ese students assist their peers. 5. At the end of this activity, students should have produced a program that will enable them to control the water pump in their own vertical garden and set the spray timing and duration. Elaborate Watch the CBS "Real Food" segment on aeroponics, How Aerofarms' Ve


rtical Farms Grow Produce (https://www.youtube.com/watch? v=ME_rprRlmMM).  After the lesson, have students think critically about what they have learned about aeroponic farming as they watch the TEDx video Turning Water Into Food (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qEbdv3bFKww). Have students answer t


he questions on the Turning Water into Food Video Guide (https://cdn.agclassroom.org/media/uploads/2018/01/04/Activity_1_-_Turning_Water_into_Food_Video_Guide.pdf) as they watch the video. After the video, engage in an informal discussion about the following topics: Highlight the need for water-con


scious agricultural practices and personal habits. Discuss what they now know about aeroponic farming technology and ask if this method of farming might be relevant to the concerns brought up in the video. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of aeroponic farming techniques.  Evaluate Consider


using the Aeroponic Garden Design Notebook Rubric (https://cdn.agclassroom.org/media/uploads/2019/04/09/Aeroponic_Design_Challenge_Rubric.pdf) as an optional Assessment Retitle. After conducting these activities, review and summarize the following key concepts: Plants need air, water, light, and


heat to grow. Nutrients can be provided in soil or in the water. Light can be provided by the sun or grow lights. Aeroponics is the practice of growing plants suspended in the air and providing nutrients by misting the roots with a nutrient-rich solution. Aeroponics uses significantly less water th


an traditional land-based farming methods. It can also conserve space by utilizing vertical space. To conserve water and land, aeroponics can prove to be beneficial for the production of some food crops. titles Ag Facts: 1. http://www.worldometers.info/water/ (http://www.worldometers.info/water/


) 2. Bugbee, B. (2013, November 19). Turning water into food. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qEbdv3bFKww (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qEbdv3bFKww) Background titles: http://aeroponicsdiy.com/aeroponics-misting-frequency-for-root-growth/ (http://aeroponicsdiy.com/aeroponics-mi


sting-frequency-for-root-growth/) http://www.aeroponics.com/siteindex2010-12.htm (http://www.aeroponics.com/siteindex2010-12.htm) https://gardenpool.org/online-classes/how-to-make-a-simple-aeroponics-system The following link provides an example of a "5-gallon bucket Aeroponics system" that is the b


asis of the design challenge for this unit. https://gardenpool.org/online-classes/how-to-make-a-simple-5-gallon-bucket-aeroponics-system Garden Pool (n.d.) How to make a simple 5 gallon bucket aeroponics system. Retrieved from https://gardenpool.org/online-classes/how-tomake-a-simple-5-gallon-buck


et-aeroponics-system (https://gardenpool.org/online-classes/how-to-make-a-simple-5-gallon-bucket-aeroponicssystem) Khokhar, T. (2017, March 22). Chart: Globally, 70% of fresh water is used for agriculture [Weblog comment]. Retrieved from https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/chart-globally-70-fresh


water-used-agriculture (https://blogs.worldbank.org/opendata/chart-globally-70freshwater-used-agriculture) Massie, L. (n.d.) Aeroponics misting frequency for root growth [Weblog comment]. Retrieved from http://aeroponicsdiy.com/aeroponics-mistingfrequency-for-root-growth/ (http://aeroponicsdiy.c


om/aeroponics-misting-frequency-for-root-growth/) Recommended Companion Retitles Aeroponic Garden Kit (https://agclassroom.org/matrix/retitle/997/) Arduino Controlled Relay (https://agclassroom.org/matrix/retitle/948/) SOW Seeds of Wonder (https://agclassroom.org/matrix/retitle/1201/) This High


-Tech Farm Grows Kale in a Factory (https://agclassroom.org/matrix/retitle/971/) Vertical Farming video (https://agclassroom.org/matrix/retitle/835/) Vertical Farming video and activities (https://agclassroom.org/matrix/retitle/859/) Author Joe Furse and Andrea Gardner Organization National C


enter for Agricultural Literacy Powered by the National Agricultural Literacy Curriculum Matrix (agclassroom.org)


See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/342804239 Aeroponics: A Review on Modern Agriculture Technology Article · July 2019 CITATIONS 6 2 authors: READS 23,196 Reena Kumari Ramesh Kumar Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University


of Horticulture and Forestry Nauni-173230 … Adithya Institute of Technology 26 PUBLICATIONS   47 CITATIONS    SEE PROFILE 54 PUBLICATIONS   485 CITATIONS    SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Studies on residual heterosis and combi


ning ability in cucumber View project Despatch tools used in Decision support system View project All content following this page was uploaded by Reena Kumari on 09 July 2020. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Indian Farmer 6(4): 286-292; April-2019


Kumari and Kumar Aeroponics: A Review on Modern Agriculture Technology Reena Kumari and Ramesh Kumar Senior Research Fellow, Department of Vegetable Science, Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan (HP), 173230 2Prin


cipal Scientist, Department of Vegetable Science, Dr YS Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan (HP), 173230 *Corresponding Author: reena.sarma92@gmail.com Abstract Aeroponics is a promising soilless farming method for solving future food crisis and is relatively a new wa


y of growing plants that is getting increasingly popular with many people because of the speed, cost and novelty. Aeroponic farming is a form of hydroponic technique and a type of vertical farming. The word aeroponic is derived from the Latin word ‘aero’ (air) and ‘pon


ic’ means labour (work). This farming system empowered the producer to precisely control root zone nutrients, water regimes, and environmental conditions and have complete access to the roots throughout the life of the crop. This aeroponic farming is superior i


n terms of excellent aeration, water use efficiency, less time and space requirement, seasonal independence, disease free plant propagation, and large scale plant production etc. than the conventional methods of propagation. Aeroponic techniques have proven to be


commercially successful for propagation, seed germination, seed potato production, tomato production, leaf crops, and micro-greens. Vegetable crops like potato, yams, tomato, lettuce and some of the leafy vegetables are being commercially cultivated in aeroponic system.


Aeroponics appeared to be a highly feasible method for the production of both aerial parts and roots. NEED OF AEROPONICS The current world population of 7.2 billion is projected to increase by almost one billion people within the next twelve years, reaching 8.1 billion in 2025 and 9.6 billion


in 2050. With the increasing population growth the demand for the more food and more land to grow food is ever increasing. As the world population continues to grow, the rising demand for agricultural production is significant. Prime agricultural land can be scarce and expensive. Ae


roponics is a technological leap forward from traditional hydroponics. Aeroponics-farming are also needed due to the many drawbacks of the traditional field farming system. Some of the drawbacks of the traditional farming system are 15 hours to harvest the crops, long time to harvest hence being


sold for more expensive prices to earn back the time. Another factor is soil used in traditional system, decomposition of organic materials takes up long time. There is a high risk of getting soil disease. Pesticides are used, which is harmful for health. Whereas, in a developi


2000,  Inc,  [83] Nichols M A, Christie C B.  Continuous production of greenhouse crops using aeroponics.  Proc. IS on Trop.  Subtrop. Greenhouses. Eds. S. Chen and T.T. Lin. Acta Hort., 2002; 578: 289–291.  [84] Martin-Laurent F, Lee S K, Tham F Y, He J, Diem H G, Durand P.


research began in the 1920’s and progressed steadily as a soilless growing method. In the early 1940s, the technology was largely used as a research tool rather than an economically feasible method of crop production. W. Carter in 1942 was the first researc


hed air culture growing and described a method of using water vapor at the plants roots to deliver nutrients to facilitate examination of roots. In 1944, L.J. Klotz was the first to discover vapor misted citrus plants in a facilitated research of his studies of diseases of citrus and avocado roo


ts. In 1952, G.F. Trowel grew apple trees in a spray culture. The first commercial aeroponics setup was the Genesis Rooting System, commonly called the Genesis Machine, by GTi in 1983. The device was controlled by a microchip and simply connected to an electrical outlet and


a water faucet. During the 1990s, NASA carried out a series of tests in space and on earth growing biomass with no soil and very little water and this method proved to be very productive. NASA research has shown that aeroponically grown plants have an 80 per cent increase in dry weight bioma


ss (essential minerals) compared to hydroponically grown plants. Aeroponic techniques have been given special attention from NASA since a mist is easier to handle than a liquid in a zero-gravity environment. INTRODUCTION Aeroponics is an alternative for people with limited spac


es to grow plants. An aeroponic system is defined as an enclosed air and water/nutrient ecosystem that fosters rapid plant growth with little water and direct sun and without soil or media. It is an effective and efficient way of growing plants for it requires little water (requi


res 95 per cent less water than traditional farming methods) and needs minimal space than even the most efficient system hydroponic system. Plant grown in these aeroponic system also been shown to uptake more minerals and vitamin, making the plants healthier and potentially m


ore nutritious. The suspended aeroponic plants receive 100 per cent of the available oxygen and carbon dioxide to the roots zone, stems, and leaves, thus accelerating biomass growth and reducing rooting times. The higher biomass yield of aerial parts from the aeroponic treatment ind


icated that this production technique should not be limited to root crops, but should be considered for other types of crops as well. Furthermore, using aeroponics, planting densities can be increased since plant-to-plant competition for nutrients and water is


essentially eliminated. Any species of plants can be grown in a true aeroponic system because the micro-environment of an aeroponic can be finely controlled. Aeroponic systems for seed production have been established following increased demand for more efficient high


quality seed production methods. Aeroponic biopharming is used to grow pharmaceutical medicine inside the plants. Using aeroponics for cloning improves root growth, survival rate, growth rate and maturation time. Studies have shown that, the mean tuber yield under aeroponics is


better than when the 287 | P a g e Indian Farmer 6(4): 286-292; April-2019 Kumari and Kumar same material is left to produce tuber under conventional means. Some researcher reported that, the aeroponics syst


em increased stomatal conductance of leaf, intercellular CO2 concentration, net photosynthetic rate and photochemical efficiency of leaf. TYPES OF AEROPONICS: a. Low-pressure Units: In most of the low-pressure aeroponic gardens, roots of the plant are suspended above a reser


voir of nutrient solution or a channel which is inside and is connected to a reservoir. The nutrient solution is delivered by a low-pressure pump through jets or by ultrasonic transducers, which drips or drains the nutrients back into the reservoir. When plants grow


to maturity, then the units suffer from dry sections of the root systems and thus adequate nutrient uptake is avoided. These types of units lack features to purify the nutrient solution, removal of debris and unwanted pathogens because of cost. These units are usually suitab


le for bench top growing. And it is also used for the demonstration of principles of aeroponics. b. High-pressure Devices: In high-pressure aeroponic devices, mist is created by high-pressure pump(s). And it is generally used in the cultivation of high value crops. This method include


s technologies for air and water purification, nutrient sterilization, low-mass polymers and pressurized nutrient delivery systems. c. Commercial System: The commercial system has high-pressure device hardware and biological systems. An enhancement for extended plant life and


crop maturation is included in the biological systems matrix. Working: Aeroponic system is an endless process in a confined space and therefore it cuts down agricultural labour. Aeroponics are based on the possibility of cultivating vegetables whose roots are not inserted in a subst


ratum (the case with hydroponics) or soil, but in containers filled with flowing plant nutrition. The basic principle of aeroponic growing is to grow plants suspended in a closed or semi-closed environment by spraying the plant’s dangling roots and lower stem with an atomiz


ed or sprayed, nutrient-rich water solution. The set up for aeroponic includes a proper monitoring and control system for water and nutrients distribution for utilizing the aeroponic cultivation at its best.A distribution system of pipes, spray nozzles, a pump and time


r distributes the spray from a nutrient solution storage tank is required. It uses a small internal micro jet spray that sprays the roots with fine, high pressure mist containing nutrient rich solutionsfrom the nutrient reservoir as a fine mist in the rooting chamber.There is a programmable cycli


c timer which is used to trigger the high-pressure aeroponic pump to go on. Nutrients are mixed in with water in a reservoir basin, this is than filtered and pumped into a pressurized holding tank that is intermittently misted on to the root system. Developed root hairs help


in absorbing nutrients from the moisture. It is also easier to administer all sorts of nutrients to the plant, via the root system.Since the spray particles are small in size, there is negligible wastage of nutrient solution. And with an ample amount of oxygen s


upply, root rot is completely avoided. 288 | P a g e Indian Farmer 6(4): 286-292; April-2019 Kumari and Kumar The misting is usually done every few minutes around the hanged roots. The system normally turned on


for only a few seconds every 2-3 minutes. Because the roots are exposed to the air, the roots will dry out rapidly if the misting cycles are interrupted. A timer controls the nutrient pump much like other types of hydroponic systems, except the aeroponics system needs a short cycle timer that ru


ns the pump for a few seconds every couple of minutes. However, the chamber must be lightless materials from everywhere, so that the roots are in darkness functionally good also to inhibit algal growth that impedes the growing plants and pollute the system. The droplet


size of a nutrient mist is a crucial element in aeroponics. An oversized droplet may reduce the oxygen supply. An undersized droplet may stimulate root hair growth which prevents lateral root growth which influences the efficiency of an aeroponic system. The water droplets must be bi


g enough to carry the nutrients to the roots in sufficient quantity, but small enough to not immediately precipitateout of the root mass. Unused solution drips downinto the baseof the unit is strained, filtered, and pumped back into the reservoir. Aeroponics system is that o


f easy monitoring of nutrients and pH. In aeroponics there is the minimal contact between the support structure and plant, due to which the unconstrained growth of the plant is possible. DIFFERENT COMPONENTS OF AEROPONICS: 1. Nutrients used in aeroponics: Mainly N-NH4 (0.54 g/L


), N-NO3 (0.35 g/L), P(0.40 g/L), K (0.35 g/L), Ca (0.17 g/L), Mg(0.08 g/L), Na(0.04 g/L), Fe (0.09 g/L), Zn (0.03 g/L) and B(0.03g/L) are commercially being used in most of the crops. 2. Water used in aeroponics: Water to be used in aeroponics should have a low EC, not exceeding one mS/cm. W


ater pH is also a useful indicator. Water titles with a pH of over eight are questionable for aeroponics. It is useful to have a water chemical analysis; even if EC and pH measures fall into acceptablelevels.The other problem we may have to face is water biologic


al contamination. Water from deep wells isusually not contaminated. Water from superficial wells, especially near urban areas, is likely to be contaminated with coli form bacteria, including Pectobacterium. Water from suspicious titles shouldhave a microbiological


analysis. Special filters can minimize this risk. If available, water should be filteredbefore going into the nutrient tank. Boiling is also another alternative if no other is available. 3. The plant material used in aeroponics: Optimum plant material should be


used for aeroponics. In vitro plants are preferred because of sanitaryreasons. However, they need to be handled with proper care by experienced technicians. These plantsshould be the appropriate age and size and should go through a thorough acclimatization period


before going into the greenhouse. Other plantmaterials, such as rooted cuttings and tuber sprouts, should be clean and disease free. The presence ofany kind of symptom should be sufficient reason to discard the whole batch of into the boxes. The plants. This should benoticeabl


e when transplanting underground part of the tissue coming from thesand trays should be completely 289 | P a g e Indian Farmer 6(4): 286-292; April-2019 Kumari and Kumar clean and sand free. Before placing int


o aeroponics, plants should be managed in a clean greenhouse environment. SOME OF THE KEY BENEFITS OF AEROPONICS:  Round the year cultivation: Since plants are grown in a controlled environment crops can be grown year-round without being dependent on the weather or atm


osphere conditions outside.  Fast plant growth: Plants grow fast because their roots have access to a lot of oxygen.  Easy system maintenance: In aeroponics, all you need to maintain is the root chamber (the container housing the roots) which needs regula


r disinfecting, and periodically, the reservoir and irrigation channels.  Less need for nutrients and water: Aeroponic plants need less nutrients and water on average, because the nutrient absorption rate is higher, and plants usually respond to aeroponic systems by growing even


more roots.  Mobility: Plants, even whole nurseries, can be moved around without too much effort, as all that is required is moving the plants from one collar to another.  Requires little space and high yield: Aeroponic systems can be stacked up in layers to build v


ertical farms that take up much less space than traditional farming methods.  Great educational value: Plants and root growth study in laboratories is easier for students and researchers.  Proper root growth: In this system, plant roots have proper space to grow well. So they don’t stre


tch or wilt.  No transplantation shock: Plants can be shifted to any growing media system without any transplantation shock after root development.  Easier fruit harvest: Fruits produced from the system are easier to harvest.  Disease free produce: Due to clean and sterile


growing conditions, plant diseases and infections reduce up to agreat extent.  Production at moon stations: Using this technique, fruits can be grown at zero gravity i.e at moon stations.  Potentially healthier and nutritious plants can be grown at homes; indoors or at roof


top.  Nurseries can propagate seeds and cuttings into healthy, harvestable plants in a fraction of time of traditional methods.  Aeroponics systems can reduce water usage by 98 per cent, fertilizer usage by 60 per cent, and pesticide usage by 100 per cent, all


while maximizing crop yields.  Power loss for a small period does not cause any damage to plants. Key drawbacks of aeroponic technology Every system has its drawbacks, and aeroponics is no exception. 290 | P a g e Indian Farmer 6(4): 286-292; April-2019


Kumari and Kumar  Dependence on the system: A typical aeroponics system is made up of high pressure pumps, sprinklers and timers. If any of these break down, your plants can be damaged or killed easily.  Technical knowledge required: In


itially some training is required for system maintenance. You need a certain level of competency in running an aeroponic system. Knowledge of nutrients amounts required by your plant is essential, because you don’t have any soil to absorb excess/wrong nutrients supplied.  San


itary conditions of the root chamber: The root chamber must not be contaminated, or else diseases may strike the roots. So you need to disinfect the root chamber every so often. Hydrogen peroxide is often used as disinfectant.  High cost: Most aeroponic systems are not exac


tly cheap. Aeroponic systems may cost many hundreds of dollars each.  Power loss: For a long time period power loss may cause irreversible damage. CONCLUSION Water plays an important role in the world economy. Approximately 70 per cent of the fresh water used by human goes to agricu


lture. Out of that 45 per cent is wasted due to gaudy irrigation techniques. By using aeroponic systems, we can save 98 per cent of total water because of recirculatory system. Fresh, clean, healthy, efficient and rapid food production can be obtained from aeroponic system


s throughout the year. This soilless culture can overcome all the constraints that are present in soil culture production. Enhanced disease-free yield leads India to be at top growers and exporters in near future. Aeroponic system has the potential to produce enhanced veget


ative growth without use of any artificial hormones, pesticides or insecticide. Aeroponics is still a good way to learn how to master plant growth and learn about their needs, within a controlled environment. For urban dwellers that live in apartments, sometim


es aeroponics is the only practical way to garden. And on arid lands, aeroponics circumvents this problem, and provides the best means of growing plants effective. FUTURE PROSPECTS Soilless cultures consider as a new developed technique for agriculture development but it


is not simple technique. However, there is lack of technical background of the new technique among growers and horticulturists in many countries and well trained employs are needed. Moreover, most substrates are internationally markets, so they are expensive. Therefore, it is bette


r to look locally about not expensive good substrates. The growers can adept the soilless systems according to their needs, the place of the system and according to their potential cash. The system in any case need to take strong care and observation for the parameters neede


d for the good growth of the plants such as nutrient concentrations, light, oxygen around the plants root zone, water quality, pH, disinfection, temperature of the solution and more. Aeroponics helps conserve water, land and nutrients, so the aeroponics system is the way of the future,


making cultivation of crops easier. 291 | P a g e Indian Farmer 6(4): 286-292; April-2019 Kumari and Kumar REFERENCES Ali Al-Shrouf. (2017). Hydroponics, aeroponic and aquaponic as compared with conventional


farming. American Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences 27(1): 247-255. Cooper A. (1976). Nutrient film technique for growing crops. Grower books. London. England. Jeff Birkby. (2016). Vertical farming. ATTRA Sustainable Agriculture. National C


entre for Appropriate Technology. www.attra.ncat.org. KA El-Kazzaz and AA El-Kazzaz. (2017). Soilless agriculture a new and advanced method for agriculture development: an Introduction. Agri Res & Tech 3(2). DOI: 10.19080/ARTOAJ.2017.03.555610 004. Kaur Gagandeep and Kumar Dil


ip. (2014). Aeroponic technology: blessing or curse. International Journal of Engineering Research & Technology 3(7): 691-693. Lakhiar Imran Ali, Gao Jianmin, Syed Tabinda Naz, Chandio Farman Ali and Buttar Noman Ali. (2018). Modern plant cultivation technologies in agricu


lture under controlled environment: a review on aeroponics. Journal of Plant Interactions 13(1): 338-352. DOI:10.1080/17429145.2018.1472308. P Gopinath, P Irene Vethamoni and M Gomathi. (2017). Aeroponics soilless cultivation system for vegetable crops. Chem Sci Rev Lett 6(22): 838-


849. Richa Sbhnam, Kumari Arpita, Bedanga Bikash Saikia and Kumari Udita. (2018). AeroponicsA step towards sustainable farming. International Journal of Advance Research, Ideas and Innovations in Technology 466-472. View publication stats 292 | P a g e


See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263768225 Aeroponic Greenhouse as an Autonomous System Using Intelligent Space for Agriculture Robotics Chapter · January 2014 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-05582-4_7 CITATIONS 22 4 authors, i

Martin Pala, Ladislav Mizenko, Marian Mach, Tyler Reed


ncluding: Martin Pala CropTek s.r.o., Slovakia 5 PUBLICATIONS   37 CITATIONS    SEE PROFILE Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: ENCODE View project KnowWeb View project READS 6,928 Marian Mach Technical University of Kosice Technicka univer


zita v Kosiciach 76 PUBLICATIONS   324 CITATIONS    SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Martin Pala on 09 April 2015. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. Aeroponic Greenhouse as an Autonomous System using Intelligent Space for Agriculture Robotic


s Martin PALA1, Ladislav MIZENKO1, Marian MACH1, Tyler REED2 1Department of Cybernetics and Artificial Intelligence, Technical University of Košice {martin.pala,ladislav.mizenko,marian.mach}@tuke.sk 2Independent Consultant, Maya Culpa, LLC, Galloway, Ohio tyler@mayaculpa.com Abstract. This


paper describes a novel approach to aeroponic and hydroponic system monitoring, fault detection and automation. The first part of this paper is dedicated to brief literature preview about hydroponics and aeroponics, its common and distinctive features and the description of the needs for


its automation. The second part of this paper deals with aeroponic greenhouse control scheme proposal. We consider a greenhouse covered by a sensor network, actuators and hydroponic or aeroponic platforms to be a robotic system in so called intelligent space. The aeroponic plat


form design is described besides the conclusions and future work ideas in the last part of this paper. Keywords: Agriculture Robotics, Intelligent Space, Aeroponics, Hydroponics, Greenhouse 1 Introduction The current world population of 7.2 billion is projected to increase


by almost one billion people within the next twelve years, reaching 8.1 billion in 2025 and 9.6 billion in 2050, according to a new United Nations report [1]. As the world population continues to grow, the rising demand for agricultural production is significant. More than half of global p


opulation growth between now and 2050 is expected to occur in Africa. According to the UN’s medium-variant projection, the population of Africa could more than double by mid-century, increasing from 1.1 billion today to 2.4 billion in 2050, and potentially reaching 4.2 billion by 210


0. High population numbers are putting further strain on natural retitles, fuel supplies, employment, housing and food supplies. In addition, an increased demand for biofuels could further increase pressure on inputs, prices of agricultural produce, land, and water and end


anger a global food security. The main motivation of this paper is to provide overview information about progressive techniques and methods for producing green food with consideration for environmental factors and energy efficiency. The main idea behind the aeroponi


c greenhouse in intelligent space is full automation, scalability, anytime-anyplace access monitoring and fault diagnostics for home or enterprise farming. In the first part of this paper the hydroponics and aeroponics methods of growing plants are introduced and the


connection between greenhouse as a robotic system and intelligent space is explained. The second part is dedicated to aeroponics control system architecture proposal and its main features. 2 Hydroponics, Aeroponics, and Current Trends in Controlled Environment Agriculture In orde


r to understand hydroponics and aeroponics methods of growing plants, some of the basic terms and concepts need to be clarified. The concepts and terms provided in the following words appear in the well-known publications related to hydroponics or aeroponics [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7]. Horticulture