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76,233	f6vo7h	why do colds/flu/bugs seem to end with an annoying cough that lasts for ages?	This is partially due to the fact the airways are still irritated from the effects of the illness, and partially because the flu weakens the immune system and allows additional infections.It is, in fact, relatively common for more vulnerable people to develop bronchitis or pneumonia after a flu. This is why almost every source you ask about flu symptoms will tell you to see a doctor if your cough lasts too long, or if your fever disappears for a day or two and then comes back.	[ "A lingering cough is usually just a side-effect from your body recovering from the sickness. This is caused by irritated airways or leftover mucus.", "When you're ill, your body makes mucus to clear the cell lining of bacteria and viruses. Once it does its job and that harmful bacteria/virus is gone, your body n...	9	[ "A lingering cough is usually just a side-effect from your body recovering from the sickness. This is caused by irritated airways or leftover mucus.", "When you're ill, your body makes mucus to clear the cell lining of bacteria and viruses. Once it does its job and that harmful bacteria/virus is gone, your body n...	9	<P> virus, 90% of Ornithodoros ticks (44/49) transmitted this virus by bite to suckling mice, and transmission continued to occur for at least 1 year <P> remain susceptible to the agent during subsequent waves of the epidemic or pandemic. <P> Bird fancier's lung Signs and symptoms This disease is an inflammation of the alveoli in the lungs caused by an immune response to inhaled allergens from birds. Initial symptoms include shortness of breath (dyspnea), especially after sudden exertion or when exposed to temperature change, which can resemble asthma, hyperventilation syndrome or pulmonary embolism. Chills, fever, non-productive cough and chest discomfort may also occur. Upon re-exposure to avian proteins, sensitized individuals will typically experience symptoms within 4–6 hours or sooner. In the chronic form there is usually anorexia, weight loss, extreme fatigue and progressive pulmonary fibrosis, which is generally the most <P> many BFL patients make a full recovery. However, symptoms may recur quickly upon re-exposure to birds or related allergens. <P> if they have any “structural or anatomical causes" which predispose them to developing sinus infections. Viral sinus infections do not however respond well to conventional treatments such as antibiotics. When treating fungal sinusitis, an appropriate fungicide is usually administered. <P> cause of viral encephalitis is from herpes simplex infection. Other causes of acute viral encephalitis are rabies virus, poliovirus, and measles virus. Additional possible viral causes are arboviral flavivirus (St. Louis encephalitis, West Nile virus), bunyavirus (La Crosse strain), arenavirus (lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus), reovirus (Colorado tick virus), and henipavirus infections. The Powassan virus is a rare cause of encephalitis. Bacterial and other It can be caused by a bacterial infection, such as bacterial meningitis, or may be a complication of a current infectious disease syphilis (secondary encephalitis). Certain parasitic or protozoal infestations, such as toxoplasmosis, malaria, or primary amoebic meningoencephalitis, can also <P> a majority of cases are found from April to July. The virus has also been found in South Korea and Japan. <P> Q fever Signs and symptoms Incubation period is usually two to three weeks. The most common manifestation is flu-like symptoms with abrupt onset of fever, malaise, profuse perspiration, severe headache, muscle pain, joint pain, loss of appetite, upper respiratory problems, dry cough, pleuritic pain, chills, confusion, and gastrointestinal symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. About half of infected individuals exhibit no symptoms. During its course, the disease can progress to an atypical pneumonia, which can result in a life-threatening acute respiratory distress syndrome, whereby such symptoms usually occur during the first four to five days of infection. Less often, Q fever causes <P> flues. <P> Lung abscess Signs and symptoms Onset of symptoms is often gradual, but in necrotizing staphylococcal or gram-negative bacillary pneumonias patients can be acutely ill. Cough, fever with shivering, and night sweats are often present. Cough can be productive of foul smelling purulent mucus (≈70%) or less frequently with blood in one third of cases). Affected individuals may also complain of chest pain, shortness of breath, lethargy and other features of chronic illness. Those with a lung abscess are generally cachectic at presentation. Finger clubbing is present in one third of patients. Dental decay is common especially in alcoholics and children. <P> 6 days, and illness may last for up to 6 months in extreme cases, but may resolve as quickly as two days. Infection usually occurs between the months of May and June but do not show symptoms until October in temperate Northern Hemisphere regions. People should ideally spend 1 month resting during the height of infection. Another cause of this virus is from a dirty wound from an accident. Diagnosis Enterovirus infection is diagnosed mainly via serological tests such as ELISA and from cell culture. Because the same level and type of care is given regardless of <P> of Löffler's syndrome isn't well known since there have been minimal statistics reported on the topic. History In 1909 a man named H. French first described the condition. Then in 1932 Wilhelm Löffler drew attention to the disease in cases of eosinophilic pneumonia caused by the parasites Ascaris lumbricoides, Strongyloides stercoralis and the hookworms Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus. Finally in 1943 the condition was called Tropical eosinophilia by RJ Weingarten, and later officially named Löffler's syndrome. The most well-known case of Löffler's syndrome was in a young boy from Louisiana. He arrived at the hospital reporting <P> Allergy and Infectious Disease, Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority, and the Defense Threat Reduction Agency. ZMAb ZMAb is a mixture of three mouse mAbs: m1H3, m2G4 and m4G7. A study published in November 2013 found that EBOV-infected macaque monkeys survived after being given a therapy with a combination of three EBOV surface glycoprotein (EBOV-GP)-specific monoclonal antibodies (ZMAb) within 24 hours of infection. The authors concluded that post-exposure treatment resulted in a robust immune response, with good protection for up to 10 weeks and some protection at 13 weeks. ZMab was created by the NML and licensed to Defyrus, a <P> bats, then humans gave it to pigs once and to small civets once, and then these small carnivores may have given the disease back to humans once or twice. All the cases of SARS associated with the outbreak appeared to be part of the bat branch of the coronavirus phylogeny. <P> of pneumonia following an influenza attack. <P> it is possible to see clinical signs, such as weakness and lethargy due to encephalitis. Death often results several days after symptoms emerge. Associated diseases The WCBL virus is closely related to rabies. Although, WCBL has not yet infected humans, there is great risk due to its similar structure to other lyssaviruses which are known to infect humans. Unfortunately, the current rabies vaccine is not effective against WCBL as a result of the WCBL’s slight divergence from other lyssaviruses. Therefore, if this virus begins to infect humans, the rabies vaccine will need to be improved to include effective antibodies for <P> necessary resources to fight the virus. <P> for many months. <P> virus Tataguine virus Triniti virus Witwatersrand virus Wolkberg virus Yacaaba virus <P> runner suddenly collapses from having liquid in its lungs. No one knows why the runner comes down with such an illness. It is quickly taken off the field. After a few more races Moreta goes to the Dancing Square with Alessan's younger sister, Oklina. When Moreta wakes up the next morning she is greeted with news from Weyrleader Sh’gall who tells her that the disease is now an epidemic. It is spreading very quickly across Pern. Masterhealer Capian has ordered a quarantine to try to stop the spreading of the disease. Moreta quickly gives out orders to isolate the Weyr, but	question: why do colds/flu/bugs seem to end with an annoying cough that lasts for ages? context: <P> virus, 90% of Ornithodoros ticks (44/49) transmitted this virus by bite to suckling mice, and transmission continued to occur for at least 1 year <P> remain susceptible to the agent during subsequent waves of the epidemic or pandemic. <P> Bird fancier's lung Signs and symptoms This disease is an inflammation of the alveoli in the lungs caused by an immune response to inhaled allergens from birds. Initial symptoms include shortness of breath (dyspnea), especially after sudden exertion or when exposed to temperature change, which can resemble asthma, hyperventilation syndrome or pulmonary embolism. Chills, fever, non-productive cough and chest discomfort may also occur. Upon re-exposure to avian proteins, sensitized individuals will typically experience symptoms within 4–6 hours or sooner. In the chronic form there is usually anorexia, weight loss, extreme fatigue and progressive pulmonary fibrosis, which is generally the most <P> many BFL patients make a full recovery. However, symptoms may recur quickly upon re-exposure to birds or related allergens. <P> if they have any “structural or anatomical causes" which predispose them to developing sinus infections. Viral sinus infections do not however respond well to conventional treatments such as antibiotics. When treating fungal sinusitis, an appropriate fungicide is usually administered. <P> cause of viral encephalitis is from herpes simplex infection. Other causes of acute viral encephalitis are rabies virus, poliovirus, and measles virus. Additional possible viral causes are arboviral flavivirus (St. Louis encephalitis, West Nile virus), bunyavirus (La Crosse strain), arenavirus (lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus), reovirus (Colorado tick virus), and henipavirus infections. The Powassan virus is a rare cause of encephalitis. Bacterial and other It can be caused by a bacterial infection, such as bacterial meningitis, or may be a complication of a current infectious disease syphilis (secondary encephalitis). Certain parasitic or protozoal infestations, such as toxoplasmosis, malaria, or primary amoebic meningoencephalitis, can also <P> a majority of cases are found from April to July. The virus has also been found in South Korea and Japan. <P> Q fever Signs and symptoms Incubation period is usually two to three weeks. The most common manifestation is flu-like symptoms with abrupt onset of fever, malaise, profuse perspiration, severe headache, muscle pain, joint pain, loss of appetite, upper respiratory problems, dry cough, pleuritic pain, chills, confusion, and gastrointestinal symptoms, such as nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. About half of infected individuals exhibit no symptoms. During its course, the disease can progress to an atypical pneumonia, which can result in a life-threatening acute respiratory distress syndrome, whereby such symptoms usually occur during the first four to five days of infection. Less often, Q fever causes <P> flues. <P> Lung abscess Signs and symptoms Onset of symptoms is often gradual, but in necrotizing staphylococcal or gram-negative bacillary pneumonias patients can be acutely ill. Cough, fever with shivering, and night sweats are often present. Cough can be productive of foul smelling purulent mucus (≈70%) or less frequently with blood in one third of cases). Affected individuals may also complain of chest pain, shortness of breath, lethargy and other features of chronic illness. Those with a lung abscess are generally cachectic at presentation. Finger clubbing is present in one third of patients. Dental decay is common especially in alcoholics and children. <P> 6 days, and illness may last for up to 6 months in extreme cases, but may resolve as quickly as two days. Infection usually occurs between the months of May and June but do not show symptoms until October in temperate Northern Hemisphere regions. People should ideally spend 1 month resting during the height of infection. Another cause of this virus is from a dirty wound from an accident. Diagnosis Enterovirus infection is diagnosed mainly via serological tests such as ELISA and from cell culture. Because the same level and type of care is given regardless of <P> of Löffler's syndrome isn't well known since there have been minimal statistics reported on the topic. History In 1909 a man named H. French first described the condition. Then in 1932 Wilhelm Löffler drew attention to the disease in cases of eosinophilic pneumonia caused by the parasites Ascaris lumbricoides, Strongyloides stercoralis and the hookworms Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus. Finally in 1943 the condition was called Tropical eosinophilia by RJ Weingarten, and later officially named Löffler's syndrome. The most well-known case of Löffler's syndrome was in a young boy from Louisiana. He arrived at the hospital reporting <P> Allergy and Infectious Disease, Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority, and the Defense Threat Reduction Agency. ZMAb ZMAb is a mixture of three mouse mAbs: m1H3, m2G4 and m4G7. A study published in November 2013 found that EBOV-infected macaque monkeys survived after being given a therapy with a combination of three EBOV surface glycoprotein (EBOV-GP)-specific monoclonal antibodies (ZMAb) within 24 hours of infection. The authors concluded that post-exposure treatment resulted in a robust immune response, with good protection for up to 10 weeks and some protection at 13 weeks. ZMab was created by the NML and licensed to Defyrus, a <P> bats, then humans gave it to pigs once and to small civets once, and then these small carnivores may have given the disease back to humans once or twice. All the cases of SARS associated with the outbreak appeared to be part of the bat branch of the coronavirus phylogeny. <P> of pneumonia following an influenza attack. <P> it is possible to see clinical signs, such as weakness and lethargy due to encephalitis. Death often results several days after symptoms emerge. Associated diseases The WCBL virus is closely related to rabies. Although, WCBL has not yet infected humans, there is great risk due to its similar structure to other lyssaviruses which are known to infect humans. Unfortunately, the current rabies vaccine is not effective against WCBL as a result of the WCBL’s slight divergence from other lyssaviruses. Therefore, if this virus begins to infect humans, the rabies vaccine will need to be improved to include effective antibodies for <P> necessary resources to fight the virus. <P> for many months. <P> virus Tataguine virus Triniti virus Witwatersrand virus Wolkberg virus Yacaaba virus <P> runner suddenly collapses from having liquid in its lungs. No one knows why the runner comes down with such an illness. It is quickly taken off the field. After a few more races Moreta goes to the Dancing Square with Alessan's younger sister, Oklina. When Moreta wakes up the next morning she is greeted with news from Weyrleader Sh’gall who tells her that the disease is now an epidemic. It is spreading very quickly across Pern. Masterhealer Capian has ordered a quarantine to try to stop the spreading of the disease. Moreta quickly gives out orders to isolate the Weyr, but	answer: This is partially due to the fact the airways are still irritated from the effects of the illness, and partially because the flu weakens the immune system and allows additional infections.It is, in fact, relatively common for more vulnerable people to develop bronchitis or pneumonia after a flu. This is why almost every source you ask about flu symptoms will tell you to see a doctor if your cough lasts too long, or if your fever disappears for a day or two and then comes back.
151,297	n3cz2	why does itunes want to update every 2 days and take 8 hours to do so?	_URL_0_they're only occuring every month or so. As for the 8 hrs thing, you'll probably find that the software is designed so that its not modular, hence you have to get the whole thing, including quicktime.imo block it with firewall, and stop the updater using msconfig. google is your friend	[ "_URL_0_\n\nthey're only occuring every month or so. \n\nAs for the 8 hrs thing, you'll probably find that the software is designed so that its not modular, hence you have to get the whole thing, including quicktime.\n\nimo block it with firewall, and stop the updater using msconfig. google is your friend", "_URL...	2	[ "_URL_0_\n\nthey're only occuring every month or so. \n\nAs for the 8 hrs thing, you'll probably find that the software is designed so that its not modular, hence you have to get the whole thing, including quicktime.\n\nimo block it with firewall, and stop the updater using msconfig. google is your friend", "_URL...	2	<P> recent "Nightly" build. The "Beta" channel provides improved stability over the "Nightly" builds and is the first development milestone that has the "Firefox" logo. "Release" is the current official version of Firefox. Gecko version numbering is same as Firefox build version number, starting 5.0 on Firefox 5. The stated aim of this faster-paced process is to get new features to users faster. This accelerated release cycle was met with criticism by users, as it often broke add-on compatibility, as well as those who believe Firefox was simply trying to increase its version number to compare with other browsers such as Google <P> 10 along with OS X 10.9 Mavericks in October 2013. This version has lost Magic GarageBand and the podcast functionality. Apple updated GarageBand 10 for Mac on March 20, 2014. Version 10.0.2 adds the ability to export tracks in MP3 format as well as a new drummer module, but removed support for podcasting; users with podcast files created in GarageBand 6 can continue to edit them using the older version. GarageBand was updated to version 10.0.3 on October 16, 2014. This version included myriad bug fixes and several new features including a dedicated Bass Amp Designer, the introduction of global track effects <P> pricing and DRM changes to the iTunes Store. <P> Splice (platform) Splice The site and the Mac application were launched in private beta in October 2013. A Windows version was released a few months later and the service became available to all in September 2014. Music projects created on musician computers get automatically backed up every time the producer makes a save. All audio file dependencies are also being backed up. A series of optimizations are implemented to optimize the process for speed and low resource usage. All saves are privately available to the creator via a timeline representation online. At any moment in time, producers can reload previously saved versions <P> timeline. IBM supports z/OS release coexistence and fallback on an "N+2" basis. For example, IBM customers running Release 9 can upgrade directly to Release 11 or Release 10, and both releases can operate concurrently within the same Sysplex (cluster) and without conflict using the same datasets, configurations, security profiles, etc. (coexistence), as long as so-called "toleration maintenance" is installed in the older release. If there is a problem with Release 11, the customer can return to Release 9 without experiencing dataset, configuration, or security profile compatibility problems (fallback) until ready to try moving forward again. z/OS customers using Parallel Sysplex (clustering) <P> implementations with no modification. Because of that, Next3, like ext3, lacks a number of features of more recent designs, such as extents. Performance When there are no snapshots, Next3 performance is equivalent to ext3 performance. With snapshots, there is a minor overhead per write of metadata block (copy-on-write) and a smaller overhead (~1%) per write of data block (move-on-write). Next4 As of 2011, Next4, a project for porting of Next3 snapshot capabilities to the Ext4 file system, is mostly completed. The porting is attributed to members of the Pune Institute of Computer Technology (PICT) and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. <P> of Microsoft Word. Microsoft has also been the target of 'catch-up' versioning, with the Netscape browsers skipping version 5 to 6, in line with Microsoft's Internet Explorer, but also because the Mozilla application suite inherited version 5 in its user agent string during pre-1.0 development and Netscape 6.x was built upon Mozilla's code base. Another example of keeping up with competitors is when Slackware Linux jumped from version 4 to version 7 in 1999. Apple Apple has a particular form of version number skipping, in that it has leveraged its use of the Roman numeral X in its marketing across multiple product <P> Due to lack of time to devote to Ezycom's development, Peter handed over the development reins to Stephen Gibbs in 1997. The next official release of Ezycom was v2.00 in 2003, which included several Y2K bug fixes. Stephen has since done all Ezycom development. The latest release was v2.15g2, in May 2010. <P> a customised Reader Mode and Download History improvements. Version 8.2 was released in December 21, 2018, adding an improved Download Manager, an improved Reader Mode, bug fixes and stabilization, and quick access sync via Smart Switch. Version 9.2 was released in April 2, 2019, removing the "video assistant" extension that was added in previous versions as a "quick menu", adding a redesigned app icon, a further redesigned user interface and respective one-handedness, Smart Anti-Tracking, an option to turn on Save All Images, as well as bug fixes and stabilization. Version 9.2.10.15 was released in May 19, 2019, adding a +10 and -10 sec <P> unscheduled work as production defects distract the team from further progress. As the system evolves it is important to refactor as entropy of the system naturally increases. Over time the lack of constant maintenance causes increasing defects and development costs. Attempting to take on too much in an iteration A common misconception is that agile software development allows continuous change, however an iteration backlog is an agreement of what work can be completed during an iteration. Having too much work-in-progress (WIP) results in inefficiencies such as context-switching and queueing. The team must avoid feeling pressured into taking on additional work. Fixed <P> with slow and buggy software or to pay hundreds of dollars on a new iPhone. On June 13, 2016, Apple announced that the iPhone 4S will not support iOS 10 due to hardware limitations. In January 2018, Apple suddenly started firmware signing for iOS 6.1.3 on the iPad 2 and iPhone 4S, allowing users to downgrade these devices to iOS 6.1.3. iOS 8 is available as an over-the-air update on iOS 6, allowing users to update their devices to iOS 8.4.1. As of July 2019, this is still supported. On July 22, 2019 Apple released iOS 9.3.6 for the iPhone 4s, which makes <P> of the translucent style in later iOS models. Also, AirDrop, which was first released in iOS 7, was only supported by the iPad 4 or later. The iPad 2 can run iOS 8, which was released on September 17, 2014, making it the first iOS device to run five major versions of iOS (including iOS 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8). While the OS runs on the device, most of its new features do not work because of relatively aged hardware and therefore, its performance is limited. Users have also reported numerous problems after receiving the update including the accessibility features <P> as Microsoft, this policy is opposed to the full disclosure principle favored by some security researchers. As of June 2005, Secunia had reported three unpatched vulnerabilities in Mozilla with the most serious one marked "less critical". Market adoption and project end From 1998 to 2004, the global usage share of Mozilla grew from a negligible amount to about 3%. Because of the Foundation's plan to switch development focus to standalone applications such as Firefox and Thunderbird, many new features and enhancements were not available for Mozilla. This, combined with the community marketing effort named "Spread Firefox", drew more and more users <P> with major changes between each update, new developer builds are usually available every week with small but sometimes significant features added between each update and new beta builds are usually available every Wednesdays and usually only contain small fixes and optimizations. Beta builds are only available to some beta testers selected on MIUI's community forums. To update between versions, users usually use an over-the-air updater application. <P> examining the Changelog, if any, may reveal only superficial or irrelevant changes). This is one reason for some of the distaste expressed in the "drop the major release" approach taken by Asterisk et alia: now, staff must (or at least should) do a full regression test for every update. Version numbers for files and documents Some computer file systems, such as the OpenVMS Filesystem, also keep versions for files. Versioning amongst documents is relatively similar to the routine used with computers and software engineering, where with each small change in the structure, contents, or conditions, the version number is incremented by <P> additional improvements. <P> and stability level. The Stable channel updated roughly quarterly, with features and fixes that passed "thorough" testing in the Beta channel. Beta updated roughly monthly, with "stable and complete" features migrated from the Developer channel. The Developer channel updated once or twice per week and was where ideas and features were first publicly exposed "(and sometimes fail) and can be very unstable at times". [Quoted remarks from Google's policy announcements.] On July 22, 2010, Google announced it would ramp up the speed at which it releases new stable versions; the release cycles were shortened from quarterly to six weeks for <P> firmware V51.1.002 fixes most of the bugs and the issues, the phone feels much more stable than before. The browser has also been updated to version 7.3 adding tabbed browsing, limited HTML5 and Microsoft Silverlight support and a refreshed UI. The swipe-to-unlock feature has also been added. <P> stability improvements. Alongside the new iOS 6, Apple updated GarageBand to 1.3 on September 19, 2012. The update added the ability to import music from one's music library, ringtone creation, the ability to use the app in the background, and minor bug fixes. GarageBand was updated to 1.4 on March 20, 2013. The update added support for Audiobus, the ability to remove grid snapping, and minor bug fixes. GarageBand received an overhaul of design coinciding with the reveal of the iPad Air on October 22, 2013. GarageBand 2.0 features a new design to match iOS 7, an extended number of tracks per song, <P> Vulkano device included an electronic program guide (EPG) enabled software player. As of late 2018, software downloads were no longer available from Monsoon's defunct website. Vulkano players With the release of the Vulkano in August 2010, Monsoon introduced free Vulkano players for the iPad and iPhone, which only support WiFi, and not yet 3G connections. Monsoon also released an Android and BlackBerry player, and planned a future release for Symbian. As of late 2018, iPad and iPhone player software was no longer available for download on Apple's iTunes App Store. HAVA players Monsoon Multimedia announced support for Windows Mobile in May 2007	question: why does itunes want to update every 2 days and take 8 hours to do so? context: <P> recent "Nightly" build. The "Beta" channel provides improved stability over the "Nightly" builds and is the first development milestone that has the "Firefox" logo. "Release" is the current official version of Firefox. Gecko version numbering is same as Firefox build version number, starting 5.0 on Firefox 5. The stated aim of this faster-paced process is to get new features to users faster. This accelerated release cycle was met with criticism by users, as it often broke add-on compatibility, as well as those who believe Firefox was simply trying to increase its version number to compare with other browsers such as Google <P> 10 along with OS X 10.9 Mavericks in October 2013. This version has lost Magic GarageBand and the podcast functionality. Apple updated GarageBand 10 for Mac on March 20, 2014. Version 10.0.2 adds the ability to export tracks in MP3 format as well as a new drummer module, but removed support for podcasting; users with podcast files created in GarageBand 6 can continue to edit them using the older version. GarageBand was updated to version 10.0.3 on October 16, 2014. This version included myriad bug fixes and several new features including a dedicated Bass Amp Designer, the introduction of global track effects <P> pricing and DRM changes to the iTunes Store. <P> Splice (platform) Splice The site and the Mac application were launched in private beta in October 2013. A Windows version was released a few months later and the service became available to all in September 2014. Music projects created on musician computers get automatically backed up every time the producer makes a save. All audio file dependencies are also being backed up. A series of optimizations are implemented to optimize the process for speed and low resource usage. All saves are privately available to the creator via a timeline representation online. At any moment in time, producers can reload previously saved versions <P> timeline. IBM supports z/OS release coexistence and fallback on an "N+2" basis. For example, IBM customers running Release 9 can upgrade directly to Release 11 or Release 10, and both releases can operate concurrently within the same Sysplex (cluster) and without conflict using the same datasets, configurations, security profiles, etc. (coexistence), as long as so-called "toleration maintenance" is installed in the older release. If there is a problem with Release 11, the customer can return to Release 9 without experiencing dataset, configuration, or security profile compatibility problems (fallback) until ready to try moving forward again. z/OS customers using Parallel Sysplex (clustering) <P> implementations with no modification. Because of that, Next3, like ext3, lacks a number of features of more recent designs, such as extents. Performance When there are no snapshots, Next3 performance is equivalent to ext3 performance. With snapshots, there is a minor overhead per write of metadata block (copy-on-write) and a smaller overhead (~1%) per write of data block (move-on-write). Next4 As of 2011, Next4, a project for porting of Next3 snapshot capabilities to the Ext4 file system, is mostly completed. The porting is attributed to members of the Pune Institute of Computer Technology (PICT) and the Chinese Academy of Sciences. <P> of Microsoft Word. Microsoft has also been the target of 'catch-up' versioning, with the Netscape browsers skipping version 5 to 6, in line with Microsoft's Internet Explorer, but also because the Mozilla application suite inherited version 5 in its user agent string during pre-1.0 development and Netscape 6.x was built upon Mozilla's code base. Another example of keeping up with competitors is when Slackware Linux jumped from version 4 to version 7 in 1999. Apple Apple has a particular form of version number skipping, in that it has leveraged its use of the Roman numeral X in its marketing across multiple product <P> Due to lack of time to devote to Ezycom's development, Peter handed over the development reins to Stephen Gibbs in 1997. The next official release of Ezycom was v2.00 in 2003, which included several Y2K bug fixes. Stephen has since done all Ezycom development. The latest release was v2.15g2, in May 2010. <P> a customised Reader Mode and Download History improvements. Version 8.2 was released in December 21, 2018, adding an improved Download Manager, an improved Reader Mode, bug fixes and stabilization, and quick access sync via Smart Switch. Version 9.2 was released in April 2, 2019, removing the "video assistant" extension that was added in previous versions as a "quick menu", adding a redesigned app icon, a further redesigned user interface and respective one-handedness, Smart Anti-Tracking, an option to turn on Save All Images, as well as bug fixes and stabilization. Version 9.2.10.15 was released in May 19, 2019, adding a +10 and -10 sec <P> unscheduled work as production defects distract the team from further progress. As the system evolves it is important to refactor as entropy of the system naturally increases. Over time the lack of constant maintenance causes increasing defects and development costs. Attempting to take on too much in an iteration A common misconception is that agile software development allows continuous change, however an iteration backlog is an agreement of what work can be completed during an iteration. Having too much work-in-progress (WIP) results in inefficiencies such as context-switching and queueing. The team must avoid feeling pressured into taking on additional work. Fixed <P> with slow and buggy software or to pay hundreds of dollars on a new iPhone. On June 13, 2016, Apple announced that the iPhone 4S will not support iOS 10 due to hardware limitations. In January 2018, Apple suddenly started firmware signing for iOS 6.1.3 on the iPad 2 and iPhone 4S, allowing users to downgrade these devices to iOS 6.1.3. iOS 8 is available as an over-the-air update on iOS 6, allowing users to update their devices to iOS 8.4.1. As of July 2019, this is still supported. On July 22, 2019 Apple released iOS 9.3.6 for the iPhone 4s, which makes <P> of the translucent style in later iOS models. Also, AirDrop, which was first released in iOS 7, was only supported by the iPad 4 or later. The iPad 2 can run iOS 8, which was released on September 17, 2014, making it the first iOS device to run five major versions of iOS (including iOS 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8). While the OS runs on the device, most of its new features do not work because of relatively aged hardware and therefore, its performance is limited. Users have also reported numerous problems after receiving the update including the accessibility features <P> as Microsoft, this policy is opposed to the full disclosure principle favored by some security researchers. As of June 2005, Secunia had reported three unpatched vulnerabilities in Mozilla with the most serious one marked "less critical". Market adoption and project end From 1998 to 2004, the global usage share of Mozilla grew from a negligible amount to about 3%. Because of the Foundation's plan to switch development focus to standalone applications such as Firefox and Thunderbird, many new features and enhancements were not available for Mozilla. This, combined with the community marketing effort named "Spread Firefox", drew more and more users <P> with major changes between each update, new developer builds are usually available every week with small but sometimes significant features added between each update and new beta builds are usually available every Wednesdays and usually only contain small fixes and optimizations. Beta builds are only available to some beta testers selected on MIUI's community forums. To update between versions, users usually use an over-the-air updater application. <P> examining the Changelog, if any, may reveal only superficial or irrelevant changes). This is one reason for some of the distaste expressed in the "drop the major release" approach taken by Asterisk et alia: now, staff must (or at least should) do a full regression test for every update. Version numbers for files and documents Some computer file systems, such as the OpenVMS Filesystem, also keep versions for files. Versioning amongst documents is relatively similar to the routine used with computers and software engineering, where with each small change in the structure, contents, or conditions, the version number is incremented by <P> additional improvements. <P> and stability level. The Stable channel updated roughly quarterly, with features and fixes that passed "thorough" testing in the Beta channel. Beta updated roughly monthly, with "stable and complete" features migrated from the Developer channel. The Developer channel updated once or twice per week and was where ideas and features were first publicly exposed "(and sometimes fail) and can be very unstable at times". [Quoted remarks from Google's policy announcements.] On July 22, 2010, Google announced it would ramp up the speed at which it releases new stable versions; the release cycles were shortened from quarterly to six weeks for <P> firmware V51.1.002 fixes most of the bugs and the issues, the phone feels much more stable than before. The browser has also been updated to version 7.3 adding tabbed browsing, limited HTML5 and Microsoft Silverlight support and a refreshed UI. The swipe-to-unlock feature has also been added. <P> stability improvements. Alongside the new iOS 6, Apple updated GarageBand to 1.3 on September 19, 2012. The update added the ability to import music from one's music library, ringtone creation, the ability to use the app in the background, and minor bug fixes. GarageBand was updated to 1.4 on March 20, 2013. The update added support for Audiobus, the ability to remove grid snapping, and minor bug fixes. GarageBand received an overhaul of design coinciding with the reveal of the iPad Air on October 22, 2013. GarageBand 2.0 features a new design to match iOS 7, an extended number of tracks per song, <P> Vulkano device included an electronic program guide (EPG) enabled software player. As of late 2018, software downloads were no longer available from Monsoon's defunct website. Vulkano players With the release of the Vulkano in August 2010, Monsoon introduced free Vulkano players for the iPad and iPhone, which only support WiFi, and not yet 3G connections. Monsoon also released an Android and BlackBerry player, and planned a future release for Symbian. As of late 2018, iPad and iPhone player software was no longer available for download on Apple's iTunes App Store. HAVA players Monsoon Multimedia announced support for Windows Mobile in May 2007	answer: _URL_0_they're only occuring every month or so. As for the 8 hrs thing, you'll probably find that the software is designed so that its not modular, hence you have to get the whole thing, including quicktime.imo block it with firewall, and stop the updater using msconfig. google is your friend
148,875	4tuony	Who do our eyes have to "lock" on something when we look?	You can have them move smoothly. This is called [smooth pursuit](_URL_1_). In fact, that is what you are doing when you keep your eyes focused on the tree while moving. This is important for tracking.In general, we typically make [saccades](_URL_0_) which are large jumps in where we are focusing. We make saccades for several reasons, one of the most important of which is to bring different parts of the scene into focus (we have the highest density of receptors and therefore the highest resolution in only a small part of the retina: the fovea). Furthermore, we want to be able to quickly change where we are looking instead of having to scan across the entire visual field, especially if there is some danger that we want to bring into focus.	[ "You can have them move smoothly. This is called [smooth pursuit](_URL_1_). In fact, that is what you are doing when you keep your eyes focused on the tree while moving. This is important for tracking.\n\nIn general, we typically make [saccades](_URL_0_) which are large jumps in where we are focusing. We make sacca...	1	[ "You can have them move smoothly. This is called [smooth pursuit](_URL_1_). In fact, that is what you are doing when you keep your eyes focused on the tree while moving. This is important for tracking.\n\nIn general, we typically make [saccades](_URL_0_) which are large jumps in where we are focusing. We make sacca...	1	<P> and eye-opening. <P> the lingual gyrus below the calcarine fissure in the occipital lobe, and fibers carrying information from the contralateral inferior visual field terminate more superiorly, to the cuneus. Function The optic nerve transmits all visual information including brightness perception, color perception and contrast (visual acuity). It also conducts the visual impulses that are responsible for two important neurological reflexes: the light reflex and the accommodation reflex. The light reflex refers to the constriction of both pupils that occurs when light is shone into either eye. The accommodation reflex refers to the swelling of the lens of eye <P> the iris sphincter muscle, which is responsible for miosis or constriction of the pupil (in response to light or accommodation). There are two motors that are part of the oculomotor nerve known as the somatic motor and visceral motor. The somatic motor is responsible for moving the eye in precise motions and for keeping the eye fixated on an object. The visceral motor helps constrict the pupil. The parasympathetic aspect of the facial nerve controls secretion of the sublingual and submandibular salivary glands, the lacrimal gland, and the glands associated with the nasal cavity. The preganglionic fibers originate within the CNS <P> the right image and your right eye focused on the left image. <P> Trāṭaka Trataka (Sanskrit n. त्राटक Trāṭaka: "to look, or to gaze") is a yogic purification (a shatkarma) and a tantric method of meditation that involves staring at a single point such as a small object, black dot or candle flame. It is said to bring energy to the "third eye" (ājňā chakra) and promote various psychic abilities. Purpose By fixing the gaze the restless mind too comes to a halt. It is said also that control of the ciliary (blink) reflex stimulates the pineal gland, which Kundalini Yoga identify with the third eye. Trāṭaka is said to enhance the ability <P> (1963), which is regarded as a correction of I Can See the Whole Room! with its glaring and aggressive binocularity. The monocularity of I Can See the Whole Room! should be viewed as a concentrated form of monocularity, such as "the common experience of closing one eye in order to fix an object in the gaze", but a subordinated form of monocularity that is enhanced by technology. <P> to concentrate. It increases the power of memory and brings the mind to a state of awareness, attention and focus. Description The practitioner may fix attention on a symbol or yantra, such as the Om symbol, a black dot, the image of some deity or guru, a flame, a mirror or any point, and stare at it. A candle should be three to four feet (1 metre plus) away, the flame level with the eyes. Relax but keep the spine erect and remain wakeful and vigilant. The eyes begin to water. Some authorities recommend that the eyes should then be <P> Oculo-auricular phenomenon The oculo-auricular phenomenon, first described by Kinnier Wilson in 1908, is the phenomenon of an extreme lateral gaze inducing a slight but perceptible backwards movement of the upper part of the pinna. Wilson's phenomenon attracted considerable attention at the time because Wilson was well known and for its implications of Darwin's theory of natural selection. According to (Urban 1993), "In patients with brainstem disease abnormal transverse auricular muscle coactivation is characterized by absence of activity in one or both ear muscles during lateral gaze in either or both directions." <P> eye. <P> while the orientation of the other eye deviates slightly or more. Eye aversion and mental processing In one study conducted by British psychologists from the University of Stirling among 20 British children at the age five, researchers concluded that among the children in the study, the children who avoid eye contact while considering their responses to questions are more likely to answer correctly than children who maintain eye contact. While humans obtain useful information from looking at the face when listening to someone, the process of looking at faces is mentally demanding and takes processing. Therefore, it may be unhelpful <P> stimuli in the environment. Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in posterior cortical areas. Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices. The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this <P> the action of its muscle, the superior oblique. When acting on its own this muscle depresses and abducts the eyeball. However, movements of the eye by the extraocular muscles are synergistic (working together). Therefore, the trochlear nerve is tested by asking the patient to look 'down and in' as the contribution of the superior oblique is greatest in this motion. Common activities requiring this type of convergent gaze are reading the newspaper and walking down stairs. Diplopia associated with these activities may be the initial symptom of a fourth nerve palsy. Alfred Bielschowsky's head tilt test is a test for palsy <P> affects the contralateral eye. The nuclei of other cranial nerves generally affect ipsilateral structures (for example, the optic nerves - cranial nerves II - innervate both eyes). The trochlear nucleus and its axons within the brainstem can be damaged by infarctions, hemorrhage, arteriovenous malformations, tumors and demyelination. Collateral damage to other structures will usually dominate the clinical picture. The fourth nerve is one of the final common pathways for cortical systems that control eye movement in general. Cortical control of eye movement (saccades, smooth pursuit, accommodation) involves conjugate gaze, not unilateral eye movement. Examination The trochlear nerve is tested by examining <P> each condition. For example, migraine sufferers often report fortification illusions. Neuroscience Perception is linked to specific brain activity and so can be elicited by brain stimulation. The (illusory) percepts that can be evoked range from simple phosphenes (detections of lights in the visual field) to high-level percepts. In a single-case study on a patient undergoing presurgical evaluation for epilepsy treatment, electrical stimulation at the left temporo-parietal junction evoked the percept of a nearby (illusory) person who "closely 'shadowed' changes in the patient's body position and posture". <P> and vision ….. with a balanced tranquillity.” <P> twist (see below). A number of alternative proposals have been published earlier, the most popular of which is the visual map theory. Visual map theory by Cajal The visual map theory was published by the famous neuroscientist and pioneer Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1898), see also and for English summaries. According to this theory, the function of the optic chiasm is to repair the retinal field image on the visual cortex. The pupil in the vertebrates’ eyes inverts the image on the retina, so that the visual periphery projects to the medial side of the retina. By the <P> Corticomesencephalic tract Structure The corticomesencephalic tract originates from the frontal eye field in the caudal part of the middle frontal gyrus and the inferior frontal gyrus (Brodmann's area 8). It runs rostral to the pyramidal tract in the posterior limb of the internal capsule. Then, it courses posteriorly toward the nuclei of the oculomotor nerve (III), trochlear nerve (IV) and abducens nerve (VI), the three cranial nerves that mediate eye movements. At the level of the caudal midbrain, corticomesencephalic fibers descend through the tegmentum in the medial lemniscus toward the oculomotor (III) and the trochlear (IV) nuclei on the contralateral <P> connect to the pretectal nucleus of the high midbrain, bypassing the lateral geniculate nucleus and the primary visual cortex. From the pretectal nucleus neurons send axons to neurons of the Edinger-Westphal nucleus whose visceromotor axons run along both the left and right oculomotor nerves. Visceromotor nerve axons (which constitute a portion of cranial nerve III, along with the somatomotor portion derived from the Edinger-Westphal nucleus) synapse on ciliary ganglion neurons, whose parasympathetic axons innervate the iris sphincter muscle, producing miosis. <P> to look at faces when trying to concentrate and process something else that is mentally demanding. Contrary to this, Doherty-Sneddon suggests that a blank stare indicates a lack of understanding. Cultural differences In many cultures, such as in East Asia and Nigeria, it is respectful not to look the dominant person in the eye, but in Western culture this can be interpreted as being "shifty-eyed", and the person judged badly because "he wouldn't look me in the eye"; references such as "shifty-eyed" can refer to suspicions regarding an individual's unrevealed intentions or thoughts. Nevertheless, the seeking of constant unbroken eye <P> to the multiple motor cortices suggested that the thalamus fulfills a key function in providing the specific channels from the basal ganglia and cerebellum to the cortical motor areas. In an investigation of the saccade and antisaccade motor response in three monkeys, the thalamic regions were found to be involved in the generation of antisaccade eye-movement (that is, the ability to inhibit the reflexive jerking movement of the eyes in the direction of a presented stimulus]. Recent research suggests that the mediodorsal thalamus may play a broader role in cognition. Specifically, the mediodorsal thalamus may "amplify the connectivity (signaling strength) of	question: Who do our eyes have to "lock" on something when we look? context: <P> and eye-opening. <P> the lingual gyrus below the calcarine fissure in the occipital lobe, and fibers carrying information from the contralateral inferior visual field terminate more superiorly, to the cuneus. Function The optic nerve transmits all visual information including brightness perception, color perception and contrast (visual acuity). It also conducts the visual impulses that are responsible for two important neurological reflexes: the light reflex and the accommodation reflex. The light reflex refers to the constriction of both pupils that occurs when light is shone into either eye. The accommodation reflex refers to the swelling of the lens of eye <P> the iris sphincter muscle, which is responsible for miosis or constriction of the pupil (in response to light or accommodation). There are two motors that are part of the oculomotor nerve known as the somatic motor and visceral motor. The somatic motor is responsible for moving the eye in precise motions and for keeping the eye fixated on an object. The visceral motor helps constrict the pupil. The parasympathetic aspect of the facial nerve controls secretion of the sublingual and submandibular salivary glands, the lacrimal gland, and the glands associated with the nasal cavity. The preganglionic fibers originate within the CNS <P> the right image and your right eye focused on the left image. <P> Trāṭaka Trataka (Sanskrit n. त्राटक Trāṭaka: "to look, or to gaze") is a yogic purification (a shatkarma) and a tantric method of meditation that involves staring at a single point such as a small object, black dot or candle flame. It is said to bring energy to the "third eye" (ājňā chakra) and promote various psychic abilities. Purpose By fixing the gaze the restless mind too comes to a halt. It is said also that control of the ciliary (blink) reflex stimulates the pineal gland, which Kundalini Yoga identify with the third eye. Trāṭaka is said to enhance the ability <P> (1963), which is regarded as a correction of I Can See the Whole Room! with its glaring and aggressive binocularity. The monocularity of I Can See the Whole Room! should be viewed as a concentrated form of monocularity, such as "the common experience of closing one eye in order to fix an object in the gaze", but a subordinated form of monocularity that is enhanced by technology. <P> to concentrate. It increases the power of memory and brings the mind to a state of awareness, attention and focus. Description The practitioner may fix attention on a symbol or yantra, such as the Om symbol, a black dot, the image of some deity or guru, a flame, a mirror or any point, and stare at it. A candle should be three to four feet (1 metre plus) away, the flame level with the eyes. Relax but keep the spine erect and remain wakeful and vigilant. The eyes begin to water. Some authorities recommend that the eyes should then be <P> Oculo-auricular phenomenon The oculo-auricular phenomenon, first described by Kinnier Wilson in 1908, is the phenomenon of an extreme lateral gaze inducing a slight but perceptible backwards movement of the upper part of the pinna. Wilson's phenomenon attracted considerable attention at the time because Wilson was well known and for its implications of Darwin's theory of natural selection. According to (Urban 1993), "In patients with brainstem disease abnormal transverse auricular muscle coactivation is characterized by absence of activity in one or both ear muscles during lateral gaze in either or both directions." <P> eye. <P> while the orientation of the other eye deviates slightly or more. Eye aversion and mental processing In one study conducted by British psychologists from the University of Stirling among 20 British children at the age five, researchers concluded that among the children in the study, the children who avoid eye contact while considering their responses to questions are more likely to answer correctly than children who maintain eye contact. While humans obtain useful information from looking at the face when listening to someone, the process of looking at faces is mentally demanding and takes processing. Therefore, it may be unhelpful <P> stimuli in the environment. Such control enables people to attend to information important for their current goals, and to ignore goal-irrelevant stimuli that tend to capture their attention due to their sensory saliency (such as an ambulance siren). The direction of attention according to one's goals is assumed to rely on "top-down" signals from the pre-frontal cortex (PFC) that biases processing in posterior cortical areas. Capture of attention by salient stimuli is assumed to be driven by "bottom-up" signals from subcortical structures and the primary sensory cortices. The ability to override "bottom-up" capture of attention differs between individuals, and this <P> the action of its muscle, the superior oblique. When acting on its own this muscle depresses and abducts the eyeball. However, movements of the eye by the extraocular muscles are synergistic (working together). Therefore, the trochlear nerve is tested by asking the patient to look 'down and in' as the contribution of the superior oblique is greatest in this motion. Common activities requiring this type of convergent gaze are reading the newspaper and walking down stairs. Diplopia associated with these activities may be the initial symptom of a fourth nerve palsy. Alfred Bielschowsky's head tilt test is a test for palsy <P> affects the contralateral eye. The nuclei of other cranial nerves generally affect ipsilateral structures (for example, the optic nerves - cranial nerves II - innervate both eyes). The trochlear nucleus and its axons within the brainstem can be damaged by infarctions, hemorrhage, arteriovenous malformations, tumors and demyelination. Collateral damage to other structures will usually dominate the clinical picture. The fourth nerve is one of the final common pathways for cortical systems that control eye movement in general. Cortical control of eye movement (saccades, smooth pursuit, accommodation) involves conjugate gaze, not unilateral eye movement. Examination The trochlear nerve is tested by examining <P> each condition. For example, migraine sufferers often report fortification illusions. Neuroscience Perception is linked to specific brain activity and so can be elicited by brain stimulation. The (illusory) percepts that can be evoked range from simple phosphenes (detections of lights in the visual field) to high-level percepts. In a single-case study on a patient undergoing presurgical evaluation for epilepsy treatment, electrical stimulation at the left temporo-parietal junction evoked the percept of a nearby (illusory) person who "closely 'shadowed' changes in the patient's body position and posture". <P> and vision ….. with a balanced tranquillity.” <P> twist (see below). A number of alternative proposals have been published earlier, the most popular of which is the visual map theory. Visual map theory by Cajal The visual map theory was published by the famous neuroscientist and pioneer Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1898), see also and for English summaries. According to this theory, the function of the optic chiasm is to repair the retinal field image on the visual cortex. The pupil in the vertebrates’ eyes inverts the image on the retina, so that the visual periphery projects to the medial side of the retina. By the <P> Corticomesencephalic tract Structure The corticomesencephalic tract originates from the frontal eye field in the caudal part of the middle frontal gyrus and the inferior frontal gyrus (Brodmann's area 8). It runs rostral to the pyramidal tract in the posterior limb of the internal capsule. Then, it courses posteriorly toward the nuclei of the oculomotor nerve (III), trochlear nerve (IV) and abducens nerve (VI), the three cranial nerves that mediate eye movements. At the level of the caudal midbrain, corticomesencephalic fibers descend through the tegmentum in the medial lemniscus toward the oculomotor (III) and the trochlear (IV) nuclei on the contralateral <P> connect to the pretectal nucleus of the high midbrain, bypassing the lateral geniculate nucleus and the primary visual cortex. From the pretectal nucleus neurons send axons to neurons of the Edinger-Westphal nucleus whose visceromotor axons run along both the left and right oculomotor nerves. Visceromotor nerve axons (which constitute a portion of cranial nerve III, along with the somatomotor portion derived from the Edinger-Westphal nucleus) synapse on ciliary ganglion neurons, whose parasympathetic axons innervate the iris sphincter muscle, producing miosis. <P> to look at faces when trying to concentrate and process something else that is mentally demanding. Contrary to this, Doherty-Sneddon suggests that a blank stare indicates a lack of understanding. Cultural differences In many cultures, such as in East Asia and Nigeria, it is respectful not to look the dominant person in the eye, but in Western culture this can be interpreted as being "shifty-eyed", and the person judged badly because "he wouldn't look me in the eye"; references such as "shifty-eyed" can refer to suspicions regarding an individual's unrevealed intentions or thoughts. Nevertheless, the seeking of constant unbroken eye <P> to the multiple motor cortices suggested that the thalamus fulfills a key function in providing the specific channels from the basal ganglia and cerebellum to the cortical motor areas. In an investigation of the saccade and antisaccade motor response in three monkeys, the thalamic regions were found to be involved in the generation of antisaccade eye-movement (that is, the ability to inhibit the reflexive jerking movement of the eyes in the direction of a presented stimulus]. Recent research suggests that the mediodorsal thalamus may play a broader role in cognition. Specifically, the mediodorsal thalamus may "amplify the connectivity (signaling strength) of	answer: You can have them move smoothly. This is called [smooth pursuit](_URL_1_). In fact, that is what you are doing when you keep your eyes focused on the tree while moving. This is important for tracking.In general, we typically make [saccades](_URL_0_) which are large jumps in where we are focusing. We make saccades for several reasons, one of the most important of which is to bring different parts of the scene into focus (we have the highest density of receptors and therefore the highest resolution in only a small part of the retina: the fovea). Furthermore, we want to be able to quickly change where we are looking instead of having to scan across the entire visual field, especially if there is some danger that we want to bring into focus.
215,018	2uf1hk	why to the label wood 2"x4"/ 2"x6" / 2"x8" etc when the true measurements are irregular and actually 1.75"x3.5" and so on	That is the original dimensions of the rough cut lumber. Older houses actually have 2" x 4" 2x4s but later they began to plane 1/4" off each side for nicer wood, as a result, everything is 1/2" smaller then what we call it.	[ "That is the original dimensions of the rough cut lumber. Older houses actually have 2\" x 4\" 2x4s but later they began to plane 1/4\" off each side for nicer wood, as a result, everything is 1/2\" smaller then what we call it.", "It's actually 1 1/2\" x 3 1/2\".\n\nThe explanation saying the wood shrinks as it ...	4	[ "That is the original dimensions of the rough cut lumber. Older houses actually have 2\" x 4\" 2x4s but later they began to plane 1/4\" off each side for nicer wood, as a result, everything is 1/2\" smaller then what we call it.", "It's actually 1 1/2\" x 3 1/2\".\n\nThe explanation saying the wood shrinks as it ...	3	<P> assigns lower numbers to thicker middles. 00 gauge is 9.246 millimetres (0.3640 in), while 20 gauge is 0.813 millimetres (0.0320 in). For discussion of gauges, see: "Body jewelry sizes." <P> wrenches also offer a higher number of engagement points over 6-point. However, 12-point wrenches have been known to round off 6-point bolts as they provide less contact space. Size designations Size is usually designated by dimensions such as across-flats distance (inscribed-hexagon size). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, it had been common to define the nominal size of the wrench according to the nominal size of the screw thread that it was meant to be used with. Modern practice uses a size designation based on across-flats distance, whether measured in metric or in inch units. <P> tenons were typically two inches wide and two inches from the edge of the timber when working with softwoods, giving rise to the width of the blade. Likewise, mortises and tenons were traditionally one and a half inches wide when working in hardwoods, explaining the width of the tongue. This allowed for quick layouts of mortise and tenon joints when working both hard and softwoods. Octagon scale The octagon scale allows the user to inscribe an octagon inside a square, given the length of the side of the square. The markings indicate half the length of the octagon's <P> needed for engineering purposes. Using the principles of Edmund Gunter's (1581–1626) logarithmic scales and William Oughtred's (1574–1660) sliding rule, Routledge combined a 12-inch brass slide containing the logarithmic scales with an ordinary 2-foot ruler to which he added a table of commonly used references called gauge points. This rule became known as the Routledge Engineer's Rule. According to a handwritten, unsigned document on file at Bolton Archives (Lancashire) Routledge acquired a patent for his improved slide rule in 1813 but, to date, no record of this has been traced. It is certain that, in 1805, he published the first known Instructions <P> that were commonly used in the printing press, which ranged from the Parisienne (the smallest size, which the exception of the Perle, which was rarely used) to the Grosse nonpareille (Great nonpareil, the largest size). However, Fournier's prototype presented a major disadvantage, because its system of measures was very difficult to compare with the royal inches (pouces de roi) that were commonly used in France at the time. For this reason, French printer François-Ambroise Didot (1730–1804) created a simplified system, which he called typometer, and that he based on the pied du roi. This invention was first described in the book <P> form only 16 per cent of the length. <P> the Stones in the Load is Eight Times Twenty and Fifteen, and it is proved by Six Times Thirty which is Nine Times Twenty. But of every Fotmal there are abated Two Pound in the foresaid Multiplication, which are Sixty, which make Five Stone. And so there are in the Load Eight Times Twenty and Fifteen as is aforesaid." - Tractatus de Ponderibus et Mensuris Straw load The load of hay or straw was 36 trusses or 1,296 pounds (now about 588 kg). Wood load The American load of stacked firewood varied. A load of unhewn wood came to 1 ²⁄₃ cord-feet <P> Scottish Proverbs, 1721, includes: "No Rule so good as Rule of Thumb, if it hit", meaning a practical approximation. Historically, the width of the thumb, or "thumb's breadth", was used as the equivalent of an inch in the cloth trade; similar expressions existed in Latin and French as well. The thumb has also been used in brewing beer, to gauge the heat of the brewing vat. Ebenezer Cobham Brewer writes that rule of thumb means a "rough measurement". He says that "Ladies often measure yard lengths by their thumb. Indeed, the expression 'sixteen nails make a yard' seems to point to <P> through a planner and the 8" or 10" wood 7 5/8 or 9 5/8" in width. Rutstein, who was influential over large lumber fields and mills, was able to convince others in the industry to instead cut the beams 2 ¾’ or 11/4 inches thick saving the ¼ thereby increasing efficiency by eight percent. By 1930, Rutstien was able to convince mills in the West Coast to adopt the standard and it was called colloquially as 'Jew Plank.' According to Jim Denison, in his history of the lumber industry, Rutstein "wanted this low-grade lumber to use for shoring for five <P> a size 12 of another type. Where a packet contains a needle count followed by two size numbers such as "20 Sharps 5/10" the second set of numbers correspond to the range of sizes of needle within the packet, in this case typically ten sharps needles of size 5 and ten of size 10 (for a total of 20 needles). As another example, a packet labeled "16 Milliners 3/9" would contain 16 milliners needles ranging in sizes from 3 to 9. Prehistoric sewing needles The first form of sewing was probably tying together animal skins using thorns and sharpened <P> inches <P> of 36, corresponding to the smallest size of 0.004 inches (0.10 mm). Size steps between gauges range from 0.001 inches (0.025 mm) between high gauge numbers to 0.046 inches (1.2 mm) between the two lowest gauge numbers and do not correspond to a particular mathematical pattern, although for the most part the steps get smaller with increasing gauge number. Concerning wire and fine tubing, the gauge number is used to specify the outside diameter of the product, whereas for larger mechanical tubing the gauge number specifies the wall thickness independent of the overall size of the tube. In medicine, the Birmingham gauge specifies <P> of 120:60:620 or ratio-wise 2:1:remaining. <P> below: 1 Cordele = ¹⁄₃₂₄ Caballeria 1 Fanega = ¹⁄₁₂ Caballeria Capacity Several units were used to measure area. As in 1920s, one bocoy was equal to 136.27 l. One barrile was equal to 1/6 bocoy. One arroba (liquid measure) was equal to 4.263 gallons. One fanega (dry measure), which was rarely used, was equal to 1.599 bushels, and one fanega (liquid measure) was equal to 16 gallons. <P> give 40x300 = 12,000 yards per pound. This is a specific length therefore an indirect measurement of the fineness of the linen, i.e., the number of length units per unit mass. The symbol is NeL.(3) The metric unit, Nm, is more commonly used in continental Europe. This is the number of 1,000 m lengths per kilogram. In China, the English Cotton system unit, NeC, is common. This is the number of 840 yard lengths in a pound. Production method The quality of the finished linen product is often dependent upon growing conditions and harvesting techniques. To generate the longest possible fibers, flax is <P> 1:600, 1:500, 1:300, 1:250, and 1:48. A variety of odd scales (e.g. 1:239) are also available, but less common. Scales are not usually random, but are based upon simple divisions of either the Imperial system, or the Metric system. For example, 1:48 scale is 1/4" to 1-foot (or 1" to 4 feet) and 1:72 is 1" to 6 feet, while metric scales are simpler, such as 1:100th, which equals 1 centimeter to 1 meter. 1:72 scale was first introduced in the Skybirds wood and metal model aircraft kits in 1932. Skybirds was followed closely by Frog which produced 1:72 scale aircraft in 1936 <P> other factors, the numbers of sounding partials or fingering distances on the string. Such notations have been developed in recent studies by C.J.Walter and J.Vesikkala. <P> or 26 ²⁄₃ cubic feet (now about 0.75 m³), while a load of hewn wood came to 1 ²³⁄₄₀ cord-feet or 43 cubic feet (now about 1.2 m³). Wool load The load of wool was 12 wey or 108.13 sacks (now about 1372 kg). <P> beech and hazel the angle is 1/3, in oak and apricot it is 2/5, in sunflowers, poplar, and pear, it is 3/8, and in willow and almond the angle is 5/13. The numerator and denominator normally consist of a Fibonacci number and its second successor. The number of leaves is sometimes called rank, in the case of simple Fibonacci ratios, because the leaves line up in vertical rows. With larger Fibonacci pairs, the pattern becomes complex and non-repeating. This tends to occur with a basal configuration. Examples can be found in composite flowers and seed heads. The <P> of the Assize of Weights and Measures c. 1300. This wey was applied to lead, soap, and cheese as well as wool. 2 wey made a sack, 12 a load, and 24 a last. The wool wey was later figured as 2 hundredweight of 8 stone of 14 avoirdupois pounds each (224 lbs. or about 101.7 kg). The Suffolk wey was 356 avoirdupois pounds (around 161.5 kg). It was used as a measure for butter and cheese. Volume As a measure of volume for dry commodities, it denoted roughly 40 bushels or 320 gallons.	question: why to the label wood 2"x4"/ 2"x6" / 2"x8" etc when the true measurements are irregular and actually 1.75"x3.5" and so on context: <P> assigns lower numbers to thicker middles. 00 gauge is 9.246 millimetres (0.3640 in), while 20 gauge is 0.813 millimetres (0.0320 in). For discussion of gauges, see: "Body jewelry sizes." <P> wrenches also offer a higher number of engagement points over 6-point. However, 12-point wrenches have been known to round off 6-point bolts as they provide less contact space. Size designations Size is usually designated by dimensions such as across-flats distance (inscribed-hexagon size). In the 19th and early 20th centuries, it had been common to define the nominal size of the wrench according to the nominal size of the screw thread that it was meant to be used with. Modern practice uses a size designation based on across-flats distance, whether measured in metric or in inch units. <P> tenons were typically two inches wide and two inches from the edge of the timber when working with softwoods, giving rise to the width of the blade. Likewise, mortises and tenons were traditionally one and a half inches wide when working in hardwoods, explaining the width of the tongue. This allowed for quick layouts of mortise and tenon joints when working both hard and softwoods. Octagon scale The octagon scale allows the user to inscribe an octagon inside a square, given the length of the side of the square. The markings indicate half the length of the octagon's <P> needed for engineering purposes. Using the principles of Edmund Gunter's (1581–1626) logarithmic scales and William Oughtred's (1574–1660) sliding rule, Routledge combined a 12-inch brass slide containing the logarithmic scales with an ordinary 2-foot ruler to which he added a table of commonly used references called gauge points. This rule became known as the Routledge Engineer's Rule. According to a handwritten, unsigned document on file at Bolton Archives (Lancashire) Routledge acquired a patent for his improved slide rule in 1813 but, to date, no record of this has been traced. It is certain that, in 1805, he published the first known Instructions <P> that were commonly used in the printing press, which ranged from the Parisienne (the smallest size, which the exception of the Perle, which was rarely used) to the Grosse nonpareille (Great nonpareil, the largest size). However, Fournier's prototype presented a major disadvantage, because its system of measures was very difficult to compare with the royal inches (pouces de roi) that were commonly used in France at the time. For this reason, French printer François-Ambroise Didot (1730–1804) created a simplified system, which he called typometer, and that he based on the pied du roi. This invention was first described in the book <P> form only 16 per cent of the length. <P> the Stones in the Load is Eight Times Twenty and Fifteen, and it is proved by Six Times Thirty which is Nine Times Twenty. But of every Fotmal there are abated Two Pound in the foresaid Multiplication, which are Sixty, which make Five Stone. And so there are in the Load Eight Times Twenty and Fifteen as is aforesaid." - Tractatus de Ponderibus et Mensuris Straw load The load of hay or straw was 36 trusses or 1,296 pounds (now about 588 kg). Wood load The American load of stacked firewood varied. A load of unhewn wood came to 1 ²⁄₃ cord-feet <P> Scottish Proverbs, 1721, includes: "No Rule so good as Rule of Thumb, if it hit", meaning a practical approximation. Historically, the width of the thumb, or "thumb's breadth", was used as the equivalent of an inch in the cloth trade; similar expressions existed in Latin and French as well. The thumb has also been used in brewing beer, to gauge the heat of the brewing vat. Ebenezer Cobham Brewer writes that rule of thumb means a "rough measurement". He says that "Ladies often measure yard lengths by their thumb. Indeed, the expression 'sixteen nails make a yard' seems to point to <P> through a planner and the 8" or 10" wood 7 5/8 or 9 5/8" in width. Rutstein, who was influential over large lumber fields and mills, was able to convince others in the industry to instead cut the beams 2 ¾’ or 11/4 inches thick saving the ¼ thereby increasing efficiency by eight percent. By 1930, Rutstien was able to convince mills in the West Coast to adopt the standard and it was called colloquially as 'Jew Plank.' According to Jim Denison, in his history of the lumber industry, Rutstein "wanted this low-grade lumber to use for shoring for five <P> a size 12 of another type. Where a packet contains a needle count followed by two size numbers such as "20 Sharps 5/10" the second set of numbers correspond to the range of sizes of needle within the packet, in this case typically ten sharps needles of size 5 and ten of size 10 (for a total of 20 needles). As another example, a packet labeled "16 Milliners 3/9" would contain 16 milliners needles ranging in sizes from 3 to 9. Prehistoric sewing needles The first form of sewing was probably tying together animal skins using thorns and sharpened <P> inches <P> of 36, corresponding to the smallest size of 0.004 inches (0.10 mm). Size steps between gauges range from 0.001 inches (0.025 mm) between high gauge numbers to 0.046 inches (1.2 mm) between the two lowest gauge numbers and do not correspond to a particular mathematical pattern, although for the most part the steps get smaller with increasing gauge number. Concerning wire and fine tubing, the gauge number is used to specify the outside diameter of the product, whereas for larger mechanical tubing the gauge number specifies the wall thickness independent of the overall size of the tube. In medicine, the Birmingham gauge specifies <P> of 120:60:620 or ratio-wise 2:1:remaining. <P> below: 1 Cordele = ¹⁄₃₂₄ Caballeria 1 Fanega = ¹⁄₁₂ Caballeria Capacity Several units were used to measure area. As in 1920s, one bocoy was equal to 136.27 l. One barrile was equal to 1/6 bocoy. One arroba (liquid measure) was equal to 4.263 gallons. One fanega (dry measure), which was rarely used, was equal to 1.599 bushels, and one fanega (liquid measure) was equal to 16 gallons. <P> give 40x300 = 12,000 yards per pound. This is a specific length therefore an indirect measurement of the fineness of the linen, i.e., the number of length units per unit mass. The symbol is NeL.(3) The metric unit, Nm, is more commonly used in continental Europe. This is the number of 1,000 m lengths per kilogram. In China, the English Cotton system unit, NeC, is common. This is the number of 840 yard lengths in a pound. Production method The quality of the finished linen product is often dependent upon growing conditions and harvesting techniques. To generate the longest possible fibers, flax is <P> 1:600, 1:500, 1:300, 1:250, and 1:48. A variety of odd scales (e.g. 1:239) are also available, but less common. Scales are not usually random, but are based upon simple divisions of either the Imperial system, or the Metric system. For example, 1:48 scale is 1/4" to 1-foot (or 1" to 4 feet) and 1:72 is 1" to 6 feet, while metric scales are simpler, such as 1:100th, which equals 1 centimeter to 1 meter. 1:72 scale was first introduced in the Skybirds wood and metal model aircraft kits in 1932. Skybirds was followed closely by Frog which produced 1:72 scale aircraft in 1936 <P> other factors, the numbers of sounding partials or fingering distances on the string. Such notations have been developed in recent studies by C.J.Walter and J.Vesikkala. <P> or 26 ²⁄₃ cubic feet (now about 0.75 m³), while a load of hewn wood came to 1 ²³⁄₄₀ cord-feet or 43 cubic feet (now about 1.2 m³). Wool load The load of wool was 12 wey or 108.13 sacks (now about 1372 kg). <P> beech and hazel the angle is 1/3, in oak and apricot it is 2/5, in sunflowers, poplar, and pear, it is 3/8, and in willow and almond the angle is 5/13. The numerator and denominator normally consist of a Fibonacci number and its second successor. The number of leaves is sometimes called rank, in the case of simple Fibonacci ratios, because the leaves line up in vertical rows. With larger Fibonacci pairs, the pattern becomes complex and non-repeating. This tends to occur with a basal configuration. Examples can be found in composite flowers and seed heads. The <P> of the Assize of Weights and Measures c. 1300. This wey was applied to lead, soap, and cheese as well as wool. 2 wey made a sack, 12 a load, and 24 a last. The wool wey was later figured as 2 hundredweight of 8 stone of 14 avoirdupois pounds each (224 lbs. or about 101.7 kg). The Suffolk wey was 356 avoirdupois pounds (around 161.5 kg). It was used as a measure for butter and cheese. Volume As a measure of volume for dry commodities, it denoted roughly 40 bushels or 320 gallons.	answer: That is the original dimensions of the rough cut lumber. Older houses actually have 2" x 4" 2x4s but later they began to plane 1/4" off each side for nicer wood, as a result, everything is 1/2" smaller then what we call it.
83,273	27688d	Why does smoking cigarettes curb appetite?	Cigarettes contain nicotine which activates brain cells in the hypothalamus which is responsible for regulating appetite. It triggers hunger reducing pathways in the flight or fight area.More: _URL_0_	[ "Cigarettes contain nicotine which activates brain cells in the hypothalamus which is responsible for regulating appetite. It triggers hunger reducing pathways in the flight or fight area.\n\nMore: _URL_0_" ]	1	[ "Cigarettes contain nicotine which activates brain cells in the hypothalamus which is responsible for regulating appetite. It triggers hunger reducing pathways in the flight or fight area.\n\nMore: _URL_0_" ]	1	<P> centre of the brain and part of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, a key part of the body's stress response. Other brain regions regulated by retinoic acid and potentially disrupted by isotretinoin include the frontal cortex and the striatum. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics Oral Isotretinoin is best absorbed when taken with a high-fat meal, because it has a high level of lipophilicity. The efficacy of isotretinoin doubles when taken after a high-fat meal compared to when taken without food. Due to Isotretinoin's molecular relationship to Vitamin A, it should not be taken with Vitamin A supplements due to the danger of toxicity through <P> hunger signals and inhibits NPY-secreting neurons. <P> A number of studies in rats have shown that increasing the dynorphin levels stimulates eating. Opioid antagonists, such as naloxone, can reverse the effects of elevated dynorphin. This inhibition is especially strong in obese animals or animals that have access to particularly appealing food. Inui et al. found that administering dynorphin to dogs increased both their food and water intake. Dynorphin plays a role in the eating behavior of hibernating animals. Nizeilski et al. examined dynorphin levels in the ground squirrel, which undergoes periods of excessive eating and periods of starvation before winter. They found that dynorphin <P> these receptors may be involved in determining the hedonic value of food. In addition, CB1 facilitates ghrelin release, normally happening when the stomach is constricted In the presence of a relatively active system, overeating is promoted. This is the genesis of its appetite-stimulating effects, colloquially called "the munchies." Cardiovascular activity Cannabinoids are well known for their cardiovascular activity. Activation of peripheral CB1 receptors contributes to hemorrhagic and endotoxin-induced hypotension. Anandamide and 2-AG, produced by macrophages and platelets, respectively, may mediate this effect. A likely candidate for this function is the heterodimer of CB1 and adenosine 2a. Through an opposing mechanism <P> interactions with other smaller newt species is limited and allows for more resources and environment for T. carnifex. During times of stress, adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine are excreted from chromaffin cells located on the ventral surface of the adrenal glands. Generally these hormones are secreted from two types of chromaffin cells, but in T. carnifex they are only secreted from one type of chromaffin cell. The secretion of these hormones in T. carnifex is dependent on the temperature of the environment; in winter and summer more noradrenaline than adrenaline is present, but in spring and autumn the hormones appear in almost <P> stimulation of LXR nuclear receptors by cyclically produced oxysterols such that rhythmic cholesterol and bile acid metabolism is not just driven by alternating feeding-fasting cycles, but also by REV-ERBalpha, a component of the circadian clockwork circuitry. Silibinin inhibits adipocyte differentiation through a potential up-regulation of insig-1 and insig-2 at an early phase in adipocyte differentiation. The triacylglycerol reducing effect of fibrates and thiazolidinediones, strong and selective agonists of PPARalpha and PPARgamma, is partially caused by inhibition of SREBP-1 activation via up-regulation of Insig. Findings suggest that Insig2 is a novel colon cancer biomarker. Over-expression of Insig2 appeared to suppress chemotherapeutic drug treatment-induced Bcl2 <P> rapidly when given via the oral route and has a bioavailability of 60-65%. Bioavailability is markedly decreased when ingested with food. It is metabolized into an active metabolite (desmethylpimobendan) by the liver. The parent compound, pimobendan, is a potent calcium sensitizer while desmethylpimobendan is a more potent phosphodiesterase III inhibitor. The half-life of pimobendan in the blood is 0.4 hours, and the half-life of its metabolite is two hours. Elimination is by excretion in the bile and then feces. Pimobendan is 90–95% bound to plasma proteins in circulation. This may have implications in patients suffering from low blood protein levels <P> carnitine acyltransferase 1, thereby preventing fatty acid entry into the mitochondrial matrix for β oxidation. This inhibition prevents fatty acid breakdown while synthesis is happening. Activation Carnitine activation occurs due to a need for fatty acid oxidation which is required for energy production. During vigorous muscle contraction or during fasting, ATP concentration decrease and AMP concentration increase which leads to the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). AMPK phosphorylates acetyl-CoA carboxylase which catalyzes malonyl-CoA synthesis. This phosphorylation inhibits the acetyl-CoA carboxylase which in turn lowers the concentration of malonyl-CoA and as a result it relieves the inhibition of fatty acyl–carnitine <P> in reducing nicotine reward without precipitating symptoms of nicotine withdrawal. This suggestion was made on the basis of experiments in which intraperitoneal doses of ~4 mg/kg and 8 mg/kg of MLA significantly reduced nicotine self-administration in rats. Most recently, it has been suggested that MLA had potential in the treatment of cannabis dependence. However, this suggestion was apparently based only on work by Solinas et al. who showed that doses of 0.3-5.6 mg/kg, i.p., in rats, dose-dependently antagonized the discriminative-stimulus effects of 3 mg/kg THC. Given that the early Soviet work with "mellictine" indicated that as little as ~0.2-0.3 mg/kg, orally, in man (assuming a weight of <P> its effects through the agonism of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, resulting in multiple downstream effects such as increase in activity of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain reward system, as well as the decreased expression of monoamine oxidase in the brain. Nicotine is addictive and dependence forming. The most common source of nicotine, tobacco's, overall harm to user and self score as determined by a multi-criteria decision analysis was determined at 3 percent below cocaine, and 13 percent above amphetamines, ranking 6th most harmful of the 20 drugs assessed. Phenylpropanolamine Phenylpropanolamine (PPA; Accutrim; β-hydroxyamphetamine), also known as the stereoisomers norephedrine and <P> carnifex, and under these circumstances cutaneous respiration is the sole method of breathing. In periods of stress, catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine) are released into the circulatory system in an attempt to minimize the stress on the physiological systems. Multiple environmental factors influences the amount of noradrenaline and adrenaline that is secreted such as dehydration and hemorrhage that cause an increase in these substances. In T. carnifex, circulatory adrenaline and noradrenaline increase when forced to participate in activities, and the presence of fungicides into the circulatory system decreases catecholamine content. Conversely, acetylcholine elicits noradrenaline or adrenaline secretion in T. carnifex. In <P> biological stress on the organism, eliciting a defensive response that may help protect it against the disorders of aging. In other words, caloric restriction places the organism in a defensive state so that it can survive adversity. <P> neurons hyperpolarize in response to serotonin. Cannabinoids have an excitatory effect on MCH neurons. Some research has shown that dopamine has an inhibitory effect on MCH neurons, but further research is needed to fully characterize this interaction. Sleep MCH and the hormone orexin have an antagonistic relationship with one another with regards to the sleep cycle, with orexin being almost entirely active during wake periods and MCH being more active during sleep periods. MCH also promotes sleep, and within a sleep period increased levels of MCH seem to increase the amount of time spent in REM sleep and slow waves sleep. <P> human development of metabolic syndrome. The increase in adipose tissue also increases the number of immune cells present within, which play a role in inflammation. Chronic inflammation contributes to an increased risk of hypertension, atherosclerosis and diabetes. The involvement of the endocannabinoid system in the development of metabolic syndrome is indisputable. Endocannabinoid overproduction may induce reward system dysfunction and cause executive dysfunctions (e.g., impaired delay discounting), in turn perpetuating unhealthy behaviors. The brain is crucial in development of metabolic syndrome, modulating peripheral carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. The metabolic syndrome can be induced by overfeeding with sugar or fructose, particularly concomitantly with high-fat <P> rT3, although TSH is usually unchanged. Even moderate weight loss can lower T3. This may be primarily via reduced levels of leptin (the satisfaction hormone). Low leptin levels can downregulate hypothalamic TRH neurons and cause a reduction in TSH. Ιn fasting animals, administering leptin reverses NTIS symptoms and restores thyroid hormone concentrations. In obesity, increased leptin increases TSH and T3, and lowers rT3; possibly as an attempt to increase energy expenditure and return to weight set point. Other signals associated with hunger also affect the HPT axis. Insulin and bile acids, which are elevated after a meal, lead to increased D2 activity, <P> and lipoprivation, respectively, stimulate eating. Detectors in the brain are only sensitive to glucoprivation; detectors in the liver are sensitive to both glucoprivation and lipoprivation outside the blood–brain barrier. However, no single set of receptors is solely responsible for the information the brain uses to control eating. Satiety signals There are two primary sources of signals that stop eating: short-term signals come from immediate effects of eating a meal, beginning before food digestion, and long-term signals, that arise in adipose tissue, control the intake of calories by monitoring the sensitivity of brain mechanisms to hunger and satiety signals received. Head <P> Increased amounts of MCH in olfactory regions, among others, have also been linked to an increased intake of fatty foods with high caloric content. Food that is found to taste good also seems to promote MCH, which reinforces the eating of that food. Sugar, specifically glucose, seems to promote MCH's role in sleep and energy conservation. This promoting of energy conservation has also been linked to higher body mass even when diet is controlled. Reproduction It has been postulated that MCH has a modulatory role with the release of Luteinizing Hormone (LH) either by directly interacting acting on the pituitary <P> but can be formed through biosynthesis. To produce carnitine, lysine residues are methylated to trimethyllysine. Four enzymes are involved in the conversion of trimethyllysine and its intermediate forms into the final product of carnitine. The last of these 4 enzymes is gamma-butyrobetaine dioxygenase (GBB), which hydroxylates butyrobetaine into carnitine. The main cardioprotective effects are mediated by the inhibition of the enzyme GBB. By subsequently inhibiting carnitine biosynthesis, fatty acid transport is reduced and the accumulation of cytotoxic intermediate products of fatty acid beta-oxidation in ischemic tissues to produce energy is prevented, therefore blocking this highly oxygen-consuming process. Treatment with meldonium therefore <P> sweet or bitter foods, and can be modulated by satiation or physiological hunger signals. Signals from the tongue, stomach, small intestine and liver are received by the area postrema and nucleus of the solitary tract, which then send information to many regions of the forebrain that control food intake. The lateral hypothalamus contains two sets of neurons that increase eating and decrease metabolic rate by secreting the peptides orexin and melanin concentrating hormone (MCH). Neuropeptide Y (NPY) in the lateral hypothalamus induces ravenous eating; neurons that secrete NPY are targeted by ghrelin in the hypothalamus. Leptin desensitizes the brain to <P> receptors play on exploratory behavior in novel situations. Researchers selectively targeted glutamatergic and GABAergic cortical interneurons and studied results in open field, novel object, and sociability tests. Eliminating glutamatergic cannabinoid receptors led to decreased object exploration, social interactions, and increased aggressive behavior. In contrast, GABAergic cannabinoid receptor-knockout mice showed increased exploration of objects, socialization, and open field movement. These opposing effects reveal the importance of the endocannabinoid system in regulating anxiety-dependent behavior. Glutamatergic CB₁receptors not only are responsible for mediating aggression but produce anxiolytic-like function by inhibiting excessive arousal, which prevented the mice from exploring both animate and inanimate objects.	question: Why does smoking cigarettes curb appetite? context: <P> centre of the brain and part of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal axis, a key part of the body's stress response. Other brain regions regulated by retinoic acid and potentially disrupted by isotretinoin include the frontal cortex and the striatum. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics Oral Isotretinoin is best absorbed when taken with a high-fat meal, because it has a high level of lipophilicity. The efficacy of isotretinoin doubles when taken after a high-fat meal compared to when taken without food. Due to Isotretinoin's molecular relationship to Vitamin A, it should not be taken with Vitamin A supplements due to the danger of toxicity through <P> hunger signals and inhibits NPY-secreting neurons. <P> A number of studies in rats have shown that increasing the dynorphin levels stimulates eating. Opioid antagonists, such as naloxone, can reverse the effects of elevated dynorphin. This inhibition is especially strong in obese animals or animals that have access to particularly appealing food. Inui et al. found that administering dynorphin to dogs increased both their food and water intake. Dynorphin plays a role in the eating behavior of hibernating animals. Nizeilski et al. examined dynorphin levels in the ground squirrel, which undergoes periods of excessive eating and periods of starvation before winter. They found that dynorphin <P> these receptors may be involved in determining the hedonic value of food. In addition, CB1 facilitates ghrelin release, normally happening when the stomach is constricted In the presence of a relatively active system, overeating is promoted. This is the genesis of its appetite-stimulating effects, colloquially called "the munchies." Cardiovascular activity Cannabinoids are well known for their cardiovascular activity. Activation of peripheral CB1 receptors contributes to hemorrhagic and endotoxin-induced hypotension. Anandamide and 2-AG, produced by macrophages and platelets, respectively, may mediate this effect. A likely candidate for this function is the heterodimer of CB1 and adenosine 2a. Through an opposing mechanism <P> interactions with other smaller newt species is limited and allows for more resources and environment for T. carnifex. During times of stress, adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine are excreted from chromaffin cells located on the ventral surface of the adrenal glands. Generally these hormones are secreted from two types of chromaffin cells, but in T. carnifex they are only secreted from one type of chromaffin cell. The secretion of these hormones in T. carnifex is dependent on the temperature of the environment; in winter and summer more noradrenaline than adrenaline is present, but in spring and autumn the hormones appear in almost <P> stimulation of LXR nuclear receptors by cyclically produced oxysterols such that rhythmic cholesterol and bile acid metabolism is not just driven by alternating feeding-fasting cycles, but also by REV-ERBalpha, a component of the circadian clockwork circuitry. Silibinin inhibits adipocyte differentiation through a potential up-regulation of insig-1 and insig-2 at an early phase in adipocyte differentiation. The triacylglycerol reducing effect of fibrates and thiazolidinediones, strong and selective agonists of PPARalpha and PPARgamma, is partially caused by inhibition of SREBP-1 activation via up-regulation of Insig. Findings suggest that Insig2 is a novel colon cancer biomarker. Over-expression of Insig2 appeared to suppress chemotherapeutic drug treatment-induced Bcl2 <P> rapidly when given via the oral route and has a bioavailability of 60-65%. Bioavailability is markedly decreased when ingested with food. It is metabolized into an active metabolite (desmethylpimobendan) by the liver. The parent compound, pimobendan, is a potent calcium sensitizer while desmethylpimobendan is a more potent phosphodiesterase III inhibitor. The half-life of pimobendan in the blood is 0.4 hours, and the half-life of its metabolite is two hours. Elimination is by excretion in the bile and then feces. Pimobendan is 90–95% bound to plasma proteins in circulation. This may have implications in patients suffering from low blood protein levels <P> carnitine acyltransferase 1, thereby preventing fatty acid entry into the mitochondrial matrix for β oxidation. This inhibition prevents fatty acid breakdown while synthesis is happening. Activation Carnitine activation occurs due to a need for fatty acid oxidation which is required for energy production. During vigorous muscle contraction or during fasting, ATP concentration decrease and AMP concentration increase which leads to the activation of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK). AMPK phosphorylates acetyl-CoA carboxylase which catalyzes malonyl-CoA synthesis. This phosphorylation inhibits the acetyl-CoA carboxylase which in turn lowers the concentration of malonyl-CoA and as a result it relieves the inhibition of fatty acyl–carnitine <P> in reducing nicotine reward without precipitating symptoms of nicotine withdrawal. This suggestion was made on the basis of experiments in which intraperitoneal doses of ~4 mg/kg and 8 mg/kg of MLA significantly reduced nicotine self-administration in rats. Most recently, it has been suggested that MLA had potential in the treatment of cannabis dependence. However, this suggestion was apparently based only on work by Solinas et al. who showed that doses of 0.3-5.6 mg/kg, i.p., in rats, dose-dependently antagonized the discriminative-stimulus effects of 3 mg/kg THC. Given that the early Soviet work with "mellictine" indicated that as little as ~0.2-0.3 mg/kg, orally, in man (assuming a weight of <P> its effects through the agonism of nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, resulting in multiple downstream effects such as increase in activity of dopaminergic neurons in the midbrain reward system, as well as the decreased expression of monoamine oxidase in the brain. Nicotine is addictive and dependence forming. The most common source of nicotine, tobacco's, overall harm to user and self score as determined by a multi-criteria decision analysis was determined at 3 percent below cocaine, and 13 percent above amphetamines, ranking 6th most harmful of the 20 drugs assessed. Phenylpropanolamine Phenylpropanolamine (PPA; Accutrim; β-hydroxyamphetamine), also known as the stereoisomers norephedrine and <P> carnifex, and under these circumstances cutaneous respiration is the sole method of breathing. In periods of stress, catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline, and dopamine) are released into the circulatory system in an attempt to minimize the stress on the physiological systems. Multiple environmental factors influences the amount of noradrenaline and adrenaline that is secreted such as dehydration and hemorrhage that cause an increase in these substances. In T. carnifex, circulatory adrenaline and noradrenaline increase when forced to participate in activities, and the presence of fungicides into the circulatory system decreases catecholamine content. Conversely, acetylcholine elicits noradrenaline or adrenaline secretion in T. carnifex. In <P> biological stress on the organism, eliciting a defensive response that may help protect it against the disorders of aging. In other words, caloric restriction places the organism in a defensive state so that it can survive adversity. <P> neurons hyperpolarize in response to serotonin. Cannabinoids have an excitatory effect on MCH neurons. Some research has shown that dopamine has an inhibitory effect on MCH neurons, but further research is needed to fully characterize this interaction. Sleep MCH and the hormone orexin have an antagonistic relationship with one another with regards to the sleep cycle, with orexin being almost entirely active during wake periods and MCH being more active during sleep periods. MCH also promotes sleep, and within a sleep period increased levels of MCH seem to increase the amount of time spent in REM sleep and slow waves sleep. <P> human development of metabolic syndrome. The increase in adipose tissue also increases the number of immune cells present within, which play a role in inflammation. Chronic inflammation contributes to an increased risk of hypertension, atherosclerosis and diabetes. The involvement of the endocannabinoid system in the development of metabolic syndrome is indisputable. Endocannabinoid overproduction may induce reward system dysfunction and cause executive dysfunctions (e.g., impaired delay discounting), in turn perpetuating unhealthy behaviors. The brain is crucial in development of metabolic syndrome, modulating peripheral carbohydrate and lipid metabolism. The metabolic syndrome can be induced by overfeeding with sugar or fructose, particularly concomitantly with high-fat <P> rT3, although TSH is usually unchanged. Even moderate weight loss can lower T3. This may be primarily via reduced levels of leptin (the satisfaction hormone). Low leptin levels can downregulate hypothalamic TRH neurons and cause a reduction in TSH. Ιn fasting animals, administering leptin reverses NTIS symptoms and restores thyroid hormone concentrations. In obesity, increased leptin increases TSH and T3, and lowers rT3; possibly as an attempt to increase energy expenditure and return to weight set point. Other signals associated with hunger also affect the HPT axis. Insulin and bile acids, which are elevated after a meal, lead to increased D2 activity, <P> and lipoprivation, respectively, stimulate eating. Detectors in the brain are only sensitive to glucoprivation; detectors in the liver are sensitive to both glucoprivation and lipoprivation outside the blood–brain barrier. However, no single set of receptors is solely responsible for the information the brain uses to control eating. Satiety signals There are two primary sources of signals that stop eating: short-term signals come from immediate effects of eating a meal, beginning before food digestion, and long-term signals, that arise in adipose tissue, control the intake of calories by monitoring the sensitivity of brain mechanisms to hunger and satiety signals received. Head <P> Increased amounts of MCH in olfactory regions, among others, have also been linked to an increased intake of fatty foods with high caloric content. Food that is found to taste good also seems to promote MCH, which reinforces the eating of that food. Sugar, specifically glucose, seems to promote MCH's role in sleep and energy conservation. This promoting of energy conservation has also been linked to higher body mass even when diet is controlled. Reproduction It has been postulated that MCH has a modulatory role with the release of Luteinizing Hormone (LH) either by directly interacting acting on the pituitary <P> but can be formed through biosynthesis. To produce carnitine, lysine residues are methylated to trimethyllysine. Four enzymes are involved in the conversion of trimethyllysine and its intermediate forms into the final product of carnitine. The last of these 4 enzymes is gamma-butyrobetaine dioxygenase (GBB), which hydroxylates butyrobetaine into carnitine. The main cardioprotective effects are mediated by the inhibition of the enzyme GBB. By subsequently inhibiting carnitine biosynthesis, fatty acid transport is reduced and the accumulation of cytotoxic intermediate products of fatty acid beta-oxidation in ischemic tissues to produce energy is prevented, therefore blocking this highly oxygen-consuming process. Treatment with meldonium therefore <P> sweet or bitter foods, and can be modulated by satiation or physiological hunger signals. Signals from the tongue, stomach, small intestine and liver are received by the area postrema and nucleus of the solitary tract, which then send information to many regions of the forebrain that control food intake. The lateral hypothalamus contains two sets of neurons that increase eating and decrease metabolic rate by secreting the peptides orexin and melanin concentrating hormone (MCH). Neuropeptide Y (NPY) in the lateral hypothalamus induces ravenous eating; neurons that secrete NPY are targeted by ghrelin in the hypothalamus. Leptin desensitizes the brain to <P> receptors play on exploratory behavior in novel situations. Researchers selectively targeted glutamatergic and GABAergic cortical interneurons and studied results in open field, novel object, and sociability tests. Eliminating glutamatergic cannabinoid receptors led to decreased object exploration, social interactions, and increased aggressive behavior. In contrast, GABAergic cannabinoid receptor-knockout mice showed increased exploration of objects, socialization, and open field movement. These opposing effects reveal the importance of the endocannabinoid system in regulating anxiety-dependent behavior. Glutamatergic CB₁receptors not only are responsible for mediating aggression but produce anxiolytic-like function by inhibiting excessive arousal, which prevented the mice from exploring both animate and inanimate objects.	answer: Cigarettes contain nicotine which activates brain cells in the hypothalamus which is responsible for regulating appetite. It triggers hunger reducing pathways in the flight or fight area.More: _URL_0_
59,235	30p8in	Why are red dwarfs so common?	The quick answer to your question is that less massive objects are easier to form. The simple model of star formation is there is a large diffuse cloud, it's perturbed (say by a nearby supernova), and then collapses to form a star. You really don't need much mass in the cloud to form an M dwarf, and even if you have a lot of mass there's a high chance the star forming disk will fragment and form many stars. At the very low end there's a turnaround because clouds that have too little mass have a hard time collapsing. But your question is a piece of a much bigger question, and gets to a big area of scientific research. The number density of stars as a function of stellar mass at the point of formation is called the stellar initial mass function (or [IMF](_URL_1_)). For a while scientists thought the IMF varied based on a number of factors, such as chemical environment (did the cloud have lots of heavy elements or just a few?). But when people looked around they found that the [IMF was constant](_URL_0_). Almost as though it was some constant of nature. But it's completely unclear why this would be the case.	[ "The quick answer to your question is that less massive objects are easier to form. The simple model of star formation is there is a large diffuse cloud, it's perturbed (say by a nearby supernova), and then collapses to form a star. You really don't need much mass in the cloud to form an M dwarf, and even if you ha...	1	[]	0	<P> Rich Brown. <P> sense of honour. They have extraordinary physical abilities and senses. This race also appears in The Diamond Throne, the setting introduced in Monte Cook's Arcana Unearthed. Reception It has received good reviews, and won the 2007 ENnie award for Product of the Year. <P> hair wound into similar braids, worn beneath the helmet which they treasure as greatly as males do their beards. In terms of mental ability, Dwarfs are incredibly determined. They are supremely confident in the values and virtues of their civilisation, and openly scorn the achievements of other races. Their mental strength, in combination with their physical abilities, makes them steadfast fighters who will often fight to the last rather than admit defeat or run away. Magic The Dwarfs have little knowings of magic as it is practiced by Elves and Men, as well as having no wizards. They distrust, and even <P> or even trim their beards. Like the Orcs, dwarfs appear to become stronger the older they get, but unlike the Orcs, there appears to be a breaking point where their general health rapidly declines, always happening just a few years before the dwarf dies of old age. Female dwarfs are very rarely seen outside dwarf realms which has led many people to believe that dwarf males can give birth or that dwarf women have beards. However they are fairly similar to their male counterparts in that they are broad shouldered and heavily built, but instead of long beards they have long <P> Gunnar Huseby Early life Born in Reykjavik, he competed in various athletics events as a youth. Gradually he began to focus on throwing events as he grew older. He reached the top levels of shot putting in 1944, throwing a mark of 15.50 m (50 ft 10 in), which ranked him fourth in the world that season (in the inter-war period). European gold medals Huseby's first international medal came at the 1946 European Athletics Championships – the first after the end of World War II. Having already set an Icelandic record of 15.69 m (51 ft 5 ¹⁄₂ in) and with international athletic competition regaining momentum, he <P> in a Forge World Imperial Armour rules supplement (Imperial Armour Volume Three – The Taros Campaign – Kinrade, 2005). Biology The T'au evolved as hunter-gatherers in the arid plains and desert environments of their homeworld, T'au, though they eventually spread to all ecological regions of the planet. As a result, they have tough, leathery blue-grey skin, which exudes no moisture. With an average height of 5'5", they have a humanoid body plan, though unlike humans they possess digitigrade legs which end in cloven hooves. The T'au have flat, nose-less faces, with their olfactory organs located inside of <P> immensely strong and resilient, with bodies seemingly purpose-built for manual labour, with solidly formed muscles, broad-shoulders and large thick fingered hands that are capable of considerable manual dexterity. This physical toughness allows them to carry heavy loads and endure many hardships and work for long lengths of time without tiring. Dwarfs are a very long-lived race with life-spans that can run into centuries, or rare occasions even into a millennium. As a dwarf becomes older so his beard becomes longer and thicker. Since dwarves have a deep inbuilt respect for age it would be unthinkable for a dwarf to cut off <P> radically: a heavy warmblood of great economy with a good walk, calm temperament, which matures early and utilizes its feed well. The type was so heavy, it stood on the boundary with the lighter coldbloods. The coldbloods of Germany were already well-suited to the new demands of farming given their immense power, and the Ostfriesen had to prove it could offer these same qualities. The one advantage for the warmbloods was their versatility. They were subsequently bred to have greater depth, breadth and strength, at the expense of the dryness, nerve, expression and gait qualities for which they had previously <P> result of dwarfism, cause the Netherland Dwarf to retain an infantile appearance even into adulthood. The Netherland Dwarf has been bred in a wide variety of colors, including: Ruby Eyed White, Blue Eyed White, Black, Blue, Chocolate, Lilac, Red, Siamese Sable, Siamese Smoke, Sealpoint, Blue Point, Chocolate Point, Tortoiseshell, Agouti, Red Agouti, Opal, Cinnamon, Lynx, Chinchilla, Squirrel, Tan, Marten Sable, Marten Smoke, Black Otter, Blue Otter, Chocolate Otter, Lilac Otter, Fox, Orange, Fawn, Hotot, Himalayan, Harlequin, Magpie, Broken, Butterfly, Mantle and EMD. Dwarf breeds Rabbit breeds derived from breeding larger rabbits with the Netherland Dwarf (or any rabbit with a dwarf <P> races each year. <P> with dark skin pigmentation have skin naturally rich in melanin (especially eumelanin), and have more melanosomes which provide a superior protection against the deleterious effects of ultraviolet radiation. This helps the body to retain its folate reserves and protects against damage to the DNA. Dark-skinned people who live in high latitudes with mild sunlight are at an increased risk – especially in the winter – of vitamin D deficiency. As a consequence of vitamin D deficiency, they are at a higher risk of developing rickets, and numerous types of cancers, and possibly cardiovascular disease and low immune system activity. However, some <P> under their chin; however, those markings commonly either fade or disappear entirely as they mature. A full grown adult will usually have no discernible rings or other markings of any kind. It is, however, a common misconception that this subspecies of kingsnake is black in colour. In actuality, they are of a deep, dark, chocolate—something that is highly visible under direct light. The enamel of their scales reflects a "blueish" shimmer (pictured left), a trait made prominent on their ventral scales (likely due to their size, shape, and smoothness), and has been likened to that of the inside of an oyster <P> Elric of Melniboné Fictional history Elric is described in 1972's Elric of Melniboné: It is the colour of a bleached skull, his flesh; and the long hair which flows below his shoulders is milk-white. From the tapering, beautiful head stare two slanting eyes, crimson and moody, and from the loose sleeves of his yellow gown emerge two slender hands, also the colour of bone. Elric is the last emperor of the stagnating island civilization of Melniboné. Physically weak and frail, the albino Elric must use drugs (special herbs) to maintain his health. Unlike other members of his race, Elric has a conscience. <P> of the Dwarfs that remained. Where Dwarfs shun most magic except for Runic magic (which is unique to them) Chaos Dwarves have embraced it; where Dwarfs worship their Ancestor Gods, Chaos Dwarfs worship "Hashut, Father of Darkness". Dwarfs abhor slavery and hate the "Greenskin" races (Goblins, Orcs and the like) but the Chaos Dwarfs rely on slaves and are allied with or are overlords of many Greenskin tribes, most of them Hobgoblins. The Chaos Dwarfs are even responsible for the creation of the Black Orcs. While the Dwarfs continue to resemble their counterparts in medieval Tolkien or Dungeons and Dragons fantasy, <P> plays an important role in the development of many neurotransmitters, e.g. serotonin which regulates appetite, sleep, and mood. Serum folate is broken down by UV radiation or alcohol consumption. Because the skin is protected by the melanin, dark pigmented people have a lower chance of developing skin cancer and conditions related to folate deficiency, such as neural tube defects. Disadvantages of dark skin pigmentation in low sunlight environments Dark-skinned people living in low sunlight environments have been recorded to be very susceptible to vitamin D deficiency due to reduced vitamin D synthesis. A dark-skinned person requires about six times as <P> of the Caucasian variety naturally ranged from white to dark brown tones. Skin The dermis is thinner in whites than in other races; the exposed skin is vulnerable to sunburn because of the lower amount of melanin in the skin than in other races. These traits cause problems in warm climates, but the nearly transparent skin allows more sunlight to reach the inner layers of the epidermis, thereby increasing Vitamin D production far above the level found in other racial groups. A study of skin cultured from the hip region of Europeans and Africans living in Nigeria showed that <P> round pupils, and excellent vision. Behavior Like all racers, the tan racer is diurnal and highly active. Its diet consists of a wide variety of prey, but primarily includes rodents, and lizards. It is fast moving, and generally seeks to use its speed to escape if approached. Habitat The tan racer prefers habitats of pine flatwoods. Reproduction Mating occurs in the spring, and a clutch of approximately 30 eggs is laid typically in the month of May, to hatch mid summer. <P> across hard country, a feat of endurance seldom seen in other races. They will fight with a mixture of axes and hammers, often being passed down through a family line for generations, and gird themselves in heavy armour, often with a large round shield. Within the game, Dwarf Warriors are well armoured and resilient defensive infantry with a high leadership characteristic meaning that they'll seldom panic and run away, also when armed with double-handed axes they make cheap and effective shock troops easily capable of taking on many an army's finest. Longbeards Longbeards are old and wise Dwarfs and are very <P> possessing surprising strength with bent legs and arms and hunched backs, they were dark-skinned with long hair kept back and thick black beards, and it was said they were remnants of primitive man; Orcs or the Gulguthra in the ancient tongue, large creatures slightly stooped in posture, a low jutting forehead and a snout instead of a nose, and coarse hair covering ray-green skin, with eyes a reddish tint and well developed canine teeth and short pointed ears ..." Earthdawn / Shadowrun In the fantasy role-playing games Earthdawn and Shadowrun, orks are neither good nor evil. In Earthdawn they have <P> young Turkish men, who started to copy his looks. According to hairdressers, his Kuzu Kuzu hairstyle was the most frequently requested style in the salons of Turkey. During this time he met Michael Lang, co-organiser of the Woodstock Festival, who became his international manager. According to Lang, Tarkan is a great singer and his performance is great. In 2001 researcher Dr. N Aysun Yüksel published a book titled Tarkan – Yıldız Olgusu (Tarkan – Anatomy of a Star), which was withdrawn from bookshelves by a court order after Tarkan's lawyer Süheyl Atay sued the writer. According to the court's decision the	question: Why are red dwarfs so common? context: <P> Rich Brown. <P> sense of honour. They have extraordinary physical abilities and senses. This race also appears in The Diamond Throne, the setting introduced in Monte Cook's Arcana Unearthed. Reception It has received good reviews, and won the 2007 ENnie award for Product of the Year. <P> hair wound into similar braids, worn beneath the helmet which they treasure as greatly as males do their beards. In terms of mental ability, Dwarfs are incredibly determined. They are supremely confident in the values and virtues of their civilisation, and openly scorn the achievements of other races. Their mental strength, in combination with their physical abilities, makes them steadfast fighters who will often fight to the last rather than admit defeat or run away. Magic The Dwarfs have little knowings of magic as it is practiced by Elves and Men, as well as having no wizards. They distrust, and even <P> or even trim their beards. Like the Orcs, dwarfs appear to become stronger the older they get, but unlike the Orcs, there appears to be a breaking point where their general health rapidly declines, always happening just a few years before the dwarf dies of old age. Female dwarfs are very rarely seen outside dwarf realms which has led many people to believe that dwarf males can give birth or that dwarf women have beards. However they are fairly similar to their male counterparts in that they are broad shouldered and heavily built, but instead of long beards they have long <P> Gunnar Huseby Early life Born in Reykjavik, he competed in various athletics events as a youth. Gradually he began to focus on throwing events as he grew older. He reached the top levels of shot putting in 1944, throwing a mark of 15.50 m (50 ft 10 in), which ranked him fourth in the world that season (in the inter-war period). European gold medals Huseby's first international medal came at the 1946 European Athletics Championships – the first after the end of World War II. Having already set an Icelandic record of 15.69 m (51 ft 5 ¹⁄₂ in) and with international athletic competition regaining momentum, he <P> in a Forge World Imperial Armour rules supplement (Imperial Armour Volume Three – The Taros Campaign – Kinrade, 2005). Biology The T'au evolved as hunter-gatherers in the arid plains and desert environments of their homeworld, T'au, though they eventually spread to all ecological regions of the planet. As a result, they have tough, leathery blue-grey skin, which exudes no moisture. With an average height of 5'5", they have a humanoid body plan, though unlike humans they possess digitigrade legs which end in cloven hooves. The T'au have flat, nose-less faces, with their olfactory organs located inside of <P> immensely strong and resilient, with bodies seemingly purpose-built for manual labour, with solidly formed muscles, broad-shoulders and large thick fingered hands that are capable of considerable manual dexterity. This physical toughness allows them to carry heavy loads and endure many hardships and work for long lengths of time without tiring. Dwarfs are a very long-lived race with life-spans that can run into centuries, or rare occasions even into a millennium. As a dwarf becomes older so his beard becomes longer and thicker. Since dwarves have a deep inbuilt respect for age it would be unthinkable for a dwarf to cut off <P> radically: a heavy warmblood of great economy with a good walk, calm temperament, which matures early and utilizes its feed well. The type was so heavy, it stood on the boundary with the lighter coldbloods. The coldbloods of Germany were already well-suited to the new demands of farming given their immense power, and the Ostfriesen had to prove it could offer these same qualities. The one advantage for the warmbloods was their versatility. They were subsequently bred to have greater depth, breadth and strength, at the expense of the dryness, nerve, expression and gait qualities for which they had previously <P> result of dwarfism, cause the Netherland Dwarf to retain an infantile appearance even into adulthood. The Netherland Dwarf has been bred in a wide variety of colors, including: Ruby Eyed White, Blue Eyed White, Black, Blue, Chocolate, Lilac, Red, Siamese Sable, Siamese Smoke, Sealpoint, Blue Point, Chocolate Point, Tortoiseshell, Agouti, Red Agouti, Opal, Cinnamon, Lynx, Chinchilla, Squirrel, Tan, Marten Sable, Marten Smoke, Black Otter, Blue Otter, Chocolate Otter, Lilac Otter, Fox, Orange, Fawn, Hotot, Himalayan, Harlequin, Magpie, Broken, Butterfly, Mantle and EMD. Dwarf breeds Rabbit breeds derived from breeding larger rabbits with the Netherland Dwarf (or any rabbit with a dwarf <P> races each year. <P> with dark skin pigmentation have skin naturally rich in melanin (especially eumelanin), and have more melanosomes which provide a superior protection against the deleterious effects of ultraviolet radiation. This helps the body to retain its folate reserves and protects against damage to the DNA. Dark-skinned people who live in high latitudes with mild sunlight are at an increased risk – especially in the winter – of vitamin D deficiency. As a consequence of vitamin D deficiency, they are at a higher risk of developing rickets, and numerous types of cancers, and possibly cardiovascular disease and low immune system activity. However, some <P> under their chin; however, those markings commonly either fade or disappear entirely as they mature. A full grown adult will usually have no discernible rings or other markings of any kind. It is, however, a common misconception that this subspecies of kingsnake is black in colour. In actuality, they are of a deep, dark, chocolate—something that is highly visible under direct light. The enamel of their scales reflects a "blueish" shimmer (pictured left), a trait made prominent on their ventral scales (likely due to their size, shape, and smoothness), and has been likened to that of the inside of an oyster <P> Elric of Melniboné Fictional history Elric is described in 1972's Elric of Melniboné: It is the colour of a bleached skull, his flesh; and the long hair which flows below his shoulders is milk-white. From the tapering, beautiful head stare two slanting eyes, crimson and moody, and from the loose sleeves of his yellow gown emerge two slender hands, also the colour of bone. Elric is the last emperor of the stagnating island civilization of Melniboné. Physically weak and frail, the albino Elric must use drugs (special herbs) to maintain his health. Unlike other members of his race, Elric has a conscience. <P> of the Dwarfs that remained. Where Dwarfs shun most magic except for Runic magic (which is unique to them) Chaos Dwarves have embraced it; where Dwarfs worship their Ancestor Gods, Chaos Dwarfs worship "Hashut, Father of Darkness". Dwarfs abhor slavery and hate the "Greenskin" races (Goblins, Orcs and the like) but the Chaos Dwarfs rely on slaves and are allied with or are overlords of many Greenskin tribes, most of them Hobgoblins. The Chaos Dwarfs are even responsible for the creation of the Black Orcs. While the Dwarfs continue to resemble their counterparts in medieval Tolkien or Dungeons and Dragons fantasy, <P> plays an important role in the development of many neurotransmitters, e.g. serotonin which regulates appetite, sleep, and mood. Serum folate is broken down by UV radiation or alcohol consumption. Because the skin is protected by the melanin, dark pigmented people have a lower chance of developing skin cancer and conditions related to folate deficiency, such as neural tube defects. Disadvantages of dark skin pigmentation in low sunlight environments Dark-skinned people living in low sunlight environments have been recorded to be very susceptible to vitamin D deficiency due to reduced vitamin D synthesis. A dark-skinned person requires about six times as <P> of the Caucasian variety naturally ranged from white to dark brown tones. Skin The dermis is thinner in whites than in other races; the exposed skin is vulnerable to sunburn because of the lower amount of melanin in the skin than in other races. These traits cause problems in warm climates, but the nearly transparent skin allows more sunlight to reach the inner layers of the epidermis, thereby increasing Vitamin D production far above the level found in other racial groups. A study of skin cultured from the hip region of Europeans and Africans living in Nigeria showed that <P> round pupils, and excellent vision. Behavior Like all racers, the tan racer is diurnal and highly active. Its diet consists of a wide variety of prey, but primarily includes rodents, and lizards. It is fast moving, and generally seeks to use its speed to escape if approached. Habitat The tan racer prefers habitats of pine flatwoods. Reproduction Mating occurs in the spring, and a clutch of approximately 30 eggs is laid typically in the month of May, to hatch mid summer. <P> across hard country, a feat of endurance seldom seen in other races. They will fight with a mixture of axes and hammers, often being passed down through a family line for generations, and gird themselves in heavy armour, often with a large round shield. Within the game, Dwarf Warriors are well armoured and resilient defensive infantry with a high leadership characteristic meaning that they'll seldom panic and run away, also when armed with double-handed axes they make cheap and effective shock troops easily capable of taking on many an army's finest. Longbeards Longbeards are old and wise Dwarfs and are very <P> possessing surprising strength with bent legs and arms and hunched backs, they were dark-skinned with long hair kept back and thick black beards, and it was said they were remnants of primitive man; Orcs or the Gulguthra in the ancient tongue, large creatures slightly stooped in posture, a low jutting forehead and a snout instead of a nose, and coarse hair covering ray-green skin, with eyes a reddish tint and well developed canine teeth and short pointed ears ..." Earthdawn / Shadowrun In the fantasy role-playing games Earthdawn and Shadowrun, orks are neither good nor evil. In Earthdawn they have <P> young Turkish men, who started to copy his looks. According to hairdressers, his Kuzu Kuzu hairstyle was the most frequently requested style in the salons of Turkey. During this time he met Michael Lang, co-organiser of the Woodstock Festival, who became his international manager. According to Lang, Tarkan is a great singer and his performance is great. In 2001 researcher Dr. N Aysun Yüksel published a book titled Tarkan – Yıldız Olgusu (Tarkan – Anatomy of a Star), which was withdrawn from bookshelves by a court order after Tarkan's lawyer Süheyl Atay sued the writer. According to the court's decision the	answer: The quick answer to your question is that less massive objects are easier to form. The simple model of star formation is there is a large diffuse cloud, it's perturbed (say by a nearby supernova), and then collapses to form a star. You really don't need much mass in the cloud to form an M dwarf, and even if you have a lot of mass there's a high chance the star forming disk will fragment and form many stars. At the very low end there's a turnaround because clouds that have too little mass have a hard time collapsing. But your question is a piece of a much bigger question, and gets to a big area of scientific research. The number density of stars as a function of stellar mass at the point of formation is called the stellar initial mass function (or [IMF](_URL_1_)). For a while scientists thought the IMF varied based on a number of factors, such as chemical environment (did the cloud have lots of heavy elements or just a few?). But when people looked around they found that the [IMF was constant](_URL_0_). Almost as though it was some constant of nature. But it's completely unclear why this would be the case.
80,417	2v394o	why do small logs/kindling catch fire easier than large logs. i know they burn slower due to size but i'm interested in why it's harder to initially light large logs.	Its mostly about the amount of oxygen available (surface area). A wad of hay has a lot of surface area and low density. Basically an entire piece of hay is exposed to oxygen. Only a tiny bit of a log is so it needs a lot more total energy to burn. This is why coals are incredibly hot. The entire mass has had time to heat up but only a small amount receives sufficient oxygen to combust.Its also why green wood is harder to burn. The moisture acts as an insulation against storing energy, evaporation causes cooling and out gassing effectively reduces the amount of oxygen at the surface of the wood (yes, oversimplification but basically correct ).	[ "Oh, logs. I initially read dogs and got freaked out. I will now go back to sleep...", "It relates to density and the ability for the heat from a flame to permeate the entire object. Same reason it's easy to light a single piece of paper on fire but not as easy to light a rolled up magazine.", "Its mostly about...	3	[ "Oh, logs. I initially read dogs and got freaked out. I will now go back to sleep...", "Its mostly about the amount of oxygen available (surface area). A wad of hay has a lot of surface area and low density. Basically an entire piece of hay is exposed to oxygen. Only a tiny bit of a log is so it needs a lot more ...	2	<P> be avoided when striking a hard steel tool, as it damages the tool by mushrooming it and may even cause cracking. A short log may be split entirely from one end, a long log will require an initial split to be extended along the log by the use of axe or wedges, driven in from the sides. Short logs are cleaved vertically, long ones horizontally. The ability to use several tools at once makes the use of an axe and wedges capable of cleaving far heavier logs than a froe. The froe must also be used gradually from one end, the <P> the burning wood itself, not of the smoking environment, which uses much lower temperatures. Woods that are high in lignin content tend to burn hot; to keep them smoldering requires restricted oxygen supplies or a high moisture content. When smoking using wood chips or chunks, the combustion temperature is often raised by soaking the pieces in water before placing them on a fire. Offset The main characteristics of the offset smoker are that the cooking chamber is usually cylindrical in shape, with a shorter, smaller diameter cylinder attached to the bottom of one end for a firebox. To cook the <P> is charcoal. If air (which contains oxygen) is present, the wood will catch fire and burn when it reaches a temperature of about 400–500°C and the fuel product is wood ash. If wood is heated away from air, first the moisture is driven off. Until this is complete, the wood temperature remains at about 100–110°C. When the wood is dry its temperature rises, and at about 270°C, it begins to spontaneously decompose. This is the well known exothermic reaction which takes place in charcoal burning. At this stage evolution of the by-products of wood carbonization starts. These substances are given <P> axe (or wedges) may enter the log from the side. The froe does however have a wider blade, and so may give a more precisely flat surface when cleaving wide timber, such as for roofing shingles. It is common to start cleaving a log with an axe, finish the first heavy splits with wedges, then use a froe to make the finished items. Splitting axes Splitting mauls are heavy axes (6 lbs or more) used for rough splitting of firewood. They have small heads in terms of edge length, but are heavy as they are especially wide across the cheeks and <P> the branch to the trunk, requiring that wood fibres are stretched along their length (the axial strength of the wood) in order to rupture the attachment apart. As the typical lateral branch of a tree and its trunk expand in diameter at different rates, the base of the smaller branch becomes occluded in the larger trunk of the tree which is producing a larger increment of growth, and this occluded part of the branch forms a knot that provides substantial additional mechanical support to the attachment as it develops (Fig. 2). This is not the case in tree forks, where <P> to within a half-mile (.8 km) of the site. A sustained effort by firefighters on the ground and in the air prevented the fire from advancing further and saved the tree. <P> radially, to split the log into wedged segments. Timbers with medullary rays, such as oak, may be hard to split through these radial rays and so careful alignment is made to split between them. Segments are halved symmetrically at each step, as this encourages them to split more evenly than attempting to cleave off thin sheets repeatedly from one end. Cleaving usually begins from one end of a log, by driving the cleaving axe or a splitting wedge into the end of the log. It is driven further by use of a mallet or froe club. As always, a hammer should <P> of the trunk; this, in some species can encourage epicormic growth from dormant buds. To reduce this sometimes smaller branches are left on the lower part of the trunk. Excessive removal of the lower branches can displace the canopy weight, this will make the tree top heavy, therefore adding stress to the tree. When a branch is removed from the trunk, it creates a large wound. This wound is susceptible to disease and decay, and could lead to reduced trunk stability. Therefore, much time and consideration must be taken when choosing the height the crown is to be lifted to. This <P> pseudo-secondary growth). Trunks can be vulnerable to damage, including sunburn. Trunks which are cut down in logging are generally called logs and if cut to a specific length bolts. The term "log" is informally used in English to describe any felled trunk not rooted in the ground. A stump is the part of a trunk remaining in the ground after the tree has been felled. Structure of the trunk The trunk consists of five main parts: the bark, inner bark, cambium, sapwood, and heartwood. From the outside of the tree working in, the first layer is the bark; this <P> on one protruding line. The handle is straight and fairly short, around 18 inches, as the cleaving axe is only held, not swung. As the axe head must penetrate fully into the wood, the poll is minimal, narrower than the axe cheeks, and is never used for pounding other tools, lest it damage or mushroom the head. Cleaving Cleaving is done by driving a wedge between the fibres of a log, so as to split fibres apart along their weakest path. This work may appear strenuous, but is far less effort than rip sawing by hand. It is first done <P> was lower. In places it is peat-like and embedded with wood ranging from small twigs to large tree trunks up to 1200mm in diameter, with some evidence of fire on the wood before being assembled. <P> the edge is that of a simple splitting wedge. The edge itself does not need to be sharp: cleaving relies more on wedge action than chopping (cutting) with an edge. The section of the axe should be triangular though, with flat sides, rather than the deeply hollow-sided forged and welded axes, or the modern convex-sided "apple pip" axe grind. Nor should the edge be ground at a bevel. The work of using the axe, and its ability to split cleanly, depends on having flat sides with the minimum of friction, rather than all the force of the timber being concentrated <P> the leaves; and the wood (which is reputed to be termite-proof) can be used in construction. <P> finer in grain, and, as shown before, less liable to warp and check than when sawn in any other way." Cheaper copies of Stickley's furniture were sometimes made with the less-expensive ash stained to resemble oak, but it can be identified by its lack of rays. Wood cut in this way is prized for certain applications, but it will tend to be more expensive as well. In cutting a log, quarter sawn boards can be produced in several ways, but if a log is cut for maximum yield it will produce only a few quarter sawn boards among <P> other organic acids, which give wood smoke a low pH—about 2.5. Some of these compounds are toxic to people as well, and may have health effects in the quantities found in cooking applications. Since different species of trees have different ratios of components, various types of wood do impart a different flavor to food. Another important factor is the temperature at which the wood burns. High-temperature fires see the flavor molecules broken down further into unpleasant or flavorless compounds. The optimal conditions for smoke flavor are low, smoldering temperatures between 300 and 400 °C (570 and 750 °F). This is the temperature of <P> material of the wood cells; lignin acts as a kind of cell-bonding glue. Some softwoods, especially pines and firs, hold significant quantities of resin, which produces a harsh-tasting soot when burned; these woods are not often used for smoking. Cellulose and hemicellulose are aggregate sugar molecules; when burnt, they effectively caramelize, producing carbonyls, which provide most of the color components and sweet, flowery, and fruity aromas. Lignin, a highly complex arrangement of interlocked phenolic molecules, also produces a number of distinctive aromatic elements when burnt, including smoky, spicy, and pungent compounds such as guaiacol, phenol, and syringol, and sweeter scents such <P> and dirt and was set on fire in the center. The fires were allowed to smolder for ten to fourteen days, under the careful, round the clock, supervision of the collier. The colliers were careful to make sure that enough heat was produced to expel moisture, tar and other substances from the wood without burning the wood up entirely. Wood was not charred until just before it was needed to keep it from getting wet and becoming useless. The demand for charcoal was so tremendous that Cornwall Furnace used an entire acre of wood every day for making charcoal. Working <P> and has a specific gravity of 0.55. Native Hawaiians, who called the wood ʻaʻaka, used it to make manu (bow and stern ornamental end pieces) and pale (gunwales) for waʻa (outrigger canoes), pou (house posts), haha ka ʻupena (fishing net spacers), and lamalama (long-burning torches for night fishing). The oily wood was also used as a substitute for ʻiliahi (Santalum spp.) due to the similarity in smell when burned. Horticulture M. sandwicense can be cultivated using seeds separated from the fruit - the average germination time varies by reports but is most commonly noted as taking between six and eighteen <P> diameter, when free of the leaf base fibers that tend to remain for a good while. <P> will not rot. Farmers sometimes find old buried stumps in fields, even in some that were cleared a century ago, and these usually are dug up and sold as fatwood, "fat lighter", or "lighter wood", which is in demand as kindling for fireplaces, wood stoves, and barbecue pits. In old-growth pine, the heartwood of the bole is often saturated in the same way. When boards are cut from the fat lighter wood, they are very heavy and will not rot, but buildings constructed of them are quite flammable and make extremely hot fires. Cultural significance The longleaf pine is the	question: why do small logs/kindling catch fire easier than large logs. i know they burn slower due to size but i'm interested in why it's harder to initially light large logs. context: <P> be avoided when striking a hard steel tool, as it damages the tool by mushrooming it and may even cause cracking. A short log may be split entirely from one end, a long log will require an initial split to be extended along the log by the use of axe or wedges, driven in from the sides. Short logs are cleaved vertically, long ones horizontally. The ability to use several tools at once makes the use of an axe and wedges capable of cleaving far heavier logs than a froe. The froe must also be used gradually from one end, the <P> the burning wood itself, not of the smoking environment, which uses much lower temperatures. Woods that are high in lignin content tend to burn hot; to keep them smoldering requires restricted oxygen supplies or a high moisture content. When smoking using wood chips or chunks, the combustion temperature is often raised by soaking the pieces in water before placing them on a fire. Offset The main characteristics of the offset smoker are that the cooking chamber is usually cylindrical in shape, with a shorter, smaller diameter cylinder attached to the bottom of one end for a firebox. To cook the <P> is charcoal. If air (which contains oxygen) is present, the wood will catch fire and burn when it reaches a temperature of about 400–500°C and the fuel product is wood ash. If wood is heated away from air, first the moisture is driven off. Until this is complete, the wood temperature remains at about 100–110°C. When the wood is dry its temperature rises, and at about 270°C, it begins to spontaneously decompose. This is the well known exothermic reaction which takes place in charcoal burning. At this stage evolution of the by-products of wood carbonization starts. These substances are given <P> axe (or wedges) may enter the log from the side. The froe does however have a wider blade, and so may give a more precisely flat surface when cleaving wide timber, such as for roofing shingles. It is common to start cleaving a log with an axe, finish the first heavy splits with wedges, then use a froe to make the finished items. Splitting axes Splitting mauls are heavy axes (6 lbs or more) used for rough splitting of firewood. They have small heads in terms of edge length, but are heavy as they are especially wide across the cheeks and <P> the branch to the trunk, requiring that wood fibres are stretched along their length (the axial strength of the wood) in order to rupture the attachment apart. As the typical lateral branch of a tree and its trunk expand in diameter at different rates, the base of the smaller branch becomes occluded in the larger trunk of the tree which is producing a larger increment of growth, and this occluded part of the branch forms a knot that provides substantial additional mechanical support to the attachment as it develops (Fig. 2). This is not the case in tree forks, where <P> to within a half-mile (.8 km) of the site. A sustained effort by firefighters on the ground and in the air prevented the fire from advancing further and saved the tree. <P> radially, to split the log into wedged segments. Timbers with medullary rays, such as oak, may be hard to split through these radial rays and so careful alignment is made to split between them. Segments are halved symmetrically at each step, as this encourages them to split more evenly than attempting to cleave off thin sheets repeatedly from one end. Cleaving usually begins from one end of a log, by driving the cleaving axe or a splitting wedge into the end of the log. It is driven further by use of a mallet or froe club. As always, a hammer should <P> of the trunk; this, in some species can encourage epicormic growth from dormant buds. To reduce this sometimes smaller branches are left on the lower part of the trunk. Excessive removal of the lower branches can displace the canopy weight, this will make the tree top heavy, therefore adding stress to the tree. When a branch is removed from the trunk, it creates a large wound. This wound is susceptible to disease and decay, and could lead to reduced trunk stability. Therefore, much time and consideration must be taken when choosing the height the crown is to be lifted to. This <P> pseudo-secondary growth). Trunks can be vulnerable to damage, including sunburn. Trunks which are cut down in logging are generally called logs and if cut to a specific length bolts. The term "log" is informally used in English to describe any felled trunk not rooted in the ground. A stump is the part of a trunk remaining in the ground after the tree has been felled. Structure of the trunk The trunk consists of five main parts: the bark, inner bark, cambium, sapwood, and heartwood. From the outside of the tree working in, the first layer is the bark; this <P> on one protruding line. The handle is straight and fairly short, around 18 inches, as the cleaving axe is only held, not swung. As the axe head must penetrate fully into the wood, the poll is minimal, narrower than the axe cheeks, and is never used for pounding other tools, lest it damage or mushroom the head. Cleaving Cleaving is done by driving a wedge between the fibres of a log, so as to split fibres apart along their weakest path. This work may appear strenuous, but is far less effort than rip sawing by hand. It is first done <P> was lower. In places it is peat-like and embedded with wood ranging from small twigs to large tree trunks up to 1200mm in diameter, with some evidence of fire on the wood before being assembled. <P> the edge is that of a simple splitting wedge. The edge itself does not need to be sharp: cleaving relies more on wedge action than chopping (cutting) with an edge. The section of the axe should be triangular though, with flat sides, rather than the deeply hollow-sided forged and welded axes, or the modern convex-sided "apple pip" axe grind. Nor should the edge be ground at a bevel. The work of using the axe, and its ability to split cleanly, depends on having flat sides with the minimum of friction, rather than all the force of the timber being concentrated <P> the leaves; and the wood (which is reputed to be termite-proof) can be used in construction. <P> finer in grain, and, as shown before, less liable to warp and check than when sawn in any other way." Cheaper copies of Stickley's furniture were sometimes made with the less-expensive ash stained to resemble oak, but it can be identified by its lack of rays. Wood cut in this way is prized for certain applications, but it will tend to be more expensive as well. In cutting a log, quarter sawn boards can be produced in several ways, but if a log is cut for maximum yield it will produce only a few quarter sawn boards among <P> other organic acids, which give wood smoke a low pH—about 2.5. Some of these compounds are toxic to people as well, and may have health effects in the quantities found in cooking applications. Since different species of trees have different ratios of components, various types of wood do impart a different flavor to food. Another important factor is the temperature at which the wood burns. High-temperature fires see the flavor molecules broken down further into unpleasant or flavorless compounds. The optimal conditions for smoke flavor are low, smoldering temperatures between 300 and 400 °C (570 and 750 °F). This is the temperature of <P> material of the wood cells; lignin acts as a kind of cell-bonding glue. Some softwoods, especially pines and firs, hold significant quantities of resin, which produces a harsh-tasting soot when burned; these woods are not often used for smoking. Cellulose and hemicellulose are aggregate sugar molecules; when burnt, they effectively caramelize, producing carbonyls, which provide most of the color components and sweet, flowery, and fruity aromas. Lignin, a highly complex arrangement of interlocked phenolic molecules, also produces a number of distinctive aromatic elements when burnt, including smoky, spicy, and pungent compounds such as guaiacol, phenol, and syringol, and sweeter scents such <P> and dirt and was set on fire in the center. The fires were allowed to smolder for ten to fourteen days, under the careful, round the clock, supervision of the collier. The colliers were careful to make sure that enough heat was produced to expel moisture, tar and other substances from the wood without burning the wood up entirely. Wood was not charred until just before it was needed to keep it from getting wet and becoming useless. The demand for charcoal was so tremendous that Cornwall Furnace used an entire acre of wood every day for making charcoal. Working <P> and has a specific gravity of 0.55. Native Hawaiians, who called the wood ʻaʻaka, used it to make manu (bow and stern ornamental end pieces) and pale (gunwales) for waʻa (outrigger canoes), pou (house posts), haha ka ʻupena (fishing net spacers), and lamalama (long-burning torches for night fishing). The oily wood was also used as a substitute for ʻiliahi (Santalum spp.) due to the similarity in smell when burned. Horticulture M. sandwicense can be cultivated using seeds separated from the fruit - the average germination time varies by reports but is most commonly noted as taking between six and eighteen <P> diameter, when free of the leaf base fibers that tend to remain for a good while. <P> will not rot. Farmers sometimes find old buried stumps in fields, even in some that were cleared a century ago, and these usually are dug up and sold as fatwood, "fat lighter", or "lighter wood", which is in demand as kindling for fireplaces, wood stoves, and barbecue pits. In old-growth pine, the heartwood of the bole is often saturated in the same way. When boards are cut from the fat lighter wood, they are very heavy and will not rot, but buildings constructed of them are quite flammable and make extremely hot fires. Cultural significance The longleaf pine is the	answer: Its mostly about the amount of oxygen available (surface area). A wad of hay has a lot of surface area and low density. Basically an entire piece of hay is exposed to oxygen. Only a tiny bit of a log is so it needs a lot more total energy to burn. This is why coals are incredibly hot. The entire mass has had time to heat up but only a small amount receives sufficient oxygen to combust.Its also why green wood is harder to burn. The moisture acts as an insulation against storing energy, evaporation causes cooling and out gassing effectively reduces the amount of oxygen at the surface of the wood (yes, oversimplification but basically correct ).
128,315	2uhmzb	how do popular youtube channels like cinemasins show so many clips from movies but my videos get removed for even a few seconds of copyright material?	There's also something about you're only allowed to have five seconds with sound at a time. Notice how much of Cinema Sins is them talking, then brief sound, then talking.Also, when you review a movie, it's considered "Fair Use", that means that you're not infringing on any copyright, because you're talking about the movie. Parodies have their own loopholes too, but I've got no idea how it works.	[ "There's also something about you're only allowed to have five seconds with sound at a time. Notice how much of Cinema Sins is them talking, then brief sound, then talking.\n\nAlso, when you review a movie, it's considered \"Fair Use\", that means that you're not infringing on any copyright, because you're talking ...	2	[ "There's also something about you're only allowed to have five seconds with sound at a time. Notice how much of Cinema Sins is them talking, then brief sound, then talking.\n\nAlso, when you review a movie, it's considered \"Fair Use\", that means that you're not infringing on any copyright, because you're talking ...	2	<P> within a remix culture. Alternately, two YouTube Poopers may engage in "YTP tennis" or "YTP soccer", wherein the same video is remixed back and forth. Another prominent type of video in the community is known as a "collab", wherein a group of YouTube Poopers' videos are compiled to make a longer, often feature-length video. Most of the time, the videos featured are made exclusively for the collab and are not uploaded to YouTube prior to the collab's release. Copyright and fair use Due to the use of copyrighted materials and the manner in which these sources are depicted, YTPs may be <P> in finding uploads that look similar to reference files that are of sufficient length and quality to generate an effective ID File". By 2012, Content ID accounted for over a third of the monetized views on YouTube. An independent test in 2009 uploaded multiple versions of the same song to YouTube, and concluded that while the system was "surprisingly resilient" in finding copyright violations in the audio tracks of videos, it was not infallible. The use of Content ID to remove material automatically has led to controversy in some cases, as the videos have not been checked by a human for <P> the same time, Warner Music Group had cushlinkes' literal version of "Whip It" removed as well. By the end of December 2009, over twenty of the 100 English language literal videos had been removed from YouTube, mostly due to copyright claims from Universal Music Group and Sony Music. Artists parodied by the removed videos included Billy Joel, Boyz II Men, REM, Lady Gaga, Britney Spears, Hanson, Cyndi Lauper, and Rick Astley. Some of the removed videos have been re-uploaded on other video websites. Record companies, claiming copyright infringement, would continue to block and remove literal videos from YouTube. According to McLean, <P> fair use. If a YouTube user disagrees with a decision by Content ID, it is possible to fill in a form disputing the decision. Prior to 2016, videos were not monetized until the dispute was resolved. Since April 2016, videos continue to be monetized while the dispute is in progress, and the money goes to whoever won the dispute. Should the uploader want to monetize the video again, they may remove the disputed audio in the "Video Manager". YouTube has cited the effectiveness of Content ID as one of the reasons why the site's rules were modified in December 2010 <P> and later became known as Content ID, creates an ID File for copyrighted audio and video material, and stores it in a database. When a video is uploaded, it is checked against the database, and flags the video as a copyright violation if a match is found. When this occurs, the content owner has the choice of blocking the video to make it unviewable, tracking the viewing statistics of the video, or adding advertisements to the video. By 2010, YouTube had "already invested tens of millions of dollars in this technology". In 2011, YouTube described Content ID as "very accurate <P> College Chapel in Oxford on 9 January 2013. On 13 March 2014 a recording of a performance was uploaded to Vimeo from the user Unmarked Films. The performance can be viewed at https://vimeo.com/89019417. <P> removed from YouTube following a DMCA complaint. However, political scientist and author Trajce Cvetkovski noted in 2013 that, despite Viacom filing a copyright infringement lawsuit with YouTube in 2007, YouTube Poops such as "The Sky Had a Weegee" by Hurricoaster, which features scenes from the animated series SpongeBob SquarePants (in particular, the episode "Shanghaied") and Weegee (a satiric caricature based on Nintendo's Luigi as he appears in the DOS version of Mario Is Missing), remained on YouTube. The law in the United Kingdom does allow people to use copyrighted material for the purposes of parody, pastiche, and caricature without infringing on <P> where the titular character's teeth are painfully pulled out by a dentist, and a video featuring said character burning down an occupied house. The article also mentioned the existence of "hundreds" of similar videos, ranging from unauthorized but otherwise harmless copies of authentic cartoons to frightening and gory content. CTV News also reported in March about YouTube's "fake toons problem", with adult-themed imitations of popular children's shows frequently appearing on YouTube Kids: "In some cases, the video will feature a kid-friendly thumbnail, while the video itself might be entirely different" and be very unsuitable for small children. The network commented that <P> commonly done, the "Reels" option would be featured as a separate tab on the creator's channel. As of its announcement, only certain content creators would have access to the "Reels" option, which would be utilized as a beta-version for further feedback and testing. If users engage more with the "Reels" option, it may end up as a more permanent feature and "trigger their appearance on the viewer's YouTube home page as recommendations." As of November 28, 2018, YouTube did not specify when "Reels" would arrive in Beta or when it would be publicly released. Community On September 13, 2016, <P> by YouTube in 2012. The company is now permanently closed. <P> screenshots showing major brand advertising on an offensive video containing Johnny Rebel music overlaid on a Chief Keef music video, citing that the video itself had not earned any ad revenue for the uploader. The video was retracted after it was found that the ads had actually been triggered by the use of copyrighted content in the video. On April 6, 2017, YouTube announced that in order to "ensure revenue only flows to creators who are playing by the rules", it would change its practices to require that a channel undergo a policy compliance review, and have at least 10,000 lifetime <P> two daughters in odd and upsetting situations. According to analytics specialist SocialBlade, it earned up to £8.7 million annually prior to its deletion. Even for content that appears to aimed at children and appears to contain only child-friendly content, YouTube's system allows for anonymity of who uploads these videos. These questions have been raised in the past, as YouTube has had to remove channels with children's content which, after becoming popular, then suddenly include inappropriate content masked as children's content. A current example is the "Cocomelon" YouTube channel containing numerous mass-produced animated videos aimed at children which has drawn up to US$10 <P> monetization on YouTube. Uploaders receive a strike for each case of infringement, and have their accounts suspended upon their third strike. YouTubers and certain publishers have settled on blanket synchronization licenses, that allow publishers to take up to 50% of the revenues generated by videos that use their content. YouTube has direct licensing contracts with many music publishers, which pay them the due royalties for cover songs uploaded by YouTubers. Multi-channel networks like Fullscreen, however, are not covered under these contracts. Viacom International, Inc. v. YouTube, Inc. Copyright infringement cases regarding unlicensed videos on YouTube began long before this case <P> left from West saying "SORRY I HAD TO TAKE IT DOWN : (". The video, however, can still be found on various video sharing websites and is now available through iTunes. <P> the content." <P> disasters and tragedies, even if graphic imagery is not shown" (unless the content is "usually newsworthy or comedic and the creator's intent is to inform or entertain"), and videos whose user comments contain "inappropriate" content. In 2013, YouTube introduced an option for channels with at least a thousand subscribers to require a paid subscription in order for viewers to watch videos. In April 2017, YouTube set an eligibility requirement of 10,000 lifetime views for a paid subscription. On January 16, 2018, the eligibility requirement for monetization was changed to 4,000 hours of watchtime within the past 12 months and 1,000 subscribers. <P> the copyright of the material. Copyright owners are only able to sue the parodist if the work contains hateful or discriminative messages. If the case is then taken to court, it will be down to a judge to decide whether the video meets these criteria. <P> from ClearPlay as a monthly or annually subscribed membership. Unlimited access to the full library of movie Filters are then made available, which contains filters for various streaming movies or DVDs including most new releases. If filter files for a particular movie are not present, requests can be made through their website. Legal actions The United States Congress passed the Family Entertainment and Copyright Act that explicitly clarified the copyright laws explaining that someone can personalize the playback of movies, skipping or muting content from playback of video on demand or DVDs. <P> YouTube Channel. <P> at our front door or a gunman on a grassy knoll. Under the circumstances, this is us being pragmatic. Allow us to explain... [contd] Multiple Bollywood celebrities expressed both their displeasure at the content and positive support in favor of artistic freedom. Calls to action Towards the end of 2014, after facing public backlash due to AIB Knockout, they did not upload any content for four months starting December 16, 2014. In order to regain public goodwill, their first upload, on April 11, 2015, was a call to action video. In it, they urged viewers to send an email to their	question: how do popular youtube channels like cinemasins show so many clips from movies but my videos get removed for even a few seconds of copyright material? context: <P> within a remix culture. Alternately, two YouTube Poopers may engage in "YTP tennis" or "YTP soccer", wherein the same video is remixed back and forth. Another prominent type of video in the community is known as a "collab", wherein a group of YouTube Poopers' videos are compiled to make a longer, often feature-length video. Most of the time, the videos featured are made exclusively for the collab and are not uploaded to YouTube prior to the collab's release. Copyright and fair use Due to the use of copyrighted materials and the manner in which these sources are depicted, YTPs may be <P> in finding uploads that look similar to reference files that are of sufficient length and quality to generate an effective ID File". By 2012, Content ID accounted for over a third of the monetized views on YouTube. An independent test in 2009 uploaded multiple versions of the same song to YouTube, and concluded that while the system was "surprisingly resilient" in finding copyright violations in the audio tracks of videos, it was not infallible. The use of Content ID to remove material automatically has led to controversy in some cases, as the videos have not been checked by a human for <P> the same time, Warner Music Group had cushlinkes' literal version of "Whip It" removed as well. By the end of December 2009, over twenty of the 100 English language literal videos had been removed from YouTube, mostly due to copyright claims from Universal Music Group and Sony Music. Artists parodied by the removed videos included Billy Joel, Boyz II Men, REM, Lady Gaga, Britney Spears, Hanson, Cyndi Lauper, and Rick Astley. Some of the removed videos have been re-uploaded on other video websites. Record companies, claiming copyright infringement, would continue to block and remove literal videos from YouTube. According to McLean, <P> fair use. If a YouTube user disagrees with a decision by Content ID, it is possible to fill in a form disputing the decision. Prior to 2016, videos were not monetized until the dispute was resolved. Since April 2016, videos continue to be monetized while the dispute is in progress, and the money goes to whoever won the dispute. Should the uploader want to monetize the video again, they may remove the disputed audio in the "Video Manager". YouTube has cited the effectiveness of Content ID as one of the reasons why the site's rules were modified in December 2010 <P> and later became known as Content ID, creates an ID File for copyrighted audio and video material, and stores it in a database. When a video is uploaded, it is checked against the database, and flags the video as a copyright violation if a match is found. When this occurs, the content owner has the choice of blocking the video to make it unviewable, tracking the viewing statistics of the video, or adding advertisements to the video. By 2010, YouTube had "already invested tens of millions of dollars in this technology". In 2011, YouTube described Content ID as "very accurate <P> College Chapel in Oxford on 9 January 2013. On 13 March 2014 a recording of a performance was uploaded to Vimeo from the user Unmarked Films. The performance can be viewed at https://vimeo.com/89019417. <P> removed from YouTube following a DMCA complaint. However, political scientist and author Trajce Cvetkovski noted in 2013 that, despite Viacom filing a copyright infringement lawsuit with YouTube in 2007, YouTube Poops such as "The Sky Had a Weegee" by Hurricoaster, which features scenes from the animated series SpongeBob SquarePants (in particular, the episode "Shanghaied") and Weegee (a satiric caricature based on Nintendo's Luigi as he appears in the DOS version of Mario Is Missing), remained on YouTube. The law in the United Kingdom does allow people to use copyrighted material for the purposes of parody, pastiche, and caricature without infringing on <P> where the titular character's teeth are painfully pulled out by a dentist, and a video featuring said character burning down an occupied house. The article also mentioned the existence of "hundreds" of similar videos, ranging from unauthorized but otherwise harmless copies of authentic cartoons to frightening and gory content. CTV News also reported in March about YouTube's "fake toons problem", with adult-themed imitations of popular children's shows frequently appearing on YouTube Kids: "In some cases, the video will feature a kid-friendly thumbnail, while the video itself might be entirely different" and be very unsuitable for small children. The network commented that <P> commonly done, the "Reels" option would be featured as a separate tab on the creator's channel. As of its announcement, only certain content creators would have access to the "Reels" option, which would be utilized as a beta-version for further feedback and testing. If users engage more with the "Reels" option, it may end up as a more permanent feature and "trigger their appearance on the viewer's YouTube home page as recommendations." As of November 28, 2018, YouTube did not specify when "Reels" would arrive in Beta or when it would be publicly released. Community On September 13, 2016, <P> by YouTube in 2012. The company is now permanently closed. <P> screenshots showing major brand advertising on an offensive video containing Johnny Rebel music overlaid on a Chief Keef music video, citing that the video itself had not earned any ad revenue for the uploader. The video was retracted after it was found that the ads had actually been triggered by the use of copyrighted content in the video. On April 6, 2017, YouTube announced that in order to "ensure revenue only flows to creators who are playing by the rules", it would change its practices to require that a channel undergo a policy compliance review, and have at least 10,000 lifetime <P> two daughters in odd and upsetting situations. According to analytics specialist SocialBlade, it earned up to £8.7 million annually prior to its deletion. Even for content that appears to aimed at children and appears to contain only child-friendly content, YouTube's system allows for anonymity of who uploads these videos. These questions have been raised in the past, as YouTube has had to remove channels with children's content which, after becoming popular, then suddenly include inappropriate content masked as children's content. A current example is the "Cocomelon" YouTube channel containing numerous mass-produced animated videos aimed at children which has drawn up to US$10 <P> monetization on YouTube. Uploaders receive a strike for each case of infringement, and have their accounts suspended upon their third strike. YouTubers and certain publishers have settled on blanket synchronization licenses, that allow publishers to take up to 50% of the revenues generated by videos that use their content. YouTube has direct licensing contracts with many music publishers, which pay them the due royalties for cover songs uploaded by YouTubers. Multi-channel networks like Fullscreen, however, are not covered under these contracts. Viacom International, Inc. v. YouTube, Inc. Copyright infringement cases regarding unlicensed videos on YouTube began long before this case <P> left from West saying "SORRY I HAD TO TAKE IT DOWN : (". The video, however, can still be found on various video sharing websites and is now available through iTunes. <P> the content." <P> disasters and tragedies, even if graphic imagery is not shown" (unless the content is "usually newsworthy or comedic and the creator's intent is to inform or entertain"), and videos whose user comments contain "inappropriate" content. In 2013, YouTube introduced an option for channels with at least a thousand subscribers to require a paid subscription in order for viewers to watch videos. In April 2017, YouTube set an eligibility requirement of 10,000 lifetime views for a paid subscription. On January 16, 2018, the eligibility requirement for monetization was changed to 4,000 hours of watchtime within the past 12 months and 1,000 subscribers. <P> the copyright of the material. Copyright owners are only able to sue the parodist if the work contains hateful or discriminative messages. If the case is then taken to court, it will be down to a judge to decide whether the video meets these criteria. <P> from ClearPlay as a monthly or annually subscribed membership. Unlimited access to the full library of movie Filters are then made available, which contains filters for various streaming movies or DVDs including most new releases. If filter files for a particular movie are not present, requests can be made through their website. Legal actions The United States Congress passed the Family Entertainment and Copyright Act that explicitly clarified the copyright laws explaining that someone can personalize the playback of movies, skipping or muting content from playback of video on demand or DVDs. <P> YouTube Channel. <P> at our front door or a gunman on a grassy knoll. Under the circumstances, this is us being pragmatic. Allow us to explain... [contd] Multiple Bollywood celebrities expressed both their displeasure at the content and positive support in favor of artistic freedom. Calls to action Towards the end of 2014, after facing public backlash due to AIB Knockout, they did not upload any content for four months starting December 16, 2014. In order to regain public goodwill, their first upload, on April 11, 2015, was a call to action video. In it, they urged viewers to send an email to their	answer: There's also something about you're only allowed to have five seconds with sound at a time. Notice how much of Cinema Sins is them talking, then brief sound, then talking.Also, when you review a movie, it's considered "Fair Use", that means that you're not infringing on any copyright, because you're talking about the movie. Parodies have their own loopholes too, but I've got no idea how it works.
138,675	c643e1	How will quantum computers be able current encryption methods?	Much of modern cryptography derives its security from the factorization problem (The RSA algorithm being the prime example). Basically it boils down to the fact that it's relatively easy to multiply two very large prime numbers together, but very hard to recover those primes from the results. If I recall things correctly, the most efficient algorithm is basically guess and check. This means the difficulty of doing this is exponentially related to the size of the number O(2^n).A (still theoretical) quantum computer could implement Shor's algorithm, which would allow the factorization problem to be solved in polynomial time. In theory this would make breaking the RSA algorithm computationally feasible. However, the technology is not there yet, as current quantum computers either aren't stable enough, don't have enough qbits, our are limited to specific algorithms.	[ "Much of modern cryptography derives its security from the factorization problem (The RSA algorithm being the prime example). Basically it boils down to the fact that it's relatively easy to multiply two very large prime numbers together, but very hard to recover those primes from the results. \n\nIf I recall thing...	1	[ "Much of modern cryptography derives its security from the factorization problem (The RSA algorithm being the prime example). Basically it boils down to the fact that it's relatively easy to multiply two very large prime numbers together, but very hard to recover those primes from the results. \n\nIf I recall thing...	1	<P> share a secret that can be used in a Carter–Wegman MAC, this technique might one day be faster than classical techniques given a quantum computer with 5 to 10 qubits. However, these circumstances are very unusual and it is unlikely the technique will ever have a practical application; it is largely of theoretical interest. <P> Gottesman–Knill theorem In quantum computing, the Gottesman–Knill theorem is a theoretical result by Daniel Gottesman and Emanuel Knill that states that stabilizer circuits, circuits that only consist of gates from the normalizer of the qubit Pauli group, also called Clifford group, can be perfectly simulated in polynomial time on a probabilistic classical computer. The Clifford group can be generated solely by using CNOT, Hadamard, and phase gates; and therefore stabilizer circuits can be constructed using only these gates. The reason for the speed up of quantum computers is not yet fully understood. The theorem proves that, for all quantum algorithms <P> very difficult to solve on a classical computer (the type of computer the world has known since the 1940s through today) but are rather easily solved by a relatively small quantum computer using only 5 to 10 thousand of bits of memory. There is optimism in the computer industry that larger scale quantum computers will be available around 2030. If a quantum computer of sufficient size were built, all of the public key algorithms based on these three classically hard problems would be insecure. This public key cryptography is used today to secure Internet websites, protect computer <P> problem (SVP) in an ideal lattice. The best method to gauge the practical security of a given set of lattice parameters is the BKZ 2.0 lattice reduction algorithm. According to the BKZ 2.0 algorithm the key exchange parameters listed above will provide greater than 128 or 256 bits of security, respectively. Implementations In 2014 Douglas Stebila made a patch for OpenSSL 1.0.1f. based on his work and others published in "Post-quantum key exchange for the TLS protocol from the ring learning with errors problem." Software implementing the work of Singh is found on GitHub at https://github.com/vscrypto/ringlwe. Other <P> Device-independent quantum cryptography A quantum cryptographic protocol is device-independent if its security does not rely on trusting that the quantum devices used are truthful. Thus the security analysis of such a protocol needs to consider scenarios of imperfect or even malicious devices. Several important problems have been shown to admit unconditional secure and device-independent protocols. A closely related topic (that is not discussed in this article) is measurement-device independent quantum key distribution. Overview and History Mayers and Yao proposed the idea of designing quantum protocols using "self-testing" quantum apparatus, the internal operations of which can be uniquely determined by their input-output <P> login information, and prevent our computers from accepting malicious software. Cryptography that is not susceptible to attack by a quantum computer is referred to as quantum safe, or post-quantum cryptography. One class of quantum resistant cryptographic algorithms is based on a concept called "learning with errors" introduced by Oded Regev in 2005. A specialized form of Learning with errors operates within the ring of polynomials over a finite field. This specialized form is called ring learning with errors or RLWE. There are a variety of cryptographic algorithms which work using the RLWE paradigm. There are public-key encryption algorithms, <P> n quanta is that the false acceptance probability in a single round cannot exceed (n+1)/(n+K). The security of the continuous-variable quantum authentication of PUFs against an emulation attack, has been also addressed in the framework of Holevo’s bound and Fano’s inequality. <P> statistics. Subsequently, Roger Colbeck in his Thesis proposed the use of Bell tests for checking the honesty of the devices. Since then, several problems have been shown to admit unconditional secure and device-independent protocols, even when the actual devices performing the Bell test are substantially "noisy," i.e., far from being ideal. These problems include quantum key distribution, randomness expansion, and randomness amplification. <P> that the Gaussian parameter σ is 8/√(2π) and the uniform sampling bound (b) = 5 (see Singh), then the probability of key agreement failure is less than 2⁻⁷¹ for the 128-bit secure parameters and less than 2⁻⁹¹ for the 256-bit secure parameters. In their November 2015 paper, Alkim, Ducas, Popplemann, and Schwabe recommend the following parameters n = 1024, q =12289, and = x¹⁰²⁴ + 1. This represents a 70% reduction in public key size over the n = 1024 parameters of Singh. A listing of a number of different parameter choices for key exchanges using the Ring <P> Quantum readout Quantum readout is a method to verify the authenticity of an object. The method is secure provided that the object cannot be copied or physically emulated. Experimental realization Quantum readout of speckle-based optical PUFs has been demonstrated in the lab. This realization is known under the name Quantum-Secure Authentication. Security proofs Security has been proven in the case of Challenge Estimation attacks, in which the attacker tries to determine the challenge as best as he can using measurements. There are proofs for n=1, for quadrature measurements on coherent states and for fixed number of quanta n>1. The result for dimension K and <P> is not able to see either the input or the output, and Alice is not able to see the secret key Bob uses with the pseudorandom function. This enables transactions of sensitive cryptographic information to be secure even between untrusted parties. <P> or a line of quantum particles with 12 states per particle. If such models were found to be physically realisable, they too could be used to form the building blocks of a universal adiabatic quantum computer. In practice, there are problems during a computation. As the Hamiltonian is gradually changed, the interesting parts (quantum behaviour as opposed to classical) occur when multiple qubits are close to a tipping point. It is exactly at this point when the ground state (one set of qubit orientations) gets very close to a first energy state (a different arrangement of orientations). Adding a slight amount <P> approaches A variant of the approach described above is an authenticated version in the work of Zhang, Zhang, Ding, Snook and Dagdelen in their paper, "Post Quantum Authenticated Key Exchange from Ideal Lattices." The concept of creating what has been called a Diffie–Hellman-like Key Exchange using lattices with a reconciliation function appears to have first been presented by French researchers Aguilar, Gaborit, Lacharme, Schrek, and Zemor at PQCrypto 2010 in their talk, "Noisy Diffie–Hellman Protocols." In November 2015, Alkim, Ducas, Popplemann, and Schwabe built on the prior work of Peikert and used what they believe is a more conservative costing <P> polynomial . The presentation assumed that n was a power of 2 and that q was a prime which was congruent to 1 (mod 2n). Following the guidance given in Peikert's paper, Singh suggested two sets of parameters for the RLWE-KEX. For 128 bits of security, n = 512, q = 25601, and For 256 bits of security, n = 1024, q = 40961, and Because the key exchange uses random sampling and fixed bounds there is a small probability that the key exchange will fail to produce the same key for the initiator and responder. If we assume <P> valid. Note that the requirement that the coin is private is essential. In particular, if the number of public bits shared between Alice and Bob are not counted against the communication complexity, it is easy to argue that computing any function has communication complexity. On the other hand, both models are equivalent if the number of public bits used by Alice and Bob is counted against the protocol's total communication. Though subtle, lower bounds on this model are extremely strong. More specifically, it is clear that any bound on problems of this class immediately imply equivalent bounds on problems in the <P> In Tuc01b, he calculated CMI entanglement analytically, for a mixed state of two qubits. In Hay03, Hayden, Jozsa, Petz and Winter explored the connection between quantum CMI and separability. It was not however, until Chr03, that it was shown that CMI entanglement is in fact an entanglement measure, i.e. that it does not increase under Local Operations and Classical Communication (LOCC). The proof adapted Ben96 arguments about entanglement of formation. In Chr03, they also proved many other interesting inequalities concerning CMI entanglement, including that it was additive, and explored its connection to other measures of entanglement. The name <P> of energy (from the external bath, or as a result of slowly changing the Hamiltonian) could take the system out of the ground state, and ruin the calculation. Trying to perform the calculation more quickly increases the external energy; scaling the number of qubits makes the energy gap at the tipping points smaller. Adiabatic quantum computation in satisfiability problems Adiabatic quantum computation solves satisfiability problems and other combinatorial search problems by the process below. Generally this kind of problem is to seek for a state that satisfies . This expression contains the satisfiability of M clauses, each clause has the value <P> hypothetical universal quantum simulator would not. David Deutsch in 1985, took the ideas further and described a universal quantum computer. In 1996, Seth Lloyd showed that a standard quantum computer can be programmed to simulate any local quantum system efficiently. A quantum system of many particles is described by a Hilbert space whose dimension is exponentially large in the number of particles. Therefore, the obvious approach to simulate such a system requires exponential time on a classical computer. However, it is conceivable that a quantum system of many particles could be simulated by a quantum computer using a number of quantum <P> in his seminal paper "Conjugate Coding", which was the starting point of quantum cryptography. Unfortunately it took more than ten years to be published. Even though this primitive was equivalent to what was later called 1–2 oblivious transfer, Wiesner did not see its application to cryptography. Quantum oblivious transfer Protocols for oblivious transfer can be implemented with quantum systems. In contrast to other tasks in quantum cryptography, like quantum key distribution, it has been shown that quantum oblivious transfer cannot be implemented with unconditional security, i.e. the security of quantum oblivious transfer protocols cannot be guaranteed only from the laws of quantum <P> least amount of communication between them. While Alice and Bob can always succeed by having Bob send his whole -bit string to Alice (who then computes the function ), the idea here is to find clever ways of calculating with fewer than bits of communication. Note that, unlike in computational complexity theory, communication complexity is not concerned with the amount of computation performed by Alice or Bob, or the size of the memory used, as we generally assume nothing about the computational power of either Alice or Bob. This abstract problem with two parties (called two-party communication complexity), and its	question: How will quantum computers be able current encryption methods? context: <P> share a secret that can be used in a Carter–Wegman MAC, this technique might one day be faster than classical techniques given a quantum computer with 5 to 10 qubits. However, these circumstances are very unusual and it is unlikely the technique will ever have a practical application; it is largely of theoretical interest. <P> Gottesman–Knill theorem In quantum computing, the Gottesman–Knill theorem is a theoretical result by Daniel Gottesman and Emanuel Knill that states that stabilizer circuits, circuits that only consist of gates from the normalizer of the qubit Pauli group, also called Clifford group, can be perfectly simulated in polynomial time on a probabilistic classical computer. The Clifford group can be generated solely by using CNOT, Hadamard, and phase gates; and therefore stabilizer circuits can be constructed using only these gates. The reason for the speed up of quantum computers is not yet fully understood. The theorem proves that, for all quantum algorithms <P> very difficult to solve on a classical computer (the type of computer the world has known since the 1940s through today) but are rather easily solved by a relatively small quantum computer using only 5 to 10 thousand of bits of memory. There is optimism in the computer industry that larger scale quantum computers will be available around 2030. If a quantum computer of sufficient size were built, all of the public key algorithms based on these three classically hard problems would be insecure. This public key cryptography is used today to secure Internet websites, protect computer <P> problem (SVP) in an ideal lattice. The best method to gauge the practical security of a given set of lattice parameters is the BKZ 2.0 lattice reduction algorithm. According to the BKZ 2.0 algorithm the key exchange parameters listed above will provide greater than 128 or 256 bits of security, respectively. Implementations In 2014 Douglas Stebila made a patch for OpenSSL 1.0.1f. based on his work and others published in "Post-quantum key exchange for the TLS protocol from the ring learning with errors problem." Software implementing the work of Singh is found on GitHub at https://github.com/vscrypto/ringlwe. Other <P> Device-independent quantum cryptography A quantum cryptographic protocol is device-independent if its security does not rely on trusting that the quantum devices used are truthful. Thus the security analysis of such a protocol needs to consider scenarios of imperfect or even malicious devices. Several important problems have been shown to admit unconditional secure and device-independent protocols. A closely related topic (that is not discussed in this article) is measurement-device independent quantum key distribution. Overview and History Mayers and Yao proposed the idea of designing quantum protocols using "self-testing" quantum apparatus, the internal operations of which can be uniquely determined by their input-output <P> login information, and prevent our computers from accepting malicious software. Cryptography that is not susceptible to attack by a quantum computer is referred to as quantum safe, or post-quantum cryptography. One class of quantum resistant cryptographic algorithms is based on a concept called "learning with errors" introduced by Oded Regev in 2005. A specialized form of Learning with errors operates within the ring of polynomials over a finite field. This specialized form is called ring learning with errors or RLWE. There are a variety of cryptographic algorithms which work using the RLWE paradigm. There are public-key encryption algorithms, <P> n quanta is that the false acceptance probability in a single round cannot exceed (n+1)/(n+K). The security of the continuous-variable quantum authentication of PUFs against an emulation attack, has been also addressed in the framework of Holevo’s bound and Fano’s inequality. <P> statistics. Subsequently, Roger Colbeck in his Thesis proposed the use of Bell tests for checking the honesty of the devices. Since then, several problems have been shown to admit unconditional secure and device-independent protocols, even when the actual devices performing the Bell test are substantially "noisy," i.e., far from being ideal. These problems include quantum key distribution, randomness expansion, and randomness amplification. <P> that the Gaussian parameter σ is 8/√(2π) and the uniform sampling bound (b) = 5 (see Singh), then the probability of key agreement failure is less than 2⁻⁷¹ for the 128-bit secure parameters and less than 2⁻⁹¹ for the 256-bit secure parameters. In their November 2015 paper, Alkim, Ducas, Popplemann, and Schwabe recommend the following parameters n = 1024, q =12289, and = x¹⁰²⁴ + 1. This represents a 70% reduction in public key size over the n = 1024 parameters of Singh. A listing of a number of different parameter choices for key exchanges using the Ring <P> Quantum readout Quantum readout is a method to verify the authenticity of an object. The method is secure provided that the object cannot be copied or physically emulated. Experimental realization Quantum readout of speckle-based optical PUFs has been demonstrated in the lab. This realization is known under the name Quantum-Secure Authentication. Security proofs Security has been proven in the case of Challenge Estimation attacks, in which the attacker tries to determine the challenge as best as he can using measurements. There are proofs for n=1, for quadrature measurements on coherent states and for fixed number of quanta n>1. The result for dimension K and <P> is not able to see either the input or the output, and Alice is not able to see the secret key Bob uses with the pseudorandom function. This enables transactions of sensitive cryptographic information to be secure even between untrusted parties. <P> or a line of quantum particles with 12 states per particle. If such models were found to be physically realisable, they too could be used to form the building blocks of a universal adiabatic quantum computer. In practice, there are problems during a computation. As the Hamiltonian is gradually changed, the interesting parts (quantum behaviour as opposed to classical) occur when multiple qubits are close to a tipping point. It is exactly at this point when the ground state (one set of qubit orientations) gets very close to a first energy state (a different arrangement of orientations). Adding a slight amount <P> approaches A variant of the approach described above is an authenticated version in the work of Zhang, Zhang, Ding, Snook and Dagdelen in their paper, "Post Quantum Authenticated Key Exchange from Ideal Lattices." The concept of creating what has been called a Diffie–Hellman-like Key Exchange using lattices with a reconciliation function appears to have first been presented by French researchers Aguilar, Gaborit, Lacharme, Schrek, and Zemor at PQCrypto 2010 in their talk, "Noisy Diffie–Hellman Protocols." In November 2015, Alkim, Ducas, Popplemann, and Schwabe built on the prior work of Peikert and used what they believe is a more conservative costing <P> polynomial . The presentation assumed that n was a power of 2 and that q was a prime which was congruent to 1 (mod 2n). Following the guidance given in Peikert's paper, Singh suggested two sets of parameters for the RLWE-KEX. For 128 bits of security, n = 512, q = 25601, and For 256 bits of security, n = 1024, q = 40961, and Because the key exchange uses random sampling and fixed bounds there is a small probability that the key exchange will fail to produce the same key for the initiator and responder. If we assume <P> valid. Note that the requirement that the coin is private is essential. In particular, if the number of public bits shared between Alice and Bob are not counted against the communication complexity, it is easy to argue that computing any function has communication complexity. On the other hand, both models are equivalent if the number of public bits used by Alice and Bob is counted against the protocol's total communication. Though subtle, lower bounds on this model are extremely strong. More specifically, it is clear that any bound on problems of this class immediately imply equivalent bounds on problems in the <P> In Tuc01b, he calculated CMI entanglement analytically, for a mixed state of two qubits. In Hay03, Hayden, Jozsa, Petz and Winter explored the connection between quantum CMI and separability. It was not however, until Chr03, that it was shown that CMI entanglement is in fact an entanglement measure, i.e. that it does not increase under Local Operations and Classical Communication (LOCC). The proof adapted Ben96 arguments about entanglement of formation. In Chr03, they also proved many other interesting inequalities concerning CMI entanglement, including that it was additive, and explored its connection to other measures of entanglement. The name <P> of energy (from the external bath, or as a result of slowly changing the Hamiltonian) could take the system out of the ground state, and ruin the calculation. Trying to perform the calculation more quickly increases the external energy; scaling the number of qubits makes the energy gap at the tipping points smaller. Adiabatic quantum computation in satisfiability problems Adiabatic quantum computation solves satisfiability problems and other combinatorial search problems by the process below. Generally this kind of problem is to seek for a state that satisfies . This expression contains the satisfiability of M clauses, each clause has the value <P> hypothetical universal quantum simulator would not. David Deutsch in 1985, took the ideas further and described a universal quantum computer. In 1996, Seth Lloyd showed that a standard quantum computer can be programmed to simulate any local quantum system efficiently. A quantum system of many particles is described by a Hilbert space whose dimension is exponentially large in the number of particles. Therefore, the obvious approach to simulate such a system requires exponential time on a classical computer. However, it is conceivable that a quantum system of many particles could be simulated by a quantum computer using a number of quantum <P> in his seminal paper "Conjugate Coding", which was the starting point of quantum cryptography. Unfortunately it took more than ten years to be published. Even though this primitive was equivalent to what was later called 1–2 oblivious transfer, Wiesner did not see its application to cryptography. Quantum oblivious transfer Protocols for oblivious transfer can be implemented with quantum systems. In contrast to other tasks in quantum cryptography, like quantum key distribution, it has been shown that quantum oblivious transfer cannot be implemented with unconditional security, i.e. the security of quantum oblivious transfer protocols cannot be guaranteed only from the laws of quantum <P> least amount of communication between them. While Alice and Bob can always succeed by having Bob send his whole -bit string to Alice (who then computes the function ), the idea here is to find clever ways of calculating with fewer than bits of communication. Note that, unlike in computational complexity theory, communication complexity is not concerned with the amount of computation performed by Alice or Bob, or the size of the memory used, as we generally assume nothing about the computational power of either Alice or Bob. This abstract problem with two parties (called two-party communication complexity), and its	answer: Much of modern cryptography derives its security from the factorization problem (The RSA algorithm being the prime example). Basically it boils down to the fact that it's relatively easy to multiply two very large prime numbers together, but very hard to recover those primes from the results. If I recall things correctly, the most efficient algorithm is basically guess and check. This means the difficulty of doing this is exponentially related to the size of the number O(2^n).A (still theoretical) quantum computer could implement Shor's algorithm, which would allow the factorization problem to be solved in polynomial time. In theory this would make breaking the RSA algorithm computationally feasible. However, the technology is not there yet, as current quantum computers either aren't stable enough, don't have enough qbits, our are limited to specific algorithms.
137,084	619gqq	what does the successful vote to allow the sale of people's browsing history mean for the average person and what is the scope of this?	It really doesn't mean much. The rules that this vote seeks to overturn haven't gone into effect yet. Everything will stay as it is. It's also important to add the the senate vote is what just happened. For it to mean anything at all the house must vote to approve it and then the president must sign it. That will likely happen which will result in the status quo being preserved	[ "It really doesn't mean much. The rules that this vote seeks to overturn haven't gone into effect yet. Everything will stay as it is. \n\nIt's also important to add the the senate vote is what just happened. For it to mean anything at all the house must vote to approve it and then the president must sign it. That w...	2	[]	0	<P> circulation on August 30, 2006, and the signatures were turned in the month of July. 83,724 signatures were found to be valid of those submitted, versus a qualification threshold of 82,769. A union-funded watchdog group asked the Oregon Secretary of State to conduct an investigation into how some of the signatures on the measure were collected. Bill Bradbury, the Secretary of State has said, "...most all of the initiatives Oregon voters will decide this fall got there through practices that are now illegal. But those practices were legal at the time most of the signatures were submitted." The state <P> Copyright Term Extension Act Senate Report 104-315 The Senate Report gave the official reasons for passing copyright extension laws and was originally written in the context of the Copyright Term Extension Act of 1995. The purpose of the bill is to ensure adequate copyright protection for American works in foreign nations and the continued economic benefits of a healthy surplus balance of trade in the exploitation of copyrighted works. The bill accomplishes these goals by extending the current U.S. copyright term for an additional 21 years. Such an extension will provide significant trade benefits by substantially harmonizing U.S. copyright law to <P> personal rights It is also declared by the government that implementation of the prevention of access decisions are facilitated by the requirement of stipulating a legal responsibility to operators for preserving traffic information up to 2 years. Government also mentions that new codification will be helpful for preventing victimization from online defamatory content in an efficient and swift way. And the final decision is to be rendered by the court. However, the initiative of the PTC is designed as a tool for an interim measure to protect the individual’s personal rights from defamation till the court renders its <P> the copyright-protection of intellectual property in the context of fair use. This means that when a CD, etc. is copyright-protected, there is not only technically no space for fair use, but also from the legislative side, there is no support for copying in the context of fair use. The "regulation of the alteration etc. of the rights management information" section strengthens the first regulation by saying that it is forbidden to remove rights management information attached to the work. However, it is to be said that this provision, and such, does not seem to limit immediately the reach of the public <P> and the triennial rulemaking process. This is different from usual public comments on exemption proposals. It includes the role of the anti-trafficking provisions and permanent exemptions, and the requirements of the rulemaking itself. The Office has issued a Notice of Inquiry requesting public comment. Several comments were posted by individuals and organizations. An individual recalls that the Copyright Clause has limitations.Association of American Publishers et al. hold there is no need to amend the statute or to significantly alter the rulemaking. They are happy with the protection they are being granted, including anti-trafficking provisions, and talk of placing <P> text of the law authorized institutions to disable the filter on request "for bona fide research or other lawful purpose", implying that the adult would be expected to provide justification with his request. But under the interpretation urged by the Solicitor General and adopted by the Supreme Court, libraries would be required to adopt an Internet use policy providing for unblocking the Internet for adult users, without a requirement that the library inquire into the user's reasons for disabling the filter. Legislation after CIPA An attempt to expand CIPA to include "social networking" web sites was considered by the U.S. <P> the cart before the horse, when they argue about requiring a proof of the mindset that consumers would have when utilizing circumvention tools before actual acts of circumvention occur. In their opinion, the meaning of Section 1201 is to extend, not merely duplicate, copyright holder's rights.Society of American Archivists say they are not aware that the anti-trafficking provisions of section 1201(a)(2) and 1201(b) have had any impact in deterring copyright infringement. They do know, however, that the provisions have created an absurd, Catch-22 situation for any archives that sought to adhere to the letter of the law.iFixit also talks of <P> Database and Collections of Information Misappropriation Act, H.R. 3261, 108th Congress.) <P> students, attorneys, and small business owners continue to rely on the print" version of the Federal Register. AALL also argued that the lack of print versions of the Federal Register and CFR would mean the 15 percent of Americans who don't use the internet would lose their access to that material. Access to Legal Information. The American Association of Law Libraries has been supporting free access to Pacer information for decades. In February 2019 the AALL joined with 15 organization and signed a letter calling for passage of H.R. 6714 the Electronic Records Reform Act. In addition to requiring free access <P> collection of data for OBA but gives an exception for commonly accepted practices such as fraud prevention and inventory control. The bill authorizes the FTC to enforce the new regulations by conducting random audits of Web publishers, although the proposed regulations contain an exception for websites that have less than 10,000 visitors per year. The bill never reached a vote and died in Congress. Commercial Privacy Bill of Rights Act of 2011 On April 12, 2011, Senator John Kerry introduced the “Commercial Privacy Bill of Rights Act of 2011”, co-sponsored by Senator John McCain. At the press conference to introduce <P> et cetera. The effectiveness of this register will be evaluated in 2019. <P> work with representatives of rights holders to build a consensus on the application of the fair use doctrine, and to publish a guide of best practices based on their findings. Long-term national strategies This final section reflects on the recommendations of the previous three, and addresses the larger practical challenges in accomplishing these goals. The first recommendation of this section, 4.1, charges the National Recording Preservation Board with the task of coordinating the activities recommended by this document. These activities include aiding preservation work by other institutions, promoting public understanding of the board and foundation's goals, developing fundraising campaigns, and forming <P> transfer, along with “a clear and conspicuous mechanism for opt-out consent for any unauthorized use of [consumers'] personally identifiable information.” The bill contains a provision which would require opt-in consent for the “collection, use or transfer of sensitive personally identifiable information”. Sensitive personally identifiable information is defined as “personally identifiable information which, if lost, compromised, or disclosed without authorization either alone or with other information, carries a significant risk of economic or physical harm” or is related to a particular medical condition, health record or the religious affiliation of an individual. The bill also tasks the FTC with establishing a voluntary safe <P> 12, 2014, the campaign announced its intent to "... conduct a review of the signatures determined to be invalid by the registrars in several counties to determine if they were in fact valid signatures." To qualify for a full check of all signatures in all fifty-eight counties, the review must find about 450 wrongly invalidated signatures among those submitted in the fifteen counties that sampled 3% of the total signatures submitted in each of those fifteen counties. As of November 17, 2014, the campaign has not updated its web site with information about the results of their <P> business asset solely due to its age, or because the asset may have appreciated in value over time. The potential consequence of this simplification is that § 168 may "allow an asset to be written off over a period much shorter than its actual useful life and that the entire cost might be deducted despite the fact that there might be no actual economic decrease in value". <P> . The bill was supported by the Government . According to some experts, the restriction of information openness reduces the chances of identifying the public cases of illegal enrichment and increases business risks . . United Kingdom In the United Kingdom there are several land registers, including HM Land Registry for England and Wales, Registers of Scotland, and Land and Property Services in Northern Ireland. Scotland Scotland is one of the first countries in the world to have a system of land registration. Land registration commenced in Scotland with the creation of the "Register of Sasines" by the Registration Act <P> from the Attorney General). Proponents usually seek at least 50 percent more than the legal minimum number of signatures to compensate for possible duplicate or otherwise invalid signatures. Proponents who have gathered at least 25 percent of the required number of signatures must immediately submit a written statement to the Secretary of State certifying they have done so. This is to allow time for each chamber in the State Legislature to assign the proposed initiative to its appropriate committees and schedule public hearings on it. However, the Legislature cannot amend the proposed initiative or prevent it from being added to the <P> amended by the same Act to specify that using repeated numbers invalidated a vote. <P> these standards in a public manner. Second, it removes the word "guidance" from the law, which would reduce the number of documents that must be available online by limiting the law to requiring only the actual standards. Finally, H.R. 2576 would remove the phrase "on an internet Web site" from the law, which would allow the industry and the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration to determine an alternate way to still grant access to the standards documents without forcing them to be freely available on the web. House H.R. 2576 was introduced into the House by Rep. Jeff Denham <P> an estimated 752,685 signatures were valid, which was insufficient not only to qualify the initiative for the ballot, but also to trigger a complete verification of all submitted signatures. These estimated valid signatures were 66.15% of the 1,137,844 submitted signatures. At least 807,615 signatures, 70.98% of the submitted signatures, had to be valid for the measure to qualify for the ballot. At least 767,235 signatures, 67.43% of the submitted signatures, had to be estimated to be valid in order for the petition to qualify for a second mandatory phase to review all of the submitted signatures, not just random samples. Also on September	question: what does the successful vote to allow the sale of people's browsing history mean for the average person and what is the scope of this? context: <P> circulation on August 30, 2006, and the signatures were turned in the month of July. 83,724 signatures were found to be valid of those submitted, versus a qualification threshold of 82,769. A union-funded watchdog group asked the Oregon Secretary of State to conduct an investigation into how some of the signatures on the measure were collected. Bill Bradbury, the Secretary of State has said, "...most all of the initiatives Oregon voters will decide this fall got there through practices that are now illegal. But those practices were legal at the time most of the signatures were submitted." The state <P> Copyright Term Extension Act Senate Report 104-315 The Senate Report gave the official reasons for passing copyright extension laws and was originally written in the context of the Copyright Term Extension Act of 1995. The purpose of the bill is to ensure adequate copyright protection for American works in foreign nations and the continued economic benefits of a healthy surplus balance of trade in the exploitation of copyrighted works. The bill accomplishes these goals by extending the current U.S. copyright term for an additional 21 years. Such an extension will provide significant trade benefits by substantially harmonizing U.S. copyright law to <P> personal rights It is also declared by the government that implementation of the prevention of access decisions are facilitated by the requirement of stipulating a legal responsibility to operators for preserving traffic information up to 2 years. Government also mentions that new codification will be helpful for preventing victimization from online defamatory content in an efficient and swift way. And the final decision is to be rendered by the court. However, the initiative of the PTC is designed as a tool for an interim measure to protect the individual’s personal rights from defamation till the court renders its <P> the copyright-protection of intellectual property in the context of fair use. This means that when a CD, etc. is copyright-protected, there is not only technically no space for fair use, but also from the legislative side, there is no support for copying in the context of fair use. The "regulation of the alteration etc. of the rights management information" section strengthens the first regulation by saying that it is forbidden to remove rights management information attached to the work. However, it is to be said that this provision, and such, does not seem to limit immediately the reach of the public <P> and the triennial rulemaking process. This is different from usual public comments on exemption proposals. It includes the role of the anti-trafficking provisions and permanent exemptions, and the requirements of the rulemaking itself. The Office has issued a Notice of Inquiry requesting public comment. Several comments were posted by individuals and organizations. An individual recalls that the Copyright Clause has limitations.Association of American Publishers et al. hold there is no need to amend the statute or to significantly alter the rulemaking. They are happy with the protection they are being granted, including anti-trafficking provisions, and talk of placing <P> text of the law authorized institutions to disable the filter on request "for bona fide research or other lawful purpose", implying that the adult would be expected to provide justification with his request. But under the interpretation urged by the Solicitor General and adopted by the Supreme Court, libraries would be required to adopt an Internet use policy providing for unblocking the Internet for adult users, without a requirement that the library inquire into the user's reasons for disabling the filter. Legislation after CIPA An attempt to expand CIPA to include "social networking" web sites was considered by the U.S. <P> the cart before the horse, when they argue about requiring a proof of the mindset that consumers would have when utilizing circumvention tools before actual acts of circumvention occur. In their opinion, the meaning of Section 1201 is to extend, not merely duplicate, copyright holder's rights.Society of American Archivists say they are not aware that the anti-trafficking provisions of section 1201(a)(2) and 1201(b) have had any impact in deterring copyright infringement. They do know, however, that the provisions have created an absurd, Catch-22 situation for any archives that sought to adhere to the letter of the law.iFixit also talks of <P> Database and Collections of Information Misappropriation Act, H.R. 3261, 108th Congress.) <P> students, attorneys, and small business owners continue to rely on the print" version of the Federal Register. AALL also argued that the lack of print versions of the Federal Register and CFR would mean the 15 percent of Americans who don't use the internet would lose their access to that material. Access to Legal Information. The American Association of Law Libraries has been supporting free access to Pacer information for decades. In February 2019 the AALL joined with 15 organization and signed a letter calling for passage of H.R. 6714 the Electronic Records Reform Act. In addition to requiring free access <P> collection of data for OBA but gives an exception for commonly accepted practices such as fraud prevention and inventory control. The bill authorizes the FTC to enforce the new regulations by conducting random audits of Web publishers, although the proposed regulations contain an exception for websites that have less than 10,000 visitors per year. The bill never reached a vote and died in Congress. Commercial Privacy Bill of Rights Act of 2011 On April 12, 2011, Senator John Kerry introduced the “Commercial Privacy Bill of Rights Act of 2011”, co-sponsored by Senator John McCain. At the press conference to introduce <P> et cetera. The effectiveness of this register will be evaluated in 2019. <P> work with representatives of rights holders to build a consensus on the application of the fair use doctrine, and to publish a guide of best practices based on their findings. Long-term national strategies This final section reflects on the recommendations of the previous three, and addresses the larger practical challenges in accomplishing these goals. The first recommendation of this section, 4.1, charges the National Recording Preservation Board with the task of coordinating the activities recommended by this document. These activities include aiding preservation work by other institutions, promoting public understanding of the board and foundation's goals, developing fundraising campaigns, and forming <P> transfer, along with “a clear and conspicuous mechanism for opt-out consent for any unauthorized use of [consumers'] personally identifiable information.” The bill contains a provision which would require opt-in consent for the “collection, use or transfer of sensitive personally identifiable information”. Sensitive personally identifiable information is defined as “personally identifiable information which, if lost, compromised, or disclosed without authorization either alone or with other information, carries a significant risk of economic or physical harm” or is related to a particular medical condition, health record or the religious affiliation of an individual. The bill also tasks the FTC with establishing a voluntary safe <P> 12, 2014, the campaign announced its intent to "... conduct a review of the signatures determined to be invalid by the registrars in several counties to determine if they were in fact valid signatures." To qualify for a full check of all signatures in all fifty-eight counties, the review must find about 450 wrongly invalidated signatures among those submitted in the fifteen counties that sampled 3% of the total signatures submitted in each of those fifteen counties. As of November 17, 2014, the campaign has not updated its web site with information about the results of their <P> business asset solely due to its age, or because the asset may have appreciated in value over time. The potential consequence of this simplification is that § 168 may "allow an asset to be written off over a period much shorter than its actual useful life and that the entire cost might be deducted despite the fact that there might be no actual economic decrease in value". <P> . The bill was supported by the Government . According to some experts, the restriction of information openness reduces the chances of identifying the public cases of illegal enrichment and increases business risks . . United Kingdom In the United Kingdom there are several land registers, including HM Land Registry for England and Wales, Registers of Scotland, and Land and Property Services in Northern Ireland. Scotland Scotland is one of the first countries in the world to have a system of land registration. Land registration commenced in Scotland with the creation of the "Register of Sasines" by the Registration Act <P> from the Attorney General). Proponents usually seek at least 50 percent more than the legal minimum number of signatures to compensate for possible duplicate or otherwise invalid signatures. Proponents who have gathered at least 25 percent of the required number of signatures must immediately submit a written statement to the Secretary of State certifying they have done so. This is to allow time for each chamber in the State Legislature to assign the proposed initiative to its appropriate committees and schedule public hearings on it. However, the Legislature cannot amend the proposed initiative or prevent it from being added to the <P> amended by the same Act to specify that using repeated numbers invalidated a vote. <P> these standards in a public manner. Second, it removes the word "guidance" from the law, which would reduce the number of documents that must be available online by limiting the law to requiring only the actual standards. Finally, H.R. 2576 would remove the phrase "on an internet Web site" from the law, which would allow the industry and the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration to determine an alternate way to still grant access to the standards documents without forcing them to be freely available on the web. House H.R. 2576 was introduced into the House by Rep. Jeff Denham <P> an estimated 752,685 signatures were valid, which was insufficient not only to qualify the initiative for the ballot, but also to trigger a complete verification of all submitted signatures. These estimated valid signatures were 66.15% of the 1,137,844 submitted signatures. At least 807,615 signatures, 70.98% of the submitted signatures, had to be valid for the measure to qualify for the ballot. At least 767,235 signatures, 67.43% of the submitted signatures, had to be estimated to be valid in order for the petition to qualify for a second mandatory phase to review all of the submitted signatures, not just random samples. Also on September	answer: It really doesn't mean much. The rules that this vote seeks to overturn haven't gone into effect yet. Everything will stay as it is. It's also important to add the the senate vote is what just happened. For it to mean anything at all the house must vote to approve it and then the president must sign it. That will likely happen which will result in the status quo being preserved
204,223	24snq3	what happens to a roach when you spray raid on it?	It's basically the equivalent of nerve gas on a human or other mammal. The reason it doesn't hurt us like that is because we are physiologically different enough that it doesn't react the same way (although note they can be much more toxic to cats)It basically keeps their nerves from being able to fire (which is the opposite of human nerve gases which keep your nerves constantly firing), paralyzing them and killing them.	[ "It's basically the equivalent of nerve gas on a human or other mammal. The reason it doesn't hurt us like that is because we are physiologically different enough that it doesn't react the same way (although note they can be much more toxic to cats)\n\nIt basically keeps their nerves from being able to fire (which ...	2	[ "It's basically the equivalent of nerve gas on a human or other mammal. The reason it doesn't hurt us like that is because we are physiologically different enough that it doesn't react the same way (although note they can be much more toxic to cats)\n\nIt basically keeps their nerves from being able to fire (which ...	1	<P> beginning of substage 4b (around day 25 post-penetration) as the body begins to eliminate the parasite through skin repair mechanisms (e.g. shedding and subsequent skin repair). At this phase, the lesion is seen as brown or black. If the flea is left within the skin, dangerous complications can occur including secondary infections from trapped bacteria such as staph, strep, enterobacteriaceae, tetanus, etc. Lingering effects may include loss of toenails and toe deformation. These seem to be commonplace especially where heavy infestations combine with unsanitary conditions and poverty. History Tungiasis was endemic in pre-Columbian Andean society for centuries before discovery of <P> than other roaches. Although adults can be fairly easily killed by the application of residual insecticide, the insecticides can get washed away, and two months later females can hatch new nymphs. <P> non-lethal nature. <P> a day or two after penetration and takes the appearance of a life belt. During this time, the flea begins to feed on the host’s blood. Stage 3 is divided into two substages, the first of which being 2–3 days after penetration is complete. In 3a, maximum hypertrophy is achieved and the flea’s midsection swells to the size of a pea. Due to the expanding flea, the outer layer of the skin is stretched thin, resulting in the appearance of a white halo around the black dot (rear end of the flea) at the center of the lesion. The black dot is <P> Tunga penetrans Identification T. penetrans is the smallest known flea, at only 1 mm. It is most recognizable in its parasite phase. While embedded under the stratum corneum layer of the skin, it may reach up to 1 cm across. During the first day or two of infestation, the host may feel an itching or irritation which then passes as the area around the flea calluses and becomes insensitive. As the flea's abdomen swells with eggs later in the cycle, the pressure from the swelling may press neighbouring nerves or blood vessels. Depending on the exact site, this can cause sensations ranging <P> ringworm. Safety Allylamine, like other allyl derivatives is a lachrymator and skin irritant. Its oral LD₅₀ is 106 mg/kg for rats. <P> 3 mg of venom is able to kill a 20 g mouse. Venom from both the cell membranes and tentacles alike have these effects, but venom from membranes causes cell death in skin, blistering, and can cause blood to coagulate. Deeplet sea anemones have two polypeptides that are able to paralyze crabs, BTTX I and BTTX 2. BTTX II can interfere with the inactivation and activation of sodium channelsin the muscle membrane of rats. It decreases the membrane potential in muscle fibers in the back of the leg as well as muscles extended by contraction. Overall, it has an effect on <P> the flea's exposed hind legs, respiratory spiracles and reproductive organs. In 3b, the chitin exoskeleton of tergites 2 and 3 increase in thickness and gives the structure the look of a mini caldera. Egg release is common in substage 3b, as are fecal coils. The eggs tend to stick to the skin. At about the 3rd week after penetration, stage 4 begins, which is also divided into two substages. In 4a, the flea loses its signs of vitality and appears near death. As a result, the lesion shrinks in size, turns brown, and appears wrinkled. The death of the flea marks the <P> a section of the sewer below the town. He removes evidence of their presence as he moves along using a corrosive blue liquid and uses a laser net to try to contain the creatures, but the Aliens still manage to escape into the town above. The Predator fashions a plasma pistol from its remaining plasma caster and hunts Aliens all across town, accidentally cutting the power to the town in the process. During a confrontation with human survivors, the Predator loses its plasma pistol. The Predator then fights the Predalien singlehandedly, and the two mortally wound one another just as <P> the last experiment, central nervous system seizure agents were analyzed. These included an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, Chlorpyrifos; two pyrethroid insecticides, Fenvalerate and Cypermethrin; two cyclodiene insecticides, Endrin and Endosulfan; and a rodenticide, Strychnine. The duration of the exposure depended on the experiment, but the range was from 24 to 48 hours. Therefore, exposure resulted in acute toxicity. The Rainbow trout were exposed to a 24- to 48-hour lethal concentration of the toxicant. The respiratory and cardiovascular responses monitored throughout the exposure were cough rate, ventilation rate, ventilation volume, total oxygen consumption, oxygen utilization, heart rate, arterial blood pressure, arterial blood oxygen, <P> a central role in the novel Killer Instinct by Joseph Finder. In the film Big Hero 6, Honey Lemon, voiced by Genesis Rodriguez, uses liquid metal embrittlement in her lab. <P> their devout teacher, Lämpel, is busy at church, the boys invade his home and fill his favorite pipe with gunpowder. When he lights the pipe, the blast knocks him unconscious, blackens his skin and burns away all his hair. But: "Time that comes will quick repair; yet the pipe retains its share." Fifth Trick: The Uncle The boys collect bags full of May bugs, which they promptly deposit in their Uncle Fritz's bed. Uncle is nearly asleep when he feels the bugs walking on his nose. Horrified, he goes into a frenzy, killing them all before going back to sleep. <P> five long, flat, barbed scales. <P> been poisoned by accidental ingestion of artificial nail remover. The LD₅₀ for rats is reported as 1100 mg/kg. <P> its posterior legs to push its body upward by an angle between 45–90 degrees. Penetration then starts, beginning with the proboscis going through the epidermis. By stage 2 (days 1–2), penetration is complete and the flea has burrowed most of its body into the skin. Only the anus, the copulatory organs, and four rear air holes in fleas called stigmata remain on the outside of the epidermis. The anus will excrete feces that is thought to attract male fleas for mating, described in a later section. The hypertrophic zone between tergites 2 and 3 in the abdominal region begins to expand <P> and the others become trapped in the Skinner's farmhouse, surrounded by giant rats. Mrs. Skinner, Morgan's friend Brian (Jon Cypher), and Bensington are killed by the rats. Morgan blows up a nearby dam, flooding the area and drowning the rats, whose size and weight renders them unable to swim. After the waters clear, the survivors pile up the bodies of the rats, spilling the jars of "F.O.T.G." and gasoline on them before burning them. However, several of Mrs. Skinner's jars of "F.O.T.G." are swept away, drifting to a mainland farm. The substance is consumed by dairy cows, and in the film's <P> is accosted by a bear, which gives the Morgans time to escape. They flee on horseback to the rodeo to seek help. Vincent follows them to the rodeo, they spot him and hide in a bull suit. However, they end up in the ring with a bull, which then charges them, injuring Meryl. Meryl, unable to walk, stays hidden from Vincent while Paul impulsively confronts him with a canister of bear repellent spray. Paul accidentally sprays himself in the face, alerting Vincent who then holds Paul at gun-point. The Morgans are rescued by the Wheelers and their new friends from <P> slaughtered that morning. While the men eat, Lisa attempts to cut herself in the upstairs bathroom, but is interrupted by Billy, who knocks on the door. In the middle of the night, Lomax attempts to rape Lisa while she sleeps, but she stops the assault by slashing his neck with a straight razor, killing him. She drags his body to the bathtub, where she dismembers it with a hatchet. She stuffs Lomax's dismembered body parts into a steamer trunk. The following morning, Billy helps her carry the trunk into the attic, unaware of its contents. When he discovers blood dripping out <P> Road Runner to eat, while lying in wait on a high cliff with a magnet on a fishing line. However, the magnet attaches itself to a power line, electrocuting the Coyote - twice - and causing his nose to flash like a light bulb. The Coyote unscrews his nose and gazes at its flashing, looking amused. 5. The Coyote then attempts to load a cannon, but as he pounds in the cannonball with a stick, the cannon fires the two items out of it, with the Coyote still hanging on to the stick. Gravity results, and Wile E. and the stick <P> Calcium phosphide Uses Metal phosphides are used as a rodenticide. A mixture of food and calcium phosphide is left where the rodents can eat it. The acid in the digestive system of the rodent reacts with the phosphide to generate the toxic gas phosphine. This method of vermin control has possible use in places where rodents immune to many of the common warfarin-type (anticoagulant) poisons have appeared. Other pesticides similar to calcium phosphide are zinc phosphide and aluminium phosphide. Calcium phosphide is also used in fireworks, torpedoes, self-igniting naval pyrotechnic flares, and various water-activated ammunition. During the 1920s and 1930s, Charles	question: what happens to a roach when you spray raid on it? context: <P> beginning of substage 4b (around day 25 post-penetration) as the body begins to eliminate the parasite through skin repair mechanisms (e.g. shedding and subsequent skin repair). At this phase, the lesion is seen as brown or black. If the flea is left within the skin, dangerous complications can occur including secondary infections from trapped bacteria such as staph, strep, enterobacteriaceae, tetanus, etc. Lingering effects may include loss of toenails and toe deformation. These seem to be commonplace especially where heavy infestations combine with unsanitary conditions and poverty. History Tungiasis was endemic in pre-Columbian Andean society for centuries before discovery of <P> than other roaches. Although adults can be fairly easily killed by the application of residual insecticide, the insecticides can get washed away, and two months later females can hatch new nymphs. <P> non-lethal nature. <P> a day or two after penetration and takes the appearance of a life belt. During this time, the flea begins to feed on the host’s blood. Stage 3 is divided into two substages, the first of which being 2–3 days after penetration is complete. In 3a, maximum hypertrophy is achieved and the flea’s midsection swells to the size of a pea. Due to the expanding flea, the outer layer of the skin is stretched thin, resulting in the appearance of a white halo around the black dot (rear end of the flea) at the center of the lesion. The black dot is <P> Tunga penetrans Identification T. penetrans is the smallest known flea, at only 1 mm. It is most recognizable in its parasite phase. While embedded under the stratum corneum layer of the skin, it may reach up to 1 cm across. During the first day or two of infestation, the host may feel an itching or irritation which then passes as the area around the flea calluses and becomes insensitive. As the flea's abdomen swells with eggs later in the cycle, the pressure from the swelling may press neighbouring nerves or blood vessels. Depending on the exact site, this can cause sensations ranging <P> ringworm. Safety Allylamine, like other allyl derivatives is a lachrymator and skin irritant. Its oral LD₅₀ is 106 mg/kg for rats. <P> 3 mg of venom is able to kill a 20 g mouse. Venom from both the cell membranes and tentacles alike have these effects, but venom from membranes causes cell death in skin, blistering, and can cause blood to coagulate. Deeplet sea anemones have two polypeptides that are able to paralyze crabs, BTTX I and BTTX 2. BTTX II can interfere with the inactivation and activation of sodium channelsin the muscle membrane of rats. It decreases the membrane potential in muscle fibers in the back of the leg as well as muscles extended by contraction. Overall, it has an effect on <P> the flea's exposed hind legs, respiratory spiracles and reproductive organs. In 3b, the chitin exoskeleton of tergites 2 and 3 increase in thickness and gives the structure the look of a mini caldera. Egg release is common in substage 3b, as are fecal coils. The eggs tend to stick to the skin. At about the 3rd week after penetration, stage 4 begins, which is also divided into two substages. In 4a, the flea loses its signs of vitality and appears near death. As a result, the lesion shrinks in size, turns brown, and appears wrinkled. The death of the flea marks the <P> a section of the sewer below the town. He removes evidence of their presence as he moves along using a corrosive blue liquid and uses a laser net to try to contain the creatures, but the Aliens still manage to escape into the town above. The Predator fashions a plasma pistol from its remaining plasma caster and hunts Aliens all across town, accidentally cutting the power to the town in the process. During a confrontation with human survivors, the Predator loses its plasma pistol. The Predator then fights the Predalien singlehandedly, and the two mortally wound one another just as <P> the last experiment, central nervous system seizure agents were analyzed. These included an acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, Chlorpyrifos; two pyrethroid insecticides, Fenvalerate and Cypermethrin; two cyclodiene insecticides, Endrin and Endosulfan; and a rodenticide, Strychnine. The duration of the exposure depended on the experiment, but the range was from 24 to 48 hours. Therefore, exposure resulted in acute toxicity. The Rainbow trout were exposed to a 24- to 48-hour lethal concentration of the toxicant. The respiratory and cardiovascular responses monitored throughout the exposure were cough rate, ventilation rate, ventilation volume, total oxygen consumption, oxygen utilization, heart rate, arterial blood pressure, arterial blood oxygen, <P> a central role in the novel Killer Instinct by Joseph Finder. In the film Big Hero 6, Honey Lemon, voiced by Genesis Rodriguez, uses liquid metal embrittlement in her lab. <P> their devout teacher, Lämpel, is busy at church, the boys invade his home and fill his favorite pipe with gunpowder. When he lights the pipe, the blast knocks him unconscious, blackens his skin and burns away all his hair. But: "Time that comes will quick repair; yet the pipe retains its share." Fifth Trick: The Uncle The boys collect bags full of May bugs, which they promptly deposit in their Uncle Fritz's bed. Uncle is nearly asleep when he feels the bugs walking on his nose. Horrified, he goes into a frenzy, killing them all before going back to sleep. <P> five long, flat, barbed scales. <P> been poisoned by accidental ingestion of artificial nail remover. The LD₅₀ for rats is reported as 1100 mg/kg. <P> its posterior legs to push its body upward by an angle between 45–90 degrees. Penetration then starts, beginning with the proboscis going through the epidermis. By stage 2 (days 1–2), penetration is complete and the flea has burrowed most of its body into the skin. Only the anus, the copulatory organs, and four rear air holes in fleas called stigmata remain on the outside of the epidermis. The anus will excrete feces that is thought to attract male fleas for mating, described in a later section. The hypertrophic zone between tergites 2 and 3 in the abdominal region begins to expand <P> and the others become trapped in the Skinner's farmhouse, surrounded by giant rats. Mrs. Skinner, Morgan's friend Brian (Jon Cypher), and Bensington are killed by the rats. Morgan blows up a nearby dam, flooding the area and drowning the rats, whose size and weight renders them unable to swim. After the waters clear, the survivors pile up the bodies of the rats, spilling the jars of "F.O.T.G." and gasoline on them before burning them. However, several of Mrs. Skinner's jars of "F.O.T.G." are swept away, drifting to a mainland farm. The substance is consumed by dairy cows, and in the film's <P> is accosted by a bear, which gives the Morgans time to escape. They flee on horseback to the rodeo to seek help. Vincent follows them to the rodeo, they spot him and hide in a bull suit. However, they end up in the ring with a bull, which then charges them, injuring Meryl. Meryl, unable to walk, stays hidden from Vincent while Paul impulsively confronts him with a canister of bear repellent spray. Paul accidentally sprays himself in the face, alerting Vincent who then holds Paul at gun-point. The Morgans are rescued by the Wheelers and their new friends from <P> slaughtered that morning. While the men eat, Lisa attempts to cut herself in the upstairs bathroom, but is interrupted by Billy, who knocks on the door. In the middle of the night, Lomax attempts to rape Lisa while she sleeps, but she stops the assault by slashing his neck with a straight razor, killing him. She drags his body to the bathtub, where she dismembers it with a hatchet. She stuffs Lomax's dismembered body parts into a steamer trunk. The following morning, Billy helps her carry the trunk into the attic, unaware of its contents. When he discovers blood dripping out <P> Road Runner to eat, while lying in wait on a high cliff with a magnet on a fishing line. However, the magnet attaches itself to a power line, electrocuting the Coyote - twice - and causing his nose to flash like a light bulb. The Coyote unscrews his nose and gazes at its flashing, looking amused. 5. The Coyote then attempts to load a cannon, but as he pounds in the cannonball with a stick, the cannon fires the two items out of it, with the Coyote still hanging on to the stick. Gravity results, and Wile E. and the stick <P> Calcium phosphide Uses Metal phosphides are used as a rodenticide. A mixture of food and calcium phosphide is left where the rodents can eat it. The acid in the digestive system of the rodent reacts with the phosphide to generate the toxic gas phosphine. This method of vermin control has possible use in places where rodents immune to many of the common warfarin-type (anticoagulant) poisons have appeared. Other pesticides similar to calcium phosphide are zinc phosphide and aluminium phosphide. Calcium phosphide is also used in fireworks, torpedoes, self-igniting naval pyrotechnic flares, and various water-activated ammunition. During the 1920s and 1930s, Charles	answer: It's basically the equivalent of nerve gas on a human or other mammal. The reason it doesn't hurt us like that is because we are physiologically different enough that it doesn't react the same way (although note they can be much more toxic to cats)It basically keeps their nerves from being able to fire (which is the opposite of human nerve gases which keep your nerves constantly firing), paralyzing them and killing them.
44,440	ab45op	how can old movies be re-released at higher definitions later?	If I'm not mistaken, the actual physical film on which the movie was recorded is at a higher resolution than anything old tv sets were capable of producing.Transferring it to a digital media with a better resolution than what existed before with VCR or DVD shouldn't be very hard.	[ "If I'm not mistaken, the actual physical film on which the movie was recorded is at a higher resolution than anything old tv sets were capable of producing.\n\nTransferring it to a digital media with a better resolution than what existed before with VCR or DVD shouldn't be very hard. ", "35mm films can be scanne...	2	[ "If I'm not mistaken, the actual physical film on which the movie was recorded is at a higher resolution than anything old tv sets were capable of producing.\n\nTransferring it to a digital media with a better resolution than what existed before with VCR or DVD shouldn't be very hard. " ]	1	<P> and Schmidt to give the film a theatrical release, MGM Board of Directors member Francis Ford Coppola decided to trim the film from its original 109 minute length to 86 minutes, and the abridged version finally was released in four theaters in September 2000. Ritchie's original, 109-minute version was finally released as part of Twilight Time's limited 2015 Blu-Ray release, as a standard-definition "special feature". No high-definition transfer of the original cut currently exists at MGM. Box office The new cut grossed only $49,666 in the US. Critical The film received lackluster reviews, with a divisive 50% 'rotten' rating on Rotten <P> excel". The second time was in 2013 when they awarded Arrow Films "Label of the Year", noting their releases of Lifeforce and releases of television shows such as Borgen and The Killing as highlights. Camera Obscura: The Walerian Borowczyk Collection was voted the best home video release of 2014 by several publications, including Sight and Sound and Little White Lies, and won the Focal International Award for Best Archival Restoration Project and the Cinema Ritrovato Award for Best DVD Series/Best Box. <P> and composed by Randy Newman, was nominated for Best Original Song at the 71st Academy Awards. Home media The film was released on VHS, DVD (in both widescreen and pan and scan formats), and laserdisc on 4 May 1999. On 22 May 2001, the film was released on DVD as a 2-pack with the original Babe. On 23 September 2003, it was re-released on DVD as part of "The Complete Adventure Two-Movie Pig Pack" in its separate widescreen and pan and scan formats. On 12 November 2004, it was re-released onto DVD as part of a Family Double Feature, which <P> three days later and reissued on March 23, 1999 (see "Controversy"). The Rescuers was released on DVD on May 20, 2003, as a standard edition, which was discontinued in November 2011. On August 21, 2012, a 35th anniversary edition of The Rescuers was released on Blu-ray alongside its sequel in a "2-Movie Collection". Controversy On January 8, 1999, three days after the film's second release on home video, The Walt Disney Company announced a recall of about 3.4 million copies of the videotapes because there was an objectionable image in one of the film's backgrounds. The image in question is a blurry image <P> for legal reasons. Another aspect of re-editing comes with consumer made edits, which are called fan edits (or fanedits). It is when consumers load the films into their computers and use video editing software to produce mostly a version with changed content for their own entertainment. Fan edits are becoming more popular since they are spread over the internet. Future of the industry It is unclear where this industry is headed. A 2005 ABC News poll indicated continued demand for the product. Of 1,002 adults from across the United States, the poll found that 39% of those polled were interested in <P> remastered version created for the 2002 IMAX release and an edited version of the IMAX release purporting to be the original 1994 theatrical version. A second disc, with bonus features, was also included in the DVD release. The film's soundtrack was provided both in its original Dolby 5.1 track and in a new Disney Enhanced Home Theater Mix, making this one of the first Disney DVDs so equipped. By means of seamless branching, the film could be viewed either with or without a newly created scene – a short conversation in the film replaced with a complete song ("The Morning Report"). <P> Time. Australian film distributor Umbrella Entertainment released a special edition of the film featuring a restored print, alongside the 1968 original on Blu-ray in April 2016. Shout! Factory will release the movie in 4K Ultra HD in late October 2019. Reception Initial reaction to the remake was negative. Writing for the Chicago Sun-Times, Roger Ebert awarded the film one star out of a possible four, writing, "The remake is so close to the original that there is no reason to see both". Caryn James of The New York Times wrote, "There was no real need to remake <P> Major also expires, and death like silence prevails. The most awe-inspiring cinematograph picture ever produced." <P> suffered irreparable damage from censorship after 1934. When studios attempted to re-issue films from the 1920s and early 1930s, they were forced to make extensive cuts. Films such as Mata Hari (1931), Arrowsmith (1931), Shopworn (1932), Dr. Monica (1934) and Horse Feathers (1932) exist only in their censored versions. Many other films survived intact because they were too controversial to be re-released, such as The Maltese Falcon (1931), which was remade a decade later with the same name, and thus never had their master negatives edited. In the case of Convention City (1933), which Breen would not allow to be <P> originally left out of the Rockshow home video release. 2013 re-release In June 2013, a new restored version of the film was released. The longer 125-minute version was digitally restored from the 35mm negative with the soundtrack remixed in 5.1 surround sound. The film had a limited worldwide cinema re-release on 16 May 2013, with an exclusive introduction and interview with McCartney. An exclusive VIP premiere screening, with McCartney in attendance and introducing the film, took place at BAFTA on 15 May. This restored cut was released on DVD and Blu-ray in June 2013. <P> article by Lance Loud and reprinted interviews with Van Sant, River Phoenix and Keanu Reeves. Entertainment Weekly gave the DVD a "B+" rating and wrote, "While you may enjoy watching My Own Private Idaho, whether you choose to view this two-disc Criterion edition in its entirety depends on how much you enjoy watching people talking about My Own Private Idaho", and concluded, "But with all the various interpretations and influences, this is definitely a film worth talking about". In 2015 The Criterion Collection released the film in Blu-ray, based on a restored 4K digital transfer. <P> president of the home media company The Criterion Collection, and Fox Searchlight discussed a potential Criterion home video release that would include a longer alternate version of The Tree of Life which Malick would like to create. In an unprecedented move, Criterion decided to finance the alternate version for its eventual inclusion on both Blu-ray and DVD. In creating the alternate version, the original negatives' palettes were located for Malick to use, the entire film scanned in 4K resolution, cinematographer Emmanuel Lubezki brought in to help grade the footage, and a full sound mix created for the additional material, with <P> National Film Registry Criteria The NFPB adds to the NFR up to 25 "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant films" each year, showcasing the range and diversity of American film heritage to increase awareness for its preservation. A film becomes eligible for inclusion ten years after its original release. For the first selection in 1989, the public nominated almost 1,000 films for consideration. Members of the NFPB then developed individual ballots of possible films for inclusion. The ballots were tabulated into a list of 25 films which was then modified by Librarian of Congress James H. Billington and his staff at the Library for the <P> favorite films. The Miracle Man ranked at #1, beating out Broken Blossoms, The Birth of a Nation, and The Kid. Preservation The majority of The Miracle Man is now lost. However, two fragments of the film survive: the first is a segment of one of Paramount's Movie Milestone series, Movie Memories (1935), showcasing the studios' greatest achievements. This clip shows both a segment from the conclave in Chinatown as well as the healing scene, which was praised by critics as one of the most powerful scenes yet put on film. A nitrate print of Movie Memories is reportedly at <P> version contains Russian (5.1 and 1.0), English and French (5.1 with one voice voiceover translation) soundtracks as well as several subtitle languages (English, French, German, Italian and Spanish). The picture was not restored for this edition. As a bonus feature, there are text infos about David Cherkassky. The US direct-to-video cut from 1992 was published in USA under the title Return to Treasure Island on DVD (Region 1). The picture was not restored. However, the English audio has been remastered in 5.1. This edit of the film does not contain any Russian audio. VHS edition distributed by Video Treasures. <P> In April 2019, a restored version of the film from The Film Foundation, Park Circus, Romulus Films, and MGM was selected to be shown in the Cannes Classics section at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival. <P> Livin' in Shame" and the 2001 R.E.M. song, "Imitation of Life," are based upon this film. In 2015, BBC Online, the website of the British Broadcasting Corporation, named the film the 37th greatest American movie ever made based on a survey of film critics. Home media Both the 1934 and 1959 films were issued in 2003 on a double-sided DVD from Universal Home Entertainment. A two-disc set of the films was issued by Universal in 2008. A Blu-ray with both films was released in April 2015; this edition has been re-mastered, and is not identical with earlier DVD releases. Madman Entertainment in <P> in May 1981. Home media The film was later released on VHS by Warner Home Video. The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray by Blue Underground in June 2011, and as a DVD/Blu-ray Mediabook by German company Motion Picture in May 2014. The latter edition features both a 103-minute and a 99-minute cut. <P> should, of course, be preserved for historical purposes, there is no need for the general release version to perpetrate racist stereotypes in a film designed primarily for children." The edits have been in place in all subsequent theatrical and home video reissues. In May 1992, the Philadelphia Orchestra Association filed a lawsuit against The Walt Disney Company and Buena Vista Home Video. The orchestra maintained that as a co-creator of Fantasia, the group was entitled to half of the estimated $120 million in profits from video and laser disc sales. The orchestra dropped its case in 1994 when the two parties <P> film's poster is featured prominently in one scene of the 1981 film Neighbors. D.O.A. also featured in The Filth and the Fury, a 2000 rockumentary film about the Sex Pistols directed by Julien Temple, and in the 2002 television series Hollywood Rocks the Movies: The 1970s. Release The film premiered on April 10, 1981 at the Waverly Theater in New York City. The DVD was released in Japan in 2003. However it is released in Region 0. In 2017, the film was released on Blu-ray as the inaugural release of the MVD Rewind Collection.	question: how can old movies be re-released at higher definitions later? context: <P> and Schmidt to give the film a theatrical release, MGM Board of Directors member Francis Ford Coppola decided to trim the film from its original 109 minute length to 86 minutes, and the abridged version finally was released in four theaters in September 2000. Ritchie's original, 109-minute version was finally released as part of Twilight Time's limited 2015 Blu-Ray release, as a standard-definition "special feature". No high-definition transfer of the original cut currently exists at MGM. Box office The new cut grossed only $49,666 in the US. Critical The film received lackluster reviews, with a divisive 50% 'rotten' rating on Rotten <P> excel". The second time was in 2013 when they awarded Arrow Films "Label of the Year", noting their releases of Lifeforce and releases of television shows such as Borgen and The Killing as highlights. Camera Obscura: The Walerian Borowczyk Collection was voted the best home video release of 2014 by several publications, including Sight and Sound and Little White Lies, and won the Focal International Award for Best Archival Restoration Project and the Cinema Ritrovato Award for Best DVD Series/Best Box. <P> and composed by Randy Newman, was nominated for Best Original Song at the 71st Academy Awards. Home media The film was released on VHS, DVD (in both widescreen and pan and scan formats), and laserdisc on 4 May 1999. On 22 May 2001, the film was released on DVD as a 2-pack with the original Babe. On 23 September 2003, it was re-released on DVD as part of "The Complete Adventure Two-Movie Pig Pack" in its separate widescreen and pan and scan formats. On 12 November 2004, it was re-released onto DVD as part of a Family Double Feature, which <P> three days later and reissued on March 23, 1999 (see "Controversy"). The Rescuers was released on DVD on May 20, 2003, as a standard edition, which was discontinued in November 2011. On August 21, 2012, a 35th anniversary edition of The Rescuers was released on Blu-ray alongside its sequel in a "2-Movie Collection". Controversy On January 8, 1999, three days after the film's second release on home video, The Walt Disney Company announced a recall of about 3.4 million copies of the videotapes because there was an objectionable image in one of the film's backgrounds. The image in question is a blurry image <P> for legal reasons. Another aspect of re-editing comes with consumer made edits, which are called fan edits (or fanedits). It is when consumers load the films into their computers and use video editing software to produce mostly a version with changed content for their own entertainment. Fan edits are becoming more popular since they are spread over the internet. Future of the industry It is unclear where this industry is headed. A 2005 ABC News poll indicated continued demand for the product. Of 1,002 adults from across the United States, the poll found that 39% of those polled were interested in <P> remastered version created for the 2002 IMAX release and an edited version of the IMAX release purporting to be the original 1994 theatrical version. A second disc, with bonus features, was also included in the DVD release. The film's soundtrack was provided both in its original Dolby 5.1 track and in a new Disney Enhanced Home Theater Mix, making this one of the first Disney DVDs so equipped. By means of seamless branching, the film could be viewed either with or without a newly created scene – a short conversation in the film replaced with a complete song ("The Morning Report"). <P> Time. Australian film distributor Umbrella Entertainment released a special edition of the film featuring a restored print, alongside the 1968 original on Blu-ray in April 2016. Shout! Factory will release the movie in 4K Ultra HD in late October 2019. Reception Initial reaction to the remake was negative. Writing for the Chicago Sun-Times, Roger Ebert awarded the film one star out of a possible four, writing, "The remake is so close to the original that there is no reason to see both". Caryn James of The New York Times wrote, "There was no real need to remake <P> Major also expires, and death like silence prevails. The most awe-inspiring cinematograph picture ever produced." <P> suffered irreparable damage from censorship after 1934. When studios attempted to re-issue films from the 1920s and early 1930s, they were forced to make extensive cuts. Films such as Mata Hari (1931), Arrowsmith (1931), Shopworn (1932), Dr. Monica (1934) and Horse Feathers (1932) exist only in their censored versions. Many other films survived intact because they were too controversial to be re-released, such as The Maltese Falcon (1931), which was remade a decade later with the same name, and thus never had their master negatives edited. In the case of Convention City (1933), which Breen would not allow to be <P> originally left out of the Rockshow home video release. 2013 re-release In June 2013, a new restored version of the film was released. The longer 125-minute version was digitally restored from the 35mm negative with the soundtrack remixed in 5.1 surround sound. The film had a limited worldwide cinema re-release on 16 May 2013, with an exclusive introduction and interview with McCartney. An exclusive VIP premiere screening, with McCartney in attendance and introducing the film, took place at BAFTA on 15 May. This restored cut was released on DVD and Blu-ray in June 2013. <P> article by Lance Loud and reprinted interviews with Van Sant, River Phoenix and Keanu Reeves. Entertainment Weekly gave the DVD a "B+" rating and wrote, "While you may enjoy watching My Own Private Idaho, whether you choose to view this two-disc Criterion edition in its entirety depends on how much you enjoy watching people talking about My Own Private Idaho", and concluded, "But with all the various interpretations and influences, this is definitely a film worth talking about". In 2015 The Criterion Collection released the film in Blu-ray, based on a restored 4K digital transfer. <P> president of the home media company The Criterion Collection, and Fox Searchlight discussed a potential Criterion home video release that would include a longer alternate version of The Tree of Life which Malick would like to create. In an unprecedented move, Criterion decided to finance the alternate version for its eventual inclusion on both Blu-ray and DVD. In creating the alternate version, the original negatives' palettes were located for Malick to use, the entire film scanned in 4K resolution, cinematographer Emmanuel Lubezki brought in to help grade the footage, and a full sound mix created for the additional material, with <P> National Film Registry Criteria The NFPB adds to the NFR up to 25 "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant films" each year, showcasing the range and diversity of American film heritage to increase awareness for its preservation. A film becomes eligible for inclusion ten years after its original release. For the first selection in 1989, the public nominated almost 1,000 films for consideration. Members of the NFPB then developed individual ballots of possible films for inclusion. The ballots were tabulated into a list of 25 films which was then modified by Librarian of Congress James H. Billington and his staff at the Library for the <P> favorite films. The Miracle Man ranked at #1, beating out Broken Blossoms, The Birth of a Nation, and The Kid. Preservation The majority of The Miracle Man is now lost. However, two fragments of the film survive: the first is a segment of one of Paramount's Movie Milestone series, Movie Memories (1935), showcasing the studios' greatest achievements. This clip shows both a segment from the conclave in Chinatown as well as the healing scene, which was praised by critics as one of the most powerful scenes yet put on film. A nitrate print of Movie Memories is reportedly at <P> version contains Russian (5.1 and 1.0), English and French (5.1 with one voice voiceover translation) soundtracks as well as several subtitle languages (English, French, German, Italian and Spanish). The picture was not restored for this edition. As a bonus feature, there are text infos about David Cherkassky. The US direct-to-video cut from 1992 was published in USA under the title Return to Treasure Island on DVD (Region 1). The picture was not restored. However, the English audio has been remastered in 5.1. This edit of the film does not contain any Russian audio. VHS edition distributed by Video Treasures. <P> In April 2019, a restored version of the film from The Film Foundation, Park Circus, Romulus Films, and MGM was selected to be shown in the Cannes Classics section at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival. <P> Livin' in Shame" and the 2001 R.E.M. song, "Imitation of Life," are based upon this film. In 2015, BBC Online, the website of the British Broadcasting Corporation, named the film the 37th greatest American movie ever made based on a survey of film critics. Home media Both the 1934 and 1959 films were issued in 2003 on a double-sided DVD from Universal Home Entertainment. A two-disc set of the films was issued by Universal in 2008. A Blu-ray with both films was released in April 2015; this edition has been re-mastered, and is not identical with earlier DVD releases. Madman Entertainment in <P> in May 1981. Home media The film was later released on VHS by Warner Home Video. The film was released on DVD and Blu-ray by Blue Underground in June 2011, and as a DVD/Blu-ray Mediabook by German company Motion Picture in May 2014. The latter edition features both a 103-minute and a 99-minute cut. <P> should, of course, be preserved for historical purposes, there is no need for the general release version to perpetrate racist stereotypes in a film designed primarily for children." The edits have been in place in all subsequent theatrical and home video reissues. In May 1992, the Philadelphia Orchestra Association filed a lawsuit against The Walt Disney Company and Buena Vista Home Video. The orchestra maintained that as a co-creator of Fantasia, the group was entitled to half of the estimated $120 million in profits from video and laser disc sales. The orchestra dropped its case in 1994 when the two parties <P> film's poster is featured prominently in one scene of the 1981 film Neighbors. D.O.A. also featured in The Filth and the Fury, a 2000 rockumentary film about the Sex Pistols directed by Julien Temple, and in the 2002 television series Hollywood Rocks the Movies: The 1970s. Release The film premiered on April 10, 1981 at the Waverly Theater in New York City. The DVD was released in Japan in 2003. However it is released in Region 0. In 2017, the film was released on Blu-ray as the inaugural release of the MVD Rewind Collection.	answer: If I'm not mistaken, the actual physical film on which the movie was recorded is at a higher resolution than anything old tv sets were capable of producing.Transferring it to a digital media with a better resolution than what existed before with VCR or DVD shouldn't be very hard.
191,988	1jlz1w	why do restaurants give you a basket of bread before your order arrives? wouldn't that fill you up, causing you to spend less money on food?	Bread before meals is a custom that exists in many cultures, breaking bread with friends for instance... However it's good customer service and bread is relatively cheap, it also may make you more inclined to order something to drink, which increases their chances of a higher tip... Also they can make you think your entrées are bigger by getting you more full.	[ "Bread before meals is a custom that exists in many cultures, breaking bread with friends for instance... However it's good customer service and bread is relatively cheap, it also may make you more inclined to order something to drink, which increases their chances of a higher tip... Also they can make you think yo...	1	[ "Bread before meals is a custom that exists in many cultures, breaking bread with friends for instance... However it's good customer service and bread is relatively cheap, it also may make you more inclined to order something to drink, which increases their chances of a higher tip... Also they can make you think yo...	1	<P> an appropriate account. Small expenses, however, are often left unbudgeted (due to their insignificant size or influence on the aggregate), and thus do not affect future decisions. This idea is very robust when we are snacking. Each additional handful of pretzels (or chips) holds a relatively insignificant number of calories, when compared to the total have been consumed in the snacking session. Thus, it is very easy to convince oneself to take another handful (“I’ll just have one more”). Each handful is liable to be budgeted poorly, or left completely unbooked and forgotten, and this can cause us to snack <P> for customers of the store. <P> Lambert's Cafe History The cafe was started in Sikeston in 1942 by Earl Lambert, assisted by his wife Agnes, his brother Robert, and Robert's wife Ruby. In 1976 Earl's son Norman "'Ole Norm" Lambert, a former football coach at Sikeston High School, took over management. It was Norman who started the tradition of throwing rolls to customers. In 1981 he explained, "I started throwing rolls about four years ago when we were in our old cafe. It was too crowded one noon for me to serve the rolls to a customer and somebody yelled, 'Throw em.' So I threw them. <P> past times these outings were made to gather additional materials for the construction of the farchie. In more recent years the emphasis has been less on foraging and more on celebrating the celebration that is only a few days away. mid January While the men prepare the farchie the women of the town put themselves to the task of preparing large feasts for all to enjoy. About 500 "rosette" (bread rolls having stamped with a rose bud design) are baked.The "Pasto di Sant'Andone" (Meal of Saint Anthony) is accompanied by large quantities of the local produced wine. 16 <P> tip. <P> a long weekend. <P> during formal occasions or celebrations. Smaller homes, akin to the USA and Canada, use a breakfast bar or table placed within the confines of a kitchen or living space for meals. <P> baked their bread. One is still sometimes used as a bakehouse. The rest of the time, it serves, as in neighbouring villages, as a gathering place where the music club or the church choir can practise, or the village youth can meet. <P> at the Diner". <P> a 30 percent food sales requirement. <P> displayed on a brass shelf that is suspended from the ceiling. The kitchen is an open model. Food Bardot Brasserie serves traditional French food. The restaurant serves dinner seven days a week and brunch on Saturday and Sunday. Dining service starts with a demi-baguette with butter. Salads include frisée with lardons and a caesar salad with endive and King crab. Appetizers include duck a l'orange wings, onion soup gratinee with truffles and cave-aged gruyere cheese, steak tartare, and escargot in puffed pastry. An additional appetizer includes Lobster Thermidor for two. Entrees include croque madame, sautéed skate wing, gnocchi with mushrooms <P> in the distance. Here many customers played their instruments, sang, and conversed about their travels in the fresh air. Adem Çolpan, son of İdris Çolpan, remembers how "it was the time of the Vietnam War" and how many of the travellers just "lived for the moment… didn't think much of tomorrow." In its first few years, the Pudding Shop was the only place in the area where direct transportation to Asia and tourist information on Turkey were readily available. With this knowledge, the Çolpan brothers put up a bulletin board inside the restaurant so that travellers could schedule rides with their <P> in the school is the school's "Fun Fair". On that day, teachers and students organize a number of stores. In each class, they have to prepare food and drinks to sell. <P> Very often, the phrase "trick or treat" is simply said and the revellers are given sweets, with the choice of a trick or a treat having been discarded. Etiquette Trick-or-treating typically happens between 5:30pm and 9:30pm on October 31, although some municipalities choose other dates. Homeowners wishing to participate sometimes decorate their homes with artificial spider webs, plastic skeletons and jack-o-lanterns. While not every residence may be decorated for the holiday, those participating in the handing out of candy will opt to leave a porch light on to signify that the opportunity for candy is available. Some homeowners may go <P> giving out donuts in honor of the occasion. <P> West Amana, Iowa History In 1881, West Amana had a population of 170 and contained a store. <P> Crackling bread Use in American literature Crackling bread is mentioned in the novel To Kill a Mockingbird. It is the narrator's, Scout's, favorite snack. Calpurnia, the family's cook, prepared it for Scout after her first day at school. "It was not often that she made crackling bread, she said she never had time, but with both of us at school today had been an easy one for her. She knew I loved crackling bread." Calpurnia and Scout had had an argument during lunch and to try to repair the bond between them she made crackling bread. <P> a huge surge in 'Home Delivery' promotion. This service is now one of the main focuses of the company. When a customer spends £20 or more whilst shopping in store, they have the option of free same-day or next-day home delivery, from available time slots. Customers can also shop online and receive free home delivery if they spend more than £35 online. On 6 October 2008, Iceland launched the "Bonus Card", a loyalty card and replacement for the original home delivery card. It allows customers to save money onto the card, with Iceland putting £1 onto the card each time a <P> showed that deliberate stock outages help stores charge higher prices and earn higher profits. The possibility of a stock outage in one store makes customers more eager to buy when the other store has the product in stock. Crowding costs demarketing Crowding cost demarketing is a strategy implemented on “Black Friday” when crowds will deter many consumers from purchasing a product at a lower price. Retail stores, hotels, and airlines have limited capacities. A low price usually attracts large numbers of shoppers, so customers must hunt for space in crowded parking lots and stand in long checkout lines. Businesses may <P> to build while the others need staff that is your friends help . The rides will operate continuously after they are placed. But food stalls require you to come back every now and then to restock their goods according to the stock you have chosen. This adds a "click and wait" element to the game, as you can choose from different time limits and different rewards. The cheaper food remain for longer time like 6 to 12 hours but cause vomiting in the park by the consumers affecting your cleanliness ratings and also gives you an extra job of cleaning it.	question: why do restaurants give you a basket of bread before your order arrives? wouldn't that fill you up, causing you to spend less money on food? context: <P> an appropriate account. Small expenses, however, are often left unbudgeted (due to their insignificant size or influence on the aggregate), and thus do not affect future decisions. This idea is very robust when we are snacking. Each additional handful of pretzels (or chips) holds a relatively insignificant number of calories, when compared to the total have been consumed in the snacking session. Thus, it is very easy to convince oneself to take another handful (“I’ll just have one more”). Each handful is liable to be budgeted poorly, or left completely unbooked and forgotten, and this can cause us to snack <P> for customers of the store. <P> Lambert's Cafe History The cafe was started in Sikeston in 1942 by Earl Lambert, assisted by his wife Agnes, his brother Robert, and Robert's wife Ruby. In 1976 Earl's son Norman "'Ole Norm" Lambert, a former football coach at Sikeston High School, took over management. It was Norman who started the tradition of throwing rolls to customers. In 1981 he explained, "I started throwing rolls about four years ago when we were in our old cafe. It was too crowded one noon for me to serve the rolls to a customer and somebody yelled, 'Throw em.' So I threw them. <P> past times these outings were made to gather additional materials for the construction of the farchie. In more recent years the emphasis has been less on foraging and more on celebrating the celebration that is only a few days away. mid January While the men prepare the farchie the women of the town put themselves to the task of preparing large feasts for all to enjoy. About 500 "rosette" (bread rolls having stamped with a rose bud design) are baked.The "Pasto di Sant'Andone" (Meal of Saint Anthony) is accompanied by large quantities of the local produced wine. 16 <P> tip. <P> a long weekend. <P> during formal occasions or celebrations. Smaller homes, akin to the USA and Canada, use a breakfast bar or table placed within the confines of a kitchen or living space for meals. <P> baked their bread. One is still sometimes used as a bakehouse. The rest of the time, it serves, as in neighbouring villages, as a gathering place where the music club or the church choir can practise, or the village youth can meet. <P> at the Diner". <P> a 30 percent food sales requirement. <P> displayed on a brass shelf that is suspended from the ceiling. The kitchen is an open model. Food Bardot Brasserie serves traditional French food. The restaurant serves dinner seven days a week and brunch on Saturday and Sunday. Dining service starts with a demi-baguette with butter. Salads include frisée with lardons and a caesar salad with endive and King crab. Appetizers include duck a l'orange wings, onion soup gratinee with truffles and cave-aged gruyere cheese, steak tartare, and escargot in puffed pastry. An additional appetizer includes Lobster Thermidor for two. Entrees include croque madame, sautéed skate wing, gnocchi with mushrooms <P> in the distance. Here many customers played their instruments, sang, and conversed about their travels in the fresh air. Adem Çolpan, son of İdris Çolpan, remembers how "it was the time of the Vietnam War" and how many of the travellers just "lived for the moment… didn't think much of tomorrow." In its first few years, the Pudding Shop was the only place in the area where direct transportation to Asia and tourist information on Turkey were readily available. With this knowledge, the Çolpan brothers put up a bulletin board inside the restaurant so that travellers could schedule rides with their <P> in the school is the school's "Fun Fair". On that day, teachers and students organize a number of stores. In each class, they have to prepare food and drinks to sell. <P> Very often, the phrase "trick or treat" is simply said and the revellers are given sweets, with the choice of a trick or a treat having been discarded. Etiquette Trick-or-treating typically happens between 5:30pm and 9:30pm on October 31, although some municipalities choose other dates. Homeowners wishing to participate sometimes decorate their homes with artificial spider webs, plastic skeletons and jack-o-lanterns. While not every residence may be decorated for the holiday, those participating in the handing out of candy will opt to leave a porch light on to signify that the opportunity for candy is available. Some homeowners may go <P> giving out donuts in honor of the occasion. <P> West Amana, Iowa History In 1881, West Amana had a population of 170 and contained a store. <P> Crackling bread Use in American literature Crackling bread is mentioned in the novel To Kill a Mockingbird. It is the narrator's, Scout's, favorite snack. Calpurnia, the family's cook, prepared it for Scout after her first day at school. "It was not often that she made crackling bread, she said she never had time, but with both of us at school today had been an easy one for her. She knew I loved crackling bread." Calpurnia and Scout had had an argument during lunch and to try to repair the bond between them she made crackling bread. <P> a huge surge in 'Home Delivery' promotion. This service is now one of the main focuses of the company. When a customer spends £20 or more whilst shopping in store, they have the option of free same-day or next-day home delivery, from available time slots. Customers can also shop online and receive free home delivery if they spend more than £35 online. On 6 October 2008, Iceland launched the "Bonus Card", a loyalty card and replacement for the original home delivery card. It allows customers to save money onto the card, with Iceland putting £1 onto the card each time a <P> showed that deliberate stock outages help stores charge higher prices and earn higher profits. The possibility of a stock outage in one store makes customers more eager to buy when the other store has the product in stock. Crowding costs demarketing Crowding cost demarketing is a strategy implemented on “Black Friday” when crowds will deter many consumers from purchasing a product at a lower price. Retail stores, hotels, and airlines have limited capacities. A low price usually attracts large numbers of shoppers, so customers must hunt for space in crowded parking lots and stand in long checkout lines. Businesses may <P> to build while the others need staff that is your friends help . The rides will operate continuously after they are placed. But food stalls require you to come back every now and then to restock their goods according to the stock you have chosen. This adds a "click and wait" element to the game, as you can choose from different time limits and different rewards. The cheaper food remain for longer time like 6 to 12 hours but cause vomiting in the park by the consumers affecting your cleanliness ratings and also gives you an extra job of cleaning it.	answer: Bread before meals is a custom that exists in many cultures, breaking bread with friends for instance... However it's good customer service and bread is relatively cheap, it also may make you more inclined to order something to drink, which increases their chances of a higher tip... Also they can make you think your entrées are bigger by getting you more full.
279	30r8kp	how does executive order qualify as constitutional and fall in line with the system of checks and balances?	Executive orders (at least in theory) don't grant the executive branch more powers, they work within the powers already granted to the President by the Constitution or by Congress. The courts can overrule an EO if it's overstepped its bounds, and Congress can pass a law overruling an EO if it's based in powers they delegated to the executive.	[ "Executive orders (at least in theory) don't grant the executive branch more powers, they work within the powers already granted to the President by the Constitution or by Congress. The courts can overrule an EO if it's overstepped its bounds, and Congress can pass a law overruling an EO if it's based in powers the...	3	[ "Executive orders (at least in theory) don't grant the executive branch more powers, they work within the powers already granted to the President by the Constitution or by Congress. The courts can overrule an EO if it's overstepped its bounds, and Congress can pass a law overruling an EO if it's based in powers the...	1	<P> to the legislative branch. This is further emphasized in Title V, Article 50 and Title VII, Article 56. Title V, Article 50 stated that the National Assembly of Representatives (the unicameral legislature of the Republic) shall have the right of censure and each of the members the right of interpellation. Interpellation is a right granted to representatives to directly question members of the executive branch. In other words, there are Question Periods allotted to each member of the executive branch. While Title VII, Article 56 stated that executive power resides in the President of the Republic, who shall exercise it through <P> a practical matter, they may give notice of the way that the Executive intends to implement a law, which may make them more significant than the text of the law itself. There is a controversy about whether they should be considered as part of legislative history; proponents argue that they reflect the executive's position in negotiating with Congress; opponents assert that the executive's view of a law is not constitutionally part of the legislative history because only the Congress may make law. Presidential signing statements maintain particular potency with federal executive agencies, since these agencies are often responsible for the administration <P> rational to suppose, that the courts were designed to be an intermediate body between the people and the legislature, in order, among other things, to keep the latter within the limits assigned to their authority. Federalist No. 78 views the judicial branch as inherently weak because of its inability to control either the money or the military of the country. The only power of the judicial branch is the power of judgment: The Executive not only dispenses the honors, but holds the sword of the community. The legislature not only commands the purse, but prescribes the rules by which the duties and <P> be construed with such modifications, adaptations, qualifications and exceptions as may be necessary to bring them into conformity with the Constitution. Although neither of these Articles expressly confers power on the judiciary to strike down unconstitutional executive decisions or laws, the High Court held in the 1994 case Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Public Prosecutor: The court has the power and duty to ensure that the provisions of the Constitution are observed. The court also has a duty to declare invalid any exercise of power, legislative and executive, which exceeds the limits of the power conferred by the Constitution, or which <P> conform with the law. If the decisions and orders are not authorized by statute or if they have been made in contravention of administrative law principles, the Court can invalidate them. Similarly, if any exercise of power by an executive body contravenes the Constitution, the Court has a duty to declare it invalid. With regards to the ISA and the powers to detain without trial, the scope of judicial review was subject to a succession of changes between 1988 and 1990. These changes revolved around the issue of whether the discretion of the President and the Home Affairs Minister should <P> United States Secretary of Homeland Security Inclusion in the presidential line of succession Traditionally, the order of the presidential line of succession is determined (after the Vice President, Speaker of the House, and President pro tempore of the Senate) by the order of the creation of the cabinet positions, and the list as mandated under 3 U.S.C. § 19 follows this tradition. On March 7, 2006, 43rd President George W. Bush signed H.R. 3199 as Pub.L. 109–177, which renewed the Patriot Act of 2001 and amended the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 to include the newly created Presidential Cabinet position of Secretary of <P> on that claim, as being unlikely to succeed against a due process claim is sufficient to fail the first question. The federal government did not provide evidence or argument as to why the executive order needed to be enacted immediately and thus a stay required. In showing the federal government was unlikely to succeed on the merits against a due process claim, the court argued that it showed the States and their citizens would be irreparably harmed by a stay as "the deprivation of constitutional rights 'unquestionably constitutes irreparable injury.'" The court found that "aspects of the public interest favor <P> succeeds to the governorship if the Governor is incapacitated, dies, or resigns. Other executive offices and departments created in the article are the Secretary of State, the Attorney General, the State Treasurer, the State Auditor and Inspector, the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, the Insurance Commissioner, the Commissioner of Labor, the Department of Mines, the Board of Agriculture, and the Commissioners of the Land Office. Judicial power Article Seven describes the court system (the judicial branch), which is unique in that it establishes two courts of last resort (only neighboring state Texas has a similar system). The Article vests the <P> services therein". For the purposes of this provision, essential services means services relating to water, electricity, public health, fire, prisons, post, telephony, telegraphy, radiocommunication (including broadcasting and television), ports, docks, harbours, public transport, and the bulk distribution of fuel and lubricants. Instead of detaining a person for the purposes mentioned above, the executive may impose other restrictions upon the person's liberty such as curfews, requiring the reporting of his or her movements, prohibiting the person from speaking at public meetings or taking part in political activities, and travelling beyond Singapore or any part of the country. Before detention Before a person <P> of the Constitution that grants legal value to signing statements. Article I, Section 7 (in the Presentment Clause) empowers the president to veto a law in its entirety, to sign it, or to do nothing. Article II, Section 3 requires that the executive "take care that the laws be faithfully executed". The Constitution does not authorize the President to cherry-pick which parts of validly enacted Congressional Laws he is going to obey and execute, and which he is not. Signing statements do not appear to have legal force by themselves, although they are all published in the Federal Register. As <P> brings that power into execution by conferring original jurisdiction and also appellate jurisdiction upon the Supreme Court. Additionally, this section requires trial by jury in all criminal cases, except impeachment cases. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;—to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;—to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;—to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party;—to Controversies between two or more States;—between a State and Citizens of <P> a foreign Power." The Federal government's primacy was made clear in the Supremacy Clause of Article VI, which declares, "This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the Supreme Law of the land; and the Judges in every state shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding." While executive agreements were not mentioned in the Constitution, Congress authorized them for delivery of <P> the Executive Power Section 100.- The Chief of the Ministerial Cabinet and the other secretary ministers, whose number and powers shall be determined by a special law, shall be in charge of the business of the Nation and shall countersign and legalize the acts of the President with their signatures, without which said acts are void. The Chief of the Ministerial Cabinet, politically liable before the National Congress, is empowered: 1.- To exercise the general administration of the country. 2.- To perform the acts and issue the rules necessary to exercise the powers granted by this section as well as those delegated by the <P> protect the people by restraining the legislature from acting inconsistently with the Constitution: If it be said that the legislative body are themselves the constitutional judges of their own powers, and that the construction they put upon them is conclusive upon the other departments, it may be answered, that this cannot be the natural presumption, where it is not to be collected from any particular provisions in the Constitution. It is not otherwise to be supposed, that the Constitution could intend to enable the representatives of the people to substitute their will to that of their constituents. It is far more <P> of the federal judiciary, which would have comprised unelected, politically insulated judges that would be appointed for life. The Federalist Papers, as a foundation text of constitutional interpretation, are frequently cited by U.S. jurists, but are not law. Of all the essays, No. 78 is the most cited by the justices of the United States Supreme Court. In Federalist No. 78, Hamilton said that the Judiciary branch of the proposed government would be the weakest of the three branches because it had "no influence over either the sword or the purse, ...It may truly be said to have neither FORCE nor WILL, <P> powers, functions and structures provided for in other laws made by a competent authority. There is no doubt, the court held, that the common-law principles of ultra vires remain under the new constitutional order. However, they are underpinned (and supplemented where necessary) by a constitutional principle of legality. In relation to "administrative action," the principle of legality is enshrined in section 24(a) of the Constitution. In relation to legislation, and to executive acts that do not constitute "administrative action," the principle of legality is necessarily implicit in the Constitution. The question, therefore, of whether or not local governments act intra <P> check on the power of the legislature: [W]here the will of the legislature, declared in its statutes, stands in opposition to that of the people, declared in the Constitution, the judges ought to be governed by the latter rather than the former. They ought to regulate their decisions by the fundamental laws, rather than by those which are not fundamental. . . [W]henever a particular statute contravenes the Constitution, it will be the duty of the judicial tribunals to adhere to the latter and disregard the former. Federalist No. 78 therefore indicates that the federal judiciary has the power to determine whether statutes <P> of justice. The Constitution integrate it in the Judiciary but at the same time give it full autonomy without being under the authority of the General Council of the Judiciary. It also stops being a communication channel between the executive and judicial power and breaks with the historical dependence from the Government, being able the executive to communicate with the Prosecution only with related matters of public interest and it's the Attorney General, with the advice of the Board of Chamber Prosecutors, who decided if accepts this communications or not. <P> then presented to the Senate for advice and consent by a simple majority—except for the Secretary of State who requires the advice and consent of both the Senate and the House of Representatives. If the Cabinet members are confirmed they are sworn in and begin their duties immediately afterwards. However, Cabinet members appointed during a legislative recess may begin serving immediately under a recess appointment until the end of the following regular session of the Legislative Assembly, or rejected by the Senate, whichever occurs first, should they not be confirmed. All members leading executive departments receive the title of Secretary. <P> through constitutional hardball, as Juan Perón and Hugo Chavez used legal court-packing schemes to cement power. It has been suggested that the use of constitutional hardball in United States Congress has strengthened the role of the executive in policy-making, as the President becomes more likely to use the powers of office to circumvent the legislature; Obama's use of executive orders is mentioned as an example of constitutional hardball. The concept stems from a 2004 article by Mark Tushnet of Harvard Law School.	question: how does executive order qualify as constitutional and fall in line with the system of checks and balances? context: <P> to the legislative branch. This is further emphasized in Title V, Article 50 and Title VII, Article 56. Title V, Article 50 stated that the National Assembly of Representatives (the unicameral legislature of the Republic) shall have the right of censure and each of the members the right of interpellation. Interpellation is a right granted to representatives to directly question members of the executive branch. In other words, there are Question Periods allotted to each member of the executive branch. While Title VII, Article 56 stated that executive power resides in the President of the Republic, who shall exercise it through <P> a practical matter, they may give notice of the way that the Executive intends to implement a law, which may make them more significant than the text of the law itself. There is a controversy about whether they should be considered as part of legislative history; proponents argue that they reflect the executive's position in negotiating with Congress; opponents assert that the executive's view of a law is not constitutionally part of the legislative history because only the Congress may make law. Presidential signing statements maintain particular potency with federal executive agencies, since these agencies are often responsible for the administration <P> rational to suppose, that the courts were designed to be an intermediate body between the people and the legislature, in order, among other things, to keep the latter within the limits assigned to their authority. Federalist No. 78 views the judicial branch as inherently weak because of its inability to control either the money or the military of the country. The only power of the judicial branch is the power of judgment: The Executive not only dispenses the honors, but holds the sword of the community. The legislature not only commands the purse, but prescribes the rules by which the duties and <P> be construed with such modifications, adaptations, qualifications and exceptions as may be necessary to bring them into conformity with the Constitution. Although neither of these Articles expressly confers power on the judiciary to strike down unconstitutional executive decisions or laws, the High Court held in the 1994 case Chan Hiang Leng Colin v. Public Prosecutor: The court has the power and duty to ensure that the provisions of the Constitution are observed. The court also has a duty to declare invalid any exercise of power, legislative and executive, which exceeds the limits of the power conferred by the Constitution, or which <P> conform with the law. If the decisions and orders are not authorized by statute or if they have been made in contravention of administrative law principles, the Court can invalidate them. Similarly, if any exercise of power by an executive body contravenes the Constitution, the Court has a duty to declare it invalid. With regards to the ISA and the powers to detain without trial, the scope of judicial review was subject to a succession of changes between 1988 and 1990. These changes revolved around the issue of whether the discretion of the President and the Home Affairs Minister should <P> United States Secretary of Homeland Security Inclusion in the presidential line of succession Traditionally, the order of the presidential line of succession is determined (after the Vice President, Speaker of the House, and President pro tempore of the Senate) by the order of the creation of the cabinet positions, and the list as mandated under 3 U.S.C. § 19 follows this tradition. On March 7, 2006, 43rd President George W. Bush signed H.R. 3199 as Pub.L. 109–177, which renewed the Patriot Act of 2001 and amended the Presidential Succession Act of 1947 to include the newly created Presidential Cabinet position of Secretary of <P> on that claim, as being unlikely to succeed against a due process claim is sufficient to fail the first question. The federal government did not provide evidence or argument as to why the executive order needed to be enacted immediately and thus a stay required. In showing the federal government was unlikely to succeed on the merits against a due process claim, the court argued that it showed the States and their citizens would be irreparably harmed by a stay as "the deprivation of constitutional rights 'unquestionably constitutes irreparable injury.'" The court found that "aspects of the public interest favor <P> succeeds to the governorship if the Governor is incapacitated, dies, or resigns. Other executive offices and departments created in the article are the Secretary of State, the Attorney General, the State Treasurer, the State Auditor and Inspector, the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, the Insurance Commissioner, the Commissioner of Labor, the Department of Mines, the Board of Agriculture, and the Commissioners of the Land Office. Judicial power Article Seven describes the court system (the judicial branch), which is unique in that it establishes two courts of last resort (only neighboring state Texas has a similar system). The Article vests the <P> services therein". For the purposes of this provision, essential services means services relating to water, electricity, public health, fire, prisons, post, telephony, telegraphy, radiocommunication (including broadcasting and television), ports, docks, harbours, public transport, and the bulk distribution of fuel and lubricants. Instead of detaining a person for the purposes mentioned above, the executive may impose other restrictions upon the person's liberty such as curfews, requiring the reporting of his or her movements, prohibiting the person from speaking at public meetings or taking part in political activities, and travelling beyond Singapore or any part of the country. Before detention Before a person <P> of the Constitution that grants legal value to signing statements. Article I, Section 7 (in the Presentment Clause) empowers the president to veto a law in its entirety, to sign it, or to do nothing. Article II, Section 3 requires that the executive "take care that the laws be faithfully executed". The Constitution does not authorize the President to cherry-pick which parts of validly enacted Congressional Laws he is going to obey and execute, and which he is not. Signing statements do not appear to have legal force by themselves, although they are all published in the Federal Register. As <P> brings that power into execution by conferring original jurisdiction and also appellate jurisdiction upon the Supreme Court. Additionally, this section requires trial by jury in all criminal cases, except impeachment cases. The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or which shall be made, under their Authority;—to all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls;—to all Cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction;—to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party;—to Controversies between two or more States;—between a State and Citizens of <P> a foreign Power." The Federal government's primacy was made clear in the Supremacy Clause of Article VI, which declares, "This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the Supreme Law of the land; and the Judges in every state shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding." While executive agreements were not mentioned in the Constitution, Congress authorized them for delivery of <P> the Executive Power Section 100.- The Chief of the Ministerial Cabinet and the other secretary ministers, whose number and powers shall be determined by a special law, shall be in charge of the business of the Nation and shall countersign and legalize the acts of the President with their signatures, without which said acts are void. The Chief of the Ministerial Cabinet, politically liable before the National Congress, is empowered: 1.- To exercise the general administration of the country. 2.- To perform the acts and issue the rules necessary to exercise the powers granted by this section as well as those delegated by the <P> protect the people by restraining the legislature from acting inconsistently with the Constitution: If it be said that the legislative body are themselves the constitutional judges of their own powers, and that the construction they put upon them is conclusive upon the other departments, it may be answered, that this cannot be the natural presumption, where it is not to be collected from any particular provisions in the Constitution. It is not otherwise to be supposed, that the Constitution could intend to enable the representatives of the people to substitute their will to that of their constituents. It is far more <P> of the federal judiciary, which would have comprised unelected, politically insulated judges that would be appointed for life. The Federalist Papers, as a foundation text of constitutional interpretation, are frequently cited by U.S. jurists, but are not law. Of all the essays, No. 78 is the most cited by the justices of the United States Supreme Court. In Federalist No. 78, Hamilton said that the Judiciary branch of the proposed government would be the weakest of the three branches because it had "no influence over either the sword or the purse, ...It may truly be said to have neither FORCE nor WILL, <P> powers, functions and structures provided for in other laws made by a competent authority. There is no doubt, the court held, that the common-law principles of ultra vires remain under the new constitutional order. However, they are underpinned (and supplemented where necessary) by a constitutional principle of legality. In relation to "administrative action," the principle of legality is enshrined in section 24(a) of the Constitution. In relation to legislation, and to executive acts that do not constitute "administrative action," the principle of legality is necessarily implicit in the Constitution. The question, therefore, of whether or not local governments act intra <P> check on the power of the legislature: [W]here the will of the legislature, declared in its statutes, stands in opposition to that of the people, declared in the Constitution, the judges ought to be governed by the latter rather than the former. They ought to regulate their decisions by the fundamental laws, rather than by those which are not fundamental. . . [W]henever a particular statute contravenes the Constitution, it will be the duty of the judicial tribunals to adhere to the latter and disregard the former. Federalist No. 78 therefore indicates that the federal judiciary has the power to determine whether statutes <P> of justice. The Constitution integrate it in the Judiciary but at the same time give it full autonomy without being under the authority of the General Council of the Judiciary. It also stops being a communication channel between the executive and judicial power and breaks with the historical dependence from the Government, being able the executive to communicate with the Prosecution only with related matters of public interest and it's the Attorney General, with the advice of the Board of Chamber Prosecutors, who decided if accepts this communications or not. <P> then presented to the Senate for advice and consent by a simple majority—except for the Secretary of State who requires the advice and consent of both the Senate and the House of Representatives. If the Cabinet members are confirmed they are sworn in and begin their duties immediately afterwards. However, Cabinet members appointed during a legislative recess may begin serving immediately under a recess appointment until the end of the following regular session of the Legislative Assembly, or rejected by the Senate, whichever occurs first, should they not be confirmed. All members leading executive departments receive the title of Secretary. <P> through constitutional hardball, as Juan Perón and Hugo Chavez used legal court-packing schemes to cement power. It has been suggested that the use of constitutional hardball in United States Congress has strengthened the role of the executive in policy-making, as the President becomes more likely to use the powers of office to circumvent the legislature; Obama's use of executive orders is mentioned as an example of constitutional hardball. The concept stems from a 2004 article by Mark Tushnet of Harvard Law School.	answer: Executive orders (at least in theory) don't grant the executive branch more powers, they work within the powers already granted to the President by the Constitution or by Congress. The courts can overrule an EO if it's overstepped its bounds, and Congress can pass a law overruling an EO if it's based in powers they delegated to the executive.
84,063	3hfa1l	Why do particles travel in waves?	You ask if the oscillations are up and down or side to side and I get from that that you have been misled by an image representing the particle wave duality. When you send an electron to the moon it will not move there following a zig zag path, wobbling along its trajectory. The wavy line in drawings is merely a reminder that the electron sometimes behaves like a wave. It is not a representation of its trajectory. Shot at a target, the electron will land more or less at the target point. However, you won't be able to follow its trajectory as "looking" would change its path. You can only see where it lands.	[ "Another one of these hard to answer \"why\" questions. See e.g. _URL_0_ for a long similar discussion.\n\nTo make a short answer: Particles appear to have wave-like behaviour because that's what we observe. We haven't observed it otherwise. Based on these observations we have come up with a mathematical model of t...	3	[ "You ask if the oscillations are up and down or side to side and I get from that that you have been misled by an image representing the particle wave duality. \n\nWhen you send an electron to the moon it will not move there following a zig zag path, wobbling along its trajectory. The wavy line in drawings is merely...	1	<P> bosons can occupy the same single-particle quantum state. Wavefunctions describing systems of identical bosons are symmetric under the exchange of particles and can be expanded in terms of permanents. <P> associated with two distinct forms of angular momentum, respectively named light spin angular momentum (SAM) and light orbital angular momentum (OAM). The total angular momentum of light (or, more generally, of the electromagnetic field and the other force fields) and matter is conserved in time. Introduction It is well known that light, or more generally an electromagnetic wave, carries not only energy but also momentum, which is a characteristic property of all objects in translational motion. The existence of this momentum becomes apparent in the “radiation pressure” phenomenon, in which a light beam transfers its momentum to an absorbing or scattering <P> such as the electron, the uncertainty of the energy allows for the creation of virtual particles near the electron. This wavelength explains the "static" of virtual particles around elementary particles at a close distance. Interaction An electron generates an electric field that exerts an attractive force on a particle with a positive charge, such as the proton, and a repulsive force on a particle with a negative charge. The strength of this force in nonrelativistic approximation is determined by Coulomb's inverse square law. When an electron is in motion, it generates a magnetic field. The Ampère-Maxwell law relates the magnetic <P> particle's Hilbert space. This is unlike the usual Fock space description, where the Hilbert space includes particle states with different velocities. Because of their infraparticle properties, charged particles do not have a sharp delta function density of states like an ordinary particle, but instead the density of states rises like an inverse power at the mass of the particle. This collection of states which are very close in mass to m consist of the particle together with low-energy excitation of the electromagnetic field. Implication for particle behavior The directional charges are different for an electron that has always been at rest <P> field at a radius called the gyroradius. The acceleration from this curving motion induces the electron to radiate energy in the form of synchrotron radiation. The energy emission in turn causes a recoil of the electron, known as the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac Force, which creates a friction that slows the electron. This force is caused by a back-reaction of the electron's own field upon itself. Photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in quantum electrodynamics. An isolated electron at a constant velocity cannot emit or absorb a real photon; doing so would violate conservation of energy and momentum. Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum <P> Hamilton's optico-mechanical analogy Huygens' principle The propagation of light can be considered in terms of rays and wavefronts in ordinary physical three-dimensional space. One may consider an inhomogeneous anisotropic medium with smoothly distributed properties that are described by an index of refraction that is a well-behaved function of position. Huygens' principle governs the propagation of a wavefront as it can be derived from Fermat's principle. The wavefronts are two-dimensional curved surfaces. The rays are one-dimensional curved lines. Thus, a wave is a foliated set of moving two-dimensional surfaces. In classical physics, it is not part of the definition of a wave <P> of an electromagnetic wave, as well as for any other wave or oscillation (see figure right). This fact can be observed in experiments and is correctly described by quantum theory. For electromagnetic waves we usually consider just the electric field, because it is the one that mainly interacts with matter. Fig. 1. shows five different quantum states that a monochromatic wave could be in. The difference of the five quantum states is given by different electric field excitations and by different distributions of the quantum uncertainty along the phase . For a displaced coherent state, the expectation (mean) value of the <P> that it be distinctly vibratory. One difference between wave and particle conceptions is thus in the spatial dimensionality of their moving objects. On one hand, a ray can be regarded as the orbit of a particle of light. It successively punctures the wave surfaces. The successive punctures can be regarded as defining the trajectory of the particle. On the other hand, a wave-front can be regarded as a level surface of displacement of some quantity, such as electric field intensity, hydrostatic pressure, particle number density, oscillatory phase, or probability amplitude. Then the physical meaning of the rays is less evident. This is wave–particle duality <P> radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16. The explanation of the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves. Einstein's prediction was confirmed <P> property of one particle can be described mathematically as a complex-valued function, the wave function, commonly denoted by the Greek letter psi (ψ). When the absolute value of this function is squared, it gives the probability that a particle will be observed near a location—a probability density. Electrons are identical particles because they cannot be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical properties. In quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of interacting electrons must be able to swap positions without an observable change to the state of the system. The wave function of fermions, including electrons, is antisymmetric, meaning <P> between two charged particles. This exchange of virtual photons, for example, generates the Coulomb force. Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle, such as a proton. The acceleration of the electron results in the emission of Bremsstrahlung radiation. An inelastic collision between a photon (light) and a solitary (free) electron is called Compton scattering. This collision results in a transfer of momentum and energy between the particles, which modifies the wavelength of the photon by an amount called the Compton shift. The maximum magnitude of this wavelength shift is h/mₑc, which is known as <P> electromagnetic and weak forces appear distinct at low energies because the particles carrying the weak force, the W and Z bosons, have non-zero masses of 80.4 GeV/c² and 91.2 GeV/c², whereas the photon, which carries the electromagnetic force, is massless. At higher energies Ws and Zs can be created easily and the unified nature of the force becomes apparent. While the strong and electroweak forces peacefully coexist in the Standard Model of particle physics, they remain distinct. So far, the quest for a theory of everything is thus unsuccessful on two points: neither a unification of the strong and electroweak forces – which Laplace <P> via a Z⁰ exchange, and this is responsible for neutrino-electron elastic scattering. Atoms and molecules An electron can be bound to the nucleus of an atom by the attractive Coulomb force. A system of one or more electrons bound to a nucleus is called an atom. If the number of electrons is different from the nucleus' electrical charge, such an atom is called an ion. The wave-like behavior of a bound electron is described by a function called an atomic orbital. Each orbital has its own set of quantum numbers such as energy, angular momentum and projection of angular momentum, <P> energy. Given sufficient voltage, the electron can be accelerated sufficiently fast to exhibit measurable relativistic effects. According to wave particle duality, electrons can also be considered as matter waves with properties such as wavelength, phase and amplitude. Electric fields In the case of an applied electrostatic field, an electron will deflect towards the positive gradient of the field. Notably, this crossing of electrostatic field lines means that electrons, as they move through electrostatic fields change the magnitude of their velocity, whereas in magnetic fields, only the velocity direction is modified. As electrons can exhibit non-particle (wave-like) effects such as diffraction, a <P> X-wave In physics, X-waves are localized solutions of the wave equation that travel at a constant velocity in a given direction. X-waves can be sound, electromagnetic, or gravitational waves. They are built as a non-monochromatic superposition of Bessel beams. Ideal X-waves carry infinite energy, but finite-energy realizations have been observed in various frameworks. Electromagnetic X-waves travel faster than the speed of light, and X-wave pulses can have superluminal phase and group velocity. In optics, X-waves solution have been reported within a quantum mechanical formulation. <P> other reasons, lead to an entirely new mathematical model of matter and light: quantum mechanics. Classical oscillator model of matter Early models to explain the origin of the index of refraction treated an electron in an atomic system classically according to the model of Paul Drude and Hendrik Lorentz. The theory was developed to attempt to provide an origin for the wavelength-dependent refractive index n of a material. In this model, incident electromagnetic waves forced an electron bound to an atom to oscillate. The amplitude of the oscillation would then have a relationship to the frequency of the incident electromagnetic <P> quantum state. This principle explains many of the properties of electrons. For example, it causes groups of bound electrons to occupy different orbitals in an atom, rather than all overlapping each other in the same orbit. Virtual particles In a simplified picture, every photon spends some time as a combination of a virtual electron plus its antiparticle, the virtual positron, which rapidly annihilate each other shortly thereafter. The combination of the energy variation needed to create these particles, and the time during which they exist, fall under the threshold of detectability expressed by the Heisenberg uncertainty relation, ΔE · Δt ≥ ħ. In effect, <P> Infraparticle An infraparticle is an electrically charged particle and its surrounding cloud of soft photons—of which there are infinite number, by virtue of the infrared divergence of quantum electrodynamics. That is, it is a dressed particle rather than a bare particle. Whenever electric charges accelerate they emit Bremsstrahlung radiation, whereby an infinite number of the virtual soft photons become real particles. However, only a finite number of these photons are detectable, the remainder falling below the measurement threshold. The form of the electric field at infinity, which is determined by the velocity of a point charge, defines superselection sectors for the <P> wave. <P> element of the interrogative particle.	question: Why do particles travel in waves? context: <P> bosons can occupy the same single-particle quantum state. Wavefunctions describing systems of identical bosons are symmetric under the exchange of particles and can be expanded in terms of permanents. <P> associated with two distinct forms of angular momentum, respectively named light spin angular momentum (SAM) and light orbital angular momentum (OAM). The total angular momentum of light (or, more generally, of the electromagnetic field and the other force fields) and matter is conserved in time. Introduction It is well known that light, or more generally an electromagnetic wave, carries not only energy but also momentum, which is a characteristic property of all objects in translational motion. The existence of this momentum becomes apparent in the “radiation pressure” phenomenon, in which a light beam transfers its momentum to an absorbing or scattering <P> such as the electron, the uncertainty of the energy allows for the creation of virtual particles near the electron. This wavelength explains the "static" of virtual particles around elementary particles at a close distance. Interaction An electron generates an electric field that exerts an attractive force on a particle with a positive charge, such as the proton, and a repulsive force on a particle with a negative charge. The strength of this force in nonrelativistic approximation is determined by Coulomb's inverse square law. When an electron is in motion, it generates a magnetic field. The Ampère-Maxwell law relates the magnetic <P> particle's Hilbert space. This is unlike the usual Fock space description, where the Hilbert space includes particle states with different velocities. Because of their infraparticle properties, charged particles do not have a sharp delta function density of states like an ordinary particle, but instead the density of states rises like an inverse power at the mass of the particle. This collection of states which are very close in mass to m consist of the particle together with low-energy excitation of the electromagnetic field. Implication for particle behavior The directional charges are different for an electron that has always been at rest <P> field at a radius called the gyroradius. The acceleration from this curving motion induces the electron to radiate energy in the form of synchrotron radiation. The energy emission in turn causes a recoil of the electron, known as the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac Force, which creates a friction that slows the electron. This force is caused by a back-reaction of the electron's own field upon itself. Photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in quantum electrodynamics. An isolated electron at a constant velocity cannot emit or absorb a real photon; doing so would violate conservation of energy and momentum. Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum <P> Hamilton's optico-mechanical analogy Huygens' principle The propagation of light can be considered in terms of rays and wavefronts in ordinary physical three-dimensional space. One may consider an inhomogeneous anisotropic medium with smoothly distributed properties that are described by an index of refraction that is a well-behaved function of position. Huygens' principle governs the propagation of a wavefront as it can be derived from Fermat's principle. The wavefronts are two-dimensional curved surfaces. The rays are one-dimensional curved lines. Thus, a wave is a foliated set of moving two-dimensional surfaces. In classical physics, it is not part of the definition of a wave <P> of an electromagnetic wave, as well as for any other wave or oscillation (see figure right). This fact can be observed in experiments and is correctly described by quantum theory. For electromagnetic waves we usually consider just the electric field, because it is the one that mainly interacts with matter. Fig. 1. shows five different quantum states that a monochromatic wave could be in. The difference of the five quantum states is given by different electric field excitations and by different distributions of the quantum uncertainty along the phase . For a displaced coherent state, the expectation (mean) value of the <P> that it be distinctly vibratory. One difference between wave and particle conceptions is thus in the spatial dimensionality of their moving objects. On one hand, a ray can be regarded as the orbit of a particle of light. It successively punctures the wave surfaces. The successive punctures can be regarded as defining the trajectory of the particle. On the other hand, a wave-front can be regarded as a level surface of displacement of some quantity, such as electric field intensity, hydrostatic pressure, particle number density, oscillatory phase, or probability amplitude. Then the physical meaning of the rays is less evident. This is wave–particle duality <P> radiation. The existence of gravitational waves is possible under general relativity due to its Lorentz invariance which brings the concept of a finite speed of propagation of the physical interactions of gravity with it. By contrast, gravitational waves cannot exist in the Newtonian theory of gravitation, which postulates that the physical interactions of gravity propagate at infinite speed. The first, indirect, detection of gravitational waves came in the 1970s through observation of a pair of closely orbiting neutron stars, PSR B1913+16. The explanation of the decay in their orbital period was that they were emitting gravitational waves. Einstein's prediction was confirmed <P> property of one particle can be described mathematically as a complex-valued function, the wave function, commonly denoted by the Greek letter psi (ψ). When the absolute value of this function is squared, it gives the probability that a particle will be observed near a location—a probability density. Electrons are identical particles because they cannot be distinguished from each other by their intrinsic physical properties. In quantum mechanics, this means that a pair of interacting electrons must be able to swap positions without an observable change to the state of the system. The wave function of fermions, including electrons, is antisymmetric, meaning <P> between two charged particles. This exchange of virtual photons, for example, generates the Coulomb force. Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle, such as a proton. The acceleration of the electron results in the emission of Bremsstrahlung radiation. An inelastic collision between a photon (light) and a solitary (free) electron is called Compton scattering. This collision results in a transfer of momentum and energy between the particles, which modifies the wavelength of the photon by an amount called the Compton shift. The maximum magnitude of this wavelength shift is h/mₑc, which is known as <P> electromagnetic and weak forces appear distinct at low energies because the particles carrying the weak force, the W and Z bosons, have non-zero masses of 80.4 GeV/c² and 91.2 GeV/c², whereas the photon, which carries the electromagnetic force, is massless. At higher energies Ws and Zs can be created easily and the unified nature of the force becomes apparent. While the strong and electroweak forces peacefully coexist in the Standard Model of particle physics, they remain distinct. So far, the quest for a theory of everything is thus unsuccessful on two points: neither a unification of the strong and electroweak forces – which Laplace <P> via a Z⁰ exchange, and this is responsible for neutrino-electron elastic scattering. Atoms and molecules An electron can be bound to the nucleus of an atom by the attractive Coulomb force. A system of one or more electrons bound to a nucleus is called an atom. If the number of electrons is different from the nucleus' electrical charge, such an atom is called an ion. The wave-like behavior of a bound electron is described by a function called an atomic orbital. Each orbital has its own set of quantum numbers such as energy, angular momentum and projection of angular momentum, <P> energy. Given sufficient voltage, the electron can be accelerated sufficiently fast to exhibit measurable relativistic effects. According to wave particle duality, electrons can also be considered as matter waves with properties such as wavelength, phase and amplitude. Electric fields In the case of an applied electrostatic field, an electron will deflect towards the positive gradient of the field. Notably, this crossing of electrostatic field lines means that electrons, as they move through electrostatic fields change the magnitude of their velocity, whereas in magnetic fields, only the velocity direction is modified. As electrons can exhibit non-particle (wave-like) effects such as diffraction, a <P> X-wave In physics, X-waves are localized solutions of the wave equation that travel at a constant velocity in a given direction. X-waves can be sound, electromagnetic, or gravitational waves. They are built as a non-monochromatic superposition of Bessel beams. Ideal X-waves carry infinite energy, but finite-energy realizations have been observed in various frameworks. Electromagnetic X-waves travel faster than the speed of light, and X-wave pulses can have superluminal phase and group velocity. In optics, X-waves solution have been reported within a quantum mechanical formulation. <P> other reasons, lead to an entirely new mathematical model of matter and light: quantum mechanics. Classical oscillator model of matter Early models to explain the origin of the index of refraction treated an electron in an atomic system classically according to the model of Paul Drude and Hendrik Lorentz. The theory was developed to attempt to provide an origin for the wavelength-dependent refractive index n of a material. In this model, incident electromagnetic waves forced an electron bound to an atom to oscillate. The amplitude of the oscillation would then have a relationship to the frequency of the incident electromagnetic <P> quantum state. This principle explains many of the properties of electrons. For example, it causes groups of bound electrons to occupy different orbitals in an atom, rather than all overlapping each other in the same orbit. Virtual particles In a simplified picture, every photon spends some time as a combination of a virtual electron plus its antiparticle, the virtual positron, which rapidly annihilate each other shortly thereafter. The combination of the energy variation needed to create these particles, and the time during which they exist, fall under the threshold of detectability expressed by the Heisenberg uncertainty relation, ΔE · Δt ≥ ħ. In effect, <P> Infraparticle An infraparticle is an electrically charged particle and its surrounding cloud of soft photons—of which there are infinite number, by virtue of the infrared divergence of quantum electrodynamics. That is, it is a dressed particle rather than a bare particle. Whenever electric charges accelerate they emit Bremsstrahlung radiation, whereby an infinite number of the virtual soft photons become real particles. However, only a finite number of these photons are detectable, the remainder falling below the measurement threshold. The form of the electric field at infinity, which is determined by the velocity of a point charge, defines superselection sectors for the <P> wave. <P> element of the interrogative particle.	answer: You ask if the oscillations are up and down or side to side and I get from that that you have been misled by an image representing the particle wave duality. When you send an electron to the moon it will not move there following a zig zag path, wobbling along its trajectory. The wavy line in drawings is merely a reminder that the electron sometimes behaves like a wave. It is not a representation of its trajectory. Shot at a target, the electron will land more or less at the target point. However, you won't be able to follow its trajectory as "looking" would change its path. You can only see where it lands.
31,792	pxwuk	What happens in my brain and/or body to make me feel drowsy?	While you are awake, adenosine levels increase in your brain, and past a certain level, adenosine receptor stimulation will make you feel drowsy. When you sleep, adenosine is broken down, reducing the drowsy feeling. Caffeine makes you feel less awake because it "tricks" your brain into thinking that there are lower levels of adenosine in the brain by blocking adenosine receptors. Thus, when the caffeine is eliminated from your system, you experience a "crash," because your brain quickly goes from experiencing a low level of adenosine receptor stimulation to a much higher level of adenosine receptor stimulation.Neuroscience Undergrad.	[ "The reticular formation (part of the brain stem) controls the sleep/wake cycle. When it says it's time to sleep, a variety of neurotransmitters are released throughout the nervous system that cause drowsiness.", "While you are awake, adenosine levels increase in your brain, and past a certain level, adenosine re...	2	[ "While you are awake, adenosine levels increase in your brain, and past a certain level, adenosine receptor stimulation will make you feel drowsy. When you sleep, adenosine is broken down, reducing the drowsy feeling. Caffeine makes you feel less awake because it \"tricks\" your brain into thinking that there are l...	1	<P> Dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus Function The dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (DMH) receives its circadian information from the suprachiasmatic nucleus and senses leptin and other feeding cues, but it is also very possible that it contains its own feeding-entrained oscillator (FEO). This still has yet to be proven in vitro. The DMH sends information to the ventrolateral preoptic area, locus coeruleus, and orexin neurons in order to aid in the regulation of wakefulness. The DMH is also involved in the regulation of hypothalamic outflow to the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems. Almost all major nuclei and areas of the hypothalamus feed information to <P> Subjects were exposed to vection-producing environments (virtual reality, for example) and symptoms were evaluated using a Simulator Sickness Questionnaire. Sopite symptoms were also measured using a developed scale. The levels of endogenous cortisol and melatonin were then compared with levels before the subjects were tested in the vection environments. Most subjects showed increased levels of endogenous cortisol and melatonin post-vection. Melatonin may therefore be involved in the drowsy state associated with the sopite syndrome. Noradrenergic pathways The inhibition of noradrenergic pathways has also been associated with symptoms of the sopite syndrome. Studies have shown that animals <P> SSRI, SNRI, or TCA as an augmentation strategy is considered to be relatively safe and is often employed therapeutically, with a combination of venlafaxine and mirtazapine, sometimes referred to as "California rocket fuel". Several case reports document serotonin syndrome induced by the combination of mirtazapine with other agents (olanzapine, quetiapine, tramadol and venlafaxine). α2-Adrenergic receptor Antagonism of the α₂-adrenergic receptors, which function largely as inhibitory autoreceptors and heteroreceptors, enhances adrenergic and serotonergic neurotransmission, notably central 5-HT1A receptor mediated transmission in the dorsal raphe nucleus and hippocampus; hence, mirtazapine's classification as a NaSSA. Indirect α₁ adrenoceptor-mediated enhancement of serotonin cell firing <P> chief agonist - melatonin - is indicative of the functions that they are each crucial to. Role in circadian rhythms Since the SCN is responsible for mediating the production of melatonin by the pineal gland, it creates a feedback loop that regulates the production of melatonin according to the master circadian clock. As was discussed previously, the MT₁ receptor is largely thought of as the major player in sleep-promotion and the MT₂ receptor is most strongly linked to phase shifting activity. Both major subtypes of the melatonin receptor are expressed in relatively large amounts in the SCN which allow it <P> melatonin. This desensitization and/or internalization is characteristic of many GPCRs. Often, binding of melatonin to MT₂ and subsequent desensitization can lead to the internalization of that receptor which decreases the availability of membrane bound melatonin receptor which will prevent additional melatonin from having as robust of an effect as the initial application. Since there are regular rhythms in both of these receptor subtypes, the internalization and resulting decrease in receptor availability following administration of typical levels of melatonin will effectively shift the phase of this rhythm in MT₂. The behavior of each of these receptors under prolonged exposure to their <P> occluded B-loop. The B-loop in turn recruits KaiB, which simultaneously binds to KaiA and KaiC. KaiB binding removes KaiA from the A-loop, and in turn both promotes the autophosphatase activity of KaiC and inhibits its autokinase activity. Dephosphorylation of KaiC occurs in the subjective night, and proceeds in the reverse order of phosphorylation; Thr432 is dephosphorylated before Ser431. Ultimately, these circadian rhythms in KaiC phosphorylation governed by KaiA and KaiB binding create a post-translation oscillator that can interact with both input pathways to entrain to changing environmental conditions and output pathways to mediate transcriptional events. Circadian outputs and KaiB fold switching <P> has been found to result in over 80% occupancy of the H₁ receptor and to induce intense sleepiness. After a short period of chronic treatment, however, the H₁ receptor tends to desensitize and the antihistamine effects become more tolerable. Many patients may also dose at night to avoid the effects, and this appears to be an effective strategy for combating them. Blockade of the H₁ receptor may improve pre-existing allergies, pruritus, nausea, and insomnia in afflicted individuals. It may also contribute to weight gain, however. In contrast to the H₁ receptor, mirtazapine has only low affinity for the muscarinic acetylcholine <P> exposed to motion environments commonly exhibit drowsiness and disinclination for activity. These animals show slowed electroencephalography waves, which are involved in the firing of neurons in the brain. The locus coeruleuses of these animals are apparently deactivated. The sopite syndrome is therefore linked to inhibition of the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic pathways. As such, noradrenaline releasers may be useful in counteracting these symptoms. Classification The sopite syndrome is classified as a symptom-complex centered on drowsiness. It may be distinguished from ordinary fatigue. Researchers have previously studied this effect through the use of rotating rooms. When <P> to the cell’s surface so that they can receive external melatonin signals. Binding of melatonin to the MT₁ receptor leads to the inhibition of the production of cAMP through inhibition of Protein Kinase A (PKA). While activation of the MT2 receptor is also shown to inhibit the production of cAMP, it additionally inhibits cGMP production. Melatonin binding to the MT₁ and MT₂ receptors is only one of the paths through which it shows its influence. In addition to binding to membrane bound GPCRs (MT₁ and MT₂) melatonin also binds to intracellular and nuclear receptors. Regulation of melatonin receptors The different <P> STAM2 Function The protein encoded by this gene is closely related to STAM, an adaptor protein involved in the downstream signaling of cytokine receptors, both of which contain a SH3 domain and the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM). Similar to STAM, this protein acts downstream of JAK kinases, and is phosphorylated in response to cytokine stimulation. This protein and STAM thus are thought to exhibit compensatory effects on the signaling pathway downstream of JAK kinases upon cytokine stimulation. Interactions STAM2 has been shown to interact with HGS, Janus kinase 1 and USP8. <P> Alert. <P> the thalomocortical area, is able to generate fast voltage-dependent membrane potential oscillations which allow it to react quickly to received messages. The types of channels that cover this area are presumed to be GABAergic. Since sensory awareness needs to be quick, the threshold for sodium and potassium in this area is quite low. Cognitive Francis Crick and Christof Koch proposed that specific neural activity can stimulate short-term memory, forming a continuous and dynamic consciousness. Cognitive binding is associated with the different states of human consciousness. Two of the most studied states of consciousness are the wakefulness and REM sleep. There have <P> receptor is also implicated in serotonin syndrome caused by indirect serotonin receptor agonists like serotonin reuptake inhibitors, serotonin releasing agents, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Antagonists of the 5-HT2A receptor like cyproheptadine and chlorpromazine are able to reverse and mediate recovery from serotonin syndrome. 5-HT2B receptor agonists Agonists of the 5-HT2B receptor are implicated in the development of cardiac fibrosis. Fenfluramine, pergolide, and cabergoline have been withdrawn from some markets for this reason. Many serotonergic psychedelics, such as LSD and psilocin, have been shown to activate this receptor directly. MDMA has been reported to be both a potent direct agonist and <P> neurons hyperpolarize in response to serotonin. Cannabinoids have an excitatory effect on MCH neurons. Some research has shown that dopamine has an inhibitory effect on MCH neurons, but further research is needed to fully characterize this interaction. Sleep MCH and the hormone orexin have an antagonistic relationship with one another with regards to the sleep cycle, with orexin being almost entirely active during wake periods and MCH being more active during sleep periods. MCH also promotes sleep, and within a sleep period increased levels of MCH seem to increase the amount of time spent in REM sleep and slow waves sleep. <P> been multiple studies showing, electrophysiologically, that these two states are quite similar in nature. This has led some neural binding theorists to study the modes of cognitive awareness in each state. Certain observations have even led these scientists to hypothesize that since there is little cognition going on during REM sleep, the increased thalamocortical responses show the action of processing in the waking preconscious. The thalamus and cortex are important anatomical features in cognitive and sensory awareness. The understanding of how these neurons fire and relate to one other in each of these states (REM and Waking) is paramount to understanding <P> and direct blockade of inhibitory α₂ heteroreceptors located on serotonin terminals are held responsible for the increase in extracellular serotonin. Because of this, mirtazapine has been said to be a functional "indirect agonist" of the 5-HT1A receptor. Increased activation of the central 5-HT1A receptor is thought to be a major mediator of efficacy of most antidepressant drugs. 5-HT2 receptor Antagonism of the 5-HT₂ subfamily of receptors and inverse agonism of the 5-HT2C receptor appears to be in part responsible for mirtazapine's efficacy in the treatment of depressive states. Mirtazapine increases dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex. Accordingly, it was shown <P> more appropriately used to evaluate the running spontaneous activity of the cortex. This spontaneous activity is classified into four main classifications based on the frequency of the activity, ranging from low frequency delta waves (< 4 Hz) commonly found during sleep to beta waves (13–30 Hz) associated with an awake and alert brain. In between these two extremes are theta waves (4–8 Hz) and alpha waves (8–12 Hz). Many studies on mindfulness meditation, assessed in a review by Cahn and Polich in 2006, have linked lower frequency alpha waves, as well as theta waves, to meditation. Much older studies report more specific findings, <P> delay circadian rhythms, resulting in later sleep onset and offset in patients with FASPS or other advanced sleep phase disorders. Discovery In 1999, Louis Ptáček conducted a study at the University of Utah in which he coined the term familial advanced sleep phase disorder after identifying individuals with a genetic basis for an advanced sleep phase. The first patient evaluated during the study reported “disabling early evening sleepiness” and “early morning awakening”; similar symptoms were also reported in her family members. Consenting relatives of the initial patient were evaluated, as well as those from two additional families. The clinical histories, <P> up or down by the dopaminergic cells of the ventral tegmental area. For example, drugs that block activity in the dopaminergic activity (e.g., haloperidol) inhibit unusually frequent, and vivid dreaming, while increase of dopamine (e.g., through l-dopa) stimulates excessive vivid dreaming and nightmares. In other animal species REM sleep and the ability to dream seem to be embedded in the biology of many animals in addition to humans. Scientific research suggests that all mammals experience REM. The range of REM can be seen across species: dolphins experience minimal REM, while humans are in the middle of the scale and the <P> types of melatonin receptors are regulated in different ways. When the MT₁ receptor is exposed to typical levels of melatonin, there is no change in cell membrane receptor density, affinity for substrate, or functional sensitivity. However, the same trend is not shown in MT₂ receptors. Administration of typical levels of melatonin resulted in the removal of MT₂ receptors from the membrane (internalization) and a decrease in the sensitivity of the receptor to melatonin. These responses help the MT₂ receptor accomplish its role in phase shifting the circadian clock by adjusting the sensitivity and availability of the population of MT₂ to	question: What happens in my brain and/or body to make me feel drowsy? context: <P> Dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus Function The dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus (DMH) receives its circadian information from the suprachiasmatic nucleus and senses leptin and other feeding cues, but it is also very possible that it contains its own feeding-entrained oscillator (FEO). This still has yet to be proven in vitro. The DMH sends information to the ventrolateral preoptic area, locus coeruleus, and orexin neurons in order to aid in the regulation of wakefulness. The DMH is also involved in the regulation of hypothalamic outflow to the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems. Almost all major nuclei and areas of the hypothalamus feed information to <P> Subjects were exposed to vection-producing environments (virtual reality, for example) and symptoms were evaluated using a Simulator Sickness Questionnaire. Sopite symptoms were also measured using a developed scale. The levels of endogenous cortisol and melatonin were then compared with levels before the subjects were tested in the vection environments. Most subjects showed increased levels of endogenous cortisol and melatonin post-vection. Melatonin may therefore be involved in the drowsy state associated with the sopite syndrome. Noradrenergic pathways The inhibition of noradrenergic pathways has also been associated with symptoms of the sopite syndrome. Studies have shown that animals <P> SSRI, SNRI, or TCA as an augmentation strategy is considered to be relatively safe and is often employed therapeutically, with a combination of venlafaxine and mirtazapine, sometimes referred to as "California rocket fuel". Several case reports document serotonin syndrome induced by the combination of mirtazapine with other agents (olanzapine, quetiapine, tramadol and venlafaxine). α2-Adrenergic receptor Antagonism of the α₂-adrenergic receptors, which function largely as inhibitory autoreceptors and heteroreceptors, enhances adrenergic and serotonergic neurotransmission, notably central 5-HT1A receptor mediated transmission in the dorsal raphe nucleus and hippocampus; hence, mirtazapine's classification as a NaSSA. Indirect α₁ adrenoceptor-mediated enhancement of serotonin cell firing <P> chief agonist - melatonin - is indicative of the functions that they are each crucial to. Role in circadian rhythms Since the SCN is responsible for mediating the production of melatonin by the pineal gland, it creates a feedback loop that regulates the production of melatonin according to the master circadian clock. As was discussed previously, the MT₁ receptor is largely thought of as the major player in sleep-promotion and the MT₂ receptor is most strongly linked to phase shifting activity. Both major subtypes of the melatonin receptor are expressed in relatively large amounts in the SCN which allow it <P> melatonin. This desensitization and/or internalization is characteristic of many GPCRs. Often, binding of melatonin to MT₂ and subsequent desensitization can lead to the internalization of that receptor which decreases the availability of membrane bound melatonin receptor which will prevent additional melatonin from having as robust of an effect as the initial application. Since there are regular rhythms in both of these receptor subtypes, the internalization and resulting decrease in receptor availability following administration of typical levels of melatonin will effectively shift the phase of this rhythm in MT₂. The behavior of each of these receptors under prolonged exposure to their <P> occluded B-loop. The B-loop in turn recruits KaiB, which simultaneously binds to KaiA and KaiC. KaiB binding removes KaiA from the A-loop, and in turn both promotes the autophosphatase activity of KaiC and inhibits its autokinase activity. Dephosphorylation of KaiC occurs in the subjective night, and proceeds in the reverse order of phosphorylation; Thr432 is dephosphorylated before Ser431. Ultimately, these circadian rhythms in KaiC phosphorylation governed by KaiA and KaiB binding create a post-translation oscillator that can interact with both input pathways to entrain to changing environmental conditions and output pathways to mediate transcriptional events. Circadian outputs and KaiB fold switching <P> has been found to result in over 80% occupancy of the H₁ receptor and to induce intense sleepiness. After a short period of chronic treatment, however, the H₁ receptor tends to desensitize and the antihistamine effects become more tolerable. Many patients may also dose at night to avoid the effects, and this appears to be an effective strategy for combating them. Blockade of the H₁ receptor may improve pre-existing allergies, pruritus, nausea, and insomnia in afflicted individuals. It may also contribute to weight gain, however. In contrast to the H₁ receptor, mirtazapine has only low affinity for the muscarinic acetylcholine <P> exposed to motion environments commonly exhibit drowsiness and disinclination for activity. These animals show slowed electroencephalography waves, which are involved in the firing of neurons in the brain. The locus coeruleuses of these animals are apparently deactivated. The sopite syndrome is therefore linked to inhibition of the locus coeruleus-noradrenergic pathways. As such, noradrenaline releasers may be useful in counteracting these symptoms. Classification The sopite syndrome is classified as a symptom-complex centered on drowsiness. It may be distinguished from ordinary fatigue. Researchers have previously studied this effect through the use of rotating rooms. When <P> to the cell’s surface so that they can receive external melatonin signals. Binding of melatonin to the MT₁ receptor leads to the inhibition of the production of cAMP through inhibition of Protein Kinase A (PKA). While activation of the MT2 receptor is also shown to inhibit the production of cAMP, it additionally inhibits cGMP production. Melatonin binding to the MT₁ and MT₂ receptors is only one of the paths through which it shows its influence. In addition to binding to membrane bound GPCRs (MT₁ and MT₂) melatonin also binds to intracellular and nuclear receptors. Regulation of melatonin receptors The different <P> STAM2 Function The protein encoded by this gene is closely related to STAM, an adaptor protein involved in the downstream signaling of cytokine receptors, both of which contain a SH3 domain and the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM). Similar to STAM, this protein acts downstream of JAK kinases, and is phosphorylated in response to cytokine stimulation. This protein and STAM thus are thought to exhibit compensatory effects on the signaling pathway downstream of JAK kinases upon cytokine stimulation. Interactions STAM2 has been shown to interact with HGS, Janus kinase 1 and USP8. <P> Alert. <P> the thalomocortical area, is able to generate fast voltage-dependent membrane potential oscillations which allow it to react quickly to received messages. The types of channels that cover this area are presumed to be GABAergic. Since sensory awareness needs to be quick, the threshold for sodium and potassium in this area is quite low. Cognitive Francis Crick and Christof Koch proposed that specific neural activity can stimulate short-term memory, forming a continuous and dynamic consciousness. Cognitive binding is associated with the different states of human consciousness. Two of the most studied states of consciousness are the wakefulness and REM sleep. There have <P> receptor is also implicated in serotonin syndrome caused by indirect serotonin receptor agonists like serotonin reuptake inhibitors, serotonin releasing agents, and monoamine oxidase inhibitors. Antagonists of the 5-HT2A receptor like cyproheptadine and chlorpromazine are able to reverse and mediate recovery from serotonin syndrome. 5-HT2B receptor agonists Agonists of the 5-HT2B receptor are implicated in the development of cardiac fibrosis. Fenfluramine, pergolide, and cabergoline have been withdrawn from some markets for this reason. Many serotonergic psychedelics, such as LSD and psilocin, have been shown to activate this receptor directly. MDMA has been reported to be both a potent direct agonist and <P> neurons hyperpolarize in response to serotonin. Cannabinoids have an excitatory effect on MCH neurons. Some research has shown that dopamine has an inhibitory effect on MCH neurons, but further research is needed to fully characterize this interaction. Sleep MCH and the hormone orexin have an antagonistic relationship with one another with regards to the sleep cycle, with orexin being almost entirely active during wake periods and MCH being more active during sleep periods. MCH also promotes sleep, and within a sleep period increased levels of MCH seem to increase the amount of time spent in REM sleep and slow waves sleep. <P> been multiple studies showing, electrophysiologically, that these two states are quite similar in nature. This has led some neural binding theorists to study the modes of cognitive awareness in each state. Certain observations have even led these scientists to hypothesize that since there is little cognition going on during REM sleep, the increased thalamocortical responses show the action of processing in the waking preconscious. The thalamus and cortex are important anatomical features in cognitive and sensory awareness. The understanding of how these neurons fire and relate to one other in each of these states (REM and Waking) is paramount to understanding <P> and direct blockade of inhibitory α₂ heteroreceptors located on serotonin terminals are held responsible for the increase in extracellular serotonin. Because of this, mirtazapine has been said to be a functional "indirect agonist" of the 5-HT1A receptor. Increased activation of the central 5-HT1A receptor is thought to be a major mediator of efficacy of most antidepressant drugs. 5-HT2 receptor Antagonism of the 5-HT₂ subfamily of receptors and inverse agonism of the 5-HT2C receptor appears to be in part responsible for mirtazapine's efficacy in the treatment of depressive states. Mirtazapine increases dopamine release in the prefrontal cortex. Accordingly, it was shown <P> more appropriately used to evaluate the running spontaneous activity of the cortex. This spontaneous activity is classified into four main classifications based on the frequency of the activity, ranging from low frequency delta waves (< 4 Hz) commonly found during sleep to beta waves (13–30 Hz) associated with an awake and alert brain. In between these two extremes are theta waves (4–8 Hz) and alpha waves (8–12 Hz). Many studies on mindfulness meditation, assessed in a review by Cahn and Polich in 2006, have linked lower frequency alpha waves, as well as theta waves, to meditation. Much older studies report more specific findings, <P> delay circadian rhythms, resulting in later sleep onset and offset in patients with FASPS or other advanced sleep phase disorders. Discovery In 1999, Louis Ptáček conducted a study at the University of Utah in which he coined the term familial advanced sleep phase disorder after identifying individuals with a genetic basis for an advanced sleep phase. The first patient evaluated during the study reported “disabling early evening sleepiness” and “early morning awakening”; similar symptoms were also reported in her family members. Consenting relatives of the initial patient were evaluated, as well as those from two additional families. The clinical histories, <P> up or down by the dopaminergic cells of the ventral tegmental area. For example, drugs that block activity in the dopaminergic activity (e.g., haloperidol) inhibit unusually frequent, and vivid dreaming, while increase of dopamine (e.g., through l-dopa) stimulates excessive vivid dreaming and nightmares. In other animal species REM sleep and the ability to dream seem to be embedded in the biology of many animals in addition to humans. Scientific research suggests that all mammals experience REM. The range of REM can be seen across species: dolphins experience minimal REM, while humans are in the middle of the scale and the <P> types of melatonin receptors are regulated in different ways. When the MT₁ receptor is exposed to typical levels of melatonin, there is no change in cell membrane receptor density, affinity for substrate, or functional sensitivity. However, the same trend is not shown in MT₂ receptors. Administration of typical levels of melatonin resulted in the removal of MT₂ receptors from the membrane (internalization) and a decrease in the sensitivity of the receptor to melatonin. These responses help the MT₂ receptor accomplish its role in phase shifting the circadian clock by adjusting the sensitivity and availability of the population of MT₂ to	answer: While you are awake, adenosine levels increase in your brain, and past a certain level, adenosine receptor stimulation will make you feel drowsy. When you sleep, adenosine is broken down, reducing the drowsy feeling. Caffeine makes you feel less awake because it "tricks" your brain into thinking that there are lower levels of adenosine in the brain by blocking adenosine receptors. Thus, when the caffeine is eliminated from your system, you experience a "crash," because your brain quickly goes from experiencing a low level of adenosine receptor stimulation to a much higher level of adenosine receptor stimulation.Neuroscience Undergrad.
77,327	3vlc9o	why are video frame rates so complicated now?	> What does that 'p' stand for?"P" means progressive. NTSC is 60i where the "I" means "interlaced"; there are 525/486/480 lines and 60 "fields" per second but alternating fields contain only the odd or even lines. By comparison, 30p would have 30 "frames" per second with each frame containing every line. For a given resolution, 60i has the same number of pixels as 30p.	[ " > What does that 'p' stand for?\n\n\"P\" means progressive. NTSC is 60i where the \"I\" means \"interlaced\"; there are 525/486/480 lines and 60 \"fields\" per second but alternating fields contain only the odd or even lines. By comparison, 30p would have 30 \"frames\" per second with each frame containing eve...	2	[]	0	<P> "Change of Frame" was released in August 2016. <P> shutter speeds. This left the photographer with 8 speeds to choose from: 1/2 s, 1/4 s, 1/8 s, 1/15 s, 1/30 s, 1/60 s, 1/125 s and 1/250 s. In latter models the speeds 1/15 s and 1/30 s where dropped in favor of a more evenly running mechanism. Since 2006 it is sold in a stripped down version with only two shutter speeds (1/2 s and 1/60 s) as Horizon Kompakt In 2003 an again reworked edition was presented, initially released as Horizon 203 but then called Horizon S3Pro. This upgrade focused on design and performance, leaving the technical specs <P> Maximum speed was 9 frame/sec – the fastest available at the time. Its use at the 1972 Olympics in Japan produced fantastic sequential shots that were previously impossible to achieve. In 1973, Canon introduced the Motor Drive MF. The Motor Drive MF had its batteries (10 AAs) in a vertical grip that mounted to the front left (looking from the front). It had a maximum rate of 3.5 frame/sec and was much better suited to action / sports photography, especially when paired with the Speed Finder or Servo EE finder. A special cord allowed the Servo EE finder to draw <P> from DVB. DisplayPort 1.3, finalized by VESA in late 2014, added support for 7680 × 4320 at 30 Hz (or 60 Hz with Y′CBCR 4:2:0 subsampling). VESA's Display Stream Compression (DSC), which was part of early DisplayPort 1.3 drafts and would have enabled 8K at 60 Hz without subsampling, was cut from the specification prior to publication of the final draft. DSC support was reintroduced with the publication of DisplayPort 1.4 in March 2016. Using DSC, a "visually lossless" form of compression, formats up to 7680 × 4320 (8K UHD) at 60 Hz with HDR and 30 bit/px color depth are possible without subsampling. 160 × 120 (QQVGA) Quarter-QVGA (QQVGA or qqVGA) denotes a resolution of <P> series, Minolta went for a much more traditional approach, culminating in their last "single-digit series" film cameras where most everything was controlled by an unusual number of separate buttons—the antithesis of the xi series. This later design was continued in the Konica Minolta and Sony era. <P> and rate-distortion optimization. <P> prints. Originally moving picture film was shot and projected at various speeds using hand-cranked cameras and projectors; though 1000 frames per minute (16 frame/s) is generally cited as a standard silent speed, research indicates most films were shot between 16 frame/s and 23 frame/s and projected from 18 frame/s on up (often reels included instructions on how fast each scene should be shown). When sound film was introduced in the late 1920s, a constant speed was required for the sound head. 24 frames per second were chosen because it was the slowest (and thus cheapest) speed which allowed for sufficient sound <P> Generalized Timing Formula Generalized Timing Formula is a standard by VESA which defines exact parameters of the component video signal for analogue VGA display interface. The video parameters defined by the standard include horizontal blanking (retrace) and vertical blanking intervals, horizontal frequency and vertical frequency (collectively, pixel clock rate or video signal bandwidth), and horizontal/vertical sync polarity. These parameters are used by the XFree86 Modeline, for example. This video timing standard is available from VESA for 350 USD. History The standard was adopted in 1999, and was superseded by the Coordinated Video Timings specification in 2002. <P> of this transition was that the highest available resolutions moved generally downward (i.e., the move from 1920 × 1200 laptop displays to 1920 × 1080 displays). 640 × 360 (nHD) nHD is a display resolution of 640 × 360 pixels, which is exactly one ninth of a Full HD (1080p) frame and one quarter of a HD (720p) frame. Pixel doubling (vertically and horizontally) nHD frames will form one 720p frame and pixel tripling nHD frames will form one 1080p frame. One drawback of this resolution is that the vertical resolution is not an even multiple of 16, which is a common macroblock size for video codecs. Video frames <P> 2013 and early 2014, such as the Sharp PN-K321, Asus PQ321Q, and Dell UP2414Q and UP3214Q, were addressed internally as two 1920 × 2160 monitors side-by-side instead of a single display and made use of DisplayPort's Multi-Stream Transport (MST) feature to multiplex a separate signal for each half over the connection, splitting the data between two timing controllers. Newer timing controllers became available in 2014, and after mid-2014 new 4K monitors such as the Asus PB287Q no longer rely on MST tiling technique to achieve 4K at 60 Hz, instead using the standard SST (Single-Stream Transport) approach. In 2015 Sony announced the Xperia Z5 <P> ABNT NBR 15602 Introduction Audio and video coding changes are some of the additional technological updates added to the standard. The adoption of Recommendation ITU-T H.264 (MPEG-4 AVC, Advanced Video Coding) as the compression tool allowed for a great leap in quality in all applications: from high definition to low resolution videos. The High Profile is the video compression profile adopted for SDTV and HDTV signals, while the Baseline Profile is used for 1-Seg content. Differently from the Japanese system, the coding level specified for the Brazilian system allows the deliver of low resolution video content of up to 30 <P> field, the process would repeat, completing one frame.) To create the five additional frames, the converter repeats every fifth frame. If there is little inter-frame motion, this conversion algorithm is fast, inexpensive and effective. Many inexpensive consumer television system converters have employed this technique. Yet in practise, most video features significant inter-frame motion. To reduce conversion artefacts, more modern or expensive equipment may use sophisticated techniques. Doubler The most basic and literal way to double lines is to repeat each scanline, though the results of this are generally very crude. Linear interpolation use digital interpolation to recreate the missing lines in <P> the illusion of operating at 60 frames per second (FPS), despite running at 30FPS. To familiarize himself with the process, Andreev observed various 120 Hz television sets that incorporated two frames in producing an intermediate image, resulting in a smoother and clearer picture. The design team utilized a variety of interpolation techniques on multiple parts of an image, such as transparency and reflection. Andreev stated that "as soon as I got back home, I started to play with it and soon after that realised that there are a lot of issues. Mostly the artifacts of a different kind, that appear <P> off, the desktop was able to achieve 12fps. At 1920x1080, with antialiasing set to 4x, the fps was 1. However, despite this, PCMag said in its review that, “With lots of new technology with very few drawbacks, the Lenovo IdeaCentre K330-11691AU has all the right components and features to keep a family happy for the next 5 to 7 years.” 2009 The IdeaCentre K Series desktops launched in 2009 were the K220 and the K230. K220 The IdeaCentre K220 was released in 2009. The desktop was equipped with Intel Core 2 Quad Q8200 2.33 GHz processors, up to 4GB RAM, a <P> 1480. <P> Quarter-pixel motion Operation Video encoding software products such as Xvid, 3ivx, and DivX Pro Codec, which are based upon the MPEG-4 specification, use motion estimation algorithms to significantly improve video compression. The default level of resolution for motion estimation for most MPEG-4 ASP implementations is half a pixel, although quarter pixel is specified under the standard. H.264 decoders always support quarter-pixel motion. Quarter-pixel resolution can improve the quality of the video prediction signal as compared to half-pixel resolution, although the improvement may not always be enough to offset the increased bit cost of the quarter-pixel-precision motion vector; additional techniques such <P> the frame. <P> technologies that were practical to developers, as well as a less stringent time schedule. Although Andreev felt that it was not impossible to produce a video game in 60FPS graphics, he felt that it would require much more rigorous efforts on art, engineering, and design. "It is fair to say that in a lot of cases," he explained, "during pre-production, studios try to see what it would take to make a 60FPS game. Then, they get something that doesn't look very pretty when running at 60, realising that all the art has to be produced very carefully as well as <P> extra capacity. In STD mode both recording and playback heads are used, writing both fields of each interlaced video frame. In long-play mode only a single head is used to record a single field from each video frame, with each field being read twice on playback, in a "skip field" technique. The heads scanned the tape in a helical scan fashion Tape was moved forward at 2.91 inches per second in STD mode, and 1.45 inches per second in LP mode; this gave a recording time of one-hour in standard mode and two hours in long-play mode. Horizontal resolution in <P> intended Video 2000 to improve on the perceived failings of the VHS and Betamax formats whilst providing the potential for further developments. However, the format was withdrawn before many of these possibilities appeared on the market. The prototype Video Mini Cassette was a compact version of the VCC (analogous to VHS-C) that was playable in existing machines using a full-sized cassette adaptor. Published photos clearly show the nomenclature VMC120, suggesting that 60 minutes per side were possible (compared to 20 minutes total initially for VHS-C), but Philips retired Video 2000 before the development was ready for market. The 108 × 72	question: why are video frame rates so complicated now? context: <P> "Change of Frame" was released in August 2016. <P> shutter speeds. This left the photographer with 8 speeds to choose from: 1/2 s, 1/4 s, 1/8 s, 1/15 s, 1/30 s, 1/60 s, 1/125 s and 1/250 s. In latter models the speeds 1/15 s and 1/30 s where dropped in favor of a more evenly running mechanism. Since 2006 it is sold in a stripped down version with only two shutter speeds (1/2 s and 1/60 s) as Horizon Kompakt In 2003 an again reworked edition was presented, initially released as Horizon 203 but then called Horizon S3Pro. This upgrade focused on design and performance, leaving the technical specs <P> Maximum speed was 9 frame/sec – the fastest available at the time. Its use at the 1972 Olympics in Japan produced fantastic sequential shots that were previously impossible to achieve. In 1973, Canon introduced the Motor Drive MF. The Motor Drive MF had its batteries (10 AAs) in a vertical grip that mounted to the front left (looking from the front). It had a maximum rate of 3.5 frame/sec and was much better suited to action / sports photography, especially when paired with the Speed Finder or Servo EE finder. A special cord allowed the Servo EE finder to draw <P> from DVB. DisplayPort 1.3, finalized by VESA in late 2014, added support for 7680 × 4320 at 30 Hz (or 60 Hz with Y′CBCR 4:2:0 subsampling). VESA's Display Stream Compression (DSC), which was part of early DisplayPort 1.3 drafts and would have enabled 8K at 60 Hz without subsampling, was cut from the specification prior to publication of the final draft. DSC support was reintroduced with the publication of DisplayPort 1.4 in March 2016. Using DSC, a "visually lossless" form of compression, formats up to 7680 × 4320 (8K UHD) at 60 Hz with HDR and 30 bit/px color depth are possible without subsampling. 160 × 120 (QQVGA) Quarter-QVGA (QQVGA or qqVGA) denotes a resolution of <P> series, Minolta went for a much more traditional approach, culminating in their last "single-digit series" film cameras where most everything was controlled by an unusual number of separate buttons—the antithesis of the xi series. This later design was continued in the Konica Minolta and Sony era. <P> and rate-distortion optimization. <P> prints. Originally moving picture film was shot and projected at various speeds using hand-cranked cameras and projectors; though 1000 frames per minute (16 frame/s) is generally cited as a standard silent speed, research indicates most films were shot between 16 frame/s and 23 frame/s and projected from 18 frame/s on up (often reels included instructions on how fast each scene should be shown). When sound film was introduced in the late 1920s, a constant speed was required for the sound head. 24 frames per second were chosen because it was the slowest (and thus cheapest) speed which allowed for sufficient sound <P> Generalized Timing Formula Generalized Timing Formula is a standard by VESA which defines exact parameters of the component video signal for analogue VGA display interface. The video parameters defined by the standard include horizontal blanking (retrace) and vertical blanking intervals, horizontal frequency and vertical frequency (collectively, pixel clock rate or video signal bandwidth), and horizontal/vertical sync polarity. These parameters are used by the XFree86 Modeline, for example. This video timing standard is available from VESA for 350 USD. History The standard was adopted in 1999, and was superseded by the Coordinated Video Timings specification in 2002. <P> of this transition was that the highest available resolutions moved generally downward (i.e., the move from 1920 × 1200 laptop displays to 1920 × 1080 displays). 640 × 360 (nHD) nHD is a display resolution of 640 × 360 pixels, which is exactly one ninth of a Full HD (1080p) frame and one quarter of a HD (720p) frame. Pixel doubling (vertically and horizontally) nHD frames will form one 720p frame and pixel tripling nHD frames will form one 1080p frame. One drawback of this resolution is that the vertical resolution is not an even multiple of 16, which is a common macroblock size for video codecs. Video frames <P> 2013 and early 2014, such as the Sharp PN-K321, Asus PQ321Q, and Dell UP2414Q and UP3214Q, were addressed internally as two 1920 × 2160 monitors side-by-side instead of a single display and made use of DisplayPort's Multi-Stream Transport (MST) feature to multiplex a separate signal for each half over the connection, splitting the data between two timing controllers. Newer timing controllers became available in 2014, and after mid-2014 new 4K monitors such as the Asus PB287Q no longer rely on MST tiling technique to achieve 4K at 60 Hz, instead using the standard SST (Single-Stream Transport) approach. In 2015 Sony announced the Xperia Z5 <P> ABNT NBR 15602 Introduction Audio and video coding changes are some of the additional technological updates added to the standard. The adoption of Recommendation ITU-T H.264 (MPEG-4 AVC, Advanced Video Coding) as the compression tool allowed for a great leap in quality in all applications: from high definition to low resolution videos. The High Profile is the video compression profile adopted for SDTV and HDTV signals, while the Baseline Profile is used for 1-Seg content. Differently from the Japanese system, the coding level specified for the Brazilian system allows the deliver of low resolution video content of up to 30 <P> field, the process would repeat, completing one frame.) To create the five additional frames, the converter repeats every fifth frame. If there is little inter-frame motion, this conversion algorithm is fast, inexpensive and effective. Many inexpensive consumer television system converters have employed this technique. Yet in practise, most video features significant inter-frame motion. To reduce conversion artefacts, more modern or expensive equipment may use sophisticated techniques. Doubler The most basic and literal way to double lines is to repeat each scanline, though the results of this are generally very crude. Linear interpolation use digital interpolation to recreate the missing lines in <P> the illusion of operating at 60 frames per second (FPS), despite running at 30FPS. To familiarize himself with the process, Andreev observed various 120 Hz television sets that incorporated two frames in producing an intermediate image, resulting in a smoother and clearer picture. The design team utilized a variety of interpolation techniques on multiple parts of an image, such as transparency and reflection. Andreev stated that "as soon as I got back home, I started to play with it and soon after that realised that there are a lot of issues. Mostly the artifacts of a different kind, that appear <P> off, the desktop was able to achieve 12fps. At 1920x1080, with antialiasing set to 4x, the fps was 1. However, despite this, PCMag said in its review that, “With lots of new technology with very few drawbacks, the Lenovo IdeaCentre K330-11691AU has all the right components and features to keep a family happy for the next 5 to 7 years.” 2009 The IdeaCentre K Series desktops launched in 2009 were the K220 and the K230. K220 The IdeaCentre K220 was released in 2009. The desktop was equipped with Intel Core 2 Quad Q8200 2.33 GHz processors, up to 4GB RAM, a <P> 1480. <P> Quarter-pixel motion Operation Video encoding software products such as Xvid, 3ivx, and DivX Pro Codec, which are based upon the MPEG-4 specification, use motion estimation algorithms to significantly improve video compression. The default level of resolution for motion estimation for most MPEG-4 ASP implementations is half a pixel, although quarter pixel is specified under the standard. H.264 decoders always support quarter-pixel motion. Quarter-pixel resolution can improve the quality of the video prediction signal as compared to half-pixel resolution, although the improvement may not always be enough to offset the increased bit cost of the quarter-pixel-precision motion vector; additional techniques such <P> the frame. <P> technologies that were practical to developers, as well as a less stringent time schedule. Although Andreev felt that it was not impossible to produce a video game in 60FPS graphics, he felt that it would require much more rigorous efforts on art, engineering, and design. "It is fair to say that in a lot of cases," he explained, "during pre-production, studios try to see what it would take to make a 60FPS game. Then, they get something that doesn't look very pretty when running at 60, realising that all the art has to be produced very carefully as well as <P> extra capacity. In STD mode both recording and playback heads are used, writing both fields of each interlaced video frame. In long-play mode only a single head is used to record a single field from each video frame, with each field being read twice on playback, in a "skip field" technique. The heads scanned the tape in a helical scan fashion Tape was moved forward at 2.91 inches per second in STD mode, and 1.45 inches per second in LP mode; this gave a recording time of one-hour in standard mode and two hours in long-play mode. Horizontal resolution in <P> intended Video 2000 to improve on the perceived failings of the VHS and Betamax formats whilst providing the potential for further developments. However, the format was withdrawn before many of these possibilities appeared on the market. The prototype Video Mini Cassette was a compact version of the VCC (analogous to VHS-C) that was playable in existing machines using a full-sized cassette adaptor. Published photos clearly show the nomenclature VMC120, suggesting that 60 minutes per side were possible (compared to 20 minutes total initially for VHS-C), but Philips retired Video 2000 before the development was ready for market. The 108 × 72	answer: > What does that 'p' stand for?"P" means progressive. NTSC is 60i where the "I" means "interlaced"; there are 525/486/480 lines and 60 "fields" per second but alternating fields contain only the odd or even lines. By comparison, 30p would have 30 "frames" per second with each frame containing every line. For a given resolution, 60i has the same number of pixels as 30p.
78,566	1p3xt9	why do clouds turn purple, pink, and orange during a sunset	Simplest answer is it's dust. Light refracts differently when it's lower on the horizon and gives the sky specific colours.	[ "Simplest answer is it's dust. Light refracts differently when it's lower on the horizon and gives the sky specific colours.", "The reason has a little to do with light, and a little to do with how our eyes work.\nThe first thing to note is that the sky is blue. The short answer to this is because of a thing call...	2	[]	0	<P> has an orange sky in the background, and the other does not. <P> the sun, and are brown at night. <P> sunset. These effects are apparent in natural light photography where the principal source of illumination is sunlight as mediated by the atmosphere. While the color of the sky is usually determined by Rayleigh scattering, an exception occurs at sunset and twilight. "Preferential absorption of sunlight by ozone over long horizon paths gives the zenith sky its blueness when the sun is near the horizon". See diffuse sky radiation for more details. Spectral composition of sunlight at Earth's surface The Sun may be said to illuminate, which is a measure of the light within a specific sensitivity range. Many animals (including humans) have <P> Shades of Deep Purple). <P> in formlessness, thrust in a עִזְקָא (izqa), ring, not white, not black, not red, not green, no color at all (Zohar 1:15a). When it extended to shine, a cord surveyed, it yielded radiant colors… within (ibid.). And the mystery of the matter is, Wrapped in light like a cloak, [stretching out heavens like a tent-cloth] (Psalms 104:2). For this is the cloaked light that does not spread, hidden. The אֲוִיר (avir), atmosphere, [lit., air], is called the אוֹר (or), light, and with the addition of the י (yod), the point in the palace, for when one takes the י (yod) <P> a white light) and from Les Hanois Lighthouse (which displayed a red light) it was resolved that the Wolf Rock light should revolve and flash alternately red and white; in order to achieve the required characteristic it was planned to install 'ruby' coloured panes of glass over half the panels on the optic (with the intervening panels left clear). It was known, however, that the intensity of a light was reduced when shone through coloured glass, so Chance conducted experiments to measure the precise difference. It was concluded that the comparative intensity of clear glass to red was 21 to <P> determined by its spectrum. <P> of bright canary yellow when strolling along those paths of Endcliffe Park that follow the course of the Brook. <P> Sees Red. <P> of view of optics, violet is a real color: it occupies its own place at the end of the visible spectrum, and was one of the seven spectral colors of the spectrum first described by Isaac Newton in 1672. In the additive color system, used to create colors on a computer screen or on a color television, violet is simulated by purple, by combining blue light at high intensity with a less intense red light on a black screen. The range of purples is created by combining blue and red light of any intensities; the chromaticities formed this way line along <P> a sensitivity range of approximately 400–700 nm, and given optimal conditions the absorption and scattering by Earth's atmosphere produces illumination that approximates an equal-energy illuminant for most of this range. The useful range for color vision in humans, for example, is approximately 450–650 nm. Aside from effects that arise at sunset and sunrise, the spectral composition changes primarily in respect to how directly sunlight is able to illuminate. When illumination is indirect, Rayleigh scattering in the upper atmosphere will lead blue wavelengths to dominate. Water vapour in the lower atmosphere produces further scattering and ozone, dust and water particles will also absorb <P> bluish-purple when ripe. <P> telescopes like Hubble can observe much fainter objects than current ground-based telescopes at visible wavelengths. Airglow at night may be bright enough for a ground observer to notice and appears generally bluish. Although airglow emission is fairly uniform across the atmosphere, it appears brightest at about 10° above the observer's horizon, since the lower one looks, the greater the depth of atmosphere one is looking through. Very low down, however, atmospheric extinction reduces the apparent brightness of the airglow. One airglow mechanism is when an atom of nitrogen combines with an atom of oxygen to form a molecule of nitric oxide (NO). <P> shiny warped red 10 rough shiny round red 20 smooth dull warped red 10 smooth dull round red <P> blue -- 2 ... -- and so on smooth shiny warped blue -- 20 ... <P> of Color. <P> iridescent blue, with dark brown spots in the M₃ and Cu₁ cells. <P> mentioned above. In all cases, in blue light. Martin showed that the interstellar medium can convert LP light to CP by scattering from partially aligned interstellar grains having a complex index of refraction. This effect was observed for light from the Crab Nebula by Martin, Illing and Angel. An optically thick circumstellar environment can potentially produce much larger CP than the interstellar medium. Martin suggested that LP light can become CP near a star by multiple scattering in an optically thick asymmetric circumstellar dust cloud. This mechanism was invoked by Bastien, Robert and Nadeau, to explain the CP measured in 6 <P> album titled Sunset Blush via Alcopop Records. <P> definition diametrically opposed to the sun's (or moon's) position in the sky, it always lies below the observer's horizon when the sun (or moon) is up. In order to see a glory, therefore, the clouds or fog causing it must be located below the observer, in a straight line with the Sun/Moon and the observer's eye. Hence, the glory is commonly observed from a high viewpoint such as a mountain, tall building or from an aircraft. In the latter case, if the plane is flying sufficiently low for its shadow to be visible on the clouds, the glory always surrounds	question: why do clouds turn purple, pink, and orange during a sunset context: <P> has an orange sky in the background, and the other does not. <P> the sun, and are brown at night. <P> sunset. These effects are apparent in natural light photography where the principal source of illumination is sunlight as mediated by the atmosphere. While the color of the sky is usually determined by Rayleigh scattering, an exception occurs at sunset and twilight. "Preferential absorption of sunlight by ozone over long horizon paths gives the zenith sky its blueness when the sun is near the horizon". See diffuse sky radiation for more details. Spectral composition of sunlight at Earth's surface The Sun may be said to illuminate, which is a measure of the light within a specific sensitivity range. Many animals (including humans) have <P> Shades of Deep Purple). <P> in formlessness, thrust in a עִזְקָא (izqa), ring, not white, not black, not red, not green, no color at all (Zohar 1:15a). When it extended to shine, a cord surveyed, it yielded radiant colors… within (ibid.). And the mystery of the matter is, Wrapped in light like a cloak, [stretching out heavens like a tent-cloth] (Psalms 104:2). For this is the cloaked light that does not spread, hidden. The אֲוִיר (avir), atmosphere, [lit., air], is called the אוֹר (or), light, and with the addition of the י (yod), the point in the palace, for when one takes the י (yod) <P> a white light) and from Les Hanois Lighthouse (which displayed a red light) it was resolved that the Wolf Rock light should revolve and flash alternately red and white; in order to achieve the required characteristic it was planned to install 'ruby' coloured panes of glass over half the panels on the optic (with the intervening panels left clear). It was known, however, that the intensity of a light was reduced when shone through coloured glass, so Chance conducted experiments to measure the precise difference. It was concluded that the comparative intensity of clear glass to red was 21 to <P> determined by its spectrum. <P> of bright canary yellow when strolling along those paths of Endcliffe Park that follow the course of the Brook. <P> Sees Red. <P> of view of optics, violet is a real color: it occupies its own place at the end of the visible spectrum, and was one of the seven spectral colors of the spectrum first described by Isaac Newton in 1672. In the additive color system, used to create colors on a computer screen or on a color television, violet is simulated by purple, by combining blue light at high intensity with a less intense red light on a black screen. The range of purples is created by combining blue and red light of any intensities; the chromaticities formed this way line along <P> a sensitivity range of approximately 400–700 nm, and given optimal conditions the absorption and scattering by Earth's atmosphere produces illumination that approximates an equal-energy illuminant for most of this range. The useful range for color vision in humans, for example, is approximately 450–650 nm. Aside from effects that arise at sunset and sunrise, the spectral composition changes primarily in respect to how directly sunlight is able to illuminate. When illumination is indirect, Rayleigh scattering in the upper atmosphere will lead blue wavelengths to dominate. Water vapour in the lower atmosphere produces further scattering and ozone, dust and water particles will also absorb <P> bluish-purple when ripe. <P> telescopes like Hubble can observe much fainter objects than current ground-based telescopes at visible wavelengths. Airglow at night may be bright enough for a ground observer to notice and appears generally bluish. Although airglow emission is fairly uniform across the atmosphere, it appears brightest at about 10° above the observer's horizon, since the lower one looks, the greater the depth of atmosphere one is looking through. Very low down, however, atmospheric extinction reduces the apparent brightness of the airglow. One airglow mechanism is when an atom of nitrogen combines with an atom of oxygen to form a molecule of nitric oxide (NO). <P> shiny warped red 10 rough shiny round red 20 smooth dull warped red 10 smooth dull round red <P> blue -- 2 ... -- and so on smooth shiny warped blue -- 20 ... <P> of Color. <P> iridescent blue, with dark brown spots in the M₃ and Cu₁ cells. <P> mentioned above. In all cases, in blue light. Martin showed that the interstellar medium can convert LP light to CP by scattering from partially aligned interstellar grains having a complex index of refraction. This effect was observed for light from the Crab Nebula by Martin, Illing and Angel. An optically thick circumstellar environment can potentially produce much larger CP than the interstellar medium. Martin suggested that LP light can become CP near a star by multiple scattering in an optically thick asymmetric circumstellar dust cloud. This mechanism was invoked by Bastien, Robert and Nadeau, to explain the CP measured in 6 <P> album titled Sunset Blush via Alcopop Records. <P> definition diametrically opposed to the sun's (or moon's) position in the sky, it always lies below the observer's horizon when the sun (or moon) is up. In order to see a glory, therefore, the clouds or fog causing it must be located below the observer, in a straight line with the Sun/Moon and the observer's eye. Hence, the glory is commonly observed from a high viewpoint such as a mountain, tall building or from an aircraft. In the latter case, if the plane is flying sufficiently low for its shadow to be visible on the clouds, the glory always surrounds	answer: Simplest answer is it's dust. Light refracts differently when it's lower on the horizon and gives the sky specific colours.
168,378	34i4ca	What happens to a person if you were to remove all sources of telling time for them?	This is the way casinos are designed. The idea is to immerse the customers I an environment that is overloaded on flashing lights and sound, but exclude any indication of time. To see the effect just visit your local casino	[ "This is the way casinos are designed. The idea is to immerse the customers I an environment that is overloaded on flashing lights and sound, but exclude any indication of time. To see the effect just visit your local casino ", "I'm not sure what aspect of functioning you're questioning here, whether people's...	2	[]	0	<P> The possibility is alluded to again in paragraph 40, which notes that "There are occasions when the court does impose a prohibition upon disclosure of the fact that an order has been made." <P> information. Access to public information does not require paying any administrative and court fees. The beneficiaries might only be called to pay for the actual costs of providing the information requested. Authorities are obliged to issue their decisions within 15 days from the day of submitting a request. This deadline can be prolonged by other 15 days in case of complex requests (e.g. when the information must be sought outside the offices of the public authority concerned, when a single request contains a request for different information, or when the situation requires to conduct the Proportionality Test and Public Interest Test, <P> located the requested records, even if the records end up being kept secret. But at times, a government may determine that the mere act of truthfully disclosing that the records do or do not exist would pose some actual or possible harm, such as to national security, the integrity of an ongoing investigation or a person's privacy. For example, disclosing that a police department has documents about a current investigation into a criminal conspiracy, even if the content of the documents is not disclosed, would make it public that the investigation is happening and could help suspects destroy evidence. Glomar responses <P> Post-mortem privacy United States Under common law, the right to privacy is considered a personal right, meaning it applies only to the living and, consequently, does not recognize the privacy interests of the deceased. Because of this, defamation and privacy torts that are used to prevent unjust damage to individuals' reputations cannot be extended post-mortem. For example, a family cannot file suit for invasion of privacy on behalf of a deceased relative as a personal right; it can only be exerted by the person whose rights are being infringed upon. In addition, the deceased do not qualify for privacy protections <P> that the associated court rule and statute provide, getting records can be problematic. A Pitchess motion contains numerous parts. A defendant must identify the case in which the records are being sought, which is easily satisfied by simply referencing the case number. A defendant must attach a full set of the police reports or at least those portions of the police report that relate to the Pitchess motion. The defendant must identify which officer or officers whose records are sought and which government agency has custody of the records. The defendant must also describe, via affidavit or declaration, the records and <P> five months from 27 January 2018 to 26 June 2018 for age falsification. <P> is decanted because it is referring to the prior mentioned farm. Decantation is conditioned by Common Ground Management and can be seen as presuppositional because it expresses a presupposition of a situationally salient antecedent of a particular sort. Decantation can also occur in indefinite noun phrases: a. If John paints a hot dog, Sam will eat [a hot dog]Given. Decantation can occur on a focused constituent that is given at the same time, where it does not bear the pitch accent but functions as a focus with only : a. X: Everyone already knew that Mary only eats VEGETABLES. Y: If even PAUL knew that Mary <P> suspect or of any other person, prepared by a public prosecutor or a judicial police." However, this document is technically a hearsay under the English American legal system and contains a record of a confession made without assistance of legal counsel. While either the police officer or prosecutor can produce a suspect interrogation record, one made by a prosecutor is admissible if the suspect confirms the genuineness of the Record at a preparatory hearing or during the trial. If the suspect denies the genuineness, the record could still be admissible if there is a circumstantial guarantee of trustworthiness. <P> fifty years or such other period...as the Lord Chancellor may,...for the time being prescribe as respects any particular class of public records"; the closure period was reduced from fifty to thirty years by an amending act of 1967, passed during Harold Wilson's government. Among those who had repeatedly urged the scrapping of the fifty-year rule was the historian A. J. P. Taylor. There were two elements to the rule: the first required that records be transferred from government departments to the Public Record Office (now The National Archives) after thirty years unless specific exemptions were given (by the Lord Chancellor's Advisory <P> appear in the minutes. They were not to be verbatim: Eichmann ensured that nothing too explicit appeared in them. He said at his trial: "How shall I put it – certain over-plain talk and jargon expressions had to be rendered into office language by me". Eichmann condensed his records into a document outlining the purpose of the meeting and the intentions of the regime moving forward. He stated at his trial that it was personally edited by Heydrich, and thus reflected the message he intended the participants to take away from the meeting. Copies of the minutes (known from the <P> have no knowledge regarding FBI procedures in filing and searching for records." In July 2009 the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit overturned Kimball's decision, barring Jesse Trentadue from conducting the interviews. <P> within a reasonable range of responses. The employer cannot hark back to expired warnings. Redundancy Redundancy is a topic in itself and there are regulations for where over 20 staff are at risk, whereby unions or employee representatives have also to be consulted. There are, however, always minimum requirements for consultation, selection and alternative employment. Redundancy means either the job has gone, the place has gone or the requirement for employees to do work of a particular kind has reduced. It does not necessarily mean the employee's work has reduced, nor does it mean the amount of anyone else's work has <P> to pause on the threshold and utter a Significant Statement before he or she exits. As for the significant shotgun blast off set, followed by a re-entry, and the question, “Is he dead?” what could <P> be expressly, or impliedly, extinguished or modified by statute. <P> Thirty-year rule The "thirty-year rule" is the informal name given to laws in the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, and the Commonwealth of Australia that provide that certain government documents will be released publicly thirty years after they were created. Other countries' national archives also adhere to a thirty-year rule for the release of government documents. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, the Public Records Act 1958 stated that "Public records...other than those to which members of the public have had access before their transfer...shall not be available for public inspection until they have been in existence for <P> for readers unfamiliar with her work or the period." <P> "An affidavit must provide the magistrate with a substantial basis for determining the existence of probable cause." In other words, the law officer must present evidence, not merely their conclusions. "Sufficient information must be presented to the magistrate to allow that official to determine probable cause; his action cannot be a mere ratification of the bare conclusions of others." In Johnson v. United States, 333 U.S. 10 (1948), the Court said: The point of the Fourth Amendment, which often is not grasped by zealous officers, is not that it denies law enforcement the support of the usual inferences which reasonable men draw <P> body parts after having been cut off, are replaced with the same scene, but showing the body parts fully intact. Surveillance as an aid Surveillance and censorship are different. Surveillance can be performed without censorship, but it is harder to engage in censorship without some form of surveillance. And even when surveillance does not lead directly to censorship, the widespread knowledge or belief that a person, their computer, or their use of the Internet is under surveillance can lead to self-censorship. Protection of sources is no longer just a matter of journalistic ethics; it increasingly also depends on the journalist's computer <P> be admissible to demonstrate a suspect's thoughts. <P> note that "[i]t appears that the government is seeking the clerk’s assistance in fundamentally altering the record, to intentionally conceal the identities of the assistants" who had been reprimanded by Judge Lamberth.	question: What happens to a person if you were to remove all sources of telling time for them? context: <P> The possibility is alluded to again in paragraph 40, which notes that "There are occasions when the court does impose a prohibition upon disclosure of the fact that an order has been made." <P> information. Access to public information does not require paying any administrative and court fees. The beneficiaries might only be called to pay for the actual costs of providing the information requested. Authorities are obliged to issue their decisions within 15 days from the day of submitting a request. This deadline can be prolonged by other 15 days in case of complex requests (e.g. when the information must be sought outside the offices of the public authority concerned, when a single request contains a request for different information, or when the situation requires to conduct the Proportionality Test and Public Interest Test, <P> located the requested records, even if the records end up being kept secret. But at times, a government may determine that the mere act of truthfully disclosing that the records do or do not exist would pose some actual or possible harm, such as to national security, the integrity of an ongoing investigation or a person's privacy. For example, disclosing that a police department has documents about a current investigation into a criminal conspiracy, even if the content of the documents is not disclosed, would make it public that the investigation is happening and could help suspects destroy evidence. Glomar responses <P> Post-mortem privacy United States Under common law, the right to privacy is considered a personal right, meaning it applies only to the living and, consequently, does not recognize the privacy interests of the deceased. Because of this, defamation and privacy torts that are used to prevent unjust damage to individuals' reputations cannot be extended post-mortem. For example, a family cannot file suit for invasion of privacy on behalf of a deceased relative as a personal right; it can only be exerted by the person whose rights are being infringed upon. In addition, the deceased do not qualify for privacy protections <P> that the associated court rule and statute provide, getting records can be problematic. A Pitchess motion contains numerous parts. A defendant must identify the case in which the records are being sought, which is easily satisfied by simply referencing the case number. A defendant must attach a full set of the police reports or at least those portions of the police report that relate to the Pitchess motion. The defendant must identify which officer or officers whose records are sought and which government agency has custody of the records. The defendant must also describe, via affidavit or declaration, the records and <P> five months from 27 January 2018 to 26 June 2018 for age falsification. <P> is decanted because it is referring to the prior mentioned farm. Decantation is conditioned by Common Ground Management and can be seen as presuppositional because it expresses a presupposition of a situationally salient antecedent of a particular sort. Decantation can also occur in indefinite noun phrases: a. If John paints a hot dog, Sam will eat [a hot dog]Given. Decantation can occur on a focused constituent that is given at the same time, where it does not bear the pitch accent but functions as a focus with only : a. X: Everyone already knew that Mary only eats VEGETABLES. Y: If even PAUL knew that Mary <P> suspect or of any other person, prepared by a public prosecutor or a judicial police." However, this document is technically a hearsay under the English American legal system and contains a record of a confession made without assistance of legal counsel. While either the police officer or prosecutor can produce a suspect interrogation record, one made by a prosecutor is admissible if the suspect confirms the genuineness of the Record at a preparatory hearing or during the trial. If the suspect denies the genuineness, the record could still be admissible if there is a circumstantial guarantee of trustworthiness. <P> fifty years or such other period...as the Lord Chancellor may,...for the time being prescribe as respects any particular class of public records"; the closure period was reduced from fifty to thirty years by an amending act of 1967, passed during Harold Wilson's government. Among those who had repeatedly urged the scrapping of the fifty-year rule was the historian A. J. P. Taylor. There were two elements to the rule: the first required that records be transferred from government departments to the Public Record Office (now The National Archives) after thirty years unless specific exemptions were given (by the Lord Chancellor's Advisory <P> appear in the minutes. They were not to be verbatim: Eichmann ensured that nothing too explicit appeared in them. He said at his trial: "How shall I put it – certain over-plain talk and jargon expressions had to be rendered into office language by me". Eichmann condensed his records into a document outlining the purpose of the meeting and the intentions of the regime moving forward. He stated at his trial that it was personally edited by Heydrich, and thus reflected the message he intended the participants to take away from the meeting. Copies of the minutes (known from the <P> have no knowledge regarding FBI procedures in filing and searching for records." In July 2009 the United States Court of Appeals for the Tenth Circuit overturned Kimball's decision, barring Jesse Trentadue from conducting the interviews. <P> within a reasonable range of responses. The employer cannot hark back to expired warnings. Redundancy Redundancy is a topic in itself and there are regulations for where over 20 staff are at risk, whereby unions or employee representatives have also to be consulted. There are, however, always minimum requirements for consultation, selection and alternative employment. Redundancy means either the job has gone, the place has gone or the requirement for employees to do work of a particular kind has reduced. It does not necessarily mean the employee's work has reduced, nor does it mean the amount of anyone else's work has <P> to pause on the threshold and utter a Significant Statement before he or she exits. As for the significant shotgun blast off set, followed by a re-entry, and the question, “Is he dead?” what could <P> be expressly, or impliedly, extinguished or modified by statute. <P> Thirty-year rule The "thirty-year rule" is the informal name given to laws in the United Kingdom, the Republic of Ireland, and the Commonwealth of Australia that provide that certain government documents will be released publicly thirty years after they were created. Other countries' national archives also adhere to a thirty-year rule for the release of government documents. United Kingdom In the United Kingdom, the Public Records Act 1958 stated that "Public records...other than those to which members of the public have had access before their transfer...shall not be available for public inspection until they have been in existence for <P> for readers unfamiliar with her work or the period." <P> "An affidavit must provide the magistrate with a substantial basis for determining the existence of probable cause." In other words, the law officer must present evidence, not merely their conclusions. "Sufficient information must be presented to the magistrate to allow that official to determine probable cause; his action cannot be a mere ratification of the bare conclusions of others." In Johnson v. United States, 333 U.S. 10 (1948), the Court said: The point of the Fourth Amendment, which often is not grasped by zealous officers, is not that it denies law enforcement the support of the usual inferences which reasonable men draw <P> body parts after having been cut off, are replaced with the same scene, but showing the body parts fully intact. Surveillance as an aid Surveillance and censorship are different. Surveillance can be performed without censorship, but it is harder to engage in censorship without some form of surveillance. And even when surveillance does not lead directly to censorship, the widespread knowledge or belief that a person, their computer, or their use of the Internet is under surveillance can lead to self-censorship. Protection of sources is no longer just a matter of journalistic ethics; it increasingly also depends on the journalist's computer <P> be admissible to demonstrate a suspect's thoughts. <P> note that "[i]t appears that the government is seeking the clerk’s assistance in fundamentally altering the record, to intentionally conceal the identities of the assistants" who had been reprimanded by Judge Lamberth.	answer: This is the way casinos are designed. The idea is to immerse the customers I an environment that is overloaded on flashing lights and sound, but exclude any indication of time. To see the effect just visit your local casino
159,454	1plxkx	how can large name influences (like banksy or anonymous) stay anonymous with all of their publicity?	I would assume in the case of Banksy, his anonymity is essentially what makes him extra special and interesting. Im sure there are a bunch of people in charge of his publicity and the sale of his paintings who know his identity to a certain extent, but they would never share it as that would ruin the fun. Obviously his art is provocative and interesting, but it wouldn't have the same effect if it was a British man named George Wilson.In the case of Anonymous, they aren't a certain group of people. They are lead by whoever feels inclined enough to step up and write on the internet and start a new conversation about world politics or social happenings. They're essentially just like minded people, but that's why sometimes a person will go under the guise of anonymous and do something bad and the rest of the group will scramble to say that 'that' isn't what anonymous is about. The problem with this is that an FBI agent could start a meetup somewhere and arrest everyone if he was so assholishly inclined.	[ "I would assume in the case of Banksy, his anonymity is essentially what makes him extra special and interesting. Im sure there are a bunch of people in charge of his publicity and the sale of his paintings who know his identity to a certain extent, but they would never share it as that would ruin the fun. Obviousl...	1	[]	0	<P> his first advertisements in The Daily Courant thus marking the beginning of his unique method employed for the next ten years and very soon alarmed his former master with his fame and wealth. He began to cut down on Hitchen's own gangs and gave a start to a so-called paper war between Hitchen and him. Paper war In April 1718, Hitchen published his pamphlet "A True Discovery of the Conduct of Receivers and Thief-takers, in and about the City of London: To the Multiplication and Encouragement of Thieves, Housebreakers, and other loose and disorderly Persons" dedicating it to the <P> Jason Binn Biography Binn was born in 1968 to Moreton and Penny Binn in Roslyn, New York. He graduated from Boston University’s College of Communications with honors. Binn was married Haley Lieberman in December 2003. They have three children and reside in New York City. They divorced in 2016. Publishing career Binn began his publishing career at 23 at the advertising agency, D'Arcy Masius Benton & Bowles. Upon moving to South Beach, Miami he co-founded Ocean Drive magazine, a luxury publication focusing on Miami, in 1992. In 1998, he founded Niche Media, a publisher of regional luxury magazines including Hamptons Magazine (The <P> Jason Bitner Jason Bitner (born Glen Ellyn, Illinois) is an author and project producer currently living in Chicago, Illinois. He is the co-creator of Found Magazine, a show-and-tell project celebrating found notes, letters and other ephemera; the creator of Cassette from My Ex, a storytelling project about love and mixtapes; and producer for the documentary movie La Porte, Indiana, based on Bitner's book of the same title. Bitner's work has been widely published and reviewed, and has been featured in print, web, radio, and television appearances including The New York Times, The Chicago Tribune, The Boston Globe, National Public <P> by being in a public collaborative relationship with me validates my perspective and—despite my whiteness, my class, and my proximity to fame—makes my critique of power seem legitimate in ways it otherwise might not. In other words, as a commodity, I have power through my associations with social capital; in addition, I hold a set of marginalized identities which give me intellectual authority and increased use-value in contexts seeking "diversity." In 2016, Dunham's first collection of poetry and short essays titled The Fool was published. The publication is a free, online-only "web-book" published by Curse of Cherifa. Their memoir, titled A <P> spotlight, and finding out information about him since the arrival of his namesake on the scene is all the more difficult. A sample of the Asher D and Daddy Freddy song, "Raggamuffin Duo Take Charge", was used in The Prodigy song, "Take Me to the Hospital", from their 2009 album, Invaders Must Die. <P> ring". Firrell was born in Paris, unexpectedly, on the Champs-Élysées outside what is now Sephora. He lives and works in Soho, London and a large proportion of his work has been created in various Soho cafés acting as his "studio, canteen and campaign HQ". Firrell was London Cultural Ambassador for the now defunct International Herald Tribune curating the newspaper's first London Arts Season in 2005, titled "Breathless…" after Jean-Luc Godard's nouvelle vague film of the same title. Social artwork All Identity is Constructed appeared on UK digital billboards in 2016 asserting the principle that all identities, regardless of their differences, are arbitrary <P> (Albert Schultz) is an accident prone roofer with aspirations of becoming a country music singer. Frequently wearing some manner of orthopedic appliance from his latest mishap, he insists that roofing is "...in [his] blood" and that he continue with his work despite its seemingly hazardous nature. Arnie is renowned for having written over 17,000 songs (most of which are terrible) and he enjoys playing them for lodge members at any opportunity, much to the chagrin and irritation of the latter. Kevin Black Kevin Black (Paul Gross) is a yuppie developer from the big city who is usually outwitted by the <P> time. They noticed one member who always made posts using the unusual greeting "hiyas" and had a distinctive freckle on one of his fingers. Officers explored the Internet and social media, and eventually found a Facebook page matching the profile of the individual they were looking for, including the greeting and freckle. The profile was fake but photos of a vehicle led police to Shannon McCoole, a care worker from Adelaide. A warrant was issued for the arrest of McCoole. Upon entering his house, police discovered that McCoole, who was subsequently sentenced to 35 years in prison, was online and <P> then in 2.6 we see a large inspirational poster of the man pinned up in the hotel room of failed magician Clifford Daxon. Issac Hunt Across both series Matt Lucas portrays "the most powerful and influential music agent in Wales". Through his company Mumbles Records, he represents a number of acts, which he refers as his "butties". These stars include tribute singer Shaking Stephens, failed magician Cliff Daxon who he has looked after for 12 years. He also represents the "World famous “Davy G” Music Maestro (as seen on TV in 1983)" and a newly signed up Queen tribute band, "The <P> photographs drained of incipient movement and life. Not Rick." For the last decade of his work on the strip Yager was finally allowed to sign his own name to his work. During this phase of his career Yager also took over the daily Buck Rogers strip — both art and storyline; he was assisted by Len Dworkins from 1951-1956. At the time Yager left the National Newspaper Syndicate in 1958 due to a dispute over contracts, the circulation of the Buck Rogers daily newspaper strip was at an all-time high. After having been read by millions of people every day for <P> second chance ... They represent persistence in the face of long odds, which definitely adds to their artistic appeal." A variety of such artistic works have been developed including illustrations, movies, plays, poetry and songs. Other major cities have similar columns in Craigslist and their own local media. For example, London's Metro newspaper has a "Rush-hour Crush" column for commuters who exchange glances but nothing more. Many connections are re-established and couples have become married in this way, such as "tall rugby player" and "beautiful lady in the red dress with long brown curly hair". Various websites like <P> Brand was expelled for illegal drug use and poor attendance. Stand-up Brand performed stand-up at the Hackney Empire New Act of the Year final in 2000. Although he finished fourth, his performance attracted the attention of Bound and Gagged Comedy Ltd agent Nigel Klarfeld. That year, he also made his Edinburgh debut as one-third of the stand-up show Pablo Diablo's Cryptic Triptych, alongside ventriloquist Mark Felgate and Anglo-Iranian comic Shappi Khorsandi. In 2004, he took his first one-man show, the confessional Better Now, to the Edinburgh Festival, giving what he claimed was an honest account of his heroin addiction. He <P> non-governmental cultural organisation financially supported Shifty Records from 1986 to 1992 and held various manifestations in Sweden for the company and the various artists associated with Shifty. Apartheid security campaign against Shifty In 2002, notorious Bureau of State Security agent, Paul Erasmus was granted amnesty by the Truth & Reconciliation Commission for his overzealous campaign against Shifty Records artist, Roger Lucey, a campaign which ended his career. The amnesty application does not apply to other artists, appearing with Lucey, or released on the Shifty label. In particular, Lucey appears on Shifty compilation albums such as Forces Favourites and Anaartjie in <P> responded humbly: "I guess with good music, comes good fans". When producer Avi Newmark was asked what makes Eitan different from other artists he has worked with, Avi responded: "It's not always about different. Eitan has a drive for perfection and a genuine love of music, which he communicates very well. There is something here for everyone, and Eitan delivers right on point." "Am Yisrael Chai" music video In 2015, Freilich announced he had teamed up with Hasidic comedian and filmmaker Mendy Pellin. Months later, Freilich spoke in a radio interview explaining he had further teamed up with a production <P> Sunspot Jonz History Sunspot Jonz has gone by other surnames before, the most notable and well-known being BFAP, which stands for Brother From Another Planet, and Vision. Sunspot Jonz released Don't Let 'Em Stop You in 2003. It features contributions from Dirt Nasty, Moka Only and The Grouch. He released two solo albums, Fight-Destroy-Rock and The Darkside ov Heaven, in 2009. <P> a group called The TigerLilys, who had a MySpace page displaying two tracks. The group disbanded without being signed by a label or releasing any material commercially. In February 2007, Humes appeared briefly on Never Mind The Buzzcocks as part of the show's regular Identity Parade feature, where contestants guess which person out of a line-up of five was featured in an old music video played only to the audience and viewers. The team, consisting of Bill Bailey, Russell Howard and Romeo Stodart (from the band The Magic Numbers), correctly picked Humes from the line-up. On 22 October 2009, after <P> retired in May, 1962 to open an auto business and write his memoir of his crime-fighting exploits, Under the Hood. By reading Under the Hood, Silk Spectre II later learned of the Comedian's attempted rape of her mother Silk Spectre I. Soon after Hollis retired, Daniel Dreiberg sought him out and asked if he could use the name and persona of Nite Owl to fight crime. Mason acceded and Dreiberg became the second Nite Owl. After Nite Owl II and Silk Spectre II broke Rorschach out of prison on Halloween night, the Knot-Tops street gang became angered by what they <P> music, money and glamour—the Harlem Renaissance. Dave even meets Irma Lee, a girl whom he is quickly attracted to. However, Dave needs to return to the orphanage every morning, but this new lifestyle isn't always what it seems. Yiddish definitions Boychik- a little boy Landsman- a fellow Jew Mazel Tov- congratulations Gonif- somebody who fools people out of their money Shayneh shvartzeh maidel- pretty black girl Meshuggeneh- a crazy person Alrightnik- someone who forgets that he wasn't born a doctor, a judge, or a businessman; he forgets that a lot of people made it possible for him to get so high-and-mighty Comparison to reality Dave <P> The Almighty RSO History One of their first breakthroughs was winning the ICA B-Town Rap Battle in 1986. In 1988 they released the single, "We're Notorious." Current Boston hip hop favorite Akrobatik said "Initially I would think of RSO Crew who were from here and making any type of noise. Locally, if I turned on the radio, those would be the guys that I would know who they were and follow their songs. I've definitely been checking them out from the beginning." In 1991, 17-year-old Rodney "Rock" Pitts joined as a MC referred by his cousin Big Hurst <P> 29 with 66.1% of the votes versus Sabrina. On 21 June 2010, whilst at Christopher Street Day in Berlin he bit 8 people. Horst Horst Trippel is a 41-year-old tattooist from Otzberg. He entered the Rich House on Day 1. On Day 2 he left the house, because he felt he could not talk to the housemates Harald and Carlos without thinking of their HIV status. Iris Iris Klein is a 42-year-old restaurateur from Ludwigshafen. She entered the Secret House on Day 1. She was very popular with the viewers. She did not get on with fellow housemates Harald. During	question: how can large name influences (like banksy or anonymous) stay anonymous with all of their publicity? context: <P> his first advertisements in The Daily Courant thus marking the beginning of his unique method employed for the next ten years and very soon alarmed his former master with his fame and wealth. He began to cut down on Hitchen's own gangs and gave a start to a so-called paper war between Hitchen and him. Paper war In April 1718, Hitchen published his pamphlet "A True Discovery of the Conduct of Receivers and Thief-takers, in and about the City of London: To the Multiplication and Encouragement of Thieves, Housebreakers, and other loose and disorderly Persons" dedicating it to the <P> Jason Binn Biography Binn was born in 1968 to Moreton and Penny Binn in Roslyn, New York. He graduated from Boston University’s College of Communications with honors. Binn was married Haley Lieberman in December 2003. They have three children and reside in New York City. They divorced in 2016. Publishing career Binn began his publishing career at 23 at the advertising agency, D'Arcy Masius Benton & Bowles. Upon moving to South Beach, Miami he co-founded Ocean Drive magazine, a luxury publication focusing on Miami, in 1992. In 1998, he founded Niche Media, a publisher of regional luxury magazines including Hamptons Magazine (The <P> Jason Bitner Jason Bitner (born Glen Ellyn, Illinois) is an author and project producer currently living in Chicago, Illinois. He is the co-creator of Found Magazine, a show-and-tell project celebrating found notes, letters and other ephemera; the creator of Cassette from My Ex, a storytelling project about love and mixtapes; and producer for the documentary movie La Porte, Indiana, based on Bitner's book of the same title. Bitner's work has been widely published and reviewed, and has been featured in print, web, radio, and television appearances including The New York Times, The Chicago Tribune, The Boston Globe, National Public <P> by being in a public collaborative relationship with me validates my perspective and—despite my whiteness, my class, and my proximity to fame—makes my critique of power seem legitimate in ways it otherwise might not. In other words, as a commodity, I have power through my associations with social capital; in addition, I hold a set of marginalized identities which give me intellectual authority and increased use-value in contexts seeking "diversity." In 2016, Dunham's first collection of poetry and short essays titled The Fool was published. The publication is a free, online-only "web-book" published by Curse of Cherifa. Their memoir, titled A <P> spotlight, and finding out information about him since the arrival of his namesake on the scene is all the more difficult. A sample of the Asher D and Daddy Freddy song, "Raggamuffin Duo Take Charge", was used in The Prodigy song, "Take Me to the Hospital", from their 2009 album, Invaders Must Die. <P> ring". Firrell was born in Paris, unexpectedly, on the Champs-Élysées outside what is now Sephora. He lives and works in Soho, London and a large proportion of his work has been created in various Soho cafés acting as his "studio, canteen and campaign HQ". Firrell was London Cultural Ambassador for the now defunct International Herald Tribune curating the newspaper's first London Arts Season in 2005, titled "Breathless…" after Jean-Luc Godard's nouvelle vague film of the same title. Social artwork All Identity is Constructed appeared on UK digital billboards in 2016 asserting the principle that all identities, regardless of their differences, are arbitrary <P> (Albert Schultz) is an accident prone roofer with aspirations of becoming a country music singer. Frequently wearing some manner of orthopedic appliance from his latest mishap, he insists that roofing is "...in [his] blood" and that he continue with his work despite its seemingly hazardous nature. Arnie is renowned for having written over 17,000 songs (most of which are terrible) and he enjoys playing them for lodge members at any opportunity, much to the chagrin and irritation of the latter. Kevin Black Kevin Black (Paul Gross) is a yuppie developer from the big city who is usually outwitted by the <P> time. They noticed one member who always made posts using the unusual greeting "hiyas" and had a distinctive freckle on one of his fingers. Officers explored the Internet and social media, and eventually found a Facebook page matching the profile of the individual they were looking for, including the greeting and freckle. The profile was fake but photos of a vehicle led police to Shannon McCoole, a care worker from Adelaide. A warrant was issued for the arrest of McCoole. Upon entering his house, police discovered that McCoole, who was subsequently sentenced to 35 years in prison, was online and <P> then in 2.6 we see a large inspirational poster of the man pinned up in the hotel room of failed magician Clifford Daxon. Issac Hunt Across both series Matt Lucas portrays "the most powerful and influential music agent in Wales". Through his company Mumbles Records, he represents a number of acts, which he refers as his "butties". These stars include tribute singer Shaking Stephens, failed magician Cliff Daxon who he has looked after for 12 years. He also represents the "World famous “Davy G” Music Maestro (as seen on TV in 1983)" and a newly signed up Queen tribute band, "The <P> photographs drained of incipient movement and life. Not Rick." For the last decade of his work on the strip Yager was finally allowed to sign his own name to his work. During this phase of his career Yager also took over the daily Buck Rogers strip — both art and storyline; he was assisted by Len Dworkins from 1951-1956. At the time Yager left the National Newspaper Syndicate in 1958 due to a dispute over contracts, the circulation of the Buck Rogers daily newspaper strip was at an all-time high. After having been read by millions of people every day for <P> second chance ... They represent persistence in the face of long odds, which definitely adds to their artistic appeal." A variety of such artistic works have been developed including illustrations, movies, plays, poetry and songs. Other major cities have similar columns in Craigslist and their own local media. For example, London's Metro newspaper has a "Rush-hour Crush" column for commuters who exchange glances but nothing more. Many connections are re-established and couples have become married in this way, such as "tall rugby player" and "beautiful lady in the red dress with long brown curly hair". Various websites like <P> Brand was expelled for illegal drug use and poor attendance. Stand-up Brand performed stand-up at the Hackney Empire New Act of the Year final in 2000. Although he finished fourth, his performance attracted the attention of Bound and Gagged Comedy Ltd agent Nigel Klarfeld. That year, he also made his Edinburgh debut as one-third of the stand-up show Pablo Diablo's Cryptic Triptych, alongside ventriloquist Mark Felgate and Anglo-Iranian comic Shappi Khorsandi. In 2004, he took his first one-man show, the confessional Better Now, to the Edinburgh Festival, giving what he claimed was an honest account of his heroin addiction. He <P> non-governmental cultural organisation financially supported Shifty Records from 1986 to 1992 and held various manifestations in Sweden for the company and the various artists associated with Shifty. Apartheid security campaign against Shifty In 2002, notorious Bureau of State Security agent, Paul Erasmus was granted amnesty by the Truth & Reconciliation Commission for his overzealous campaign against Shifty Records artist, Roger Lucey, a campaign which ended his career. The amnesty application does not apply to other artists, appearing with Lucey, or released on the Shifty label. In particular, Lucey appears on Shifty compilation albums such as Forces Favourites and Anaartjie in <P> responded humbly: "I guess with good music, comes good fans". When producer Avi Newmark was asked what makes Eitan different from other artists he has worked with, Avi responded: "It's not always about different. Eitan has a drive for perfection and a genuine love of music, which he communicates very well. There is something here for everyone, and Eitan delivers right on point." "Am Yisrael Chai" music video In 2015, Freilich announced he had teamed up with Hasidic comedian and filmmaker Mendy Pellin. Months later, Freilich spoke in a radio interview explaining he had further teamed up with a production <P> Sunspot Jonz History Sunspot Jonz has gone by other surnames before, the most notable and well-known being BFAP, which stands for Brother From Another Planet, and Vision. Sunspot Jonz released Don't Let 'Em Stop You in 2003. It features contributions from Dirt Nasty, Moka Only and The Grouch. He released two solo albums, Fight-Destroy-Rock and The Darkside ov Heaven, in 2009. <P> a group called The TigerLilys, who had a MySpace page displaying two tracks. The group disbanded without being signed by a label or releasing any material commercially. In February 2007, Humes appeared briefly on Never Mind The Buzzcocks as part of the show's regular Identity Parade feature, where contestants guess which person out of a line-up of five was featured in an old music video played only to the audience and viewers. The team, consisting of Bill Bailey, Russell Howard and Romeo Stodart (from the band The Magic Numbers), correctly picked Humes from the line-up. On 22 October 2009, after <P> retired in May, 1962 to open an auto business and write his memoir of his crime-fighting exploits, Under the Hood. By reading Under the Hood, Silk Spectre II later learned of the Comedian's attempted rape of her mother Silk Spectre I. Soon after Hollis retired, Daniel Dreiberg sought him out and asked if he could use the name and persona of Nite Owl to fight crime. Mason acceded and Dreiberg became the second Nite Owl. After Nite Owl II and Silk Spectre II broke Rorschach out of prison on Halloween night, the Knot-Tops street gang became angered by what they <P> music, money and glamour—the Harlem Renaissance. Dave even meets Irma Lee, a girl whom he is quickly attracted to. However, Dave needs to return to the orphanage every morning, but this new lifestyle isn't always what it seems. Yiddish definitions Boychik- a little boy Landsman- a fellow Jew Mazel Tov- congratulations Gonif- somebody who fools people out of their money Shayneh shvartzeh maidel- pretty black girl Meshuggeneh- a crazy person Alrightnik- someone who forgets that he wasn't born a doctor, a judge, or a businessman; he forgets that a lot of people made it possible for him to get so high-and-mighty Comparison to reality Dave <P> The Almighty RSO History One of their first breakthroughs was winning the ICA B-Town Rap Battle in 1986. In 1988 they released the single, "We're Notorious." Current Boston hip hop favorite Akrobatik said "Initially I would think of RSO Crew who were from here and making any type of noise. Locally, if I turned on the radio, those would be the guys that I would know who they were and follow their songs. I've definitely been checking them out from the beginning." In 1991, 17-year-old Rodney "Rock" Pitts joined as a MC referred by his cousin Big Hurst <P> 29 with 66.1% of the votes versus Sabrina. On 21 June 2010, whilst at Christopher Street Day in Berlin he bit 8 people. Horst Horst Trippel is a 41-year-old tattooist from Otzberg. He entered the Rich House on Day 1. On Day 2 he left the house, because he felt he could not talk to the housemates Harald and Carlos without thinking of their HIV status. Iris Iris Klein is a 42-year-old restaurateur from Ludwigshafen. She entered the Secret House on Day 1. She was very popular with the viewers. She did not get on with fellow housemates Harald. During	answer: I would assume in the case of Banksy, his anonymity is essentially what makes him extra special and interesting. Im sure there are a bunch of people in charge of his publicity and the sale of his paintings who know his identity to a certain extent, but they would never share it as that would ruin the fun. Obviously his art is provocative and interesting, but it wouldn't have the same effect if it was a British man named George Wilson.In the case of Anonymous, they aren't a certain group of people. They are lead by whoever feels inclined enough to step up and write on the internet and start a new conversation about world politics or social happenings. They're essentially just like minded people, but that's why sometimes a person will go under the guise of anonymous and do something bad and the rest of the group will scramble to say that 'that' isn't what anonymous is about. The problem with this is that an FBI agent could start a meetup somewhere and arrest everyone if he was so assholishly inclined.
110,711	dzkss7	why do mirrors fog up for longer if the washroom door is open vs. closed during a hot shower?	If the door is closed the humidity doesn't escape the room as quickly. If it's open unhumid air is circulating into the room.	[ "If the door is closed the humidity doesn't escape the room as quickly. If it's open unhumid air is circulating into the room." ]	1	[ "If the door is closed the humidity doesn't escape the room as quickly. If it's open unhumid air is circulating into the room." ]	1	<P> It's a steam bath, right? . . . I'm God, see? That's why I'm standing on this chair, you got that? Good." <P> outside. <P> exhausting air outside, and new air can have more moisture than the room needs, such as a pool room that already holds a high amount of moisture in the air. The water that condenses on the evaporator in an air conditioner is usually routed to remove extracted water from the conditioned space. Newer high-efficiency window units use the condensed water to help cool the condenser coil by evaporating the water into the outdoor air, while older units simply allowed the water to drip outside. Spray dehumidifiers When water is chilled below the atmospheric dewpoint, atmospheric water will condense onto it faster <P> steam can scald skin quickly, raising potential safety issues. <P> just as by an electric heater that draws the same amount of power. In addition, if water is condensed in the room, the amount of heat previously needed to evaporate that water also is re-released in the room (the latent heat of vaporization). The dehumidification process is the inverse of adding water to the room with an evaporative cooler, and instead releases heat. Therefore, an in-room dehumidifier will always warm the room and reduce the relative humidity indirectly, as well as reducing the humidity more directly, by condensing and removing water. Warm, moist air is drawn into the unit at A in <P> Membrane air dryers, however, may be easily damaged through any contact with liquid droplets (water or oil) so they should be protected with a high-efficiency coalescing (nano) air filter, positioned either immediately upstream (or integrated within) the membrane air dryer housing. Membrane dryers are primarily used with equipment's that are especially sensitive to water vapor such as paint booths, two-part mixing equipment (polyurethane sealants), polyurethane dispensers, PUR-applicators (edge-banding equipment), laser-cutting machinery, CMM's, industrial ink-jet printers, or even for laboratory use . <P> turning them back into invisible, gaseous water vapor. <P> the high velocity of gas through the scrubber will have a tendency to entrain the droplets with the outlet clean gas stream. Cyclonic, mesh-pad, and blade separators are all used to remove liquid droplets from the flue gas and return the liquid to the scrubber water. Cyclonic separators, the most popular for use with venturi scrubbers, are connected to the venturi vessel by a flooded elbow (Figure 8). The liquid reduces abrasion of the elbow as the outlet gas flows at high velocities from the venturi into the separator. Particle collection Venturis are the most commonly used scrubber for particle collection <P> height of the air handler (containing the evaporator) is above the ground level or in the attic of a house, condensate lines can also often be routed into rain gutters. Air handlers located in the basement of a house require condensate pumps to pump the water up to ground level. Maintenance If condensate water is handled automatically, most dehumidifiers require very little maintenance. Because of the volume of airflow through the appliance, dust buildup needs to be removed so it does not impede airflow; many designs feature removable and washable air filters. Condensate collection trays and containers may need occasional <P> air with prolonged exposure. Disinfection is a function of UV intensity and time. For this reason, it is not as effective on moving air, or when the lamp is perpendicular to the flow, as exposure times are dramatically reduced. Air purification UVGI systems can be free-standing units with shielded UV lamps that use a fan to force air past the UV light. Other systems are installed in forced air systems so that the circulation for the premises moves microorganisms past the lamps. Key to this form of sterilization is placement of the UV lamps and a good filtration system to <P> wet gate systems, requiring substantial precautions to be taken to ensure the safety of operators and to prevent pollution. Wet gate transfer is often preceded by other forms of film cleaning, such as the use of ultrasonic film cleaners. <P> after washing, though it may be best to transfer to the glass fully supported, as on a netting screen or similar. The supporting fabric can be removed by rolling it out from under the textile item as it is laid out on the glass, bit by bit. Just be aware that this can stress the fibres: do not use this method on any old textile that is likely to be damaged by the handling. Let such fabrics dry first, then lay them on the glass and wet them in place. Let dry completely in a darkened place <P> Air barrier Air barriers and water vapor Some air barriers may be water vapor permeable, while others perform the function of a vapour barrier. This is because water fits through narrower pores than the other main constituents of air, oxygen(O2) and nitrogen. <P> water conditions permit. <P> due to the (Icehouse-Greenhouse concept). <P> interiors. <P> "more complex and opaque". <P> in Edgewater. <P> I had car troubles. That was not true. When I called in late to work that day that was the reason I gave my boss for being late. In all reality, I had simply overslept . . . I told Detective Winters that Mr. Bryant had made me stay in the room and wash my face. While I was held against my will in that room, I was not forced to wash my face. I did not wash my face. Instead, I stopped at the mirror by the elevator on that floor to clean <P> liquid chosen, low-energy surfaces can permit either complete or partial wetting. Dynamic surfaces have been reported that undergo changes in surface energy upon the application of an appropriate stimuli. For example, a surface presenting photon-driven molecular motors was shown to undergo changes in water contact angle when switched between bistable conformations of differing surface energies. Wetting of low-energy surfaces Low-energy surfaces primarily interact with liquids through dispersion (van der Waals) forces. William Zisman produced several key findings: Zisman observed that cos θ increases linearly as the surface tension (γLV) of the liquid decreased. Thus, he was able to establish a linear	question: why do mirrors fog up for longer if the washroom door is open vs. closed during a hot shower? context: <P> It's a steam bath, right? . . . I'm God, see? That's why I'm standing on this chair, you got that? Good." <P> outside. <P> exhausting air outside, and new air can have more moisture than the room needs, such as a pool room that already holds a high amount of moisture in the air. The water that condenses on the evaporator in an air conditioner is usually routed to remove extracted water from the conditioned space. Newer high-efficiency window units use the condensed water to help cool the condenser coil by evaporating the water into the outdoor air, while older units simply allowed the water to drip outside. Spray dehumidifiers When water is chilled below the atmospheric dewpoint, atmospheric water will condense onto it faster <P> steam can scald skin quickly, raising potential safety issues. <P> just as by an electric heater that draws the same amount of power. In addition, if water is condensed in the room, the amount of heat previously needed to evaporate that water also is re-released in the room (the latent heat of vaporization). The dehumidification process is the inverse of adding water to the room with an evaporative cooler, and instead releases heat. Therefore, an in-room dehumidifier will always warm the room and reduce the relative humidity indirectly, as well as reducing the humidity more directly, by condensing and removing water. Warm, moist air is drawn into the unit at A in <P> Membrane air dryers, however, may be easily damaged through any contact with liquid droplets (water or oil) so they should be protected with a high-efficiency coalescing (nano) air filter, positioned either immediately upstream (or integrated within) the membrane air dryer housing. Membrane dryers are primarily used with equipment's that are especially sensitive to water vapor such as paint booths, two-part mixing equipment (polyurethane sealants), polyurethane dispensers, PUR-applicators (edge-banding equipment), laser-cutting machinery, CMM's, industrial ink-jet printers, or even for laboratory use . <P> turning them back into invisible, gaseous water vapor. <P> the high velocity of gas through the scrubber will have a tendency to entrain the droplets with the outlet clean gas stream. Cyclonic, mesh-pad, and blade separators are all used to remove liquid droplets from the flue gas and return the liquid to the scrubber water. Cyclonic separators, the most popular for use with venturi scrubbers, are connected to the venturi vessel by a flooded elbow (Figure 8). The liquid reduces abrasion of the elbow as the outlet gas flows at high velocities from the venturi into the separator. Particle collection Venturis are the most commonly used scrubber for particle collection <P> height of the air handler (containing the evaporator) is above the ground level or in the attic of a house, condensate lines can also often be routed into rain gutters. Air handlers located in the basement of a house require condensate pumps to pump the water up to ground level. Maintenance If condensate water is handled automatically, most dehumidifiers require very little maintenance. Because of the volume of airflow through the appliance, dust buildup needs to be removed so it does not impede airflow; many designs feature removable and washable air filters. Condensate collection trays and containers may need occasional <P> air with prolonged exposure. Disinfection is a function of UV intensity and time. For this reason, it is not as effective on moving air, or when the lamp is perpendicular to the flow, as exposure times are dramatically reduced. Air purification UVGI systems can be free-standing units with shielded UV lamps that use a fan to force air past the UV light. Other systems are installed in forced air systems so that the circulation for the premises moves microorganisms past the lamps. Key to this form of sterilization is placement of the UV lamps and a good filtration system to <P> wet gate systems, requiring substantial precautions to be taken to ensure the safety of operators and to prevent pollution. Wet gate transfer is often preceded by other forms of film cleaning, such as the use of ultrasonic film cleaners. <P> after washing, though it may be best to transfer to the glass fully supported, as on a netting screen or similar. The supporting fabric can be removed by rolling it out from under the textile item as it is laid out on the glass, bit by bit. Just be aware that this can stress the fibres: do not use this method on any old textile that is likely to be damaged by the handling. Let such fabrics dry first, then lay them on the glass and wet them in place. Let dry completely in a darkened place <P> Air barrier Air barriers and water vapor Some air barriers may be water vapor permeable, while others perform the function of a vapour barrier. This is because water fits through narrower pores than the other main constituents of air, oxygen(O2) and nitrogen. <P> water conditions permit. <P> due to the (Icehouse-Greenhouse concept). <P> interiors. <P> "more complex and opaque". <P> in Edgewater. <P> I had car troubles. That was not true. When I called in late to work that day that was the reason I gave my boss for being late. In all reality, I had simply overslept . . . I told Detective Winters that Mr. Bryant had made me stay in the room and wash my face. While I was held against my will in that room, I was not forced to wash my face. I did not wash my face. Instead, I stopped at the mirror by the elevator on that floor to clean <P> liquid chosen, low-energy surfaces can permit either complete or partial wetting. Dynamic surfaces have been reported that undergo changes in surface energy upon the application of an appropriate stimuli. For example, a surface presenting photon-driven molecular motors was shown to undergo changes in water contact angle when switched between bistable conformations of differing surface energies. Wetting of low-energy surfaces Low-energy surfaces primarily interact with liquids through dispersion (van der Waals) forces. William Zisman produced several key findings: Zisman observed that cos θ increases linearly as the surface tension (γLV) of the liquid decreased. Thus, he was able to establish a linear	answer: If the door is closed the humidity doesn't escape the room as quickly. If it's open unhumid air is circulating into the room.
177,073	2aylkk	how does one get college scholarships and how do they work?	There are multiple kinds of scholarships.Many scholarships are applied for. If you google "scholarship search" it will pop up several tools that will help you locate scholarships that you may qualify for. These require you to fill out applications and say why you deserve the scholarship, but they can be quite helpful.Some scholarships are automatically awarded, either because of need or merit. If you are in financial need, scholarships are sometimes offered. If you have incredibly good grades and test scores, some schools may offer you a scholarship as a way to entice you to go there.	[ "Get good test scores and a good GPA. That's most of it.", "There are multiple kinds of scholarships.\n\nMany scholarships are applied for. If you google \"scholarship search\" it will pop up several tools that will help you locate scholarships that you may qualify for. These require you to fill out applications ...	11	[ "Get good test scores and a good GPA. That's most of it.", "There are multiple kinds of scholarships.\n\nMany scholarships are applied for. If you google \"scholarship search\" it will pop up several tools that will help you locate scholarships that you may qualify for. These require you to fill out applications ...	2	<P> participate in its programs. Qualified students are eligible to receive state scholarships. <P> a scholarship recipient. An award letter clarifying the details of the scholarship will accompany the I-20 form at the time of Admission. Renewing the scholarship for your second year at the University is a simple process by completing the following: - Maintain a cumulative GPA of 2.50 (maximum length of scholarship is 9 semesters) - Maintain a valid F-1 or J-1 Immigration Status - Complete (3) Cross-Cultural Outreach projects during the academic year, starting in the fall and ending in the spring semester. These projects are called Minor Projects (2) and Major Project (1), for a total of three (3) projects. The Cross-Cultural scholarship <P> and lodging for those students who want to live at the school. Scholarship The school has various scholarship programs to support students in need. <P> scholarships. <P> scholarship. <P> another public or nonpublic school through the state's Opportunity Scholarship Tax Credit Program passed in June 2012. The scholarships are limited to those students whose family's income is less than $60,000 annually, with another $12,000 allowed per dependent. Maximum scholarship award is $8,500, with special education students receiving up to $15,000 for a year's tuition. Parents pay any difference between the scholarship amount and the receiving school's tuition rate. Students may seek admission to a neighboring public school district. Each year the PDE publishes the tuition rate for each individual public school district. According to the report, parents in 414 <P> an integral part of the Year 10 curriculum at Good Shepherd and all students are required to participate. Scholarships The college offers a large number of scholarships for students every year. Interested students are required to undertake an exam on campus, usually in May of the year previous to entering Year 8, 11 and Year 6 (Primary Academic Scholarship only). <P> scholarships to over 6,000 students. <P> ensure that the student is considered for the Federal Work-Study program. The applicant's financial need will be determined based on their application. The students may be employed by any number of places including a federal, state or local agency, a private organization or by the institution itself. The student must indicate an interest in the FWS program on their application for FAFSA. If the student is eligible the amount of the FWS award will be listed along with the FAFSA award. Students who did not indicate an interest in the FWS program on their FAFSA can still get <P> Greenwood School District. Twenty two local public school districts are required to contribute annually to HACC regardless of whether any residents are attending the college. Full-time students from these districts, who attend HACC, pay $1,674 for 12 credit hours. <P> in the Commonwealth. Parents and students may be eligible for scholarships to transfer to another public or nonpublic school through the state's Opportunity Scholarship Tax Credit Program passed in June 2012. The scholarships are limited to those students whose family's income is less than $60,000 annually, with another $12,000 allowed per dependent. Maximum scholarship award is $8,500, with special education students receiving up to $15,000 for a year's tuition. Parents pay any difference between the scholarship amount and the receiving school's tuition rate. Students may seek admission to neighboring public school districts. Each year the PDE publishes the tuition rate <P> scholarship towards their college education, called the Project Grad Newark College Scholarship . The students and the students' parents read and sign a pledge stating that the student will meet minimum requirements. Some include; maintaining an average GPA of 2.5 or better, completing two college-bound summer institutes, graduating in four years. When the student completes these requirements, they are awarded $6,000 which is paid in installments over the span of four years to the college they plan to attend. Administration The school's principal is Sharnee Brown. <P> based on a tuition band, the amount of the scholarship for the Academic Year of 2004 - 2005 is valued at an estimate of USD $4,534 based on 24 - 36 semester credits. Fall enrollees receive the scholarship for the academic year and Summer School. Spring Semester enrollees receive the scholarship for Spring Semester and Summer School. Application And Renewal Process For Cross Cultural Scholarship Prospective International Students are invited to apply for the Cross-Cultural Scholarship by completing the application. The application will be reviewed as soon as it is received and a decision will be made concerning your possible selection as <P> one of the most competitive scholarships in the U.S. and the most prestigious language programs for U.S. citizens. Program administration The program is administered by American Councils for International Education with awards approved by the U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs. Eligibility requirements Applicants to the program must be U.S. citizens enrolled in a U.S. degree-granting program at the undergraduate or graduate level at the time of application. Undergraduate students must have completed at least one year of general college course-work by the start date of the program. Other requirements are that the applicants should be <P> lawyer period. During the law student period, their income is $0 but they need at least $200,000 to finish their degree. After becoming a lawyer, their income increases to $200,000 per year and they work for 30 years. Summing up all the yearly future incomes, their lifetime income becomes $6,000,000 (assuming interest rate is 0%). In order for law students to finish the degree, they have to borrow money from the bank and pay it back after becoming a lawyer. However banks will not lend infinite amount money unless they are philanthropists. They will only lend reasonable amount money so that <P> BTHS). Graduation requirements Beginning with the class of 2010, each student must meet the following requirements by the end of their senior year to receive a Brooklyn Technical High School diploma: I. A minimum of 50 hours of community service outside of the school or through specified club activities. II. A minimum of 32 service credits earned through participation in Tech clubs, teams, and/or participation in designated school related events. Service credits are earned as follows: 1. 8 service credits per term to all students in BETA, NHS, Student Government, student productions, stageworks, cheerleading, and PSAL teams. 2. 6 service credits per term to all <P> categories: Student Debt, College/University Tuition, Trade School, Books & Supplies, Sports, Visual & Performing Arts, Extracurricular Activity, Event & Field Trip, Study Abroad, Certification, Seminar & Workshops, High School Fundraisers, Middle School Fundraisers and Elementary School Fundraisers. <P> accepted one year prior to the year of expected entrance. Applicants take the CATS test in grades Pre-K to Primer and the ISEE test in grades 1-12. Interviews, academics scores, test scores, Teacher Recommendations, Group observation test, extra-curriculars, athletic achievements, citizenship, and service are evaluated by the committee. After these materials have been noted, the applicant is subject to three decisions: invited, waitpool, and non-acceptance. The Financial Aid Committee works to make sure that Greenhill is an affordable option. Families must reapply for financial aid each year. The Water Tower Each year, the incoming seniors paint the Water Tower in <P> a 100% tax credit for the contribution. Step Up is allowed to keep 3 percent administrative allowance and must give away at least 80 percent of the scholarship donations each year. In the 2017-18 school year the scholarships amounted to as much as $7,004 for private school tuition or $750 for transportation costs to attend a public school in an outside district. Step Up awarded scholarships to 106,650 students that year On August 28th, 2014, the Florida Education Association, Florida School Boards Association, Florida Congress of Parents and Teachers, Florida Association of School Administrators, League of Women Voters of Florida, Florida <P> into the work program. Each institution has its own deadline for these funds. It is worth noting that the deadline for the Federal Work Study Program is typically earlier than the deadline for filing a FAFSA. Therefore it is important to apply as early as possible. Once the funds at the institution have been exhausted there are no further FWS funds to be provided. The amount of aid that a student may receive depends on the total amount of assistance that the student is receiving. To apply for the Federal Work Study program students should apply	question: how does one get college scholarships and how do they work? context: <P> participate in its programs. Qualified students are eligible to receive state scholarships. <P> a scholarship recipient. An award letter clarifying the details of the scholarship will accompany the I-20 form at the time of Admission. Renewing the scholarship for your second year at the University is a simple process by completing the following: - Maintain a cumulative GPA of 2.50 (maximum length of scholarship is 9 semesters) - Maintain a valid F-1 or J-1 Immigration Status - Complete (3) Cross-Cultural Outreach projects during the academic year, starting in the fall and ending in the spring semester. These projects are called Minor Projects (2) and Major Project (1), for a total of three (3) projects. The Cross-Cultural scholarship <P> and lodging for those students who want to live at the school. Scholarship The school has various scholarship programs to support students in need. <P> scholarships. <P> scholarship. <P> another public or nonpublic school through the state's Opportunity Scholarship Tax Credit Program passed in June 2012. The scholarships are limited to those students whose family's income is less than $60,000 annually, with another $12,000 allowed per dependent. Maximum scholarship award is $8,500, with special education students receiving up to $15,000 for a year's tuition. Parents pay any difference between the scholarship amount and the receiving school's tuition rate. Students may seek admission to a neighboring public school district. Each year the PDE publishes the tuition rate for each individual public school district. According to the report, parents in 414 <P> an integral part of the Year 10 curriculum at Good Shepherd and all students are required to participate. Scholarships The college offers a large number of scholarships for students every year. Interested students are required to undertake an exam on campus, usually in May of the year previous to entering Year 8, 11 and Year 6 (Primary Academic Scholarship only). <P> scholarships to over 6,000 students. <P> ensure that the student is considered for the Federal Work-Study program. The applicant's financial need will be determined based on their application. The students may be employed by any number of places including a federal, state or local agency, a private organization or by the institution itself. The student must indicate an interest in the FWS program on their application for FAFSA. If the student is eligible the amount of the FWS award will be listed along with the FAFSA award. Students who did not indicate an interest in the FWS program on their FAFSA can still get <P> Greenwood School District. Twenty two local public school districts are required to contribute annually to HACC regardless of whether any residents are attending the college. Full-time students from these districts, who attend HACC, pay $1,674 for 12 credit hours. <P> in the Commonwealth. Parents and students may be eligible for scholarships to transfer to another public or nonpublic school through the state's Opportunity Scholarship Tax Credit Program passed in June 2012. The scholarships are limited to those students whose family's income is less than $60,000 annually, with another $12,000 allowed per dependent. Maximum scholarship award is $8,500, with special education students receiving up to $15,000 for a year's tuition. Parents pay any difference between the scholarship amount and the receiving school's tuition rate. Students may seek admission to neighboring public school districts. Each year the PDE publishes the tuition rate <P> scholarship towards their college education, called the Project Grad Newark College Scholarship . The students and the students' parents read and sign a pledge stating that the student will meet minimum requirements. Some include; maintaining an average GPA of 2.5 or better, completing two college-bound summer institutes, graduating in four years. When the student completes these requirements, they are awarded $6,000 which is paid in installments over the span of four years to the college they plan to attend. Administration The school's principal is Sharnee Brown. <P> based on a tuition band, the amount of the scholarship for the Academic Year of 2004 - 2005 is valued at an estimate of USD $4,534 based on 24 - 36 semester credits. Fall enrollees receive the scholarship for the academic year and Summer School. Spring Semester enrollees receive the scholarship for Spring Semester and Summer School. Application And Renewal Process For Cross Cultural Scholarship Prospective International Students are invited to apply for the Cross-Cultural Scholarship by completing the application. The application will be reviewed as soon as it is received and a decision will be made concerning your possible selection as <P> one of the most competitive scholarships in the U.S. and the most prestigious language programs for U.S. citizens. Program administration The program is administered by American Councils for International Education with awards approved by the U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs. Eligibility requirements Applicants to the program must be U.S. citizens enrolled in a U.S. degree-granting program at the undergraduate or graduate level at the time of application. Undergraduate students must have completed at least one year of general college course-work by the start date of the program. Other requirements are that the applicants should be <P> lawyer period. During the law student period, their income is $0 but they need at least $200,000 to finish their degree. After becoming a lawyer, their income increases to $200,000 per year and they work for 30 years. Summing up all the yearly future incomes, their lifetime income becomes $6,000,000 (assuming interest rate is 0%). In order for law students to finish the degree, they have to borrow money from the bank and pay it back after becoming a lawyer. However banks will not lend infinite amount money unless they are philanthropists. They will only lend reasonable amount money so that <P> BTHS). Graduation requirements Beginning with the class of 2010, each student must meet the following requirements by the end of their senior year to receive a Brooklyn Technical High School diploma: I. A minimum of 50 hours of community service outside of the school or through specified club activities. II. A minimum of 32 service credits earned through participation in Tech clubs, teams, and/or participation in designated school related events. Service credits are earned as follows: 1. 8 service credits per term to all students in BETA, NHS, Student Government, student productions, stageworks, cheerleading, and PSAL teams. 2. 6 service credits per term to all <P> categories: Student Debt, College/University Tuition, Trade School, Books & Supplies, Sports, Visual & Performing Arts, Extracurricular Activity, Event & Field Trip, Study Abroad, Certification, Seminar & Workshops, High School Fundraisers, Middle School Fundraisers and Elementary School Fundraisers. <P> accepted one year prior to the year of expected entrance. Applicants take the CATS test in grades Pre-K to Primer and the ISEE test in grades 1-12. Interviews, academics scores, test scores, Teacher Recommendations, Group observation test, extra-curriculars, athletic achievements, citizenship, and service are evaluated by the committee. After these materials have been noted, the applicant is subject to three decisions: invited, waitpool, and non-acceptance. The Financial Aid Committee works to make sure that Greenhill is an affordable option. Families must reapply for financial aid each year. The Water Tower Each year, the incoming seniors paint the Water Tower in <P> a 100% tax credit for the contribution. Step Up is allowed to keep 3 percent administrative allowance and must give away at least 80 percent of the scholarship donations each year. In the 2017-18 school year the scholarships amounted to as much as $7,004 for private school tuition or $750 for transportation costs to attend a public school in an outside district. Step Up awarded scholarships to 106,650 students that year On August 28th, 2014, the Florida Education Association, Florida School Boards Association, Florida Congress of Parents and Teachers, Florida Association of School Administrators, League of Women Voters of Florida, Florida <P> into the work program. Each institution has its own deadline for these funds. It is worth noting that the deadline for the Federal Work Study Program is typically earlier than the deadline for filing a FAFSA. Therefore it is important to apply as early as possible. Once the funds at the institution have been exhausted there are no further FWS funds to be provided. The amount of aid that a student may receive depends on the total amount of assistance that the student is receiving. To apply for the Federal Work Study program students should apply	answer: There are multiple kinds of scholarships.Many scholarships are applied for. If you google "scholarship search" it will pop up several tools that will help you locate scholarships that you may qualify for. These require you to fill out applications and say why you deserve the scholarship, but they can be quite helpful.Some scholarships are automatically awarded, either because of need or merit. If you are in financial need, scholarships are sometimes offered. If you have incredibly good grades and test scores, some schools may offer you a scholarship as a way to entice you to go there.
211,928	2hwd9h	why is the past tense of hang "hung" when talking about an object but "hanged" when talking about a person?	As far as modern British English is concerned, hung is the normal form in most general uses, e.g. they hung out the washing; but hanged is the form normally used in reference to execution by hanging: the prisoner was hanged. The reason for this distinction is a complex historical one: hanged, the earlier form, was superseded by hung sometime after the 16th century; it is likely that the retention of hanged for the execution sense may have to do with the tendency of archaic forms to remain in the legal language of the courts.EDIT: see also /u/obiwanspicoli's excellent reply below.	[ "The words hanged and hung can be used interchangeably as the past tense and past participle of the verb to hang. So, the bottom line is that you cannot make a mistake by using one of these words instead of the other. \n\nIn regards to an execution, hanged is preferred, but not required.\n\n", "Traditionally, the...	5	[ "Traditionally, the words can be used interchangeably; as has already been mentioned, but it is highly discouraged to use hung when talking about the person or hanged with regard to a tapestry. \n\nLanguages are constantly evolving and this is just one recent change that although seems quite arbitrary, so is langua...	3	<P> cite the usage of the phrase as "the usual words had been said". In the 18th century, the common wording of the phrase in England was "the law is that thou shalt return to the place whence thou camest and from thence to a place of execution where thou shalt hang by the neck till the body be dead. Dead. Dead. And the Lord have mercy upon thy soul". This phrase later developed over time until the 1940s when the phrase in Dominions of the British Empire was: The sentence of this court is that you will be taken from <P> here to the place from whence you came and there be kept in close confinement until [date of execution], and upon that day that you be taken to the place of execution and there hanged by the neck until you are dead. And may God have mercy upon your soul. History The phrase is likely to have originated in the Kingdom of Israel following the Law of Moses in beth din courts as a way of giving credence to the authority of God as the author of all law. It is likely to have come from Deuteronomy 16:18 where it <P> sentence and the sentence can stand alone without it. <P> Billy Madison as part of an insult. In the classic The Green Mile, guards Paul Edgecomb, Brutus Howell and Percy Wetmore use this phrase before they conduct an execution. <P> Loose sentence A loose sentence (also called a cumulative sentence) is a type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) is elaborated by the successive addition of modifying clauses or phrases. Construction It adds modifying elements after the subject, complement, and verb. Effect Loose sentences may make a work seem informal, relaxed, and conversational. However, according to Strunk and White's The Elements of Style (2000), a succession of loose sentences, especially those of two clauses, is to be avoided because of "mechanical symmetry and sing-song". <P> but Jane I haven't seen for ages. (For cases in which fronting is accompanied by inversion of subject and verb, see negative inversion and subject–verb inversion.) In certain types of non-finite clause ("passive" types; see non-finite clauses above), and in some relative clauses, an object or a preposition complement is absent (becomes zero). For example, in I like the cake you made, the words you made form a reduced relative clause in which the verb made has zero object. This can produce preposition stranding (as can wh-fronting): I like the song you were listening to; Which chair did you sit on? <P> Well then, go you into hell? A modern speaker of English would recognise this as an acceptable sentence, but would consider it archaic; that person would likely change the sentence to "are you going into hell?"—they would use the present continuous tense instead of the simple present. There are some verbs, however, that are acceptable in this format: Leon: are they good? This is acceptable to a modern English speaker and is not considered archaic. This is due to the verb "to be", which acts as both auxiliary and main verb. Similarly, other auxiliary and modal verbs allow for VSO word order ("Must <P> your love even with my life decay, Throughout the entire sonnet there seems to be a movement of mourning from very real and apparent to basically vanished. By quatrain 3 the subject "narrows from the hand to the mere name [of the speaker]—as if to render the mourning ever more tenuous, while having the beloved still enact the putatively wished-for behavior." Vendler points out the increasingly distanced view of the speaker and his expression. By this quatrain "the speaker is wholly compounded… with clay, dissolved into dust." The sonnet as a whole leads the reader's mind and emotion to the climax, line <P> During these days, he would not get out of bed when a quarrel occurred in his kingdom, instead summoning all members of the situation into his bedroom to be given orders. Einhard tells again in the twenty-fourth chapter: "In summer after the midday meal, he would eat some fruit, drain a single cup, put off his clothes and shoes, just as he did for the night, and rest for two or three hours. He was in the habit of awaking and rising from bed four or five times during the night." Language By Charlemagne's time, the French vernacular had already <P> premises allow for." This reading takes a particular view of the speaker and highlights the theme of aging in the sonnets. Quatrain 2 Nay, if you read this line, remember not The hand that writ it; for I love you so That I in your sweet thoughts would be forgot If thinking on me then should make you woe. In quatrain two, the speaker implores the young man to forget the hand that wrote the sonnet if the mere thought of the speaker would cause him to mourn. This is particularly ironic considering that there are lines in other sonnets (e.g., Sonnet 18, Sonnet <P> about who lies to whom, claiming that the lady lies to the speaker about her faithfulness, but he does not lie to her, only to himself, imagining that she believes him to be an "untutored youth". Quatrain 2 In the second quatrain, specifically in lines 5 and 6, the speaker declares he is aware that she knows he is no longer young. Beginning line 5 with the words "Thus vainly" effectively negates the second half of the line, implying that the lady does not actually believe in the speaker's youth. The same can be said for line 7, <P> past. A perfect tense is one which carries an implication that the result of a past action still holds at the present time; for example, wabwera "he has come" implies that the person is still here. The past tenses in Chichewa carry exactly the opposite implication, namely that the result of the past action no longer holds; for example the Recent Past tense anabwéra "he came" implies that the person has now gone. This kind of tense is known in modern linguistics as discontinuous past. It differs from the English Past Simple, which is generally neutral in implication. The distinction between <P> uses 'punishment.' " where "negative" indicates that something has been removed and "punishment" merely indicates there has been a reduction in the behavior (unlike the common use of these terms). <P> that the strong room was the best room in the house. Ginger writes that Acton and his wife, who lived in a comfortable apartment near the lodge, knew they were sitting on a powder keg: "When each morning the smell of freshly baked bread filled ... the yard ... only brutal suppression could prevent the Common Side from erupting." 1729 Gaols Committee The common side did erupt after a fashion in 1728 when Robert Castell, an architect and debtor in the Fleet prison, who had been living in lodgings outside the jail within the rules, was taken to a "sponging house" after <P> statement is phrased as a question posed by a character. The words "as [any adjective] as" represent a test for equality, while "better" and "worse" correspond to greater than and less than, respectively. A subsequent line, starting "if so" or "if not", determines what happens in response to the truth or falsehood of the original condition. A goto statement begins "Let us", "We shall", or "We must", continues "return to" or "proceed to", and then gives an act or scene. A scene will be parsed as that scene in the current act; a goto statement cannot call a scene in <P> gloves normally worn at the end of an Assize sitting, which indicated there had been no death sentence passed during the Assize. The wording of the traditional phrase has changed over time. In England, the wording in the 18th century was "and the Lord have mercy upon thy soul". This later developed into "may God have mercy upon your soul", which was used as the traditional closing sentence by judges passing the death sentence in England and Wales, Canada and Australia. The phrase is treated as a prayer and would traditionally be followed by "amen". Newspaper reports would <P> chiseled phrases", to such great effect, "become more involved with what's going on", and "love the life" rather remain its "cruel observer". <P> meaning something like "do not grumble much at me (about the ban on entering my hunting estate)!" <P> gibbet and b) because when written XVII in Roman numerals is an anagram of 'vixi' - 'I lived', a verb form considered unlucky because of its frequent occurrence in ancient Roman funerary inscriptions). Cutthroat The cutthroat gesture is performed by drawing the hand, or a finger or two, across the throat. It represents slitting the throat with a knife, and means that the gesturer or someone else is metaphorically being killed. It is rarely if ever used literally to refer to death, though it is occasionally used as a theatrical threat ("I'm going to kill you"). The gesture earned a <P> Past Grammar In grammar, actions are classified according to one of the following twelve verb tenses: past (past, past continuous, past perfect, or past perfect continuous), present (present, present continuous, present perfect, or present perfect continuous), or future (future, future continuous, future perfect, or future perfect continuous). The past tense refers to actions that have already happened. For example, "she is walking" refers to a girl who is currently walking (present tense), while "she walked" refers to a girl who was walking before now (past tense). The past continuous tense refers to actions that continued for a period of time, as	question: why is the past tense of hang "hung" when talking about an object but "hanged" when talking about a person? context: <P> cite the usage of the phrase as "the usual words had been said". In the 18th century, the common wording of the phrase in England was "the law is that thou shalt return to the place whence thou camest and from thence to a place of execution where thou shalt hang by the neck till the body be dead. Dead. Dead. And the Lord have mercy upon thy soul". This phrase later developed over time until the 1940s when the phrase in Dominions of the British Empire was: The sentence of this court is that you will be taken from <P> here to the place from whence you came and there be kept in close confinement until [date of execution], and upon that day that you be taken to the place of execution and there hanged by the neck until you are dead. And may God have mercy upon your soul. History The phrase is likely to have originated in the Kingdom of Israel following the Law of Moses in beth din courts as a way of giving credence to the authority of God as the author of all law. It is likely to have come from Deuteronomy 16:18 where it <P> sentence and the sentence can stand alone without it. <P> Billy Madison as part of an insult. In the classic The Green Mile, guards Paul Edgecomb, Brutus Howell and Percy Wetmore use this phrase before they conduct an execution. <P> Loose sentence A loose sentence (also called a cumulative sentence) is a type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) is elaborated by the successive addition of modifying clauses or phrases. Construction It adds modifying elements after the subject, complement, and verb. Effect Loose sentences may make a work seem informal, relaxed, and conversational. However, according to Strunk and White's The Elements of Style (2000), a succession of loose sentences, especially those of two clauses, is to be avoided because of "mechanical symmetry and sing-song". <P> but Jane I haven't seen for ages. (For cases in which fronting is accompanied by inversion of subject and verb, see negative inversion and subject–verb inversion.) In certain types of non-finite clause ("passive" types; see non-finite clauses above), and in some relative clauses, an object or a preposition complement is absent (becomes zero). For example, in I like the cake you made, the words you made form a reduced relative clause in which the verb made has zero object. This can produce preposition stranding (as can wh-fronting): I like the song you were listening to; Which chair did you sit on? <P> Well then, go you into hell? A modern speaker of English would recognise this as an acceptable sentence, but would consider it archaic; that person would likely change the sentence to "are you going into hell?"—they would use the present continuous tense instead of the simple present. There are some verbs, however, that are acceptable in this format: Leon: are they good? This is acceptable to a modern English speaker and is not considered archaic. This is due to the verb "to be", which acts as both auxiliary and main verb. Similarly, other auxiliary and modal verbs allow for VSO word order ("Must <P> your love even with my life decay, Throughout the entire sonnet there seems to be a movement of mourning from very real and apparent to basically vanished. By quatrain 3 the subject "narrows from the hand to the mere name [of the speaker]—as if to render the mourning ever more tenuous, while having the beloved still enact the putatively wished-for behavior." Vendler points out the increasingly distanced view of the speaker and his expression. By this quatrain "the speaker is wholly compounded… with clay, dissolved into dust." The sonnet as a whole leads the reader's mind and emotion to the climax, line <P> During these days, he would not get out of bed when a quarrel occurred in his kingdom, instead summoning all members of the situation into his bedroom to be given orders. Einhard tells again in the twenty-fourth chapter: "In summer after the midday meal, he would eat some fruit, drain a single cup, put off his clothes and shoes, just as he did for the night, and rest for two or three hours. He was in the habit of awaking and rising from bed four or five times during the night." Language By Charlemagne's time, the French vernacular had already <P> premises allow for." This reading takes a particular view of the speaker and highlights the theme of aging in the sonnets. Quatrain 2 Nay, if you read this line, remember not The hand that writ it; for I love you so That I in your sweet thoughts would be forgot If thinking on me then should make you woe. In quatrain two, the speaker implores the young man to forget the hand that wrote the sonnet if the mere thought of the speaker would cause him to mourn. This is particularly ironic considering that there are lines in other sonnets (e.g., Sonnet 18, Sonnet <P> about who lies to whom, claiming that the lady lies to the speaker about her faithfulness, but he does not lie to her, only to himself, imagining that she believes him to be an "untutored youth". Quatrain 2 In the second quatrain, specifically in lines 5 and 6, the speaker declares he is aware that she knows he is no longer young. Beginning line 5 with the words "Thus vainly" effectively negates the second half of the line, implying that the lady does not actually believe in the speaker's youth. The same can be said for line 7, <P> past. A perfect tense is one which carries an implication that the result of a past action still holds at the present time; for example, wabwera "he has come" implies that the person is still here. The past tenses in Chichewa carry exactly the opposite implication, namely that the result of the past action no longer holds; for example the Recent Past tense anabwéra "he came" implies that the person has now gone. This kind of tense is known in modern linguistics as discontinuous past. It differs from the English Past Simple, which is generally neutral in implication. The distinction between <P> uses 'punishment.' " where "negative" indicates that something has been removed and "punishment" merely indicates there has been a reduction in the behavior (unlike the common use of these terms). <P> that the strong room was the best room in the house. Ginger writes that Acton and his wife, who lived in a comfortable apartment near the lodge, knew they were sitting on a powder keg: "When each morning the smell of freshly baked bread filled ... the yard ... only brutal suppression could prevent the Common Side from erupting." 1729 Gaols Committee The common side did erupt after a fashion in 1728 when Robert Castell, an architect and debtor in the Fleet prison, who had been living in lodgings outside the jail within the rules, was taken to a "sponging house" after <P> statement is phrased as a question posed by a character. The words "as [any adjective] as" represent a test for equality, while "better" and "worse" correspond to greater than and less than, respectively. A subsequent line, starting "if so" or "if not", determines what happens in response to the truth or falsehood of the original condition. A goto statement begins "Let us", "We shall", or "We must", continues "return to" or "proceed to", and then gives an act or scene. A scene will be parsed as that scene in the current act; a goto statement cannot call a scene in <P> gloves normally worn at the end of an Assize sitting, which indicated there had been no death sentence passed during the Assize. The wording of the traditional phrase has changed over time. In England, the wording in the 18th century was "and the Lord have mercy upon thy soul". This later developed into "may God have mercy upon your soul", which was used as the traditional closing sentence by judges passing the death sentence in England and Wales, Canada and Australia. The phrase is treated as a prayer and would traditionally be followed by "amen". Newspaper reports would <P> chiseled phrases", to such great effect, "become more involved with what's going on", and "love the life" rather remain its "cruel observer". <P> meaning something like "do not grumble much at me (about the ban on entering my hunting estate)!" <P> gibbet and b) because when written XVII in Roman numerals is an anagram of 'vixi' - 'I lived', a verb form considered unlucky because of its frequent occurrence in ancient Roman funerary inscriptions). Cutthroat The cutthroat gesture is performed by drawing the hand, or a finger or two, across the throat. It represents slitting the throat with a knife, and means that the gesturer or someone else is metaphorically being killed. It is rarely if ever used literally to refer to death, though it is occasionally used as a theatrical threat ("I'm going to kill you"). The gesture earned a <P> Past Grammar In grammar, actions are classified according to one of the following twelve verb tenses: past (past, past continuous, past perfect, or past perfect continuous), present (present, present continuous, present perfect, or present perfect continuous), or future (future, future continuous, future perfect, or future perfect continuous). The past tense refers to actions that have already happened. For example, "she is walking" refers to a girl who is currently walking (present tense), while "she walked" refers to a girl who was walking before now (past tense). The past continuous tense refers to actions that continued for a period of time, as	answer: As far as modern British English is concerned, hung is the normal form in most general uses, e.g. they hung out the washing; but hanged is the form normally used in reference to execution by hanging: the prisoner was hanged. The reason for this distinction is a complex historical one: hanged, the earlier form, was superseded by hung sometime after the 16th century; it is likely that the retention of hanged for the execution sense may have to do with the tendency of archaic forms to remain in the legal language of the courts.EDIT: see also /u/obiwanspicoli's excellent reply below.
5,051	8o3oxv	When did people start snorting cocaine?	I don't know when people started snorting cocaine. In the late 19th century, the drug would either be taken orally, or injected intravenously. Think Sherlock Holmes, with this famous scene from the Sign of Four: > Sherlock Holmes took his bottle from the corner of the mantel\-piece and his hypodermic syringe from its neat morocco case. With his long, white, nervous fingers he adjusted the delicate needle, and rolled back his left shirt\-cuff. For some little time his eyes rested thoughtfully upon the sinewy forearm and wrist all dotted and scarred with innumerable puncture\-marks. Finally he thrust the sharp point home, pressed down the tiny piston, and sank back into the velvet\-lined arm\-chair with a long sigh of satisfaction.This is the famous "seven percent solution," though a three percent solution became preferred as it was thought to have fewer side effects.Sigmund Freud was one of cocaine's most ardent popularizers. Freud himself did not snort the drug, but rather drank it in a solution. Freud's famous essay is called Über Coca, and he's very explicit about how he took the drug. From section V $the Effect of Coca on the Healthy Human Body$: > The first time I took 0.05cg. of cocaïnum muriaticum in a 1 & #37; water solution was when I was feeling slightly out of sorts from fatigue. This solution is rather viscous, somewhat opalescent, and has a strange aromatic smell. At first it has a bitter taste, which yields afterwards to a series of very pleasant aromatic flavors. Dry cocaine salt has the same smell and taste, but to a more concentrated degree.He notes that later in the essay, higher concentrations cause some stomach upset, so he dissolved his cocaine in soda water.I should not that experimenting with medications on yourself in this period was not unusual \-\- John Snow would regularly inhale his own anesthetics and mark their effects $which likely led to his early death$, and to make another Holmes connection, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's first academic publication was in the BMJ on self\-poisoning with escalating doses of gelsemium.Cocaine was purified in the 1850s, and in the first half century of its existence, there was considerable excitement about its effects $and lack of side effects$. It was thought to be particularly useful to treat morphine addiction $think William Halstead, who basically switched from morphine to cocaine$. Cocaine was found in a number of over\-the\-counter products, most notably coca cola.	[ "I don't know when people started snorting cocaine. In the late 19th century, the drug would either be taken orally, or injected intravenously. Think Sherlock Holmes, with this famous scene from the Sign of Four:\n\n > Sherlock Holmes took his bottle from the corner of the mantel\\-piece and his hypodermic syringe ...	1	[ "I don't know when people started snorting cocaine. In the late 19th century, the drug would either be taken orally, or injected intravenously. Think Sherlock Holmes, with this famous scene from the Sign of Four:\n\n > Sherlock Holmes took his bottle from the corner of the mantel\\-piece and his hypodermic syringe ...	1	<P> diseases—as of lung, stomach, brain abscesses, and other conditions—to those infectious oral diseases. In 1894, Miller became the first to reveal existence of bacteria in samples of dental pulp. Miller advised root canal therapy. Yet focal infection theory met a cultural climate where ancient and folk ideas, long entrenched via Galenic humoral medicine, found new outlets through bacteriology—a pillar of the new "scientific medicine". Emigrating from Russia in 1886, international scientific celebrity Elie Metchnikoff—discoverer of phagocytes, mediating innate immunity—was embraced in Paris by Louis Pasteur, who granted him an entire floor for research once the Pasteur Institute, the <P> and feed it to his dogs. Books The science fiction story "Waterspider" by Philip K. Dick (first published in January 1964 in If magazine) contains a scene in which characters from the future are discussing the culture of the early 1950s. One character says: "You mean he sniffed what they called 'airplane dope'? He was a 'glue-sniffer'?", to which another character replies: "Hardly. That was a mania among adolescents and did not become widespread in fact until a decade later. No, I am speaking about imbibing alcohol." The book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas describes how the two main characters <P> marginalized youth use a number of inhalants, such as solvents and propellants. In Russia and Eastern Europe, gasoline sniffing became common on Russian ships following attempts to limit the supply of alcohol to ship crews in the 1980s. The documentary Children Underground depicts the huffing of a solvent called Aurolac (a product used in chroming) by Romanian homeless children. During the Interbellum the inhalation of ether (etheromania) was widespread in some regions of Poland, especially in Upper Silesia—tens of thousands of people were affected by this problem. In Canada, Native children in the isolated Northern Labrador community of Davis Inlet were <P> unclear whether they were used for their psychoactive effects. <P> the level of gangrene. One subject miscarried. A clinical trial of the pills was performed in Geneva in 1761 and deemed successful, which led the pills to be a considered a good treatment for some time, though not without continuing controversy and debate. English physician John Pringe cautioned biographer James Boswell against taking the pills, as well as Kennedy's Lisbon Diet Drink, for his veneral disease. Simon-Nicholas Henri Linguet's French novel La Cacomonade also referenced the "dragées de Keyser". The pills were also marketed in the American colonies in the 1760s and 1770s. <P> pancreatitis made him teetotal, an experience which he turned into a comedy monologue Arthur Smith's Last Hangover. Subsequently, he developed type 2 diabetes but still smokes. <P> were otherwise healthy. <P> dysphoric effects. Interrogation The effects of hyoscine were studied for use as a truth serum in interrogations in the early 20th century, but because of the side effects, investigations were dropped. In 2009, the Czechoslovak state security secret police were proven to have used hyoscine at least three times to obtain confessions from alleged antistate dissidents. Crime In 1910, hyoscine was detected in the remains believed to be those of Cora Crippen, wife of Dr. Hawley Harvey Crippen, and was accepted at the time as the cause of her death, since her husband was known to have bought some <P> following two years, as well, at which point the All Alaska Sweepstakes was suspended until 1983. Role in the "Serum Run" of 1925 A diphtheria outbreak struck Seppala's town of Nome, Alaska in the winter of 1925. Previously unexposed children as well as adults were at risk of dying from the infection. Seppala's only child—an eight-year-old daughter named Sigrid—was also at risk. The only treatment available in 1925 was diphtheria antitoxin serum. However, the town's supply was not only insufficient but also of presumably low efficacy, being past its expiry date. The only practical way to deliver more serum to <P> his May 2007 interview with Jason O'Toole, former Minister for Health Cowen admitted to smoking marijuana, saying, Anyone who went to the UCD bar in the '70s that didn't get a whiff of marijuana would be telling you a lie. I would say there were a couple of occasions when it was passed around – and, unlike President Clinton, I did inhale! There wasn't a whole lot in it really – (it was like) a Sweet Afton, as a 10-year-old, under a railway bridge on a rainy day, in small town Ireland in the late '60s. I certainly got more enjoyment <P> century) and Herman Boerhaave (18th century) prescribed shunamitism for their patients. <P> few months before his death. He did not tolerate fools gladly at the bridge table. Once he was confronted with having thrown a cup of coffee at his partner, and said, "It was nothing serious. There was no sugar in it". He suffered from diabetes. <P> James Leonard Corning Education Corning was born in Stamford, Connecticut. When the American Civil War began in 1861, Corning's family moved to Stuttgart, Germany. Corning studied chemistry at the Stuttgart Polytechnic Institute under Hermann von Fehling. He later studied physiology at Heidelberg University under Wilhelm Kühne, and pathology at the University of Würzburg. After receiving his medical degree in 1878, he left Germany and visited Vienna, Paris, and London before finally returning to the United States. Neuraxial blockade In 1884, Karl Koller became the first to describe the anesthetic properties of cocaine. The following year, Corning injected cocaine between the <P> was illegal. <P> Phineas Parkhurst Quimby Biography Born in the small town of Lebanon, New Hampshire, Quimby was one of seven children and the son of a blacksmith. As was customary for his social and monetary status at that time, Quimby received little formal education. He suffered greatly from tuberculosis in his youth and was prescribed calomel by his doctor. Instead of curing his sickness, the calomel began to rot his teeth, and Quimby began experimenting with his own ideas for a cure. He found that intense excitement (such as galloping on his horse) alleviated his pain for brief periods of time, and <P> (1910–1990), and John Aspinwall Roosevelt II (1916–1981). As a young man in 1936, he contracted a streptococcal throat infection and developed life-threatening complications. His successful treatment with Prontosil, the first commercially available sulfonamide drug, avoided a risky surgical procedure which the White House medical staff had considered, and the subsequent headlines in The New York Times and other prominent newspapers heralded the start of the era of antibacterial chemotherapy in the United States. Education He graduated from Groton School in 1933, Harvard University in 1937, and from the University of Virginia in June 1940. The family thought that FDR Jr. was the <P> Howard W. Haggard Howard Wilcox Haggard (July 19, 1891 - April 22, 1959) was an American physician, physiologist and writer. Career Haggard was born in La Porte, Indiana. He received his B.S. (1914) and M.D. (1917) from Yale University. In 1917 he worked as a physiologist for the United States Bureau of Mines. During World War I he was a captain in the Chemical Warfare Service in the United States Army. At Yale University, he conducted research into cardiorespiratory physiology and with Yandell Henderson invented the H and H inhalator. Haggard was director of the Laboratory of Applied Physiology at Yale <P> at the start of the year. Claims that hyoscine is commonly used in crime have been described as "exaggerated" or even implausible. Powdered hyoscine, in a form referred to as 'Devil's breath' does not 'brainwash' or control people into being defrauded by their attackers but these alleged effects are most likely urban legends. Nevertheless, the drug is known to produce loss of memory following exposure and sleepiness, similar to the effect of benzodiazepines or alcohol poisoning. A travel advisory published by the United States Department of State in 2012 stated: "One common and particularly dangerous method that criminals use in <P> been formulated into an inhaler for use in the treatment of nasal congestion. While highly effective, the requirement for injection limited the use of epinephrine and orally active derivatives were sought. A structurally similar compound, ephedrine, (actually more similar to norepinephrine,) was identified by Japanese chemists in the Ma Huang plant and marketed by Eli Lilly as an oral treatment for asthma. Following the work of Henry Dale and George Barger at Burroughs-Wellcome, academic chemist Gordon Alles synthesized amphetamine and tested it in asthma patients in 1929. The drug proved to have only modest anti-asthma effects, but produced sensations of <P> the hope of influencing remote or general symptoms of disease must still be regarded as an experimental procedure not devoid of hazard". By 1940, Louis I Grossman's textbook Root Canal Therapy flatly rejected the methods and conclusions made earlier by Price and especially by Rosenow. Amid improvements in endodontics and medicine, including release of sulfa drugs and antibiotics, a backlash to the "orgy" of tooth extractions and tonsillectomies ensued. Easlick's 1951 review in the Journal of the American Dental Association notes, "Many authorities who formerly felt that focal infection was an important etiologic factor in systemic disease have become	question: When did people start snorting cocaine? context: <P> diseases—as of lung, stomach, brain abscesses, and other conditions—to those infectious oral diseases. In 1894, Miller became the first to reveal existence of bacteria in samples of dental pulp. Miller advised root canal therapy. Yet focal infection theory met a cultural climate where ancient and folk ideas, long entrenched via Galenic humoral medicine, found new outlets through bacteriology—a pillar of the new "scientific medicine". Emigrating from Russia in 1886, international scientific celebrity Elie Metchnikoff—discoverer of phagocytes, mediating innate immunity—was embraced in Paris by Louis Pasteur, who granted him an entire floor for research once the Pasteur Institute, the <P> and feed it to his dogs. Books The science fiction story "Waterspider" by Philip K. Dick (first published in January 1964 in If magazine) contains a scene in which characters from the future are discussing the culture of the early 1950s. One character says: "You mean he sniffed what they called 'airplane dope'? He was a 'glue-sniffer'?", to which another character replies: "Hardly. That was a mania among adolescents and did not become widespread in fact until a decade later. No, I am speaking about imbibing alcohol." The book Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas describes how the two main characters <P> marginalized youth use a number of inhalants, such as solvents and propellants. In Russia and Eastern Europe, gasoline sniffing became common on Russian ships following attempts to limit the supply of alcohol to ship crews in the 1980s. The documentary Children Underground depicts the huffing of a solvent called Aurolac (a product used in chroming) by Romanian homeless children. During the Interbellum the inhalation of ether (etheromania) was widespread in some regions of Poland, especially in Upper Silesia—tens of thousands of people were affected by this problem. In Canada, Native children in the isolated Northern Labrador community of Davis Inlet were <P> unclear whether they were used for their psychoactive effects. <P> the level of gangrene. One subject miscarried. A clinical trial of the pills was performed in Geneva in 1761 and deemed successful, which led the pills to be a considered a good treatment for some time, though not without continuing controversy and debate. English physician John Pringe cautioned biographer James Boswell against taking the pills, as well as Kennedy's Lisbon Diet Drink, for his veneral disease. Simon-Nicholas Henri Linguet's French novel La Cacomonade also referenced the "dragées de Keyser". The pills were also marketed in the American colonies in the 1760s and 1770s. <P> pancreatitis made him teetotal, an experience which he turned into a comedy monologue Arthur Smith's Last Hangover. Subsequently, he developed type 2 diabetes but still smokes. <P> were otherwise healthy. <P> dysphoric effects. Interrogation The effects of hyoscine were studied for use as a truth serum in interrogations in the early 20th century, but because of the side effects, investigations were dropped. In 2009, the Czechoslovak state security secret police were proven to have used hyoscine at least three times to obtain confessions from alleged antistate dissidents. Crime In 1910, hyoscine was detected in the remains believed to be those of Cora Crippen, wife of Dr. Hawley Harvey Crippen, and was accepted at the time as the cause of her death, since her husband was known to have bought some <P> following two years, as well, at which point the All Alaska Sweepstakes was suspended until 1983. Role in the "Serum Run" of 1925 A diphtheria outbreak struck Seppala's town of Nome, Alaska in the winter of 1925. Previously unexposed children as well as adults were at risk of dying from the infection. Seppala's only child—an eight-year-old daughter named Sigrid—was also at risk. The only treatment available in 1925 was diphtheria antitoxin serum. However, the town's supply was not only insufficient but also of presumably low efficacy, being past its expiry date. The only practical way to deliver more serum to <P> his May 2007 interview with Jason O'Toole, former Minister for Health Cowen admitted to smoking marijuana, saying, Anyone who went to the UCD bar in the '70s that didn't get a whiff of marijuana would be telling you a lie. I would say there were a couple of occasions when it was passed around – and, unlike President Clinton, I did inhale! There wasn't a whole lot in it really – (it was like) a Sweet Afton, as a 10-year-old, under a railway bridge on a rainy day, in small town Ireland in the late '60s. I certainly got more enjoyment <P> century) and Herman Boerhaave (18th century) prescribed shunamitism for their patients. <P> few months before his death. He did not tolerate fools gladly at the bridge table. Once he was confronted with having thrown a cup of coffee at his partner, and said, "It was nothing serious. There was no sugar in it". He suffered from diabetes. <P> James Leonard Corning Education Corning was born in Stamford, Connecticut. When the American Civil War began in 1861, Corning's family moved to Stuttgart, Germany. Corning studied chemistry at the Stuttgart Polytechnic Institute under Hermann von Fehling. He later studied physiology at Heidelberg University under Wilhelm Kühne, and pathology at the University of Würzburg. After receiving his medical degree in 1878, he left Germany and visited Vienna, Paris, and London before finally returning to the United States. Neuraxial blockade In 1884, Karl Koller became the first to describe the anesthetic properties of cocaine. The following year, Corning injected cocaine between the <P> was illegal. <P> Phineas Parkhurst Quimby Biography Born in the small town of Lebanon, New Hampshire, Quimby was one of seven children and the son of a blacksmith. As was customary for his social and monetary status at that time, Quimby received little formal education. He suffered greatly from tuberculosis in his youth and was prescribed calomel by his doctor. Instead of curing his sickness, the calomel began to rot his teeth, and Quimby began experimenting with his own ideas for a cure. He found that intense excitement (such as galloping on his horse) alleviated his pain for brief periods of time, and <P> (1910–1990), and John Aspinwall Roosevelt II (1916–1981). As a young man in 1936, he contracted a streptococcal throat infection and developed life-threatening complications. His successful treatment with Prontosil, the first commercially available sulfonamide drug, avoided a risky surgical procedure which the White House medical staff had considered, and the subsequent headlines in The New York Times and other prominent newspapers heralded the start of the era of antibacterial chemotherapy in the United States. Education He graduated from Groton School in 1933, Harvard University in 1937, and from the University of Virginia in June 1940. The family thought that FDR Jr. was the <P> Howard W. Haggard Howard Wilcox Haggard (July 19, 1891 - April 22, 1959) was an American physician, physiologist and writer. Career Haggard was born in La Porte, Indiana. He received his B.S. (1914) and M.D. (1917) from Yale University. In 1917 he worked as a physiologist for the United States Bureau of Mines. During World War I he was a captain in the Chemical Warfare Service in the United States Army. At Yale University, he conducted research into cardiorespiratory physiology and with Yandell Henderson invented the H and H inhalator. Haggard was director of the Laboratory of Applied Physiology at Yale <P> at the start of the year. Claims that hyoscine is commonly used in crime have been described as "exaggerated" or even implausible. Powdered hyoscine, in a form referred to as 'Devil's breath' does not 'brainwash' or control people into being defrauded by their attackers but these alleged effects are most likely urban legends. Nevertheless, the drug is known to produce loss of memory following exposure and sleepiness, similar to the effect of benzodiazepines or alcohol poisoning. A travel advisory published by the United States Department of State in 2012 stated: "One common and particularly dangerous method that criminals use in <P> been formulated into an inhaler for use in the treatment of nasal congestion. While highly effective, the requirement for injection limited the use of epinephrine and orally active derivatives were sought. A structurally similar compound, ephedrine, (actually more similar to norepinephrine,) was identified by Japanese chemists in the Ma Huang plant and marketed by Eli Lilly as an oral treatment for asthma. Following the work of Henry Dale and George Barger at Burroughs-Wellcome, academic chemist Gordon Alles synthesized amphetamine and tested it in asthma patients in 1929. The drug proved to have only modest anti-asthma effects, but produced sensations of <P> the hope of influencing remote or general symptoms of disease must still be regarded as an experimental procedure not devoid of hazard". By 1940, Louis I Grossman's textbook Root Canal Therapy flatly rejected the methods and conclusions made earlier by Price and especially by Rosenow. Amid improvements in endodontics and medicine, including release of sulfa drugs and antibiotics, a backlash to the "orgy" of tooth extractions and tonsillectomies ensued. Easlick's 1951 review in the Journal of the American Dental Association notes, "Many authorities who formerly felt that focal infection was an important etiologic factor in systemic disease have become	answer: I don't know when people started snorting cocaine. In the late 19th century, the drug would either be taken orally, or injected intravenously. Think Sherlock Holmes, with this famous scene from the Sign of Four: > Sherlock Holmes took his bottle from the corner of the mantel\-piece and his hypodermic syringe from its neat morocco case. With his long, white, nervous fingers he adjusted the delicate needle, and rolled back his left shirt\-cuff. For some little time his eyes rested thoughtfully upon the sinewy forearm and wrist all dotted and scarred with innumerable puncture\-marks. Finally he thrust the sharp point home, pressed down the tiny piston, and sank back into the velvet\-lined arm\-chair with a long sigh of satisfaction.This is the famous "seven percent solution," though a three percent solution became preferred as it was thought to have fewer side effects.Sigmund Freud was one of cocaine's most ardent popularizers. Freud himself did not snort the drug, but rather drank it in a solution. Freud's famous essay is called Über Coca, and he's very explicit about how he took the drug. From section V $the Effect of Coca on the Healthy Human Body$: > The first time I took 0.05cg. of cocaïnum muriaticum in a 1 & #37; water solution was when I was feeling slightly out of sorts from fatigue. This solution is rather viscous, somewhat opalescent, and has a strange aromatic smell. At first it has a bitter taste, which yields afterwards to a series of very pleasant aromatic flavors. Dry cocaine salt has the same smell and taste, but to a more concentrated degree.He notes that later in the essay, higher concentrations cause some stomach upset, so he dissolved his cocaine in soda water.I should not that experimenting with medications on yourself in this period was not unusual \-\- John Snow would regularly inhale his own anesthetics and mark their effects $which likely led to his early death$, and to make another Holmes connection, Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's first academic publication was in the BMJ on self\-poisoning with escalating doses of gelsemium.Cocaine was purified in the 1850s, and in the first half century of its existence, there was considerable excitement about its effects $and lack of side effects$. It was thought to be particularly useful to treat morphine addiction $think William Halstead, who basically switched from morphine to cocaine$. Cocaine was found in a number of over\-the\-counter products, most notably coca cola.
62,753	1y2q0h	the difference between debt and equity, and why a company turning debt in to equity is seen as a good thing?	Assets are all of the things a company owns that have value. Debt is the amount a company borrows. The difference between the two is equity, or the amount of money the owners have at risk in the company.Reducing debt is often seen as a good thing since high levels of debt can be very risky to the equity holders. If at any time the company's assets aren't enough to pay off its debt the company is insolvent and can be put into bankruptcy. BK wipes out equity.	[ "Assets are all of the things a company owns that have value. Debt is the amount a company borrows. The difference between the two is equity, or the amount of money the owners have at risk in the company.\n\nReducing debt is often seen as a good thing since high levels of debt can be very risky to the equity hold...	1	[]	0	<P> secured by commercial or residential real estate, and the level of service required. Those services can include (but aren't limited to) statements, impounds, collections, tax reporting, and other requirements. Companies recognize servicing rights as distinct assets or liabilities when ownership of those rights is contractually separated from ownership of the underlying loan. The value recognized for servicing rights is based on the net present value of the expected cash flows received from servicing less the amount that would be required to adequately compensate a servicer (this incorporates an expected cost of servicing plus a profit margin required by market participants). The <P> company, for example, holds abnormally high amounts of cash that is not reflected in the market value of the stock and total capitalization. All the components relevant in liquidation analysis, since using absolute priority in a bankruptcy all securities senior to the equity have par claims. Generally, also, debt is less liquid than equity so that the "market price" may be significantly different from the price at which an entire debt issue could be purchased. In valuing equities, this approach is more conservative. Cash is subtracted because it reduces the net cost to a potential purchaser. The effect applies whether the cash <P> the loan matures the transfer of title from borrower to lender takes effect, and the lender is entitled to obtain the money, which now belongs to him. It is important to mention the lender is entitled to obtain the money only when that money exists and is in the possession of the borrower. Another example is a service provision contract in which the service consumer transfers a future title of money to a service provider on the condition that a certain act of service is performed. If the service is not provided the condition of the transfer is not met <P> for equity in the company. Debt for equity deals often occur when large companies run into serious financial trouble, and often result in these companies being taken over by their principal creditors. This is because both the debt and the remaining assets in these companies are so large that there is no advantage for the creditors to drive the company into bankruptcy. Instead the creditors prefer to take control of the business as a going concern. As a consequence, the original shareholders' stake in the company is generally significantly diluted in these deals and may be entirely eliminated, as is typical <P> the United States, if the factor does not assume the credit risk on the purchased accounts, in most cases a court will recharacterize the transaction as a secured loan. When a company decides to factors account receivables invoices to a principles factors or broker, it needs to understands the risks and rewards involved with factoring. Amount of funding can vary depending on the specific accounts receivables, debtor and industry that factoring occurs in. Factors can limit and restrict funding in such occasions where the debtor is found not credit worthy, or the invoice amount represents too big of a portion of <P> Equity release United Kingdom The UK equity release market is basically made up of two types of equity release plan. The most popular plan is a lifetime mortgage - where the homeowner retains ownership of the property but the property is charged with the repayment of a loan or mortgage, which accrues rolled-up interest over the period of the homeowner's lifetime. To help customers decide whether equity release is right for them, a number of companies provide a free equity release calculator to show a rough estimate of the amount of equity that could be released. The other type of plan <P> release market and its previous poor reputation. The ERC guarantees include a guaranteed right to remain living in the property which is the subject of the equity release, either for life or until entry into long term care. In addition there is a vital No Negative Equity Guarantee - which essentially guarantees that the amount to repay the equity release plan on death or entry into long term care can never exceed the value of the property itself, and so no debt can ever be left behind for beneficiaries of the equity release borrower. In 2012, SHIP rebranded as <P> but continue to service the loan. Other times, the lender will maintain ownership and sell the rights to service the loan to an outside mortgage service bureau. Many lenders follow an "originate to sell" business model, where virtually all of the loans they originate are sold on the secondary market. The lender earns fees at the closing, and a Service Release Premium, or SRP. The amount of the SRP is directly related to the terms of the loan. Generally, the less favorable the loan terms for the borrower, the more SRP is earned. Lender's loan officers <P> agree to the legal financing and generally must to sign an agreement consenting to the legal financing. Additional qualification or approval factors may include the total amount of damages sought, a sufficient potential margin of recovery to justify the investment, the background of the applicant, and laws of the applicant's place of residence. Some legal financing companies limit their investment to specific types of lawsuits, such as a personal injury claim or commercial litigation. Benefits Lawsuits are expensive and may progress slowly, over a period of many months or years. During that time, many plaintiffs may feel considerable financial pressure, and <P> for each dollar invested. If the equity remains unchanged or declines, the investor still receives one dollar per dollar invested (as long as the issuer does not default). Generally, the participation rate is better in longer maturity notes, since the total amount of interest given up by the investor is higher. <P> incentives from the government. The borrower, on the other hand, receives a fixed interest rate, a lower loan payment, often an extended term, and sometimes a principal reduction (if the property is upside down). <P> in a Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Debt-for-equity swaps are one way of dealing with sub-prime mortgages. A householder unable to service his debt on a $180,000 mortgage for example, may by agreement with his bank have the value of the mortgage reduced (say to $135,000 or 75% of the house's current value), in return for which the bank will receive 50% of the amount by which any resale value, when the house is resold, exceeds $135,000. Bondholder haircuts A debt-for-equity swap may also be called a "bondholder haircut". Bondholder haircuts at large banks were advocated as a potential solution for the subprime <P> access to interest-free capital as there is no interest to be paid on shares. Though a dividend may be involved, the terms of dividend liability are far more flexible than terms for loans. Along with this, shares are not considered as a debt and, by public floating, companies can reduce their debts creating a better asset to liability ratio. Enhancement of credibility and higher public profile By public floating companies can enhance their credit image. As banks and other credit providing institutions provide credit more often to a public limited company along with this sometimes favorable terms are also offered <P> by the old creditor. Regarding the transfer of claim for consideration, the old creditor is liable for the validity of the claim at the time of the transfer. The old creditor is only liable for the debtor's ability to pay if he pledged himself to and only to the amount that he obtained by transferring the claim. Stepping in as co-debtor With the approval of creditor and/or debtor, an obligation may also be joined by a third person as co- debtor. If the creditor agreed to the joining, it may not be cancelled or modified without his consent. The principal <P> loan may increase, and loan fees may be charged, both of which can reduce the ROI, when the new numbers are used in the ROI equation. There may also be an increase in maintenance costs and property taxes, and an increase in utility rates if the owner of a residential rental or commercial property pays these expenses. Complex calculations may also be required for property bought with an adjustable rate mortgage (ARM) with a variable escalating rate charged annually through the duration of the loan. Marketing investment Marketing not only influences net profits but also can affect investment levels too. New <P> companies providing restructuring for large corporations, there are few legitimate firms working for small businesses. Legitimate debt restructuring firms only work for the debtor client (not as a debt collection agency) and should charge fees based on success. Among the debt situations that can be worked out in business-to-business debt mediation are: lawsuits and judgments, delinquent property, machinery, equipment rentals/leases, business loans or mortgage on business property, capital payments due for improvements/construction, invoices and statements, disputed bills and problem debts. Debt-for-equity swap In a debt-for-equity swap, a company's creditors generally agree to cancel some or all of the debt in exchange <P> Debt restructuring Motivation A debt restructuring, which involves a reduction of debt and an extension of payment terms, is usually a less expensive alternative to bankruptcy. The main costs associated with debt restructuring are the time and effort negotiating with bankers, creditors, vendors, and tax authorities. In the United States, small business bankruptcy filings cost at least $50,000 in legal and court fees, and filing costs in excess of $100,000 are common. By some measures, only 20% of firms survive Chapter 11 bankruptcy filings. Historically, debt restructuring has been the province of large corporations with financial wherewithal. In the Great Recession <P> Cash break even ratio Formula Cash Break Even Ratio = (Operating Expenses + Mortgage Payment - Reserves for Replacement) / Potential Gross Income It allows both lenders and investors to assess a particular income properties ability to meet its operating expenses and provide a measurable level of profit. The ratio does not include reserves for replacement, because it is not an actual cash expense. Additionally, it includes mortgage payment (debt service) which applies to most income properties that use leverage to enhance return on investment and equity dividend rate (cash on cash return). <P> Natural borrowing limit Illustrative example Since the terminology is originally introduced from academia, it is worth introducing an illustrative example to provide better understanding to non-economist readers. Financing law school tuition fee in the United States fits into the illustrative purpose perfectly. Many law school students do not have earnings while they are students. Borrowing money from the bank to finance their cost of living while they are students, and paying back after becoming a lawyer is very common way of funding their costs. For simplicity, let's divide law students' lifetime into two periods : a law school student period and a <P> means that one juristic act affects all joint several debtors in the same way. For example, the creditor can demand the obligation in full amount from either party. The performance from one several liability debtor affects also the others and the creditor cannot refuse it without being in default. In this case the creditor will be in default towards all joint several liability debtors. The autonomy of the different obligations undertaken by the joint several liability debtors is the reason for one juristic act that affects some of the obligations not have any effect on the others. This hypothesis is described	question: the difference between debt and equity, and why a company turning debt in to equity is seen as a good thing? context: <P> secured by commercial or residential real estate, and the level of service required. Those services can include (but aren't limited to) statements, impounds, collections, tax reporting, and other requirements. Companies recognize servicing rights as distinct assets or liabilities when ownership of those rights is contractually separated from ownership of the underlying loan. The value recognized for servicing rights is based on the net present value of the expected cash flows received from servicing less the amount that would be required to adequately compensate a servicer (this incorporates an expected cost of servicing plus a profit margin required by market participants). The <P> company, for example, holds abnormally high amounts of cash that is not reflected in the market value of the stock and total capitalization. All the components relevant in liquidation analysis, since using absolute priority in a bankruptcy all securities senior to the equity have par claims. Generally, also, debt is less liquid than equity so that the "market price" may be significantly different from the price at which an entire debt issue could be purchased. In valuing equities, this approach is more conservative. Cash is subtracted because it reduces the net cost to a potential purchaser. The effect applies whether the cash <P> the loan matures the transfer of title from borrower to lender takes effect, and the lender is entitled to obtain the money, which now belongs to him. It is important to mention the lender is entitled to obtain the money only when that money exists and is in the possession of the borrower. Another example is a service provision contract in which the service consumer transfers a future title of money to a service provider on the condition that a certain act of service is performed. If the service is not provided the condition of the transfer is not met <P> for equity in the company. Debt for equity deals often occur when large companies run into serious financial trouble, and often result in these companies being taken over by their principal creditors. This is because both the debt and the remaining assets in these companies are so large that there is no advantage for the creditors to drive the company into bankruptcy. Instead the creditors prefer to take control of the business as a going concern. As a consequence, the original shareholders' stake in the company is generally significantly diluted in these deals and may be entirely eliminated, as is typical <P> the United States, if the factor does not assume the credit risk on the purchased accounts, in most cases a court will recharacterize the transaction as a secured loan. When a company decides to factors account receivables invoices to a principles factors or broker, it needs to understands the risks and rewards involved with factoring. Amount of funding can vary depending on the specific accounts receivables, debtor and industry that factoring occurs in. Factors can limit and restrict funding in such occasions where the debtor is found not credit worthy, or the invoice amount represents too big of a portion of <P> Equity release United Kingdom The UK equity release market is basically made up of two types of equity release plan. The most popular plan is a lifetime mortgage - where the homeowner retains ownership of the property but the property is charged with the repayment of a loan or mortgage, which accrues rolled-up interest over the period of the homeowner's lifetime. To help customers decide whether equity release is right for them, a number of companies provide a free equity release calculator to show a rough estimate of the amount of equity that could be released. The other type of plan <P> release market and its previous poor reputation. The ERC guarantees include a guaranteed right to remain living in the property which is the subject of the equity release, either for life or until entry into long term care. In addition there is a vital No Negative Equity Guarantee - which essentially guarantees that the amount to repay the equity release plan on death or entry into long term care can never exceed the value of the property itself, and so no debt can ever be left behind for beneficiaries of the equity release borrower. In 2012, SHIP rebranded as <P> but continue to service the loan. Other times, the lender will maintain ownership and sell the rights to service the loan to an outside mortgage service bureau. Many lenders follow an "originate to sell" business model, where virtually all of the loans they originate are sold on the secondary market. The lender earns fees at the closing, and a Service Release Premium, or SRP. The amount of the SRP is directly related to the terms of the loan. Generally, the less favorable the loan terms for the borrower, the more SRP is earned. Lender's loan officers <P> agree to the legal financing and generally must to sign an agreement consenting to the legal financing. Additional qualification or approval factors may include the total amount of damages sought, a sufficient potential margin of recovery to justify the investment, the background of the applicant, and laws of the applicant's place of residence. Some legal financing companies limit their investment to specific types of lawsuits, such as a personal injury claim or commercial litigation. Benefits Lawsuits are expensive and may progress slowly, over a period of many months or years. During that time, many plaintiffs may feel considerable financial pressure, and <P> for each dollar invested. If the equity remains unchanged or declines, the investor still receives one dollar per dollar invested (as long as the issuer does not default). Generally, the participation rate is better in longer maturity notes, since the total amount of interest given up by the investor is higher. <P> incentives from the government. The borrower, on the other hand, receives a fixed interest rate, a lower loan payment, often an extended term, and sometimes a principal reduction (if the property is upside down). <P> in a Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Debt-for-equity swaps are one way of dealing with sub-prime mortgages. A householder unable to service his debt on a $180,000 mortgage for example, may by agreement with his bank have the value of the mortgage reduced (say to $135,000 or 75% of the house's current value), in return for which the bank will receive 50% of the amount by which any resale value, when the house is resold, exceeds $135,000. Bondholder haircuts A debt-for-equity swap may also be called a "bondholder haircut". Bondholder haircuts at large banks were advocated as a potential solution for the subprime <P> access to interest-free capital as there is no interest to be paid on shares. Though a dividend may be involved, the terms of dividend liability are far more flexible than terms for loans. Along with this, shares are not considered as a debt and, by public floating, companies can reduce their debts creating a better asset to liability ratio. Enhancement of credibility and higher public profile By public floating companies can enhance their credit image. As banks and other credit providing institutions provide credit more often to a public limited company along with this sometimes favorable terms are also offered <P> by the old creditor. Regarding the transfer of claim for consideration, the old creditor is liable for the validity of the claim at the time of the transfer. The old creditor is only liable for the debtor's ability to pay if he pledged himself to and only to the amount that he obtained by transferring the claim. Stepping in as co-debtor With the approval of creditor and/or debtor, an obligation may also be joined by a third person as co- debtor. If the creditor agreed to the joining, it may not be cancelled or modified without his consent. The principal <P> loan may increase, and loan fees may be charged, both of which can reduce the ROI, when the new numbers are used in the ROI equation. There may also be an increase in maintenance costs and property taxes, and an increase in utility rates if the owner of a residential rental or commercial property pays these expenses. Complex calculations may also be required for property bought with an adjustable rate mortgage (ARM) with a variable escalating rate charged annually through the duration of the loan. Marketing investment Marketing not only influences net profits but also can affect investment levels too. New <P> companies providing restructuring for large corporations, there are few legitimate firms working for small businesses. Legitimate debt restructuring firms only work for the debtor client (not as a debt collection agency) and should charge fees based on success. Among the debt situations that can be worked out in business-to-business debt mediation are: lawsuits and judgments, delinquent property, machinery, equipment rentals/leases, business loans or mortgage on business property, capital payments due for improvements/construction, invoices and statements, disputed bills and problem debts. Debt-for-equity swap In a debt-for-equity swap, a company's creditors generally agree to cancel some or all of the debt in exchange <P> Debt restructuring Motivation A debt restructuring, which involves a reduction of debt and an extension of payment terms, is usually a less expensive alternative to bankruptcy. The main costs associated with debt restructuring are the time and effort negotiating with bankers, creditors, vendors, and tax authorities. In the United States, small business bankruptcy filings cost at least $50,000 in legal and court fees, and filing costs in excess of $100,000 are common. By some measures, only 20% of firms survive Chapter 11 bankruptcy filings. Historically, debt restructuring has been the province of large corporations with financial wherewithal. In the Great Recession <P> Cash break even ratio Formula Cash Break Even Ratio = (Operating Expenses + Mortgage Payment - Reserves for Replacement) / Potential Gross Income It allows both lenders and investors to assess a particular income properties ability to meet its operating expenses and provide a measurable level of profit. The ratio does not include reserves for replacement, because it is not an actual cash expense. Additionally, it includes mortgage payment (debt service) which applies to most income properties that use leverage to enhance return on investment and equity dividend rate (cash on cash return). <P> Natural borrowing limit Illustrative example Since the terminology is originally introduced from academia, it is worth introducing an illustrative example to provide better understanding to non-economist readers. Financing law school tuition fee in the United States fits into the illustrative purpose perfectly. Many law school students do not have earnings while they are students. Borrowing money from the bank to finance their cost of living while they are students, and paying back after becoming a lawyer is very common way of funding their costs. For simplicity, let's divide law students' lifetime into two periods : a law school student period and a <P> means that one juristic act affects all joint several debtors in the same way. For example, the creditor can demand the obligation in full amount from either party. The performance from one several liability debtor affects also the others and the creditor cannot refuse it without being in default. In this case the creditor will be in default towards all joint several liability debtors. The autonomy of the different obligations undertaken by the joint several liability debtors is the reason for one juristic act that affects some of the obligations not have any effect on the others. This hypothesis is described	answer: Assets are all of the things a company owns that have value. Debt is the amount a company borrows. The difference between the two is equity, or the amount of money the owners have at risk in the company.Reducing debt is often seen as a good thing since high levels of debt can be very risky to the equity holders. If at any time the company's assets aren't enough to pay off its debt the company is insolvent and can be put into bankruptcy. BK wipes out equity.
64,439	2zr8vg	how come a leafblower can blow things really far but a vacuum cleaner needs to get really close to things to suck them up?	With a leaf blower you're concentrating all the force in one direction. A vacuum cleaner with the same amount of force is sucking air from all directions around the nozzle. This increased area reduces the force in any single direction.	[ "It would be dangerous for something to have that much suction, it wouldn't be able to distinguish between dirt and other stuff, you want to be right on top of the dirt because the brush on the bottom of the vacuum loosens it from carpet, vacuums are already loud and would be worse if they needed more power.", "W...	6	[ "With a leaf blower you're concentrating all the force in one direction. A vacuum cleaner with the same amount of force is sucking air from all directions around the nozzle. This increased area reduces the force in any single direction.", "This is sort of like asking why you can throw a ball across the room, but ...	2	<P> separated, non-interacting gas molecules, like those found in high vacuum environments. The maximum compression varies linearly with circumferential rotor speed. In order to obtain extremely low pressures down to 1 micropascal, rotation rates of 20,000 to 90,000 revolutions per minute are often necessary. Unfortunately, the compression ratio varies exponentially with the square root of the molecular weight of the gas. Thus, heavy molecules are pumped much more efficiently than light molecules. Most gases are heavy enough to be well pumped but it is difficult to pump hydrogen and helium efficiently. An additional drawback stems from the high rotor <P> first described in 1784 by James Watt, a Scottish inventor and Mechanical Engineer who also contributed to the earliest steam engines and condensers, but not built until 1840 by British Inventor James Nasmyth. By the late 19th century, steam hammers had increased greatly in size; in 1891 the Bethlehem Iron Company made an enhancement allowing a steam hammer to deliver a 125-ton blow. Most modern machine presses typically use a combination of electric motors and hydraulics to achieve the necessary pressure. Along with the evolution of presses came the evolution of the dies used within them. Safety Machine presses can <P> are aware that it is hard to pull a rubber hose (e.g. a coolant hose) off a metal pipe stub, as the tension of pulling causes the diameter of the hose to shrink, gripping the stub tightly. Hoses can more easily be pushed off stubs instead using a wide flat blade. <P> complex as if friction is not inclusive. If the friction is exclusive to the analysis, then certain restrictions will be put into place. When friction is included on compressible flow, the friction limits the areas in which the results from analysis in be applied. As mentioned before, the shape of the duct, such as varying sizes or nozzles, effect the different calculations in between friction and compressible flow. <P> the initial ignition; the pressured gas obtained would then be used to drive pistons avoiding the use of a large boiler. ..for an engine of two-horse-power, a thread, not larger in size than ladies' sewing-cotton, is sufficient; and the working machinery need not, be larger than a man's hat — De Werdinsky, The invention was never built; Werdinsky's invention was discussed in a series of letters in the Mining Journal, with many responding sceptically, stating the corrosive nature of the gases produced from gun cotton combustion, as well as the cost of the material, as barriers to success. Werdinsky's claims were well publicised <P> of a high-frequency generator and the need for proper alignment. If the mold is placed off centre, the heat distribution is uneven. But the main disadvantage is the dependence of the process on good inductive coupling and thermal conductivity of the mold. The magnetic field can penetrate the mold only 0.5mm to 3mm. From there on, the heat has to be "transported" into the mold by the thermal conductivity of the mould material. Uniform heating is much more difficult if the air gap between the mold and the inductive coil is not the same all along the mould profile. Another <P> and are capable of achieving the highest particle collection efficiency of any wet scrubbing system. As the inlet stream enters the throat, its velocity increases greatly, atomizing and turbulently mixing with any liquid present. The atomized liquid provides an enormous number of tiny droplets for the dust particles to impact on. These liquid droplets incorporating the particles must be removed from the scrubber outlet stream, generally by cyclonic separators. Particle removal efficiency increases with increasing pressure drop because of increased turbulence due to high gas velocity in the throat. Venturis can be operated with pressure drops ranging from 12 to 250 cm (5 <P> fifty years ago. The presswork was atrocious." He then took lessons from Roger Levenson at the Tamalpais Press. In July 1968, McCune obtained an iron and steel Albion press, manufactured in London in 1852 by Hopkinson & Cope, the latter having invented it around 1820. The machine stood approximately six feet six inches in height and weighed just under 2,000 pounds. Because it was so large and McCune was only about five foot six, he had a platform built on which he could stand to operate the press. The plumed finial on top frequently sported a beret to add to the <P> separation to create a vacuum cleaner that would not lose suction as it picked up dirt. He became frustrated with his Hoover Junior's diminishing performance: the dust bag pores kept becoming clogged with dust thus reducing suction. The cyclone idea came from a sawmill that used cyclone technology (qv. History of Dyson Ltd). Partly supported by his wife's salary as an art teacher, and after five years and about 5,127 prototypes, Dyson launched the "G-Force" cleaner in 1983. However, no manufacturer or distributor would handle his product in the UK, as it would have disturbed the valuable market for replacement dust <P> few years ago are now burning wood fuel for both ecological and economical reasons. Safety Although a good log splitter can save the operator hours of labor, it is not possible to make it completely safe. Only trained adults should operate a log splitter, since anything caught between the log and the splitting blade will be subjected to a force of at least 10 tons. Most hydraulic machines now have 'two handed operation' for safety which means that both of the operator's hands are needed to actuate the splitter thus keeping them out of the way of the moving blade. The <P> thin membranous tissue, a bat's wing can significantly contribute to the organism's total gas exchange efficiency. Because of the high energy demand of flight, the bat's body meets those demands by exchanging gas through the patagium of the wing. When the bat has its wings spread it allows for an increase in surface area to volume ratio. The surface area of the wings is about 85% of the total body surface area, suggesting the possibility of a useful degree of gas exchange. The subcutaneous vessels in the membrane lie very close to the surface and allow for the diffusion of <P> Hot pressing Inductive heating In this process heat is produced within the mould when it is subjected to a high frequency electromagnetic field, generated by using an induction coil coupled to an electronic generator. The mold is made out of graphite or steel, and pressure is applied by one or two cylinders onto the punches. The mold is positioned within the induction coil. The advantage here is that the pressure and the inductive power are completely independent. Even powders with a liquid phase are amenable to this process and low pressures are possible, too. Among the disadvantages are the expense <P> effect. A small amount of high velocity air connected to the side of the casting passes out through a nozzle, creating venturi action. This effect causes a large volume of low velocity air to flow through the venturi and out of the air diffuser. The ratio of air supplied depends on the design of the air mover’s physical structure. Condition of incoming air It is not necessary to use filter in an air mover in a relatively clean environment. Generally, a gauze filter is attached to the inlet to collect larger particles. However, filters are always a beneficial precaution. In <P> significant. Even so, it may be possible to improve the performance of more conventional aerostats by trading gas weight for structural weight, combining the lifting properties of the gas with vacuum and possibly heat for enhanced lift. <P> an annular is equal to 40% of the maximum static pressure rating dry or 60% if the pipe is lubricated as it is being stripped through the annular. Heavy-pipe and light-pipe Because snubbing is normally done under pressure, initially, the weight of pipe in wellbore is less than the force due to the wellbore pressure. This is described as light-pipe: downward force is required on the pipe to force it in against resistance. Once a sufficient amount of pipe has been run into the hole, the weight becomes sufficient to overpower the wellbore pressure and the pipe naturally wants <P> that solar chimney power plants at high latitudes may have satisfactory thermal performance. History A chimney turbine was envisioned as a smoke jack, and illustrated 500 years ago by Leonardo da Vinci. An animal spitted above a fire or in an oven could be turned by a vertical axis turbine with four angled vanes in the chimney updraft. In 1896, Mr. Alfred Rosling Bennett published the first patent describing a "Convection Mill". Even if in the title of the Patent and in the claims the word "Toy" clearly appears and even if in the overall description made inside the Patent <P> a large advantage. Metal threads, internal pipes and structures, and even different colored plastics can all be added to the mold prior to the addition of plastic pellets. However, care must be taken to ensure that minimal shrinkage while cooling will not damage the part. This shrinking allows for mild undercuts and negates the need for ejection mechanisms (in most pieces). In some cases rotational molding can be used as a feasible alternative to blow molding, this is due to the similarity in product outputs, with products such as plastic bottles and cylindrical containers, this is only effective <P> effect is so subtle and works at such low air pressures that it does not appear to fit the definition of a fan technology. However, prior to the development of electricity, convective airflow was the primary method of inducing airflow in living spaces. Old fashioned oil and coal furnaces were not electric and operated simply on the principle of convection to move the warm air. Very large volume air ducts were sloped upwards away from the top of the furnace towards floor and wall registers above the furnace. Cool air was returned through similar large ducts leading to the bottom of <P> manifests itself through thrust. The equivalent turbine described by Betz would be a horizontal propeller type operating at an infinite tip speed ratios and no losses. The tip speed ratio is ratio of the speed of the tip relative to the free stream flow. Actual turbines try to run very high L/D airfoils at high tip speed ratios to attempt to approximate this, but there are still additional losses in the wake because of these limitations. One key difference between actual turbines and the actuator disk, is that the energy is extracted through torque. The wind imparts a torque on <P> there will not be enough liquid targets to provide the required capture efficiency. Most venturi systems operate with an L/G ratio of 0.4 to 1.3 l/m³ (3 to 10 gal/1000 ft³) (Brady and Legatski 1977). L/G ratios less than 0.4 l/m³ (3 gal/1000 ft³) are usually not sufficient to cover the throat, and adding more than 1.3 l/m³ (10 gal/1000 ft³) does not usually significantly improve particle collection efficiency. Maintenance problems The primary maintenance problem for venturi scrubbers is wear, or abrasion, of the scrubber shell because of high gas velocities. Gas velocities in the throat can reach speeds of 430 km/h (270 mph). Particles and	question: how come a leafblower can blow things really far but a vacuum cleaner needs to get really close to things to suck them up? context: <P> separated, non-interacting gas molecules, like those found in high vacuum environments. The maximum compression varies linearly with circumferential rotor speed. In order to obtain extremely low pressures down to 1 micropascal, rotation rates of 20,000 to 90,000 revolutions per minute are often necessary. Unfortunately, the compression ratio varies exponentially with the square root of the molecular weight of the gas. Thus, heavy molecules are pumped much more efficiently than light molecules. Most gases are heavy enough to be well pumped but it is difficult to pump hydrogen and helium efficiently. An additional drawback stems from the high rotor <P> first described in 1784 by James Watt, a Scottish inventor and Mechanical Engineer who also contributed to the earliest steam engines and condensers, but not built until 1840 by British Inventor James Nasmyth. By the late 19th century, steam hammers had increased greatly in size; in 1891 the Bethlehem Iron Company made an enhancement allowing a steam hammer to deliver a 125-ton blow. Most modern machine presses typically use a combination of electric motors and hydraulics to achieve the necessary pressure. Along with the evolution of presses came the evolution of the dies used within them. Safety Machine presses can <P> are aware that it is hard to pull a rubber hose (e.g. a coolant hose) off a metal pipe stub, as the tension of pulling causes the diameter of the hose to shrink, gripping the stub tightly. Hoses can more easily be pushed off stubs instead using a wide flat blade. <P> complex as if friction is not inclusive. If the friction is exclusive to the analysis, then certain restrictions will be put into place. When friction is included on compressible flow, the friction limits the areas in which the results from analysis in be applied. As mentioned before, the shape of the duct, such as varying sizes or nozzles, effect the different calculations in between friction and compressible flow. <P> the initial ignition; the pressured gas obtained would then be used to drive pistons avoiding the use of a large boiler. ..for an engine of two-horse-power, a thread, not larger in size than ladies' sewing-cotton, is sufficient; and the working machinery need not, be larger than a man's hat — De Werdinsky, The invention was never built; Werdinsky's invention was discussed in a series of letters in the Mining Journal, with many responding sceptically, stating the corrosive nature of the gases produced from gun cotton combustion, as well as the cost of the material, as barriers to success. Werdinsky's claims were well publicised <P> of a high-frequency generator and the need for proper alignment. If the mold is placed off centre, the heat distribution is uneven. But the main disadvantage is the dependence of the process on good inductive coupling and thermal conductivity of the mold. The magnetic field can penetrate the mold only 0.5mm to 3mm. From there on, the heat has to be "transported" into the mold by the thermal conductivity of the mould material. Uniform heating is much more difficult if the air gap between the mold and the inductive coil is not the same all along the mould profile. Another <P> and are capable of achieving the highest particle collection efficiency of any wet scrubbing system. As the inlet stream enters the throat, its velocity increases greatly, atomizing and turbulently mixing with any liquid present. The atomized liquid provides an enormous number of tiny droplets for the dust particles to impact on. These liquid droplets incorporating the particles must be removed from the scrubber outlet stream, generally by cyclonic separators. Particle removal efficiency increases with increasing pressure drop because of increased turbulence due to high gas velocity in the throat. Venturis can be operated with pressure drops ranging from 12 to 250 cm (5 <P> fifty years ago. The presswork was atrocious." He then took lessons from Roger Levenson at the Tamalpais Press. In July 1968, McCune obtained an iron and steel Albion press, manufactured in London in 1852 by Hopkinson & Cope, the latter having invented it around 1820. The machine stood approximately six feet six inches in height and weighed just under 2,000 pounds. Because it was so large and McCune was only about five foot six, he had a platform built on which he could stand to operate the press. The plumed finial on top frequently sported a beret to add to the <P> separation to create a vacuum cleaner that would not lose suction as it picked up dirt. He became frustrated with his Hoover Junior's diminishing performance: the dust bag pores kept becoming clogged with dust thus reducing suction. The cyclone idea came from a sawmill that used cyclone technology (qv. History of Dyson Ltd). Partly supported by his wife's salary as an art teacher, and after five years and about 5,127 prototypes, Dyson launched the "G-Force" cleaner in 1983. However, no manufacturer or distributor would handle his product in the UK, as it would have disturbed the valuable market for replacement dust <P> few years ago are now burning wood fuel for both ecological and economical reasons. Safety Although a good log splitter can save the operator hours of labor, it is not possible to make it completely safe. Only trained adults should operate a log splitter, since anything caught between the log and the splitting blade will be subjected to a force of at least 10 tons. Most hydraulic machines now have 'two handed operation' for safety which means that both of the operator's hands are needed to actuate the splitter thus keeping them out of the way of the moving blade. The <P> thin membranous tissue, a bat's wing can significantly contribute to the organism's total gas exchange efficiency. Because of the high energy demand of flight, the bat's body meets those demands by exchanging gas through the patagium of the wing. When the bat has its wings spread it allows for an increase in surface area to volume ratio. The surface area of the wings is about 85% of the total body surface area, suggesting the possibility of a useful degree of gas exchange. The subcutaneous vessels in the membrane lie very close to the surface and allow for the diffusion of <P> Hot pressing Inductive heating In this process heat is produced within the mould when it is subjected to a high frequency electromagnetic field, generated by using an induction coil coupled to an electronic generator. The mold is made out of graphite or steel, and pressure is applied by one or two cylinders onto the punches. The mold is positioned within the induction coil. The advantage here is that the pressure and the inductive power are completely independent. Even powders with a liquid phase are amenable to this process and low pressures are possible, too. Among the disadvantages are the expense <P> effect. A small amount of high velocity air connected to the side of the casting passes out through a nozzle, creating venturi action. This effect causes a large volume of low velocity air to flow through the venturi and out of the air diffuser. The ratio of air supplied depends on the design of the air mover’s physical structure. Condition of incoming air It is not necessary to use filter in an air mover in a relatively clean environment. Generally, a gauze filter is attached to the inlet to collect larger particles. However, filters are always a beneficial precaution. In <P> significant. Even so, it may be possible to improve the performance of more conventional aerostats by trading gas weight for structural weight, combining the lifting properties of the gas with vacuum and possibly heat for enhanced lift. <P> an annular is equal to 40% of the maximum static pressure rating dry or 60% if the pipe is lubricated as it is being stripped through the annular. Heavy-pipe and light-pipe Because snubbing is normally done under pressure, initially, the weight of pipe in wellbore is less than the force due to the wellbore pressure. This is described as light-pipe: downward force is required on the pipe to force it in against resistance. Once a sufficient amount of pipe has been run into the hole, the weight becomes sufficient to overpower the wellbore pressure and the pipe naturally wants <P> that solar chimney power plants at high latitudes may have satisfactory thermal performance. History A chimney turbine was envisioned as a smoke jack, and illustrated 500 years ago by Leonardo da Vinci. An animal spitted above a fire or in an oven could be turned by a vertical axis turbine with four angled vanes in the chimney updraft. In 1896, Mr. Alfred Rosling Bennett published the first patent describing a "Convection Mill". Even if in the title of the Patent and in the claims the word "Toy" clearly appears and even if in the overall description made inside the Patent <P> a large advantage. Metal threads, internal pipes and structures, and even different colored plastics can all be added to the mold prior to the addition of plastic pellets. However, care must be taken to ensure that minimal shrinkage while cooling will not damage the part. This shrinking allows for mild undercuts and negates the need for ejection mechanisms (in most pieces). In some cases rotational molding can be used as a feasible alternative to blow molding, this is due to the similarity in product outputs, with products such as plastic bottles and cylindrical containers, this is only effective <P> effect is so subtle and works at such low air pressures that it does not appear to fit the definition of a fan technology. However, prior to the development of electricity, convective airflow was the primary method of inducing airflow in living spaces. Old fashioned oil and coal furnaces were not electric and operated simply on the principle of convection to move the warm air. Very large volume air ducts were sloped upwards away from the top of the furnace towards floor and wall registers above the furnace. Cool air was returned through similar large ducts leading to the bottom of <P> manifests itself through thrust. The equivalent turbine described by Betz would be a horizontal propeller type operating at an infinite tip speed ratios and no losses. The tip speed ratio is ratio of the speed of the tip relative to the free stream flow. Actual turbines try to run very high L/D airfoils at high tip speed ratios to attempt to approximate this, but there are still additional losses in the wake because of these limitations. One key difference between actual turbines and the actuator disk, is that the energy is extracted through torque. The wind imparts a torque on <P> there will not be enough liquid targets to provide the required capture efficiency. Most venturi systems operate with an L/G ratio of 0.4 to 1.3 l/m³ (3 to 10 gal/1000 ft³) (Brady and Legatski 1977). L/G ratios less than 0.4 l/m³ (3 gal/1000 ft³) are usually not sufficient to cover the throat, and adding more than 1.3 l/m³ (10 gal/1000 ft³) does not usually significantly improve particle collection efficiency. Maintenance problems The primary maintenance problem for venturi scrubbers is wear, or abrasion, of the scrubber shell because of high gas velocities. Gas velocities in the throat can reach speeds of 430 km/h (270 mph). Particles and	answer: With a leaf blower you're concentrating all the force in one direction. A vacuum cleaner with the same amount of force is sucking air from all directions around the nozzle. This increased area reduces the force in any single direction.
13,940	2wvity	Why did some ancient societies such as Ancient Egypt have two national capitals?	Originally, Egypt consisted of two separate kingdoms, Upper Egypt (in the south) and Lower Egypt (in the North). These each had their own capitals. These capitals continued in use through history.Egypt was ruled by successive family groups known as dynasties. Each dynasty had their own setup. Therefore the capital city of Egypt moved around to a certain degree. For example, the pharaoh Akhenaten established the city of Akhetaten (modern Tell El-Amarna) as his capital in the eighteenth dynasty.In the Old Kingdom of Egypt, the main capital city was Memphis. After the Old Kingdom, there was a power struggle within Egypt, with the two factions centered on Thebes and Herakleopolis. The Theban faction was victorious, and so in the Middle Kingdom the capital was located in Thebes, primarily.In addition, the old capitals were treated in a different way from capital cities today. In the New Kingdom period (18th-20th dynasties), Memphis was the capital where the new pharaoh was crowned, and festivals were held, while the government was centered at Thebes, and the ruler lived in his appointed residence city.But in general, there were many other cities that were used as capitals, and they all depended on which dynasty was in power and what city their ancestors were from.This is a list of the cities that were used as capitals. As you can see, it varied greatly depending on which dynasty was ruling Egypt at the time._URL_0_	[ "Originally, Egypt consisted of two separate kingdoms, Upper Egypt (in the south) and Lower Egypt (in the North). These each had their own capitals. These capitals continued in use through history.\n\nEgypt was ruled by successive family groups known as dynasties. Each dynasty had their own setup. Therefore the ...	1	[ "Originally, Egypt consisted of two separate kingdoms, Upper Egypt (in the south) and Lower Egypt (in the North). These each had their own capitals. These capitals continued in use through history.\n\nEgypt was ruled by successive family groups known as dynasties. Each dynasty had their own setup. Therefore the ...	1	<P> provided for a clear distinction between civil and military offices, primarily to lessen the possibility of rebellion by over-powerful provincial governors. Under Justinian I, the process was partially reversed for provinces which were judged to be especially vulnerable or in internal disorder. Capitalizing upon this precedent and taking it one step further, the emperor Maurice sometime between 585 and 590 created the office of exarch, which combined the supreme civil authority of a praetorian prefect and the military authority of a magister militum, and enjoyed considerable autonomy from Constantinople. Two exarchates were established, one in Italy, with its seat at <P> court intrigues and was killed in 408. While the East began a slow recovery and consolidation, the West began to collapse entirely. Alaric's men sacked Rome in 410. Reign of Honorius Honorius, the younger son of Theodosius I, was declared Augustus (and as such co-emperor with his father) on January 23 in 393. Upon the death of Theodosius, Honorius inherited the throne of the West at the age of ten whilst his older brother Arcadius inherited the East. The western capital was initially Mediolanum, as it had been during previous divisions, but it was moved to Ravenna in 402 upon <P> capitals in a plan to gain world domination. <P> palace itself and formed practically the only garrison of Constantinople in the 6th century. Their high status is further illustrated by the fact that both officers and ordinary Excubitors were often sent for special missions by the emperors, including diplomatic assignments. The unit was headed by the Count of the Excubitors (Latin: comes excubitorum; Greek: κόμης τῶν ἐξκουβίτων/ἐξκουβιτόρων, komēs tōn exkoubitōn/exkoubitorōn), who, by virtue of his proximity to the emperor, became an official of great importance in the 6th and 7th centuries. This post, which can be traced up to c. 680, was usually held by close members of the imperial family, <P> basis for the imperial power. Augustus was careful however to uphold the republican veneer of this regime, and only allowed nine cohorts to be formed (one fewer than in a normal Roman legion), which were inconspicuously scattered across various lodging houses in the city, and commanded by two prefects. When Strabo was assigned to the governorship of Egypt in AD 15, Sejanus became the sole commander of the Praetorians and instigated reforms that helped shape the guard into a powerful tool of the principate. In AD 20 the scattered encampments inside the city were centralized into a single garrison just outside <P> served to spread Roman culture throughout the provinces where they were stationed. As legionaries settled in the provinces, towns sprang up around them, often becoming large cities. In this way, as legionaries co-mingled and intermarried with the local populace, they helped Romanize the provinces they protect. Roman legionaries served as a source of labor and expertise as well. As such, much of the infrastructure which connected the empire was built by legionaries. Roads, canals, and bridges were built by legionaries as well as more defensive structures such as fortresses and walls. Hadrian's wall, a monumental example of Roman engineering, was built <P> which effectively became the municipal government of Rome. The Ager Romanus, as a political zone subject to the municipium of Rome, theoretically continued to extend ad centesimum lapidem, but in practice many of its regions ended up in Lombard hands, with still others managed by the religious authorities or the pope, who were beginning to manage their territories by means of patrimonia and domuscultae. Today The motu proprio of 6 July 1817 by Pope Pius VII established the boundaries of the municipium of Rome, assigning to the capital its present communal territory as well as the present communes of Fiumicino, Pomezia <P> of capitals. <P> time. Framed in by the barren hills of the Nile Valley and the Egyptian sky, here a Greek city arose, with its public buildings and temples and theatre, no doubt exhibiting the regular architectural forms associated with Greek culture, with a citizen-body Greek in blood, and the institutions of a Greek city. If there is some doubt whether Alexandria possessed a council and assembly, there is none in regard to Ptolemais. It was more possible for the kings to allow a measure of self-government to a people removed at that distance from the ordinary residence of the court. We have <P> his Ph.D. thesis on the Imperial Sanctuary and described the building known as the Great Basilica as the Church of St.Paul. Acropolis and fortifications The city, like other Hellenistic colonies, was founded on a hill for ease of defence. The steep valley of the River Anthius in the east provides a perfect defence. On the other slopes the acropolis goes up smoothly in terraces and reaches a height of 60 meters above the plain. It is not known whether the bastions of semi-circular plan which can be seen in the West continue in other parts of the defence walls. The city <P> Roman engineers built arterial roads throughout their empire, beginning with the Appian Way through Italy in 312BC. Along such roads marched soldiers, merchants, slaves and citizens to all corners of a flourishing mercantile empire. Roman engineering was so formidable that roads, bridges and aqueducts survive in impressive scale and quantity to the present day. According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey, the population of the Imperial capital was probably the first in the world to approach one million people. It eventually consisted of monumental public buildings, such as the Colosseum (dedicated to sport), the bathhouses (dedicated to leisure) and the Roman <P> of the land) and for Sabina Augusta....the colony." This outer inscription makes it possible to date the gate to the year AD 129 AD when Hadrian visited Asia Minor. The gates at Antalya and Phaselis were also built during this period. It is a possibility that further work was done on the gate at a later date which was recorded by the internal inscription. Monumental gates in Roman cities, especially in colonies were built as victory arches to symbolize the military power of Roman authority. The main gate in Antioch decorated with nikes, weapons, armour, bucrania and garlands is a perfect example <P> it is proved by the use of the month Apellaios (Ἀπέλλαιος). Structure The meetings had in all probability taken place originally in the Agora but were later transferred to the neighbouring building, known as the Skias. According to Plutarch, a Great Rhetra was given by Pythia to Lycurgus. The old aristocratic council was substituted by the gerousia (thirty elders, including the two kings). Meetings of the "apella"should take place from time to time, and citizens should have the power to debate and take decisions. That right of the citizens was very soon limited. Kings Theopompus and Polydorus, probably during the <P> imperial government tried to prevent this. Curials and/or their sons found to have escaped before fulfilling their obligations were returned to the councils. The Emperor Julian tried to combat this development by increasing the size of curial councils, spreading the burden more evenly to make the position less costly. This attempt was not successful, and Julian himself died before he had time to see the policy through. Other efforts to remedy the situation failed as well, and the councils dwindled in importance through the Late Roman period. In the course of the 5th century the governance of the cities <P> a mighty quadrangle, was considered sufficient for defence. <P> especially during the Latin Empire (1204–1261) whose Catholic emperors from Western Europe favoured the seaside palace. A seaward gate gave direct access to the imperial harbour of Bucoleon. <P> had different rates of taxation based on their social class. The Greeks were exempt from the poll tax, while Hellenized inhabitants of the nome capitals were taxed at a lower rate than the native Egyptians, who could not enter the army, and paid the full poll tax. The social structure in Aegyptus is very closely linked to the governing administration. Elements of centralized rule that were derived from the Ptolemaic period lasted into the 4th century. One element in particular was the appointment of strategoi to govern the ‘nomes’, the traditional administrative divisions of Egypt. Boulai, or town councils, <P> the province of Belgica. Shortly before AD 100, an amphitheatre was built, the signal sign of a city of any importance. By the first half of the second century another major structure, a Roman circus, had reached truly monumental proportions. Trier rose in importance during the Empire's third-century crisis, as the chief city of the province of Gallia Belgica. From 271 to 274 AD, Trier was the second city of the breakaway Gallic Empire, at first under Postumus, who was proclaimed in Cologne, then under his ephemeral successor, Victorinus, who made his base at Trier, where he had rebuilt a large <P> division, established by Augustus in 22 BC, was accompanied by a redistribution of tribal settlement areas. It remained essentially unchanged until Diocletian's reforms in the third century, when parts of Switzerland each belonged to the provinces of Sequania, Vienna, Raetia Prima, Liguria and Alpes Graiae et Poeninae. Government The colonies of Nyon, Aventicum and Augusta Raurica were governed under republican constitutions similar to that of Rome. Most governmental powers were exercised by a pair of magistrates, the duoviri, elected annually first by all citizens older than 25, and in later times by the city council or ordo decurionum. The 100 members <P> of the state like the Teutonic one. Because of the frictions that inevitably arose, between the XI and the XII century, the cities of Northern Italy experienced a phase of ferment that led to the birth of a new form of local self-government based on an elective collegial body with administrative, judicial tasks and security, and which in turn named the city consuls: the medieval commune. This institutional change was contemporary with the investiture struggle. This was not a case: in the periods in which the bishop, who also had a strong influence on the civil matters of the city, was	question: Why did some ancient societies such as Ancient Egypt have two national capitals? context: <P> provided for a clear distinction between civil and military offices, primarily to lessen the possibility of rebellion by over-powerful provincial governors. Under Justinian I, the process was partially reversed for provinces which were judged to be especially vulnerable or in internal disorder. Capitalizing upon this precedent and taking it one step further, the emperor Maurice sometime between 585 and 590 created the office of exarch, which combined the supreme civil authority of a praetorian prefect and the military authority of a magister militum, and enjoyed considerable autonomy from Constantinople. Two exarchates were established, one in Italy, with its seat at <P> court intrigues and was killed in 408. While the East began a slow recovery and consolidation, the West began to collapse entirely. Alaric's men sacked Rome in 410. Reign of Honorius Honorius, the younger son of Theodosius I, was declared Augustus (and as such co-emperor with his father) on January 23 in 393. Upon the death of Theodosius, Honorius inherited the throne of the West at the age of ten whilst his older brother Arcadius inherited the East. The western capital was initially Mediolanum, as it had been during previous divisions, but it was moved to Ravenna in 402 upon <P> capitals in a plan to gain world domination. <P> palace itself and formed practically the only garrison of Constantinople in the 6th century. Their high status is further illustrated by the fact that both officers and ordinary Excubitors were often sent for special missions by the emperors, including diplomatic assignments. The unit was headed by the Count of the Excubitors (Latin: comes excubitorum; Greek: κόμης τῶν ἐξκουβίτων/ἐξκουβιτόρων, komēs tōn exkoubitōn/exkoubitorōn), who, by virtue of his proximity to the emperor, became an official of great importance in the 6th and 7th centuries. This post, which can be traced up to c. 680, was usually held by close members of the imperial family, <P> basis for the imperial power. Augustus was careful however to uphold the republican veneer of this regime, and only allowed nine cohorts to be formed (one fewer than in a normal Roman legion), which were inconspicuously scattered across various lodging houses in the city, and commanded by two prefects. When Strabo was assigned to the governorship of Egypt in AD 15, Sejanus became the sole commander of the Praetorians and instigated reforms that helped shape the guard into a powerful tool of the principate. In AD 20 the scattered encampments inside the city were centralized into a single garrison just outside <P> served to spread Roman culture throughout the provinces where they were stationed. As legionaries settled in the provinces, towns sprang up around them, often becoming large cities. In this way, as legionaries co-mingled and intermarried with the local populace, they helped Romanize the provinces they protect. Roman legionaries served as a source of labor and expertise as well. As such, much of the infrastructure which connected the empire was built by legionaries. Roads, canals, and bridges were built by legionaries as well as more defensive structures such as fortresses and walls. Hadrian's wall, a monumental example of Roman engineering, was built <P> which effectively became the municipal government of Rome. The Ager Romanus, as a political zone subject to the municipium of Rome, theoretically continued to extend ad centesimum lapidem, but in practice many of its regions ended up in Lombard hands, with still others managed by the religious authorities or the pope, who were beginning to manage their territories by means of patrimonia and domuscultae. Today The motu proprio of 6 July 1817 by Pope Pius VII established the boundaries of the municipium of Rome, assigning to the capital its present communal territory as well as the present communes of Fiumicino, Pomezia <P> of capitals. <P> time. Framed in by the barren hills of the Nile Valley and the Egyptian sky, here a Greek city arose, with its public buildings and temples and theatre, no doubt exhibiting the regular architectural forms associated with Greek culture, with a citizen-body Greek in blood, and the institutions of a Greek city. If there is some doubt whether Alexandria possessed a council and assembly, there is none in regard to Ptolemais. It was more possible for the kings to allow a measure of self-government to a people removed at that distance from the ordinary residence of the court. We have <P> his Ph.D. thesis on the Imperial Sanctuary and described the building known as the Great Basilica as the Church of St.Paul. Acropolis and fortifications The city, like other Hellenistic colonies, was founded on a hill for ease of defence. The steep valley of the River Anthius in the east provides a perfect defence. On the other slopes the acropolis goes up smoothly in terraces and reaches a height of 60 meters above the plain. It is not known whether the bastions of semi-circular plan which can be seen in the West continue in other parts of the defence walls. The city <P> Roman engineers built arterial roads throughout their empire, beginning with the Appian Way through Italy in 312BC. Along such roads marched soldiers, merchants, slaves and citizens to all corners of a flourishing mercantile empire. Roman engineering was so formidable that roads, bridges and aqueducts survive in impressive scale and quantity to the present day. According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey, the population of the Imperial capital was probably the first in the world to approach one million people. It eventually consisted of monumental public buildings, such as the Colosseum (dedicated to sport), the bathhouses (dedicated to leisure) and the Roman <P> of the land) and for Sabina Augusta....the colony." This outer inscription makes it possible to date the gate to the year AD 129 AD when Hadrian visited Asia Minor. The gates at Antalya and Phaselis were also built during this period. It is a possibility that further work was done on the gate at a later date which was recorded by the internal inscription. Monumental gates in Roman cities, especially in colonies were built as victory arches to symbolize the military power of Roman authority. The main gate in Antioch decorated with nikes, weapons, armour, bucrania and garlands is a perfect example <P> it is proved by the use of the month Apellaios (Ἀπέλλαιος). Structure The meetings had in all probability taken place originally in the Agora but were later transferred to the neighbouring building, known as the Skias. According to Plutarch, a Great Rhetra was given by Pythia to Lycurgus. The old aristocratic council was substituted by the gerousia (thirty elders, including the two kings). Meetings of the "apella"should take place from time to time, and citizens should have the power to debate and take decisions. That right of the citizens was very soon limited. Kings Theopompus and Polydorus, probably during the <P> imperial government tried to prevent this. Curials and/or their sons found to have escaped before fulfilling their obligations were returned to the councils. The Emperor Julian tried to combat this development by increasing the size of curial councils, spreading the burden more evenly to make the position less costly. This attempt was not successful, and Julian himself died before he had time to see the policy through. Other efforts to remedy the situation failed as well, and the councils dwindled in importance through the Late Roman period. In the course of the 5th century the governance of the cities <P> a mighty quadrangle, was considered sufficient for defence. <P> especially during the Latin Empire (1204–1261) whose Catholic emperors from Western Europe favoured the seaside palace. A seaward gate gave direct access to the imperial harbour of Bucoleon. <P> had different rates of taxation based on their social class. The Greeks were exempt from the poll tax, while Hellenized inhabitants of the nome capitals were taxed at a lower rate than the native Egyptians, who could not enter the army, and paid the full poll tax. The social structure in Aegyptus is very closely linked to the governing administration. Elements of centralized rule that were derived from the Ptolemaic period lasted into the 4th century. One element in particular was the appointment of strategoi to govern the ‘nomes’, the traditional administrative divisions of Egypt. Boulai, or town councils, <P> the province of Belgica. Shortly before AD 100, an amphitheatre was built, the signal sign of a city of any importance. By the first half of the second century another major structure, a Roman circus, had reached truly monumental proportions. Trier rose in importance during the Empire's third-century crisis, as the chief city of the province of Gallia Belgica. From 271 to 274 AD, Trier was the second city of the breakaway Gallic Empire, at first under Postumus, who was proclaimed in Cologne, then under his ephemeral successor, Victorinus, who made his base at Trier, where he had rebuilt a large <P> division, established by Augustus in 22 BC, was accompanied by a redistribution of tribal settlement areas. It remained essentially unchanged until Diocletian's reforms in the third century, when parts of Switzerland each belonged to the provinces of Sequania, Vienna, Raetia Prima, Liguria and Alpes Graiae et Poeninae. Government The colonies of Nyon, Aventicum and Augusta Raurica were governed under republican constitutions similar to that of Rome. Most governmental powers were exercised by a pair of magistrates, the duoviri, elected annually first by all citizens older than 25, and in later times by the city council or ordo decurionum. The 100 members <P> of the state like the Teutonic one. Because of the frictions that inevitably arose, between the XI and the XII century, the cities of Northern Italy experienced a phase of ferment that led to the birth of a new form of local self-government based on an elective collegial body with administrative, judicial tasks and security, and which in turn named the city consuls: the medieval commune. This institutional change was contemporary with the investiture struggle. This was not a case: in the periods in which the bishop, who also had a strong influence on the civil matters of the city, was	answer: Originally, Egypt consisted of two separate kingdoms, Upper Egypt (in the south) and Lower Egypt (in the North). These each had their own capitals. These capitals continued in use through history.Egypt was ruled by successive family groups known as dynasties. Each dynasty had their own setup. Therefore the capital city of Egypt moved around to a certain degree. For example, the pharaoh Akhenaten established the city of Akhetaten (modern Tell El-Amarna) as his capital in the eighteenth dynasty.In the Old Kingdom of Egypt, the main capital city was Memphis. After the Old Kingdom, there was a power struggle within Egypt, with the two factions centered on Thebes and Herakleopolis. The Theban faction was victorious, and so in the Middle Kingdom the capital was located in Thebes, primarily.In addition, the old capitals were treated in a different way from capital cities today. In the New Kingdom period (18th-20th dynasties), Memphis was the capital where the new pharaoh was crowned, and festivals were held, while the government was centered at Thebes, and the ruler lived in his appointed residence city.But in general, there were many other cities that were used as capitals, and they all depended on which dynasty was in power and what city their ancestors were from.This is a list of the cities that were used as capitals. As you can see, it varied greatly depending on which dynasty was ruling Egypt at the time._URL_0_
30,115	djbsf9	in situ hybridization	Idk what your level of knowledge in biology is but in the tissue(in situ) you have a DNA, RNA... that is there naturally and if you wish to find where in the cell a certain sequence (a gene for example) in that natural DNA/RNA is, you can do it with probes, which are a complementary sequences to the DNA/RNA you are looking for (you can design them to fit the sequence you are looking for, i think you can design and order them online), the probes will attach to the natural sequence. To locate the probes (and therefore the sequence you are looking for, they can be labeled with different "signals", most common with a fluorescent protein, FISH - Fluorescent in situ hybridization. You can see it the under the fluorescence microscope.More: _URL_0_	[ "Idk what your level of knowledge in biology is but in the tissue(in situ) you have a DNA, RNA... that is there naturally and if you wish to find where in the cell a certain sequence (a gene for example) in that natural DNA/RNA is, you can do it with probes, which are a complementary sequences to the DNA/RNA you ar...	1	[]	0	<P> pre-zygotic or post-zygotic factor. However, establishing the specific mechanism may not be accurate, as a species pair continually diverges over time. For example, if a plant experiences a chromosome duplication event, reproduction will occur, but sterile hybrids will result—functioning as a form of post-zygotic isolation. Subsequently, the newly formed species pair may experience pre-zygotic barriers to reproduction as selection, acting on each species independently, will ultimately lead to genetic changes making hybrids impossible. From the researchers perspective, the current isolating mechanism may not reflect the past isolating mechanism. Reinforcement Reinforcement has been a contentious factor in speciation. It is more <P> rRNA) genes. While comparatively few studies of this type have been performed, results from these suggest that some of the most readily isolated and studied genera may not in fact be significant in the in situ community. This is seen in cases such as the genus Haloarcula, which is estimated to make up less than 0.1% of the in situ community, but commonly appears in isolation studies. Genomic and proteomic signature The comparative genomic and proteomic analysis showed distinct molecular signatures exist for environmental adaptation of halophiles. At the protein level, the halophilic species are characterized by low hydrophobicity, <P> sub-classes each of which is derived from one of the super-classes. The sub-classes are mutually linked via fields, and each sub-class may override the methods inherited from the super-class. New methods and fields are usually declared in one sub-class. The following diagram shows the typical structure of multiple inheritance: The following diagram shows the Twin pattern structure after replacing the previous multiple inheritance structure: Collaborations Each child class is responsible for the protocol inherited from its parent. It handles the messages from this protocol and forwards other messages to its partner class. Clients of the twin pattern reference one of the <P> normal first polar bodies can still be affected by errors. This method was initially performed with fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), then by hybridizing a sample into lymphocytes to observe it in metaphase, and more recently by microarrays, which are fully automated and make it easier to distinguish between chromosome vs. chromatid abnormalities. The main advantage of the use of polar bodies in PGD is that they are not necessary for successful fertilisation or normal embryonic development, thus ensuring no deleterious effect for the embryo. One of the disadvantages of PB biopsy is that it only provides information about the maternal <P> are transplanted from a donor to a genetically identical recipient (such as an identical twin). Isografts are differentiated from other types of transplants because while they are anatomically identical to allografts, they do not trigger an immune response. Xenograft and xenotransplantation A transplant of organs or tissue from one species to another. An example is porcine heart valve transplant, which is quite common and successful. Another example is attempted piscine-primate (fish to non-human primate) transplant of islet (i.e. pancreatic or insular tissue) tissue. The latter research study was intended to pave the way for potential human use if successful. However, <P> be treated as exogenous. The pipeline approach (stepped-wedge design) uses beneficiaries already chosen to participate in a project at a later stage as the comparison group. The assumption is that as they have been selected to receive the intervention in the future they are similar to the treatment group, and therefore comparable in terms of outcome variables of interest. However, in practice, it cannot be guaranteed that treatment and comparison groups are comparable and some method of matching will need to be applied to verify comparability. Non-experimental design Non-experimental impact evaluations are so-called because they do not involve a comparison group <P> slower . Additional control over the system of toehold mediated strand displacement can be introduced by toehold sequestering . Toehold sequestering Toehold sequestering is a technique to “mask” the toehold region, rendering its accessibility. There are several ways to do so but the most common approaches are hybridizing the toehold with a complementary strand or by designing the toehold region to form a hairpin loop . Masking and unmasking of the toehold domains together with the ability to precisely control the kinetics of the reaction makes toehold mediated strand displacement a valuable tool in the field of DNA nanotechnology <P> main threats for many species, including the Field cricket. The artificial establishment of new populations is, therefore, a consistent method for enhancing the survival probability of a species. The aim of translocation projects is usually to reduce the risk of extinction for an endangered species by creating additional self-sustaining populations. Studies of translocation and natural populations of G. campestris in Germany have shown that translocation does not result in a significant loss of genetic diversity. Translocation of nymphs from different subpopulations may in fact be a suitable method to decrease the loss of genetic diversity and reduce the risk <P> the local genetic differences are great enough, it may lead unfavourable combinations of genotypes and therefore to hybrids being at a decreased fitness relative to the parental lines. When this hybrid disadvantage is great enough, natural selection will select for pre-zygotic traits in the homozygous parental lines that reduce the likelihood of disadvantageous hybridisation - in other words, natural selection will favour traits that promote assortative mating in the parental lines. This is known as reinforcement and plays an important role in parapatric and sympatric speciation. Clinal maps Clines can be portrayed graphically on maps using lines that show the <P> The cline of heterozygotes that is created when these respective populations come into contact is then shaped by the opposing forces of selection and gene flow; even if selection against heterozygotes is great, if there is some degree of gene flow between the two populations, then a steep cline may be able to be maintained. Because instrinsic selection is independent of the external environment, clines generated by selection against hybrids are not fixed to any given geographical area and can move around the geographic landscape. Such hybrid zones where hybrids are a disadvantage relative to their parental lines (but which are <P> transverse furrow, cingulum, with the displacement 4) taeniocyst-nematocyst complexes 5) two or four times less the number of nuclei than of zooids, and 6) ability to disassemble into pseudocolonies with fewer zooids and only one nucleus. The most distinctive trait of this genus is the formation of multinucleated pseudocolonies that consist of an even number of zooids. Each zooid has a pair of flagella (transverse and longitudinal flagella) and has its own transverse groove, cingulum, but zooid longitudinal furrows, sulci, are fused. Transverse flagellum has the lateral projections, mastigonemes, and striated strand common to other dinoflagellates. Often Polykrikos have half the <P> Twin pattern In software engineering, the Twin pattern is a software design pattern that allows developers to model multiple inheritance in programming languages that do not support multiple inheritance. This pattern avoids many of the problems with multiple inheritance. Definition Instead of having a single class which is derived from two super-classes, have two separate sub-classes each derived from one of the two super-classes. These two sub-classes are closely coupled, so, both can be viewed as a Twin object having two ends. Structure There will be two or more parent classes which are used to be inherited. There will be <P> flow continuum. As such, the level of gene flow between populations in allopatry would be , where equals the rate of gene exchange. In sympatry , while in parapatric speciation, represents the entire continuum, though not all scientists accept this geographic mode classification scheme, which does not necessarily reflect the complexity of speciation. Allopatry is often regarded as the default or "null" model of speciation, but this too is debated. Reproductive isolation Reproductive isolation acts as the primary mechanism driving genetic divergence in allopatry and can be amplified by divergent selection. Pre-zygotic and post-zygotic isolation are often the <P> species make identification difficult. While most species are found across the world, certain species exist only in local populations such as S. intermedius and S. serratus which are found in New Zealand. Coenobia and cell growth Scenedesmus can exist as unicells; they are also frequently found in coenobia of four or eight cells inside a parental mother wall. Various coenobial architectures have been described, including linear, costulatoid, irregular, alternating, or dactylococcoid patterns (Figure 1). The formation of coenobia is dependent on a number of factors. A higher proportion of unicellular organisms was found at high light intensities and high temperatures, <P> book, Nepenthes of Mount Kinabalu, but was a nomen nudum at the time as it lacked an adequate description and information on the type specimen. The name was subsequently published validly by Kurata in 1984. Hybrid or species? Nepenthes × alisaputrana and N. × kinabaluensis are often fertile and thus may breed among themselves. Clive A. Stace writes that we may speak of "stabilised hybrids when they have developed a distributional, morphological or genetic set of characters which is no longer strictly related to that of its parents, ... if the hybrid has become an independent, recognisable, self-producing unit, it <P> the variety of secondary plates with different selective growth media, it is possible to rapidly screen a large number of individual isolated colonies for as many phenotypes as there are secondary plates. The development of replica plating required two steps. The first step was to define the problem: a method of identifiably duplicating colonies. The second step was to devise a means to reliably implement the first step. Replica plating was first described by Esther Lederberg and Joshua Lederberg in 1952. <P> inbred lines. Here, backcrossing is carried out until a desired level of recombination has occurred and genetic markers are used to detect desired recombinant chromosome substitution lines in the target region, which can be fixed by doubled haploidy. In rice, molecular markers have been found to be linked with major genes and QTLs for resistance to rice blast, bacterial blight, and sheath blight in a map produced from DH population. Elite crossing Traditional breeding methods are slow and take 10–15 years for cultivar development. Another disadvantage is inefficiency of selection in early generations because of heterozygosity. These two disadvantages can <P> process continues to the end of the cascade. In this case the gain of the last device has no effect on the cascade ISOI. In the OSOI case, a similar process can be performed, except the distortion components are moved to the end of the cascade. Here, the OSOI of the first device is affected by the gain of all subsequent devices, and so on. For the OSOI, the gain of the first device has no effect on the cascade OSOI. Both coherent and non-coherent derivations of these equations exist, due to the possible phase differences of the distortion components. In the <P> rotovator that dipped into Earth's upper atmosphere briefly at predictable locations throughout the tropic (and temperate) zone of Earth. As of May 2013, all mechanical tethers (orbital and elevators) are on hold until stronger materials are available. Cargo capture Cargo capture for rotovators is nontrivial, and failure to capture can cause problems. Several systems have been proposed, such as shooting nets at the cargo, but all add weight, complexity, and another failure mode. At least one lab scale demonstration of a working grapple system has been achieved however. Life expectancy Currently, the strongest materials in tension are plastics that require <P> are thought of as being located in the cell membrane. Applications PLA as described above has been used to study aspects of animal development and breast cancer among many other topics. A variation of the technique (rISH-PLA) has been used to study the association of protein and RNA. Another variation of in situ PLA includes a multiplex PLA assay that makes it possible to visualize multiple protein complexes in parallel. PLA can also be combined with other read out forms such as ELISA, flow cytometry. and Western blotting	question: in situ hybridization context: <P> pre-zygotic or post-zygotic factor. However, establishing the specific mechanism may not be accurate, as a species pair continually diverges over time. For example, if a plant experiences a chromosome duplication event, reproduction will occur, but sterile hybrids will result—functioning as a form of post-zygotic isolation. Subsequently, the newly formed species pair may experience pre-zygotic barriers to reproduction as selection, acting on each species independently, will ultimately lead to genetic changes making hybrids impossible. From the researchers perspective, the current isolating mechanism may not reflect the past isolating mechanism. Reinforcement Reinforcement has been a contentious factor in speciation. It is more <P> rRNA) genes. While comparatively few studies of this type have been performed, results from these suggest that some of the most readily isolated and studied genera may not in fact be significant in the in situ community. This is seen in cases such as the genus Haloarcula, which is estimated to make up less than 0.1% of the in situ community, but commonly appears in isolation studies. Genomic and proteomic signature The comparative genomic and proteomic analysis showed distinct molecular signatures exist for environmental adaptation of halophiles. At the protein level, the halophilic species are characterized by low hydrophobicity, <P> sub-classes each of which is derived from one of the super-classes. The sub-classes are mutually linked via fields, and each sub-class may override the methods inherited from the super-class. New methods and fields are usually declared in one sub-class. The following diagram shows the typical structure of multiple inheritance: The following diagram shows the Twin pattern structure after replacing the previous multiple inheritance structure: Collaborations Each child class is responsible for the protocol inherited from its parent. It handles the messages from this protocol and forwards other messages to its partner class. Clients of the twin pattern reference one of the <P> normal first polar bodies can still be affected by errors. This method was initially performed with fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH), then by hybridizing a sample into lymphocytes to observe it in metaphase, and more recently by microarrays, which are fully automated and make it easier to distinguish between chromosome vs. chromatid abnormalities. The main advantage of the use of polar bodies in PGD is that they are not necessary for successful fertilisation or normal embryonic development, thus ensuring no deleterious effect for the embryo. One of the disadvantages of PB biopsy is that it only provides information about the maternal <P> are transplanted from a donor to a genetically identical recipient (such as an identical twin). Isografts are differentiated from other types of transplants because while they are anatomically identical to allografts, they do not trigger an immune response. Xenograft and xenotransplantation A transplant of organs or tissue from one species to another. An example is porcine heart valve transplant, which is quite common and successful. Another example is attempted piscine-primate (fish to non-human primate) transplant of islet (i.e. pancreatic or insular tissue) tissue. The latter research study was intended to pave the way for potential human use if successful. However, <P> be treated as exogenous. The pipeline approach (stepped-wedge design) uses beneficiaries already chosen to participate in a project at a later stage as the comparison group. The assumption is that as they have been selected to receive the intervention in the future they are similar to the treatment group, and therefore comparable in terms of outcome variables of interest. However, in practice, it cannot be guaranteed that treatment and comparison groups are comparable and some method of matching will need to be applied to verify comparability. Non-experimental design Non-experimental impact evaluations are so-called because they do not involve a comparison group <P> slower . Additional control over the system of toehold mediated strand displacement can be introduced by toehold sequestering . Toehold sequestering Toehold sequestering is a technique to “mask” the toehold region, rendering its accessibility. There are several ways to do so but the most common approaches are hybridizing the toehold with a complementary strand or by designing the toehold region to form a hairpin loop . Masking and unmasking of the toehold domains together with the ability to precisely control the kinetics of the reaction makes toehold mediated strand displacement a valuable tool in the field of DNA nanotechnology <P> main threats for many species, including the Field cricket. The artificial establishment of new populations is, therefore, a consistent method for enhancing the survival probability of a species. The aim of translocation projects is usually to reduce the risk of extinction for an endangered species by creating additional self-sustaining populations. Studies of translocation and natural populations of G. campestris in Germany have shown that translocation does not result in a significant loss of genetic diversity. Translocation of nymphs from different subpopulations may in fact be a suitable method to decrease the loss of genetic diversity and reduce the risk <P> the local genetic differences are great enough, it may lead unfavourable combinations of genotypes and therefore to hybrids being at a decreased fitness relative to the parental lines. When this hybrid disadvantage is great enough, natural selection will select for pre-zygotic traits in the homozygous parental lines that reduce the likelihood of disadvantageous hybridisation - in other words, natural selection will favour traits that promote assortative mating in the parental lines. This is known as reinforcement and plays an important role in parapatric and sympatric speciation. Clinal maps Clines can be portrayed graphically on maps using lines that show the <P> The cline of heterozygotes that is created when these respective populations come into contact is then shaped by the opposing forces of selection and gene flow; even if selection against heterozygotes is great, if there is some degree of gene flow between the two populations, then a steep cline may be able to be maintained. Because instrinsic selection is independent of the external environment, clines generated by selection against hybrids are not fixed to any given geographical area and can move around the geographic landscape. Such hybrid zones where hybrids are a disadvantage relative to their parental lines (but which are <P> transverse furrow, cingulum, with the displacement 4) taeniocyst-nematocyst complexes 5) two or four times less the number of nuclei than of zooids, and 6) ability to disassemble into pseudocolonies with fewer zooids and only one nucleus. The most distinctive trait of this genus is the formation of multinucleated pseudocolonies that consist of an even number of zooids. Each zooid has a pair of flagella (transverse and longitudinal flagella) and has its own transverse groove, cingulum, but zooid longitudinal furrows, sulci, are fused. Transverse flagellum has the lateral projections, mastigonemes, and striated strand common to other dinoflagellates. Often Polykrikos have half the <P> Twin pattern In software engineering, the Twin pattern is a software design pattern that allows developers to model multiple inheritance in programming languages that do not support multiple inheritance. This pattern avoids many of the problems with multiple inheritance. Definition Instead of having a single class which is derived from two super-classes, have two separate sub-classes each derived from one of the two super-classes. These two sub-classes are closely coupled, so, both can be viewed as a Twin object having two ends. Structure There will be two or more parent classes which are used to be inherited. There will be <P> flow continuum. As such, the level of gene flow between populations in allopatry would be , where equals the rate of gene exchange. In sympatry , while in parapatric speciation, represents the entire continuum, though not all scientists accept this geographic mode classification scheme, which does not necessarily reflect the complexity of speciation. Allopatry is often regarded as the default or "null" model of speciation, but this too is debated. Reproductive isolation Reproductive isolation acts as the primary mechanism driving genetic divergence in allopatry and can be amplified by divergent selection. Pre-zygotic and post-zygotic isolation are often the <P> species make identification difficult. While most species are found across the world, certain species exist only in local populations such as S. intermedius and S. serratus which are found in New Zealand. Coenobia and cell growth Scenedesmus can exist as unicells; they are also frequently found in coenobia of four or eight cells inside a parental mother wall. Various coenobial architectures have been described, including linear, costulatoid, irregular, alternating, or dactylococcoid patterns (Figure 1). The formation of coenobia is dependent on a number of factors. A higher proportion of unicellular organisms was found at high light intensities and high temperatures, <P> book, Nepenthes of Mount Kinabalu, but was a nomen nudum at the time as it lacked an adequate description and information on the type specimen. The name was subsequently published validly by Kurata in 1984. Hybrid or species? Nepenthes × alisaputrana and N. × kinabaluensis are often fertile and thus may breed among themselves. Clive A. Stace writes that we may speak of "stabilised hybrids when they have developed a distributional, morphological or genetic set of characters which is no longer strictly related to that of its parents, ... if the hybrid has become an independent, recognisable, self-producing unit, it <P> the variety of secondary plates with different selective growth media, it is possible to rapidly screen a large number of individual isolated colonies for as many phenotypes as there are secondary plates. The development of replica plating required two steps. The first step was to define the problem: a method of identifiably duplicating colonies. The second step was to devise a means to reliably implement the first step. Replica plating was first described by Esther Lederberg and Joshua Lederberg in 1952. <P> inbred lines. Here, backcrossing is carried out until a desired level of recombination has occurred and genetic markers are used to detect desired recombinant chromosome substitution lines in the target region, which can be fixed by doubled haploidy. In rice, molecular markers have been found to be linked with major genes and QTLs for resistance to rice blast, bacterial blight, and sheath blight in a map produced from DH population. Elite crossing Traditional breeding methods are slow and take 10–15 years for cultivar development. Another disadvantage is inefficiency of selection in early generations because of heterozygosity. These two disadvantages can <P> process continues to the end of the cascade. In this case the gain of the last device has no effect on the cascade ISOI. In the OSOI case, a similar process can be performed, except the distortion components are moved to the end of the cascade. Here, the OSOI of the first device is affected by the gain of all subsequent devices, and so on. For the OSOI, the gain of the first device has no effect on the cascade OSOI. Both coherent and non-coherent derivations of these equations exist, due to the possible phase differences of the distortion components. In the <P> rotovator that dipped into Earth's upper atmosphere briefly at predictable locations throughout the tropic (and temperate) zone of Earth. As of May 2013, all mechanical tethers (orbital and elevators) are on hold until stronger materials are available. Cargo capture Cargo capture for rotovators is nontrivial, and failure to capture can cause problems. Several systems have been proposed, such as shooting nets at the cargo, but all add weight, complexity, and another failure mode. At least one lab scale demonstration of a working grapple system has been achieved however. Life expectancy Currently, the strongest materials in tension are plastics that require <P> are thought of as being located in the cell membrane. Applications PLA as described above has been used to study aspects of animal development and breast cancer among many other topics. A variation of the technique (rISH-PLA) has been used to study the association of protein and RNA. Another variation of in situ PLA includes a multiplex PLA assay that makes it possible to visualize multiple protein complexes in parallel. PLA can also be combined with other read out forms such as ELISA, flow cytometry. and Western blotting	answer: Idk what your level of knowledge in biology is but in the tissue(in situ) you have a DNA, RNA... that is there naturally and if you wish to find where in the cell a certain sequence (a gene for example) in that natural DNA/RNA is, you can do it with probes, which are a complementary sequences to the DNA/RNA you are looking for (you can design them to fit the sequence you are looking for, i think you can design and order them online), the probes will attach to the natural sequence. To locate the probes (and therefore the sequence you are looking for, they can be labeled with different "signals", most common with a fluorescent protein, FISH - Fluorescent in situ hybridization. You can see it the under the fluorescence microscope.More: _URL_0_
13,461	5ko0q9	why is cold water so effective at getting rid of suds?	Suds, or bubbles, in water are a result of decreased surface tension.As the Surface Tension increases, the Surface Area is caused to decrease. Bubbles on the surface are a surfeit of surface area, compared to the flat surface of your non-soapy filled sink, so they exist at a much reduced tension.It turns out, as water heats up, it's surface tension goes down. If you floated the largest sewing needle you could, on top of water in a pot, and heated it, it would fall in before the water boils. You could use a thermometer and over several attempts, the temperature when it falls in should be pretty close to the same every time.Conversely, the cold water has higher surface tension and is better at pulling back the bubbles.	[ "Suds, or bubbles, in water are a result of decreased surface tension.\n\nAs the Surface Tension increases, the Surface Area is caused to decrease. Bubbles on the surface are a surfeit of surface area, compared to the flat surface of your non-soapy filled sink, so they exist at a much reduced tension.\n\nIt turns o...	1	[ "Suds, or bubbles, in water are a result of decreased surface tension.\n\nAs the Surface Tension increases, the Surface Area is caused to decrease. Bubbles on the surface are a surfeit of surface area, compared to the flat surface of your non-soapy filled sink, so they exist at a much reduced tension.\n\nIt turns o...	1	<P> Waterless coolant Waterless coolant is a glycol-based liquid substance that does not contain water. Its boiling point of 191 °C (375 °F) is higher than that of water-based coolants and it resists the formation of corrosion. The substance was invented to circumvent the problems of vaporizing water. When water vaporizes, it retains only 4% of its thermal conductivity. So, water-based coolants are safe at temperatures below the boiling point of water to maintain the pressure of the system. Waterless coolant has environmental benefits, including reducing the use of cooling fans and therefore improving fuel economy. The coolant does not generally need changing, <P> with dry water, combine with the water, which then traps them in a solid clathrate hydrate cage. This presents the possibility that explosive gases could be easily transported with a reduced risk of accidental detonation. Dry water is currently being considered for use as a carbon sequestration agent to capture and seal away greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Scientists consider that dry water will prove useful in the future to help fight global warming as it was found that it could store as much as three times more carbon dioxide than ordinary water over a similar length of time. Dry <P> forces are the main constituent of changes in the enthalpy of a mixture. Stronger attractive forces between the mixed molecules, such as hydrogen-bonding, induced-dipole, and dipole-dipole interactions result in a lower enthalpy of the mixture and a release of heat. If strong interactions only exist between like-molecules, such as H-bonds between water in a water-hexane solution, the mixture will have a higher total enthalpy and absorb heat. <P> product design. Thermal methods are the most commonly used and consist in increasing temperature to accelerate destabilisation (below critical temperatures of phase inversion or chemical degradation). Temperature affects not only the viscosity, but also interfacial tension in the case of non-ionic surfactants or more generally interaction forces inside the system. Storing a dispersion at high temperatures makes it possible to simulate real life conditions for a product (e.g. tube of sunscreen cream in a car in the summer), but also to accelerate destabilisation processes up to 200 times. Mechanical acceleration, including vibration, centrifugation and agitation, are sometimes used. They subject the <P> practice, a cooling fluid which has both a higher specific heat capacity and a lower heat capacity rate is desirable, accounting for the pervasiveness of water cooling solutions in technology—the polar nature of the water molecule creates some distinct sub-atomic behaviors favorable in practice. where C = heat capacity rate of the fluid of interest, dm/dt = mass flow rate of the fluid of interest and cₚ = specific heat of the fluid of interest. <P> steam can scald skin quickly, raising potential safety issues. <P> allowing the ammonia vapor to bubble through the water speeding absorption, and also serving to stir the solution so heat is better transported to the finned walls. This "bubbler" is bypassed by a liquid (no moving parts) check-valve during regeneration, so that only gas, and not liquid solution is transferred to the cold side. The operation of the liquid check valve is somewhat similar to the water seals (J-traps) used in plumbing drains. Mechanical check valves require too much pressure to function properly in this application. To minimize the amount of water transferred to the cold ball during the recharge <P> is another factor which slows the motion of ions within a solution. It is the tendency of the applied potential to move the ionic atmosphere itself. This drags the solvent molecules along because of the attractive forces between ions and solvent molecules. As a result, the central ion at the centre of the ionic atmosphere is influenced to move towards the pole opposite its ionic atmosphere. This inclination retards its motion. Limits to the model The model of ionic atmosphere is less adequate for concentrated ionic solutions near saturation. These solutions as well as molten salts or ionic <P> to water molecules with loss of entropy. The mixing that occurs below 19 °C is due not to entropy but to the enthalpy of formation of the hydrogen bonds. Lower critical solution temperatures also occur in many polymer-solvent mixtures. For polar systems such as polyacrylic acid in 1,4-dioxane, this is often due to the formation of hydrogen bonds between polymer and solvent. For nonpolar systems such as polystyrene in cyclohexane, phase separation has been observed in sealed tubes (at high pressure) at temperatures approaching the liquid-vapor critical point of the solvent. At such temperatures the solvent expands much more rapidly than the <P> that more nucleophilic solvents decrease the reaction rate. <P> more quickly than more concerted processes such as the Cope rearrangement. Transition state and stereochemistry The cationic 2-aza-Cope rearrangement is characterized by its high stereospecificity, which arises from its high preference for a chair transition state. In their exploration of this rearrangement's stereospecificity, Overman and coworkers used logic similar to the classic Doering and Roth experiments, which showed that the Cope rearrangement prefers a chair conformation. By using the cationic 2-aza-Cope/Mannich reaction on pyrrolizidine precursors, they showed that pyrrolizidines with cis substituents from E-alkenes and trans substituents from Z-alkenes are heavily favored, results that are indicative of <P> The solution is highly sensitive to air, requiring the use of air-free techniques. <P> water quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for human consumption, industrial use, or in the environment. Industrial and domestic use Dissolved minerals may affect suitability of water for a range of industrial and domestic purposes. The most familiar of these is probably the presence of ions of calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) which interfere with the cleaning action of soap, and can form hard sulfate and soft carbonate deposits in water heaters or boilers. Hard water may be softened to remove these ions. The softening process often substitutes sodium cations. Hard water may be <P> to experience much more evaporative cooling than condensative warming. <P> Dry water Discovery Dry water was first patented in 1968 and was immediately snatched up by cosmetic companies as it appeared to have potential applications in the cosmetics field. It was rediscovered in 2006 by the University of Hull, UK, and has since been evaluated and studied for its potential use in other fields. The dry water itself is easy enough to manufacture. The hydrophobic silica nanoparticles and water are blended together using a motor with a stirring rod and impeller that spins at 19,000 rpm for 90 seconds, which coats the water droplets completely. Applications Certain gases, when mixed <P> of the container more resistant to interactions with liquid products later put inside it. Since the treatment is directed primarily at changing the properties of the inside surface in contact with the product, it is also referred to as "internal treatment". The most common example of its use with containers is on bottles intended to hold alcoholic spirits. The reason for this is that some alcoholic spirits such as vodka and gin have an approximately neutral pH and a high alcohol content, but are not buffered in any way against changes in pH. If alkali is leached <P> purities due to lower gas diffusivity in alkaline electrolyte. <P> Tetrahydroxydiboron Reactions When heated to over 90 °C, tetrahydroxydiboron dehydrates to a polymeric boron(II) oxide. The temperature must rise to 220 °C to be totally free from water. Tetrahydroxydiboron is a reducing agent. A water solution slowly gives off hydrogen gas. <P> and water. <P> are coordinated octahedral to three hydrogen phosphate groups and three water molecules. This structure forms an Al'–P–Al''–P–Al' linkage nearly parallel to the c-axis, with the other distinct aluminium atom offset, and nearly vertically below a PO₄³⁻ ion. Taranakite readily loses water when heated. Thermal gravimetric analysis shows two endothermic water loss events occurring in the ranges 80–140 °C and 140–300 °C corresponding to the sequential loss of five and thirteen water molecules to form francoanellite and a noncrystalline material. Heating to 500 °C results in complete dehydration to form K₃Al₅P₈O₂₉. In the range 562–595 °C crystalline AlPO₄ and KAlP₂O₇ form.	question: why is cold water so effective at getting rid of suds? context: <P> Waterless coolant Waterless coolant is a glycol-based liquid substance that does not contain water. Its boiling point of 191 °C (375 °F) is higher than that of water-based coolants and it resists the formation of corrosion. The substance was invented to circumvent the problems of vaporizing water. When water vaporizes, it retains only 4% of its thermal conductivity. So, water-based coolants are safe at temperatures below the boiling point of water to maintain the pressure of the system. Waterless coolant has environmental benefits, including reducing the use of cooling fans and therefore improving fuel economy. The coolant does not generally need changing, <P> with dry water, combine with the water, which then traps them in a solid clathrate hydrate cage. This presents the possibility that explosive gases could be easily transported with a reduced risk of accidental detonation. Dry water is currently being considered for use as a carbon sequestration agent to capture and seal away greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. Scientists consider that dry water will prove useful in the future to help fight global warming as it was found that it could store as much as three times more carbon dioxide than ordinary water over a similar length of time. Dry <P> forces are the main constituent of changes in the enthalpy of a mixture. Stronger attractive forces between the mixed molecules, such as hydrogen-bonding, induced-dipole, and dipole-dipole interactions result in a lower enthalpy of the mixture and a release of heat. If strong interactions only exist between like-molecules, such as H-bonds between water in a water-hexane solution, the mixture will have a higher total enthalpy and absorb heat. <P> product design. Thermal methods are the most commonly used and consist in increasing temperature to accelerate destabilisation (below critical temperatures of phase inversion or chemical degradation). Temperature affects not only the viscosity, but also interfacial tension in the case of non-ionic surfactants or more generally interaction forces inside the system. Storing a dispersion at high temperatures makes it possible to simulate real life conditions for a product (e.g. tube of sunscreen cream in a car in the summer), but also to accelerate destabilisation processes up to 200 times. Mechanical acceleration, including vibration, centrifugation and agitation, are sometimes used. They subject the <P> practice, a cooling fluid which has both a higher specific heat capacity and a lower heat capacity rate is desirable, accounting for the pervasiveness of water cooling solutions in technology—the polar nature of the water molecule creates some distinct sub-atomic behaviors favorable in practice. where C = heat capacity rate of the fluid of interest, dm/dt = mass flow rate of the fluid of interest and cₚ = specific heat of the fluid of interest. <P> steam can scald skin quickly, raising potential safety issues. <P> allowing the ammonia vapor to bubble through the water speeding absorption, and also serving to stir the solution so heat is better transported to the finned walls. This "bubbler" is bypassed by a liquid (no moving parts) check-valve during regeneration, so that only gas, and not liquid solution is transferred to the cold side. The operation of the liquid check valve is somewhat similar to the water seals (J-traps) used in plumbing drains. Mechanical check valves require too much pressure to function properly in this application. To minimize the amount of water transferred to the cold ball during the recharge <P> is another factor which slows the motion of ions within a solution. It is the tendency of the applied potential to move the ionic atmosphere itself. This drags the solvent molecules along because of the attractive forces between ions and solvent molecules. As a result, the central ion at the centre of the ionic atmosphere is influenced to move towards the pole opposite its ionic atmosphere. This inclination retards its motion. Limits to the model The model of ionic atmosphere is less adequate for concentrated ionic solutions near saturation. These solutions as well as molten salts or ionic <P> to water molecules with loss of entropy. The mixing that occurs below 19 °C is due not to entropy but to the enthalpy of formation of the hydrogen bonds. Lower critical solution temperatures also occur in many polymer-solvent mixtures. For polar systems such as polyacrylic acid in 1,4-dioxane, this is often due to the formation of hydrogen bonds between polymer and solvent. For nonpolar systems such as polystyrene in cyclohexane, phase separation has been observed in sealed tubes (at high pressure) at temperatures approaching the liquid-vapor critical point of the solvent. At such temperatures the solvent expands much more rapidly than the <P> that more nucleophilic solvents decrease the reaction rate. <P> more quickly than more concerted processes such as the Cope rearrangement. Transition state and stereochemistry The cationic 2-aza-Cope rearrangement is characterized by its high stereospecificity, which arises from its high preference for a chair transition state. In their exploration of this rearrangement's stereospecificity, Overman and coworkers used logic similar to the classic Doering and Roth experiments, which showed that the Cope rearrangement prefers a chair conformation. By using the cationic 2-aza-Cope/Mannich reaction on pyrrolizidine precursors, they showed that pyrrolizidines with cis substituents from E-alkenes and trans substituents from Z-alkenes are heavily favored, results that are indicative of <P> The solution is highly sensitive to air, requiring the use of air-free techniques. <P> water quality tends to be focused on water that is treated for human consumption, industrial use, or in the environment. Industrial and domestic use Dissolved minerals may affect suitability of water for a range of industrial and domestic purposes. The most familiar of these is probably the presence of ions of calcium (Ca²⁺) and magnesium (Mg²⁺) which interfere with the cleaning action of soap, and can form hard sulfate and soft carbonate deposits in water heaters or boilers. Hard water may be softened to remove these ions. The softening process often substitutes sodium cations. Hard water may be <P> to experience much more evaporative cooling than condensative warming. <P> Dry water Discovery Dry water was first patented in 1968 and was immediately snatched up by cosmetic companies as it appeared to have potential applications in the cosmetics field. It was rediscovered in 2006 by the University of Hull, UK, and has since been evaluated and studied for its potential use in other fields. The dry water itself is easy enough to manufacture. The hydrophobic silica nanoparticles and water are blended together using a motor with a stirring rod and impeller that spins at 19,000 rpm for 90 seconds, which coats the water droplets completely. Applications Certain gases, when mixed <P> of the container more resistant to interactions with liquid products later put inside it. Since the treatment is directed primarily at changing the properties of the inside surface in contact with the product, it is also referred to as "internal treatment". The most common example of its use with containers is on bottles intended to hold alcoholic spirits. The reason for this is that some alcoholic spirits such as vodka and gin have an approximately neutral pH and a high alcohol content, but are not buffered in any way against changes in pH. If alkali is leached <P> purities due to lower gas diffusivity in alkaline electrolyte. <P> Tetrahydroxydiboron Reactions When heated to over 90 °C, tetrahydroxydiboron dehydrates to a polymeric boron(II) oxide. The temperature must rise to 220 °C to be totally free from water. Tetrahydroxydiboron is a reducing agent. A water solution slowly gives off hydrogen gas. <P> and water. <P> are coordinated octahedral to three hydrogen phosphate groups and three water molecules. This structure forms an Al'–P–Al''–P–Al' linkage nearly parallel to the c-axis, with the other distinct aluminium atom offset, and nearly vertically below a PO₄³⁻ ion. Taranakite readily loses water when heated. Thermal gravimetric analysis shows two endothermic water loss events occurring in the ranges 80–140 °C and 140–300 °C corresponding to the sequential loss of five and thirteen water molecules to form francoanellite and a noncrystalline material. Heating to 500 °C results in complete dehydration to form K₃Al₅P₈O₂₉. In the range 562–595 °C crystalline AlPO₄ and KAlP₂O₇ form.	answer: Suds, or bubbles, in water are a result of decreased surface tension.As the Surface Tension increases, the Surface Area is caused to decrease. Bubbles on the surface are a surfeit of surface area, compared to the flat surface of your non-soapy filled sink, so they exist at a much reduced tension.It turns out, as water heats up, it's surface tension goes down. If you floated the largest sewing needle you could, on top of water in a pot, and heated it, it would fall in before the water boils. You could use a thermometer and over several attempts, the temperature when it falls in should be pretty close to the same every time.Conversely, the cold water has higher surface tension and is better at pulling back the bubbles.
218,103	23zujt	if atmospheric pressure exerts 1 ton of pressure on me, why can't i feel it?	> I am about .1 m^2 when standing. Maybe .3m^2 when lying down.You're mistaken there. What you need to measure if your body's surface area. The atmosphere presses in on you from every direction, not just from above. And the surface area of your skin doesn't change when you change positions. > I have this much pressure on me at all times, you could argue I don't feel it because its always there.You don't feel it because you are at the same pressure inside your body. So your body is pushing back outward with the same force.	[ " > I am about .1 m^2 when standing. Maybe .3m^2 when lying down.\n\nYou're mistaken there. What you need to measure if your body's surface area. The atmosphere presses in on you from every direction, not just from above. And the surface area of your skin doesn't change when you change positions.\n\n\n > I hav...	3	[ " > I am about .1 m^2 when standing. Maybe .3m^2 when lying down.\n\nYou're mistaken there. What you need to measure if your body's surface area. The atmosphere presses in on you from every direction, not just from above. And the surface area of your skin doesn't change when you change positions.\n\n\n > I hav...	1	<P> larger usable pressure. <P> and so does not provide those spaces with support against the higher outside pressure. Even at a depth of 8 ft (2.4 m) underwater, an inability to equalize air pressure in the middle ear with outside water pressure can cause pain, and the tympanic membrane (eardrum) can rupture at depths under 10 ft (3 m). The danger of pressure damage is greatest in shallow water because the ratio of pressure change is greatest near the surface of the water. The raised pressure also affects the solution of breathing gases in the tissues over time, and can lead to a range of adverse effects, such <P> George Kellie Dr George Kellie MD, FRSE (1770–1829) was a Scottish surgeon who, together with Alexander Monro secundus gave his name to the Monro-Kellie doctrine, a concept which relates intracranial pressure to the volume of intracranial contents and is a basic tenet of our understanding of the neuropathology of raised intracranial pressure. The doctrine states that since the skull is incompressible, and the volume inside the skull is fixed then any increase in volume of one of the cranial constituents must be compensated by a decrease in volume of another. Previous research about George Kellie (1720–1779) may have been hampered <P> ambient pressure at sea level. Ambient pressure may in other circumstances be measured in pounds per square inch (psi) or in standard atmospheres (atm). The ambient pressure at sea level is approximately one atmosphere, which is equal to 1.01325 bars (14.6959 psi), which is close enough for bar and atm to be used interchangeably in many applications. <P> 49% hydrogen, it was found that while the narcotic effect of hydrogen was detectable, the neurological symptoms of high-pressure nervous syndrome were only moderate. <P> atmospheric pressure on the free surface. This increases approximately linearly with depth. Since water is much denser than air, much greater changes in ambient pressure can be experienced under water. Each 10 metres (33 ft) of depth adds another bar to the ambient pressure. Ambient pressure diving is underwater diving exposed to the water pressure at depth, rather than in a pressure-excluding atmospheric diving suit or a submersible. Other environments The concept is not limited to environments frequented by people. Almost any place in the universe will have an ambient pressure, from the hard vacuum of deep space to the interior of <P> an exploding supernova. At extremely small scales the concept of pressure becomes irrelevant, and it is undefined at a gravitational singularity. Units of pressure The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), which is a very small unit relative to atmospheric pressure on Earth, so kilopascals (kPa) are more commonly used in this context. The ambient atmospheric pressure at sea level is not constant: it varies with the weather, but averages around 100 kPa. In fields such as meteorology and underwater diving, it is common to see ambient pressure expressed in bar or millibar. One bar is 100 kPa or approximately <P> in pregnancy), or to a specific condition such as acromegaly, hypothyroidism or scleroderma and psoriasis. Some conditions cause nerves to be particularly susceptible to compression. These include diabetes, in which the blood supply to the nerves is already compromised, rendering the nerve more sensitive to minor degrees of compression. The genetic condition HNPP is a much rarer cause. Pathophysiology External pressure reduces flow in the vessels supplying the nerve with blood (the vasa nervorum). This causes local ischaemia, which has an immediate effect on the ability of the nerve axons to transmit action potentials. As the compression becomes more severe over <P> Center of pressure (fluid mechanics) The center of pressure is the point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body, causing a force to act through that point. The total force vector acting at the center of pressure is the value of the integrated vectorial pressure field. The resultant force and center of pressure location produce equivalent force and moment on the body as the original pressure field. Pressure fields occur in both static and dynamic fluid mechanics. Specification of the center of pressure, the reference point from which the center of pressure <P> is important because some air tools, or uses for compressed air, require pressures that may cause damage to other tools or materials. Aircraft Pressure regulators are found in aircraft cabin pressurization, canopy seal pressure control, portable water systems, and waveguide pressurization. Aerospace Aerospace pressure regulators have applications in propulsion pressurant control for reaction control systems (RCS) and Attitude Control Systems (ACS), where high vibration, large temperature extremes and corrosive fluids are present. Cooking All modern pressure cookers will have a pressure regulator valve and a pressure relief valve as a safety mechanism to prevent explosion in the event that the <P> pressure–volume work. The pressure of concern is that exerted by the surroundings on the surface of the system, and the volume of interest is the negative of the increment of volume gained by the system from the surroundings. It is usually arranged that the pressure exerted by the surroundings on the surface of the system is well defined and equal to the pressure exerted by the system on the surroundings. This arrangement for transfer of energy as work can be varied in a particular way that depends on the strictly mechanical nature of pressure–volume work. The variation consists in letting <P> metres (6 ft 10 in) with the highest level ever recorded being 10.7 metres (35 ft) in 2007. Within the town of Bruton at Bruton Surgery the normal level is between 0.17 metres (6.7 in) and 0.69 metres (2 ft 3 in). Further downstream at Lovington the normal level is between 0.08 metres (3.1 in) and 0.56 metres (1 ft 10 in). The furthest downstream monitoring station at Clyse Hole near Street records a normal range of 0.15 metres (5.9 in) and 0.49 metres (1 ft 7 in). For the purposes of monitoring of water quality the Brue and Axe are considered together. In 2013 19 water bodies within the area were considered <P> As a general example for a system with inhomogeneous pressure you can think of the pressure in the atmosphere of the earth which varies with height. Instantaneous local virial stress The (local) instantaneous virial stress is given by: <P> so reduced that it causes increase in atrial pressure, E will increase again, while e', being less load dependent, remains low. Thus, the ratio E/e' is related to the atrial pressure, and can show increased filling pressure, although with several reservations. In the right ventricle this is not an important principle, as the right atrial pressure is the same as central venous pressure which can easily be assessed from venous congestion. . Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFPEF) One of the main advantages of tissue Doppler is that diastolic and systolic function can be measured by the same tool. Before <P> Ambient pressure The ambient pressure on an object is the pressure of the surrounding medium, such as a gas or liquid, in contact with the object. Atmosphere Within the atmosphere, the ambient pressure decreases as height increases. By measuring ambient atmospheric pressure, a pilot may determine altitude (see pitot-static system). Near sea level, a change of ambient pressure of 1 millibar is taken to represent a change of height of 9 metres (30 ft). Underwater The ambient pressure in water with a free surface is a combination of the hydrostatic pressure due to the weight of the water column and the <P> not be tested for less than 15 seconds under pressure or for less than 30 seconds if it is at 3 inches in size. <P> is unchanged despite variations in blood pressure by regulating the cerebral vessels. For example, if the blood pressure increases, the cerebral vessels vasoconstrict to keep cerebral blood flow normal, whereas a decrease in blood pressure would lead to vasodilation of the cerebral vessels to increase blood flow. The cerebrovascular reactions to changes in blood pressure generates a corresponding effect on the intracranial pressure. When the blood pressure increases and the vessels vasoconstrict, the cerebral blood volume is reduced. According to the Monroi-Kelli-doctrine, less cerebral blood volume leads to a reduction in the intracranial pressure. If the blood pressure instead would <P> the general population has been estimated as <1% on the basis of an ankle brachial pressure index >1.5; however the validity of this criterion is questionable. <P> as inert gas narcosis, and oxygen toxicity. Decompression must be controlled to avoid bubble formation in the tissues and the consequent symptoms of decompression sickness. With a few exceptions, the underwater environment tends to cool the unprotected human body. This heat loss will generally lead to hypothermia eventually. Ambient pressure diving In ambient pressure diving, the diver is directly exposed to the pressure of the surrounding water. The ambient pressure diver may dive on breath-hold, or use breathing apparatus for scuba diving or surface-supplied diving, and the saturation diving technique reduces the risk of decompression sickness (DCS) after long-duration deep dives. <P> well, so the attention of hospital staff may be distracted from the possibility of aortic rupture. In fact most cases occur along with other injuries. A common symptom is unusually high blood pressure in the upper body and very low blood pressure in lower limbs. Another symptom is renal failure where the creatinine level shoots very high and urine output becomes negligible. In most cases, however, the doctors would misinterpret renal failure as due to issues with the kidney itself and may recommend dialysis. Though not completely reliable, chest X-rays are the first-line investigation, initially used to diagnose this condition when the	question: if atmospheric pressure exerts 1 ton of pressure on me, why can't i feel it? context: <P> larger usable pressure. <P> and so does not provide those spaces with support against the higher outside pressure. Even at a depth of 8 ft (2.4 m) underwater, an inability to equalize air pressure in the middle ear with outside water pressure can cause pain, and the tympanic membrane (eardrum) can rupture at depths under 10 ft (3 m). The danger of pressure damage is greatest in shallow water because the ratio of pressure change is greatest near the surface of the water. The raised pressure also affects the solution of breathing gases in the tissues over time, and can lead to a range of adverse effects, such <P> George Kellie Dr George Kellie MD, FRSE (1770–1829) was a Scottish surgeon who, together with Alexander Monro secundus gave his name to the Monro-Kellie doctrine, a concept which relates intracranial pressure to the volume of intracranial contents and is a basic tenet of our understanding of the neuropathology of raised intracranial pressure. The doctrine states that since the skull is incompressible, and the volume inside the skull is fixed then any increase in volume of one of the cranial constituents must be compensated by a decrease in volume of another. Previous research about George Kellie (1720–1779) may have been hampered <P> ambient pressure at sea level. Ambient pressure may in other circumstances be measured in pounds per square inch (psi) or in standard atmospheres (atm). The ambient pressure at sea level is approximately one atmosphere, which is equal to 1.01325 bars (14.6959 psi), which is close enough for bar and atm to be used interchangeably in many applications. <P> 49% hydrogen, it was found that while the narcotic effect of hydrogen was detectable, the neurological symptoms of high-pressure nervous syndrome were only moderate. <P> atmospheric pressure on the free surface. This increases approximately linearly with depth. Since water is much denser than air, much greater changes in ambient pressure can be experienced under water. Each 10 metres (33 ft) of depth adds another bar to the ambient pressure. Ambient pressure diving is underwater diving exposed to the water pressure at depth, rather than in a pressure-excluding atmospheric diving suit or a submersible. Other environments The concept is not limited to environments frequented by people. Almost any place in the universe will have an ambient pressure, from the hard vacuum of deep space to the interior of <P> an exploding supernova. At extremely small scales the concept of pressure becomes irrelevant, and it is undefined at a gravitational singularity. Units of pressure The SI unit of pressure is the pascal (Pa), which is a very small unit relative to atmospheric pressure on Earth, so kilopascals (kPa) are more commonly used in this context. The ambient atmospheric pressure at sea level is not constant: it varies with the weather, but averages around 100 kPa. In fields such as meteorology and underwater diving, it is common to see ambient pressure expressed in bar or millibar. One bar is 100 kPa or approximately <P> in pregnancy), or to a specific condition such as acromegaly, hypothyroidism or scleroderma and psoriasis. Some conditions cause nerves to be particularly susceptible to compression. These include diabetes, in which the blood supply to the nerves is already compromised, rendering the nerve more sensitive to minor degrees of compression. The genetic condition HNPP is a much rarer cause. Pathophysiology External pressure reduces flow in the vessels supplying the nerve with blood (the vasa nervorum). This causes local ischaemia, which has an immediate effect on the ability of the nerve axons to transmit action potentials. As the compression becomes more severe over <P> Center of pressure (fluid mechanics) The center of pressure is the point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body, causing a force to act through that point. The total force vector acting at the center of pressure is the value of the integrated vectorial pressure field. The resultant force and center of pressure location produce equivalent force and moment on the body as the original pressure field. Pressure fields occur in both static and dynamic fluid mechanics. Specification of the center of pressure, the reference point from which the center of pressure <P> is important because some air tools, or uses for compressed air, require pressures that may cause damage to other tools or materials. Aircraft Pressure regulators are found in aircraft cabin pressurization, canopy seal pressure control, portable water systems, and waveguide pressurization. Aerospace Aerospace pressure regulators have applications in propulsion pressurant control for reaction control systems (RCS) and Attitude Control Systems (ACS), where high vibration, large temperature extremes and corrosive fluids are present. Cooking All modern pressure cookers will have a pressure regulator valve and a pressure relief valve as a safety mechanism to prevent explosion in the event that the <P> pressure–volume work. The pressure of concern is that exerted by the surroundings on the surface of the system, and the volume of interest is the negative of the increment of volume gained by the system from the surroundings. It is usually arranged that the pressure exerted by the surroundings on the surface of the system is well defined and equal to the pressure exerted by the system on the surroundings. This arrangement for transfer of energy as work can be varied in a particular way that depends on the strictly mechanical nature of pressure–volume work. The variation consists in letting <P> metres (6 ft 10 in) with the highest level ever recorded being 10.7 metres (35 ft) in 2007. Within the town of Bruton at Bruton Surgery the normal level is between 0.17 metres (6.7 in) and 0.69 metres (2 ft 3 in). Further downstream at Lovington the normal level is between 0.08 metres (3.1 in) and 0.56 metres (1 ft 10 in). The furthest downstream monitoring station at Clyse Hole near Street records a normal range of 0.15 metres (5.9 in) and 0.49 metres (1 ft 7 in). For the purposes of monitoring of water quality the Brue and Axe are considered together. In 2013 19 water bodies within the area were considered <P> As a general example for a system with inhomogeneous pressure you can think of the pressure in the atmosphere of the earth which varies with height. Instantaneous local virial stress The (local) instantaneous virial stress is given by: <P> so reduced that it causes increase in atrial pressure, E will increase again, while e', being less load dependent, remains low. Thus, the ratio E/e' is related to the atrial pressure, and can show increased filling pressure, although with several reservations. In the right ventricle this is not an important principle, as the right atrial pressure is the same as central venous pressure which can easily be assessed from venous congestion. . Heart failure with preserved ejection fraction (HFPEF) One of the main advantages of tissue Doppler is that diastolic and systolic function can be measured by the same tool. Before <P> Ambient pressure The ambient pressure on an object is the pressure of the surrounding medium, such as a gas or liquid, in contact with the object. Atmosphere Within the atmosphere, the ambient pressure decreases as height increases. By measuring ambient atmospheric pressure, a pilot may determine altitude (see pitot-static system). Near sea level, a change of ambient pressure of 1 millibar is taken to represent a change of height of 9 metres (30 ft). Underwater The ambient pressure in water with a free surface is a combination of the hydrostatic pressure due to the weight of the water column and the <P> not be tested for less than 15 seconds under pressure or for less than 30 seconds if it is at 3 inches in size. <P> is unchanged despite variations in blood pressure by regulating the cerebral vessels. For example, if the blood pressure increases, the cerebral vessels vasoconstrict to keep cerebral blood flow normal, whereas a decrease in blood pressure would lead to vasodilation of the cerebral vessels to increase blood flow. The cerebrovascular reactions to changes in blood pressure generates a corresponding effect on the intracranial pressure. When the blood pressure increases and the vessels vasoconstrict, the cerebral blood volume is reduced. According to the Monroi-Kelli-doctrine, less cerebral blood volume leads to a reduction in the intracranial pressure. If the blood pressure instead would <P> the general population has been estimated as <1% on the basis of an ankle brachial pressure index >1.5; however the validity of this criterion is questionable. <P> as inert gas narcosis, and oxygen toxicity. Decompression must be controlled to avoid bubble formation in the tissues and the consequent symptoms of decompression sickness. With a few exceptions, the underwater environment tends to cool the unprotected human body. This heat loss will generally lead to hypothermia eventually. Ambient pressure diving In ambient pressure diving, the diver is directly exposed to the pressure of the surrounding water. The ambient pressure diver may dive on breath-hold, or use breathing apparatus for scuba diving or surface-supplied diving, and the saturation diving technique reduces the risk of decompression sickness (DCS) after long-duration deep dives. <P> well, so the attention of hospital staff may be distracted from the possibility of aortic rupture. In fact most cases occur along with other injuries. A common symptom is unusually high blood pressure in the upper body and very low blood pressure in lower limbs. Another symptom is renal failure where the creatinine level shoots very high and urine output becomes negligible. In most cases, however, the doctors would misinterpret renal failure as due to issues with the kidney itself and may recommend dialysis. Though not completely reliable, chest X-rays are the first-line investigation, initially used to diagnose this condition when the	answer: > I am about .1 m^2 when standing. Maybe .3m^2 when lying down.You're mistaken there. What you need to measure if your body's surface area. The atmosphere presses in on you from every direction, not just from above. And the surface area of your skin doesn't change when you change positions. > I have this much pressure on me at all times, you could argue I don't feel it because its always there.You don't feel it because you are at the same pressure inside your body. So your body is pushing back outward with the same force.
56,280	1b3i3a	Can a Prince Rupert's Drop be made without the long tail?	Molten glass is extremely sticky, and can only ''drip'' off things unless cooled significantly before broken off itself. Very hot (but not quite molten) glass can be quickly submerged, ''tempering'' it to exhibit the strong qualities similar to that in the bulb of the ''Rupert's Drop''	[ "Molten glass is extremely sticky, and can only ''drip'' off things unless cooled significantly before broken off itself. Very hot (but not quite molten) glass can be quickly submerged, ''tempering'' it to exhibit the strong qualities similar to that in the bulb of the ''Rupert's Drop''" ]	1	[]	0	<P> were getting in the ice and on the opposing goaltender. However, it was announced on May 7, 2008, that the NHL would allow Sobotka to twirl the octopuses, provided that he does so only at the Zamboni gate and not on the ice surface. <P> survived by his engineer son, Chadwell O'Connor, an Academy Award winner who designed the O'Connor Fluid-Head camera tripod. <P> the surfacing is too viscous to have been pure liquid water, but too fluid to have been solid water. Rather, it is believed to have been a viscous, lava-like mixture of water and ammonia, which freezes at 176 K (-97 °C), or perhaps ethanol. Miranda's observed hemisphere contains three giant 'racetrack'-like grooved structures called coronae, each at least 200 km (120 mi) wide and up to 20 km (12 mi) deep, named Arden, Elsinore and Inverness after locations in Shakespeare's plays. Inverness is lower in altitude than the surrounding terrain (though domes and ridges are of comparable elevation), while Elsinore is higher, The relative sparsity <P> scene pans out, and it is shown that the hole is the heel print from one of her missing shoes. The video was nominated for Best Female Video for the 2010 Space Shower Music Video Awards. As of April 20, 2010 the music video for "Breaking Hearts" has been viewed 196,000 times at the two official Universal channels on popular video-sharing website YouTube. <P> rock edges the width of a coin, and titanium-spiked feet that assisted him in ascending steep ice walls. He used these prostheses to alter his height to avoid awkward body positions and to grab hand and foot holds previously out of reach. His height could range from five to eight feet. As a result of using the prostheses, Herr climbed at a more advanced level than he had before the accident, making him the first person with a major amputation to perform in a sport on par with elite-level, able-bodied persons. Personal life Hugh Herr has two daughters, Alexandra and <P> side and a rotation of the head. The upper sides of the dome have the greatest surface area, and may have been the point of impact. The thickness of the dome would have increased the power behind a blow to the sides, and this would ensure that the opponent felt the force of the impact, without being seriously injured. The bone rim above the orbit may have protected the aggressor's eye when making a blow. Carpenter suggested that the pachycephalosaurs would have first engaged in threat display by bobbing and presenting their heads to show the size of their domes <P> and donate it to a museum. Wilson's P-38 was the first to land wheels up after the first P-38, piloted by Brad McManus, flipped over when the front gear penetrated the ice on roll out and collapsed. The rest of the squadron successfully landed wheels up. <P> or 21 or the double surface Icaro MastR large size. <P> a hanging loop at the other end, is often used to aid threading of the cord. In the Rosetta project, the European Space Agency equipped its lander with multiple ice screws to obtain stability on comet surface, but they failed to hold, and the lander bounced a significant distance from the initial landing site. <P> of charging him, the judge calmly tells him he cannot do what he did. Back in the circus, the acrobat and the mink are still swinging together. The mink, for some reason, becomes fed up with him, and therefore pushes him off the trapeze. Upon dropping on the safety net, the acrobat gets catapulted for a few miles. In the courthouse, Krazy is still standing around, attending the session. In no time the acrobat, after a long airborne trip, falls through the roof and into the room. Upon getting back up, the acrobat takes a large piece of lumber, and aims to <P> original horizontal shape, it was agreed to extend it onto the back cover (in order to keep the RCMP salute). The photo was also included in a book featuring approx 258 classic photos from the worldwide UPI Newspictures files, titled "Picture This!" by Gary Haynes, Bullfinch Press, 2006. <P> lead to more fractures of the medial wall than the floor, since the medial wall is slightly thinner (0.25 mm vs 0.50 mm). However, it is known that pure blowout fractures most frequently involve the orbital floor. This may be attributed to the honeycomb structure of the numerous bony septa of the ethmoid sinuses, which support the lamina papyracea, thus allowing it to withstand the sudden rise in intraorbital hydraulic pressure better than the orbital floor. In children, the flexibility of the actively developing floor of the orbit fractures in a linear pattern that snaps backward. This is commonly referred to as a <P> showed her living in a large mansion and it is implied that the accident that lead to her cryogenic suspension was due to an accident with an orbital gate. <P> of blunt force trauma she had sustained from a fall during a performance of Kà in Las Vegas, Nevada. She'd been with the company since 2006. It was originally thought that Guyard-Guillot's safety harness had failed her and that was what resulted in her fall but, in actuality, a cable responsible for keeping her in the air had been cut after accidentally being knocked loose by movement during the performance. Reports as to how far Guyard-Guillot fell differ from source to source, with some saying she fell as little as 50 feet and others as much as 94 feet. The <P> on December 20, 1908 with Russian concert pianist Ossip Gabrilowitsch who was staying with her father at his residence "Innocence at Home" in Redding, Connecticut. The horse was frightened by a flapping newspaper and it bolted, causing Gabrilowitsch to lose control. The sleigh overturned at the top of a hill near a 50-foot (15 m) drop, throwing Clemens out. Gabrilowitsch saved both her and the horse from plunging over the edge, spraining an ankle in his exertions. He returned Clemens home unharmed except for the shock of the accident. Twain biographer Michael Shelden doubts the truth of this heroic tale and <P> The national mint also issued 25,000 special commemorative silver coins to mark his birthday. Knut's role at the Berlin Zoo was to have included his becoming an "attractive stud" for other zoos in order to help preserve his species. When Flocke was born at the Nuremberg Zoo in December 2007 under similar circumstances, Bild dubbed her Mrs. Knut, suggesting that the two German-born polar bears might become mates when they matured. 2008–2010 A year after his public debut, Knut was reported as weighing more than 130 kg (286 lb). A plate of six-inch glass, strong enough to resist a mortar blast, was <P> the circus manager paid to have the growth removed, and Piñón returned to Texas. While it is possible for a person to have two heads, the condition craniopagus parasiticus, a form of conjoined twins, sees one head upside-down on top of the other – Piñón's "second head" was oriented like his actual head. The novels Downfall and The Book about Blanche and Marie by Per Olov Enquist feature Piñón, though they portray the story as factual and, in the former book, make the second head female. <P> and bring the balloon down. However the ropes had become tangled and the hooks were too short. L'Estrange's balloon descended rapidly over the rooftops of Woolloomooloo, slamming into a house near the corner of Palmer Street and Robinson Lane. L'Estrange managed to disentangle himself and fell first onto a chimney then a shed 25 feet (7.6 m) below. He scrambled down from the rooftops to a waiting mob, who whisked him away to Robinson's hotel on the William Street corner and would not let him leave. At the crash site, during an attempt to free the balloon, the escaping gas was ignited <P> immediate area. On March 14, 2011, another Disney cast member died after suffering from head trauma while working on A dip on the ride the previous day. <P> that the video would include a "semi-naked man slave." The official video clip premiered on 2 December 2011. The futuristic-themed video features Coulter, wearing a metallic leotard with pointy shoulder pads, channelling a warrior princess. She is accompanied by two fembot dancers and they perform choreographed routines near shiny diamonds and flashing light sabers.	question: Can a Prince Rupert's Drop be made without the long tail? context: <P> were getting in the ice and on the opposing goaltender. However, it was announced on May 7, 2008, that the NHL would allow Sobotka to twirl the octopuses, provided that he does so only at the Zamboni gate and not on the ice surface. <P> survived by his engineer son, Chadwell O'Connor, an Academy Award winner who designed the O'Connor Fluid-Head camera tripod. <P> the surfacing is too viscous to have been pure liquid water, but too fluid to have been solid water. Rather, it is believed to have been a viscous, lava-like mixture of water and ammonia, which freezes at 176 K (-97 °C), or perhaps ethanol. Miranda's observed hemisphere contains three giant 'racetrack'-like grooved structures called coronae, each at least 200 km (120 mi) wide and up to 20 km (12 mi) deep, named Arden, Elsinore and Inverness after locations in Shakespeare's plays. Inverness is lower in altitude than the surrounding terrain (though domes and ridges are of comparable elevation), while Elsinore is higher, The relative sparsity <P> scene pans out, and it is shown that the hole is the heel print from one of her missing shoes. The video was nominated for Best Female Video for the 2010 Space Shower Music Video Awards. As of April 20, 2010 the music video for "Breaking Hearts" has been viewed 196,000 times at the two official Universal channels on popular video-sharing website YouTube. <P> rock edges the width of a coin, and titanium-spiked feet that assisted him in ascending steep ice walls. He used these prostheses to alter his height to avoid awkward body positions and to grab hand and foot holds previously out of reach. His height could range from five to eight feet. As a result of using the prostheses, Herr climbed at a more advanced level than he had before the accident, making him the first person with a major amputation to perform in a sport on par with elite-level, able-bodied persons. Personal life Hugh Herr has two daughters, Alexandra and <P> side and a rotation of the head. The upper sides of the dome have the greatest surface area, and may have been the point of impact. The thickness of the dome would have increased the power behind a blow to the sides, and this would ensure that the opponent felt the force of the impact, without being seriously injured. The bone rim above the orbit may have protected the aggressor's eye when making a blow. Carpenter suggested that the pachycephalosaurs would have first engaged in threat display by bobbing and presenting their heads to show the size of their domes <P> and donate it to a museum. Wilson's P-38 was the first to land wheels up after the first P-38, piloted by Brad McManus, flipped over when the front gear penetrated the ice on roll out and collapsed. The rest of the squadron successfully landed wheels up. <P> or 21 or the double surface Icaro MastR large size. <P> a hanging loop at the other end, is often used to aid threading of the cord. In the Rosetta project, the European Space Agency equipped its lander with multiple ice screws to obtain stability on comet surface, but they failed to hold, and the lander bounced a significant distance from the initial landing site. <P> of charging him, the judge calmly tells him he cannot do what he did. Back in the circus, the acrobat and the mink are still swinging together. The mink, for some reason, becomes fed up with him, and therefore pushes him off the trapeze. Upon dropping on the safety net, the acrobat gets catapulted for a few miles. In the courthouse, Krazy is still standing around, attending the session. In no time the acrobat, after a long airborne trip, falls through the roof and into the room. Upon getting back up, the acrobat takes a large piece of lumber, and aims to <P> original horizontal shape, it was agreed to extend it onto the back cover (in order to keep the RCMP salute). The photo was also included in a book featuring approx 258 classic photos from the worldwide UPI Newspictures files, titled "Picture This!" by Gary Haynes, Bullfinch Press, 2006. <P> lead to more fractures of the medial wall than the floor, since the medial wall is slightly thinner (0.25 mm vs 0.50 mm). However, it is known that pure blowout fractures most frequently involve the orbital floor. This may be attributed to the honeycomb structure of the numerous bony septa of the ethmoid sinuses, which support the lamina papyracea, thus allowing it to withstand the sudden rise in intraorbital hydraulic pressure better than the orbital floor. In children, the flexibility of the actively developing floor of the orbit fractures in a linear pattern that snaps backward. This is commonly referred to as a <P> showed her living in a large mansion and it is implied that the accident that lead to her cryogenic suspension was due to an accident with an orbital gate. <P> of blunt force trauma she had sustained from a fall during a performance of Kà in Las Vegas, Nevada. She'd been with the company since 2006. It was originally thought that Guyard-Guillot's safety harness had failed her and that was what resulted in her fall but, in actuality, a cable responsible for keeping her in the air had been cut after accidentally being knocked loose by movement during the performance. Reports as to how far Guyard-Guillot fell differ from source to source, with some saying she fell as little as 50 feet and others as much as 94 feet. The <P> on December 20, 1908 with Russian concert pianist Ossip Gabrilowitsch who was staying with her father at his residence "Innocence at Home" in Redding, Connecticut. The horse was frightened by a flapping newspaper and it bolted, causing Gabrilowitsch to lose control. The sleigh overturned at the top of a hill near a 50-foot (15 m) drop, throwing Clemens out. Gabrilowitsch saved both her and the horse from plunging over the edge, spraining an ankle in his exertions. He returned Clemens home unharmed except for the shock of the accident. Twain biographer Michael Shelden doubts the truth of this heroic tale and <P> The national mint also issued 25,000 special commemorative silver coins to mark his birthday. Knut's role at the Berlin Zoo was to have included his becoming an "attractive stud" for other zoos in order to help preserve his species. When Flocke was born at the Nuremberg Zoo in December 2007 under similar circumstances, Bild dubbed her Mrs. Knut, suggesting that the two German-born polar bears might become mates when they matured. 2008–2010 A year after his public debut, Knut was reported as weighing more than 130 kg (286 lb). A plate of six-inch glass, strong enough to resist a mortar blast, was <P> the circus manager paid to have the growth removed, and Piñón returned to Texas. While it is possible for a person to have two heads, the condition craniopagus parasiticus, a form of conjoined twins, sees one head upside-down on top of the other – Piñón's "second head" was oriented like his actual head. The novels Downfall and The Book about Blanche and Marie by Per Olov Enquist feature Piñón, though they portray the story as factual and, in the former book, make the second head female. <P> and bring the balloon down. However the ropes had become tangled and the hooks were too short. L'Estrange's balloon descended rapidly over the rooftops of Woolloomooloo, slamming into a house near the corner of Palmer Street and Robinson Lane. L'Estrange managed to disentangle himself and fell first onto a chimney then a shed 25 feet (7.6 m) below. He scrambled down from the rooftops to a waiting mob, who whisked him away to Robinson's hotel on the William Street corner and would not let him leave. At the crash site, during an attempt to free the balloon, the escaping gas was ignited <P> immediate area. On March 14, 2011, another Disney cast member died after suffering from head trauma while working on A dip on the ride the previous day. <P> that the video would include a "semi-naked man slave." The official video clip premiered on 2 December 2011. The futuristic-themed video features Coulter, wearing a metallic leotard with pointy shoulder pads, channelling a warrior princess. She is accompanied by two fembot dancers and they perform choreographed routines near shiny diamonds and flashing light sabers.	answer: Molten glass is extremely sticky, and can only ''drip'' off things unless cooled significantly before broken off itself. Very hot (but not quite molten) glass can be quickly submerged, ''tempering'' it to exhibit the strong qualities similar to that in the bulb of the ''Rupert's Drop''
193,998	1g08um	What percentage of a plant's matter comes from the air?	Water makes up 80%-90% of most plants. The remaining 10-20% is mostly hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Carbon comes almost exclusively from the air in the form of CO2; nitrogen comes exclusively from the soil in the form of nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia. Water comes exclusively from the soil, providing additional hydrogen and oxygen.	[ "Water makes up 80%-90% of most plants. The remaining 10-20% is mostly hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Carbon comes almost exclusively from the air in the form of CO2; nitrogen comes exclusively from the soil in the form of nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia. Water comes exclusively from the soil, providing ad...	1	[]	0	<P> the bagasse is 19.2 MJ/kg, the total heating value of a ton of b&c is 4.7 GJ of which 2.2 GJ come from the sucrose and 2.5 from the bagasse. Per hectare per year, the biomass produced corresponds to 0.27 TJ. This is equivalent to 0.86 W per square meter. Assuming an average insolation of 225 W per square meter, the photosynthetic efficiency of sugar cane is 0.38%. The 135 kg of sucrose found in 1 ton of b&c are transformed into 70 litres of ethanol with a combustion energy of 1.7 GJ. The practical sucrose-ethanol conversion efficiency is, therefore, 76% (compare <P> balance of 120 GtC/yr contracted from the atmosphere by terrestrial plant photosynthesis reduced by 60 GtC/yr of plant respiration. An equivalent 60 GtC/yr is respired from soil, joining the 60G tC/yr plant respiration to return to the atmosphere. Organic carbon Soil organic carbon is divided between living soil biota and dead biotic material derived from biomass. Together these comprise the soil food web, with the living component sustained by the biotic material component. Soil biota includes earthworms, nematodes, protozoa, fungi, bacteria and different arthropods. Detritus resulting from plant senescence is the major source of soil organic carbon. Plant materials, with <P> efficiencies of ~8%. Ethanol fuel in Brazil has a calculation that results in: "Per hectare per year, the biomass produced corresponds to 0.27 TJ. This is equivalent to 0.86 W/m². Assuming an average insolation of 225 W/m², the photosynthetic efficiency of sugar cane is 0.38%." Sucrose accounts for little more than 30% of the chemical energy stored in the mature plant; 35% is in the leaves and stem tips, which are left in the fields during harvest, and 35% are in the fibrous material (bagasse) left over from pressing. C3 vs. C4 and CAM plants C3 plants use the Calvin cycle <P> essential sugars that the mycorrhizae require can only be provided by the plant; they cannot be extracted directly from the soils. The effects CO₂ has on the environment are detrimental in the long run as it is a vital contributor to the problem of greenhouse gases and loss of territory in which plants and their respective mycorrhizae grow. Biogeographic movement of plants and mycorrhizae "Fungi may appear to have limited geographical distributions, but dispersal per se plays no role in determining such distributions." The limitations of animals and plants is different from that of fungi. Fungi tend to grow where <P> their interactions. While temperature may play a key role in fungal and plant growth, there is equally as much dependence on the amount of CO₂ that is absorbed. The amount of CO₂ within the soil is different from the amount that is in the air; the presence of this CO₂ is a vital part of many plant cycles (such as photosynthesis) and due to the properties of plant-fungus symbiosis taking place in roots, mycorrhizae are affected as well. When plants are exposed to higher levels of CO₂, they tend to take advantage of it and grow faster. This also increases the <P> components (aliphatic acids, alcohols, proteins and inorganic substances) in a smaller amount. The most important composition of the plant is the cellulose. The cellulose accounts the majority of the cell from 40% to 50% of the wood's total mass. Hemicellulose represents the second most important carbohydrate with accounts 20% to 30% of the wood's cell. Conservation Wood recovered from a marine environment is referred to archaeological waterlogged wood. Waterlogged wood is defined as wood that does not contain or contains a small amount of air within its cells (capillaries and micro-capillaries). Archaeological Waterlogged normally looks well preserved; however, <P> in moderate volumes (for example the separation of chiral molecules). <P> variety of thicknesses, such as a low density form (LDPE) as well as a linear low density form (LLDPE). These can be modified by addition of certain elements to the plastic that give it properties beneficial to plant growth such as reduced water loss, UV stabilization to cool soil and prevent insects, elimination of photosynthetically active radiation to prevent weed growth, IR opacity, antidrip/antifog, and fluorescence. Greenhouses and walk-in tunnel covers A greenhouse is a large structure in which it is possible to stand and work with automated ventilation. High tunnels are hoop houses, manually ventilated by rolling up the <P> that is identical throughout a system at equilibrium. 1000 atoms a gas occupy the same space as any other 1000 atoms for any given temperature and pressure. This concept is easier to visualize for solids such as iron which are incompressible compared to gases. Since a gas fills any container in which it is placed, volume is an extensive property. Density The symbol used to represent density in equations is ρ (rho) with SI units of kilograms per cubic meter. This term is the reciprocal of specific volume. Since gas molecules can move freely within a container, their mass is <P> generally less than 0.4 ng/L, although, a few wells at the nursery operation showed quantifiable but low levels." Heavy metals Manure contains trace elements of many heavy metals such as arsenic, copper, selenium, zinc, cadmium, molybdenum, nickel, lead, iron, manganese, aluminum and boron. Sometimes these metals are given to animals as growth stimulants, some are introduced through pesticides used to rid livestock of insects, and some might pass through the animals as undigested food. Trace elements of these metals and salts from animal manure present risks to human health and ecosystems. Further research Some research has been done to develop <P> the mountain pine beetle in British Columbia; the aspen-leaf miner; the larch sawfly; the spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana); the spruce coneworm. Pollution The effect of sulphur dioxide on woody boreal forest species was investigated by Addison et al. (1984), who exposed plants growing on native soils and tailings to 15.2 μmol/m³ (0.34 ppm) of SO₂ on CO₂ assimilation rate (NAR). The Canadian maximum acceptable limit for atmospheric SO₂ is 0.34 ppm. Fumigation with SO₂ significantly reduced NAR in all species and produced visible symptoms of injury in 2–20 days. The decrease in NAR of deciduous species (trembling aspen [Populus tremuloides], <P> harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time when people began burning wood fuel. Even in 2019, biomass is the only source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries. All biomass is biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The estimated biomass production in the world is approximately 100 billion metric tons of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land. Wood and residues from wood, for instance spruce, birch, eucalyptus, willow, oil palm, remains the largest biomass energy source today. It is used directly as a fuel or processed into pellet fuel or other forms <P> carbon. Of the 2,700 Gt of carbon stored in soils worldwide, 1550 GtC is organic and 950 GtC is inorganic carbon, which is approximately three times greater than the current atmospheric carbon and 240 times higher compared with the current annual fossil fuel emission. The balance of soil carbon is held in peat and wetlands (150 GtC), and in plant litter at the soil surface (50 GtC). This compares to 780 GtC in the atmosphere, and 600 GtC in all living organisms. The oceanic pool accounts for 38,200 GtC. About 60 GtC/yr accumulates in the soil. This 60 GtC/yr is the <P> of fuels. Biomass also includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fuel, fibers or industrial chemicals. There are numerous types of plants, including corn, switchgrass, miscanthus, hemp, sorghum, sugarcane, and bamboo. The main waste energy feedstocks are wood waste, agricultural waste, municipal solid waste, manufacturing waste, and landfill gas. Sewage sludge is another source of biomass. There is ongoing research involving algae or algae-derived biomass. Other biomass feedstocks are enzymes or bacteria from various sources, grown in cell cultures or hydroponics. Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories: First-generation biofuels are derived <P> produce an average of three kilograms of biomass per square metre (25 tons per acre) once established. The energy density of the biomass produced is 17 MJ/Kg regardless of fertilizer usage. Outside its native range, this needs to be balanced against its major invasive potential. Studies in the European Union have identified A. donax as the most productive and lowest impact of all energy biomass crops (see FAIR REPORT E.U. 2004). Arundo donax's ability to grow for 20 to 25 years without replanting is also significant. In the UK it is considered suitable for planting in and around water areas. Arundo donax grown in <P> individual atoms (including their isotopes) that are present in the sample. This quantity can vary substantially between samples because the sample's origin (and therefore its radioactive history or diffusion history) may have produced unique combinations of isotopic abundances. For example, due to a different mixture of stable carbon-12 and carbon-13 isotopes, a sample of elemental carbon from volcanic methane will have a different relative atomic mass than one collected from plant or animal tissues. The more common, and more specific quantity known as standard atomic weight (Ar, standard) is an application of the relative atomic mass values obtained from multiple different <P> Pilot plant Terminology A word similar to pilot plant is pilot line. Essentially, pilot plants and pilot lines perform the same functions, but 'pilot plant' is used in the context of (bio)chemical and advanced materials production systems, whereas 'pilot line' is used for new technology in general. Scale dependence of plant properties As a system increases in size, system properties that depend on quantity of matter (with extensive properties) may change. The surface area to liquid ratio in a chemical plant is a good example of such a property. On a small chemical scale, in a flask, say, there is <P> supports germination and a colonial growth of up to 3 mm in diameter. This species fails to grow at 37 °C. On Creatine Sucrose Agar at 25 °C, colony size diameter ranges from 4 to 10 mm. Growth is restricted and medium pH remains around 7. No change on the back of the plate is noted. Growth on media containing orange fruit pieces for seven days at room temperature results in fruit decay accompanied by a characteristic odour. After 14 days at room temperature, the reverse is colourless to light brown. Ecology Penicillium digitatum is found in the soil of areas cultivating citrus fruit, <P> used as fertilizer. For example horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, chickens, turkeys, rabbits, and guano from seabirds and bats all have different properties. For instance, sheep manure is high in nitrogen and potash, while pig manure is relatively low in both. Horses mainly eat grass and a few weeds so horse manure can contain grass and weed seeds, as horses do not digest seeds the way that cattle do. Cattle manure is a good source of nitrogen as well as organic carbon.Chicken litter, coming from a bird, is very concentrated in nitrogen and phosphate and is prized for both properties. Animal manures <P> not taken into account here. For example, plants use water as electron donor to biosynthesis, being lithotrophs. Animals use organic compounds as electron donors to synthesize ATP, being organotrophs (plants also do it, but this is not taken into account). Both use oxygen in respiration as electron acceptor, but this character is not used to define them as lithotrophs. Primary sources of carbon Heterotrophs: Organic compounds are metabolized to get carbon for growth and development. Autotrophs: Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is used as source of carbon. Mixotrophs Some, usually unicellular, organisms can switch between different metabolic modes, for example between photoautotrophy, photoheterotrophy, and	question: What percentage of a plant's matter comes from the air? context: <P> the bagasse is 19.2 MJ/kg, the total heating value of a ton of b&c is 4.7 GJ of which 2.2 GJ come from the sucrose and 2.5 from the bagasse. Per hectare per year, the biomass produced corresponds to 0.27 TJ. This is equivalent to 0.86 W per square meter. Assuming an average insolation of 225 W per square meter, the photosynthetic efficiency of sugar cane is 0.38%. The 135 kg of sucrose found in 1 ton of b&c are transformed into 70 litres of ethanol with a combustion energy of 1.7 GJ. The practical sucrose-ethanol conversion efficiency is, therefore, 76% (compare <P> balance of 120 GtC/yr contracted from the atmosphere by terrestrial plant photosynthesis reduced by 60 GtC/yr of plant respiration. An equivalent 60 GtC/yr is respired from soil, joining the 60G tC/yr plant respiration to return to the atmosphere. Organic carbon Soil organic carbon is divided between living soil biota and dead biotic material derived from biomass. Together these comprise the soil food web, with the living component sustained by the biotic material component. Soil biota includes earthworms, nematodes, protozoa, fungi, bacteria and different arthropods. Detritus resulting from plant senescence is the major source of soil organic carbon. Plant materials, with <P> efficiencies of ~8%. Ethanol fuel in Brazil has a calculation that results in: "Per hectare per year, the biomass produced corresponds to 0.27 TJ. This is equivalent to 0.86 W/m². Assuming an average insolation of 225 W/m², the photosynthetic efficiency of sugar cane is 0.38%." Sucrose accounts for little more than 30% of the chemical energy stored in the mature plant; 35% is in the leaves and stem tips, which are left in the fields during harvest, and 35% are in the fibrous material (bagasse) left over from pressing. C3 vs. C4 and CAM plants C3 plants use the Calvin cycle <P> essential sugars that the mycorrhizae require can only be provided by the plant; they cannot be extracted directly from the soils. The effects CO₂ has on the environment are detrimental in the long run as it is a vital contributor to the problem of greenhouse gases and loss of territory in which plants and their respective mycorrhizae grow. Biogeographic movement of plants and mycorrhizae "Fungi may appear to have limited geographical distributions, but dispersal per se plays no role in determining such distributions." The limitations of animals and plants is different from that of fungi. Fungi tend to grow where <P> their interactions. While temperature may play a key role in fungal and plant growth, there is equally as much dependence on the amount of CO₂ that is absorbed. The amount of CO₂ within the soil is different from the amount that is in the air; the presence of this CO₂ is a vital part of many plant cycles (such as photosynthesis) and due to the properties of plant-fungus symbiosis taking place in roots, mycorrhizae are affected as well. When plants are exposed to higher levels of CO₂, they tend to take advantage of it and grow faster. This also increases the <P> components (aliphatic acids, alcohols, proteins and inorganic substances) in a smaller amount. The most important composition of the plant is the cellulose. The cellulose accounts the majority of the cell from 40% to 50% of the wood's total mass. Hemicellulose represents the second most important carbohydrate with accounts 20% to 30% of the wood's cell. Conservation Wood recovered from a marine environment is referred to archaeological waterlogged wood. Waterlogged wood is defined as wood that does not contain or contains a small amount of air within its cells (capillaries and micro-capillaries). Archaeological Waterlogged normally looks well preserved; however, <P> in moderate volumes (for example the separation of chiral molecules). <P> variety of thicknesses, such as a low density form (LDPE) as well as a linear low density form (LLDPE). These can be modified by addition of certain elements to the plastic that give it properties beneficial to plant growth such as reduced water loss, UV stabilization to cool soil and prevent insects, elimination of photosynthetically active radiation to prevent weed growth, IR opacity, antidrip/antifog, and fluorescence. Greenhouses and walk-in tunnel covers A greenhouse is a large structure in which it is possible to stand and work with automated ventilation. High tunnels are hoop houses, manually ventilated by rolling up the <P> that is identical throughout a system at equilibrium. 1000 atoms a gas occupy the same space as any other 1000 atoms for any given temperature and pressure. This concept is easier to visualize for solids such as iron which are incompressible compared to gases. Since a gas fills any container in which it is placed, volume is an extensive property. Density The symbol used to represent density in equations is ρ (rho) with SI units of kilograms per cubic meter. This term is the reciprocal of specific volume. Since gas molecules can move freely within a container, their mass is <P> generally less than 0.4 ng/L, although, a few wells at the nursery operation showed quantifiable but low levels." Heavy metals Manure contains trace elements of many heavy metals such as arsenic, copper, selenium, zinc, cadmium, molybdenum, nickel, lead, iron, manganese, aluminum and boron. Sometimes these metals are given to animals as growth stimulants, some are introduced through pesticides used to rid livestock of insects, and some might pass through the animals as undigested food. Trace elements of these metals and salts from animal manure present risks to human health and ecosystems. Further research Some research has been done to develop <P> the mountain pine beetle in British Columbia; the aspen-leaf miner; the larch sawfly; the spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana); the spruce coneworm. Pollution The effect of sulphur dioxide on woody boreal forest species was investigated by Addison et al. (1984), who exposed plants growing on native soils and tailings to 15.2 μmol/m³ (0.34 ppm) of SO₂ on CO₂ assimilation rate (NAR). The Canadian maximum acceptable limit for atmospheric SO₂ is 0.34 ppm. Fumigation with SO₂ significantly reduced NAR in all species and produced visible symptoms of injury in 2–20 days. The decrease in NAR of deciduous species (trembling aspen [Populus tremuloides], <P> harnessed biomass-derived energy since the time when people began burning wood fuel. Even in 2019, biomass is the only source of fuel for domestic use in many developing countries. All biomass is biologically-produced matter based in carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The estimated biomass production in the world is approximately 100 billion metric tons of carbon per year, about half in the ocean and half on land. Wood and residues from wood, for instance spruce, birch, eucalyptus, willow, oil palm, remains the largest biomass energy source today. It is used directly as a fuel or processed into pellet fuel or other forms <P> carbon. Of the 2,700 Gt of carbon stored in soils worldwide, 1550 GtC is organic and 950 GtC is inorganic carbon, which is approximately three times greater than the current atmospheric carbon and 240 times higher compared with the current annual fossil fuel emission. The balance of soil carbon is held in peat and wetlands (150 GtC), and in plant litter at the soil surface (50 GtC). This compares to 780 GtC in the atmosphere, and 600 GtC in all living organisms. The oceanic pool accounts for 38,200 GtC. About 60 GtC/yr accumulates in the soil. This 60 GtC/yr is the <P> of fuels. Biomass also includes plant or animal matter that can be converted into fuel, fibers or industrial chemicals. There are numerous types of plants, including corn, switchgrass, miscanthus, hemp, sorghum, sugarcane, and bamboo. The main waste energy feedstocks are wood waste, agricultural waste, municipal solid waste, manufacturing waste, and landfill gas. Sewage sludge is another source of biomass. There is ongoing research involving algae or algae-derived biomass. Other biomass feedstocks are enzymes or bacteria from various sources, grown in cell cultures or hydroponics. Based on the source of biomass, biofuels are classified broadly into two major categories: First-generation biofuels are derived <P> produce an average of three kilograms of biomass per square metre (25 tons per acre) once established. The energy density of the biomass produced is 17 MJ/Kg regardless of fertilizer usage. Outside its native range, this needs to be balanced against its major invasive potential. Studies in the European Union have identified A. donax as the most productive and lowest impact of all energy biomass crops (see FAIR REPORT E.U. 2004). Arundo donax's ability to grow for 20 to 25 years without replanting is also significant. In the UK it is considered suitable for planting in and around water areas. Arundo donax grown in <P> individual atoms (including their isotopes) that are present in the sample. This quantity can vary substantially between samples because the sample's origin (and therefore its radioactive history or diffusion history) may have produced unique combinations of isotopic abundances. For example, due to a different mixture of stable carbon-12 and carbon-13 isotopes, a sample of elemental carbon from volcanic methane will have a different relative atomic mass than one collected from plant or animal tissues. The more common, and more specific quantity known as standard atomic weight (Ar, standard) is an application of the relative atomic mass values obtained from multiple different <P> Pilot plant Terminology A word similar to pilot plant is pilot line. Essentially, pilot plants and pilot lines perform the same functions, but 'pilot plant' is used in the context of (bio)chemical and advanced materials production systems, whereas 'pilot line' is used for new technology in general. Scale dependence of plant properties As a system increases in size, system properties that depend on quantity of matter (with extensive properties) may change. The surface area to liquid ratio in a chemical plant is a good example of such a property. On a small chemical scale, in a flask, say, there is <P> supports germination and a colonial growth of up to 3 mm in diameter. This species fails to grow at 37 °C. On Creatine Sucrose Agar at 25 °C, colony size diameter ranges from 4 to 10 mm. Growth is restricted and medium pH remains around 7. No change on the back of the plate is noted. Growth on media containing orange fruit pieces for seven days at room temperature results in fruit decay accompanied by a characteristic odour. After 14 days at room temperature, the reverse is colourless to light brown. Ecology Penicillium digitatum is found in the soil of areas cultivating citrus fruit, <P> used as fertilizer. For example horses, cattle, pigs, sheep, chickens, turkeys, rabbits, and guano from seabirds and bats all have different properties. For instance, sheep manure is high in nitrogen and potash, while pig manure is relatively low in both. Horses mainly eat grass and a few weeds so horse manure can contain grass and weed seeds, as horses do not digest seeds the way that cattle do. Cattle manure is a good source of nitrogen as well as organic carbon.Chicken litter, coming from a bird, is very concentrated in nitrogen and phosphate and is prized for both properties. Animal manures <P> not taken into account here. For example, plants use water as electron donor to biosynthesis, being lithotrophs. Animals use organic compounds as electron donors to synthesize ATP, being organotrophs (plants also do it, but this is not taken into account). Both use oxygen in respiration as electron acceptor, but this character is not used to define them as lithotrophs. Primary sources of carbon Heterotrophs: Organic compounds are metabolized to get carbon for growth and development. Autotrophs: Carbon dioxide (CO₂) is used as source of carbon. Mixotrophs Some, usually unicellular, organisms can switch between different metabolic modes, for example between photoautotrophy, photoheterotrophy, and	answer: Water makes up 80%-90% of most plants. The remaining 10-20% is mostly hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and nitrogen. Carbon comes almost exclusively from the air in the form of CO2; nitrogen comes exclusively from the soil in the form of nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia. Water comes exclusively from the soil, providing additional hydrogen and oxygen.
122,650	azbn52	why is it that a person with cold hands hands feel colder than the ambient temperature of the room. or even colder than an inanimate object in the room.	Humans are very bad at feeling temperature. Our nerves and brain cannot easily perceive absolute temperature like a thermometer does. We feel temperature by how quickly the receptors in our skin heat up or cool down. That is related to the material and the difference in temperature between it and your hand. You can see an example of this by holding a plastic fork and a metal fork that has been sitting out for a couple hours. The metal fork will feel colder even though they are the same temperature. This is because the metal can transfer heat out of your skin much, much faster than the plastic fork can. This is the same reason why objects feel cold and the air may not. Air is an insulator and doesn't transfer heat very well when it is still.So why do their hands feel cold? They are mostly water, which transfers heat pretty quickly compared to other objects in the room. There is also a mental part where your brain doesn't expect it to be that cold so they may feel colder than they would otherwise.	[ "Humans are very bad at feeling temperature. Our nerves and brain cannot easily perceive absolute temperature like a thermometer does. We feel temperature by how quickly the receptors in our skin heat up or cool down. That is related to the material and the difference in temperature between it and your hand. \n\nYo...	4	[ "Humans are very bad at feeling temperature. Our nerves and brain cannot easily perceive absolute temperature like a thermometer does. We feel temperature by how quickly the receptors in our skin heat up or cool down. That is related to the material and the difference in temperature between it and your hand. \n\nYo...	3	<P> He did it using own palm. A flat of the hand could safely withstand the temperature 70 degrees. And if the temperature is higher, then it begins to burn... Then I did not know all subtleties, but I felt that I encountered the situation. This bearing was dangerous to catch by hand, but here it was necessary to touch by the lips. I took the position. All engine valetry surrounded me, the second engineer was closest and indicate the direction me by the mug to the crank bearing in front of me. I thought: "How long will I fit in? This <P> in the bar for 20 minutes because of the cold. <P> Golgi tendon organs) provide information about joint position and muscle movement. Although much of this information is processed at an unconscious level (primarily by the cerebellum and the vestibular nuclei), some is available at a conscious level. Touch-position and pain-temperature sensations are processed by different pathways in the central nervous system. This hard-wired distinction is maintained up to the cerebral cortex. Within the cerebral cortex, sensations are linked with other cortical areas. Sensory pathways Sensory pathways from the periphery to the cortex are separate for touch-position and pain-temperature sensations. All sensory information is sent to specific nuclei in the thalamus. Thalamic <P> Buddies Thicker Than Water Plot On a snowy night in New York City, Jerry is comfortably asleep inside a penthouse. Tom, meanwhile, is freezing in the alley below after being evicted by his owner. He writes a note asking for help, slips it into a bottle, and throws it up to the penthouse window. Jerry, awakened by the noise, goes out to the balcony and finds the note. Alarmed, he rushes outside, going down to the first floor of the elevator, and rescues a frozen Tom. He then brings him inside to the higher floor, and after thawing him out <P> as high grip force, cold hands or vibration forces in shear direction can have a reducing effect and or increase damage to the hands and arms. Gloves do help to keep hands warm but to get the desired effect, the frequency output from the tool must match the properties of the vibration glove that is selected. Anti-vibration gloves in many cases amplify the vibrations at frequencies lower than those mentioned in the text above. Reactive monitoring A simpler system, known as re-active monitoring, may be used by, for example, monitoring rates of usage of consumable items. Such a system <P> naked in snow. This can be either freely or tied up. Where a subject is tied it may be in a stretched or splayed out position to expose as much of the body to the extreme condition. A variant of cold exposure is to water down a subject with cold water in cold or windy conditions or employing fans. The risks of cold exposure are hypothermia and frostbite. Common methods of heat torture are to wrap a subject in plastic wrap, blankets, or leather or pvc bodysuits, usually with their legs together and their arms next to their body. Other methods <P> Temperature play Temperature play in general Substances can include water, oil, molten wax, ice, chocolate syrup, whipped cream, melted butter, chilled fresh fruit and steamed vegetables. Objects can include cutlery, ball chains, necklaces and many others, often pre-heated in hot water or chilled in ice water. Space heaters, radiators, and other sources of heat can also be used for stimulating sensory arousal with heat. Blindfolds are often used to intensify the effects, and bondage can also amplify the experience. General scenarios are placing the person in a situation where they are exposed to heat and cold conditions more directly. Safety precautions should be used <P> heat. <P> Heat. <P> unscientific and that he had been duped by tricks of Carrière. In the Schrenck-Notzing experiments with Carrière the scientific controls were scarce and there was evidence that she had freed her hands in the séance room. Harry Price wrote the photographs of her ectoplasm taken with Schrenck-Notzing look artificial and two-dimensional made from cardboard and newspaper portraits and that there were no scientific controls as both her hands were free. In 1920 Carrière was investigated by the Society for Psychical Research in London. An analysis of her ectoplasm revealed it to be made of chewed paper. She was also investigated <P> exposed position. <P> Extensor digitorum reflex The Extensor digitorum reflex is tested as part of the neurological examination to assess the sensory and motor pathways within the C6 and C7 spinal nerves. It is also known as Braunecker-Effenberg reflex, or BER. Testing The test is performed by tapping the extensor digitorum muscle while the fingers are light or half flexed. A sudden contraction of the musculus extensor digitorum and extension of the fingers indicate a normal reflex. Absence of reflex An absence of reflex can be an indicator for radiculopathy within the C6 and C7 or neuropathy within the deep branch of the <P> cold, Alex reaches over Marissa to pull a blanket over them. As she leans over and pulls back, they share a glance at one another, and it is something Marissa has never experienced before. Alex and Marissa become very close over the next while, and when Alex's ex-girlfriend will not let her leave her house, Marissa gets her out of it by saying that she and Alex are dating. The next day, Alex then questions why they hang out so much, which ended up hurting Marissa's feelings. Later on, though, at The Bait Shop, Alex is listening to Rachael Yamagata <P> of Cold Response 16. <P> office now, the desk and filing-case and a proof of a Lady Lilith color ad with Diane lying backward on a couch, head thrown back, breasts pointed upward like small hills. I feel, rather than smell, the arid, air-conditioned atmosphere, and I tense my right hand as if the letter-opener were still cutting a ridge across my palm. I was sick, I was desperate, I was afraid. I hid my face in my hands, my forehead against the wood of my desk. — Laura, Part 4, Chapter II. <P> the hands of Macduff. <P> hygiene rules in hospitals, Mark Sklansky, a doctor at UCLA hospital, decided to test "a handshake-free zone" as a method for limiting the spread of germs and reducing the transmission of disease. However, UCLA did not allow the ban of the handshakes outright, but they rather suggested other options like fist bumping, smiling, bowing, waving, and non-contact Namaste gestures. Chemosignaling It has been discovered as a part of a research in the Weizmann Institute, that human handshakes serve as a means of transferring social chemical signals between the shakers. It appears that there is a tendency to bring the <P> trigeminal, the principal sensory and the mesencephalic nuclei. The parts of the trigeminal nucleus receive different types of sensory information; the spinal trigeminal nucleus receives pain-temperature fibers, the principal sensory nucleus receives touch-position fibers and the mesencephalic nucleus receives proprioceptor and mechanoreceptor fibers from the jaws and teeth. Spinal trigeminal nucleus The spinal trigeminal nucleus represents pain-temperature sensation from the face. Pain-temperature fibers from peripheral nociceptors are carried in cranial nerves V, VII, IX and X. On entering the brainstem, sensory fibers are grouped and sent to the spinal trigeminal nucleus. This bundle of incoming fibers can be identified in <P> heat pain and that it is only the inhibition of the cold pain "channel" that reveals the heat component. In an fMRI experiment of the illusion, researchers recently observed an activation of the thalamus not seen for control stimuli. Also, activity in a portion of the right mid/anterior insula correlated with the perceived unpleasantness of the illusion. <P> the anterior and posterior trigeminothalamic tracts). Pain-temperature information from the body is carried to the thalamus by the spinothalamic tract, and from the face by the anterior division of the trigeminal lemniscus (also called the anterior trigeminothalamic tract). Pathways for touch-position and pain-temperature sensations from the face and body merge in the brainstem, and touch-position and pain-temperature sensory maps of the entire body are projected onto the thalamus. From the thalamus, touch-position and pain-temperature information is projected onto the cerebral cortex. Summary The complex processing of pain-temperature information in the thalamus and cerebral cortex (as opposed to the relatively simple, straightforward	question: why is it that a person with cold hands hands feel colder than the ambient temperature of the room. or even colder than an inanimate object in the room. context: <P> He did it using own palm. A flat of the hand could safely withstand the temperature 70 degrees. And if the temperature is higher, then it begins to burn... Then I did not know all subtleties, but I felt that I encountered the situation. This bearing was dangerous to catch by hand, but here it was necessary to touch by the lips. I took the position. All engine valetry surrounded me, the second engineer was closest and indicate the direction me by the mug to the crank bearing in front of me. I thought: "How long will I fit in? This <P> in the bar for 20 minutes because of the cold. <P> Golgi tendon organs) provide information about joint position and muscle movement. Although much of this information is processed at an unconscious level (primarily by the cerebellum and the vestibular nuclei), some is available at a conscious level. Touch-position and pain-temperature sensations are processed by different pathways in the central nervous system. This hard-wired distinction is maintained up to the cerebral cortex. Within the cerebral cortex, sensations are linked with other cortical areas. Sensory pathways Sensory pathways from the periphery to the cortex are separate for touch-position and pain-temperature sensations. All sensory information is sent to specific nuclei in the thalamus. Thalamic <P> Buddies Thicker Than Water Plot On a snowy night in New York City, Jerry is comfortably asleep inside a penthouse. Tom, meanwhile, is freezing in the alley below after being evicted by his owner. He writes a note asking for help, slips it into a bottle, and throws it up to the penthouse window. Jerry, awakened by the noise, goes out to the balcony and finds the note. Alarmed, he rushes outside, going down to the first floor of the elevator, and rescues a frozen Tom. He then brings him inside to the higher floor, and after thawing him out <P> as high grip force, cold hands or vibration forces in shear direction can have a reducing effect and or increase damage to the hands and arms. Gloves do help to keep hands warm but to get the desired effect, the frequency output from the tool must match the properties of the vibration glove that is selected. Anti-vibration gloves in many cases amplify the vibrations at frequencies lower than those mentioned in the text above. Reactive monitoring A simpler system, known as re-active monitoring, may be used by, for example, monitoring rates of usage of consumable items. Such a system <P> naked in snow. This can be either freely or tied up. Where a subject is tied it may be in a stretched or splayed out position to expose as much of the body to the extreme condition. A variant of cold exposure is to water down a subject with cold water in cold or windy conditions or employing fans. The risks of cold exposure are hypothermia and frostbite. Common methods of heat torture are to wrap a subject in plastic wrap, blankets, or leather or pvc bodysuits, usually with their legs together and their arms next to their body. Other methods <P> Temperature play Temperature play in general Substances can include water, oil, molten wax, ice, chocolate syrup, whipped cream, melted butter, chilled fresh fruit and steamed vegetables. Objects can include cutlery, ball chains, necklaces and many others, often pre-heated in hot water or chilled in ice water. Space heaters, radiators, and other sources of heat can also be used for stimulating sensory arousal with heat. Blindfolds are often used to intensify the effects, and bondage can also amplify the experience. General scenarios are placing the person in a situation where they are exposed to heat and cold conditions more directly. Safety precautions should be used <P> heat. <P> Heat. <P> unscientific and that he had been duped by tricks of Carrière. In the Schrenck-Notzing experiments with Carrière the scientific controls were scarce and there was evidence that she had freed her hands in the séance room. Harry Price wrote the photographs of her ectoplasm taken with Schrenck-Notzing look artificial and two-dimensional made from cardboard and newspaper portraits and that there were no scientific controls as both her hands were free. In 1920 Carrière was investigated by the Society for Psychical Research in London. An analysis of her ectoplasm revealed it to be made of chewed paper. She was also investigated <P> exposed position. <P> Extensor digitorum reflex The Extensor digitorum reflex is tested as part of the neurological examination to assess the sensory and motor pathways within the C6 and C7 spinal nerves. It is also known as Braunecker-Effenberg reflex, or BER. Testing The test is performed by tapping the extensor digitorum muscle while the fingers are light or half flexed. A sudden contraction of the musculus extensor digitorum and extension of the fingers indicate a normal reflex. Absence of reflex An absence of reflex can be an indicator for radiculopathy within the C6 and C7 or neuropathy within the deep branch of the <P> cold, Alex reaches over Marissa to pull a blanket over them. As she leans over and pulls back, they share a glance at one another, and it is something Marissa has never experienced before. Alex and Marissa become very close over the next while, and when Alex's ex-girlfriend will not let her leave her house, Marissa gets her out of it by saying that she and Alex are dating. The next day, Alex then questions why they hang out so much, which ended up hurting Marissa's feelings. Later on, though, at The Bait Shop, Alex is listening to Rachael Yamagata <P> of Cold Response 16. <P> office now, the desk and filing-case and a proof of a Lady Lilith color ad with Diane lying backward on a couch, head thrown back, breasts pointed upward like small hills. I feel, rather than smell, the arid, air-conditioned atmosphere, and I tense my right hand as if the letter-opener were still cutting a ridge across my palm. I was sick, I was desperate, I was afraid. I hid my face in my hands, my forehead against the wood of my desk. — Laura, Part 4, Chapter II. <P> the hands of Macduff. <P> hygiene rules in hospitals, Mark Sklansky, a doctor at UCLA hospital, decided to test "a handshake-free zone" as a method for limiting the spread of germs and reducing the transmission of disease. However, UCLA did not allow the ban of the handshakes outright, but they rather suggested other options like fist bumping, smiling, bowing, waving, and non-contact Namaste gestures. Chemosignaling It has been discovered as a part of a research in the Weizmann Institute, that human handshakes serve as a means of transferring social chemical signals between the shakers. It appears that there is a tendency to bring the <P> trigeminal, the principal sensory and the mesencephalic nuclei. The parts of the trigeminal nucleus receive different types of sensory information; the spinal trigeminal nucleus receives pain-temperature fibers, the principal sensory nucleus receives touch-position fibers and the mesencephalic nucleus receives proprioceptor and mechanoreceptor fibers from the jaws and teeth. Spinal trigeminal nucleus The spinal trigeminal nucleus represents pain-temperature sensation from the face. Pain-temperature fibers from peripheral nociceptors are carried in cranial nerves V, VII, IX and X. On entering the brainstem, sensory fibers are grouped and sent to the spinal trigeminal nucleus. This bundle of incoming fibers can be identified in <P> heat pain and that it is only the inhibition of the cold pain "channel" that reveals the heat component. In an fMRI experiment of the illusion, researchers recently observed an activation of the thalamus not seen for control stimuli. Also, activity in a portion of the right mid/anterior insula correlated with the perceived unpleasantness of the illusion. <P> the anterior and posterior trigeminothalamic tracts). Pain-temperature information from the body is carried to the thalamus by the spinothalamic tract, and from the face by the anterior division of the trigeminal lemniscus (also called the anterior trigeminothalamic tract). Pathways for touch-position and pain-temperature sensations from the face and body merge in the brainstem, and touch-position and pain-temperature sensory maps of the entire body are projected onto the thalamus. From the thalamus, touch-position and pain-temperature information is projected onto the cerebral cortex. Summary The complex processing of pain-temperature information in the thalamus and cerebral cortex (as opposed to the relatively simple, straightforward	answer: Humans are very bad at feeling temperature. Our nerves and brain cannot easily perceive absolute temperature like a thermometer does. We feel temperature by how quickly the receptors in our skin heat up or cool down. That is related to the material and the difference in temperature between it and your hand. You can see an example of this by holding a plastic fork and a metal fork that has been sitting out for a couple hours. The metal fork will feel colder even though they are the same temperature. This is because the metal can transfer heat out of your skin much, much faster than the plastic fork can. This is the same reason why objects feel cold and the air may not. Air is an insulator and doesn't transfer heat very well when it is still.So why do their hands feel cold? They are mostly water, which transfers heat pretty quickly compared to other objects in the room. There is also a mental part where your brain doesn't expect it to be that cold so they may feel colder than they would otherwise.
51,826	a6uv8z	[Engineering] On submarines with diesel engines, when the sub is submerged, where does the exhaust go?	Not an expert but I believe they're diesel/electric, the diesel engine is used on the surface or at periscope depth (think snorkel) to charge batteries for the electric motor. When they dive the diesel is turned off and they run on electric	[ "Not an expert but I believe they're diesel/electric, the diesel engine is used on the surface or at periscope depth (think snorkel) to charge batteries for the electric motor. When they dive the diesel is turned off and they run on electric ", "This has been here for a couple hours so I’ll answer. Hopefully Some...	4	[ "Not an expert but I believe they're diesel/electric, the diesel engine is used on the surface or at periscope depth (think snorkel) to charge batteries for the electric motor. When they dive the diesel is turned off and they run on electric ", "This has been here for a couple hours so I’ll answer. Hopefully Some...	4	<P> air escape, while diesel fuel is pumped into the fuel filter with the manual fuel lift pump (just behind the yellow dipstick). The vent can be screwed shut when diesel fuel starts to gush out of it. A primary fuel filter is usually installed upstream of the engine, so as to filter out the larger particles, and filter a larger quantity of water that might be present in the fuel. Every time a filter is disassembled or changed, it will be necessary to bleed it so as to remove excess air, again by opening the top vent so as to let <P> Their tentacles can be sucked into water intakes. In extremis it is possible for the rubber exhaust hose to catch fire, the plastic silencer to melt and the head-gasket to fail. In colder waters, boats are far less likely to meet such problems. The solution is to have a large basket-type water strainer and overheat alarms (standard on most Yanmar engines) The seawater pump is rotated by a short belt linked to the crankshaft. Fuel filter An inline fuel filter is easily accessible from the front part of the engine. The filter retains solid particles and separates water <P> diesel chase all the air (diesel fills up the filter either through gravity -usually the case for the primary filter- or with the help of the fuel lift pump -usually the case for the engine fuel filter-) and diesel starts to gush out. The vent should then be screwed shut. New models The 2GM20 and 3GM30 (three-cylinder) series have now been superseded in the Yanmar catalog by new lightweight and modernized engines, the 2YM15, 3YM20 and 3YM30. These new engines also feature simplified maintenance of the seawater pump and other services points, as they are now located on the front <P> from diesel (as water is heavier than diesel, it will settle at the bottom of the filter), just before the diesel fuel enters the highly sensitive high-pressure fuel pump. Water inside diesel fuel can lead to rusting of the internals of the engine, as well as lubrication problems. The filter element is made of fluted paper with metal end caps. When the engine has to be bled because air has penetrated into the pipes (usually after running out of diesel), it will usually be necessary to bleed the diesel filter: the top vent is unscrewed so as to let excess <P> run. The exit of cooling water from the exhaust into the sea (typically at the aft of the boat) should be checked at that time. After a few minutes, the hot cooling water alarm will sound if the cooling water does not get through the engine (as when the seawater cock has remained closed -most likely case- or if something is clogging the seawater tubing). Water pump The 2GM20 series uses either a direct seawater cooling system, or an indirect freshwater cooling system (specified by the suffix letter F i.e. 2GM20F). Seawater is pumped into the engine through a seawater <P> face, the six pipes lying between the flame cans. The exhaust section consisted of welded steel sheeting. <P> wave from the tailpipe reaches the combustion zone. Once that happens, significant flow reversal begins, driven by the drop in combustion zone pressure. During this phase, too, there is a difference in action between the very different masses in the intake and tailpipe. The intake air mass is again fairly low, but it now almost totally consists of outside air; therefore, fresh air is available almost immediately to begin re-filling the combustion zone from the front. The tailpipe air mass is also pulled, eventually reversing direction as well. The tailpipe will never be completely purged of hot combustion gases, but at <P> deflagration, the pressure wave immediately moves through both air masses, while the gas expansion (due to combustion heat) is just beginning in the combustion zone. The intake air mass will be rapidly accelerated outward behind the pressure wave, because its mass is relatively small. The tailpipe air mass will follow the outgoing pressure wave much more slowly. Also, the eventual flow reversal will take place much sooner in the intake, due to its smaller air mass. The timing of the wave motions is determined basically by the lengths of the intake and main tube of the engine; the timing of <P> Absecon Inlet. <P> serves to oxidize the carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons in the exhaust. Air cut valve system This system consists of a spring-loaded diaphragm, and a shaft which is attached to the bottom. A manifold vacuum is applied over the diaphragm where the shaft end is towards the opening of the atmosphere. During deceleration, the engine vacuum rises and acts against the spring to push the shaft downwards, thereby blocking the opening through which atmospheric air is passed to the exhaust. Though there is a negative pulse during deceleration, the manifold vacuum blocks and cuts off the air to the exhaust manifold. Used on the <P> cylinder. Porting allows exhaust gases to be expelled and scavenge air to be taken in by a positive air box pressure. Intake air is provided by an engine driven Roots blower or turbo-supercharger. North America Historically, the opposed-piston engine was used in U.S. diesel-electric submarines of World War II and the 1950s. Surviving diesel-electric submarines with these engines include USS Pampanito, USS Blueback, and USS Ling. This engine was also used in surface ships, notably in the diesel-electric Wind-class icebreakers and in the geared Edsall-class destroyer escorts. When the innovative but faulty "pancake" engines of the 1950s Tang class proved unworkable, they were <P> Air suction valve Working principle When an engine exhaust valve is open, the pressure in the exhaust manifold is higher than atmospheric pressure. The exhaust manifold is configured in such a way that positive and negative pulses are produced during the operation of the cycle by designing it as a diffuser. The ASV has three openings: one is connected to the manifold vacuum, another is connected to the exhaust pipe and the third is open to the atmosphere. When a negative pulse is induced in the exhaust, air from the atmosphere enters the exhaust manifold through a one-way reed valve and <P> mass motions is determined mostly by the volumes and exact shapes of these sections. Both are affected by local gas temperatures. In the valveless engine, there will actually be two arrivals of rarefaction waves — first, from the intake and then from the tailpipe. In typical valveless designs, the wave that comes back from the intake will be relatively weak. Its main effect is to begin flow reversal in the intake itself, in effect "pre-loading" the intake duct with fresh outdoor air. The actual breathing of the engine as a whole will not begin in earnest until the major low pressure <P> separation of oil from sand). The steam used comes from MEG's cogeneration plants. <P> is changing over the fuel intake to clean diesel or marine gas oil, while in restricted waters and Cold Ironing the ship while it is in port. The process of removing sulphur from the fuel impacts the viscosity and lubricity of the marine gas oil though, which could cause damage in the engine fuel pump. The fuel viscosity can be raised by cooling the fuel down. If the various requirements are enforced, the International Maritime Organization's marine fuel requirement will mean a 90% reduction in sulphur oxide emissions; whilst the European Union is planning stricter controls on emissions. <P> mass totally rearward. The combustion zone (usually a widened "chamber" section) and tailpipe make up the main tube of the engine. A flexible, low mass one-way valve (or multiple identical valves) separates the intake from the combustion zone. At the beginning of each cycle, air must be pulled into the combustion zone. At the end of each cycle, the tailpipe must be reloaded with air from the surrounding atmosphere. Both of these basic actions are accomplished by a significant drop in pressure that occurs naturally after the deflagration expansion, a phenomenon known as the Kadenacy effect (named after the scientist who <P> the maximum backing pressure (exhaust pressure) to about 1–10 mbar. Theoretically, a centrifugal pump, a side channel pump, or a regenerative pump could be used to back to atmospheric pressure directly, but currently there is no commercially available turbopump that exhausts directly to atmosphere. In most cases, the exhaust is connected to a mechanical backing pump (usually called roughing pump) that produces a pressure low enough for the turbomolecular pump to work efficiently. Typically, this backing pressure is below 0.1 mbar and commonly about 0.01 mbar. The backing pressure is rarely below 10⁻³ mbar (mean free path ≈ 70 mm) because the flow resistance of <P> a valve that pulses atmospheric air into the exhaust. The original "iron barrel" style engine did this with a hose from the PAV going to the exhaust pipe, the newer (2003–2009) AVL aluminum engine pulses the gas directly into the exhaust port on the head of the engine itself. <P> a 100% improvement in draughting capacity over traditional exhaust systems and a 40% increase in ejector performance. <P> zone of the turbine exhaust gasses. The low-pressure steam is supplied to the low-temperature turbine. A super heater can be provided in the low-pressure circuit. Some part of the feed water from the low-pressure zone is transferred to the high-pressure economizer by a booster pump. This economizer heats up the water to its saturation temperature. This saturated water goes through the high-temperature zone of the boiler and is supplied to the high-pressure turbine. Supplementary firing Supplementary firing may be used in combined cycles (in the HRSG) raising exhaust temperatures from 600 °C (GT exhaust) to 800 or even 1000 °C. Using supplemental firing	question: [Engineering] On submarines with diesel engines, when the sub is submerged, where does the exhaust go? context: <P> air escape, while diesel fuel is pumped into the fuel filter with the manual fuel lift pump (just behind the yellow dipstick). The vent can be screwed shut when diesel fuel starts to gush out of it. A primary fuel filter is usually installed upstream of the engine, so as to filter out the larger particles, and filter a larger quantity of water that might be present in the fuel. Every time a filter is disassembled or changed, it will be necessary to bleed it so as to remove excess air, again by opening the top vent so as to let <P> Their tentacles can be sucked into water intakes. In extremis it is possible for the rubber exhaust hose to catch fire, the plastic silencer to melt and the head-gasket to fail. In colder waters, boats are far less likely to meet such problems. The solution is to have a large basket-type water strainer and overheat alarms (standard on most Yanmar engines) The seawater pump is rotated by a short belt linked to the crankshaft. Fuel filter An inline fuel filter is easily accessible from the front part of the engine. The filter retains solid particles and separates water <P> diesel chase all the air (diesel fills up the filter either through gravity -usually the case for the primary filter- or with the help of the fuel lift pump -usually the case for the engine fuel filter-) and diesel starts to gush out. The vent should then be screwed shut. New models The 2GM20 and 3GM30 (three-cylinder) series have now been superseded in the Yanmar catalog by new lightweight and modernized engines, the 2YM15, 3YM20 and 3YM30. These new engines also feature simplified maintenance of the seawater pump and other services points, as they are now located on the front <P> from diesel (as water is heavier than diesel, it will settle at the bottom of the filter), just before the diesel fuel enters the highly sensitive high-pressure fuel pump. Water inside diesel fuel can lead to rusting of the internals of the engine, as well as lubrication problems. The filter element is made of fluted paper with metal end caps. When the engine has to be bled because air has penetrated into the pipes (usually after running out of diesel), it will usually be necessary to bleed the diesel filter: the top vent is unscrewed so as to let excess <P> run. The exit of cooling water from the exhaust into the sea (typically at the aft of the boat) should be checked at that time. After a few minutes, the hot cooling water alarm will sound if the cooling water does not get through the engine (as when the seawater cock has remained closed -most likely case- or if something is clogging the seawater tubing). Water pump The 2GM20 series uses either a direct seawater cooling system, or an indirect freshwater cooling system (specified by the suffix letter F i.e. 2GM20F). Seawater is pumped into the engine through a seawater <P> face, the six pipes lying between the flame cans. The exhaust section consisted of welded steel sheeting. <P> wave from the tailpipe reaches the combustion zone. Once that happens, significant flow reversal begins, driven by the drop in combustion zone pressure. During this phase, too, there is a difference in action between the very different masses in the intake and tailpipe. The intake air mass is again fairly low, but it now almost totally consists of outside air; therefore, fresh air is available almost immediately to begin re-filling the combustion zone from the front. The tailpipe air mass is also pulled, eventually reversing direction as well. The tailpipe will never be completely purged of hot combustion gases, but at <P> deflagration, the pressure wave immediately moves through both air masses, while the gas expansion (due to combustion heat) is just beginning in the combustion zone. The intake air mass will be rapidly accelerated outward behind the pressure wave, because its mass is relatively small. The tailpipe air mass will follow the outgoing pressure wave much more slowly. Also, the eventual flow reversal will take place much sooner in the intake, due to its smaller air mass. The timing of the wave motions is determined basically by the lengths of the intake and main tube of the engine; the timing of <P> Absecon Inlet. <P> serves to oxidize the carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons in the exhaust. Air cut valve system This system consists of a spring-loaded diaphragm, and a shaft which is attached to the bottom. A manifold vacuum is applied over the diaphragm where the shaft end is towards the opening of the atmosphere. During deceleration, the engine vacuum rises and acts against the spring to push the shaft downwards, thereby blocking the opening through which atmospheric air is passed to the exhaust. Though there is a negative pulse during deceleration, the manifold vacuum blocks and cuts off the air to the exhaust manifold. Used on the <P> cylinder. Porting allows exhaust gases to be expelled and scavenge air to be taken in by a positive air box pressure. Intake air is provided by an engine driven Roots blower or turbo-supercharger. North America Historically, the opposed-piston engine was used in U.S. diesel-electric submarines of World War II and the 1950s. Surviving diesel-electric submarines with these engines include USS Pampanito, USS Blueback, and USS Ling. This engine was also used in surface ships, notably in the diesel-electric Wind-class icebreakers and in the geared Edsall-class destroyer escorts. When the innovative but faulty "pancake" engines of the 1950s Tang class proved unworkable, they were <P> Air suction valve Working principle When an engine exhaust valve is open, the pressure in the exhaust manifold is higher than atmospheric pressure. The exhaust manifold is configured in such a way that positive and negative pulses are produced during the operation of the cycle by designing it as a diffuser. The ASV has three openings: one is connected to the manifold vacuum, another is connected to the exhaust pipe and the third is open to the atmosphere. When a negative pulse is induced in the exhaust, air from the atmosphere enters the exhaust manifold through a one-way reed valve and <P> mass motions is determined mostly by the volumes and exact shapes of these sections. Both are affected by local gas temperatures. In the valveless engine, there will actually be two arrivals of rarefaction waves — first, from the intake and then from the tailpipe. In typical valveless designs, the wave that comes back from the intake will be relatively weak. Its main effect is to begin flow reversal in the intake itself, in effect "pre-loading" the intake duct with fresh outdoor air. The actual breathing of the engine as a whole will not begin in earnest until the major low pressure <P> separation of oil from sand). The steam used comes from MEG's cogeneration plants. <P> is changing over the fuel intake to clean diesel or marine gas oil, while in restricted waters and Cold Ironing the ship while it is in port. The process of removing sulphur from the fuel impacts the viscosity and lubricity of the marine gas oil though, which could cause damage in the engine fuel pump. The fuel viscosity can be raised by cooling the fuel down. If the various requirements are enforced, the International Maritime Organization's marine fuel requirement will mean a 90% reduction in sulphur oxide emissions; whilst the European Union is planning stricter controls on emissions. <P> mass totally rearward. The combustion zone (usually a widened "chamber" section) and tailpipe make up the main tube of the engine. A flexible, low mass one-way valve (or multiple identical valves) separates the intake from the combustion zone. At the beginning of each cycle, air must be pulled into the combustion zone. At the end of each cycle, the tailpipe must be reloaded with air from the surrounding atmosphere. Both of these basic actions are accomplished by a significant drop in pressure that occurs naturally after the deflagration expansion, a phenomenon known as the Kadenacy effect (named after the scientist who <P> the maximum backing pressure (exhaust pressure) to about 1–10 mbar. Theoretically, a centrifugal pump, a side channel pump, or a regenerative pump could be used to back to atmospheric pressure directly, but currently there is no commercially available turbopump that exhausts directly to atmosphere. In most cases, the exhaust is connected to a mechanical backing pump (usually called roughing pump) that produces a pressure low enough for the turbomolecular pump to work efficiently. Typically, this backing pressure is below 0.1 mbar and commonly about 0.01 mbar. The backing pressure is rarely below 10⁻³ mbar (mean free path ≈ 70 mm) because the flow resistance of <P> a valve that pulses atmospheric air into the exhaust. The original "iron barrel" style engine did this with a hose from the PAV going to the exhaust pipe, the newer (2003–2009) AVL aluminum engine pulses the gas directly into the exhaust port on the head of the engine itself. <P> a 100% improvement in draughting capacity over traditional exhaust systems and a 40% increase in ejector performance. <P> zone of the turbine exhaust gasses. The low-pressure steam is supplied to the low-temperature turbine. A super heater can be provided in the low-pressure circuit. Some part of the feed water from the low-pressure zone is transferred to the high-pressure economizer by a booster pump. This economizer heats up the water to its saturation temperature. This saturated water goes through the high-temperature zone of the boiler and is supplied to the high-pressure turbine. Supplementary firing Supplementary firing may be used in combined cycles (in the HRSG) raising exhaust temperatures from 600 °C (GT exhaust) to 800 or even 1000 °C. Using supplemental firing	answer: Not an expert but I believe they're diesel/electric, the diesel engine is used on the surface or at periscope depth (think snorkel) to charge batteries for the electric motor. When they dive the diesel is turned off and they run on electric
222,294	9crp58	why do some states disallow voters with no party affiliation to vote in primaries?	Many states havd closed primaries: by law or decision of the political parties, only those with a registered party affiliation can vote in the partisan primary ballots. Those who have not registered affiliation can vote in closed primary election, but will be given a non partisan ticket (generally only referendum questions).	[ "Many states havd closed primaries: by law or decision of the political parties, only those with a registered party affiliation can vote in the partisan primary ballots. Those who have not registered affiliation can vote in closed primary election, but will be given a non partisan ticket (generally only referend...	3	[]	0	<P> only party labels originally permitted under the Louisiana law were Democrat, Republican, and No Party; however, as of 2008, candidates may take the identity of any "registered political party". The primary has been used in statewide elections since 1975. The system was designed by then-Governor Edwin Edwards after he had to run in two grueling rounds of the Democratic Primary in 1971 before facing a general election against a well-funded and well-rested Republican, Dave Treen. (Treen was elected governor under the new system in 1979, defeating five major Democratic candidates, probably not the result Edwards was hoping for). Federal elections <P> allow for open primaries and the popular election of presidents. <P> Democratic primaries, which state laws restricted to whites on the grounds of the Democratic Party being legally a private club. Vote The Smith/Robinson ticket carried the state of Georgia on election day. <P> Brenda Reneau 1994 election Reneau and three others, Mike Fair, Milton Stavinsky, and Jim Marshall, sought the Republican nomination for Labor Commissioner in 1994. Fair was a State Senator and his friend Marshall was a Republican Party activist. Reneau had been a registered Democrat until switching to Republican on June 13, 1994, one month before filing to run, even though state law requires candidates to be a member of their party for at least six months prior to declaring themselves candidate. However, the only provision to remove a candidate for failing to meet the registration requirement is <P> took effect in 1789. The modern two-party system consists of the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. Several third parties also operate in the U.S., and from time to time elect someone to local office. The largest third party since the 1980s has been the Libertarian Party. Besides the Constitution, Green, and Libertarian parties, there are many other political parties that receive only minimal support and only appear on the ballot in one or a few states. Some political candidates, and many voters, choose not to identify with a particular political party. In some states, independents are not allowed to vote in primary <P> voters who would be 18 years old by November 4, 2008. To vote, participants completed a form with their contact information and candidate preference. The form also asked voters to sign an oath stating: "I declare that I consider myself to be a DEMOCRAT and I will not participate in the nomination process of any other political party for the 2008 Presidential election." In some caucus groups, members split into smaller groups according to the candidate they supported. Voters supporting non-viable candidates had the option of moving into viable groups, and voters in viable groups could change their preference. Unlike <P> register you, there’s some clause in there that says the FBI can see to it that you’re protected when you go down to vote, but before voting day and after voting day there’s no protection provided.. And that’s where the trouble comes in” (Devine). Mrs. Devine was set on the bigger picture of having full rights and not bits and pieces of equality. Freedom Summer Annie Devine was heavily involved with the movement in the summer of 1964 which was named Freedom Summer. Although these few months did so much good for the moment with the main goal of getting <P> help Florida and Michigan seat their Democratic Party primary election delegates. <P> of the Town Hall for a free weekly children's play group, made strides in opening up the local democratic process to all town residents, and publicly supported a Vermont run single-payer healthcare system. In 2012, the party once again re-qualified for major party status as a result of a 13.1% showing for Liberty Union candidate Mary Alice Herbert in the election for Vermont Secretary of State against Democrat Jim Condos. In 2014, the party re-qualified for major party status yet again as a result of a 10.32% showing for Liberty Union candidate Mary Alice Herbert in the election for Vermont Secretary of <P> Democratic Party of Oregon Current membership As of December 2018, there were 976,409 registered Democrats in Oregon, compared to 706,744 registered Republicans, and 883,991 registered Non-Affiliated voters. Organization As prescribed by Oregon state statutes governing major political parties, the party comprises all registered voters designating their party affiliation as Democrat. In each biennial primary election conducted in even-numbered years, such affiliated voters elect members from each precinct to their respective county's central committee, which in turn elects delegates to a state convention, charged with organizing the party at the state level, and arranging for the day-to-day conduct of the <P> access through 1994. Mr. Daiell's showing is still the LP of Texas record in a gubernatorial race in terms of per centage; in 2018 Mark Tippetts broke the record for most votes. On March 9, 1998, U.S. District Judge James Nowlin stopped the State of Texas from requiring voter registration numbers alongside ballot access petition signatures in Pilcher v. Rains, brought by the Libertarian Party of Texas. In every election since except that of 2002, at least one of the party's candidates achieved 5% of the vote, guaranteeing ballot access. In May 2004 the party easily met the state's signature requirement. In <P> 2016 United States presidential election in Maine Libertarian convention The Libertarian Party nominated its ticket, former New Mexico Governor Gary Johnson for president and former Massachusetts Governor William Weld for vice president, at its national convention in Orlando, Florida, on May 29, 2016. Until July 13, 2016, the Libertarian Party was not a legally recognized party in Maine. A 2013 change in the ballot access law permitted a party to gain recognition if they enroll 5,000 Maine voters in the party. The Libertarian Party of Maine turned approximately 6,500 signatures in to the Maine Secretary of State's office in 2015, <P> several safeguards to ensure the integrity of voter registration and toughens criminal penalties for those who commit fraud. Mascot The official mascot of the YDNC is the "fearless" Honey badger, since "Young Democrats are also devoid of fear." <P> also required modifications to allow voters to register themselves in non-ballot parties. In July 2019, the New York Legislature passed a budget bill that included the creation of a Public Campaign Financing Commission which was given authority to investigate and create rules for public financing of campaigns. The Conservative Party of New York and the Working Families Party each filed lawsuits against the state in response, alleging that the commission was a disguised attempt to end fusion voting and thus the existence of New York's third parties. Oregon Prior to 1958, Oregon practiced a form of fusion that required the <P> been active since 1944, became defunct as a result of the 2002 gubernatorial election. Andrew Cuomo got the Liberal Party nomination and ran in the Democratic primary against Carl McCall, who had secured the Working Families nomination. Cuomo subsequently dropped out and endorsed McCall, but his name remained on the Liberal party line and failed to gain 50,000 votes, leading to the Liberal Party's failure to retain status and losing its automatic ballot line. A Federal lawsuit (joined by Green, Libertarian, and other parties) enjoined the Board of Elections from discarding enrollment records of these disqualified parties, and <P> Democratic primaries, which state laws restricted to whites on the grounds of the Democratic Party being legally a private club. Vote The Roosevelt/Wallace ticket easily carried the state of Georgia on election day. <P> at 21. Around 50,000 voters registered for the election. <P> based on primary and caucus results, state party rules, or even state law." <P> on a countywide basis are County Clerk Scott M. Colabella (R, 2019, Barnegat Light), Sheriff Michael Mastronardy (R, 2019; Toms River) and Surrogate Jeffrey Moran (R, 2023, Beachwood). Politics As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 1,373 registered voters in Lakehurst, of which 254 (18.5%) were registered as Democrats, 295 (21.5%) were registered as Republicans and 823 (59.9%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There was one voter registered to another party. Among the borough's 2010 Census population, 51.7% (vs. 63.2% in Ocean County) were registered to vote, including 72.2% of those ages 18 and over (vs. 82.6% countywide). In the 2012 <P> much lower for qualified parties, and they are the only parties eligible to hold primary elections. Automatic ballot access is valid for four years, and parties must gain 50,000 votes in the next gubernatorial election to again qualify for automatic ballot access. Small parties significant in large part for their fused ballot lines, include the Independence Party of New York, the Working Families Party, and the Conservative Party of New York State. The Independence Party originally ran its own candidate for governor until 2002, but since then has instead retained its automatic ballot status by running a gubernatorial candidate who	question: why do some states disallow voters with no party affiliation to vote in primaries? context: <P> only party labels originally permitted under the Louisiana law were Democrat, Republican, and No Party; however, as of 2008, candidates may take the identity of any "registered political party". The primary has been used in statewide elections since 1975. The system was designed by then-Governor Edwin Edwards after he had to run in two grueling rounds of the Democratic Primary in 1971 before facing a general election against a well-funded and well-rested Republican, Dave Treen. (Treen was elected governor under the new system in 1979, defeating five major Democratic candidates, probably not the result Edwards was hoping for). Federal elections <P> allow for open primaries and the popular election of presidents. <P> Democratic primaries, which state laws restricted to whites on the grounds of the Democratic Party being legally a private club. Vote The Smith/Robinson ticket carried the state of Georgia on election day. <P> Brenda Reneau 1994 election Reneau and three others, Mike Fair, Milton Stavinsky, and Jim Marshall, sought the Republican nomination for Labor Commissioner in 1994. Fair was a State Senator and his friend Marshall was a Republican Party activist. Reneau had been a registered Democrat until switching to Republican on June 13, 1994, one month before filing to run, even though state law requires candidates to be a member of their party for at least six months prior to declaring themselves candidate. However, the only provision to remove a candidate for failing to meet the registration requirement is <P> took effect in 1789. The modern two-party system consists of the Democratic Party and the Republican Party. Several third parties also operate in the U.S., and from time to time elect someone to local office. The largest third party since the 1980s has been the Libertarian Party. Besides the Constitution, Green, and Libertarian parties, there are many other political parties that receive only minimal support and only appear on the ballot in one or a few states. Some political candidates, and many voters, choose not to identify with a particular political party. In some states, independents are not allowed to vote in primary <P> voters who would be 18 years old by November 4, 2008. To vote, participants completed a form with their contact information and candidate preference. The form also asked voters to sign an oath stating: "I declare that I consider myself to be a DEMOCRAT and I will not participate in the nomination process of any other political party for the 2008 Presidential election." In some caucus groups, members split into smaller groups according to the candidate they supported. Voters supporting non-viable candidates had the option of moving into viable groups, and voters in viable groups could change their preference. Unlike <P> register you, there’s some clause in there that says the FBI can see to it that you’re protected when you go down to vote, but before voting day and after voting day there’s no protection provided.. And that’s where the trouble comes in” (Devine). Mrs. Devine was set on the bigger picture of having full rights and not bits and pieces of equality. Freedom Summer Annie Devine was heavily involved with the movement in the summer of 1964 which was named Freedom Summer. Although these few months did so much good for the moment with the main goal of getting <P> help Florida and Michigan seat their Democratic Party primary election delegates. <P> of the Town Hall for a free weekly children's play group, made strides in opening up the local democratic process to all town residents, and publicly supported a Vermont run single-payer healthcare system. In 2012, the party once again re-qualified for major party status as a result of a 13.1% showing for Liberty Union candidate Mary Alice Herbert in the election for Vermont Secretary of State against Democrat Jim Condos. In 2014, the party re-qualified for major party status yet again as a result of a 10.32% showing for Liberty Union candidate Mary Alice Herbert in the election for Vermont Secretary of <P> Democratic Party of Oregon Current membership As of December 2018, there were 976,409 registered Democrats in Oregon, compared to 706,744 registered Republicans, and 883,991 registered Non-Affiliated voters. Organization As prescribed by Oregon state statutes governing major political parties, the party comprises all registered voters designating their party affiliation as Democrat. In each biennial primary election conducted in even-numbered years, such affiliated voters elect members from each precinct to their respective county's central committee, which in turn elects delegates to a state convention, charged with organizing the party at the state level, and arranging for the day-to-day conduct of the <P> access through 1994. Mr. Daiell's showing is still the LP of Texas record in a gubernatorial race in terms of per centage; in 2018 Mark Tippetts broke the record for most votes. On March 9, 1998, U.S. District Judge James Nowlin stopped the State of Texas from requiring voter registration numbers alongside ballot access petition signatures in Pilcher v. Rains, brought by the Libertarian Party of Texas. In every election since except that of 2002, at least one of the party's candidates achieved 5% of the vote, guaranteeing ballot access. In May 2004 the party easily met the state's signature requirement. In <P> 2016 United States presidential election in Maine Libertarian convention The Libertarian Party nominated its ticket, former New Mexico Governor Gary Johnson for president and former Massachusetts Governor William Weld for vice president, at its national convention in Orlando, Florida, on May 29, 2016. Until July 13, 2016, the Libertarian Party was not a legally recognized party in Maine. A 2013 change in the ballot access law permitted a party to gain recognition if they enroll 5,000 Maine voters in the party. The Libertarian Party of Maine turned approximately 6,500 signatures in to the Maine Secretary of State's office in 2015, <P> several safeguards to ensure the integrity of voter registration and toughens criminal penalties for those who commit fraud. Mascot The official mascot of the YDNC is the "fearless" Honey badger, since "Young Democrats are also devoid of fear." <P> also required modifications to allow voters to register themselves in non-ballot parties. In July 2019, the New York Legislature passed a budget bill that included the creation of a Public Campaign Financing Commission which was given authority to investigate and create rules for public financing of campaigns. The Conservative Party of New York and the Working Families Party each filed lawsuits against the state in response, alleging that the commission was a disguised attempt to end fusion voting and thus the existence of New York's third parties. Oregon Prior to 1958, Oregon practiced a form of fusion that required the <P> been active since 1944, became defunct as a result of the 2002 gubernatorial election. Andrew Cuomo got the Liberal Party nomination and ran in the Democratic primary against Carl McCall, who had secured the Working Families nomination. Cuomo subsequently dropped out and endorsed McCall, but his name remained on the Liberal party line and failed to gain 50,000 votes, leading to the Liberal Party's failure to retain status and losing its automatic ballot line. A Federal lawsuit (joined by Green, Libertarian, and other parties) enjoined the Board of Elections from discarding enrollment records of these disqualified parties, and <P> Democratic primaries, which state laws restricted to whites on the grounds of the Democratic Party being legally a private club. Vote The Roosevelt/Wallace ticket easily carried the state of Georgia on election day. <P> at 21. Around 50,000 voters registered for the election. <P> based on primary and caucus results, state party rules, or even state law." <P> on a countywide basis are County Clerk Scott M. Colabella (R, 2019, Barnegat Light), Sheriff Michael Mastronardy (R, 2019; Toms River) and Surrogate Jeffrey Moran (R, 2023, Beachwood). Politics As of March 23, 2011, there were a total of 1,373 registered voters in Lakehurst, of which 254 (18.5%) were registered as Democrats, 295 (21.5%) were registered as Republicans and 823 (59.9%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There was one voter registered to another party. Among the borough's 2010 Census population, 51.7% (vs. 63.2% in Ocean County) were registered to vote, including 72.2% of those ages 18 and over (vs. 82.6% countywide). In the 2012 <P> much lower for qualified parties, and they are the only parties eligible to hold primary elections. Automatic ballot access is valid for four years, and parties must gain 50,000 votes in the next gubernatorial election to again qualify for automatic ballot access. Small parties significant in large part for their fused ballot lines, include the Independence Party of New York, the Working Families Party, and the Conservative Party of New York State. The Independence Party originally ran its own candidate for governor until 2002, but since then has instead retained its automatic ballot status by running a gubernatorial candidate who	answer: Many states havd closed primaries: by law or decision of the political parties, only those with a registered party affiliation can vote in the partisan primary ballots. Those who have not registered affiliation can vote in closed primary election, but will be given a non partisan ticket (generally only referendum questions).
193,559	1mdo3k	how is it five minutes after a show is broadcast it can often be downloaded!? what's the process in getting it online?	Digital video recorders I imagine. Then it's a straight upload to the internet.	[ "Digital video recorders I imagine. Then it's a straight upload to the internet. ", "someone records the show (probably on their computer) and starts uploading the file via a p2p service (like utorrent) straight away. With these programs you do not have to have the whole file uploaded before sharing as it breaks ...	3	[]	0	<P> feeds. The subscribed programs are then delivered via satellite as a file transfer to the storage receiver in the form of MP2-encoded ACM-based WAV files, which then can be imported into a station's automation and/or playback system. Live feeds are sent in the ContentDepot system as streaming MP2 audio, sent over the same satellite transponder, but as an IP multicast stream (as opposed to a file transfer for pre-recorded programs) which is decoded by a special streaming audio receiver (called a stream decoder) set to the IP multicast addresses assigned for live audio streams on the satellite transponder used by <P> After Hours Show which is streamed on social media such as Facebook and Youtube <P> as the TWiT Brick House at 140 Keller St. in late July 2011. It is streamed to Premiere Networks via ISDN to Premiere at 64 kbps. From there Premiere uplinks it to their satellite network for distribution. Leo also streams the show on the TWiT Live Website. July 24, 2011’s show was the last program produced at the TWiT Cottage, with Laporte parading through downtown Petaluma after the end of that day's show to the Brick House with his staff and onlookers to inaugurate the new facility, which opened an hour later with that week's This Week in Tech. The first <P> Application streaming Stream server An application is packaged and stored on a streaming server. Packaging or sequencing produces an image of the application in a way that orders delivery or predicatively optimizes delivery to the client. Launch and streaming of application The initial launch of an application would be important for the end user and the Packaging process might be optimized to achieve this. Once launched, common functions would be followed. As these functions are requested by the end user, these may be streamed in a similar manner. In this case the client is pulling the application from the stream <P> of DVDs on consultation skills, both of which launched in 2010. <P> from Amazon Unbox. Also, prior to the airing of Chuck in the United Kingdom, the pilot episode was released as a free temporary download on iTunes. A full week before the second season's U.S. premiere, iTunes offered a free download of the first episode as a 'pre-air premiere'. This promotion was also available on the Xbox Live Marketplace. Chuck can also be seen on Virgin Media's On Demand service in association with Warner TV Marketing In May 2007, NBC announced that their official website would launch "MyNBC" allowing users to be more interactive with selected shows. MyNBC will allow fans to delve inside <P> each evening at area pubs and uploaded on Soundcloud. <P> show now focuses on new streams such as Facebook Live where they preview topics coming up. <P> already streaming. <P> to reach the station. <P> its content business area by exporting show formats such as I Am a Singer, We Got Married and Dad! Where Are We Going? to other countries. <P> allows users to view all other videos produced by CollegeHumor 72 hours before they are released to the public. There is also access to an exclusive Discord server where subscribers are allowed to chat with cast members and producers of the shows. <P> huge event at Basement 45, under the new management of Patrick Thomas, alongside Diggory Waite, Ellie Leek and a committee of 18 others. 2017 saw the launch of "Nature Xposed" on BURST Radio, a nature and science themed show where Biologists Amy Ockenden and Benito Wainwright interviewed some of Bristol's most high profile academics and Natural History television producers. Facilities The station's facilities consist of the On-Air Studio from which most programmes are presented, also containing the station's webcam. There is a secondary Production Studio which is mainly used for recording and editing sessions for both live music acts and speech. <P> is available from the company's website. <P> on this stream. <P> their fans, which was also available for viewing on the iPhone. An in-store performance by rock band Motion City Soundtrack was streamed live from New Jersey record store Vintage Vinyl on January 20, 2010. Other events Livestream claims to serve over 10,000 paying customers and to have streamed several million events in 2014. Customers include The New York Times, Spotify, BBC, several professional and college sports leagues around the world, Associated Press, and Tesla. Livestream has broadcast major events including the European Space Agency's Rosetta comet landing and the Times Square New Year's Eve celebration. Livestream also broadcast a panel <P> for tape delay or transported on prerecorded media. Local advertisements would be stored on tape cartridges ("carts") which would need to be inserted in the correct timeslots manually. A station could not operate unattended, even if it were merely retransmitting a network television programme originated elsewhere. Broadcast automation relies on computers to store and retrieve video, largely eliminating the use of individual videotapes and allowing switching and retrieval of stored programming, advertising and titles to take place automatically. The server would operate from stored playlists, in which each programme, each commercial advertisement, each live or network feed and each station <P> band and uploaded to the site. <P> be viewed out of the broadcast time frame as required by the school. Some programmes are distributed in form of VCDs or interactive multimedia CD-ROMs to schools. With the coming of the Internet age, ETV programmes and other materials can be obtained from ETV website eTVonline. <P> have SureSupply activated can download it from the web.	question: how is it five minutes after a show is broadcast it can often be downloaded!? what's the process in getting it online? context: <P> feeds. The subscribed programs are then delivered via satellite as a file transfer to the storage receiver in the form of MP2-encoded ACM-based WAV files, which then can be imported into a station's automation and/or playback system. Live feeds are sent in the ContentDepot system as streaming MP2 audio, sent over the same satellite transponder, but as an IP multicast stream (as opposed to a file transfer for pre-recorded programs) which is decoded by a special streaming audio receiver (called a stream decoder) set to the IP multicast addresses assigned for live audio streams on the satellite transponder used by <P> After Hours Show which is streamed on social media such as Facebook and Youtube <P> as the TWiT Brick House at 140 Keller St. in late July 2011. It is streamed to Premiere Networks via ISDN to Premiere at 64 kbps. From there Premiere uplinks it to their satellite network for distribution. Leo also streams the show on the TWiT Live Website. July 24, 2011’s show was the last program produced at the TWiT Cottage, with Laporte parading through downtown Petaluma after the end of that day's show to the Brick House with his staff and onlookers to inaugurate the new facility, which opened an hour later with that week's This Week in Tech. The first <P> Application streaming Stream server An application is packaged and stored on a streaming server. Packaging or sequencing produces an image of the application in a way that orders delivery or predicatively optimizes delivery to the client. Launch and streaming of application The initial launch of an application would be important for the end user and the Packaging process might be optimized to achieve this. Once launched, common functions would be followed. As these functions are requested by the end user, these may be streamed in a similar manner. In this case the client is pulling the application from the stream <P> of DVDs on consultation skills, both of which launched in 2010. <P> from Amazon Unbox. Also, prior to the airing of Chuck in the United Kingdom, the pilot episode was released as a free temporary download on iTunes. A full week before the second season's U.S. premiere, iTunes offered a free download of the first episode as a 'pre-air premiere'. This promotion was also available on the Xbox Live Marketplace. Chuck can also be seen on Virgin Media's On Demand service in association with Warner TV Marketing In May 2007, NBC announced that their official website would launch "MyNBC" allowing users to be more interactive with selected shows. MyNBC will allow fans to delve inside <P> each evening at area pubs and uploaded on Soundcloud. <P> show now focuses on new streams such as Facebook Live where they preview topics coming up. <P> already streaming. <P> to reach the station. <P> its content business area by exporting show formats such as I Am a Singer, We Got Married and Dad! Where Are We Going? to other countries. <P> allows users to view all other videos produced by CollegeHumor 72 hours before they are released to the public. There is also access to an exclusive Discord server where subscribers are allowed to chat with cast members and producers of the shows. <P> huge event at Basement 45, under the new management of Patrick Thomas, alongside Diggory Waite, Ellie Leek and a committee of 18 others. 2017 saw the launch of "Nature Xposed" on BURST Radio, a nature and science themed show where Biologists Amy Ockenden and Benito Wainwright interviewed some of Bristol's most high profile academics and Natural History television producers. Facilities The station's facilities consist of the On-Air Studio from which most programmes are presented, also containing the station's webcam. There is a secondary Production Studio which is mainly used for recording and editing sessions for both live music acts and speech. <P> is available from the company's website. <P> on this stream. <P> their fans, which was also available for viewing on the iPhone. An in-store performance by rock band Motion City Soundtrack was streamed live from New Jersey record store Vintage Vinyl on January 20, 2010. Other events Livestream claims to serve over 10,000 paying customers and to have streamed several million events in 2014. Customers include The New York Times, Spotify, BBC, several professional and college sports leagues around the world, Associated Press, and Tesla. Livestream has broadcast major events including the European Space Agency's Rosetta comet landing and the Times Square New Year's Eve celebration. Livestream also broadcast a panel <P> for tape delay or transported on prerecorded media. Local advertisements would be stored on tape cartridges ("carts") which would need to be inserted in the correct timeslots manually. A station could not operate unattended, even if it were merely retransmitting a network television programme originated elsewhere. Broadcast automation relies on computers to store and retrieve video, largely eliminating the use of individual videotapes and allowing switching and retrieval of stored programming, advertising and titles to take place automatically. The server would operate from stored playlists, in which each programme, each commercial advertisement, each live or network feed and each station <P> band and uploaded to the site. <P> be viewed out of the broadcast time frame as required by the school. Some programmes are distributed in form of VCDs or interactive multimedia CD-ROMs to schools. With the coming of the Internet age, ETV programmes and other materials can be obtained from ETV website eTVonline. <P> have SureSupply activated can download it from the web.	answer: Digital video recorders I imagine. Then it's a straight upload to the internet.
20,092	9vlwiv	Was there any chance for Portugal to take the strait of Gibraltar during the Reconquista?	[Strait of Gibraltar](_URL_1_) is a body of water between Europe/Spain on the northern side and Africa/Morocco on the southern. In medieval (and modern for that matter) times the key cities were Gibraltar, Tarifa and Algeciras on the Europe side, and Ceuta, Tangier, Arzila and Alcácer Ceguer on the Africa side. Depending on what you consider "taking the straits" there are several scenarios we should analyze.While we usually think of Reconquista as a slow gradual process, majority of southern Iberian peninsula - Muslim ruled al-Andalus - was taken by Christians in relatively quick succession of events between [1200 and 1250](_URL_2_). Almohad dynasty became embroiled in civil war back in Morocco, and the forces stationed in Iberia returned to Africa. This left a huge military and political vacuum in Iberian Muslim states. And they were opposed by resurging Christian forces which were for change cooperative with each other. What followed was the above mentioned massive conquest of Moorish territories. Jamie I of Aragon took Balearic islands and Valencia. Leonese and Castillian forces, first separately and since 1230 united under Ferdinand III took Badajoz, Huelva, Jaen, Cordoba, Murcia and finally Seville in 1248, and reduced to tribute the state of Granada. Portuguese under their king Sancho II also advanced south, (re)taking Alentejo region and then Algarve, finalized with taking of Faro by new king Afonso III in 1249.During this time, Portugal was in a slightly political mishap. The king Sancho II was in a serious dispute with the clergy and the pope, culminating with pope ordering his deposal in 1245 and replacement with his brother Afonso III, an order carried out seemingly without much consternation by the Portuguese. In a military geostrategical way, Portuguese were physically prevented any expansion east by Leonese conquest of a strategic city of Badajoz in 1227. Badajoz was a key city about which Leonese and Portuguese disputed who had the right to conquer it. (To the point when Portuguese were on the brink of conquering it in 1169, Leonese forces moved to support the Moorish defenders and broke the siege) Following conquest of Badajoz, Leonese proceeded and reached the Atlantic shore at Huelva, effectively creating a land barrier for Portuguese armies to reach Gibraltar. Which anyway they were in no position to do, as they were still embroiled in their fights in south of Portugal and Algarve which didn't finish until 1249. From this point forward, as Gibraltar and Granada was landlocked by Castile-Leon, it was only they who could (and did) engage in fighting over trying to conquer the European side of Gibraltar straits.For Portuguese the only way they could possibly do so was by sea invasion. And this is an option they seriously considered in 15th century. Which leads us to the interesting element of the story: the Portuguese actually did take the southern/African part of the Gibraltar straits, and remained in control of key points until 17th century. They took Ceuta in 1415, Alcácer Ceguer in 1450s and Arzila and Tangier around 1470. This solidified their [rule over the southern part of the straits](_URL_0_), and engaged in consistent deliberations whether to take Gibraltar, before Castile conquered it in 1462. They were mainly stopped because Castile had a "right of conqeust" of Gibraltar and Granada as a whole, and while Portuguese were seriously weighing to ignore it at times, they ultimately never attempted. If they tried, Castile might declare war on them, and Gibraltars position would be untenable. Portuguese involvement on Gibraltar straits ended in 17th century. Following Portuguese War of Independance, Ceuta opted to remain with the Spanish, while Tangier was ceded to British as dowry of Catharine Braganza in 1661.Ultimately, Portuguese did control parts of the straits, on the African side from 15th to 17th century. The never really had a chance for taking european side as they were thwarted by Castile-Leonese conquests before they had the opportunity to even try	[ "[Strait of Gibraltar](_URL_1_) is a body of water between Europe/Spain on the northern side and Africa/Morocco on the southern. In medieval (and modern for that matter) times the key cities were Gibraltar, Tarifa and Algeciras on the Europe side, and Ceuta, Tangier, Arzila and Alcácer Ceguer on the Africa side. De...	1	[]	0	<P> brought along sufficient supplies for so many troops on the beach (water could only be obtained inland), Fernando de Castro decided to cancel the expedition and returned to Portugal. Castile lodged a stern protest immediately. There would not be another attempt. Despite his connection with the Canaries enterprise, in 1432, Fernando de Castro was sent to Castile again on another diplomatic mission – this time, to witness the ratification of the 1431 peace treaty. In February 1432, John I granted Fernando de Castro the bailiwick (sesmaria) of Paul de Trava (near Santarém). In 1434, he swapped that benefice for the lordship <P> of Coimbra instructed Fernando de Castro's son Álvaro de Castro, to take over his father's credentials and fulfil the mission in Ceuta. As it turns, out the negotiations with Abu Zakariya failed, and Ceuta was not evacuated. Ferdinand the Saint would die in Moroccan captivity in 1443. <P> Nationalists soften this declaration by replacing the word "ban" for "restrictions" to shipping. Admiral Moreno, commander in chief of the Nationalist fleet, also played down the scale of the operation during a private meeting with the British consul at Palma de Mallorca. Indeed, the Nationalist deployment was reduced to submarine patrols around Cartagena and the presence of an auxiliary cruiser and a destroyer off Valencia. In the latter case, there was a rotation between the auxiliary cruiser Mar Cantábrico and Mar Negro and the old destroyers Ceuta and Melilla. Incident with HMS Sussex On 16 March 1939, two incidents between <P> long-delayed ratification of the 1411 peace between Portugal and Castile. Expedition to Gran Canaria In 1424, sensing that the Crown of Castile was losing interest in the Canary Islands, Prince Henry the Navigator decided to launch an armed expedition to seize the unconquered islands of that archipelago. The large Portuguese expeditionary force, some 2,500 infantry and 120 knights, was placed under the command of Fernando de Castro. It was a fiasco. Landing at Gran Canaria, the expeditionary force faced stiff resistance from the aboriginal Guanches, and were unable to get off the beach. Realizing, too late, that he had not <P> Jervis to consider abandoning the region. By the end of the year, faced with increased threats from the Spanish Navy and without safe harbours west of Gibraltar, he had withdrawn his entire fleet from the Mediterranean, anchoring in the new fleet base at the mouth of the Tagus. <P> on some islands. Neither was it politically, since the particular interests of the nobility (determined to strengthen their economic and political power through the acquisition of the islands) conflicted with those of the states, particularly Castile, which were in the midst of territorial expansion and in a process of strengthening of the Crown against the nobility. Historians distinguish two periods in the conquest of the Canary Islands: Aristocratic conquest (Conquista señorial). This refers to the early conquests carried out by the nobility, for their own benefit and without the direct participation of the Crown of Castile, which merely granted rights of conquest <P> before the 10th of June, 1770, his Britannick majesty will look upon the said declaration, together with the full performance of the engagement on the part of his catholick majesty, as a satisfaction for the injury done to the crown of Great Britain." Aftermath The British restored their base at Port Egmont. Although the question of sovereignty was sidestepped, it would become a source of future trouble. Samuel Johnson described the implications of the crisis in his pamphlet "Thoughts on the late Transactions Respecting Falkland's Islands", looking at the British problem in holding such remote islands against a hostile mainland: <P> Falklands Crisis (1770) The Falklands Crisis of 1770 was a diplomatic standoff between Great Britain and Spain over possession of the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic Ocean. These events were nearly the cause of a war between Britain and Spain — backed by France — and all three countries were poised to dispatch armed fleets to defend the rival claims to sovereignty of the barren but strategically important islands. Ultimately, a lack of French support for Spain defused the tension, and Spain and Britain reached an inconclusive compromise in which both nations maintained their settlements but neither relinquished its claim <P> Gomera, and of Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and La Palma, resisted the Castilian invaders for almost a century. In 1448 Maciot de Béthencourt sold the lordship of Lanzarote to Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator, an action that was accepted by neither the natives nor the Castilians. Despite Pope Nicholas V ruling that the Canary Islands were under Portuguese control, the crisis swelled to a revolt which lasted until 1459 with the final expulsion of the Portuguese. In 1479, Portugal and Castile signed the Treaty of Alcáçovas, which settled disputes between Castile and Portugal over the control of the Atlantic. This treaty <P> as the Convention for the Mutual Abandonment of Nootka, was signed on January 11, 1794. It called for the mutual abandonment of Nootka Sound. Britain and Spain were both free to use Nootka Sound as a port and erect temporary structures, but, "neither ... shall form any permanent establishment in the said port or claim any right of sovereignty or territorial dominion there to the exclusion of the other. And Their said Majesties will mutually aid each other to maintain for their subjects free access to the port of Nootka against any other nation which may attempt to establish there <P> entered delicate negotiations with Spain which wished for the return of Gibraltar, which he was only prepared to do in exchange for Cuba and Florida. Ultimately the talks broke down, setting the path to the later Thirteenth Siege of Gibraltar. In the ensuing War of the Quadruple Alliance British forces were involved in a campaign to prevent Spanish expansion in Italy. Spain landed troops in Scotland in support of the Jacobites who they hoped to restore to the throne. The expedition was defeated at the Battle of Glen Shiel and in retaliation the British dispatched a force that briefly captured Vigo <P> in 1817) that states that the winning countries are "committed to employ the mightiest conciliatory effort to return Olivenza to Portuguese authority" and that the winning countries "recognize that the return of Olivenza and its territories must be done". Thus, the border between the two countries in the region of Olivenza should be demarcated by the Treaty of Alcanizes of 1297. Spain interprets Article 105 as not being mandatory on demanding Spain to return Olivenza to Portugal, thus not revoking the Treaty of Badajoz. Portugal has never made a formal claim to the territory after the Treaty of Vienna, but neither has <P> inventory." The agreement also stated: "this engagement to restore port Egmont cannot, nor ought, in any wise, to affect the question of the prior right of sovereignty of the Malouine, otherwise called Falkland's islands." This concession was accepted by the Earl of Rochford, who declared that he was authorised "to offer, in his majesty's name, to the King of Great Britain, a satisfaction for the injury done him, by dispossessing him of port Egmont;" and, having signed a declaration, expressing that Spain "disavows the expedition against port Egmont, and engages to restore it, in the state in which it stood <P> Badajoz still stands and has never been revoked, thus making the case that the border between the two countries in the region of Olivenza should be demarcated as said by the treaty. Portugal claims de jure sovereignty over Olivenza on the grounds of the cancellation of the Treaty of Badajoz, since it was revoked by its own terms. The breach of any of its articles would lead to its cancellation, and that happened when Spain invaded Portugal in the Peninsular War of 1807. Portugal further bases its case on Article 105 of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 (which Spain signed <P> Gazette of 12 April, but was, nevertheless, essentially true. The Spanish squadron, already being chased the next day by several British ships, completely outsailed their pursuers and returned to Cartagena with the prisoners. After a detention of 14 days at Cartagena, Lieutenant Staines and his fellow prisoners were embarked in a merchant brig bound to Málaga; but they did not arrive there until 24 December, a westerly wind having obliged the vessel to anchor off Almeria, where she was detained upwards of three weeks, and her passengers confined on shore during that period. From Málaga, the British were marched to Gibraltar, <P> conquest between 1478 and 1496, carried out directly by the Crown of Castile, during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, who armed and partly financed the conquest of those islands which were still unconquered: Gran Canaria, La Palma and Tenerife. This phase of the conquest came to an end in the year 1496, with the dominion of the island of Tenerife, bringing the entire Canarian Archipelago under the control of the Crown of Castile. Béthencourt also established a base on the island of La Gomera, but it would be many years before the island was fully conquered. The natives of La <P> had gained many converts in the Canary Islands by the early 1430s. However, the ownership of the lands had been the subject of dispute between Portugal and the Kingdom of Castille. The lack of effective control had resulted in periodic raids on the islands to procure slaves. As early as the Council of Koblenz in 922, the capture of Christians as slaves by other Christians had been condemned. Acting on a complaint by Fernando Calvetos, bishop of the islands, Pope Eugene IV issued a Papal bull, "Creator Omnium", on 17 December 1434, annulling previous permission granted to Portugal to conquer those <P> on board, returned to the Carteret Islands and attacked with gunfire. After a series of such assaults and heavy casualties, the population sued for peace. This enabled Morrell to occupy one of the islands in exchange for cutlery, trinkets, tools and other metal artefacts. The peace was temporary; Morrell's shore camp was continually harassed by the population. Finally, Morrell decided to abandon the enterprise, citing the "unappeasable vindictiveness and incessant hostilities" of the native population. On November 13, 1830, while returning to Manila, Antarctica anchored off the coast of the island of Uneapa (in today's West New Britain Province). <P> population and of some exiled opposition politicians. The island would only be able to be retaken by the governmental forces through an amphibious operation, but the organization of an operation of this kind constituted an enormous challenge due to the state of neglect of the Navy. Under the leadership of the Navy Minister Magalhães Correia, the Navy was however able to improvise a flotilla of adapted merchant and fishing vessels that was able to join the few operational warships for carrying out the operation. One of the vessels of this flotilla was the merchant ship Cubango which was transformed as <P> were expelled and chased to the border, and even within Spain itself, as would happen in Codicera, where several Spanish soldiers were imprisoned: "Portugal had not accepted the invitation to join France and Spain in this alliance and the latter powers... invaded Portugal. England sent a fleet promptly to Lisbon with 8,000 soldiers who helped drive the invaders back and followed them into Spain herself...The blows she had received were staggering..." At the end of the war, La Lippe was invited by the Portuguese prime minister Pombal to stay in Portugal, in order to reorganize and modernize the Portuguese army (which	question: Was there any chance for Portugal to take the strait of Gibraltar during the Reconquista? context: <P> brought along sufficient supplies for so many troops on the beach (water could only be obtained inland), Fernando de Castro decided to cancel the expedition and returned to Portugal. Castile lodged a stern protest immediately. There would not be another attempt. Despite his connection with the Canaries enterprise, in 1432, Fernando de Castro was sent to Castile again on another diplomatic mission – this time, to witness the ratification of the 1431 peace treaty. In February 1432, John I granted Fernando de Castro the bailiwick (sesmaria) of Paul de Trava (near Santarém). In 1434, he swapped that benefice for the lordship <P> of Coimbra instructed Fernando de Castro's son Álvaro de Castro, to take over his father's credentials and fulfil the mission in Ceuta. As it turns, out the negotiations with Abu Zakariya failed, and Ceuta was not evacuated. Ferdinand the Saint would die in Moroccan captivity in 1443. <P> Nationalists soften this declaration by replacing the word "ban" for "restrictions" to shipping. Admiral Moreno, commander in chief of the Nationalist fleet, also played down the scale of the operation during a private meeting with the British consul at Palma de Mallorca. Indeed, the Nationalist deployment was reduced to submarine patrols around Cartagena and the presence of an auxiliary cruiser and a destroyer off Valencia. In the latter case, there was a rotation between the auxiliary cruiser Mar Cantábrico and Mar Negro and the old destroyers Ceuta and Melilla. Incident with HMS Sussex On 16 March 1939, two incidents between <P> long-delayed ratification of the 1411 peace between Portugal and Castile. Expedition to Gran Canaria In 1424, sensing that the Crown of Castile was losing interest in the Canary Islands, Prince Henry the Navigator decided to launch an armed expedition to seize the unconquered islands of that archipelago. The large Portuguese expeditionary force, some 2,500 infantry and 120 knights, was placed under the command of Fernando de Castro. It was a fiasco. Landing at Gran Canaria, the expeditionary force faced stiff resistance from the aboriginal Guanches, and were unable to get off the beach. Realizing, too late, that he had not <P> Jervis to consider abandoning the region. By the end of the year, faced with increased threats from the Spanish Navy and without safe harbours west of Gibraltar, he had withdrawn his entire fleet from the Mediterranean, anchoring in the new fleet base at the mouth of the Tagus. <P> on some islands. Neither was it politically, since the particular interests of the nobility (determined to strengthen their economic and political power through the acquisition of the islands) conflicted with those of the states, particularly Castile, which were in the midst of territorial expansion and in a process of strengthening of the Crown against the nobility. Historians distinguish two periods in the conquest of the Canary Islands: Aristocratic conquest (Conquista señorial). This refers to the early conquests carried out by the nobility, for their own benefit and without the direct participation of the Crown of Castile, which merely granted rights of conquest <P> before the 10th of June, 1770, his Britannick majesty will look upon the said declaration, together with the full performance of the engagement on the part of his catholick majesty, as a satisfaction for the injury done to the crown of Great Britain." Aftermath The British restored their base at Port Egmont. Although the question of sovereignty was sidestepped, it would become a source of future trouble. Samuel Johnson described the implications of the crisis in his pamphlet "Thoughts on the late Transactions Respecting Falkland's Islands", looking at the British problem in holding such remote islands against a hostile mainland: <P> Falklands Crisis (1770) The Falklands Crisis of 1770 was a diplomatic standoff between Great Britain and Spain over possession of the Falkland Islands in the South Atlantic Ocean. These events were nearly the cause of a war between Britain and Spain — backed by France — and all three countries were poised to dispatch armed fleets to defend the rival claims to sovereignty of the barren but strategically important islands. Ultimately, a lack of French support for Spain defused the tension, and Spain and Britain reached an inconclusive compromise in which both nations maintained their settlements but neither relinquished its claim <P> Gomera, and of Gran Canaria, Tenerife, and La Palma, resisted the Castilian invaders for almost a century. In 1448 Maciot de Béthencourt sold the lordship of Lanzarote to Portugal's Prince Henry the Navigator, an action that was accepted by neither the natives nor the Castilians. Despite Pope Nicholas V ruling that the Canary Islands were under Portuguese control, the crisis swelled to a revolt which lasted until 1459 with the final expulsion of the Portuguese. In 1479, Portugal and Castile signed the Treaty of Alcáçovas, which settled disputes between Castile and Portugal over the control of the Atlantic. This treaty <P> as the Convention for the Mutual Abandonment of Nootka, was signed on January 11, 1794. It called for the mutual abandonment of Nootka Sound. Britain and Spain were both free to use Nootka Sound as a port and erect temporary structures, but, "neither ... shall form any permanent establishment in the said port or claim any right of sovereignty or territorial dominion there to the exclusion of the other. And Their said Majesties will mutually aid each other to maintain for their subjects free access to the port of Nootka against any other nation which may attempt to establish there <P> entered delicate negotiations with Spain which wished for the return of Gibraltar, which he was only prepared to do in exchange for Cuba and Florida. Ultimately the talks broke down, setting the path to the later Thirteenth Siege of Gibraltar. In the ensuing War of the Quadruple Alliance British forces were involved in a campaign to prevent Spanish expansion in Italy. Spain landed troops in Scotland in support of the Jacobites who they hoped to restore to the throne. The expedition was defeated at the Battle of Glen Shiel and in retaliation the British dispatched a force that briefly captured Vigo <P> in 1817) that states that the winning countries are "committed to employ the mightiest conciliatory effort to return Olivenza to Portuguese authority" and that the winning countries "recognize that the return of Olivenza and its territories must be done". Thus, the border between the two countries in the region of Olivenza should be demarcated by the Treaty of Alcanizes of 1297. Spain interprets Article 105 as not being mandatory on demanding Spain to return Olivenza to Portugal, thus not revoking the Treaty of Badajoz. Portugal has never made a formal claim to the territory after the Treaty of Vienna, but neither has <P> inventory." The agreement also stated: "this engagement to restore port Egmont cannot, nor ought, in any wise, to affect the question of the prior right of sovereignty of the Malouine, otherwise called Falkland's islands." This concession was accepted by the Earl of Rochford, who declared that he was authorised "to offer, in his majesty's name, to the King of Great Britain, a satisfaction for the injury done him, by dispossessing him of port Egmont;" and, having signed a declaration, expressing that Spain "disavows the expedition against port Egmont, and engages to restore it, in the state in which it stood <P> Badajoz still stands and has never been revoked, thus making the case that the border between the two countries in the region of Olivenza should be demarcated as said by the treaty. Portugal claims de jure sovereignty over Olivenza on the grounds of the cancellation of the Treaty of Badajoz, since it was revoked by its own terms. The breach of any of its articles would lead to its cancellation, and that happened when Spain invaded Portugal in the Peninsular War of 1807. Portugal further bases its case on Article 105 of the Treaty of Vienna of 1815 (which Spain signed <P> Gazette of 12 April, but was, nevertheless, essentially true. The Spanish squadron, already being chased the next day by several British ships, completely outsailed their pursuers and returned to Cartagena with the prisoners. After a detention of 14 days at Cartagena, Lieutenant Staines and his fellow prisoners were embarked in a merchant brig bound to Málaga; but they did not arrive there until 24 December, a westerly wind having obliged the vessel to anchor off Almeria, where she was detained upwards of three weeks, and her passengers confined on shore during that period. From Málaga, the British were marched to Gibraltar, <P> conquest between 1478 and 1496, carried out directly by the Crown of Castile, during the reign of the Catholic Monarchs, who armed and partly financed the conquest of those islands which were still unconquered: Gran Canaria, La Palma and Tenerife. This phase of the conquest came to an end in the year 1496, with the dominion of the island of Tenerife, bringing the entire Canarian Archipelago under the control of the Crown of Castile. Béthencourt also established a base on the island of La Gomera, but it would be many years before the island was fully conquered. The natives of La <P> had gained many converts in the Canary Islands by the early 1430s. However, the ownership of the lands had been the subject of dispute between Portugal and the Kingdom of Castille. The lack of effective control had resulted in periodic raids on the islands to procure slaves. As early as the Council of Koblenz in 922, the capture of Christians as slaves by other Christians had been condemned. Acting on a complaint by Fernando Calvetos, bishop of the islands, Pope Eugene IV issued a Papal bull, "Creator Omnium", on 17 December 1434, annulling previous permission granted to Portugal to conquer those <P> on board, returned to the Carteret Islands and attacked with gunfire. After a series of such assaults and heavy casualties, the population sued for peace. This enabled Morrell to occupy one of the islands in exchange for cutlery, trinkets, tools and other metal artefacts. The peace was temporary; Morrell's shore camp was continually harassed by the population. Finally, Morrell decided to abandon the enterprise, citing the "unappeasable vindictiveness and incessant hostilities" of the native population. On November 13, 1830, while returning to Manila, Antarctica anchored off the coast of the island of Uneapa (in today's West New Britain Province). <P> population and of some exiled opposition politicians. The island would only be able to be retaken by the governmental forces through an amphibious operation, but the organization of an operation of this kind constituted an enormous challenge due to the state of neglect of the Navy. Under the leadership of the Navy Minister Magalhães Correia, the Navy was however able to improvise a flotilla of adapted merchant and fishing vessels that was able to join the few operational warships for carrying out the operation. One of the vessels of this flotilla was the merchant ship Cubango which was transformed as <P> were expelled and chased to the border, and even within Spain itself, as would happen in Codicera, where several Spanish soldiers were imprisoned: "Portugal had not accepted the invitation to join France and Spain in this alliance and the latter powers... invaded Portugal. England sent a fleet promptly to Lisbon with 8,000 soldiers who helped drive the invaders back and followed them into Spain herself...The blows she had received were staggering..." At the end of the war, La Lippe was invited by the Portuguese prime minister Pombal to stay in Portugal, in order to reorganize and modernize the Portuguese army (which	answer: [Strait of Gibraltar](_URL_1_) is a body of water between Europe/Spain on the northern side and Africa/Morocco on the southern. In medieval (and modern for that matter) times the key cities were Gibraltar, Tarifa and Algeciras on the Europe side, and Ceuta, Tangier, Arzila and Alcácer Ceguer on the Africa side. Depending on what you consider "taking the straits" there are several scenarios we should analyze.While we usually think of Reconquista as a slow gradual process, majority of southern Iberian peninsula - Muslim ruled al-Andalus - was taken by Christians in relatively quick succession of events between [1200 and 1250](_URL_2_). Almohad dynasty became embroiled in civil war back in Morocco, and the forces stationed in Iberia returned to Africa. This left a huge military and political vacuum in Iberian Muslim states. And they were opposed by resurging Christian forces which were for change cooperative with each other. What followed was the above mentioned massive conquest of Moorish territories. Jamie I of Aragon took Balearic islands and Valencia. Leonese and Castillian forces, first separately and since 1230 united under Ferdinand III took Badajoz, Huelva, Jaen, Cordoba, Murcia and finally Seville in 1248, and reduced to tribute the state of Granada. Portuguese under their king Sancho II also advanced south, (re)taking Alentejo region and then Algarve, finalized with taking of Faro by new king Afonso III in 1249.During this time, Portugal was in a slightly political mishap. The king Sancho II was in a serious dispute with the clergy and the pope, culminating with pope ordering his deposal in 1245 and replacement with his brother Afonso III, an order carried out seemingly without much consternation by the Portuguese. In a military geostrategical way, Portuguese were physically prevented any expansion east by Leonese conquest of a strategic city of Badajoz in 1227. Badajoz was a key city about which Leonese and Portuguese disputed who had the right to conquer it. (To the point when Portuguese were on the brink of conquering it in 1169, Leonese forces moved to support the Moorish defenders and broke the siege) Following conquest of Badajoz, Leonese proceeded and reached the Atlantic shore at Huelva, effectively creating a land barrier for Portuguese armies to reach Gibraltar. Which anyway they were in no position to do, as they were still embroiled in their fights in south of Portugal and Algarve which didn't finish until 1249. From this point forward, as Gibraltar and Granada was landlocked by Castile-Leon, it was only they who could (and did) engage in fighting over trying to conquer the European side of Gibraltar straits.For Portuguese the only way they could possibly do so was by sea invasion. And this is an option they seriously considered in 15th century. Which leads us to the interesting element of the story: the Portuguese actually did take the southern/African part of the Gibraltar straits, and remained in control of key points until 17th century. They took Ceuta in 1415, Alcácer Ceguer in 1450s and Arzila and Tangier around 1470. This solidified their [rule over the southern part of the straits](_URL_0_), and engaged in consistent deliberations whether to take Gibraltar, before Castile conquered it in 1462. They were mainly stopped because Castile had a "right of conqeust" of Gibraltar and Granada as a whole, and while Portuguese were seriously weighing to ignore it at times, they ultimately never attempted. If they tried, Castile might declare war on them, and Gibraltars position would be untenable. Portuguese involvement on Gibraltar straits ended in 17th century. Following Portuguese War of Independance, Ceuta opted to remain with the Spanish, while Tangier was ceded to British as dowry of Catharine Braganza in 1661.Ultimately, Portuguese did control parts of the straits, on the African side from 15th to 17th century. The never really had a chance for taking european side as they were thwarted by Castile-Leonese conquests before they had the opportunity to even try
159,218	1g1z1t	Say two galaxies are combining, what would happen if two stars collided?	_URL_0_There's a violent, bright phase associated with the collision, and obviously depending on the masses, the result can be a supernova or black hole formation. Other than that, it's a merging of two bodies into one, just like when non-stellar masses collide.	[ "_URL_0_\n\nThere's a violent, bright phase associated with the collision, and obviously depending on the masses, the result can be a supernova or black hole formation. Other than that, it's a merging of two bodies into one, just like when non-stellar masses collide.", "As an addendum, what happens if they coll...	5	[ "_URL_0_\n\nThere's a violent, bright phase associated with the collision, and obviously depending on the masses, the result can be a supernova or black hole formation. Other than that, it's a merging of two bodies into one, just like when non-stellar masses collide.", "Also, what would happen if two black hole...	4	<P> the case of mergers the starburst can either be local or galaxy wide depending on the galaxies and how they are merging. <P> would be near the site of a recent galaxy merger. From time to time, the black hole at the center of an HCSS will disrupt a star that passes too close, producing a very luminous flare. A few such flares have been observed at the centers of galaxies, presumably caused by a star coming too close to the SMBH in the galaxy nucleus. It has been estimated that a recoiling SMBH will disrupt about a dozen stars during the time it takes to escape from its galaxy. Since the lifetime of a flare is a few months, the chances of seeing <P> Milky Way occur only once every 10⁷ to 10¹³ years; far less frequently than the appearance of novae. Collisions occur with greater frequency in the dense core regions of globular clusters (cf. blue stragglers). A likely scenario is a collision with a binary star system, or between two binary systems containing white dwarfs. This collision can leave behind a close binary system of two white dwarfs. Their orbit decays and they merge through their shared envelope. However, a study based on SDSS spectra found 15 double systems of the 4,000 white dwarfs tested, implying a double white dwarf merger every 100 <P> gas are bound by gravity to form galaxies, and groups of galaxies can be bound by gravity in galaxy clusters. With the exception of stars in the Milky Way and the galaxies in the Local Group, almost all galaxies are moving away from us due to the expansion of the universe. Binary stars Just as planets can be gravitationally bound to stars, pairs of stars can orbit each other. Some binary stars are visual binaries, meaning they can be observed orbiting each other through a telescope. Some binary stars, however, are too close together to be resolved. These two <P> usually accompanied by much higher gas pressure and a larger ratio of Hydrogen cyanide to Carbon monoxide Emission-lines than are usually observed. Starburst can occur in entire galaxies or just regions of space. A starburst region is a region of space that is undergoing a large amount of star formation. For example, the Tarantula Nebula is a Nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud which has one of the highest star formation rates in the Local Group. By contrast a starburst galaxy is an entire galaxy that is experiencing a very high star formation rate. One notable example being Messier 82 in <P> later. Gravitational attraction also gradually pulls galaxies towards each other to form groups, clusters and superclusters. The Hubble Ultra Deep Field observatory has identified a number of small galaxies merging to form larger ones, at 800 million years of cosmic time (13 billion years ago) (this age estimate is now believed to be slightly overstated). Johannes Schedler's project has identified a quasar CFHQS 1641+3755 at 12.7 billion light-years away, when the universe was just 7% of its present age. On July 11, 2007, using the 10-metre Keck II telescope on Mauna Kea, Richard Ellis of the California Institute of Technology at <P> 4262 stripping some gas of another galaxy in a close passage, likely its neighbor the spiral Messier 99 <P> that of Earth in a matter of one or two milliseconds. These events are believed to create short gamma-ray bursts. The mergers are also believed to produce kilonovae, which are transient sources of fairly isotropic longer wave electromagnetic radiation due to the radioactive decay of heavy r-process nuclei that are produced and ejected during the merger process. Observed mergers On 17 August 2017, LIGO/Virgo collaboration detected a pulse of gravitational waves, named GW170817, associated with the merger of two neutron stars in NGC 4993, an elliptical galaxy in the constellation Hydra. GW170817 also seemed related to a short (≈2 second <P> moving much faster than expected for stars in an ordinary star cluster. This is a challenging observation to make because an HCSS would be relatively faint, requiring many hours of exposure time even on a 10m class telescope. The most promising places to look for HCSSs are cluster of galaxies, for two reasons: first, most of the galaxies in a galaxy cluster are elliptical galaxies which are believed to have formed through mergers. A galaxy merger is a prerequisite for forming a binary SMBH, which is a prerequisite for a kick. Second, the escape velocity from a galaxy cluster is large enough <P> probably ejected during an interaction between the Magellanic clouds and the Milky way. New galaxies in the Centaurus A/M83 Group Ten new galaxies were identified in the Centaurus A/M83 Group, bringing the total (at the time) to 31 galaxies. <P> Starburst region A starburst is an astrophysical process that involves star formation occurring at a rate that is large compared to the rate that is typically observed. This starburst activity will consume the available interstellar gas supply over a timespan that is much shorter than the lifetime of the galaxy. For example, the nebula NGC 6334 has a star formation rate estimated to be 3600 Solar Masses per million years compared the star formation rate of the entire Milky Way of about seven million solar masses per million years. Due to the high amount of star formation a starburst is <P> original mass is lost while in the main sequence) before settling as extremely hot Wolf-Rayet stars. This theory may also explain the apparent dust shells around the star. V838 Monocerotis is located in the approximate direction of the galactic anticenter and off from the disk of the Milky Way. Stellar birth is less active in outer galactic regions, and it is not clear how such a massive star can form there. However, there are very young clusters like Ruprecht 44 and the 4-million-year-old NGC 1893 at a distance of about 7 and 6 kiloparsecs, respectively. Mergeburst The outburst may have <P> such an event are small unless a large volume of space is surveyed. A star in a HCSS could also explode as a Type I (white dwarf) supernova. <P> Astronomical object Galaxy and larger The universe can be viewed as having a hierarchical structure. At the largest scales, the fundamental component of assembly is the galaxy. Galaxies are organized into groups and clusters, often within larger superclusters, that are strung along great filaments between nearly empty voids, forming a web that spans the observable universe. The universe has a variety of morphologies, with irregular, elliptical and disk-like shapes, depending on their formation and evolutionary histories, including interaction with other galaxies, which may lead to a merger. Disc galaxies encompass lenticular and spiral galaxies with features, such as spiral arms and <P> outbursts resembling that of V838 Monocerotis. In 1988, a red star was detected erupting in the Andromeda Galaxy. The star, designated M31-RV, reached the absolute bolometric magnitude of −9.95 at maximum (corresponding a luminosity of 0.75 million times solar) before dimming beyond detectability. A similar eruption occurred in 1994 in the Milky Way (V4332 Sagittarii). Progenitor star Some details are emerging on the nature of the star that experienced the outburst. Based on an incorrect interpretation of the light echo the eruption generated, the distance of the star was first estimated to be 1,900 to 2,900 light years. Combined with <P> a distinct halo. At the core, most galaxies have a supermassive black hole, which may result in an active galactic nucleus. Galaxies can also have satellites in the form of dwarf galaxies and globular clusters. Within a galaxy The constituents of a galaxy are formed out of gaseous matter that assembles through gravitational self-attraction in a hierarchical manner. At this level, the resulting fundamental components are the stars, which are typically assembled in clusters from the various condensing nebulae. The great variety of stellar forms are determined almost entirely by the mass, composition and evolutionary state of these stars. Stars <P> star. <P> class of stellar explosion. V1309 Scorpii is a luminous red nova that followed the merger of a contact binary in 2008. In January 2015, a luminous red nova was observed in the Andromeda Galaxy. On February 10, 2015, a luminous red nova, known as M101 OT2015-1 was discovered in the Pinwheel Galaxy. Characteristics The luminosity of the explosion occurring in luminous red novae is between that of a supernova (which is brighter) and a nova (dimmer). The visible light lasts for weeks or months, and is distinctively red in colour, becoming dimmer and redder over time. As the visible light dims, the <P> into a white dwarf, the secondary star later evolves into a red giant and the stage is set for mass accretion onto the primary. During this final shared-envelope phase, the two stars spiral in closer together as angular momentum is lost. The resulting orbit can have a period as brief as a few hours. If the accretion continues long enough, the white dwarf may eventually approach the Chandrasekhar limit. The white dwarf companion could also accrete matter from other types of companions, including a subgiant or (if the orbit is sufficiently close) even a main sequence star. The actual evolutionary process <P> star. An example of this is the instability strip, a region of the H-R diagram that includes Delta Scuti, RR Lyrae and Cepheid variables. Depending on the initial mass of the star and the presence or absence of a companion, a star may spend the last part of its life as a compact object; either a white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole.	question: Say two galaxies are combining, what would happen if two stars collided? context: <P> the case of mergers the starburst can either be local or galaxy wide depending on the galaxies and how they are merging. <P> would be near the site of a recent galaxy merger. From time to time, the black hole at the center of an HCSS will disrupt a star that passes too close, producing a very luminous flare. A few such flares have been observed at the centers of galaxies, presumably caused by a star coming too close to the SMBH in the galaxy nucleus. It has been estimated that a recoiling SMBH will disrupt about a dozen stars during the time it takes to escape from its galaxy. Since the lifetime of a flare is a few months, the chances of seeing <P> Milky Way occur only once every 10⁷ to 10¹³ years; far less frequently than the appearance of novae. Collisions occur with greater frequency in the dense core regions of globular clusters (cf. blue stragglers). A likely scenario is a collision with a binary star system, or between two binary systems containing white dwarfs. This collision can leave behind a close binary system of two white dwarfs. Their orbit decays and they merge through their shared envelope. However, a study based on SDSS spectra found 15 double systems of the 4,000 white dwarfs tested, implying a double white dwarf merger every 100 <P> gas are bound by gravity to form galaxies, and groups of galaxies can be bound by gravity in galaxy clusters. With the exception of stars in the Milky Way and the galaxies in the Local Group, almost all galaxies are moving away from us due to the expansion of the universe. Binary stars Just as planets can be gravitationally bound to stars, pairs of stars can orbit each other. Some binary stars are visual binaries, meaning they can be observed orbiting each other through a telescope. Some binary stars, however, are too close together to be resolved. These two <P> usually accompanied by much higher gas pressure and a larger ratio of Hydrogen cyanide to Carbon monoxide Emission-lines than are usually observed. Starburst can occur in entire galaxies or just regions of space. A starburst region is a region of space that is undergoing a large amount of star formation. For example, the Tarantula Nebula is a Nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud which has one of the highest star formation rates in the Local Group. By contrast a starburst galaxy is an entire galaxy that is experiencing a very high star formation rate. One notable example being Messier 82 in <P> later. Gravitational attraction also gradually pulls galaxies towards each other to form groups, clusters and superclusters. The Hubble Ultra Deep Field observatory has identified a number of small galaxies merging to form larger ones, at 800 million years of cosmic time (13 billion years ago) (this age estimate is now believed to be slightly overstated). Johannes Schedler's project has identified a quasar CFHQS 1641+3755 at 12.7 billion light-years away, when the universe was just 7% of its present age. On July 11, 2007, using the 10-metre Keck II telescope on Mauna Kea, Richard Ellis of the California Institute of Technology at <P> 4262 stripping some gas of another galaxy in a close passage, likely its neighbor the spiral Messier 99 <P> that of Earth in a matter of one or two milliseconds. These events are believed to create short gamma-ray bursts. The mergers are also believed to produce kilonovae, which are transient sources of fairly isotropic longer wave electromagnetic radiation due to the radioactive decay of heavy r-process nuclei that are produced and ejected during the merger process. Observed mergers On 17 August 2017, LIGO/Virgo collaboration detected a pulse of gravitational waves, named GW170817, associated with the merger of two neutron stars in NGC 4993, an elliptical galaxy in the constellation Hydra. GW170817 also seemed related to a short (≈2 second <P> moving much faster than expected for stars in an ordinary star cluster. This is a challenging observation to make because an HCSS would be relatively faint, requiring many hours of exposure time even on a 10m class telescope. The most promising places to look for HCSSs are cluster of galaxies, for two reasons: first, most of the galaxies in a galaxy cluster are elliptical galaxies which are believed to have formed through mergers. A galaxy merger is a prerequisite for forming a binary SMBH, which is a prerequisite for a kick. Second, the escape velocity from a galaxy cluster is large enough <P> probably ejected during an interaction between the Magellanic clouds and the Milky way. New galaxies in the Centaurus A/M83 Group Ten new galaxies were identified in the Centaurus A/M83 Group, bringing the total (at the time) to 31 galaxies. <P> Starburst region A starburst is an astrophysical process that involves star formation occurring at a rate that is large compared to the rate that is typically observed. This starburst activity will consume the available interstellar gas supply over a timespan that is much shorter than the lifetime of the galaxy. For example, the nebula NGC 6334 has a star formation rate estimated to be 3600 Solar Masses per million years compared the star formation rate of the entire Milky Way of about seven million solar masses per million years. Due to the high amount of star formation a starburst is <P> original mass is lost while in the main sequence) before settling as extremely hot Wolf-Rayet stars. This theory may also explain the apparent dust shells around the star. V838 Monocerotis is located in the approximate direction of the galactic anticenter and off from the disk of the Milky Way. Stellar birth is less active in outer galactic regions, and it is not clear how such a massive star can form there. However, there are very young clusters like Ruprecht 44 and the 4-million-year-old NGC 1893 at a distance of about 7 and 6 kiloparsecs, respectively. Mergeburst The outburst may have <P> such an event are small unless a large volume of space is surveyed. A star in a HCSS could also explode as a Type I (white dwarf) supernova. <P> Astronomical object Galaxy and larger The universe can be viewed as having a hierarchical structure. At the largest scales, the fundamental component of assembly is the galaxy. Galaxies are organized into groups and clusters, often within larger superclusters, that are strung along great filaments between nearly empty voids, forming a web that spans the observable universe. The universe has a variety of morphologies, with irregular, elliptical and disk-like shapes, depending on their formation and evolutionary histories, including interaction with other galaxies, which may lead to a merger. Disc galaxies encompass lenticular and spiral galaxies with features, such as spiral arms and <P> outbursts resembling that of V838 Monocerotis. In 1988, a red star was detected erupting in the Andromeda Galaxy. The star, designated M31-RV, reached the absolute bolometric magnitude of −9.95 at maximum (corresponding a luminosity of 0.75 million times solar) before dimming beyond detectability. A similar eruption occurred in 1994 in the Milky Way (V4332 Sagittarii). Progenitor star Some details are emerging on the nature of the star that experienced the outburst. Based on an incorrect interpretation of the light echo the eruption generated, the distance of the star was first estimated to be 1,900 to 2,900 light years. Combined with <P> a distinct halo. At the core, most galaxies have a supermassive black hole, which may result in an active galactic nucleus. Galaxies can also have satellites in the form of dwarf galaxies and globular clusters. Within a galaxy The constituents of a galaxy are formed out of gaseous matter that assembles through gravitational self-attraction in a hierarchical manner. At this level, the resulting fundamental components are the stars, which are typically assembled in clusters from the various condensing nebulae. The great variety of stellar forms are determined almost entirely by the mass, composition and evolutionary state of these stars. Stars <P> star. <P> class of stellar explosion. V1309 Scorpii is a luminous red nova that followed the merger of a contact binary in 2008. In January 2015, a luminous red nova was observed in the Andromeda Galaxy. On February 10, 2015, a luminous red nova, known as M101 OT2015-1 was discovered in the Pinwheel Galaxy. Characteristics The luminosity of the explosion occurring in luminous red novae is between that of a supernova (which is brighter) and a nova (dimmer). The visible light lasts for weeks or months, and is distinctively red in colour, becoming dimmer and redder over time. As the visible light dims, the <P> into a white dwarf, the secondary star later evolves into a red giant and the stage is set for mass accretion onto the primary. During this final shared-envelope phase, the two stars spiral in closer together as angular momentum is lost. The resulting orbit can have a period as brief as a few hours. If the accretion continues long enough, the white dwarf may eventually approach the Chandrasekhar limit. The white dwarf companion could also accrete matter from other types of companions, including a subgiant or (if the orbit is sufficiently close) even a main sequence star. The actual evolutionary process <P> star. An example of this is the instability strip, a region of the H-R diagram that includes Delta Scuti, RR Lyrae and Cepheid variables. Depending on the initial mass of the star and the presence or absence of a companion, a star may spend the last part of its life as a compact object; either a white dwarf, neutron star, or black hole.	answer: _URL_0_There's a violent, bright phase associated with the collision, and obviously depending on the masses, the result can be a supernova or black hole formation. Other than that, it's a merging of two bodies into one, just like when non-stellar masses collide.
30,177	bgu3h7	Considering I blow my nose every 5 minutes when sick, what did medieval and ancient peoples use instead of tissues?	I can only speak for the Roman world - and briefly at that. From the first century BCE onward, many Romans seem to have carried a handkerchief-sized square of linen known alternately as a sudarium (sweat cloth) or orarium (face cloth). Although it had various functions - enthusiasts at the circus, for example, would wave their sudaria - its principal purpose seems to have wiping sweat from one's face.At least sometimes, however, sudaria/oraria probably also served as handkerchiefs. One of Martial's epigrams mocks a man who was not allowed to blow his nose, and so managed to grow an icicle from its tip (7.37). It is, unfortunately, unclear whether he was desperate to blow his nose into a handkerchief or simply into his hand. There was, however, a relatively common expression describing a low-born man as someone who wiped his nose on his arm/sleeve, implying that a more refined personage would have expelled his mucus in a more seemly manner - presumably into a handkerchief. A final bit of evidence comes from the Christian apologist Arnobius, who describes a handkerchief unambiguously as a "mucinium" - i.e., a cloth for mucus.	[ "I can only speak for the Roman world - and briefly at that. From the first century BCE onward, many Romans seem to have carried a handkerchief-sized square of linen known alternately as a sudarium (sweat cloth) or orarium (face cloth). Although it had various functions - enthusiasts at the circus, for example, wou...	1	[ "I can only speak for the Roman world - and briefly at that. From the first century BCE onward, many Romans seem to have carried a handkerchief-sized square of linen known alternately as a sudarium (sweat cloth) or orarium (face cloth). Although it had various functions - enthusiasts at the circus, for example, wou...	1	<P> History of rhinoplasty Antiquity Treatments for the plastic repair of a broken nose are first mentioned in the Edwin Smith Papyrus, a transcription of an Ancient Egyptian medical text, the oldest known surgical treatise, dated to the Old Kingdom from 3000 to 2500 BC. Rhinoplasty techniques were carried out in ancient India by the ayurvedic physician Sushruta (fl. ca. 300 BCE - 500 CE), who described reconstruction of the nose in the Sushruta samhita (before c. 500 CE), his medico–surgical compendium. The physician Sushruta and his medical students developed and applied plastic surgical techniques for reconstructing noses, genitalia, earlobes, et <P> lips, and nose, to restore the patient's normal visage. It has been assumed that the so-called "Carmagnola" sculpture in Venice is representing emperor Justinian II "the Slit-nosed" (668-711) with signs of his nose reconstructed with plastic surgery. Some believe that the Indian method (with skin flap from the forehead) was used, and others that the Oribasius method, with flaps from the surrounding area was employed. The Middle Ages Nonetheless, during the centuries of the European Middle Ages (AD 5th – 15th centuries) that followed the Imperial Roman collapse (AD 476), the 5th-century BC Asian plastic surgery knowledge of the Sushruta <P> nose. It has also been used for other purposes, such as to remove moisture from the face. <P> bloody nose, and broken head was a result." <P> cloth are put into the nostrils to keep them sufficiently open. This operation is always successful. The artificial nose is secured and looks nearly as well as the natural nose, nor is the scar on the forehead very observable after a length of time. (Gentleman’s Magazine of London, October 1794) 19th century Pre-dating the Indian Sushruta samhita medical compendium is the Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BC), an Ancient Egyptian medical papyrus that describes rhinoplasty as the plastic surgical operation for reconstructing a nose destroyed by rhinectomy, such a mutilation was inflicted as a criminal, religious, political, and military punishment in <P> and published with the title "Diseases of the lungs (of a specific not tuberculous nature)" (1885). In 1869 he became a member of the Académie de Médecine. <P> internal incisions. In the United States, in 1887, the otolaryngologist John Orlando Roe (1848–1915) performed the first, modern endonasal rhinoplasty (closed rhinoplasty), about which he reported in the article The Deformity Termed “Pug Nose” and its Correction, by a Simple Operation (1887), and about his management of saddle nose deformities. 20th century In the early 20th century, Freer, in 1902, and Killian, in 1904, respectively pioneered the submucous resection (SMR) septoplasty procedure for correcting a deviated septum; they raised mucoperichondrial tissue flaps, and resected the cartilaginous and bony septum (including the vomer bone and the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone), <P> kept secret from the king, who was sent for surgery to remove a blockage. It was also not customary for the public to need to know too much detail. By 11 am on Sunday 23 September 1951, the operation on the king's lung was being performed by Price Thomas and his assistants Mr Charles Edwin Drew and Mr Peter Jones in the Buhl room of the palace. Even the changing the King's guard was switched to St James's palace to avoid disturbance outside the operating theatre, where it would have otherwise taken place. Attempting to perform the surgery in their <P> maintaining septal support with a 1.0-cm margin at the dorsum and a 1.0-cm margin at the caudad, for which innovations the technique became the foundational, standard septoplastic procedure. In 1921, A. Rethi introduced the open rhinoplasty approach featuring an incision to the columella to facilitate modifying the tip of the nose. In 1929, Peer and Metzenbaum performed the first manipulation of the caudal septum, where it originates and projects from the forehead. In 1947, Maurice H. Cottle (1898–1981) endonasally resolved a septal deviation with a minimalist hemitransfixion incision, which conserved the septum; thus, he advocated for the practical primacy of <P> the closed rhinoplasty approach. In 1957, A. Sercer advocated the “decortication of the nose” (Dekortication des Nase) technique which featured a columellar-incision open rhinoplasty that allowed greater access to the nasal cavity and to the nasal septum. Nonetheless, in the mid–20th century, despite such refinement of the open rhinoplasty approach, endonasal rhinoplasty was the usual approach to nose surgery — until the 1970s, when Padovan presented his technical refinements, advocating the open rhinoplasty approach; he was seconded by Wilfred S. Goodman in the later 1970s, and by Jack P. Gunter in the 1990s. Goodman impelled technical and procedural progress with the <P> air, nourishment was also extremely important, and hearty meals were provided for all patients. Surgical intervention Surgical intervention was used in some cases of tuberculosis. An artificial pneumothorax involved pumping air into the space between the lung and the ribcage. Thoracoplasty was prescribed for some patients; the removal of ribs so that the chest wall would compress around the lung. the ultimate goal of artificial pneumothorax and thoracoplasty was to render the lungs as still as possible. Occupational therapy After a patient had completed their stay in the bed rest hospital, they were allowed "time up". Patients were able to <P> was eventually prohibited in Japan as unhygienic, although other means of introducing blown air may be used. <P> broad range of diseases and disabilities. Pulmonary hygiene prevents atelectasis (the collapse of the alveoli of the lungs) and rids the respiratory system of secretions, which could cause respiratory infections. It can also decrease pulmonary shunting, increase the functional reserve capacity of the lungs, and prevent respiratory infection after chest trauma. Methods include using suction to remove fluids and placing the patient in a position that allows secretions to drain by gravity. Methods Methods used for pulmonary hygiene include suctioning of the airways, chest physiotherapy, blow bottles, and nasotracheal suction. Bronchoscopy, in which a tube is inserted into <P> the surgeon then shaped into a nose. 18th century In time, the 5th-century BC Indian rhinoplasty technique — featuring a free-flap graft — was rediscovered by Western medicine in the 18th century, during the Third Anglo–Mysore War (1789–1792) of colonial annexation, by the British against Tipu Sultan, when the East India Company surgeons Thomas Cruso and James Findlay witnessed Indian rhinoplasty procedures at the British Residency in Poona. In the English-language Madras Gazette, the surgeons published photographs of the rhinoplasty procedure and its nasal reconstruction outcomes; later, in the October 1794 issue of the Gentleman's Magazine of London, the doctors <P> in vigorously before being wiped off. <P> hot oil into wounds in order to cauterize damaged blood vessels, but the French surgeon Ambroise Paré challenged the use of this method in 1545. Paré was the first to propose controlling bleeding using ligature. During the American Civil War, chloroform was used during surgery to reduce pain and allow more time for operations. Due in part to the lack of sterile technique in hospitals, infection was the leading cause of death for wounded soldiers. In World War I, doctors began replacing patients' lost fluid with salt solutions. With World War II came the idea of blood banking, having <P> to the cheek. The part of the nose to which the skin is to be attached should be made raw, by cutting the nasal stump with a knife. The physician then should place the skin on the nose and stitch the two parts swiftly, keeping the skin properly elevated, by inserting two tubes of eranda (the castor-oil plant) in the position of the nostrils, so that the new nose has proper shape. The skin thus properly adjusted, it should then be sprinkled with a powder of liquorice, red sandal-wood, and barberry plant. Finally, it should be covered with cotton, and <P> the airways so that an examiner can view them, can be used therapeutically as part of pulmonary hygiene. Incentive spirometry and use of analgesics (pain medications) that do not inhibit breathing are also parts of pulmonary toilet. Coughing is also important for ridding the airways of secretions, so healthcare providers are careful not to oversedate patients, because that could inhibit coughing. Tracheotomy facilitates pulmonary toilet. Percussion, another method, loosens secretions and allows the cilia of the airways to remove material. Positioning is another method for promoting drainage of secretions; sometimes patients are placed in a prone position <P> he researched suboccipital puncture and the "Balkenstich method" for treatment of hydrocephalus. The "Balkenstich method" was first introduced in 1908 by Bramann and Anton, and is a procedure in which the corpus callosum is pierced for drainage of cerebrospinal fluid. Bramann despised academic poly-writing and published only some dozens articles and papers. He was knighted in 1891 and received high decorations for treating German princes and Turkish dignitaries. <P> of the time, and the owners demanded 12-hour shifts without a meal break and a seven-day working week (although in his other guise as a prominent churchman, Lord Overtoun campaigned for strict Sunday observance including the cessation of public transport for recreational purposes). However the most damning evidence was linked to the effects on the workers’ health. Safety regulations introduced in 1893 had been ignored, and ineffective protective equipment in unventilated sheds left the employees exposed to the harmful chemical dust at all times. In the short term this led to widespread perforation of the septum in their noses and ‘chrome	question: Considering I blow my nose every 5 minutes when sick, what did medieval and ancient peoples use instead of tissues? context: <P> History of rhinoplasty Antiquity Treatments for the plastic repair of a broken nose are first mentioned in the Edwin Smith Papyrus, a transcription of an Ancient Egyptian medical text, the oldest known surgical treatise, dated to the Old Kingdom from 3000 to 2500 BC. Rhinoplasty techniques were carried out in ancient India by the ayurvedic physician Sushruta (fl. ca. 300 BCE - 500 CE), who described reconstruction of the nose in the Sushruta samhita (before c. 500 CE), his medico–surgical compendium. The physician Sushruta and his medical students developed and applied plastic surgical techniques for reconstructing noses, genitalia, earlobes, et <P> lips, and nose, to restore the patient's normal visage. It has been assumed that the so-called "Carmagnola" sculpture in Venice is representing emperor Justinian II "the Slit-nosed" (668-711) with signs of his nose reconstructed with plastic surgery. Some believe that the Indian method (with skin flap from the forehead) was used, and others that the Oribasius method, with flaps from the surrounding area was employed. The Middle Ages Nonetheless, during the centuries of the European Middle Ages (AD 5th – 15th centuries) that followed the Imperial Roman collapse (AD 476), the 5th-century BC Asian plastic surgery knowledge of the Sushruta <P> nose. It has also been used for other purposes, such as to remove moisture from the face. <P> bloody nose, and broken head was a result." <P> cloth are put into the nostrils to keep them sufficiently open. This operation is always successful. The artificial nose is secured and looks nearly as well as the natural nose, nor is the scar on the forehead very observable after a length of time. (Gentleman’s Magazine of London, October 1794) 19th century Pre-dating the Indian Sushruta samhita medical compendium is the Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BC), an Ancient Egyptian medical papyrus that describes rhinoplasty as the plastic surgical operation for reconstructing a nose destroyed by rhinectomy, such a mutilation was inflicted as a criminal, religious, political, and military punishment in <P> and published with the title "Diseases of the lungs (of a specific not tuberculous nature)" (1885). In 1869 he became a member of the Académie de Médecine. <P> internal incisions. In the United States, in 1887, the otolaryngologist John Orlando Roe (1848–1915) performed the first, modern endonasal rhinoplasty (closed rhinoplasty), about which he reported in the article The Deformity Termed “Pug Nose” and its Correction, by a Simple Operation (1887), and about his management of saddle nose deformities. 20th century In the early 20th century, Freer, in 1902, and Killian, in 1904, respectively pioneered the submucous resection (SMR) septoplasty procedure for correcting a deviated septum; they raised mucoperichondrial tissue flaps, and resected the cartilaginous and bony septum (including the vomer bone and the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone), <P> kept secret from the king, who was sent for surgery to remove a blockage. It was also not customary for the public to need to know too much detail. By 11 am on Sunday 23 September 1951, the operation on the king's lung was being performed by Price Thomas and his assistants Mr Charles Edwin Drew and Mr Peter Jones in the Buhl room of the palace. Even the changing the King's guard was switched to St James's palace to avoid disturbance outside the operating theatre, where it would have otherwise taken place. Attempting to perform the surgery in their <P> maintaining septal support with a 1.0-cm margin at the dorsum and a 1.0-cm margin at the caudad, for which innovations the technique became the foundational, standard septoplastic procedure. In 1921, A. Rethi introduced the open rhinoplasty approach featuring an incision to the columella to facilitate modifying the tip of the nose. In 1929, Peer and Metzenbaum performed the first manipulation of the caudal septum, where it originates and projects from the forehead. In 1947, Maurice H. Cottle (1898–1981) endonasally resolved a septal deviation with a minimalist hemitransfixion incision, which conserved the septum; thus, he advocated for the practical primacy of <P> the closed rhinoplasty approach. In 1957, A. Sercer advocated the “decortication of the nose” (Dekortication des Nase) technique which featured a columellar-incision open rhinoplasty that allowed greater access to the nasal cavity and to the nasal septum. Nonetheless, in the mid–20th century, despite such refinement of the open rhinoplasty approach, endonasal rhinoplasty was the usual approach to nose surgery — until the 1970s, when Padovan presented his technical refinements, advocating the open rhinoplasty approach; he was seconded by Wilfred S. Goodman in the later 1970s, and by Jack P. Gunter in the 1990s. Goodman impelled technical and procedural progress with the <P> air, nourishment was also extremely important, and hearty meals were provided for all patients. Surgical intervention Surgical intervention was used in some cases of tuberculosis. An artificial pneumothorax involved pumping air into the space between the lung and the ribcage. Thoracoplasty was prescribed for some patients; the removal of ribs so that the chest wall would compress around the lung. the ultimate goal of artificial pneumothorax and thoracoplasty was to render the lungs as still as possible. Occupational therapy After a patient had completed their stay in the bed rest hospital, they were allowed "time up". Patients were able to <P> was eventually prohibited in Japan as unhygienic, although other means of introducing blown air may be used. <P> broad range of diseases and disabilities. Pulmonary hygiene prevents atelectasis (the collapse of the alveoli of the lungs) and rids the respiratory system of secretions, which could cause respiratory infections. It can also decrease pulmonary shunting, increase the functional reserve capacity of the lungs, and prevent respiratory infection after chest trauma. Methods include using suction to remove fluids and placing the patient in a position that allows secretions to drain by gravity. Methods Methods used for pulmonary hygiene include suctioning of the airways, chest physiotherapy, blow bottles, and nasotracheal suction. Bronchoscopy, in which a tube is inserted into <P> the surgeon then shaped into a nose. 18th century In time, the 5th-century BC Indian rhinoplasty technique — featuring a free-flap graft — was rediscovered by Western medicine in the 18th century, during the Third Anglo–Mysore War (1789–1792) of colonial annexation, by the British against Tipu Sultan, when the East India Company surgeons Thomas Cruso and James Findlay witnessed Indian rhinoplasty procedures at the British Residency in Poona. In the English-language Madras Gazette, the surgeons published photographs of the rhinoplasty procedure and its nasal reconstruction outcomes; later, in the October 1794 issue of the Gentleman's Magazine of London, the doctors <P> in vigorously before being wiped off. <P> hot oil into wounds in order to cauterize damaged blood vessels, but the French surgeon Ambroise Paré challenged the use of this method in 1545. Paré was the first to propose controlling bleeding using ligature. During the American Civil War, chloroform was used during surgery to reduce pain and allow more time for operations. Due in part to the lack of sterile technique in hospitals, infection was the leading cause of death for wounded soldiers. In World War I, doctors began replacing patients' lost fluid with salt solutions. With World War II came the idea of blood banking, having <P> to the cheek. The part of the nose to which the skin is to be attached should be made raw, by cutting the nasal stump with a knife. The physician then should place the skin on the nose and stitch the two parts swiftly, keeping the skin properly elevated, by inserting two tubes of eranda (the castor-oil plant) in the position of the nostrils, so that the new nose has proper shape. The skin thus properly adjusted, it should then be sprinkled with a powder of liquorice, red sandal-wood, and barberry plant. Finally, it should be covered with cotton, and <P> the airways so that an examiner can view them, can be used therapeutically as part of pulmonary hygiene. Incentive spirometry and use of analgesics (pain medications) that do not inhibit breathing are also parts of pulmonary toilet. Coughing is also important for ridding the airways of secretions, so healthcare providers are careful not to oversedate patients, because that could inhibit coughing. Tracheotomy facilitates pulmonary toilet. Percussion, another method, loosens secretions and allows the cilia of the airways to remove material. Positioning is another method for promoting drainage of secretions; sometimes patients are placed in a prone position <P> he researched suboccipital puncture and the "Balkenstich method" for treatment of hydrocephalus. The "Balkenstich method" was first introduced in 1908 by Bramann and Anton, and is a procedure in which the corpus callosum is pierced for drainage of cerebrospinal fluid. Bramann despised academic poly-writing and published only some dozens articles and papers. He was knighted in 1891 and received high decorations for treating German princes and Turkish dignitaries. <P> of the time, and the owners demanded 12-hour shifts without a meal break and a seven-day working week (although in his other guise as a prominent churchman, Lord Overtoun campaigned for strict Sunday observance including the cessation of public transport for recreational purposes). However the most damning evidence was linked to the effects on the workers’ health. Safety regulations introduced in 1893 had been ignored, and ineffective protective equipment in unventilated sheds left the employees exposed to the harmful chemical dust at all times. In the short term this led to widespread perforation of the septum in their noses and ‘chrome	answer: I can only speak for the Roman world - and briefly at that. From the first century BCE onward, many Romans seem to have carried a handkerchief-sized square of linen known alternately as a sudarium (sweat cloth) or orarium (face cloth). Although it had various functions - enthusiasts at the circus, for example, would wave their sudaria - its principal purpose seems to have wiping sweat from one's face.At least sometimes, however, sudaria/oraria probably also served as handkerchiefs. One of Martial's epigrams mocks a man who was not allowed to blow his nose, and so managed to grow an icicle from its tip (7.37). It is, unfortunately, unclear whether he was desperate to blow his nose into a handkerchief or simply into his hand. There was, however, a relatively common expression describing a low-born man as someone who wiped his nose on his arm/sleeve, implying that a more refined personage would have expelled his mucus in a more seemly manner - presumably into a handkerchief. A final bit of evidence comes from the Christian apologist Arnobius, who describes a handkerchief unambiguously as a "mucinium" - i.e., a cloth for mucus.
197,246	1975qh	Is there a limit to how deep ocean trenches can be?	The Mariana Trench is a special case and still under investigation; however there is a central point to be made regarding your question. The depth of a trench is likely to be controlled by the [style of subduction](_URL_0_) which is controlled, in general, by the age of the slab and the rate of subduction. Oceanic subduction zones can be classified into normal-to-steep (high-angle) and flat (low-angle) subduction styles. Steep (normal) subduction usually has a dip angle of ≥ 30°, although some areas are > 70° at the top of the upper mantle, whereas flat subduction is characterized by [shallow dip angle and a high degree of coupling between the converging plates](_URL_3_) less than 30°. [Slab roll back](_URL_2_) occurs as the slab sinks into the mantle, and the trench propagates towards the subducting slab (this is how back-arc basins form such as the one between [Japan and North Korea / Russia](_URL_1_)). The following is an excellent paper on the bathymetry of the Mariana Trench and the complexities that are considered: [Bathymetry of Mariana trench-arc system and formation of theChallenger Deep as a consequence of weak plate coupling](_URL_4_). So, yes there is a limit to how deep ocean trenches can be because there are limits to the driving forces that control their formation such as subduction (maximum age of the oceanic crust as it reaches negative buoyancy is ~200Myr) its related forces (ridge push, slab pull, etc.) and the rheology of the slab in question. Currently the steepest dipping slab is located in the Mariana Trench where, not coincidentally, the oldest oceanic crust is also located. I'm unaware of any calculations based on lose hypotheticals but given a maximum oceanic crustal age, subduction rate and slab roll back, I would postulate that the Mariana Trench is a likely candidate for an end-member on possible trench depths under Earth's current geological configuration. Somewhat unrelated, but interesting: The thickness of the oceanic lithosphere can be estimated using the following formula: L = 11 x the square root of its age at that location Depth of the ocean can be estimated using the following formula: D = 2.5 + 0.35 x the square root of the age of the oceanic crust at that location (generally it will be slightly shallower than the estimated value calculated due to volcanics and accumulated sediment)	[ "The Mariana Trench is a special case and still under investigation; however there is a central point to be made regarding your question. The depth of a trench is likely to be controlled by the [style of subduction](_URL_0_) which is controlled, in general, by the age of the slab and the rate of subduction. Oceanic...	1	[]	0	<P> in a brittle manner above the décollement surface, with intense ductile deformation below the décollement surface. Décollement horizons may be at depths as great as 10 km and form due to high compressibility between differing rock bodies or along planes of high pore pressures. Typically, the basal detachment of the foreland part of a fold-thrust belt lies in a weak shale or evaporite at or near the basement. Rocks above the décollement are allochthonous, rocks below are autochthonous. If material is transported along a décollement greater than 2 km, it may be considered a nappe. The faulting and folding that occurs with a <P> metres deep. <P> Analytical results showed that the maximum REO content in the mud was up to 0.66% REO. On April 10, 2018 a scientific study of the seabed mud resulted in an estimate of 16 million tons of REO deposits in the studied area. The report discussed various REO supplies in terms of hundreds of years and stated that the area "has the potential to supply these metals on a semi-infinite basis to the world." <P> Weatherford recommendation". As the flow rate drag force during circulation and cementing was only around 30% of that required, the auto-fill tube was almost certainly not ejected and the flapper valves never closed. Some evidence suggests that personnel on the Deepwater Horizon mistakenly believed that the high pressure needed to establish mud circulation had converted the float collar. 3. Cementing inadequate. Cementing proceeded a) without flushing the annulus around the shoe track at sufficiently high rate and duration to ensure full circumferential removal of compressed sediment and good distribution of cement, and b) without converting the float collar to activate its <P> maximum depth, and multiplying this figure by either 6 (for feet) or 2 (for meters), and then deducting that figure from the maximum depth, and rounding up to the next shallower increment of 10 feet (3 m). That is the depth at which the deep stops will commence, and is equivalent to a pressure of 80% of the pressure at maximum depth. The diver will then do standard deep stops at every 10 feet (3 m) until they reach the depth for the appropriate gas switch to their decompression gas. The diver is expected to do at least 3 minutes <P> a depth of about 2,820 ft (860 m). <P> Runoff volumes and peak discharges from impervious areas are reduced by capturing and infiltrating flows. Due to their primary function of being the discharge of treated stormwater, infiltration systems are generally positioned as the final element in a WSUD system. Infiltration trenches should not be located on steep slopes or unstable areas. A layer of geotextile fabric is often used to line the trench in order to prevent the soil from migrating into the rock or gravel fill. Infiltration systems are dependent on the local soil characteristics and are generally best suited to soils with good infiltrative capacity, such as sandy-loam <P> the size of cars or small houses. The backwash from the wave formed channels by rearranging the boulders. The second came in when the ocean was 300 m lower. The second carried a great deal of ice which was dropped in valleys. Calculations show that the average height of the waves would have been 50 m, but the heights would vary from 10 m to 120 m. Numerical simulations show that in this particular part of the ocean two impact craters of the size of 30 km in diameter would form every 30 million years. The implication here is that <P> the environment in the Great Belt. The conclusion of the report was that the marine environment was at least as good as before construction work began. With regards to the water flow, the link must comply with the so-called zero-solution. This has been achieved by deepening parts of the Great Belt, so that the water flow cross section has been increased. This excavation compensates for the blocking effect caused by the bridge pylons and approach ramps. The conclusion of the report is that water flows are now almost at the level they were before the bridge was built. The fixed link has <P> depths of 0 to 50 m. <P> a very large active turbidite system. Although there exists a net up-canyon bottom current due to upwelling, these events overwhelm the normal bottom flow and ensure continued deposition. <P> kelly bushing (KB or RKB) and mean sea level (MSL). Figures Specification of an absolute depth: in Figure 1 above, point P1 might be at 3207 mMDRT and 2370 mTVDMSL, while point P2 might be at 2530 mMDRT and 2502 mTVDLAT. Specification of a differential depth or a thickness: in Figure 2 above, the thickness of the reservoir penetrated by the well might be 57 mMD or 42 mTVD, even though the reservoir true stratigraphic thickness in that area (or isopach) might be only 10 m, and its true vertical thickness (isochore), 14 m. <P> the American mining consortium Ocean Minerals Company (OMCO), made a mining track at a depth of 5000 meters in the nodule fields of the CCFZ. In 2004, the French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea (IFREMER) conducted the Nodinaut expedition to this mining track (which is still visible on the seabed) to study the long-term effects of this physical disturbance on the sediment and its benthic fauna. Samples taken of the superficial sediment revealed that its physical and chemical properties had not shown any recovery since the disturbance made 26 years earlier. On the other hand, the biological activity measured <P> by a trench about 2,000 km in length. The trench is continuous, but has different names for different sections: Hikurangi Trench, the Kermadec Trench and the Tonga Trench. The Tonga Trench is the second deepest trench in the world at about 10,800 m, with the deepest point, Horizon Deep, being the deepest point in the Southern Hemisphere and the second deepest point in the world, after the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench. The eastern boundary of the Kermadec Plate is also the site of the Kermadec Trench, which is the fifth deepest trench in the world at about 10,000 m. <P> Okinawa Trough. It has a large section more than 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) deep and a maximum depth of 2,716 metres (8,911 ft). The Okinawa Trough still in an early stage of evolving from arc type to back-arc activity. Legal Procedure On August 15, 2013, China's mission did a presentation to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The presentation was on the proposal that demarcates the limits of the outer continental shelf beyond 200 nm in part of the East China Sea. China states that <P> amateur radio awards. The island is off-limits to civilians, except from the Japan Meteorological Agency. Minami-Tori-Shima area rare earth deposits After China restricted exports of strategic rare earth oxides (REO) in 2009 Japan started to explore its seabeds for deposits. In January 2013, a deep-sea research vessel of the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology obtained seven deep-sea mud core samples from the seafloor at 5,600 to 5,800 meters depth, approximately 250 kilometres (160 mi) south of the island. The research team found a mud layer 2 to 4 meters beneath the seabed that is extremely concentrated in REO. <P> volume of the silts and clays is reduced, resulting in the lowering of the surface. The damage at the surface is much greater if there is differential settlement, or large-scale features, such as sinkholes and fissures. Aquifer compaction is a significant concern along with pumping-induced land subsidence. A large portion of the groundwater storage potential of many aquifers can be significantly reduced when longterm groundwater extraction, and the resulting groundwater level decline, causes permanent compaction of fine sediment layers (silts and clays). A study in an arid agricultural region of Arizona showed that, even with a water level recovery of <P> i.e., the increase in the number of electrons, is interpreted by the density tool algorithm as a higher density which translates into a lower porosity estimate. The end result is that the separation between the two curves begins to disappear as the invasion front increases in radial depth. The rate at which the two porosity logs approach the true porosity depends upon their radial sensitivities and their respective depths of investigations (DOI). As the invasion fluid front gets deeper into the reservoir, the neutron and density porosity measurements approach the true porosity. For shallow invasion, i.e. shallow with respect to the <P> length of 12,376 metres (40,604 ft). In terms of depth below the surface, the Kola Superdeep Borehole SG-3 retains the world record at 12,262 metres (40,230 ft) in 1989 and is still the deepest artificial point on Earth. <P> concentration of Strontium-90 up to 2020 will be much lower in subsurface water than admissible maximum indexes. Also, contamination of Pripyat River as the most vulnerable surface water route by underground tributaries is unlikely in the next 50 years At the same time, the number of monitoring wells is still insufficient and needs expansion and modification. Also, the boreholes are distributed within the exclusion zone unevenly, without consideration of hydrological and radioactive specifics of the area (Kovar&Herbert, 1998	question: Is there a limit to how deep ocean trenches can be? context: <P> in a brittle manner above the décollement surface, with intense ductile deformation below the décollement surface. Décollement horizons may be at depths as great as 10 km and form due to high compressibility between differing rock bodies or along planes of high pore pressures. Typically, the basal detachment of the foreland part of a fold-thrust belt lies in a weak shale or evaporite at or near the basement. Rocks above the décollement are allochthonous, rocks below are autochthonous. If material is transported along a décollement greater than 2 km, it may be considered a nappe. The faulting and folding that occurs with a <P> metres deep. <P> Analytical results showed that the maximum REO content in the mud was up to 0.66% REO. On April 10, 2018 a scientific study of the seabed mud resulted in an estimate of 16 million tons of REO deposits in the studied area. The report discussed various REO supplies in terms of hundreds of years and stated that the area "has the potential to supply these metals on a semi-infinite basis to the world." <P> Weatherford recommendation". As the flow rate drag force during circulation and cementing was only around 30% of that required, the auto-fill tube was almost certainly not ejected and the flapper valves never closed. Some evidence suggests that personnel on the Deepwater Horizon mistakenly believed that the high pressure needed to establish mud circulation had converted the float collar. 3. Cementing inadequate. Cementing proceeded a) without flushing the annulus around the shoe track at sufficiently high rate and duration to ensure full circumferential removal of compressed sediment and good distribution of cement, and b) without converting the float collar to activate its <P> maximum depth, and multiplying this figure by either 6 (for feet) or 2 (for meters), and then deducting that figure from the maximum depth, and rounding up to the next shallower increment of 10 feet (3 m). That is the depth at which the deep stops will commence, and is equivalent to a pressure of 80% of the pressure at maximum depth. The diver will then do standard deep stops at every 10 feet (3 m) until they reach the depth for the appropriate gas switch to their decompression gas. The diver is expected to do at least 3 minutes <P> a depth of about 2,820 ft (860 m). <P> Runoff volumes and peak discharges from impervious areas are reduced by capturing and infiltrating flows. Due to their primary function of being the discharge of treated stormwater, infiltration systems are generally positioned as the final element in a WSUD system. Infiltration trenches should not be located on steep slopes or unstable areas. A layer of geotextile fabric is often used to line the trench in order to prevent the soil from migrating into the rock or gravel fill. Infiltration systems are dependent on the local soil characteristics and are generally best suited to soils with good infiltrative capacity, such as sandy-loam <P> the size of cars or small houses. The backwash from the wave formed channels by rearranging the boulders. The second came in when the ocean was 300 m lower. The second carried a great deal of ice which was dropped in valleys. Calculations show that the average height of the waves would have been 50 m, but the heights would vary from 10 m to 120 m. Numerical simulations show that in this particular part of the ocean two impact craters of the size of 30 km in diameter would form every 30 million years. The implication here is that <P> the environment in the Great Belt. The conclusion of the report was that the marine environment was at least as good as before construction work began. With regards to the water flow, the link must comply with the so-called zero-solution. This has been achieved by deepening parts of the Great Belt, so that the water flow cross section has been increased. This excavation compensates for the blocking effect caused by the bridge pylons and approach ramps. The conclusion of the report is that water flows are now almost at the level they were before the bridge was built. The fixed link has <P> depths of 0 to 50 m. <P> a very large active turbidite system. Although there exists a net up-canyon bottom current due to upwelling, these events overwhelm the normal bottom flow and ensure continued deposition. <P> kelly bushing (KB or RKB) and mean sea level (MSL). Figures Specification of an absolute depth: in Figure 1 above, point P1 might be at 3207 mMDRT and 2370 mTVDMSL, while point P2 might be at 2530 mMDRT and 2502 mTVDLAT. Specification of a differential depth or a thickness: in Figure 2 above, the thickness of the reservoir penetrated by the well might be 57 mMD or 42 mTVD, even though the reservoir true stratigraphic thickness in that area (or isopach) might be only 10 m, and its true vertical thickness (isochore), 14 m. <P> the American mining consortium Ocean Minerals Company (OMCO), made a mining track at a depth of 5000 meters in the nodule fields of the CCFZ. In 2004, the French Research Institute for Exploitation of the Sea (IFREMER) conducted the Nodinaut expedition to this mining track (which is still visible on the seabed) to study the long-term effects of this physical disturbance on the sediment and its benthic fauna. Samples taken of the superficial sediment revealed that its physical and chemical properties had not shown any recovery since the disturbance made 26 years earlier. On the other hand, the biological activity measured <P> by a trench about 2,000 km in length. The trench is continuous, but has different names for different sections: Hikurangi Trench, the Kermadec Trench and the Tonga Trench. The Tonga Trench is the second deepest trench in the world at about 10,800 m, with the deepest point, Horizon Deep, being the deepest point in the Southern Hemisphere and the second deepest point in the world, after the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench. The eastern boundary of the Kermadec Plate is also the site of the Kermadec Trench, which is the fifth deepest trench in the world at about 10,000 m. <P> Okinawa Trough. It has a large section more than 1,000 metres (3,300 ft) deep and a maximum depth of 2,716 metres (8,911 ft). The Okinawa Trough still in an early stage of evolving from arc type to back-arc activity. Legal Procedure On August 15, 2013, China's mission did a presentation to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) established under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). The presentation was on the proposal that demarcates the limits of the outer continental shelf beyond 200 nm in part of the East China Sea. China states that <P> amateur radio awards. The island is off-limits to civilians, except from the Japan Meteorological Agency. Minami-Tori-Shima area rare earth deposits After China restricted exports of strategic rare earth oxides (REO) in 2009 Japan started to explore its seabeds for deposits. In January 2013, a deep-sea research vessel of the Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology obtained seven deep-sea mud core samples from the seafloor at 5,600 to 5,800 meters depth, approximately 250 kilometres (160 mi) south of the island. The research team found a mud layer 2 to 4 meters beneath the seabed that is extremely concentrated in REO. <P> volume of the silts and clays is reduced, resulting in the lowering of the surface. The damage at the surface is much greater if there is differential settlement, or large-scale features, such as sinkholes and fissures. Aquifer compaction is a significant concern along with pumping-induced land subsidence. A large portion of the groundwater storage potential of many aquifers can be significantly reduced when longterm groundwater extraction, and the resulting groundwater level decline, causes permanent compaction of fine sediment layers (silts and clays). A study in an arid agricultural region of Arizona showed that, even with a water level recovery of <P> i.e., the increase in the number of electrons, is interpreted by the density tool algorithm as a higher density which translates into a lower porosity estimate. The end result is that the separation between the two curves begins to disappear as the invasion front increases in radial depth. The rate at which the two porosity logs approach the true porosity depends upon their radial sensitivities and their respective depths of investigations (DOI). As the invasion fluid front gets deeper into the reservoir, the neutron and density porosity measurements approach the true porosity. For shallow invasion, i.e. shallow with respect to the <P> length of 12,376 metres (40,604 ft). In terms of depth below the surface, the Kola Superdeep Borehole SG-3 retains the world record at 12,262 metres (40,230 ft) in 1989 and is still the deepest artificial point on Earth. <P> concentration of Strontium-90 up to 2020 will be much lower in subsurface water than admissible maximum indexes. Also, contamination of Pripyat River as the most vulnerable surface water route by underground tributaries is unlikely in the next 50 years At the same time, the number of monitoring wells is still insufficient and needs expansion and modification. Also, the boreholes are distributed within the exclusion zone unevenly, without consideration of hydrological and radioactive specifics of the area (Kovar&Herbert, 1998	answer: The Mariana Trench is a special case and still under investigation; however there is a central point to be made regarding your question. The depth of a trench is likely to be controlled by the [style of subduction](_URL_0_) which is controlled, in general, by the age of the slab and the rate of subduction. Oceanic subduction zones can be classified into normal-to-steep (high-angle) and flat (low-angle) subduction styles. Steep (normal) subduction usually has a dip angle of ≥ 30°, although some areas are > 70° at the top of the upper mantle, whereas flat subduction is characterized by [shallow dip angle and a high degree of coupling between the converging plates](_URL_3_) less than 30°. [Slab roll back](_URL_2_) occurs as the slab sinks into the mantle, and the trench propagates towards the subducting slab (this is how back-arc basins form such as the one between [Japan and North Korea / Russia](_URL_1_)). The following is an excellent paper on the bathymetry of the Mariana Trench and the complexities that are considered: [Bathymetry of Mariana trench-arc system and formation of theChallenger Deep as a consequence of weak plate coupling](_URL_4_). So, yes there is a limit to how deep ocean trenches can be because there are limits to the driving forces that control their formation such as subduction (maximum age of the oceanic crust as it reaches negative buoyancy is ~200Myr) its related forces (ridge push, slab pull, etc.) and the rheology of the slab in question. Currently the steepest dipping slab is located in the Mariana Trench where, not coincidentally, the oldest oceanic crust is also located. I'm unaware of any calculations based on lose hypotheticals but given a maximum oceanic crustal age, subduction rate and slab roll back, I would postulate that the Mariana Trench is a likely candidate for an end-member on possible trench depths under Earth's current geological configuration. Somewhat unrelated, but interesting: The thickness of the oceanic lithosphere can be estimated using the following formula: L = 11 x the square root of its age at that location Depth of the ocean can be estimated using the following formula: D = 2.5 + 0.35 x the square root of the age of the oceanic crust at that location (generally it will be slightly shallower than the estimated value calculated due to volcanics and accumulated sediment)
83,946	kksc4	If you had a molecule long enough, could you cut it with scissors or a knife?	Every-time you tear something, or cut something you are cutting bonds, and giving out a slight bit of heat. Everytime you unstick sellotape from its reel, you are actually breaking bonds, which results in the release of x-rays. Same can be said when you crush some types of sugar and a blue light can be seen to be emitted, you are rearranging bonds.So, in answer to your question, yes you can cut it with scissors or a knife, and yes it can overcome the covalent bondsEdit: [Heres how to get sugar to give out blue light](_URL_0_)	[ "Every-time you tear something, or cut something you are cutting bonds, and giving out a slight bit of heat. \n\n\nEverytime you unstick sellotape from its reel, you are actually breaking bonds, which results in the release of x-rays. Same can be said when you crush some types of sugar and a blue light can be seen ...	4	[ "Every-time you tear something, or cut something you are cutting bonds, and giving out a slight bit of heat. \n\n\nEverytime you unstick sellotape from its reel, you are actually breaking bonds, which results in the release of x-rays. Same can be said when you crush some types of sugar and a blue light can be seen ...	2	<P> the synthesis of amino sugars, however success strongly depends upon the nature of nucleophile, the type of leaving group and site of displacements on sugar rings. One aspect of this problem is that displacements at the C2 position tend to be slow as it is adjacent to the anomeric centre; this is particularly true for glycosides with axially-oriented aglycones. Epoxides are suitable starting materials for realizing nucleophilic displacement reaction to introduce azide into C-2. Anhydrosugar 21 could be transformed into thioglycoside 22, which serves as a donor to react with alcohols to obtain 2-azide-2-deoxy-O-glycosides. The subsequent reduction and N-acetylation will furnish <P> raise two objections to the concept of molecular assembler, which he called the "fat fingers problem" and the "sticky fingers problem": Because the fingers of a manipulator arm must themselves be made out of atoms, they have a certain irreducible size. There just isn't enough room in the nanometer-size reaction region to accommodate all the fingers of all the manipulators necessary to have complete control of the chemistry.... [Also,] the atoms of the manipulator hands will adhere to the atom that is being moved. So it will often be impossible to release this minuscule building block in precisely the right spot. <P> difficult, simply swelling the polymer in the solvent is sufficient, though dissolving is always preferred. Because basic salts are polar and are not soluble in the non-polar solvents used to dissolve most polymers, mixed solvents (e.g. 90:10 toluene/alcohol) are often used. Neutralization level must be determined after an ionomer is synthesized as varying the neutralization level varies the morphological and physical properties of the ionomer. One method used to do this is to examine the peak heights of infrared vibrations of the acid form. However, there may be substantial error in determining peak height, especially since small amounts of water appear <P> not accessible in the past. Indeed, since the 1990s, many techniques for probing individual molecules have been developed. The first single-molecule experiments were patch clamp experiments performed in the 1970s, but these were limited to studying ion channels. Today, systems investigated using single-molecule techniques include the movement of myosin on actin filaments in muscle tissue and the spectroscopic details of individual local environments in solids. Biological polymers' conformations have been measured using atomic force microscopy (AFM). Using force spectroscopy, single molecules (or pairs of interacting molecules), usually polymers, can be mechanically stretched and their elastic response recorded in real time. History <P> not see it as paradoxical. Distinguishability of two materials is a constitutive, not a thermodynamic, difference, for the laws of thermodynamics are the same for every material, while their constitutive characteristics are diverse. Though one might imagine a continuous decrease of the constitutive difference between any two chemical substances, physically it cannot be continuously decreased till it actually vanishes. It is hard to think of a smaller difference than that between ortho- and para-hydrogen. Yet they differ by a finite amount. The hypothesis, that the distinction might tend continuously to zero, is unphysical. This is neither examined nor explained by thermodynamics. <P> and product remain in the organic phase, often dichloromethane or diethyl ether. The presence of a base prevents the amine reactant from being protonated, which would make it unable to react as a nucleophile. <P> problem: chemically tagging a molecule with a fluorescent dye radically changes the structure of the molecule, which in turn can radically change the way that molecule interacts with other molecules. In contrast, intrinsic radiolabeling of a molecule can be done without altering its structure in any way. For example, substituting a H-3 for a hydrogen atom or C-14 for a carbon atom does not change the conformation, structure, or any other property of the molecule, it's just switching forms of the same atom. Thus an intrinscially radiolabeled molecule is identical to its unlabeled counterpart. Measurement of biological <P> can be applied in water and can virtually oxidize any compound present in the water matrix, often at a diffusion controlled reaction speed. Consequently, ·OH reacts unselectively once formed and contaminants will be quickly and efficiently fragmented and converted into small inorganic molecules. Hydroxyl radicals are produced with the help of one or more primary oxidants (e.g. ozone, hydrogen peroxide, oxygen) and/or energy sources (e.g. ultraviolet light) or catalysts (e.g. titanium dioxide). Precise, pre-programmed dosages, sequences and combinations of these reagents are applied in order to obtain a maximum •OH yield. In general, when applied in properly tuned conditions, AOPs <P> of hydrocarbons However, even for superacidic solutions, protons in the condensed phase are far from being unbound. For instance, in fluoroantimonic acid, they are bound to one or more molecules of hydrogen fluoride. Though hydrogen fluoride is normally regarded as an exceptionally weak proton acceptor (though a somewhat better one than the SbF₆– anion), dissociation of its protonated form, the fluoronium ion H₂F⁺ to HF and the truly naked H⁺ is still a highly endothermic process (ΔG° = +113 kcal/mol), and imagining the proton in the condensed phase as being "naked" or "unbound", like charged particles in <P> 5S-hydroperoxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (5(S)-HpETE). 5-(S)-HpETE may then be released and rapidly converted to 5(S)-HETE by ubiquitous cellular peroxidases: Alternatively, 5(S)-HpETE may be further metabolized to its epoxide, 5(6)-oxido-eicosatetraenoic acid viz., leukotriene A4 (i.e. S,6S-oxido-7E,9E,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid). Leukotriene A4 may then be further metabolized either to leukotriene B4 by leukotriene A4 hydrolase or to leukotriene C4 by leukotriene C4 synthase. Finally, leukotriene C4 may be metabolized to leukotriene D4 and then to leukotriene E4. The relative amounts of these metabolites made by specific cells and tissues depends in large part on the relative content of the appropriate enzymes. The selective synthesis of 5(S)-HETE (i.e. <P> using a Lewis acid and a weak base ("soft conditions"): In this diagram, B: represents the base which takes the proton. The dibutylboron triflate actually becomes attached to the oxygen only during the reaction. The second product on the right (formed from the N,N-diisopropylethylamine) should be i-Pr₂EtNH⁺ OTf ⁻. For deprotonation to occur, the stereoelectronic requirement is that the alpha-C-H sigma bond must be able to overlap with the pi* orbital of the carbonyl: Geometry Extensive studies have been performed on the formation of enolates under many different conditions. It is now possible to generate, in most cases, the desired enolate geometry: For <P> in a skewed structure, with an oxygen–oxygen–oxygen–hydrogen dihedral angle of 81.8°. The oxygen–oxygen bond lengths of 142.8 picometer are slightly shorter than the 146.4 pm oxygen–oxygen bonds in hydrogen peroxide. Various dimeric and trimeric forms also seem to exist. It is slightly more acidic than hydrogen peroxide, dissociating into H⁺ and OOOH⁻. Reactions Trioxidane readily decomposes into water and singlet oxygen, with a half-life of about 16 minutes in organic solvents at room temperature, but only milliseconds in water. It reacts with organic sulfides to form sulfoxides, but little else is known of its reactivity. Recent research found that trioxidane is the <P> example, an aldehyde as the electrophile is represented by the following reaction. (The proportion of indium halide to indium hydroxide will depend on conditions such as pH and temperature.) Rate of reaction The rate of this reaction, determined approximately by TLC, appears to be solvent dependent. The first step, formation of the organoinidum intermediate at the indium surface, is rapid and first order with respect to allyl halide. When the halide is bromide or iodide and convection is rapid, the reaction rate is mass transport limited. The heterogeneous rate constant for the first step has been determined to be at <P> Richard Feynman. Smalley began his concluding letter: I see you have now walked out of the room where I had led you to talk about real chemistry, and you are now back in your mechanical world. I am sorry we have ended up like this. For a moment I thought we were making progress. You still do not appear to understand the impact of my short piece in Scientific American. Much like you can't make a boy and a girl fall in love with each other simply by pushing them together, you cannot make precise chemistry occur as desired between two molecular <P> is scattered, autofluorescence and nucleic acids. This is problematic as flow cytometric distinction of cells relies on these qualities. Some fixatives also lead to complete loss of cells. Presently, some of the agents used in the fixation process include two variations of formaldehyde (formalin and paraformaldehyde), 70% ethanol, glutaraldehyde and TCA. It is presumed that the best fixation agent for protein and nucleic acids is paraformaldehyde due to its ability to swiftly enter cells. Staining In flow cytometry, staining enables distinction of bacterioplankton from non-bacterial particles. It involves the incubation of sample in the wide array of fluorochromes such as <P> the use of BDE as a measure of bond strength in these cases is misleading. On the other end of the scale, there is no clear boundary between a very weak covalent bond and an intermolecular interaction. Lewis acid–base complexes between transition metal fragments and noble gases are among the weakest of bonds with substantial covalent character, with (CO)₅W:Ar having a W–Ar bond dissociation energy of less than 3.0 kcal/mol. Held together entirely by the van der Waals force, helium dimer, He₂, has the lowest measured bond dissociation energy of only 0.021 kcal/mol. <P> materials under oxygen-deficient conditions. For example, it can be detected in the exhaust of internal combustion engines and tobacco smoke. Certain plastics, especially those derived from acrylonitrile, release hydrogen cyanide when heated or burnt. Toxicity Many cyanides are highly toxic. The cyanide anion is an inhibitor of the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase (also known as aa₃) in the fourth complex of the electron transport chain (found in the membrane of the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells). It attaches to the iron within this protein. The binding of cyanide to this enzyme prevents transport of electrons from cytochrome c to oxygen. As <P> isoforms were inhibited more than 50%. There was good blood brain barrier permeability in rats after oral administration of all but epoxide. Pharmacokinetic studies after oral and intravenous administration of 10 mg/kg showed that after 8 hours all test compounds stayed in the gastrointestinal tract at more than 1.5% of the dose and less than 0.5% was excreted in urine. <P> Electron-withdrawing groups such as acetoxy were unreactive. The protected erythrose product could then be converted to four possible sugars via Mukaiyama aldol addition followed by lactol formation. This requires appropriate diastereocontrol in the Mukaiyama aldol addition and the product silyloxycarbenium ion to preferentially cyclize, rather than undergo further aldol reaction. In the end, glucose, mannose, and allose were synthesized: "Direct" aldol additions In the usual aldol addition, a carbonyl compound is deprotonated to form the enolate. The enolate is added to an aldehyde or ketone, which forms an alkoxide, which is then protonated on workup. A superior method, in principle, <P> of nitric oxide. Since NO is a stable molecule, patterns written with it can, in principle, be followed almost indefinitely. Another well-developed and widely documented technique that yields extremely high accuracy is hydroxyl tagging velocimetry (HTV). It is based on photo-dissociation of water vapor followed by visualisation of the resulting OH radical using LIF. HTV has been successfully demonstrated in many test conditions ranging from room air temperature flows to Mach 2 flows within a cavity.	question: If you had a molecule long enough, could you cut it with scissors or a knife? context: <P> the synthesis of amino sugars, however success strongly depends upon the nature of nucleophile, the type of leaving group and site of displacements on sugar rings. One aspect of this problem is that displacements at the C2 position tend to be slow as it is adjacent to the anomeric centre; this is particularly true for glycosides with axially-oriented aglycones. Epoxides are suitable starting materials for realizing nucleophilic displacement reaction to introduce azide into C-2. Anhydrosugar 21 could be transformed into thioglycoside 22, which serves as a donor to react with alcohols to obtain 2-azide-2-deoxy-O-glycosides. The subsequent reduction and N-acetylation will furnish <P> raise two objections to the concept of molecular assembler, which he called the "fat fingers problem" and the "sticky fingers problem": Because the fingers of a manipulator arm must themselves be made out of atoms, they have a certain irreducible size. There just isn't enough room in the nanometer-size reaction region to accommodate all the fingers of all the manipulators necessary to have complete control of the chemistry.... [Also,] the atoms of the manipulator hands will adhere to the atom that is being moved. So it will often be impossible to release this minuscule building block in precisely the right spot. <P> difficult, simply swelling the polymer in the solvent is sufficient, though dissolving is always preferred. Because basic salts are polar and are not soluble in the non-polar solvents used to dissolve most polymers, mixed solvents (e.g. 90:10 toluene/alcohol) are often used. Neutralization level must be determined after an ionomer is synthesized as varying the neutralization level varies the morphological and physical properties of the ionomer. One method used to do this is to examine the peak heights of infrared vibrations of the acid form. However, there may be substantial error in determining peak height, especially since small amounts of water appear <P> not accessible in the past. Indeed, since the 1990s, many techniques for probing individual molecules have been developed. The first single-molecule experiments were patch clamp experiments performed in the 1970s, but these were limited to studying ion channels. Today, systems investigated using single-molecule techniques include the movement of myosin on actin filaments in muscle tissue and the spectroscopic details of individual local environments in solids. Biological polymers' conformations have been measured using atomic force microscopy (AFM). Using force spectroscopy, single molecules (or pairs of interacting molecules), usually polymers, can be mechanically stretched and their elastic response recorded in real time. History <P> not see it as paradoxical. Distinguishability of two materials is a constitutive, not a thermodynamic, difference, for the laws of thermodynamics are the same for every material, while their constitutive characteristics are diverse. Though one might imagine a continuous decrease of the constitutive difference between any two chemical substances, physically it cannot be continuously decreased till it actually vanishes. It is hard to think of a smaller difference than that between ortho- and para-hydrogen. Yet they differ by a finite amount. The hypothesis, that the distinction might tend continuously to zero, is unphysical. This is neither examined nor explained by thermodynamics. <P> and product remain in the organic phase, often dichloromethane or diethyl ether. The presence of a base prevents the amine reactant from being protonated, which would make it unable to react as a nucleophile. <P> problem: chemically tagging a molecule with a fluorescent dye radically changes the structure of the molecule, which in turn can radically change the way that molecule interacts with other molecules. In contrast, intrinsic radiolabeling of a molecule can be done without altering its structure in any way. For example, substituting a H-3 for a hydrogen atom or C-14 for a carbon atom does not change the conformation, structure, or any other property of the molecule, it's just switching forms of the same atom. Thus an intrinscially radiolabeled molecule is identical to its unlabeled counterpart. Measurement of biological <P> can be applied in water and can virtually oxidize any compound present in the water matrix, often at a diffusion controlled reaction speed. Consequently, ·OH reacts unselectively once formed and contaminants will be quickly and efficiently fragmented and converted into small inorganic molecules. Hydroxyl radicals are produced with the help of one or more primary oxidants (e.g. ozone, hydrogen peroxide, oxygen) and/or energy sources (e.g. ultraviolet light) or catalysts (e.g. titanium dioxide). Precise, pre-programmed dosages, sequences and combinations of these reagents are applied in order to obtain a maximum •OH yield. In general, when applied in properly tuned conditions, AOPs <P> of hydrocarbons However, even for superacidic solutions, protons in the condensed phase are far from being unbound. For instance, in fluoroantimonic acid, they are bound to one or more molecules of hydrogen fluoride. Though hydrogen fluoride is normally regarded as an exceptionally weak proton acceptor (though a somewhat better one than the SbF₆– anion), dissociation of its protonated form, the fluoronium ion H₂F⁺ to HF and the truly naked H⁺ is still a highly endothermic process (ΔG° = +113 kcal/mol), and imagining the proton in the condensed phase as being "naked" or "unbound", like charged particles in <P> 5S-hydroperoxy-6E,8Z,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid (5(S)-HpETE). 5-(S)-HpETE may then be released and rapidly converted to 5(S)-HETE by ubiquitous cellular peroxidases: Alternatively, 5(S)-HpETE may be further metabolized to its epoxide, 5(6)-oxido-eicosatetraenoic acid viz., leukotriene A4 (i.e. S,6S-oxido-7E,9E,11Z,14Z-eicosatetraenoic acid). Leukotriene A4 may then be further metabolized either to leukotriene B4 by leukotriene A4 hydrolase or to leukotriene C4 by leukotriene C4 synthase. Finally, leukotriene C4 may be metabolized to leukotriene D4 and then to leukotriene E4. The relative amounts of these metabolites made by specific cells and tissues depends in large part on the relative content of the appropriate enzymes. The selective synthesis of 5(S)-HETE (i.e. <P> using a Lewis acid and a weak base ("soft conditions"): In this diagram, B: represents the base which takes the proton. The dibutylboron triflate actually becomes attached to the oxygen only during the reaction. The second product on the right (formed from the N,N-diisopropylethylamine) should be i-Pr₂EtNH⁺ OTf ⁻. For deprotonation to occur, the stereoelectronic requirement is that the alpha-C-H sigma bond must be able to overlap with the pi* orbital of the carbonyl: Geometry Extensive studies have been performed on the formation of enolates under many different conditions. It is now possible to generate, in most cases, the desired enolate geometry: For <P> in a skewed structure, with an oxygen–oxygen–oxygen–hydrogen dihedral angle of 81.8°. The oxygen–oxygen bond lengths of 142.8 picometer are slightly shorter than the 146.4 pm oxygen–oxygen bonds in hydrogen peroxide. Various dimeric and trimeric forms also seem to exist. It is slightly more acidic than hydrogen peroxide, dissociating into H⁺ and OOOH⁻. Reactions Trioxidane readily decomposes into water and singlet oxygen, with a half-life of about 16 minutes in organic solvents at room temperature, but only milliseconds in water. It reacts with organic sulfides to form sulfoxides, but little else is known of its reactivity. Recent research found that trioxidane is the <P> example, an aldehyde as the electrophile is represented by the following reaction. (The proportion of indium halide to indium hydroxide will depend on conditions such as pH and temperature.) Rate of reaction The rate of this reaction, determined approximately by TLC, appears to be solvent dependent. The first step, formation of the organoinidum intermediate at the indium surface, is rapid and first order with respect to allyl halide. When the halide is bromide or iodide and convection is rapid, the reaction rate is mass transport limited. The heterogeneous rate constant for the first step has been determined to be at <P> Richard Feynman. Smalley began his concluding letter: I see you have now walked out of the room where I had led you to talk about real chemistry, and you are now back in your mechanical world. I am sorry we have ended up like this. For a moment I thought we were making progress. You still do not appear to understand the impact of my short piece in Scientific American. Much like you can't make a boy and a girl fall in love with each other simply by pushing them together, you cannot make precise chemistry occur as desired between two molecular <P> is scattered, autofluorescence and nucleic acids. This is problematic as flow cytometric distinction of cells relies on these qualities. Some fixatives also lead to complete loss of cells. Presently, some of the agents used in the fixation process include two variations of formaldehyde (formalin and paraformaldehyde), 70% ethanol, glutaraldehyde and TCA. It is presumed that the best fixation agent for protein and nucleic acids is paraformaldehyde due to its ability to swiftly enter cells. Staining In flow cytometry, staining enables distinction of bacterioplankton from non-bacterial particles. It involves the incubation of sample in the wide array of fluorochromes such as <P> the use of BDE as a measure of bond strength in these cases is misleading. On the other end of the scale, there is no clear boundary between a very weak covalent bond and an intermolecular interaction. Lewis acid–base complexes between transition metal fragments and noble gases are among the weakest of bonds with substantial covalent character, with (CO)₅W:Ar having a W–Ar bond dissociation energy of less than 3.0 kcal/mol. Held together entirely by the van der Waals force, helium dimer, He₂, has the lowest measured bond dissociation energy of only 0.021 kcal/mol. <P> materials under oxygen-deficient conditions. For example, it can be detected in the exhaust of internal combustion engines and tobacco smoke. Certain plastics, especially those derived from acrylonitrile, release hydrogen cyanide when heated or burnt. Toxicity Many cyanides are highly toxic. The cyanide anion is an inhibitor of the enzyme cytochrome c oxidase (also known as aa₃) in the fourth complex of the electron transport chain (found in the membrane of the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells). It attaches to the iron within this protein. The binding of cyanide to this enzyme prevents transport of electrons from cytochrome c to oxygen. As <P> isoforms were inhibited more than 50%. There was good blood brain barrier permeability in rats after oral administration of all but epoxide. Pharmacokinetic studies after oral and intravenous administration of 10 mg/kg showed that after 8 hours all test compounds stayed in the gastrointestinal tract at more than 1.5% of the dose and less than 0.5% was excreted in urine. <P> Electron-withdrawing groups such as acetoxy were unreactive. The protected erythrose product could then be converted to four possible sugars via Mukaiyama aldol addition followed by lactol formation. This requires appropriate diastereocontrol in the Mukaiyama aldol addition and the product silyloxycarbenium ion to preferentially cyclize, rather than undergo further aldol reaction. In the end, glucose, mannose, and allose were synthesized: "Direct" aldol additions In the usual aldol addition, a carbonyl compound is deprotonated to form the enolate. The enolate is added to an aldehyde or ketone, which forms an alkoxide, which is then protonated on workup. A superior method, in principle, <P> of nitric oxide. Since NO is a stable molecule, patterns written with it can, in principle, be followed almost indefinitely. Another well-developed and widely documented technique that yields extremely high accuracy is hydroxyl tagging velocimetry (HTV). It is based on photo-dissociation of water vapor followed by visualisation of the resulting OH radical using LIF. HTV has been successfully demonstrated in many test conditions ranging from room air temperature flows to Mach 2 flows within a cavity.	answer: Every-time you tear something, or cut something you are cutting bonds, and giving out a slight bit of heat. Everytime you unstick sellotape from its reel, you are actually breaking bonds, which results in the release of x-rays. Same can be said when you crush some types of sugar and a blue light can be seen to be emitted, you are rearranging bonds.So, in answer to your question, yes you can cut it with scissors or a knife, and yes it can overcome the covalent bondsEdit: [Heres how to get sugar to give out blue light](_URL_0_)
115,661	ua43z	Do photons create some sort of friction when they hit on a moving object? And, if so, does the color of the object have any effect on it?	Photons have momentum, despite having zero mass, given by p = E/c, where E = hf (h = Planck's constant, f = frequency). Since momentum is conserved, photons impacting an object do indeed exert a force on it (though it doesn't have anything to do with friction). Reflectiveness does make a difference - if a photon with momentum p impacts an object and is absorbed, then the object must have momentum p. If, however, it is perfectly reflected, then the photon is left with momentum -p (it's actually slightly less than this, as it gives a bit of energy to the object, but fairly close), meaning that the object must have momentum 2p. If the reflection is diffuse (which in the visible spectrum would be a white rather than mirrored object), the momentum gain and direction from the object will depend on the scattering angle, but will be at least p for a flat surface normal to the incoming radiation.	[ "The heat in this example isn't caused by friction it's caused by an energy transfer as the photon interacts with the surface. Black surfaces are more absorbent and less likely to reflect a photon causing them to heat up quicker where as white objects are reflective causing photons to be more more likely to rebound...	3	[ "Photons have momentum, despite having zero mass, given by p = E/c, where E = hf (h = Planck's constant, f = frequency). Since momentum is conserved, photons impacting an object do indeed exert a force on it (though it doesn't have anything to do with friction). \n\nReflectiveness does make a difference - if a phot...	1	<P> field at a radius called the gyroradius. The acceleration from this curving motion induces the electron to radiate energy in the form of synchrotron radiation. The energy emission in turn causes a recoil of the electron, known as the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac Force, which creates a friction that slows the electron. This force is caused by a back-reaction of the electron's own field upon itself. Photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in quantum electrodynamics. An isolated electron at a constant velocity cannot emit or absorb a real photon; doing so would violate conservation of energy and momentum. Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum <P> between two charged particles. This exchange of virtual photons, for example, generates the Coulomb force. Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle, such as a proton. The acceleration of the electron results in the emission of Bremsstrahlung radiation. An inelastic collision between a photon (light) and a solitary (free) electron is called Compton scattering. This collision results in a transfer of momentum and energy between the particles, which modifies the wavelength of the photon by an amount called the Compton shift. The maximum magnitude of this wavelength shift is h/mₑc, which is known as <P> billions of Kelvin, direct photon–photon interactions are usually negligible compared to interactions with matter. Photons are an example of an interacting boson gas, and as described by the H-theorem, under very general conditions any interacting boson gas will approach thermal equilibrium. Transmission, absorption, and reflection A body's behavior with regard to thermal radiation is characterized by its transmission τ, absorption α, and reflection ρ. The boundary of a body forms an interface with its surroundings, and this interface may be rough or smooth. A nonreflecting interface separating regions with different refractive indices must be rough, because the laws of reflection and <P> bend is determined by the index of refraction and has always been positive until the fabrication of artificial negative index materials. Objects also emit evanescent waves that carry details of the object, but are unobtainable with conventional optics. Such evanescent waves decay exponentially and thus never become part of the image resolution, an optics threshold known as the diffraction limit. Breaking this diffraction limit, and capturing evanescent waves are critical to the creation of a 100-percent perfect representation of an object. In addition, conventional optical materials suffer a diffraction limit because only the propagating components are transmitted (by the optical material) <P> corresponds to the energy required to excite the system. This energy has a specific wavelength, and therefore color of light, related by: A common example of this phenomenon is in β-carotene. β-carotene (C₄₀H₅₆) is a conjugated polyene with an orange color and a molecular length of approximately 3.8 nm (though its chain length is only approximately 2.4 nm). Due to β-carotene's high level of conjugation, electrons are dispersed throughout the length of the molecule, allowing one to model it as a one-dimensional particle in a box. β-carotene has 11 carbon-carbon double bonds in conjugation; each of those double bonds contains two π-electrons, therefore <P> Talbot effect The atomic Talbot effect Due to the quantum mechanical wave nature of particles, diffraction effects have also been observed with atoms—effects which are similar to those in the case of light. Chapman et al. carried out an experiment in which a collimated beam of sodium atoms was passed through two diffraction gratings (the second used as a mask) to observe the Talbot effect and measure the Talbot length. The beam had a mean velocity of 1000 m/s corresponding to a de Broglie wavelength of = 0.017 nm. Their experiment was performed with 200 and 300 nm gratings which yielded <P> the discrete energy transfer from the light to the electric current, since in any small time interval a vast number of photons are detected. This is ensured by the intense LO. The observable therefore has a quasi-continuous eigenvalue spectrum, as it is expected for an electric field strength. (In principle, one can also characterize squeezed states, in particular squeezed vacuum states, by counting photons, however, in general the measurement of the photon number statistic is not sufficient for a full characterization of a squeezed state and the full density matrix in the basis of the number states has to be <P> refraction governed by the Fresnel equations for a smooth interface require a reflected ray when the refractive indices of the material and its surroundings differ. A few idealized types of behavior are given particular names: An opaque body is one that transmits none of the radiation that reaches it, although some may be reflected. That is, τ=0 and α+ρ=1 A transparent body is one that transmits all the radiation that reaches it. That is, τ=1 and α=ρ=0. A grey body is one where α, ρ and τ are uniform for all wavelengths. This term also is used to mean a body for which <P> Infraparticle An infraparticle is an electrically charged particle and its surrounding cloud of soft photons—of which there are infinite number, by virtue of the infrared divergence of quantum electrodynamics. That is, it is a dressed particle rather than a bare particle. Whenever electric charges accelerate they emit Bremsstrahlung radiation, whereby an infinite number of the virtual soft photons become real particles. However, only a finite number of these photons are detectable, the remainder falling below the measurement threshold. The form of the electric field at infinity, which is determined by the velocity of a point charge, defines superselection sectors for the <P> Hamilton's optico-mechanical analogy Huygens' principle The propagation of light can be considered in terms of rays and wavefronts in ordinary physical three-dimensional space. One may consider an inhomogeneous anisotropic medium with smoothly distributed properties that are described by an index of refraction that is a well-behaved function of position. Huygens' principle governs the propagation of a wavefront as it can be derived from Fermat's principle. The wavefronts are two-dimensional curved surfaces. The rays are one-dimensional curved lines. Thus, a wave is a foliated set of moving two-dimensional surfaces. In classical physics, it is not part of the definition of a wave <P> the Voigt effect (in reference to the German scientist Woldemar Voigt), and magnetic-linear birefringence. This last denomination is closer in the physical sense, where the Voigt effect is a magnetic birefringence of the material with an index of refraction parallel () and perpendicular ) to the magnetization vector or to the applied magnetic field. For an electromagnetic incident wave linearly polarized and an in-plane polarized sample , the expression of the rotation in reflection geometry is is : and in the transmission geometry : , where is the difference of refraction indices depending of the Voigt parameter (same as for the <P> power of the reflected wave to that of the incident wave. It is a function of the wavelength of radiation, and is related to the refractive index of the material as expressed by Fresnel's equations. In regions of the electromagnetic spectrum in which absorption by the material is significant, it is related to the electronic absorption spectrum through the imaginary component of the complex refractive index. The electronic absorption spectrum of an opaque material, which is difficult or impossible to measure directly, may therefore be indirectly determined from the reflection spectrum by a Kramers-Kronig transform. The polarization of the reflected <P> that it could perfectly reproduce the electromagnetic field of the source plane at the image plane. Effects of negative index of refraction Normally, when a wave passes through the interface of two materials, the wave appears on the opposite side of the normal. However, if the interface is between a material with a positive index of refraction and another material with a negative index of refraction, the wave will appear on the same side of the normal. Pendry's idea of a perfect lens is a flat material where n=−1. Such a lens allows near-field rays, which normally decay due to <P> Hagen–Rubens relation In optics, the Hagen–Rubens relation (or Hagen–Rubens formula) is a relation between the coefficient of reflection and the conductivity for materials that are good conductors. The relation states that for solids where the contribution of the dielectric constant to the index of refraction is negligible, the reflection coefficient can be written as (in SI Units): where is the frequency of observation, is the conductivity, and is the vacuum permittivity. For metals, this relation holds for frequencies (much) smaller than the Drude relaxation rate, and in this case the otherwise frequency-dependent conductivity can be assumed <P> Hypercolor (physics) In particle physics, hypercolor is a hypothetical attractive force that binds prequarks together by the exchange of hypergluons, analogous to the exchange of gluons by the color force, which binds quarks together. <P> rise to a rotation of the particle around its own center, i.e., to a particle spinning. OAM, instead, will generate a revolution of the particle around the beam axis. These phenomena are schematically illustrated in the figure. In the case of transparent media, in the paraxial limit, the optical SAM is mainly exchanged with anisotropic systems, for example birefringent crystals. Indeed, thin slabs of birefringent crystals are commonly used to manipulate the light polarization. Whenever the polarization ellipticity is changed, in the process, there is an exchange of SAM between light and the crystal. If the crystal is free to rotate, <P> Specular reflection Background When light hits a surface, there are three possible outcomes. Light may be absorbed by the material, light may be transmitted through the surface, or light may be reflected. Materials often show some mix of these behaviors, with the proportion of light that goes to each depending on the properties of the material, the wavelength of the light, and the angle of incidence. For most interfaces between materials, the fraction of the light that is reflected increases with increasing angle of incidence . Reflected light can be divided into two sub-types, specular reflection and diffuse reflection. Specular reflection <P> of the idea is to have nuclear materials on the mini sails that undergo fission or fusion to provide a much more powerful force but the collision velocities would have to be much higher. Photon recycling Metzgar and Landis proposed a variant on the laser-pushed sail, in which the photons reflected from the sail are re-used by re-reflecting them back to the sail by a stationary mirror; a "multi-bounce laser-based sail." This amplifies the force produced by recycling the photons, resulting in considerably higher force produced from the same laser power. There is also a multi-bounce photonic sail configuration <P> Optical modulator Classification of optical modulators According to the properties of the material that are used to modulate the light beam, modulators are divided into two groups: absorptive modulators and refractive modulators. In absorptive modulators the absorption coefficient of the material is changed, in refractive modulators the refractive index of the material is changed. The absorption coefficient of the material in the modulator can be manipulated by the Franz-Keldysh effect, the Quantum-confined Stark effect, excitonic absorption, changes of Fermi level, or changes of free carrier concentration. Usually, if several such effects appear together, the modulator is called an electro-absorptive modulator. Refractive modulators <P> light depends on the symmetry of the arrangement of the incident probing light with respect to the absorbing transitions dipole moments in the material. Measurement of specular reflection is performed with normal or varying incidence reflection spectrophotometers (reflectometer) using a scanning variable-wavelength light source. Lower quality measurements using a glossmeter quantify the glossy appearance of a surface in gloss units. Examples A classic example of specular reflection is a mirror, which is specifically designed for specular reflection. In addition to visible light, specular reflection can be observed in the ionospheric reflection of radiowaves and the reflection of radio- or microwave radar signals	question: Do photons create some sort of friction when they hit on a moving object? And, if so, does the color of the object have any effect on it? context: <P> field at a radius called the gyroradius. The acceleration from this curving motion induces the electron to radiate energy in the form of synchrotron radiation. The energy emission in turn causes a recoil of the electron, known as the Abraham–Lorentz–Dirac Force, which creates a friction that slows the electron. This force is caused by a back-reaction of the electron's own field upon itself. Photons mediate electromagnetic interactions between particles in quantum electrodynamics. An isolated electron at a constant velocity cannot emit or absorb a real photon; doing so would violate conservation of energy and momentum. Instead, virtual photons can transfer momentum <P> between two charged particles. This exchange of virtual photons, for example, generates the Coulomb force. Energy emission can occur when a moving electron is deflected by a charged particle, such as a proton. The acceleration of the electron results in the emission of Bremsstrahlung radiation. An inelastic collision between a photon (light) and a solitary (free) electron is called Compton scattering. This collision results in a transfer of momentum and energy between the particles, which modifies the wavelength of the photon by an amount called the Compton shift. The maximum magnitude of this wavelength shift is h/mₑc, which is known as <P> billions of Kelvin, direct photon–photon interactions are usually negligible compared to interactions with matter. Photons are an example of an interacting boson gas, and as described by the H-theorem, under very general conditions any interacting boson gas will approach thermal equilibrium. Transmission, absorption, and reflection A body's behavior with regard to thermal radiation is characterized by its transmission τ, absorption α, and reflection ρ. The boundary of a body forms an interface with its surroundings, and this interface may be rough or smooth. A nonreflecting interface separating regions with different refractive indices must be rough, because the laws of reflection and <P> bend is determined by the index of refraction and has always been positive until the fabrication of artificial negative index materials. Objects also emit evanescent waves that carry details of the object, but are unobtainable with conventional optics. Such evanescent waves decay exponentially and thus never become part of the image resolution, an optics threshold known as the diffraction limit. Breaking this diffraction limit, and capturing evanescent waves are critical to the creation of a 100-percent perfect representation of an object. In addition, conventional optical materials suffer a diffraction limit because only the propagating components are transmitted (by the optical material) <P> corresponds to the energy required to excite the system. This energy has a specific wavelength, and therefore color of light, related by: A common example of this phenomenon is in β-carotene. β-carotene (C₄₀H₅₆) is a conjugated polyene with an orange color and a molecular length of approximately 3.8 nm (though its chain length is only approximately 2.4 nm). Due to β-carotene's high level of conjugation, electrons are dispersed throughout the length of the molecule, allowing one to model it as a one-dimensional particle in a box. β-carotene has 11 carbon-carbon double bonds in conjugation; each of those double bonds contains two π-electrons, therefore <P> Talbot effect The atomic Talbot effect Due to the quantum mechanical wave nature of particles, diffraction effects have also been observed with atoms—effects which are similar to those in the case of light. Chapman et al. carried out an experiment in which a collimated beam of sodium atoms was passed through two diffraction gratings (the second used as a mask) to observe the Talbot effect and measure the Talbot length. The beam had a mean velocity of 1000 m/s corresponding to a de Broglie wavelength of = 0.017 nm. Their experiment was performed with 200 and 300 nm gratings which yielded <P> the discrete energy transfer from the light to the electric current, since in any small time interval a vast number of photons are detected. This is ensured by the intense LO. The observable therefore has a quasi-continuous eigenvalue spectrum, as it is expected for an electric field strength. (In principle, one can also characterize squeezed states, in particular squeezed vacuum states, by counting photons, however, in general the measurement of the photon number statistic is not sufficient for a full characterization of a squeezed state and the full density matrix in the basis of the number states has to be <P> refraction governed by the Fresnel equations for a smooth interface require a reflected ray when the refractive indices of the material and its surroundings differ. A few idealized types of behavior are given particular names: An opaque body is one that transmits none of the radiation that reaches it, although some may be reflected. That is, τ=0 and α+ρ=1 A transparent body is one that transmits all the radiation that reaches it. That is, τ=1 and α=ρ=0. A grey body is one where α, ρ and τ are uniform for all wavelengths. This term also is used to mean a body for which <P> Infraparticle An infraparticle is an electrically charged particle and its surrounding cloud of soft photons—of which there are infinite number, by virtue of the infrared divergence of quantum electrodynamics. That is, it is a dressed particle rather than a bare particle. Whenever electric charges accelerate they emit Bremsstrahlung radiation, whereby an infinite number of the virtual soft photons become real particles. However, only a finite number of these photons are detectable, the remainder falling below the measurement threshold. The form of the electric field at infinity, which is determined by the velocity of a point charge, defines superselection sectors for the <P> Hamilton's optico-mechanical analogy Huygens' principle The propagation of light can be considered in terms of rays and wavefronts in ordinary physical three-dimensional space. One may consider an inhomogeneous anisotropic medium with smoothly distributed properties that are described by an index of refraction that is a well-behaved function of position. Huygens' principle governs the propagation of a wavefront as it can be derived from Fermat's principle. The wavefronts are two-dimensional curved surfaces. The rays are one-dimensional curved lines. Thus, a wave is a foliated set of moving two-dimensional surfaces. In classical physics, it is not part of the definition of a wave <P> the Voigt effect (in reference to the German scientist Woldemar Voigt), and magnetic-linear birefringence. This last denomination is closer in the physical sense, where the Voigt effect is a magnetic birefringence of the material with an index of refraction parallel () and perpendicular ) to the magnetization vector or to the applied magnetic field. For an electromagnetic incident wave linearly polarized and an in-plane polarized sample , the expression of the rotation in reflection geometry is is : and in the transmission geometry : , where is the difference of refraction indices depending of the Voigt parameter (same as for the <P> power of the reflected wave to that of the incident wave. It is a function of the wavelength of radiation, and is related to the refractive index of the material as expressed by Fresnel's equations. In regions of the electromagnetic spectrum in which absorption by the material is significant, it is related to the electronic absorption spectrum through the imaginary component of the complex refractive index. The electronic absorption spectrum of an opaque material, which is difficult or impossible to measure directly, may therefore be indirectly determined from the reflection spectrum by a Kramers-Kronig transform. The polarization of the reflected <P> that it could perfectly reproduce the electromagnetic field of the source plane at the image plane. Effects of negative index of refraction Normally, when a wave passes through the interface of two materials, the wave appears on the opposite side of the normal. However, if the interface is between a material with a positive index of refraction and another material with a negative index of refraction, the wave will appear on the same side of the normal. Pendry's idea of a perfect lens is a flat material where n=−1. Such a lens allows near-field rays, which normally decay due to <P> Hagen–Rubens relation In optics, the Hagen–Rubens relation (or Hagen–Rubens formula) is a relation between the coefficient of reflection and the conductivity for materials that are good conductors. The relation states that for solids where the contribution of the dielectric constant to the index of refraction is negligible, the reflection coefficient can be written as (in SI Units): where is the frequency of observation, is the conductivity, and is the vacuum permittivity. For metals, this relation holds for frequencies (much) smaller than the Drude relaxation rate, and in this case the otherwise frequency-dependent conductivity can be assumed <P> Hypercolor (physics) In particle physics, hypercolor is a hypothetical attractive force that binds prequarks together by the exchange of hypergluons, analogous to the exchange of gluons by the color force, which binds quarks together. <P> rise to a rotation of the particle around its own center, i.e., to a particle spinning. OAM, instead, will generate a revolution of the particle around the beam axis. These phenomena are schematically illustrated in the figure. In the case of transparent media, in the paraxial limit, the optical SAM is mainly exchanged with anisotropic systems, for example birefringent crystals. Indeed, thin slabs of birefringent crystals are commonly used to manipulate the light polarization. Whenever the polarization ellipticity is changed, in the process, there is an exchange of SAM between light and the crystal. If the crystal is free to rotate, <P> Specular reflection Background When light hits a surface, there are three possible outcomes. Light may be absorbed by the material, light may be transmitted through the surface, or light may be reflected. Materials often show some mix of these behaviors, with the proportion of light that goes to each depending on the properties of the material, the wavelength of the light, and the angle of incidence. For most interfaces between materials, the fraction of the light that is reflected increases with increasing angle of incidence . Reflected light can be divided into two sub-types, specular reflection and diffuse reflection. Specular reflection <P> of the idea is to have nuclear materials on the mini sails that undergo fission or fusion to provide a much more powerful force but the collision velocities would have to be much higher. Photon recycling Metzgar and Landis proposed a variant on the laser-pushed sail, in which the photons reflected from the sail are re-used by re-reflecting them back to the sail by a stationary mirror; a "multi-bounce laser-based sail." This amplifies the force produced by recycling the photons, resulting in considerably higher force produced from the same laser power. There is also a multi-bounce photonic sail configuration <P> Optical modulator Classification of optical modulators According to the properties of the material that are used to modulate the light beam, modulators are divided into two groups: absorptive modulators and refractive modulators. In absorptive modulators the absorption coefficient of the material is changed, in refractive modulators the refractive index of the material is changed. The absorption coefficient of the material in the modulator can be manipulated by the Franz-Keldysh effect, the Quantum-confined Stark effect, excitonic absorption, changes of Fermi level, or changes of free carrier concentration. Usually, if several such effects appear together, the modulator is called an electro-absorptive modulator. Refractive modulators <P> light depends on the symmetry of the arrangement of the incident probing light with respect to the absorbing transitions dipole moments in the material. Measurement of specular reflection is performed with normal or varying incidence reflection spectrophotometers (reflectometer) using a scanning variable-wavelength light source. Lower quality measurements using a glossmeter quantify the glossy appearance of a surface in gloss units. Examples A classic example of specular reflection is a mirror, which is specifically designed for specular reflection. In addition to visible light, specular reflection can be observed in the ionospheric reflection of radiowaves and the reflection of radio- or microwave radar signals	answer: Photons have momentum, despite having zero mass, given by p = E/c, where E = hf (h = Planck's constant, f = frequency). Since momentum is conserved, photons impacting an object do indeed exert a force on it (though it doesn't have anything to do with friction). Reflectiveness does make a difference - if a photon with momentum p impacts an object and is absorbed, then the object must have momentum p. If, however, it is perfectly reflected, then the photon is left with momentum -p (it's actually slightly less than this, as it gives a bit of energy to the object, but fairly close), meaning that the object must have momentum 2p. If the reflection is diffuse (which in the visible spectrum would be a white rather than mirrored object), the momentum gain and direction from the object will depend on the scattering angle, but will be at least p for a flat surface normal to the incoming radiation.
128,048	3dg7li	what were japan's motives in ww2	Japan wanted to conquer massive areas in Asia and create a Japanese empire. This was partially due to Japan's need of resources as it lacks them in mainland Japan (due to their geography). The other reason is Japanese imperialism as they always wanted to create a massive Japanese empire. Mind you that this is a very basic explanation for a topic that comes from the history of Japan and its conflicts.	[ "Japan wanted to conquer massive areas in Asia and create a Japanese empire. This was partially due to Japan's need of resources as it lacks them in mainland Japan (due to their geography). The other reason is Japanese imperialism as they always wanted to create a massive Japanese empire. Mind you that this is a ve...	2	[ "Japan wanted to conquer massive areas in Asia and create a Japanese empire. This was partially due to Japan's need of resources as it lacks them in mainland Japan (due to their geography). The other reason is Japanese imperialism as they always wanted to create a massive Japanese empire. Mind you that this is a ve...	2	<P> Washington's warning to Japan that any further military expansion would result in further sanctions. However, such US moves were interpreted by Japan's militaristic leaders as signals that they needed to take radical measures to improve the Empire's situation, thereby driving Japan closer to Germany. Formation of the Axis With Nazi Germany not only having conquered most of continental Europe including France, but also maintaining the impression of a Britain facing imminent defeat, Tokyo interpreted the situation in Europe as proof of a fundamental and fatal weakness in western democracies. Japan's leadership concluded that the current state of affairs had to <P> diplomatic isolation. The 1902 alliance with Britain was not renewed in 1922 because of heavy pressure on Britain from Canada and the United States. In the 1920s Japanese diplomacy was rooted in an largely liberal democratic political system, and favoured internationalism. By 1930, however, Japan was rapidly reversing itself, rejecting democracy at home, as the Army seized more and more power, and rejecting internationalism and liberalism. By the late 1930s it had joined the Axis military alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. In 1930, the London disarmament conference angered the Japanese Army and Navy. Japan's navy demanded parity with <P> the United Kingdom, and other Western governments to freeze Japanese assets, while the US (which supplied 80 percent of Japan's oil) responded by placing a complete oil embargo on the Japanese Empire. As a result, Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in South-East Asia and its prosecution of the war against China, or seizing the natural resources it needed by force. The Japanese military did not consider the former an option as attacking Soviet Russia instead of expanding into South Asia had become a more and more unpopular choice since Japan's humiliating defeat at the Battle <P> again. It had the world's second largest economy. However, its military power was very limited due to pacifist policies and article 9 of the 1947 constitution. This made Japan an abnormal great power. Departure from pacifism During the Gulf War (1990–1991) the Japan Self-Defense Forces couldn't participate due to restrictions of the 1947 constitution. However, Japan did make a financial contribution of $10 billion and sent military hardware. Japan's inability to send troops was regarded as a big humiliation. They learned that only making financial contributions (checkbook diplomacy) did not earn Japan international respect. Furthermore, Japan couldn't provide much support <P> Tōseiha Background The Empire of Japan had enjoyed economic growth during World War I but this ended in the early 1920s with the Shōwa financial crisis. Social unrest increased with the growing polarization of society and inequalities, with the labor unions increasingly influenced by socialism, communism and anarchism, but the industrial and financial leaders of Japan continued to get wealthier through their inside connections with politicians and bureaucrats. The military was considered "clean" in terms of political corruption, and elements within the army were determined to take direct action to eliminate the perceived threats to Japan created by the weaknesses <P> far from our thought either to infringe upon the sovereignty of other nations or to embark upon territorial aggrandizement. But now the war has lasted for nearly four years. Despite the best that has been done by everyone – the gallant fighting of the military and naval forces, the diligence and assiduity of our servants of the state, and the devoted service of our one hundred million people – the war situation has developed not necessarily to Japan's advantage, while the general trends of the world have all turned against her interest. Moreover, the enemy has begun to employ a new and most cruel <P> early December. Hitler could no longer ignore the amount of economic and military aid the US was giving Britain and the USSR. Hitler's hopes that, despite the previous rejections, Japan would reciprocally attack the Soviet Union, were not realized, as Japan stuck to its Nanshin strategy of going south, not north, and would continue to maintain an uneasy peace with the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, Germany's declaration of war further solidified German–Japanese relations and showed Germany's solidarity with Japan, which was now encouraged to cooperate against the British. To some degree, Japan's actions in South-East Asia and the Pacific in the <P> Co-Prosperity Sphere, showing the subordination of other nations was not forced by the war, but part of explicit policy. This was also justified on the grounds that the resource-poor Japanese could not count on any sources of raw material that they did not control themselves. Propaganda stated that Japan was being strangled by "ABCD" – America, Britain, China, and Dutch East Indies—through trade embargoes and boycotts. Even in preparation of the war, the newspapers reported that unless negotiations improved, Japan would be forced to engage in self-defense measures. Bushido The samurai code bushido was pressed into service for indoctrination <P> a new Asian regional power. With the Russian defeat, some scholars have argued that the war had set in motion a change in the global world order with the emergence of Japan as not only a regional power, but rather, the main Asian power. Taishō era and World War I (1912–1926) The Empire of Japan was a member of the Allies during World War I. As an ally of Great Britain, Japan declared war on Germany in 1914. Japan quickly seized the German island colonies the Mariana Islands, Caroline Islands and Marshall Islands in the Pacific. The Japanese seaplane carrier Wakamiya <P> 30 January 1902. Japan saw the alliance as a necessary deterrent to its main rival, Russia. Japan demonstrated its potential by its victory in the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War, and the alliance continued into World War I. When the war in Europe began in August 1914, Britain promptly requested Japanese assistance. On 15 August, Japan issued an ultimatum, stating that Germany must withdraw her warships from Chinese and Japanese waters and transfer control of its port of Tsingtao to Japan. The next day, Major-General Mitsuomi Kamio, General Officer Commanding (GOC), 18th Infantry Division, was ordered to prepare to take Tsingtao by force. <P> on China, and not Japan, as its strategic partner in East Asia for the coming years. Reestablishment of relations and Sino-Japanese dilemma After Germany had to cede most of its Pacific and Asian possessions to Japan and with an intensifying Sino-German cooperation, relations between Berlin and Tokyo were nearly dead. Under the initiative of Wilhelm Solf, who served as German ambassador to Japan from 1920 to 1928, cultural exchange was strengthened again. A cultural agreement was signed in 1926 that led to the re-establishment of the "German-Japanese Society" (1926), the founding of the "Japan Institute" in Berlin (1926), the establishment <P> and allied countries. He said that the Iraqi dictatorship possessed weapons of mass destruction and had been continuously violating UN resolutions for past 12 years. At home, the prime minister was strongly opposed in this decision both by the opposition and parts of his own coalition government. Most Japanese believe that it was motivated purely to improve Japan's relations to the US government, which had been improving since the beginning of the Bush administration. Furthermore, article 9 of the Japanese Constitution (in place after the end of World War II) forbids any Japanese military involvement overseas. Therefore, Japan did not take part in <P> seen as an opportunity by the Japanese to extend their "rightful" place as a ruler in Asia. The Japanese government decided to seize resources under the control of Britain, the United States and the Netherlands. Japan had already placed over ten divisions in Formosa (Taiwan). Japanese military planners argued that the British (and the USSR should they decide to declare war), would be unable to effectively respond to a Japanese attack, given the threat posed by the Third Reich. <P> to reinforce and aid their Asian possessions. Pivotal to the Japanese decision to attack was a tremendous need for crude oil as a result of economic sanctions imposed by the United States, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands which was weakening the Japanese economy. The Japanese leaders were faced with a choice: end the war in China and their plans for Asian conquest, so as to end the sanctions, or declare war on three large military forces. The current war against Britain, and the Netherlands, and the strain of providing aid by the United States to these countries was <P> quickly dismissed Tokyo's proposal, since those resources were vital for Germany's own industry. However, in order to gain Japanese backing for a new German-Japanese trade treaty, which should also secure the rights of German companies in South-East Asia, he asked Hitler to at least partially agree upon the Japanese demands. It took another five months of arguing over the Reichsmark-Yen-exchange rate and additional talks with the third signatory, the Italian government, until the "Treaty on Economic Cooperation" was signed on 20 January 1943. Despite this treaty, the envisioned German-Japanese economic relations were never able to grow beyond mostly propagandistic status. The <P> a reactive or passive policy. To many in the country, including Yamagata Aritomo, the lesson was clear — that a conscript army of forty thousand men was no longer adequate to Japan's needs and neither was a navy lacking transport ships to dispatch troops abroad: were hostilities to break out with Korea or China, the country would be in a serious predicament. In September 1882, Iwakura Tomomi had also informed the Dajōkan that increased naval strength was essential for a maritime country like Japan. If Japan went to war, it would not have enough vessels to protect the home islands <P> defense. The justification is that by not defending/supporting an ally, it would weaken alliances and endanger Japan. These were Japan's broadest changes to its defense laws since World War II. Since March 2016, Japan's Legislation for Peace and Security enables seamless responses of the JSDF to any situation to protect the lives and livelihood of Japanese people. It also increases proactive contributions to peace and security in the world and deepens cooperation with partners. This enhanced the Japan-US alliance as global partners to promote peace and security in the region and the international community. As of 2012, Japan and its allies want <P> scrapping of several older battleships, Japan would not be permitted to construct new capital ships until 1937. After minor fitting-out work, her reconstruction begun in 1926 was declared complete on 1 October 1931. On 8 November 1931, she served as the Emperor's ship during his official visit to Kumamoto prefecture. In September 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria. On 25 February 1933, based on the report by the Lytton Commission, the League of Nations agreed that Japan's invasion had violated Chinese sovereignty. Refusing to accept the organization's judgment, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations the same day. Immediately following, Japan also withdrew <P> and trade between 1641 and 1853. Under the policy, most foreign nationals were barred from entering Japan and common Japanese people couldn't leave. By restricting the daimyōs' ability to trade with foreign ships coming to Japan or pursue trade opportunities overseas, the Tokugawa shogunate could ensure none would become powerful enough to challenge its supremacy. The Siege of Osaka, which took place in 1614–1615, was essentially the last gasp for Toyotomi Hideyori, heir to Hideyoshi, and an alliance of clans and other elements who opposed the shogunate. A samurai battle on a grand scale, in terms of strategy, scale, methods employed, <P> has never been fully invaded nor conquered by a foreign power. Japan also never capitulated to a foreign power, thus Japan was unwilling to surrender. However, Japan couldn't counter the destructive nuclear bombs of America. So the Japanese thought it was better to accept the humiliating Potsdam Declaration and rebuild Japan rather than continue fighting with millions of casualties and decades of guerrilla warfare. On August 15, 1945 a broadcast of a recorded speech of Emperor Shōwa was released to the public. The last sentence is indicative: it is according to the dictates of time and fate that We have	question: what were japan's motives in ww2 context: <P> Washington's warning to Japan that any further military expansion would result in further sanctions. However, such US moves were interpreted by Japan's militaristic leaders as signals that they needed to take radical measures to improve the Empire's situation, thereby driving Japan closer to Germany. Formation of the Axis With Nazi Germany not only having conquered most of continental Europe including France, but also maintaining the impression of a Britain facing imminent defeat, Tokyo interpreted the situation in Europe as proof of a fundamental and fatal weakness in western democracies. Japan's leadership concluded that the current state of affairs had to <P> diplomatic isolation. The 1902 alliance with Britain was not renewed in 1922 because of heavy pressure on Britain from Canada and the United States. In the 1920s Japanese diplomacy was rooted in an largely liberal democratic political system, and favoured internationalism. By 1930, however, Japan was rapidly reversing itself, rejecting democracy at home, as the Army seized more and more power, and rejecting internationalism and liberalism. By the late 1930s it had joined the Axis military alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy. In 1930, the London disarmament conference angered the Japanese Army and Navy. Japan's navy demanded parity with <P> the United Kingdom, and other Western governments to freeze Japanese assets, while the US (which supplied 80 percent of Japan's oil) responded by placing a complete oil embargo on the Japanese Empire. As a result, Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in South-East Asia and its prosecution of the war against China, or seizing the natural resources it needed by force. The Japanese military did not consider the former an option as attacking Soviet Russia instead of expanding into South Asia had become a more and more unpopular choice since Japan's humiliating defeat at the Battle <P> again. It had the world's second largest economy. However, its military power was very limited due to pacifist policies and article 9 of the 1947 constitution. This made Japan an abnormal great power. Departure from pacifism During the Gulf War (1990–1991) the Japan Self-Defense Forces couldn't participate due to restrictions of the 1947 constitution. However, Japan did make a financial contribution of $10 billion and sent military hardware. Japan's inability to send troops was regarded as a big humiliation. They learned that only making financial contributions (checkbook diplomacy) did not earn Japan international respect. Furthermore, Japan couldn't provide much support <P> Tōseiha Background The Empire of Japan had enjoyed economic growth during World War I but this ended in the early 1920s with the Shōwa financial crisis. Social unrest increased with the growing polarization of society and inequalities, with the labor unions increasingly influenced by socialism, communism and anarchism, but the industrial and financial leaders of Japan continued to get wealthier through their inside connections with politicians and bureaucrats. The military was considered "clean" in terms of political corruption, and elements within the army were determined to take direct action to eliminate the perceived threats to Japan created by the weaknesses <P> far from our thought either to infringe upon the sovereignty of other nations or to embark upon territorial aggrandizement. But now the war has lasted for nearly four years. Despite the best that has been done by everyone – the gallant fighting of the military and naval forces, the diligence and assiduity of our servants of the state, and the devoted service of our one hundred million people – the war situation has developed not necessarily to Japan's advantage, while the general trends of the world have all turned against her interest. Moreover, the enemy has begun to employ a new and most cruel <P> early December. Hitler could no longer ignore the amount of economic and military aid the US was giving Britain and the USSR. Hitler's hopes that, despite the previous rejections, Japan would reciprocally attack the Soviet Union, were not realized, as Japan stuck to its Nanshin strategy of going south, not north, and would continue to maintain an uneasy peace with the Soviet Union. Nevertheless, Germany's declaration of war further solidified German–Japanese relations and showed Germany's solidarity with Japan, which was now encouraged to cooperate against the British. To some degree, Japan's actions in South-East Asia and the Pacific in the <P> Co-Prosperity Sphere, showing the subordination of other nations was not forced by the war, but part of explicit policy. This was also justified on the grounds that the resource-poor Japanese could not count on any sources of raw material that they did not control themselves. Propaganda stated that Japan was being strangled by "ABCD" – America, Britain, China, and Dutch East Indies—through trade embargoes and boycotts. Even in preparation of the war, the newspapers reported that unless negotiations improved, Japan would be forced to engage in self-defense measures. Bushido The samurai code bushido was pressed into service for indoctrination <P> a new Asian regional power. With the Russian defeat, some scholars have argued that the war had set in motion a change in the global world order with the emergence of Japan as not only a regional power, but rather, the main Asian power. Taishō era and World War I (1912–1926) The Empire of Japan was a member of the Allies during World War I. As an ally of Great Britain, Japan declared war on Germany in 1914. Japan quickly seized the German island colonies the Mariana Islands, Caroline Islands and Marshall Islands in the Pacific. The Japanese seaplane carrier Wakamiya <P> 30 January 1902. Japan saw the alliance as a necessary deterrent to its main rival, Russia. Japan demonstrated its potential by its victory in the 1904–1905 Russo-Japanese War, and the alliance continued into World War I. When the war in Europe began in August 1914, Britain promptly requested Japanese assistance. On 15 August, Japan issued an ultimatum, stating that Germany must withdraw her warships from Chinese and Japanese waters and transfer control of its port of Tsingtao to Japan. The next day, Major-General Mitsuomi Kamio, General Officer Commanding (GOC), 18th Infantry Division, was ordered to prepare to take Tsingtao by force. <P> on China, and not Japan, as its strategic partner in East Asia for the coming years. Reestablishment of relations and Sino-Japanese dilemma After Germany had to cede most of its Pacific and Asian possessions to Japan and with an intensifying Sino-German cooperation, relations between Berlin and Tokyo were nearly dead. Under the initiative of Wilhelm Solf, who served as German ambassador to Japan from 1920 to 1928, cultural exchange was strengthened again. A cultural agreement was signed in 1926 that led to the re-establishment of the "German-Japanese Society" (1926), the founding of the "Japan Institute" in Berlin (1926), the establishment <P> and allied countries. He said that the Iraqi dictatorship possessed weapons of mass destruction and had been continuously violating UN resolutions for past 12 years. At home, the prime minister was strongly opposed in this decision both by the opposition and parts of his own coalition government. Most Japanese believe that it was motivated purely to improve Japan's relations to the US government, which had been improving since the beginning of the Bush administration. Furthermore, article 9 of the Japanese Constitution (in place after the end of World War II) forbids any Japanese military involvement overseas. Therefore, Japan did not take part in <P> seen as an opportunity by the Japanese to extend their "rightful" place as a ruler in Asia. The Japanese government decided to seize resources under the control of Britain, the United States and the Netherlands. Japan had already placed over ten divisions in Formosa (Taiwan). Japanese military planners argued that the British (and the USSR should they decide to declare war), would be unable to effectively respond to a Japanese attack, given the threat posed by the Third Reich. <P> to reinforce and aid their Asian possessions. Pivotal to the Japanese decision to attack was a tremendous need for crude oil as a result of economic sanctions imposed by the United States, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands which was weakening the Japanese economy. The Japanese leaders were faced with a choice: end the war in China and their plans for Asian conquest, so as to end the sanctions, or declare war on three large military forces. The current war against Britain, and the Netherlands, and the strain of providing aid by the United States to these countries was <P> quickly dismissed Tokyo's proposal, since those resources were vital for Germany's own industry. However, in order to gain Japanese backing for a new German-Japanese trade treaty, which should also secure the rights of German companies in South-East Asia, he asked Hitler to at least partially agree upon the Japanese demands. It took another five months of arguing over the Reichsmark-Yen-exchange rate and additional talks with the third signatory, the Italian government, until the "Treaty on Economic Cooperation" was signed on 20 January 1943. Despite this treaty, the envisioned German-Japanese economic relations were never able to grow beyond mostly propagandistic status. The <P> a reactive or passive policy. To many in the country, including Yamagata Aritomo, the lesson was clear — that a conscript army of forty thousand men was no longer adequate to Japan's needs and neither was a navy lacking transport ships to dispatch troops abroad: were hostilities to break out with Korea or China, the country would be in a serious predicament. In September 1882, Iwakura Tomomi had also informed the Dajōkan that increased naval strength was essential for a maritime country like Japan. If Japan went to war, it would not have enough vessels to protect the home islands <P> defense. The justification is that by not defending/supporting an ally, it would weaken alliances and endanger Japan. These were Japan's broadest changes to its defense laws since World War II. Since March 2016, Japan's Legislation for Peace and Security enables seamless responses of the JSDF to any situation to protect the lives and livelihood of Japanese people. It also increases proactive contributions to peace and security in the world and deepens cooperation with partners. This enhanced the Japan-US alliance as global partners to promote peace and security in the region and the international community. As of 2012, Japan and its allies want <P> scrapping of several older battleships, Japan would not be permitted to construct new capital ships until 1937. After minor fitting-out work, her reconstruction begun in 1926 was declared complete on 1 October 1931. On 8 November 1931, she served as the Emperor's ship during his official visit to Kumamoto prefecture. In September 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria. On 25 February 1933, based on the report by the Lytton Commission, the League of Nations agreed that Japan's invasion had violated Chinese sovereignty. Refusing to accept the organization's judgment, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations the same day. Immediately following, Japan also withdrew <P> and trade between 1641 and 1853. Under the policy, most foreign nationals were barred from entering Japan and common Japanese people couldn't leave. By restricting the daimyōs' ability to trade with foreign ships coming to Japan or pursue trade opportunities overseas, the Tokugawa shogunate could ensure none would become powerful enough to challenge its supremacy. The Siege of Osaka, which took place in 1614–1615, was essentially the last gasp for Toyotomi Hideyori, heir to Hideyoshi, and an alliance of clans and other elements who opposed the shogunate. A samurai battle on a grand scale, in terms of strategy, scale, methods employed, <P> has never been fully invaded nor conquered by a foreign power. Japan also never capitulated to a foreign power, thus Japan was unwilling to surrender. However, Japan couldn't counter the destructive nuclear bombs of America. So the Japanese thought it was better to accept the humiliating Potsdam Declaration and rebuild Japan rather than continue fighting with millions of casualties and decades of guerrilla warfare. On August 15, 1945 a broadcast of a recorded speech of Emperor Shōwa was released to the public. The last sentence is indicative: it is according to the dictates of time and fate that We have	answer: Japan wanted to conquer massive areas in Asia and create a Japanese empire. This was partially due to Japan's need of resources as it lacks them in mainland Japan (due to their geography). The other reason is Japanese imperialism as they always wanted to create a massive Japanese empire. Mind you that this is a very basic explanation for a topic that comes from the history of Japan and its conflicts.
195,112	6cl53z	why are women's big butts in vogue all of a sudden?	Fads come and go. Look at 80s/90s "mom" pants and look what's fashionable today for young hip gals.Anyway, fashion comes and goes and big butts have been fashionable in many cultures and have come and gone as main stream.Easiest answer to a question like this, as it seems you don't like big butts, is different strokes for different folks. You don't always have to like what's mainstream or dislike what's not, or any combination of that.	[ "Fads come and go. Look at 80s/90s \"mom\" pants and look what's fashionable today for young hip gals.\n\nAnyway, fashion comes and goes and big butts have been fashionable in many cultures and have come and gone as main stream.\n\nEasiest answer to a question like this, as it seems you don't like big butts, is dif...	1	[]	0	<P> the whirlpool bra, cuties, the shutter bra, the action bra, latex pads, cleavage-revealing designs, and uplifted outlines. R. L. Rutsky and Bill Osgerby have claimed that it was Mansfield, along with Marilyn Monroe and Brigitte Bardot, who made the bikini popular. Drawing on the Freudian concept of fetishism, British science-fiction writer and socio-cultural commentator, J. G. Ballard commented that Mae West, Mansfield and Monroe's breasts "loomed across the horizon of popular consciousness". According to Dave Kehr, as the 1960s approached, the anatomy that had made her a star turned her into a joke. In this decade, the female body ideal <P> ice-cream stands and girl bands proliferated in San Francisco and elsewhere. Journalist Earl Wilson wrote in his syndicated column, "Are we ready for girls in topless gowns? Heck, we may not even notice them." English designers created topless evening gowns inspired by the idea. The San Francisco Examiner published a real estate advertisement that promised "bare top swimsuits are possible here". Later designs Going topless reached its highest popularity during the 1970s. In the early 1980s monokini designs that were simply a bikini-bottom (also known as the unikini) became popular. As of 2015, some swimsuit designers continue to produce a <P> their way back into the mainstream market. By 2010 many retailers like Wal-Mart had shoulder pads on at least half of all women's tops and blouses. <P> leg fetishes can often manifest as a subconscious byproduct of western media. Whereas many eastern cultures consider public display of the legs scandalous, the vast majority of western culture has normalized exhibition of the legs. In many countries, shorts which reach at or below the knee are considered sufficiently modest. Yet much of western media promotes viewing female thighs. A study on sexual imagery in magazine advertising found that in 2003, 78% of women in magazine advertisements were sexually attired, much attributable to the category of "very short shorts". It is this consistent interaction with media which some ascribe to <P> or muscularity as the ideal male body image. Commercial advertisements have also created an influential and powerful force in promoting a stereotype of ideal body image which is not limited to fashion advertisements. Advertisements on commodities such as watches, smartphones and household appliances, have promoted an idealized body image of women and men as well. The perception of being slim and thin for women and slender and muscular for men became a stereotype in society, creating sociocultural pressures and influencing people to engage in fitness in order to pursue the ideal body image promoted by the mass media. Exercising and dieting <P> popular. Women had entered the professional workforce in larger numbers during World War II and many women soon found they craved a career and life outside the home. They wanted the same choices, freedoms, and opportunities that were offered to men. During the mid 60s, Mod girls wore very very short miniskirts, tall, brightly colored go-go boots, monochromatic geometric print patterns such as houndstooth, and tight fitted, sleeveless tunics. Flared trousers and bell bottoms appeared in 1964 as an alternative to capri pants, and led the way to the hippie period introduced in the 1960s. Bell bottoms were usually worn with <P> the assumptions and stereotypes regarding the demure, homebound 19th-century woman. <P> obsession with the adolescent look. Particular to the mid-sixties, icons such as Twiggy popularized the shapeless shift dresses emphasizing an image of innocence as they did not fit to any contours of the human body. The female body has forever been a sign of culturally constructed ideals. The long-limbed and pre-pubescent style of the time depicts how women were able to be more independent, yet paradoxically, also were put into a box of conceived ideals. Dolly Girl The "Dolly Girl" was another archetype for young females in the 1960s. She emerged in the mid-sixties, and her defining characteristic is the <P> in Vogue in 1904. Leading European couturier Lucile actively endorsed bras, and both Lucile and Paul Poiret refined and promoted the brassiere, influencing fashionable women to begin wearing their designs, Paris couturier Herminie Cadolle introduced a breast supporter in 1889. His design was a sensation at the Great Exposition of 1900 and became a fast selling design among wealthy Europeans in the next decade. Business career After she married Richard Peabody, Polly filed a legal certificate with the Commonwealth of Massachusetts on May 19, 1920, declaring that she was a married woman conducting a business using separate funds from her husband's <P> Monokini The monokini, designed by Rudi Gernreich in 1964, consisting of only a brief, close-fitting bottom and two thin straps, was the first women's topless swimsuit. His revolutionary and controversial design included a bottom that "extended from the midriff to the upper thigh" and was "held up by shoestring laces that make a halter around the neck." Some credit Gernreich's design with initiating, or describe it as a symbol of, the sexual revolution. Gernreich designed the monokini as a protest against a repressive society. He didn't initially intend to produce the monokini commercially, but was persuaded by Susanne Kirtland of <P> Toupées continued to be advertised in print, likely with heavier media buys taking place in magazines with the appropriate male demographic. A typical "advertorial" can be found in Modern Mechanix. By 1970, Time magazine estimated that in the U.S., toupées were worn by more than 2.5 million men out of 17–20 million balding men. The increase was chalked up once again to further improvements in hairpiece technology, a desire to seem more youthful, and the long hairstyles that were increasingly in fashion. 21st century Toupée and wig manufacture is no longer centered in the U.S., but in Asia. <P> argued such bans are largely gendered, focusing on the damage caused by supposed "distraction" of boys by girls in tight clothing; similar complaints caused a ban in Rockport, Massachusetts, quickly reversed. The tight-fitting nature of yoga pants for adult women has also aroused discussion. Rosalie Murphy, writing in The Atlantic in 2014, describing the glossy yoga magazines such as Yoga Journal, stated that "Nearly every spread features a thin woman, usually in slim yoga pants and a tight tank [top], stretching her arms toward the sky or closing her eyes in meditation." In a New York Times opinion piece, Honor Jones <P> Craze. <P> an increase in international relations, and a more proliferate sharing of fashion through photography and films, which helped spread high heel fashion as well. Examples of this were the brown and white pumps with cutouts or ankle straps combined with an open toe. Their practicality yet professional look appealed to the new, fast-paced lifestyle of many women. Alternatively, World War II led to the popularization of pin-up girl posters, which men would often hang in their bunks while at war. Almost all of these girls were pictured wearing high heels, leading to an increase in the relationship between high heels and <P> professor Martie Haselton said, "Legginess is something that we know men prefer in mates. The news in this research is that women prefer longer legs in mates." Although leg length isn't always a sign of good health, people tend to prefer longer legs for a more attractive appearance. Historical and cultural background Areas of the body deemed sexually-desirable are affected by contemporary social norms and dress codes. A substantial portion of Victorian men famously boasted a knee or ankle fetish. This is due to the modesty of the nineteenth century which considered bare legs in public scandalous. In the modern era, <P> approximately one third of South Korean women between 19 and 29 have claimed to have had plastic surgery. A study from 2009 found that Korean women are very critical of their body image and are more prone to lower self-esteem and self-satisfaction compared to women from the United States. The pressure to uphold a standard of beauty is even felt within the job market. Companies require a photo, height, and sometimes the family background of applicants as a part of the hiring process. Beauty is often seen as a means for socioeconomic success in the rapidly modernized post-war economy of South <P> the fetishism of the legs. The widespread social acceptance of women showing their legs in public can subconsciously affect mens' perceptions. In a 1981 study, both male and female subjects rated their first impressions of female job applicants in 12 outfits. The study supported that, "Male subjects found female models more physically attractive and more likable in short shorts and short skirts compared with regular lengths." In media The 1983 song "Legs" by American Rock Trio ZZ Top is dedicated to female legs. In the 2005 anime Speed Grapher, Chief Ekoda of the Tokyo Police Department has an extreme leg fetish, murdering <P> when she made her Broadway debut in 1955, though some scholars dispute those figures. She was known as "the Cleavage Queen" and "the Queen of Sex and Bosom". It was said that her breasts fluctuated in size from her pregnancies and nursing her five children. Her smallest bust measurement was 40-D (102 cm), which was constant throughout the 1950s, and her largest was 46-DD (117 cm), measured by the press in 1967. According to Playboy, her vital statistics were 40D-21-36 (102–53–91 cm) on her 5'6" (1.68 m) frame. It has been claimed that her bosom was a major force behind the development of 1950s brassieres, including <P> popular and this, along with many of the original reasons for the popularity of campaign furniture hold true today. It is practical, often versatile and naturally, very easy to move about. <P> cable channels, these products, such as jewellery and dresses, were mainly aimed at a female audience.	question: why are women's big butts in vogue all of a sudden? context: <P> the whirlpool bra, cuties, the shutter bra, the action bra, latex pads, cleavage-revealing designs, and uplifted outlines. R. L. Rutsky and Bill Osgerby have claimed that it was Mansfield, along with Marilyn Monroe and Brigitte Bardot, who made the bikini popular. Drawing on the Freudian concept of fetishism, British science-fiction writer and socio-cultural commentator, J. G. Ballard commented that Mae West, Mansfield and Monroe's breasts "loomed across the horizon of popular consciousness". According to Dave Kehr, as the 1960s approached, the anatomy that had made her a star turned her into a joke. In this decade, the female body ideal <P> ice-cream stands and girl bands proliferated in San Francisco and elsewhere. Journalist Earl Wilson wrote in his syndicated column, "Are we ready for girls in topless gowns? Heck, we may not even notice them." English designers created topless evening gowns inspired by the idea. The San Francisco Examiner published a real estate advertisement that promised "bare top swimsuits are possible here". Later designs Going topless reached its highest popularity during the 1970s. In the early 1980s monokini designs that were simply a bikini-bottom (also known as the unikini) became popular. As of 2015, some swimsuit designers continue to produce a <P> their way back into the mainstream market. By 2010 many retailers like Wal-Mart had shoulder pads on at least half of all women's tops and blouses. <P> leg fetishes can often manifest as a subconscious byproduct of western media. Whereas many eastern cultures consider public display of the legs scandalous, the vast majority of western culture has normalized exhibition of the legs. In many countries, shorts which reach at or below the knee are considered sufficiently modest. Yet much of western media promotes viewing female thighs. A study on sexual imagery in magazine advertising found that in 2003, 78% of women in magazine advertisements were sexually attired, much attributable to the category of "very short shorts". It is this consistent interaction with media which some ascribe to <P> or muscularity as the ideal male body image. Commercial advertisements have also created an influential and powerful force in promoting a stereotype of ideal body image which is not limited to fashion advertisements. Advertisements on commodities such as watches, smartphones and household appliances, have promoted an idealized body image of women and men as well. The perception of being slim and thin for women and slender and muscular for men became a stereotype in society, creating sociocultural pressures and influencing people to engage in fitness in order to pursue the ideal body image promoted by the mass media. Exercising and dieting <P> popular. Women had entered the professional workforce in larger numbers during World War II and many women soon found they craved a career and life outside the home. They wanted the same choices, freedoms, and opportunities that were offered to men. During the mid 60s, Mod girls wore very very short miniskirts, tall, brightly colored go-go boots, monochromatic geometric print patterns such as houndstooth, and tight fitted, sleeveless tunics. Flared trousers and bell bottoms appeared in 1964 as an alternative to capri pants, and led the way to the hippie period introduced in the 1960s. Bell bottoms were usually worn with <P> the assumptions and stereotypes regarding the demure, homebound 19th-century woman. <P> obsession with the adolescent look. Particular to the mid-sixties, icons such as Twiggy popularized the shapeless shift dresses emphasizing an image of innocence as they did not fit to any contours of the human body. The female body has forever been a sign of culturally constructed ideals. The long-limbed and pre-pubescent style of the time depicts how women were able to be more independent, yet paradoxically, also were put into a box of conceived ideals. Dolly Girl The "Dolly Girl" was another archetype for young females in the 1960s. She emerged in the mid-sixties, and her defining characteristic is the <P> in Vogue in 1904. Leading European couturier Lucile actively endorsed bras, and both Lucile and Paul Poiret refined and promoted the brassiere, influencing fashionable women to begin wearing their designs, Paris couturier Herminie Cadolle introduced a breast supporter in 1889. His design was a sensation at the Great Exposition of 1900 and became a fast selling design among wealthy Europeans in the next decade. Business career After she married Richard Peabody, Polly filed a legal certificate with the Commonwealth of Massachusetts on May 19, 1920, declaring that she was a married woman conducting a business using separate funds from her husband's <P> Monokini The monokini, designed by Rudi Gernreich in 1964, consisting of only a brief, close-fitting bottom and two thin straps, was the first women's topless swimsuit. His revolutionary and controversial design included a bottom that "extended from the midriff to the upper thigh" and was "held up by shoestring laces that make a halter around the neck." Some credit Gernreich's design with initiating, or describe it as a symbol of, the sexual revolution. Gernreich designed the monokini as a protest against a repressive society. He didn't initially intend to produce the monokini commercially, but was persuaded by Susanne Kirtland of <P> Toupées continued to be advertised in print, likely with heavier media buys taking place in magazines with the appropriate male demographic. A typical "advertorial" can be found in Modern Mechanix. By 1970, Time magazine estimated that in the U.S., toupées were worn by more than 2.5 million men out of 17–20 million balding men. The increase was chalked up once again to further improvements in hairpiece technology, a desire to seem more youthful, and the long hairstyles that were increasingly in fashion. 21st century Toupée and wig manufacture is no longer centered in the U.S., but in Asia. <P> argued such bans are largely gendered, focusing on the damage caused by supposed "distraction" of boys by girls in tight clothing; similar complaints caused a ban in Rockport, Massachusetts, quickly reversed. The tight-fitting nature of yoga pants for adult women has also aroused discussion. Rosalie Murphy, writing in The Atlantic in 2014, describing the glossy yoga magazines such as Yoga Journal, stated that "Nearly every spread features a thin woman, usually in slim yoga pants and a tight tank [top], stretching her arms toward the sky or closing her eyes in meditation." In a New York Times opinion piece, Honor Jones <P> Craze. <P> an increase in international relations, and a more proliferate sharing of fashion through photography and films, which helped spread high heel fashion as well. Examples of this were the brown and white pumps with cutouts or ankle straps combined with an open toe. Their practicality yet professional look appealed to the new, fast-paced lifestyle of many women. Alternatively, World War II led to the popularization of pin-up girl posters, which men would often hang in their bunks while at war. Almost all of these girls were pictured wearing high heels, leading to an increase in the relationship between high heels and <P> professor Martie Haselton said, "Legginess is something that we know men prefer in mates. The news in this research is that women prefer longer legs in mates." Although leg length isn't always a sign of good health, people tend to prefer longer legs for a more attractive appearance. Historical and cultural background Areas of the body deemed sexually-desirable are affected by contemporary social norms and dress codes. A substantial portion of Victorian men famously boasted a knee or ankle fetish. This is due to the modesty of the nineteenth century which considered bare legs in public scandalous. In the modern era, <P> approximately one third of South Korean women between 19 and 29 have claimed to have had plastic surgery. A study from 2009 found that Korean women are very critical of their body image and are more prone to lower self-esteem and self-satisfaction compared to women from the United States. The pressure to uphold a standard of beauty is even felt within the job market. Companies require a photo, height, and sometimes the family background of applicants as a part of the hiring process. Beauty is often seen as a means for socioeconomic success in the rapidly modernized post-war economy of South <P> the fetishism of the legs. The widespread social acceptance of women showing their legs in public can subconsciously affect mens' perceptions. In a 1981 study, both male and female subjects rated their first impressions of female job applicants in 12 outfits. The study supported that, "Male subjects found female models more physically attractive and more likable in short shorts and short skirts compared with regular lengths." In media The 1983 song "Legs" by American Rock Trio ZZ Top is dedicated to female legs. In the 2005 anime Speed Grapher, Chief Ekoda of the Tokyo Police Department has an extreme leg fetish, murdering <P> when she made her Broadway debut in 1955, though some scholars dispute those figures. She was known as "the Cleavage Queen" and "the Queen of Sex and Bosom". It was said that her breasts fluctuated in size from her pregnancies and nursing her five children. Her smallest bust measurement was 40-D (102 cm), which was constant throughout the 1950s, and her largest was 46-DD (117 cm), measured by the press in 1967. According to Playboy, her vital statistics were 40D-21-36 (102–53–91 cm) on her 5'6" (1.68 m) frame. It has been claimed that her bosom was a major force behind the development of 1950s brassieres, including <P> popular and this, along with many of the original reasons for the popularity of campaign furniture hold true today. It is practical, often versatile and naturally, very easy to move about. <P> cable channels, these products, such as jewellery and dresses, were mainly aimed at a female audience.	answer: Fads come and go. Look at 80s/90s "mom" pants and look what's fashionable today for young hip gals.Anyway, fashion comes and goes and big butts have been fashionable in many cultures and have come and gone as main stream.Easiest answer to a question like this, as it seems you don't like big butts, is different strokes for different folks. You don't always have to like what's mainstream or dislike what's not, or any combination of that.
131,027	17p906	What were the logistics of gunpowder (i.e. getting the raw materials, refining, measuring and transporting) in the early days of gunpowder wars for different cultures.	The salt - saltpeter usually - is the really difficult component. It is generally mined and serves as the easiest portion of the supply train to disrupt. Most militaries wouldn't want to make their own powder on the march, however. Granual size is so important to the burn rate that it must be carefully managed and daylight hours are too important for movement to waste on powder grinding. And you don't want to grind powder by firelight. Edit -- per /r/Askhistorians rules, I should post a source. Source: I teach about firearms safety for the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries and am advance-qualified on Muzzleloaders (black powder). Also, [Salt: A World History by Mark Kurlansky](_URL_0_) talks a lot about saltpeter and the supply chain that surrounded it.	[ "The salt - saltpeter usually - is the really difficult component. It is generally mined and serves as the easiest portion of the supply train to disrupt. \n\nMost militaries wouldn't want to make their own powder on the march, however. Granual size is so important to the burn rate that it must be carefully managed...	10	[ "The salt - saltpeter usually - is the really difficult component. It is generally mined and serves as the easiest portion of the supply train to disrupt. \n\nMost militaries wouldn't want to make their own powder on the march, however. Granual size is so important to the burn rate that it must be carefully managed...	8	<P> 500. Shops - Repairs were handled by skilled, civilian tradesmen. Blacksmiths and carpenters were hired at high wages. In 1867, a blacksmiths made $85 a month, saddlers and wheelwrights $90. Soldiers who had skills could take on extra duty working in the shops building as laborers, blacksmiths, and mechanics. The bakery was at the north end of the shops and baked bread. The bread was allowed to "dry" on racks for at least two days before being served. Warehouses - An important role for a frontier fort was as a place to store the supplies that kept the Army functioning, including <P> the 1820s–1830s, as well as for the adoption of oil as a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century. Military The arquebus first appeared in the Ottoman Empire at some point between 1394 and the early 15th century. The arquebus was later used in substantial numbers by the Janissaries of the Ottoman army by the mid-15th century. The matchlock was first used by the Janissary corps in the first half of the 15th century, by the 1440s. Ottoman artillery included a number of cannons, most of which were designed by Turkish engineers, in addition to a <P> These fire pots could cause great damage to besieged cities with largely wooden construction. In the Siege of Petra (550–551), the Sasanians used fire pots containing sulfur and bitumen—an early form of chemical weapon. A description of how to make military fire pots is given in Lucar, 1588, cited by Martin 1994:207-217 "Make great and small earthen pots which must be but half baked, and like unto the picture in the mergent . . . . Fill every of those pots half with grosse gunpowder pressed down hard, and with one of the five several mixtures next following in this Chapter, fill up <P> which the Ottomans used, such as the‘Saçma topu’ (grapeshot) and the ‘Ağaç topu’ (petard). Method and production The ammunition used by the bronze bombards were stone balls 1 meter in diameter and weighing 400 kg. The transportation of just two bombards proved to be a logistically challenging task. They were dragged to the Fall of Constantinople by 70 oxen and 1000 men. The casting of these bombards are described by Kritoboulos 1467. He describes the clay mould and the core which was strengthened by iron, wood, earth and stone. 45 tonnes of copper and tin are said to be placed in <P> to Priene, Bias had piles of sand covered with corn to give the impression of plentiful resources. This ruse appears to have been well known in medieval Europe: defenders in castles or towns under siege would throw food from the walls to show besiegers that provisions were plentiful. A famous example occurs in the 8th-century legend of Lady Carcas, who supposedly persuaded the Franks to abandon a five-year siege by this means and gave her name to Carcassonne as a result. World War I The start of modern psychological operations in war is generally dated to the World War I. <P> as blacksmiths, carpenters and stonemasons – this was more profitable to them than working the fields. The local economy also benefited from the presence of the forts and the army, both during construction and afterwards, the villages of la Condamine and Gleizolles in particular. By 1860, improvements in artillery, particularly the replacement of the bronze cannon with steel, rifled guns firing pointed, exploding, shells gave the opportunity for accurate fire over much longer ranges. Typical guns at the time could hit targets 8–9 km away. The decision was made to create extra batteries above the Fort Supérieur — the Batterie des Caurres and the <P> Maces were blunt force weapons used for crushing blows against the enemy. These weapons were effective against armored troops, and typically were smooth or had 3-12 flanges or blades protruding from the top of the weapon. Types Archival evidence supports the notion that the Ottoman artillery was famous for the size of its cannon, and their number; from the highly mobile antipersonnel Abus gun to the massive Great Turkish Bombard. These bombards were a product of specialised study in the production of 'giant guns' known literally as castle smashers 'kale-kob'. Although such weapons being primarily used in sieges; where they <P> were cast on site due to the logistical difficulties attributed to transport them there, they were used as late as 1809 when massive stone-firing guns were used with some effect against British ships during the Dardanelles Operation, throwing 1000-pound marble with a range of 1 mile. Accuracy was achieved by using wadded shots wrapped in sheepskin with ready-measured stacks of powder. Unlike the European powder, the Ottoman powder is thought to be better for upon firing; it produced white smoke rather than black smoke. The most famous battle in which these bronze 'bombards' were used is at the siege of Constantinople <P> gun manufacturers of the town. The Napoleonic Wars required special efforts, and between 1804 and 1817 a total of 1,827,889 muskets, rifles, carbines, and pistols were manufactured for the Government alone. 3,037,644 barrels and 2,879,203 locks were made and then delivered to London for assembly, and around 1,000,000 items were also delivered to the East India Company, which fought alongside the British forces. It has been estimated that production of guns and components between 1804 and 1815 averaged more than three-quarters of a million items per annum, more than two-thirds of England's production during this period. Birmingham Proof House <P> of a hexagonal laager formed with wagons that were tightly locked together, and a separate kraal for the cattle, constructed on the edge of the southern face of the ridge. Trenches and earth parapets surrounded both sections and a stone redoubt had been built on a rise just north of the kraal. A palisade blocked the 100 yd (91 m) between the kraal and redoubt, while four 7-pounder guns were positioned between the redoubt and the laager to cover the northern approaches. Two more guns in the redoubt covered the north-east. Two companies were sited in the redoubt; another company occupied the <P> in 1453. The bombards weighed 19 tons, took 200 men and sixty oxen to emplace, and could fire just seven times a day. The Fall of Constantinople was perhaps "the first event of supreme importance whose result was determined by the use of artillery", when the huge bronze cannons of Mehmed II breached the city's walls, ending the Byzantine Empire, according to Sir Charles Oman. The most commonly used gun is known as a battering gun (darbzen). This gun fired 0.15–2.5 kg shots in weight. These guns were used more in fortresses as the emphasis was given to small to medium-calibre guns. <P> served as a way for capitalists and workers to bypass the guild system, which was thought to be cumbersome and inflexible, and to access a rural labour force. Having the workers work in their homes was convenient for both parties. Workers would work from home, manufacturing individual articles from raw materials, then bring them to a central place of business, such as a marketplace or a larger town, to be assembled and sold. In other cases travelling agents or traders would tour the villages, supplying the raw materials and collecting the finished goods. The raw materials were often provided by <P> in use at a brickworks in Rainham. The next development was the Long Continuous Kiln where bricks were stacked on flat wagons which were slowly passed through a chamber where hot gases could circulate around them.--> <P> ceramic containers and silos to store surplus grain. Archeological discoveries indicate wheat, barley, and legumes were the staple grains during the Neolithic. Domesticated cattle, sheep, goats and pork also provided food. <P> Merv. These military factories achieved high levels of production and managed to equip the army with good quality cannon. However mobile workshops allowed for Nader to maintain his strategic mobility whilst preserving versatility in the deployment of heavy siege cannon when required. One of Nader's key artillery units were the zamburakchi (زمبورکچی), a corps of artillery batteries which were 1 or 2-pounder swivel guns mounted on the back of camels. They were rather inaccurate and short in range compared to regular field-artillery but had the clear advantage in mobility and when massed could deliver a devastating volley (as seen in the <P> de Larche, as well as the upper Ubaye valley. Looking from the B12, one can see what an excellent prospect of the valleys this afforded. Cannons were also installed at batteries on the eastern side of the Fort Moyenne and the Fort Supérieur. The main building materials were faced stone – Ubaye marble, used for load-bearing structures and for decoration – and the local stone, hewed from the mountain itself, used as a rough construction material along with lime mortar. The fort was designed and built by the French Army engineering regiment – the Genie with some help from local labourers – many of whom worked <P> crops were grown in rows, which reduced competition of plants and increase yields. It was reinvented in 16th century Europe based on verbal descriptions and crude drawings brought back from China. Jethro Tull patented a version in 1700; however, it was expensive and unreliable. Reliable seed drills appeared in the mid 19th century. Since the beginning of agriculture threshing was done by hand with a flail, requiring a great deal of labor. The threshing machine (ca. 1794) simplified the operation and allowed it to use animal power. By the 1860s threshing machines were widely introduced and <P> the heating of the guns, considering the smaller friction produced by the passage of the projectiles, mainly in the automatic weapons. The pieces that composed its rifles and machine guns were schemed or executed by winches or drop hammers, except for the marks of the pistols gas release devices, that were of smelting. For the preparation of the butts, walnut, original of the provinces of San Luis and Mendoza were used. This wood remained in the same plant for four or five years before they were utilized. The factory produced for its arms, the complementary accessories: magazines for machine guns <P> vegetables, corn-meal, or whatever is needed by the command, aiming at all times to keep in the wagons at least ten day's provisions for the command and three days' forage. Soldiers must not enter the dwellings of the inhabitants, or commit any trespass, but during a halt or a camp they may be permitted to gather turnips, apples, and other vegetables, and to drive in stock of their camp. To regular foraging parties must be instructed the gathering of provisions and forage at any distance from the road traveled. V. To army corps commanders alone is entrusted the power to destroy <P> steamed to make it more pliable. Horn is used to create tools, usually cooking utensils. To do this, the horn is softened by boiling, then bent and carved into the desired shape. For paint, red ochre is used, along with white paste from burnt clamshells and many others. Tools Traditionally, tools have been made by the artisans themselves for personal use. Tools include adzes, carving knives, stone axes, stone hammers and paintbrushes. Brushes were sometimes made from porcupine hair. Later, the loom was used to weave blankets and curtains. Some tools were ceremonial,	question: What were the logistics of gunpowder (i.e. getting the raw materials, refining, measuring and transporting) in the early days of gunpowder wars for different cultures. context: <P> 500. Shops - Repairs were handled by skilled, civilian tradesmen. Blacksmiths and carpenters were hired at high wages. In 1867, a blacksmiths made $85 a month, saddlers and wheelwrights $90. Soldiers who had skills could take on extra duty working in the shops building as laborers, blacksmiths, and mechanics. The bakery was at the north end of the shops and baked bread. The bread was allowed to "dry" on racks for at least two days before being served. Warehouses - An important role for a frontier fort was as a place to store the supplies that kept the Army functioning, including <P> the 1820s–1830s, as well as for the adoption of oil as a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century. Military The arquebus first appeared in the Ottoman Empire at some point between 1394 and the early 15th century. The arquebus was later used in substantial numbers by the Janissaries of the Ottoman army by the mid-15th century. The matchlock was first used by the Janissary corps in the first half of the 15th century, by the 1440s. Ottoman artillery included a number of cannons, most of which were designed by Turkish engineers, in addition to a <P> These fire pots could cause great damage to besieged cities with largely wooden construction. In the Siege of Petra (550–551), the Sasanians used fire pots containing sulfur and bitumen—an early form of chemical weapon. A description of how to make military fire pots is given in Lucar, 1588, cited by Martin 1994:207-217 "Make great and small earthen pots which must be but half baked, and like unto the picture in the mergent . . . . Fill every of those pots half with grosse gunpowder pressed down hard, and with one of the five several mixtures next following in this Chapter, fill up <P> which the Ottomans used, such as the‘Saçma topu’ (grapeshot) and the ‘Ağaç topu’ (petard). Method and production The ammunition used by the bronze bombards were stone balls 1 meter in diameter and weighing 400 kg. The transportation of just two bombards proved to be a logistically challenging task. They were dragged to the Fall of Constantinople by 70 oxen and 1000 men. The casting of these bombards are described by Kritoboulos 1467. He describes the clay mould and the core which was strengthened by iron, wood, earth and stone. 45 tonnes of copper and tin are said to be placed in <P> to Priene, Bias had piles of sand covered with corn to give the impression of plentiful resources. This ruse appears to have been well known in medieval Europe: defenders in castles or towns under siege would throw food from the walls to show besiegers that provisions were plentiful. A famous example occurs in the 8th-century legend of Lady Carcas, who supposedly persuaded the Franks to abandon a five-year siege by this means and gave her name to Carcassonne as a result. World War I The start of modern psychological operations in war is generally dated to the World War I. <P> as blacksmiths, carpenters and stonemasons – this was more profitable to them than working the fields. The local economy also benefited from the presence of the forts and the army, both during construction and afterwards, the villages of la Condamine and Gleizolles in particular. By 1860, improvements in artillery, particularly the replacement of the bronze cannon with steel, rifled guns firing pointed, exploding, shells gave the opportunity for accurate fire over much longer ranges. Typical guns at the time could hit targets 8–9 km away. The decision was made to create extra batteries above the Fort Supérieur — the Batterie des Caurres and the <P> Maces were blunt force weapons used for crushing blows against the enemy. These weapons were effective against armored troops, and typically were smooth or had 3-12 flanges or blades protruding from the top of the weapon. Types Archival evidence supports the notion that the Ottoman artillery was famous for the size of its cannon, and their number; from the highly mobile antipersonnel Abus gun to the massive Great Turkish Bombard. These bombards were a product of specialised study in the production of 'giant guns' known literally as castle smashers 'kale-kob'. Although such weapons being primarily used in sieges; where they <P> were cast on site due to the logistical difficulties attributed to transport them there, they were used as late as 1809 when massive stone-firing guns were used with some effect against British ships during the Dardanelles Operation, throwing 1000-pound marble with a range of 1 mile. Accuracy was achieved by using wadded shots wrapped in sheepskin with ready-measured stacks of powder. Unlike the European powder, the Ottoman powder is thought to be better for upon firing; it produced white smoke rather than black smoke. The most famous battle in which these bronze 'bombards' were used is at the siege of Constantinople <P> gun manufacturers of the town. The Napoleonic Wars required special efforts, and between 1804 and 1817 a total of 1,827,889 muskets, rifles, carbines, and pistols were manufactured for the Government alone. 3,037,644 barrels and 2,879,203 locks were made and then delivered to London for assembly, and around 1,000,000 items were also delivered to the East India Company, which fought alongside the British forces. It has been estimated that production of guns and components between 1804 and 1815 averaged more than three-quarters of a million items per annum, more than two-thirds of England's production during this period. Birmingham Proof House <P> of a hexagonal laager formed with wagons that were tightly locked together, and a separate kraal for the cattle, constructed on the edge of the southern face of the ridge. Trenches and earth parapets surrounded both sections and a stone redoubt had been built on a rise just north of the kraal. A palisade blocked the 100 yd (91 m) between the kraal and redoubt, while four 7-pounder guns were positioned between the redoubt and the laager to cover the northern approaches. Two more guns in the redoubt covered the north-east. Two companies were sited in the redoubt; another company occupied the <P> in 1453. The bombards weighed 19 tons, took 200 men and sixty oxen to emplace, and could fire just seven times a day. The Fall of Constantinople was perhaps "the first event of supreme importance whose result was determined by the use of artillery", when the huge bronze cannons of Mehmed II breached the city's walls, ending the Byzantine Empire, according to Sir Charles Oman. The most commonly used gun is known as a battering gun (darbzen). This gun fired 0.15–2.5 kg shots in weight. These guns were used more in fortresses as the emphasis was given to small to medium-calibre guns. <P> served as a way for capitalists and workers to bypass the guild system, which was thought to be cumbersome and inflexible, and to access a rural labour force. Having the workers work in their homes was convenient for both parties. Workers would work from home, manufacturing individual articles from raw materials, then bring them to a central place of business, such as a marketplace or a larger town, to be assembled and sold. In other cases travelling agents or traders would tour the villages, supplying the raw materials and collecting the finished goods. The raw materials were often provided by <P> in use at a brickworks in Rainham. The next development was the Long Continuous Kiln where bricks were stacked on flat wagons which were slowly passed through a chamber where hot gases could circulate around them.--> <P> ceramic containers and silos to store surplus grain. Archeological discoveries indicate wheat, barley, and legumes were the staple grains during the Neolithic. Domesticated cattle, sheep, goats and pork also provided food. <P> Merv. These military factories achieved high levels of production and managed to equip the army with good quality cannon. However mobile workshops allowed for Nader to maintain his strategic mobility whilst preserving versatility in the deployment of heavy siege cannon when required. One of Nader's key artillery units were the zamburakchi (زمبورکچی), a corps of artillery batteries which were 1 or 2-pounder swivel guns mounted on the back of camels. They were rather inaccurate and short in range compared to regular field-artillery but had the clear advantage in mobility and when massed could deliver a devastating volley (as seen in the <P> de Larche, as well as the upper Ubaye valley. Looking from the B12, one can see what an excellent prospect of the valleys this afforded. Cannons were also installed at batteries on the eastern side of the Fort Moyenne and the Fort Supérieur. The main building materials were faced stone – Ubaye marble, used for load-bearing structures and for decoration – and the local stone, hewed from the mountain itself, used as a rough construction material along with lime mortar. The fort was designed and built by the French Army engineering regiment – the Genie with some help from local labourers – many of whom worked <P> crops were grown in rows, which reduced competition of plants and increase yields. It was reinvented in 16th century Europe based on verbal descriptions and crude drawings brought back from China. Jethro Tull patented a version in 1700; however, it was expensive and unreliable. Reliable seed drills appeared in the mid 19th century. Since the beginning of agriculture threshing was done by hand with a flail, requiring a great deal of labor. The threshing machine (ca. 1794) simplified the operation and allowed it to use animal power. By the 1860s threshing machines were widely introduced and <P> the heating of the guns, considering the smaller friction produced by the passage of the projectiles, mainly in the automatic weapons. The pieces that composed its rifles and machine guns were schemed or executed by winches or drop hammers, except for the marks of the pistols gas release devices, that were of smelting. For the preparation of the butts, walnut, original of the provinces of San Luis and Mendoza were used. This wood remained in the same plant for four or five years before they were utilized. The factory produced for its arms, the complementary accessories: magazines for machine guns <P> vegetables, corn-meal, or whatever is needed by the command, aiming at all times to keep in the wagons at least ten day's provisions for the command and three days' forage. Soldiers must not enter the dwellings of the inhabitants, or commit any trespass, but during a halt or a camp they may be permitted to gather turnips, apples, and other vegetables, and to drive in stock of their camp. To regular foraging parties must be instructed the gathering of provisions and forage at any distance from the road traveled. V. To army corps commanders alone is entrusted the power to destroy <P> steamed to make it more pliable. Horn is used to create tools, usually cooking utensils. To do this, the horn is softened by boiling, then bent and carved into the desired shape. For paint, red ochre is used, along with white paste from burnt clamshells and many others. Tools Traditionally, tools have been made by the artisans themselves for personal use. Tools include adzes, carving knives, stone axes, stone hammers and paintbrushes. Brushes were sometimes made from porcupine hair. Later, the loom was used to weave blankets and curtains. Some tools were ceremonial,	answer: The salt - saltpeter usually - is the really difficult component. It is generally mined and serves as the easiest portion of the supply train to disrupt. Most militaries wouldn't want to make their own powder on the march, however. Granual size is so important to the burn rate that it must be carefully managed and daylight hours are too important for movement to waste on powder grinding. And you don't want to grind powder by firelight. Edit -- per /r/Askhistorians rules, I should post a source. Source: I teach about firearms safety for the Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries and am advance-qualified on Muzzleloaders (black powder). Also, [Salt: A World History by Mark Kurlansky](_URL_0_) talks a lot about saltpeter and the supply chain that surrounded it.
8,923	7xesku	why is it wasting water when we let it run while we brush our teeth?	Water that goes down the drain has already been purified once, and will now have to be purified again before it can be discharged.The water itself can be reclaimed, but the energy used to purify it is wasted.	[ "Water that goes down the drain has already been purified once, and will now have to be purified again before it can be discharged.\n\nThe water itself can be reclaimed, but the energy used to purify it is wasted.", "Because once it goes down the sink, it isn't drinkable water anymore because it goes into the sew...	5	[ "Water that goes down the drain has already been purified once, and will now have to be purified again before it can be discharged.\n\nThe water itself can be reclaimed, but the energy used to purify it is wasted.", "Because once it goes down the sink, it isn't drinkable water anymore because it goes into the sew...	3	<P> and other vegetation draw up the water at a greater than recharge than it can be recharged. The over extraction of ground water to supply human needs has a similar result as drought conditions. <P> Waste". <P> soil amendments are not productive when added in excess, and can actually be detrimental to plant health. (See fertilizer burn.) Runoff of excess nutrients into waterways also occurs, which is harmful to the water quality and through it, the environment. <P> Consumptive water use Consumptive water use is water removed from available supplies without return to a water resource system (e.g., water used in manufacturing, agriculture, and food preparation that is not returned to a stream, river, or water treatment plant). Evaporation from the surface of the earth into clouds of water in the air which then falls to the ground as "rain" is excluded from this model. Crop consumptive water use is the amount of water transpired during plant growth plus what evaporates from the soil surface and foliage in the crop area. The portion of water consumed in crop <P> purpose. Its viability and efficiency of water supply is currently being examined. <P> be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm. Such water is commonly called potable water. In most developed countries, the water supplied to domestic, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation. Recreation Sustainable management of water resources (including provision of safe and reliable supplies for drinking water and irrigation, adequate sanitation, protection of aquatic ecosystems, and flood protection) poses enormous challenges in many parts of the world. Recreational water use is usually a very small but growing percentage of total <P> transport additional water. <P> water provided in months when it is not needed for watering crops. These problems can be overcome when designing water supply systems for multiple uses. For example, steps can be built to provide access for bathing or washing clothes, and access points can be provided to give livestock safe access to water. Sufficient water can be supplied that there is always some available for domestic uses, even at times when the crops do not need water. Other livelihood options can also be considered; for example, using water for fisheries, as well as rearing livestock, growing crops and domestic uses. MUS <P> is sold in open stands without running water or electricity. <P> the water supply because of runoff. While most waste from the operations is used to fertilise crops in the area, smaller farms cannot absorb all nutrients from the manure risking excess waste being washed into the water supply. <P> and velocities by paving areas and channelizing the stream flow. The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water. For example, many farms require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter. To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time. Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a power <P> and water. <P> also provides nucleation foci for precipitation, which leads to higher efficiency than chemical precipitation. <P> is used for food and medicine by the Menomini people of Wisconsin. <P> cost or for free. When he heard that some local residents were reportedly selling water to people coming to the concert, he put up a big sign at his barn on New York State Route 17B reading "Free Water." The New York Times reported that Yasgur "slammed a work-hardened fist on the table and demanded of some friends, 'How can anyone ask money for water?'" His son Sam recalled his father telling his children to "take every empty milk bottle from the plant, fill them with water and give them to the kids, and give away all the milk and <P> power plants using cooling towers have high consumption, nearly equal to their withdrawal, as most of the withdrawn water is evaporated as part of the cooling process. The withdrawal, however, is lower than in once-through cooling systems. Domestic use[house hold] It is estimated that 8% of worldwide water use is for domestic purposes. These include drinking water, bathing, cooking, toilet flushing, cleaning, laundry and gardening. Basic domestic water requirements have been estimated by Peter Gleick at around 50 liters per person per day, excluding water for gardens. Drinking water is water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can <P> is not common and water bills are thus independent of consumption. People that have to obtain their water from tankers or desalination plants allegedly spend one-third of their income on purchasing potable water. Where enough safe drinking water is available, people are not aware of its value and consume 350 litres per capita and day. <P> plant that requires water for cooling. To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need. Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of precipitation within a watershed is the upper bound for average consumption of natural surface water from that watershed. Natural surface water can be augmented by importing surface water from another watershed through a canal or pipeline. It can also be artificially augmented from any of the other sources listed here, however in practice the quantities are <P> not be brought into the watershed. <P> water), but more often is water retained in waterways through regulatory limits of abstraction. Environmental water usage includes watering of natural or artificial wetlands, artificial lakes intended to create wildlife habitat, fish ladders, and water releases from reservoirs timed to help fish spawn, or to restore more natural flow regimes Like recreational usage, environmental usage is non-consumptive but may reduce the availability of water for other users at specific times and places. For example, water release from a reservoir to help fish spawn may not be available to farms upstream, and water retained in a river to maintain waterway	question: why is it wasting water when we let it run while we brush our teeth? context: <P> and other vegetation draw up the water at a greater than recharge than it can be recharged. The over extraction of ground water to supply human needs has a similar result as drought conditions. <P> Waste". <P> soil amendments are not productive when added in excess, and can actually be detrimental to plant health. (See fertilizer burn.) Runoff of excess nutrients into waterways also occurs, which is harmful to the water quality and through it, the environment. <P> Consumptive water use Consumptive water use is water removed from available supplies without return to a water resource system (e.g., water used in manufacturing, agriculture, and food preparation that is not returned to a stream, river, or water treatment plant). Evaporation from the surface of the earth into clouds of water in the air which then falls to the ground as "rain" is excluded from this model. Crop consumptive water use is the amount of water transpired during plant growth plus what evaporates from the soil surface and foliage in the crop area. The portion of water consumed in crop <P> purpose. Its viability and efficiency of water supply is currently being examined. <P> be consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm. Such water is commonly called potable water. In most developed countries, the water supplied to domestic, commerce and industry is all of drinking water standard even though only a very small proportion is actually consumed or used in food preparation. Recreation Sustainable management of water resources (including provision of safe and reliable supplies for drinking water and irrigation, adequate sanitation, protection of aquatic ecosystems, and flood protection) poses enormous challenges in many parts of the world. Recreational water use is usually a very small but growing percentage of total <P> transport additional water. <P> water provided in months when it is not needed for watering crops. These problems can be overcome when designing water supply systems for multiple uses. For example, steps can be built to provide access for bathing or washing clothes, and access points can be provided to give livestock safe access to water. Sufficient water can be supplied that there is always some available for domestic uses, even at times when the crops do not need water. Other livelihood options can also be considered; for example, using water for fisheries, as well as rearing livestock, growing crops and domestic uses. MUS <P> is sold in open stands without running water or electricity. <P> the water supply because of runoff. While most waste from the operations is used to fertilise crops in the area, smaller farms cannot absorb all nutrients from the manure risking excess waste being washed into the water supply. <P> and velocities by paving areas and channelizing the stream flow. The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human water users have an intermittent need for water. For example, many farms require large quantities of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter. To supply such a farm with water, a surface water system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and release it in a short period of time. Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a power <P> and water. <P> also provides nucleation foci for precipitation, which leads to higher efficiency than chemical precipitation. <P> is used for food and medicine by the Menomini people of Wisconsin. <P> cost or for free. When he heard that some local residents were reportedly selling water to people coming to the concert, he put up a big sign at his barn on New York State Route 17B reading "Free Water." The New York Times reported that Yasgur "slammed a work-hardened fist on the table and demanded of some friends, 'How can anyone ask money for water?'" His son Sam recalled his father telling his children to "take every empty milk bottle from the plant, fill them with water and give them to the kids, and give away all the milk and <P> power plants using cooling towers have high consumption, nearly equal to their withdrawal, as most of the withdrawn water is evaporated as part of the cooling process. The withdrawal, however, is lower than in once-through cooling systems. Domestic use[house hold] It is estimated that 8% of worldwide water use is for domestic purposes. These include drinking water, bathing, cooking, toilet flushing, cleaning, laundry and gardening. Basic domestic water requirements have been estimated by Peter Gleick at around 50 liters per person per day, excluding water for gardens. Drinking water is water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it can <P> is not common and water bills are thus independent of consumption. People that have to obtain their water from tankers or desalination plants allegedly spend one-third of their income on purchasing potable water. Where enough safe drinking water is available, people are not aware of its value and consume 350 litres per capita and day. <P> plant that requires water for cooling. To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power plant's need. Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of precipitation within a watershed is the upper bound for average consumption of natural surface water from that watershed. Natural surface water can be augmented by importing surface water from another watershed through a canal or pipeline. It can also be artificially augmented from any of the other sources listed here, however in practice the quantities are <P> not be brought into the watershed. <P> water), but more often is water retained in waterways through regulatory limits of abstraction. Environmental water usage includes watering of natural or artificial wetlands, artificial lakes intended to create wildlife habitat, fish ladders, and water releases from reservoirs timed to help fish spawn, or to restore more natural flow regimes Like recreational usage, environmental usage is non-consumptive but may reduce the availability of water for other users at specific times and places. For example, water release from a reservoir to help fish spawn may not be available to farms upstream, and water retained in a river to maintain waterway	answer: Water that goes down the drain has already been purified once, and will now have to be purified again before it can be discharged.The water itself can be reclaimed, but the energy used to purify it is wasted.
171,505	33vvgy	When a fish gets eaten by another fish, what does it actually die from?	If it was swallowed whole? Suffocation.If chewed into pieces? Lacerations to the brain...If half eaten? Blood loss.	[ "If it was swallowed whole? Suffocation.\n\nIf chewed into pieces? Lacerations to the brain...\n\nIf half eaten? Blood loss." ]	1	[ "If it was swallowed whole? Suffocation.\n\nIf chewed into pieces? Lacerations to the brain...\n\nIf half eaten? Blood loss." ]	1	<P> and may swim close to the water surface, gulping for air. However, the fish may show no external signs of illness and maintain a normal appetite, until suddenly dying. The disease can progress slowly throughout an infected farm and, in the worst cases, death rates may approach 100%. Post-mortem examination of the fish has shown a wide range of causes of death. The liver and spleen may be swollen, congested or partially already dead. The circulatory system may stop working, and the blood may be contaminated with dead blood cells. Red blood cells still present burst easily, and the numbers <P> and victim. Small items are swallowed whole but larger items are tackled by the starfish everting its cardiac stomach over the prey and secreting enzymes to start the digestive process. Faster moving prey animals have sometimes been observed to take refuge under a starfish and subsequently been invaginated. In the Prince Edward Islands, Anasterias rupicola is the dominant invertebrate predator but it is itself sometimes eaten by seabirds such as the lesser sheathbill (Chionis minor) and the kelp gull (Larus dominicanus). On the sub-Arctic Marion Island, Nacella delesserti and Anasterias rupicola are the two dominant members of the inshore community. When it <P> Groups of up to 14 starfish have been observed simultaneously feeding on one large limpet. After about 12 hours, digestion is complete and the starfish move away. It is also preyed upon by the demersal fish Notothenia coriiceps and the kelp gull (Larus dominicus). Despite these predators, it is a common and relatively fast growing species and is able to hold its own. <P> of their slim, tapered shape they may get caught in the windpipe and cause suffocation. Fish bones have been used to bioremediate lead from contaminated soil. <P> 2005, redbreast sunfish and smallmouth bass along a 100-mile (160 km) stretch of the South Fork Shenandoah River began dying of lesions caused by bacteria and fungi. Although the fish kill eventually wiped out 80% of the adult redbreast sunfish and smallmouth bass, juvenile populations appeared to be unaffected. The following year more-localized fish kills in Clarke County spread to two of the Shenandoah's three species of sucker: the shorthead redhorse and the northern hogsucker – the former suffering from similar lesions witnessed in the previous year's fish kill. Virginia's Department of Environmental Quality received reports of fish kills near <P> in her mouth. The eggs will be mouthbrooded for four weeks before she releases the free swimming fry. Threats The main threat to this critically endangered cichlid is capture for the aquarium trade. Etymology The specific name honours Ulrich Baensch, the inventor of the dried falke fish food, Tetramin, and who founded Tetra GmbH. <P> of toxic metals found in the fish were: Liver: between 2.37 mg/kg and 4.5 mg/kg of mercury found Skin: between 0.36 mg/kg and 0.59 mg/kg of mercury found 0.11 mg/kg of cadmium found Muscle: 0.9 mg/kg mercury found, 0.09 mg/kg maximum cadmium levels found In every sample, the lead found was less than 0.10 mg/kg. Black scabbardfish are known hosts to Anisakis. Eating raw or undercooked black scabbardfish could result in a parasitic infection known as anisakiasis, and the only way this condition can be treated is by removal of the nematodes through endoscopy, or surgery. Conservation Black scabbardfish are deep-sea creatures, existing in abundance between 800 and 1300 <P> prey. The sharks were frequently observed regurgitating chunks of blubber and immediately returning to feed, possibly in order to replace low energy yield pieces with high energy yield pieces, using their teeth as mechanoreceptors to distinguish them. After feeding for several hours, the sharks appeared to become lethargic, no longer swimming to the surface; they were observed mouthing the carcass but apparently unable to bite hard enough to remove flesh, they would instead bounce off and slowly sink. Up to eight sharks were observed feeding simultaneously, bumping into each other without showing any signs of aggression; on one occasion a <P> They manage to drive it back out to sea, where it kills several more people. Ben tries to get his boss, Luis Ruiz, to close the beaches. Ruiz says he will, and then tells Ben to kill the Megalodon. The crew goes back out to sea to kill the shark for good. Ben stabs the animal, which in turn begins ramming the boat, knocking Davis out cold. Cat goes into the cabin to get her shotgun, but the Megalodon bursts into the boat, trying to eat her. Ben comes to her aid, beating the shark with a bat. Cat grabs her <P> three or four years, though some individuals may reach six years or more. Feeding As with other galaxiids, the fish are opportunistic carnivores. Juveniles feed on plankton and small insect larvae in the water column. Adults feed on a variety of aquatic and terrestrial insects, molluscs and crustaceans. Status and conservation The species has been listed as Endangered under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 because of its very restricted range, with an estimated area of occurrence of about 76 km². It is listed as Rare under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995. It is threatened by diminishing <P> is not known to pose a danger to humans. Extremely rare like other river sharks, its global population has been estimated to number no more than 2,500 mature individuals, with no more than 250 in any subpopulation. This species is caught incidentally by commercial fisheries using gillnets and longlines, such as the barramundi (Lates calcarifer) gillnet fishery in Queensland (barramundi fisheries in New South Wales have been prohibited from rivers occupied by this species since 2005). Significant numbers are also taken by recreational anglers and bow fishers. Captured sharks might be eaten, used to bait crab pots, or discarded on <P> from fresh or brackish water. Sweetfish (Pecoglossus altevelis) is one of the most common fish species infected, but other include the golden carp (Carassius auratus), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), Zacco temminckii, Protimus steindachneri, Acheilognathus lancedata, and Pseudorashora parva. Definitive hosts include humans and various fish-eating mammals, primarily dogs, cats, and pigs. Fish-eating birds may also be infected with metagonimiasis. Reservoirs Reservoirs include fish-eating mammals such as dogs, cats and pigs as well as fish-eating birds. The presence of heterophyid infection in humans is generally caused by a lack of host specificity by the parasites, as seen in the many non-human reservoirs <P> up to at least 20 cm (7.9 in). Ecology Megalancistrus species are live in large rivers. These fish eat freshwater sponges and probably other invertebrates. They have been found with a lot of wood in the gut, but it appears as if this was consumed accidentally. <P> to the slices for the purpose of identifying the fish being eaten. Another possibility for the name is the traditional method of harvesting. "Sashimi-grade" fish is caught by individual handline. As soon as the fish is landed, its brain is pierced with a sharp spike, and it is placed in slurried ice. This spiking is called the ikejime process, and the instantaneous death means that the fish's flesh contains a minimal amount of lactic acid. This means that the fish will keep fresh on ice for about ten days, without turning white or otherwise degrading. Many non-Japanese use the terms sashimi and <P> reaches a size of about 6 centimetres (2.4 in) long, the limpet is too large for even the largest individual starfish to tackle. Under these circumstances, the starfish adopt a co-operative strategy. If a limpet fleeing from an attacker finds its path blocked by other starfish and has nowhere to which to retreat, it may be overwhelmed. Groups of up to fourteen starfish have been observed feeding on a single large limpet, each with part of their everted stomach inserted under its rim. Some feeding groups of smaller starfish act co-operatively to attack a limpet even though individually they are incapable <P> soft body parts inside. The starfish are usually found on horizontal surfaces while the limpets occupy vertical ones. When attacked, the limpet may evade the predator by moving further up the rock face. Older limpets grow too large for individual starfish to tackle but it has been found that several starfish often undertake co-operative group attacks. One starfish initiates the attack but if there are others in the vicinity, the limpet may have no safe direction in which to retreat. The starfish all converge on the limpet and, inverting their stomachs under the rim of its shell, start to feed. <P> any fish that is in a reasonable size range and found close to the water's surface is ready caught and consumed. Compared with the fish owls in the genus Bubo, the three fishing owls are more completely piscivorous and rarely vary their prey selection from fish. However, seldom, they will also take other aquatic animals such as frogs, crabs, mussels and large insects. In one case, a Pel's fishing owl was observed to predate a baby Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus). While perched over the water, these owls detect the movement of fish from ripples in the water and swoop down <P> a heavy downpour, the group distracts the watchman, and Samantha escapes and hides in a beached canoe. Justine is returned to the cage with her face and body partially painted. The prisoners are fed meat. Amy, who is vegan, reluctantly eats, then notices that a chunk of skin in the bowl bears one of Samantha's tattoos. Realizing they were fed Samantha, Amy slashes her own throat and dies. Lars stuffs marijuana down Amy's throat, hoping to get the tribe high when they cook her. His plan works and Justine and Daniel escape, but Alejandro stays, and not wishing to <P> that has drifted to the bottom of the tank. This colorful and peaceful bottom-dweller does not attack other fish, but it is best not to house it with Corydoras catfish. The giant kuhlis tend to meander toward their food with frequent stops along the way, as if "smelling the roses," while the corys are like pigs that stampede to the food, and continue eating even after they are full, disgoring food through their gills and wasting it before the giant kuhli loaches have a chance to get to it. In the aquarium they should be kept in groups of at least <P> than others. As mercury and methylmercury are fat soluble, they primarily accumulate in the viscera, although they are also found throughout the muscle tissue. When this fish is consumed by a predator, the mercury level is accumulated. Since fish are less efficient at depurating than accumulating methylmercury, fish-tissue concentrations increase over time. Thus species that are high on the food chain amass body burdens of mercury that can be ten times higher than the species they consume. This process is called biomagnification. Mercury poisoning happened this way in Minamata, Japan, now called Minamata disease. International 140 countries agreed in the	question: When a fish gets eaten by another fish, what does it actually die from? context: <P> and may swim close to the water surface, gulping for air. However, the fish may show no external signs of illness and maintain a normal appetite, until suddenly dying. The disease can progress slowly throughout an infected farm and, in the worst cases, death rates may approach 100%. Post-mortem examination of the fish has shown a wide range of causes of death. The liver and spleen may be swollen, congested or partially already dead. The circulatory system may stop working, and the blood may be contaminated with dead blood cells. Red blood cells still present burst easily, and the numbers <P> and victim. Small items are swallowed whole but larger items are tackled by the starfish everting its cardiac stomach over the prey and secreting enzymes to start the digestive process. Faster moving prey animals have sometimes been observed to take refuge under a starfish and subsequently been invaginated. In the Prince Edward Islands, Anasterias rupicola is the dominant invertebrate predator but it is itself sometimes eaten by seabirds such as the lesser sheathbill (Chionis minor) and the kelp gull (Larus dominicanus). On the sub-Arctic Marion Island, Nacella delesserti and Anasterias rupicola are the two dominant members of the inshore community. When it <P> Groups of up to 14 starfish have been observed simultaneously feeding on one large limpet. After about 12 hours, digestion is complete and the starfish move away. It is also preyed upon by the demersal fish Notothenia coriiceps and the kelp gull (Larus dominicus). Despite these predators, it is a common and relatively fast growing species and is able to hold its own. <P> of their slim, tapered shape they may get caught in the windpipe and cause suffocation. Fish bones have been used to bioremediate lead from contaminated soil. <P> 2005, redbreast sunfish and smallmouth bass along a 100-mile (160 km) stretch of the South Fork Shenandoah River began dying of lesions caused by bacteria and fungi. Although the fish kill eventually wiped out 80% of the adult redbreast sunfish and smallmouth bass, juvenile populations appeared to be unaffected. The following year more-localized fish kills in Clarke County spread to two of the Shenandoah's three species of sucker: the shorthead redhorse and the northern hogsucker – the former suffering from similar lesions witnessed in the previous year's fish kill. Virginia's Department of Environmental Quality received reports of fish kills near <P> in her mouth. The eggs will be mouthbrooded for four weeks before she releases the free swimming fry. Threats The main threat to this critically endangered cichlid is capture for the aquarium trade. Etymology The specific name honours Ulrich Baensch, the inventor of the dried falke fish food, Tetramin, and who founded Tetra GmbH. <P> of toxic metals found in the fish were: Liver: between 2.37 mg/kg and 4.5 mg/kg of mercury found Skin: between 0.36 mg/kg and 0.59 mg/kg of mercury found 0.11 mg/kg of cadmium found Muscle: 0.9 mg/kg mercury found, 0.09 mg/kg maximum cadmium levels found In every sample, the lead found was less than 0.10 mg/kg. Black scabbardfish are known hosts to Anisakis. Eating raw or undercooked black scabbardfish could result in a parasitic infection known as anisakiasis, and the only way this condition can be treated is by removal of the nematodes through endoscopy, or surgery. Conservation Black scabbardfish are deep-sea creatures, existing in abundance between 800 and 1300 <P> prey. The sharks were frequently observed regurgitating chunks of blubber and immediately returning to feed, possibly in order to replace low energy yield pieces with high energy yield pieces, using their teeth as mechanoreceptors to distinguish them. After feeding for several hours, the sharks appeared to become lethargic, no longer swimming to the surface; they were observed mouthing the carcass but apparently unable to bite hard enough to remove flesh, they would instead bounce off and slowly sink. Up to eight sharks were observed feeding simultaneously, bumping into each other without showing any signs of aggression; on one occasion a <P> They manage to drive it back out to sea, where it kills several more people. Ben tries to get his boss, Luis Ruiz, to close the beaches. Ruiz says he will, and then tells Ben to kill the Megalodon. The crew goes back out to sea to kill the shark for good. Ben stabs the animal, which in turn begins ramming the boat, knocking Davis out cold. Cat goes into the cabin to get her shotgun, but the Megalodon bursts into the boat, trying to eat her. Ben comes to her aid, beating the shark with a bat. Cat grabs her <P> three or four years, though some individuals may reach six years or more. Feeding As with other galaxiids, the fish are opportunistic carnivores. Juveniles feed on plankton and small insect larvae in the water column. Adults feed on a variety of aquatic and terrestrial insects, molluscs and crustaceans. Status and conservation The species has been listed as Endangered under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 because of its very restricted range, with an estimated area of occurrence of about 76 km². It is listed as Rare under the Tasmanian Threatened Species Protection Act 1995. It is threatened by diminishing <P> is not known to pose a danger to humans. Extremely rare like other river sharks, its global population has been estimated to number no more than 2,500 mature individuals, with no more than 250 in any subpopulation. This species is caught incidentally by commercial fisheries using gillnets and longlines, such as the barramundi (Lates calcarifer) gillnet fishery in Queensland (barramundi fisheries in New South Wales have been prohibited from rivers occupied by this species since 2005). Significant numbers are also taken by recreational anglers and bow fishers. Captured sharks might be eaten, used to bait crab pots, or discarded on <P> from fresh or brackish water. Sweetfish (Pecoglossus altevelis) is one of the most common fish species infected, but other include the golden carp (Carassius auratus), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), Zacco temminckii, Protimus steindachneri, Acheilognathus lancedata, and Pseudorashora parva. Definitive hosts include humans and various fish-eating mammals, primarily dogs, cats, and pigs. Fish-eating birds may also be infected with metagonimiasis. Reservoirs Reservoirs include fish-eating mammals such as dogs, cats and pigs as well as fish-eating birds. The presence of heterophyid infection in humans is generally caused by a lack of host specificity by the parasites, as seen in the many non-human reservoirs <P> up to at least 20 cm (7.9 in). Ecology Megalancistrus species are live in large rivers. These fish eat freshwater sponges and probably other invertebrates. They have been found with a lot of wood in the gut, but it appears as if this was consumed accidentally. <P> to the slices for the purpose of identifying the fish being eaten. Another possibility for the name is the traditional method of harvesting. "Sashimi-grade" fish is caught by individual handline. As soon as the fish is landed, its brain is pierced with a sharp spike, and it is placed in slurried ice. This spiking is called the ikejime process, and the instantaneous death means that the fish's flesh contains a minimal amount of lactic acid. This means that the fish will keep fresh on ice for about ten days, without turning white or otherwise degrading. Many non-Japanese use the terms sashimi and <P> reaches a size of about 6 centimetres (2.4 in) long, the limpet is too large for even the largest individual starfish to tackle. Under these circumstances, the starfish adopt a co-operative strategy. If a limpet fleeing from an attacker finds its path blocked by other starfish and has nowhere to which to retreat, it may be overwhelmed. Groups of up to fourteen starfish have been observed feeding on a single large limpet, each with part of their everted stomach inserted under its rim. Some feeding groups of smaller starfish act co-operatively to attack a limpet even though individually they are incapable <P> soft body parts inside. The starfish are usually found on horizontal surfaces while the limpets occupy vertical ones. When attacked, the limpet may evade the predator by moving further up the rock face. Older limpets grow too large for individual starfish to tackle but it has been found that several starfish often undertake co-operative group attacks. One starfish initiates the attack but if there are others in the vicinity, the limpet may have no safe direction in which to retreat. The starfish all converge on the limpet and, inverting their stomachs under the rim of its shell, start to feed. <P> any fish that is in a reasonable size range and found close to the water's surface is ready caught and consumed. Compared with the fish owls in the genus Bubo, the three fishing owls are more completely piscivorous and rarely vary their prey selection from fish. However, seldom, they will also take other aquatic animals such as frogs, crabs, mussels and large insects. In one case, a Pel's fishing owl was observed to predate a baby Nile crocodile (Crocodylus niloticus). While perched over the water, these owls detect the movement of fish from ripples in the water and swoop down <P> a heavy downpour, the group distracts the watchman, and Samantha escapes and hides in a beached canoe. Justine is returned to the cage with her face and body partially painted. The prisoners are fed meat. Amy, who is vegan, reluctantly eats, then notices that a chunk of skin in the bowl bears one of Samantha's tattoos. Realizing they were fed Samantha, Amy slashes her own throat and dies. Lars stuffs marijuana down Amy's throat, hoping to get the tribe high when they cook her. His plan works and Justine and Daniel escape, but Alejandro stays, and not wishing to <P> that has drifted to the bottom of the tank. This colorful and peaceful bottom-dweller does not attack other fish, but it is best not to house it with Corydoras catfish. The giant kuhlis tend to meander toward their food with frequent stops along the way, as if "smelling the roses," while the corys are like pigs that stampede to the food, and continue eating even after they are full, disgoring food through their gills and wasting it before the giant kuhli loaches have a chance to get to it. In the aquarium they should be kept in groups of at least <P> than others. As mercury and methylmercury are fat soluble, they primarily accumulate in the viscera, although they are also found throughout the muscle tissue. When this fish is consumed by a predator, the mercury level is accumulated. Since fish are less efficient at depurating than accumulating methylmercury, fish-tissue concentrations increase over time. Thus species that are high on the food chain amass body burdens of mercury that can be ten times higher than the species they consume. This process is called biomagnification. Mercury poisoning happened this way in Minamata, Japan, now called Minamata disease. International 140 countries agreed in the	answer: If it was swallowed whole? Suffocation.If chewed into pieces? Lacerations to the brain...If half eaten? Blood loss.
173,475	9az4p1	why is gravity now not considered a force, but a space-time curvature?	Let's say person A is in a windowless elevator on the ground on Earth, and person B is in a similar elevator in space (no gravity) accelerating upwards at 9.8 m/s/s. Both people toss a ball horizontally and it travels in an arc (a parabola) as it falls towards the floor - even though for person B the ball is not actually falling - it's traveling in a straight line while the elevator is accelerating up towards the bottom of the ball. It would be impossible to tell the difference between person A's ball and person B's ball even though person A's ball is traveling in an arc and person B's ball is traveling in a straight line. The implication from general relativity is that person A's ball is also traveling in a straight line, but in curved space, and that curve comes from gravity. So, how do we know this is true? We have multiple examples, but a simple one is that we know that light itself - which is massless and should be unaffected by the force of gravity (which depends on mass), does in fact bend around gravity sources. This means that space itself is curved.	[ "Let's say person A is in a windowless elevator on the ground on Earth, and person B is in a similar elevator in space (no gravity) accelerating upwards at 9.8 m/s/s. Both people toss a ball horizontally and it travels in an arc (a parabola) as it falls towards the floor - even though for person B the ball is not ...	2	[ "Let's say person A is in a windowless elevator on the ground on Earth, and person B is in a similar elevator in space (no gravity) accelerating upwards at 9.8 m/s/s. Both people toss a ball horizontally and it travels in an arc (a parabola) as it falls towards the floor - even though for person B the ball is not ...	1	<P> relativity, where gravity becomes curvature of spacetime, a freely falling body is subject to no forces whatsoever and is a body moving along a geodesic. A free body in the context of this article may not be following a geodesic and may be subject to all sorts of forces, gravitational and other. <P> of the most powerful tests of Einstein's theory of gravity: general relativity. Alternative theories of gravity, such as Brans–Dicke theory, have a fifth force—possibly with infinite range. This is because gravitational interactions, in theories other than general relativity, have degrees of freedom other than the "metric", which dictates the curvature of space, and different kinds of degrees of freedom produce different effects. For example, a scalar field cannot produce the bending of light rays. The fifth force would manifest itself in an effect on solar system orbits, called the Nordtvedt effect. This is tested with Lunar Laser Ranging experiment and <P> as non-local gravity. A few physicists think that Einstein's theory of gravity will have to be modified, not at small scales, but at large distances, or, equivalently, small accelerations. This would change the gravity force to a non-local force. They point out that dark matter and dark energy are unexplained by the Standard Model of particle physics and suggest that some modification of gravity, possibly arising from modified Newtonian dynamics or the holographic principle, is necessary. This is fundamentally different from conventional ideas of a fifth force, as it grows stronger relative to gravity at longer distances. Most physicists, however, <P> surface. After a while, as the bucket continues to spin, the surface of the water becomes concave. If the bucket's spinning is stopped then the surface of the water remains concave as it continues to spin. The concave surface is therefore apparently not the result of relative motion between the bucket and the water. Instead, Newton argued, it must be a result of non-inertial motion relative to space itself. For several centuries the bucket argument was considered decisive in showing that space must exist independently of matter. Kant In the eighteenth century the German philosopher Immanuel Kant developed a theory <P> of the space-time surrounding it, as described in Einstein's field equations. In classical physics, an inertial reference frame is one in which an object that experiences no forces does not accelerate. In general relativity, an inertial frame of reference is one that is following a geodesic of space-time. An object that moves against a geodesic experiences a force. An object in free fall does not experience a force, because it is following a geodesic. An object standing on the earth, however, will experience a force, as it is being held against the geodesic by the surface of the planet. Einstein partially advocates <P> geometric approaches When the equivalent of Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism is formulated within the framework of Einstein's theory of general relativity, the electromagnetic field energy (being equivalent to mass as one would expect from Einstein's famous equation E=mc²) contributes to the stress tensor and thus to the curvature of space-time, which is the general-relativistic representation of the gravitational field; or putting it another way, certain configurations of curved space-time incorporate effects of an electromagnetic field. This suggests that a purely geometric theory ought to treat these two fields as different aspects of the same basic phenomenon. However, ordinary Riemannian geometry <P> as either contact or body forces. A contact force is produced by direct physical contact; an example is the force exerted on a body by a supporting surface. A body force is generated by virtue of the position of a body within a force field such as a gravitational, electric, or magnetic field and is independent of contact with any other body. An example of a body force is the weight of a body in the Earth's gravitational field. Moment of a force In addition to the tendency to move a body in the direction of its application, a force <P> position where many facts about objects are incorporated in that theory, and as history progresses, more and more structure is removed. For example, Aristotelian space and time has both absolute position and special places, such as the center of the cosmos, and the circumference. Newtonian space and time has absolute position and is Galilean invariant, but does not have special positions. Holes With the general theory of relativity, the traditional debate between absolutism and relationalism has been shifted to whether spacetime is a substance, since the general theory of relativity largely rules out the existence of, e.g., absolute positions. One powerful <P> particle (denoting a small object whose mass is too small to contribute appreciably to the ambient gravitational field). Here, it is useful to know that any Killing vectors which may be present will (in the case of a vacuum solution) automatically satisfy the curved spacetime Maxwell equations. Note that this procedure amounts to assuming that the electromagnetic field, but not the gravitational field, is "weak". Sometimes we can go even further; if the gravitational field is also considered "weak", we can independently solve the linearised Einstein field equations and the (flat spacetime) Maxwell equations on a Minkowksi vacuum background. Then <P> of relativity, mass is not an additive quantity, in the sense that one can not add the rest masses of particles in a system to get the total rest mass of the system. Thus, in relativity usually a more general view is that it is not the sum of rest masses, but the energy–momentum tensor that quantifies the amount of matter. This tensor gives the rest mass for the entire system. "Matter" therefore is sometimes considered as anything that contributes to the energy–momentum of a system, that is, anything that is not purely gravity. This view is commonly held in <P> three rotations). The Einstein static metric has a Killing algebra of dimension 7 (the previous 6 plus a time translation). The assumption of a spacetime admitting a certain symmetry vector field can place restrictions on the spacetime. <P> it." He makes a footnote regarding discussions with German physicist, Wilhelm Wien. The reason for looking at General Relativity is because Einstein's Theory of General Relativity predicted that light would slow down in a gravitational field which is why it could predict the curvature of light around a massive body. Under General Relativity, there is the equivalence principle which states that gravity and acceleration are equivalent. Spinning or accelerating an interferometer creates a gravitational effect. "There are, however, two different types of such [non-inertial] motion; it may for instance be acceleration in a straight line, or circular motion with constant <P> is preserved under such transformations are the coincidences between the values the gravitational field takes at such and such a "place" and the values the matter fields take there. From these relationships one can form a notion of matter being located with respect to the gravitational field, or vice versa. This is what Einstein discovered: that physical entities are located with respect to one another only and not with respect to the spacetime manifold. As Carlo Rovelli puts it: "No more fields on spacetime: just fields on fields". This is the true meaning of the saying "The stage disappears and <P> of particle physics is currently the best explanation for all of physics, but despite decades of efforts, gravity cannot yet be accounted for at the quantum level; it is only described by classical physics (see quantum gravity and graviton). <P> is unable to describe the properties of the electromagnetic field as a purely geometric phenomenon. Einstein tried to form a generalized theory of gravitation that would unify the gravitational and electromagnetic forces (and perhaps others), guided by a belief in a single origin for the entire set of physical laws. These attempts initially concentrated on additional geometric notions such as vierbeins and "distant parallelism", but eventually centered around treating both the metric tensor and the affine connection as fundamental fields. (Because they are not independent, the metric-affine theory was somewhat complicated.) In general relativity, these fields are symmetric (in the matrix <P> of a free body, it can be a free body by itself, and, as it is composed of parts, any of those parts may be a free body in itself. Note that figure 1 and 2 are not yet free body diagrams. In a completed free body diagram, the free body would be shown with forces acting on it. Freely falling body A free body should also be distinguished from a freely falling body. In Newtonian physics, the latter term refers to a body which is falling under pure gravity with all other forces being zero. In Einstein's general theory of <P> can also tend to rotate a body about an axis. The axis may be any line which neither intersects nor is parallel to the line of action of the force. This rotational tendency is known as the moment (M) of the force. Moment is also referred to as torque. Varignon's theorem Varignon's theorem states that the moment of a force about any point is equal to the sum of the moments of the components of the force about the same point. Equilibrium equations The static equilibrium of a particle is an important concept in statics. A particle is in equilibrium <P> could be described in this way. Einstein–Cartan theory In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. Equations of motion The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law—the Einstein field equations, which describe how space curves. The geodesic equation, which describes how particles move, may be derived from the Einstein field equations. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black <P> problem of a static gravitational field were also discussed in his 1915–1917 correspondence with Einstein. The correspondence was initiated by Levi-Civita, as he found mathematical errors in Einstein's use of tensor calculus to explain the theory of relativity. Levi-Civita methodically kept all of Einstein's replies to him; and even though Einstein had not kept Levi-Civita's, the entire correspondence could be re-constructed from Levi-Civita's archive. It is evident from this that, after numerous letters, the two men had grown to respect each other. In one of the letters, regarding Levi-Civita's new work, Einstein wrote "I admire the elegance of your method <P> gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard. The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others.	question: why is gravity now not considered a force, but a space-time curvature? context: <P> relativity, where gravity becomes curvature of spacetime, a freely falling body is subject to no forces whatsoever and is a body moving along a geodesic. A free body in the context of this article may not be following a geodesic and may be subject to all sorts of forces, gravitational and other. <P> of the most powerful tests of Einstein's theory of gravity: general relativity. Alternative theories of gravity, such as Brans–Dicke theory, have a fifth force—possibly with infinite range. This is because gravitational interactions, in theories other than general relativity, have degrees of freedom other than the "metric", which dictates the curvature of space, and different kinds of degrees of freedom produce different effects. For example, a scalar field cannot produce the bending of light rays. The fifth force would manifest itself in an effect on solar system orbits, called the Nordtvedt effect. This is tested with Lunar Laser Ranging experiment and <P> as non-local gravity. A few physicists think that Einstein's theory of gravity will have to be modified, not at small scales, but at large distances, or, equivalently, small accelerations. This would change the gravity force to a non-local force. They point out that dark matter and dark energy are unexplained by the Standard Model of particle physics and suggest that some modification of gravity, possibly arising from modified Newtonian dynamics or the holographic principle, is necessary. This is fundamentally different from conventional ideas of a fifth force, as it grows stronger relative to gravity at longer distances. Most physicists, however, <P> surface. After a while, as the bucket continues to spin, the surface of the water becomes concave. If the bucket's spinning is stopped then the surface of the water remains concave as it continues to spin. The concave surface is therefore apparently not the result of relative motion between the bucket and the water. Instead, Newton argued, it must be a result of non-inertial motion relative to space itself. For several centuries the bucket argument was considered decisive in showing that space must exist independently of matter. Kant In the eighteenth century the German philosopher Immanuel Kant developed a theory <P> of the space-time surrounding it, as described in Einstein's field equations. In classical physics, an inertial reference frame is one in which an object that experiences no forces does not accelerate. In general relativity, an inertial frame of reference is one that is following a geodesic of space-time. An object that moves against a geodesic experiences a force. An object in free fall does not experience a force, because it is following a geodesic. An object standing on the earth, however, will experience a force, as it is being held against the geodesic by the surface of the planet. Einstein partially advocates <P> geometric approaches When the equivalent of Maxwell's equations for electromagnetism is formulated within the framework of Einstein's theory of general relativity, the electromagnetic field energy (being equivalent to mass as one would expect from Einstein's famous equation E=mc²) contributes to the stress tensor and thus to the curvature of space-time, which is the general-relativistic representation of the gravitational field; or putting it another way, certain configurations of curved space-time incorporate effects of an electromagnetic field. This suggests that a purely geometric theory ought to treat these two fields as different aspects of the same basic phenomenon. However, ordinary Riemannian geometry <P> as either contact or body forces. A contact force is produced by direct physical contact; an example is the force exerted on a body by a supporting surface. A body force is generated by virtue of the position of a body within a force field such as a gravitational, electric, or magnetic field and is independent of contact with any other body. An example of a body force is the weight of a body in the Earth's gravitational field. Moment of a force In addition to the tendency to move a body in the direction of its application, a force <P> position where many facts about objects are incorporated in that theory, and as history progresses, more and more structure is removed. For example, Aristotelian space and time has both absolute position and special places, such as the center of the cosmos, and the circumference. Newtonian space and time has absolute position and is Galilean invariant, but does not have special positions. Holes With the general theory of relativity, the traditional debate between absolutism and relationalism has been shifted to whether spacetime is a substance, since the general theory of relativity largely rules out the existence of, e.g., absolute positions. One powerful <P> particle (denoting a small object whose mass is too small to contribute appreciably to the ambient gravitational field). Here, it is useful to know that any Killing vectors which may be present will (in the case of a vacuum solution) automatically satisfy the curved spacetime Maxwell equations. Note that this procedure amounts to assuming that the electromagnetic field, but not the gravitational field, is "weak". Sometimes we can go even further; if the gravitational field is also considered "weak", we can independently solve the linearised Einstein field equations and the (flat spacetime) Maxwell equations on a Minkowksi vacuum background. Then <P> of relativity, mass is not an additive quantity, in the sense that one can not add the rest masses of particles in a system to get the total rest mass of the system. Thus, in relativity usually a more general view is that it is not the sum of rest masses, but the energy–momentum tensor that quantifies the amount of matter. This tensor gives the rest mass for the entire system. "Matter" therefore is sometimes considered as anything that contributes to the energy–momentum of a system, that is, anything that is not purely gravity. This view is commonly held in <P> three rotations). The Einstein static metric has a Killing algebra of dimension 7 (the previous 6 plus a time translation). The assumption of a spacetime admitting a certain symmetry vector field can place restrictions on the spacetime. <P> it." He makes a footnote regarding discussions with German physicist, Wilhelm Wien. The reason for looking at General Relativity is because Einstein's Theory of General Relativity predicted that light would slow down in a gravitational field which is why it could predict the curvature of light around a massive body. Under General Relativity, there is the equivalence principle which states that gravity and acceleration are equivalent. Spinning or accelerating an interferometer creates a gravitational effect. "There are, however, two different types of such [non-inertial] motion; it may for instance be acceleration in a straight line, or circular motion with constant <P> is preserved under such transformations are the coincidences between the values the gravitational field takes at such and such a "place" and the values the matter fields take there. From these relationships one can form a notion of matter being located with respect to the gravitational field, or vice versa. This is what Einstein discovered: that physical entities are located with respect to one another only and not with respect to the spacetime manifold. As Carlo Rovelli puts it: "No more fields on spacetime: just fields on fields". This is the true meaning of the saying "The stage disappears and <P> of particle physics is currently the best explanation for all of physics, but despite decades of efforts, gravity cannot yet be accounted for at the quantum level; it is only described by classical physics (see quantum gravity and graviton). <P> is unable to describe the properties of the electromagnetic field as a purely geometric phenomenon. Einstein tried to form a generalized theory of gravitation that would unify the gravitational and electromagnetic forces (and perhaps others), guided by a belief in a single origin for the entire set of physical laws. These attempts initially concentrated on additional geometric notions such as vierbeins and "distant parallelism", but eventually centered around treating both the metric tensor and the affine connection as fundamental fields. (Because they are not independent, the metric-affine theory was somewhat complicated.) In general relativity, these fields are symmetric (in the matrix <P> of a free body, it can be a free body by itself, and, as it is composed of parts, any of those parts may be a free body in itself. Note that figure 1 and 2 are not yet free body diagrams. In a completed free body diagram, the free body would be shown with forces acting on it. Freely falling body A free body should also be distinguished from a freely falling body. In Newtonian physics, the latter term refers to a body which is falling under pure gravity with all other forces being zero. In Einstein's general theory of <P> can also tend to rotate a body about an axis. The axis may be any line which neither intersects nor is parallel to the line of action of the force. This rotational tendency is known as the moment (M) of the force. Moment is also referred to as torque. Varignon's theorem Varignon's theorem states that the moment of a force about any point is equal to the sum of the moments of the components of the force about the same point. Equilibrium equations The static equilibrium of a particle is an important concept in statics. A particle is in equilibrium <P> could be described in this way. Einstein–Cartan theory In order to incorporate spinning point particles into general relativity, the affine connection needed to be generalized to include an antisymmetric part, called the torsion. This modification was made by Einstein and Cartan in the 1920s. Equations of motion The theory of general relativity has a fundamental law—the Einstein field equations, which describe how space curves. The geodesic equation, which describes how particles move, may be derived from the Einstein field equations. Since the equations of general relativity are non-linear, a lump of energy made out of pure gravitational fields, like a black <P> problem of a static gravitational field were also discussed in his 1915–1917 correspondence with Einstein. The correspondence was initiated by Levi-Civita, as he found mathematical errors in Einstein's use of tensor calculus to explain the theory of relativity. Levi-Civita methodically kept all of Einstein's replies to him; and even though Einstein had not kept Levi-Civita's, the entire correspondence could be re-constructed from Levi-Civita's archive. It is evident from this that, after numerous letters, the two men had grown to respect each other. In one of the letters, regarding Levi-Civita's new work, Einstein wrote "I admire the elegance of your method <P> gauge symmetry. The energy and momentum derived within general relativity by Noether's prescriptions do not make a real tensor for this reason. Einstein argued that this is true for a fundamental reason: the gravitational field could be made to vanish by a choice of coordinates. He maintained that the non-covariant energy momentum pseudotensor was in fact the best description of the energy momentum distribution in a gravitational field. This approach has been echoed by Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, and others, and has become standard. The use of non-covariant objects like pseudotensors was heavily criticized in 1917 by Erwin Schrödinger and others.	answer: Let's say person A is in a windowless elevator on the ground on Earth, and person B is in a similar elevator in space (no gravity) accelerating upwards at 9.8 m/s/s. Both people toss a ball horizontally and it travels in an arc (a parabola) as it falls towards the floor - even though for person B the ball is not actually falling - it's traveling in a straight line while the elevator is accelerating up towards the bottom of the ball. It would be impossible to tell the difference between person A's ball and person B's ball even though person A's ball is traveling in an arc and person B's ball is traveling in a straight line. The implication from general relativity is that person A's ball is also traveling in a straight line, but in curved space, and that curve comes from gravity. So, how do we know this is true? We have multiple examples, but a simple one is that we know that light itself - which is massless and should be unaffected by the force of gravity (which depends on mass), does in fact bend around gravity sources. This means that space itself is curved.
206,054	231pes	Native Americans use for oak trees and acorns?	You can read about use of Garry Oak acorns by Northwest Coast tribes [here](_URL_0_) (it's a PDF download, the first article is the one). This has been seriously underestimated by archaeologists but evidence is mounting that acorns were an important supplement to the diet in this area, even though they required extensive processing (leaching) to make them edible.The reference is, if you don't want to download it:Bethany Mathews 2009.Balanophagy in the Pacific Northwest: The Acorn Leaching Pits at the Sunken Village Wetsite and Comparative Ethnographic Acorn Use.Journal of Northwest Anthropology Volume 43 (2): 125 –140.	[ "Hopewell communities were making acorn flour with complex processing to remove bitter tannins 2,000 years ago. ", "You can read about use of Garry Oak acorns by Northwest Coast tribes [here](_URL_0_) (it's a PDF download, the first article is the one). This has been seriously underestimated by archaeologists b...	2	[ "You can read about use of Garry Oak acorns by Northwest Coast tribes [here](_URL_0_) (it's a PDF download, the first article is the one). This has been seriously underestimated by archaeologists but evidence is mounting that acorns were an important supplement to the diet in this area, even though they required e...	1	<P> also a popular animal bedding, since it lacks the phenols associated with pine and juniper, which are thought to cause respiratory system ailments in some animals. Heat-treated aspen is a popular material for the interiors of a sauna. While standing trees sometimes tend to rot from the heart outward, the dry timber weathers very well, becoming silvery-grey and resistant to rotting and warping, and has traditionally been used for rural construction in the northwestern regions of Russia (especially for roofing, in the form of thin slats). The Ojibwe used the inner bark of the trunk as a poultice, and the Cree <P> in the North Island north of latitude 38°S. Uses The bark is very high in tannin, about 13%, and was once exported for tanning. The inner bark was used as a laxative by Māori. The wood has a tendency to warp or crack, so it is little used despite the tree's abundance. <P> Mexican ironwood carvings Mexican ironwood carving is a Mexican tradition of carving the wood of the Olneya tesota tree, a Sonora Desert tree commonly called ironwood (palo fierro in Spanish). Olneya tesota is a slow growing important shade tree in northwest Mexico and the southwest U.S. The wood it produces is very dense and sinks in water. Traditionally, people used it for firewood and charcoal, and some carving. The tradition of carving it began with the Seri indigenous people of the state of Sonora. In the mid-20th century, the Seri had to move from their traditional home on Tiburon Island <P> The trees are also known as "bodark" or "bodarc" trees, most likely originating from a corruption of "bois d'arc." The Comanches also used this wood for their bows. It was popular with them because it was strong, flexible and durable, and was common along river bottoms of the Comanchería. Some historians believe that the high value this wood had to Native Americans throughout North America for the making of bows, along with its small natural range, contributed to the great wealth of the Spiroan Mississippian culture that controlled all the land in which these trees grew. Etymology The genus Maclura <P> to the mainland, around the same time tourism was developing in Kino Bay. The first to carve ironwood for sale was Jose Astorga, who began with other materials and ironwood for utilitarian items. In the 1960s, he began carving ironwood figures, which sold well to tourists, and others followed. The craft began to be widely distributed in the 1970s, with non Seris beginning to carve, introducing animals from other areas as subjects, and the use of power tools. Carving, charcoal production and loss of habitat has put pressure on the ironwood tree, which the Mexican government declared protected in 1994. <P> for protection of cattle kraal and sometimes on the graves of dead tribal members. The wood is used for implement and fuel. The leaves bark and roots are used medicinally and magically for pain relief to respiratory complaints and skin infections, especially for chest and stomach disorders. The leaves if crushed may be used to stop bleeding. Certain tribes believe the tree is safe to use as a shelter against lightening. Steam baths from the bark are used to purify and improve the complexion. In east Africa, roots are used for treating snake bites. Cultural Historically the Zulus planted <P> The pine needles and roots were used as material for basketry and the bark was a reliable substance for making the roofs of houses. The resin was a glue for mending pottery and reattaching arrowheads to the arrow shafts. The wood was burnt for firewood and incense, since it had high combustibility and it gave a pleasant smell. The Diegueno also ate the nuts, but also the seeds as well. <P> ancient woodlands of Scotland, such as Rassal Ashwood in Ross-shire, and at Glen Finglas in the Trossachs. The Dalkeith Old Wood, belonging to the Duke of Buccleuch, cattle grazing beneath ancient oak, is designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) (or 'ASSI'). United States Silvopastures are the most-viable and prominent agroforestry practice in the United States. <P> Uses Indians made a pain-relieving poultice by boiling the roots and placing them on the site while still warm. Rocky Mountain goats eat the twigs when smaller plants are hidden under snow (Elmore 1976). <P> Acjachemem). They arrived to find dense woods filled with live oaks, sycamores, mountain ash, and pines buffeted by winds. Dependent on acorns and less-plentiful pine nuts as their staple foods, the Native Americans cut paths through the riparian vegetation to reach oak and pine groves. After collecting the acorns, they carried them to canyon streams and immersed the nuts in the running water to leach out the bitter tannic acid. Once done, they carried the acorns to a large boulder or rock outcropping, where they used mortars to grind the nuts into powder. Over open fires, they cooked a porridge <P> Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Togo, and Uganda. It is found in riparian forests and higher-rainfall savannah woodlands; in moist regions it is found on higher ground. Within its first year, the seedling develops a deep root system that makes it the most drought resistant member of its genus. Uses The wood is used for a variety of purposes. It is often used conventionally for carpentry, interior trim, and construction. Traditionally the wood was used for dugout canoes, household implements, djembe, and fuel wood. The bitter tasting bark is used for a variety of medical purposes; it is taken against <P> crops, which provide nitrogen fertilizer for other crops when plowed under. Specialized bald cypress roots, termed knees, are sold as souvenirs, lamp bases and carved into folk art. Native Americans used the flexible roots of white spruce for basketry. Tree roots can heave and destroy concrete sidewalks and crush or clog buried pipes. The aerial roots of strangler fig have damaged ancient Mayan temples in Central America and the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia. Trees stabilize soil on a slope prone to landslides. The root hairs work as an anchor on the soil. Vegetative propagation of plants via cuttings depends on adventitious <P> Carving is still permitted, but the price of the wood has increased and production has decreased. Ironwood tree The ironwood tree is considered native to the Sonora Desert as it is found only the states of Sonora, Baja California and Baja California Sur in Mexico and Arizona and California in the United States. Olneya tesota is the slowest growing and the tallest in the Sonora Desert, with specimens able to reach heights of up to fifteen feet, if near relatively stable sources of water. It accounts for a fifth of the desert’s biomass, mostly owing to the density of its <P> Alamo Mucho Station Alamo Mucho Station, the misspelled name of Alamo Mocho Station was one of the original Butterfield Overland Mail stations located south of the Mexican border, in Baja California. Its location is 0.5 miles south-southeast of the Mexicali International Airport Terminal building. Alamo Mocho meant trimmed cottonwood, or a cottonwood with its branches cropped, mutilated or lopped off, something travelers in the Colorado Desert would do to obtain wood in this otherwise desolate region. A riparian species, cottonwoods are a conspicuous indicator of water at or near the surface of the ground where they occur in the <P> in Gipuzkoa (which entailed timber frames anyway) were built during the 15th century and brought admiration and envy from their neighbours. Only the richest farmers could permit themselves the luxury of building a house "de cal y canto" ("of lime and stone"), paying a team of stonemasons who dug out and worked the stone. Oakwood was, on the other had, cheap and available. The increased building activity led to some of the earliest recorded environmental laws concerning de- and reforestation, such as the law passed by the Batzar of Azkoitia in 1657 which forbade the cutting of young trees and <P> and to this day the Bonnington Annual Parish Meeting is held under the branches of this ancient oak. In 1889 a Mrs White wrote in a learned journal thus about the Law-Day Oak: "In the out-of-the-way villages on the borders of Romney marsh, the former home of shepherds and smugglers, the light of civilisation has not long shone, and many rites and superstitions connected with the worship of the oak are still persisted in by the inhabitants. A special sacredness appertains to the vows of lovers exchanged beneath the Bonnington oak, and its leaves, gathered with a certain formula at a <P> a stick; usually of wood or iron, but in ancient times, of bone. The stick is used to pull up a handful of leaves at a time. The esparto is not normally used immediately after harvesting. Instead, the leaves are left to dry in the sun until they turn yellowish. This is the raw esparto, which is used for different basketry techniques. An alternative is to soak the leaves in water for about a month, before drying and then crushing them. This material is known as "crushed esparto", which is stronger and easier to weave. The main techniques are: Plaited esparto: people <P> Sierra Leone, founded Freetown on March 11th 1792. History People first landed on the shoreline and walked up to a giant tree just above the bay and held a Thanksgiving service there, gathering around the tree in a large group and praying and singing hymns to thank God for their deliverance to a free land. Its exact age is unknown, but it is known to have existed in 1787. The tree is the oldest cotton tree in Freetown, Sierra Leone or possibly in the world. It stands near the Supreme Court building, music club building, and the National Museum. The <P> Maclura pomifera History The earliest account of the tree in the English language was given by William Dunbar, a Scottish explorer, in his narrative of a journey made in 1804 from St. Catherine's Landing on the Mississippi River to the Ouachita River. It was a curiosity when Meriwether Lewis sent some slips and cuttings to President Jefferson in March 1804. According to Lewis's letter, the samples were donated by "Mr. Peter Choteau, who resided the greater portion of his time for many years with the Osage Nation." Those cuttings did not survive, but later the thorny Osage orange tree <P> had made his fortune in the Montana mining industry, settled in Monterey in 1904. He took a keen interest in Monterey's history and owned one of the three paintings by Léon Trousset depicting Junipero Serra's first Mass beneath the oak tree. Murray's wife commissioned "The Passing of an Oak", a poem by Mary Sullivan Spence commemorating the tree. It was published in a limited edition in 1909. The preserved tree eventually decayed beyond repair and was removed from the cathedral grounds, leaving only the plaque which had been placed beneath it in 1905. However pieces of the tree are on display	question: Native Americans use for oak trees and acorns? context: <P> also a popular animal bedding, since it lacks the phenols associated with pine and juniper, which are thought to cause respiratory system ailments in some animals. Heat-treated aspen is a popular material for the interiors of a sauna. While standing trees sometimes tend to rot from the heart outward, the dry timber weathers very well, becoming silvery-grey and resistant to rotting and warping, and has traditionally been used for rural construction in the northwestern regions of Russia (especially for roofing, in the form of thin slats). The Ojibwe used the inner bark of the trunk as a poultice, and the Cree <P> in the North Island north of latitude 38°S. Uses The bark is very high in tannin, about 13%, and was once exported for tanning. The inner bark was used as a laxative by Māori. The wood has a tendency to warp or crack, so it is little used despite the tree's abundance. <P> Mexican ironwood carvings Mexican ironwood carving is a Mexican tradition of carving the wood of the Olneya tesota tree, a Sonora Desert tree commonly called ironwood (palo fierro in Spanish). Olneya tesota is a slow growing important shade tree in northwest Mexico and the southwest U.S. The wood it produces is very dense and sinks in water. Traditionally, people used it for firewood and charcoal, and some carving. The tradition of carving it began with the Seri indigenous people of the state of Sonora. In the mid-20th century, the Seri had to move from their traditional home on Tiburon Island <P> The trees are also known as "bodark" or "bodarc" trees, most likely originating from a corruption of "bois d'arc." The Comanches also used this wood for their bows. It was popular with them because it was strong, flexible and durable, and was common along river bottoms of the Comanchería. Some historians believe that the high value this wood had to Native Americans throughout North America for the making of bows, along with its small natural range, contributed to the great wealth of the Spiroan Mississippian culture that controlled all the land in which these trees grew. Etymology The genus Maclura <P> to the mainland, around the same time tourism was developing in Kino Bay. The first to carve ironwood for sale was Jose Astorga, who began with other materials and ironwood for utilitarian items. In the 1960s, he began carving ironwood figures, which sold well to tourists, and others followed. The craft began to be widely distributed in the 1970s, with non Seris beginning to carve, introducing animals from other areas as subjects, and the use of power tools. Carving, charcoal production and loss of habitat has put pressure on the ironwood tree, which the Mexican government declared protected in 1994. <P> for protection of cattle kraal and sometimes on the graves of dead tribal members. The wood is used for implement and fuel. The leaves bark and roots are used medicinally and magically for pain relief to respiratory complaints and skin infections, especially for chest and stomach disorders. The leaves if crushed may be used to stop bleeding. Certain tribes believe the tree is safe to use as a shelter against lightening. Steam baths from the bark are used to purify and improve the complexion. In east Africa, roots are used for treating snake bites. Cultural Historically the Zulus planted <P> The pine needles and roots were used as material for basketry and the bark was a reliable substance for making the roofs of houses. The resin was a glue for mending pottery and reattaching arrowheads to the arrow shafts. The wood was burnt for firewood and incense, since it had high combustibility and it gave a pleasant smell. The Diegueno also ate the nuts, but also the seeds as well. <P> ancient woodlands of Scotland, such as Rassal Ashwood in Ross-shire, and at Glen Finglas in the Trossachs. The Dalkeith Old Wood, belonging to the Duke of Buccleuch, cattle grazing beneath ancient oak, is designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) (or 'ASSI'). United States Silvopastures are the most-viable and prominent agroforestry practice in the United States. <P> Uses Indians made a pain-relieving poultice by boiling the roots and placing them on the site while still warm. Rocky Mountain goats eat the twigs when smaller plants are hidden under snow (Elmore 1976). <P> Acjachemem). They arrived to find dense woods filled with live oaks, sycamores, mountain ash, and pines buffeted by winds. Dependent on acorns and less-plentiful pine nuts as their staple foods, the Native Americans cut paths through the riparian vegetation to reach oak and pine groves. After collecting the acorns, they carried them to canyon streams and immersed the nuts in the running water to leach out the bitter tannic acid. Once done, they carried the acorns to a large boulder or rock outcropping, where they used mortars to grind the nuts into powder. Over open fires, they cooked a porridge <P> Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Togo, and Uganda. It is found in riparian forests and higher-rainfall savannah woodlands; in moist regions it is found on higher ground. Within its first year, the seedling develops a deep root system that makes it the most drought resistant member of its genus. Uses The wood is used for a variety of purposes. It is often used conventionally for carpentry, interior trim, and construction. Traditionally the wood was used for dugout canoes, household implements, djembe, and fuel wood. The bitter tasting bark is used for a variety of medical purposes; it is taken against <P> crops, which provide nitrogen fertilizer for other crops when plowed under. Specialized bald cypress roots, termed knees, are sold as souvenirs, lamp bases and carved into folk art. Native Americans used the flexible roots of white spruce for basketry. Tree roots can heave and destroy concrete sidewalks and crush or clog buried pipes. The aerial roots of strangler fig have damaged ancient Mayan temples in Central America and the temple of Angkor Wat in Cambodia. Trees stabilize soil on a slope prone to landslides. The root hairs work as an anchor on the soil. Vegetative propagation of plants via cuttings depends on adventitious <P> Carving is still permitted, but the price of the wood has increased and production has decreased. Ironwood tree The ironwood tree is considered native to the Sonora Desert as it is found only the states of Sonora, Baja California and Baja California Sur in Mexico and Arizona and California in the United States. Olneya tesota is the slowest growing and the tallest in the Sonora Desert, with specimens able to reach heights of up to fifteen feet, if near relatively stable sources of water. It accounts for a fifth of the desert’s biomass, mostly owing to the density of its <P> Alamo Mucho Station Alamo Mucho Station, the misspelled name of Alamo Mocho Station was one of the original Butterfield Overland Mail stations located south of the Mexican border, in Baja California. Its location is 0.5 miles south-southeast of the Mexicali International Airport Terminal building. Alamo Mocho meant trimmed cottonwood, or a cottonwood with its branches cropped, mutilated or lopped off, something travelers in the Colorado Desert would do to obtain wood in this otherwise desolate region. A riparian species, cottonwoods are a conspicuous indicator of water at or near the surface of the ground where they occur in the <P> in Gipuzkoa (which entailed timber frames anyway) were built during the 15th century and brought admiration and envy from their neighbours. Only the richest farmers could permit themselves the luxury of building a house "de cal y canto" ("of lime and stone"), paying a team of stonemasons who dug out and worked the stone. Oakwood was, on the other had, cheap and available. The increased building activity led to some of the earliest recorded environmental laws concerning de- and reforestation, such as the law passed by the Batzar of Azkoitia in 1657 which forbade the cutting of young trees and <P> and to this day the Bonnington Annual Parish Meeting is held under the branches of this ancient oak. In 1889 a Mrs White wrote in a learned journal thus about the Law-Day Oak: "In the out-of-the-way villages on the borders of Romney marsh, the former home of shepherds and smugglers, the light of civilisation has not long shone, and many rites and superstitions connected with the worship of the oak are still persisted in by the inhabitants. A special sacredness appertains to the vows of lovers exchanged beneath the Bonnington oak, and its leaves, gathered with a certain formula at a <P> a stick; usually of wood or iron, but in ancient times, of bone. The stick is used to pull up a handful of leaves at a time. The esparto is not normally used immediately after harvesting. Instead, the leaves are left to dry in the sun until they turn yellowish. This is the raw esparto, which is used for different basketry techniques. An alternative is to soak the leaves in water for about a month, before drying and then crushing them. This material is known as "crushed esparto", which is stronger and easier to weave. The main techniques are: Plaited esparto: people <P> Sierra Leone, founded Freetown on March 11th 1792. History People first landed on the shoreline and walked up to a giant tree just above the bay and held a Thanksgiving service there, gathering around the tree in a large group and praying and singing hymns to thank God for their deliverance to a free land. Its exact age is unknown, but it is known to have existed in 1787. The tree is the oldest cotton tree in Freetown, Sierra Leone or possibly in the world. It stands near the Supreme Court building, music club building, and the National Museum. The <P> Maclura pomifera History The earliest account of the tree in the English language was given by William Dunbar, a Scottish explorer, in his narrative of a journey made in 1804 from St. Catherine's Landing on the Mississippi River to the Ouachita River. It was a curiosity when Meriwether Lewis sent some slips and cuttings to President Jefferson in March 1804. According to Lewis's letter, the samples were donated by "Mr. Peter Choteau, who resided the greater portion of his time for many years with the Osage Nation." Those cuttings did not survive, but later the thorny Osage orange tree <P> had made his fortune in the Montana mining industry, settled in Monterey in 1904. He took a keen interest in Monterey's history and owned one of the three paintings by Léon Trousset depicting Junipero Serra's first Mass beneath the oak tree. Murray's wife commissioned "The Passing of an Oak", a poem by Mary Sullivan Spence commemorating the tree. It was published in a limited edition in 1909. The preserved tree eventually decayed beyond repair and was removed from the cathedral grounds, leaving only the plaque which had been placed beneath it in 1905. However pieces of the tree are on display	answer: You can read about use of Garry Oak acorns by Northwest Coast tribes [here](_URL_0_) (it's a PDF download, the first article is the one). This has been seriously underestimated by archaeologists but evidence is mounting that acorns were an important supplement to the diet in this area, even though they required extensive processing (leaching) to make them edible.The reference is, if you don't want to download it:Bethany Mathews 2009.Balanophagy in the Pacific Northwest: The Acorn Leaching Pits at the Sunken Village Wetsite and Comparative Ethnographic Acorn Use.Journal of Northwest Anthropology Volume 43 (2): 125 –140.
6,196	uke9g	My buddy's dad found this rock on their farm. Apparently a meteorite may have hit the region, could this rock have been affected by that collision?	I haven't found a lot of peer-reviewed journal articles about the impact, but what I've found seems to indicate it happened 83 million years ago. At that time, that part of Alabama/Georgia was under a shallow sea. I'm rather skeptical that a rock that large would be found in overlying sediments, especially a farm. However, it could be.I'm not a geologist, but the rock is very interesting. It's hard to tell, but that almost looks like a fossil leaf or something, but if the rock is igneous, then there would be, of course, some other explanation.You might want to dig up a reliable peer-reviewed citation as to the bolide impact before others answer.	[ "I haven't found a lot of peer-reviewed journal articles about the impact, but what I've found seems to indicate it happened 83 million years ago. At that time, that part of Alabama/Georgia was under a shallow sea. I'm rather skeptical that a rock that large would be found in overlying sediments, especially a farm....	2	[]	0	<P> village of Marsden, Saskatchewan became a hub of activity for meteorite hunters, being just south of the estimated 20 square kilometre debris field. Locals dubbed the object the "Marsden Meteor"; many of the residents reported seeing, hearing and even smelling the burning fragments as they fell. The meteor was also referred to as the "Buzzard Coulee fireball", named after the area where searchers found the first fragments. Buzzard Coulee is located approximately 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) from the Battle River valley. The first pieces of the rock were found by Ellen Milley, a University of Calgary Master's student on November 27, 2008. <P> Shale. There is no surface evidence of the impact, as the Winneshiek Shale is more than 50 feet below the bottom of the Upper Iowa River. The impact, equivalent to 1,000 megatons of TNT, did not appear to penetrate the Earth's mantle, but it did push down the underlying Ordovician and Cambrian bedrock several hundred feet. It may be one of several Middle Ordovician meteors that fell roughly simultaneously 469 million years ago, part of a proposed Ordovician meteor event. Midcontinent rift Buried deeply within Iowa's bedrock, the Midcontinent Rift System can be seen clearly in magnetic anomaly maps of <P> clastic rock may form during meteorite impact. This is composed primarily of ejecta; clasts of country rock, melted rock fragments, tektites (glass ejected from the impact crater) and exotic fragments, including fragments derived from the impactor itself. Identifying a clastic rock as an impact breccia requires recognising shatter cones, tektites, spherulites, and the morphology of an impact crater, as well as potentially recognizing particular chemical and trace element signatures, especially osmiridium. <P> Decorah crater Description The crater is estimated to be 3.5 miles (5.6 km) in diameter, covered by the Winneshiek Shale. There is no surface evidence of the impact, as the Winneshiek Shale is more than 50 feet (15 m) below the bottom of the Upper Iowa River. The impact event, equivalent to 1,000 megatons of TNT, did not appear to penetrate the Earth's mantle, but it did push down the underlying Ordovician and Cambrian bedrock several hundred feet. It may be one of several Middle Ordovician meteors that fell roughly simultaneously 469 million years ago, part of a proposed Ordovician meteor <P> in these samples is estimated to be 16 GPa, with a mean pressure of 23 GPa. These pressure estimates greatly exceed the estimated pressures for the formation of shocked quartz found in the rims of similar size and types of craters. They are only comparable in magnitude with pressures estimated for in situ target rocks at the base of such impact craters. Based upon the simple, 2.9 kilometers (1.8 mi) in diameter Brent crater in Ontario, Canada, as a model, to have the types of shocked quartz exposed at the surface at the rim of the Bloody Creek structure would theoretically <P> 1864 another fall happened in France at Orgueil near Montauban. The meteorite had disintegrated into 20 pieces weighing a total of 10 kilograms. In 1911 a meteorite was seen near Tonk (Rajasthan) in India. Only a few fragments were recuperated that weighed a mere 7.7 grams (0.27 oz). The meteorite of the type locality Ivuna in Tanzania fell in 1938 splitting into three pieces of altogether 705 grams (24.9 oz). This was followed in 1965 by a very bright fall in Revelstoke, British Columbia, but only two tiny fragments of 1 gram (0.035 oz) were found. All in all roughly 17 kilograms of <P> much smaller, non-cometary impactor—was found in lake bed cores dating to 12,900 YBP from Lake Cuitzeo in Guanajuato, Mexico. It included nanodiamonds (including the hexagonal form called lonsdaleite), carbon spherules, and magnetic spherules. Multiple hypotheses were examined to account for these observations, though none were believed to be terrestrial. Lonsdaleite occurs naturally in asteroids and cosmic dust and as a result of extraterrestrial impacts on Earth. The results of the study have not been replicated by other researchers. Lonsdaleite has also been made artificially in laboratories. In 2013, scientists reported a hundredfold spike in the concentration of platinum in Greenland ice cores <P> Given the widely dispersed shock melting observed in Tissint, alteration of other soft minerals (carbonates, halides, sulfates and even organics), especially along grain boundaries, might have occurred. This may in part explain the lack of such minerals in Tissint, but it is unknown if it is of biotic origin. The meteorite fragments were recovered within days after the fall, so it is considered an "uncontaminated" meteorite. The meteorite displays evidence of water weathering, and there are signs of elements being carried into cracks in the rocks by water or fluid, which is something never seen before in a Martian meteorite. Specifically, <P> Morocco with few remains of the meteorites that fell there. Physical characteristics Dozens of fragments with masses ranging from 0.2 to 1,282 grams (0.0071 to 45.2212 oz) were collected, totaling roughly 12–15 kilograms (26–33 lb). The rocks are variably coated by a shining black fusion crust, characterized by thicker layers on exterior ridges and glossy regions above interior olivine phenocrysts and impact melt pockets. Some stones have a thinner secondary fusion crust on some surfaces, and some are broken in places, revealing the interior. The exposed interior of the stones appears pale green-grey in color, with mm-sized, pale yellow olivine <P> (3.9 lb), found July 2002) and Neuschwanstein II (1.63 kg (3.6 lb), found May 2003) on the German side, and Neuschwanstein III (2.84 kg (6.3 lb), found June 2003) on the Austrian side near Reutte. The meteorite is classified as an enstatite chondrite with unusually large proportions of pure iron (29%), enstatite and the extremely rare mineral sinoite (Si₂N₂O). World Heritage candidature Since 2015, Neuschwanstein and Ludwig's Linderhof and Herrenchiemsee palaces are on the German tentative list for a future designation as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. A joint candidature with other representative palaces of the romantic historicism is discussed (including Schwerin Palace, for example). <P> of the hypothesis only occurred decades later. Drilling at the site in 2008 revealed rock features consistent with high-speed impacts such as those caused by meteorites. <P> meteoric trail was recorded on film by at least sixteen individuals. This was only the fourth meteorite in history for which an exact orbit is known. The rock had a mass of 12.4 kg (27.3 lb) and punched through the trunk of Peekskill resident Michelle Knapp's automobile upon impact. The Peekskill Evening Star and the Peekskill Highland Democrat were two of the city's daily newspapers through much of the City's history. The Evening Star published under various mastheads from the 19th century on, and as the Evening Star from 1939 till 1985 when the paper folded into what would become the nexus of <P> Orgueil (meteorite) History It fell on May 14, 1864, a few minutes after 20:00 local time, near Orgueil in southern France. About 20 stones fell over an area of 5-10 square kilometres. A specimen of the meteorite was analyzed that same year by François Stanislaus Clöez, professor of chemistry at the Musée d'Histoire Naturelle, who focused on the organic matter found in this meteorite. He wrote that it contained carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and its composition was very similar to peat from the Somme valley or to the lignite of Ringkohl near Kassel. An intense scientific discussion ensued, continuing into <P> Gardnos crater Gardnos crater (Gardnos krateret) is a meteorite impact crater in Nes municipality in the county of Buskerud, Norway. It is located inside Meteorite Park (Meteorittparken) at Gardnos 10 km north of the town of Nesbyen. Gardnos crater is 5 kilometres (3 mi) in diameter, and was created when a meteorite with an estimated diameter of 200 to 300 metres (660 to 980 ft) struck 500 million years ago. At first this site was believed to be a volcanic crater, but in 1990 two geologists, Johan Naterstad and Johannes A. Dons, confirmed that it was in fact formed by meteorite impact. The <P> 1907, a 309 kilogram meteorite was found near Guffey by two cowboys, although the exact location was not recorded. To date, this is the largest meteorite ever recovered in the state of Colorado. It is classified as an ungrouped iron meteorite, sometimes considered an ataxite due to its high nickel content and lack of Widmanstätten patterns. Most of the meteorite resides in New York City at the American Museum of Natural History, although the Denver Museum of Nature and Science has acquired a slice. No samples are available for public viewing in Guffey itself. <P> whether such a column could stay coherent through this process, or whether the force of this process would result in it shattering into much smaller pieces before impacting. The pipe through which the magma and gas had travelled would collapse during this process, sending a shockwave at hypersonic velocity that would deform the surrounding craton. A verneshot event is likely to be related to nearby continental flood basalt events, which may occur before, during or after the verneshot event. This may help in searching for evidence for the results of verneshot events; however, it is also quite probable that most of <P> the Ordovician meteor event of 470 Ma. <P> the paucity of detailed information and the lack of surviving meteorites or other physical evidence, researchers have also been unable to definitively state the exact nature of the dramatic event, even examining the possible occurrence of severe hail. However Kevin Yau of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and his collaborators have noted several similarities of the Ch'ing-yang event to the Tunguska air burst in 1908, which had it occurred above a populated area could have produced many fatalities. One surviving account records: Stones fell like rain in the Ch’ing-yang district. The larger ones were 4 to 5 catties (斤, about 1.5 kg), <P> Sikhote-Alin meteorite Impact At around 10:30 on 12 February 1947, eyewitnesses in the Sikhote-Alin Mountains, Primorye, Soviet Union, observed a large bolide brighter than the sun that came out of the north and descended at an angle of about 41 degrees. The bright flash and the deafening sound of the fall were observed for 300 kilometres (190 mi) around the point of impact not far from Luchegorsk and approximately 440 km (270 mi) northeast of Vladivostok. A smoke trail, estimated at 32 km (20 mi) long, remained in the sky for several hours. As the meteor, traveling at a speed of about 14 km/s (8.7 mi/s), entered the <P> Burnwell, Kentucky Burnwell meteorite On 4 September 1990, at 3:45 PM, a meteorite fell through the porch of Arthur and Frances Pegg frightening a horse and a goat. The weight of the stone was 1504 grams and it was officially named "Burnwell". The meteorite was classified as an ordinary chondrite H4-an.	question: My buddy's dad found this rock on their farm. Apparently a meteorite may have hit the region, could this rock have been affected by that collision? context: <P> village of Marsden, Saskatchewan became a hub of activity for meteorite hunters, being just south of the estimated 20 square kilometre debris field. Locals dubbed the object the "Marsden Meteor"; many of the residents reported seeing, hearing and even smelling the burning fragments as they fell. The meteor was also referred to as the "Buzzard Coulee fireball", named after the area where searchers found the first fragments. Buzzard Coulee is located approximately 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) from the Battle River valley. The first pieces of the rock were found by Ellen Milley, a University of Calgary Master's student on November 27, 2008. <P> Shale. There is no surface evidence of the impact, as the Winneshiek Shale is more than 50 feet below the bottom of the Upper Iowa River. The impact, equivalent to 1,000 megatons of TNT, did not appear to penetrate the Earth's mantle, but it did push down the underlying Ordovician and Cambrian bedrock several hundred feet. It may be one of several Middle Ordovician meteors that fell roughly simultaneously 469 million years ago, part of a proposed Ordovician meteor event. Midcontinent rift Buried deeply within Iowa's bedrock, the Midcontinent Rift System can be seen clearly in magnetic anomaly maps of <P> clastic rock may form during meteorite impact. This is composed primarily of ejecta; clasts of country rock, melted rock fragments, tektites (glass ejected from the impact crater) and exotic fragments, including fragments derived from the impactor itself. Identifying a clastic rock as an impact breccia requires recognising shatter cones, tektites, spherulites, and the morphology of an impact crater, as well as potentially recognizing particular chemical and trace element signatures, especially osmiridium. <P> Decorah crater Description The crater is estimated to be 3.5 miles (5.6 km) in diameter, covered by the Winneshiek Shale. There is no surface evidence of the impact, as the Winneshiek Shale is more than 50 feet (15 m) below the bottom of the Upper Iowa River. The impact event, equivalent to 1,000 megatons of TNT, did not appear to penetrate the Earth's mantle, but it did push down the underlying Ordovician and Cambrian bedrock several hundred feet. It may be one of several Middle Ordovician meteors that fell roughly simultaneously 469 million years ago, part of a proposed Ordovician meteor <P> in these samples is estimated to be 16 GPa, with a mean pressure of 23 GPa. These pressure estimates greatly exceed the estimated pressures for the formation of shocked quartz found in the rims of similar size and types of craters. They are only comparable in magnitude with pressures estimated for in situ target rocks at the base of such impact craters. Based upon the simple, 2.9 kilometers (1.8 mi) in diameter Brent crater in Ontario, Canada, as a model, to have the types of shocked quartz exposed at the surface at the rim of the Bloody Creek structure would theoretically <P> 1864 another fall happened in France at Orgueil near Montauban. The meteorite had disintegrated into 20 pieces weighing a total of 10 kilograms. In 1911 a meteorite was seen near Tonk (Rajasthan) in India. Only a few fragments were recuperated that weighed a mere 7.7 grams (0.27 oz). The meteorite of the type locality Ivuna in Tanzania fell in 1938 splitting into three pieces of altogether 705 grams (24.9 oz). This was followed in 1965 by a very bright fall in Revelstoke, British Columbia, but only two tiny fragments of 1 gram (0.035 oz) were found. All in all roughly 17 kilograms of <P> much smaller, non-cometary impactor—was found in lake bed cores dating to 12,900 YBP from Lake Cuitzeo in Guanajuato, Mexico. It included nanodiamonds (including the hexagonal form called lonsdaleite), carbon spherules, and magnetic spherules. Multiple hypotheses were examined to account for these observations, though none were believed to be terrestrial. Lonsdaleite occurs naturally in asteroids and cosmic dust and as a result of extraterrestrial impacts on Earth. The results of the study have not been replicated by other researchers. Lonsdaleite has also been made artificially in laboratories. In 2013, scientists reported a hundredfold spike in the concentration of platinum in Greenland ice cores <P> Given the widely dispersed shock melting observed in Tissint, alteration of other soft minerals (carbonates, halides, sulfates and even organics), especially along grain boundaries, might have occurred. This may in part explain the lack of such minerals in Tissint, but it is unknown if it is of biotic origin. The meteorite fragments were recovered within days after the fall, so it is considered an "uncontaminated" meteorite. The meteorite displays evidence of water weathering, and there are signs of elements being carried into cracks in the rocks by water or fluid, which is something never seen before in a Martian meteorite. Specifically, <P> Morocco with few remains of the meteorites that fell there. Physical characteristics Dozens of fragments with masses ranging from 0.2 to 1,282 grams (0.0071 to 45.2212 oz) were collected, totaling roughly 12–15 kilograms (26–33 lb). The rocks are variably coated by a shining black fusion crust, characterized by thicker layers on exterior ridges and glossy regions above interior olivine phenocrysts and impact melt pockets. Some stones have a thinner secondary fusion crust on some surfaces, and some are broken in places, revealing the interior. The exposed interior of the stones appears pale green-grey in color, with mm-sized, pale yellow olivine <P> (3.9 lb), found July 2002) and Neuschwanstein II (1.63 kg (3.6 lb), found May 2003) on the German side, and Neuschwanstein III (2.84 kg (6.3 lb), found June 2003) on the Austrian side near Reutte. The meteorite is classified as an enstatite chondrite with unusually large proportions of pure iron (29%), enstatite and the extremely rare mineral sinoite (Si₂N₂O). World Heritage candidature Since 2015, Neuschwanstein and Ludwig's Linderhof and Herrenchiemsee palaces are on the German tentative list for a future designation as UNESCO World Heritage Sites. A joint candidature with other representative palaces of the romantic historicism is discussed (including Schwerin Palace, for example). <P> of the hypothesis only occurred decades later. Drilling at the site in 2008 revealed rock features consistent with high-speed impacts such as those caused by meteorites. <P> meteoric trail was recorded on film by at least sixteen individuals. This was only the fourth meteorite in history for which an exact orbit is known. The rock had a mass of 12.4 kg (27.3 lb) and punched through the trunk of Peekskill resident Michelle Knapp's automobile upon impact. The Peekskill Evening Star and the Peekskill Highland Democrat were two of the city's daily newspapers through much of the City's history. The Evening Star published under various mastheads from the 19th century on, and as the Evening Star from 1939 till 1985 when the paper folded into what would become the nexus of <P> Orgueil (meteorite) History It fell on May 14, 1864, a few minutes after 20:00 local time, near Orgueil in southern France. About 20 stones fell over an area of 5-10 square kilometres. A specimen of the meteorite was analyzed that same year by François Stanislaus Clöez, professor of chemistry at the Musée d'Histoire Naturelle, who focused on the organic matter found in this meteorite. He wrote that it contained carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and its composition was very similar to peat from the Somme valley or to the lignite of Ringkohl near Kassel. An intense scientific discussion ensued, continuing into <P> Gardnos crater Gardnos crater (Gardnos krateret) is a meteorite impact crater in Nes municipality in the county of Buskerud, Norway. It is located inside Meteorite Park (Meteorittparken) at Gardnos 10 km north of the town of Nesbyen. Gardnos crater is 5 kilometres (3 mi) in diameter, and was created when a meteorite with an estimated diameter of 200 to 300 metres (660 to 980 ft) struck 500 million years ago. At first this site was believed to be a volcanic crater, but in 1990 two geologists, Johan Naterstad and Johannes A. Dons, confirmed that it was in fact formed by meteorite impact. The <P> 1907, a 309 kilogram meteorite was found near Guffey by two cowboys, although the exact location was not recorded. To date, this is the largest meteorite ever recovered in the state of Colorado. It is classified as an ungrouped iron meteorite, sometimes considered an ataxite due to its high nickel content and lack of Widmanstätten patterns. Most of the meteorite resides in New York City at the American Museum of Natural History, although the Denver Museum of Nature and Science has acquired a slice. No samples are available for public viewing in Guffey itself. <P> whether such a column could stay coherent through this process, or whether the force of this process would result in it shattering into much smaller pieces before impacting. The pipe through which the magma and gas had travelled would collapse during this process, sending a shockwave at hypersonic velocity that would deform the surrounding craton. A verneshot event is likely to be related to nearby continental flood basalt events, which may occur before, during or after the verneshot event. This may help in searching for evidence for the results of verneshot events; however, it is also quite probable that most of <P> the Ordovician meteor event of 470 Ma. <P> the paucity of detailed information and the lack of surviving meteorites or other physical evidence, researchers have also been unable to definitively state the exact nature of the dramatic event, even examining the possible occurrence of severe hail. However Kevin Yau of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory and his collaborators have noted several similarities of the Ch'ing-yang event to the Tunguska air burst in 1908, which had it occurred above a populated area could have produced many fatalities. One surviving account records: Stones fell like rain in the Ch’ing-yang district. The larger ones were 4 to 5 catties (斤, about 1.5 kg), <P> Sikhote-Alin meteorite Impact At around 10:30 on 12 February 1947, eyewitnesses in the Sikhote-Alin Mountains, Primorye, Soviet Union, observed a large bolide brighter than the sun that came out of the north and descended at an angle of about 41 degrees. The bright flash and the deafening sound of the fall were observed for 300 kilometres (190 mi) around the point of impact not far from Luchegorsk and approximately 440 km (270 mi) northeast of Vladivostok. A smoke trail, estimated at 32 km (20 mi) long, remained in the sky for several hours. As the meteor, traveling at a speed of about 14 km/s (8.7 mi/s), entered the <P> Burnwell, Kentucky Burnwell meteorite On 4 September 1990, at 3:45 PM, a meteorite fell through the porch of Arthur and Frances Pegg frightening a horse and a goat. The weight of the stone was 1504 grams and it was officially named "Burnwell". The meteorite was classified as an ordinary chondrite H4-an.	answer: I haven't found a lot of peer-reviewed journal articles about the impact, but what I've found seems to indicate it happened 83 million years ago. At that time, that part of Alabama/Georgia was under a shallow sea. I'm rather skeptical that a rock that large would be found in overlying sediments, especially a farm. However, it could be.I'm not a geologist, but the rock is very interesting. It's hard to tell, but that almost looks like a fossil leaf or something, but if the rock is igneous, then there would be, of course, some other explanation.You might want to dig up a reliable peer-reviewed citation as to the bolide impact before others answer.
73,654	7jiwsx	how do lumens and watts relate in lightbulbs?	They don't relate as well as you'd hope. Back in the days of just incandescent bulbs a 40W bulb gave you 400ish lumens, unfortunately things have changed. The incandescent bulbs you find today are halogen and more efficient so they're only 32W for 400 lumens. With LEDs you only need 5-9W depending on the tech in the bulbReally what your lamp cares about is wattage. A 40W incandescent bulb would give off 39W of heat, and a 60W would give off 59. If you put too big of a bulb in then the lamp would overheat and run the risk of fire.These days bulbs are a lot more efficient. You can put any LED you want in there and it won't overheat. You might blind yourself but it won't overheat	[ "Lumen is a measure of brightness and watt is a measure of power. \n\nWith incandescent bulbs, the amount of power used was a good proxy for brightness of the bulb, so they used watts. For this reason, all the old bulbs and lamps had power written in wattage. \n\nWith the newer bulbs (LED and CFL), wattage is no lo...	3	[ "They don't relate as well as you'd hope. Back in the days of just incandescent bulbs a 40W bulb gave you 400ish lumens, unfortunately things have changed. The incandescent bulbs you find today are halogen and more efficient so they're only 32W for 400 lumens. With LEDs you only need 5-9W depending on the tech in t...	1	<P> legalised in the United States in 1993. More recent single-filament bulb designs include the H7 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1500 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V), H8 (35 W @ 12.0 V, 800 lm ±15% @ 13.2 V), H9 (65 W @ 12.0 V, 2100 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V), and H11 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1350 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V). 24-volt versions of many bulb types are available for use in trucks, buses, and other commercial and military vehicles. The first dual-filament halogen bulb to produce both a low and a high beam, the H4 (60/55 W @ 12 V, 1650/1000 lm ±15% @ 13.2 V), was released in 1971 and quickly became the predominant headlamp bulb throughout <P> the same amount of light generated, they typically use around one-quarter to one-third the power of an incandescent. The typical luminous efficacy of fluorescent lighting systems is 50–100 lumens per watt, several times the efficacy of incandescent bulbs with comparable light output. Fluorescent lamp fixtures are more costly than incandescent lamps, because they require a ballast to regulate the current through the lamp, but the lower energy cost typically offsets the higher initial cost. Compact fluorescent lamps are available in the same popular sizes as incandescent lamps and are used as an energy-saving alternative in homes. Because they contain mercury, <P> the world except in the United States, where the H4 is still not legal for automotive use. In 1989, the Americans created their own standard for a bulb called HB2: almost identical to H4 except with more stringent constraints on filament geometry and positional variance, and power consumption and light output expressed at the US test voltage of 12.8V. The first US halogen headlamp bulb, introduced in 1983, was the HB1/9004. It is a 12.8-volt, transverse dual-filament design that produces 700 lumens on low beam and 1200 lumens on high beam. The 9004 is rated for 65 watts (high beam) and <P> This number is convenient for stars, which have a total of ten points (five outward and five inward), and often have another light in the middle, occasionally on both sides. Incandescent miniatures now usually come in sets of 50 or 100 (which contains two circuits of 50) 2.5 V 170 mA bulbs, though decorative sets with larger bulbs (C6 or pearl style) typically come in sets of 35 or 70. Several "extra-bright" sets also use 70 or 105 bulbs, keeping the per-bulb voltage at 3.5 instead of 2.5. LED sets can vary greatly. Common is a set of 60 (2 volts <P> of the lower half of the reflector. This is used to create the upsweep or upstep characteristic of ECE low beam light distributions. The bulb's rotative position within the reflector depends on the type of beam pattern to be produced and the traffic directionality of the market for which the headlamp is intended. This system was first used with the tungsten incandescent Bilux/Duplo R2 bulb of 1954, and later with the halogen H4 bulb of 1971. In 1992, US regulations were amended to permit the use of H4 bulbs redesignated HB2 and 9003, and with slightly different production tolerances stipulated. These <P> enclosed by the luminaire. Those designed for 12- or 24-volt operation have compact filaments, useful for good optical control. Also, they have higher efficacies (lumens per watt) and better lives than non-halogen types. The light output remains almost constant throughout their life. Fluorescent lamp Fluorescent lamps consist of a glass tube that contains mercury vapour or argon under low pressure. Electricity flowing through the tube causes the gases to give off ultraviolet energy. The inside of the tubes are coated with phosphors that give off visible light when struck by ultraviolet photons. They have much higher efficiency than incandescent lamps. For <P> wide variety of styles for various functions. The most important functions are as a holder for the light source, to provide directed light and to avoid visual glare. Some are very plain and functional, while some are pieces of art in themselves. Nearly any material can be used, so long as it can tolerate the excess heat and is in keeping with safety codes. An important property of light fixtures is the luminous efficacy or wall-plug efficiency, meaning the amount of usable light emanating from the fixture per used energy, usually measured in lumen per watt. A fixture using replaceable light <P> but still well shy of the international European limit of 225,000 cd. After replaceable halogen bulbs were permitted in US headlamps in 1983, development of US bulbs continued to favor long bulb life and low power consumption, while European designs continued to prioritise optical precision and maximum output. The H1 lamp was the first tungsten-halogen headlamp light source. It was introduced in 1962 by a consortium of European bulb and headlamp makers. This bulb has a single axial filament that consumes 55 watts at 12.0 volts, and produces 1550 lumens ±15% when operated at 13.2 V. H2 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1820 lm @ 13.2 V) <P> Form factors Many lamp units, or light bulbs, are specified in standardized shape codes and socket names. Incandescent bulbs and their retrofit replacements are often specified as "A19/A60 E26/E27", a common size for these kind of light bulbs. In this example, the "A" parameters describe the bulb size and shape while the "E" parameters describe the Edison screw base size and thread characteristics. Lamp life expectancy Life expectancy for many types of lamp is defined as the number of hours of operation at which 50% of them fail, that is the median life of the lamps. Production tolerances as <P> measure of the density of luminous intensity in a given direction. It describes the amount of light that passes through or is emitted from a particular area, and falls within a given solid angle. The SI unit for luminance is candela per square metre (cd/m²). The CGS unit of luminance is the stilb, which is equal to one candela per square centimetre or 10 kcd/m². The amount of useful light emitted from a source or the luminous flux is measured in lumen (lm). The SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance, being the luminous power per area, is measured in Lux. It <P> on a string to increase the life of the bulbs by reducing the voltage each lamp received (120 volts divided by 9 lamps = 13 volts per bulb) but not significantly reducing the light output of the bulbs. Large C7½ and C9¼ bulbs typically come in sets of 25, though bubble lights come in sets of seven, and some non-holiday sets come in ten or twelve. Sockets are usually spaced about one foot (30 cm) apart, and are clamped to the wire with an integrated insulation-piercing connector. Some older parallel sets had 15 bulbs, as do some of the newer globe <P> consumption, many organizations encourage the adoption of CFLs. Some electric utilities and local governments have subsidized CFLs or provided them free to customers as a means of reducing electricity demand. For a given light output, CFLs use between one fifth and one quarter the power of an equivalent incandescent lamp. Unlike incandescent lamps CFLs need a little time to warm up and reach full brightness. Not all CFLs are suitable for dimming. LED lamps LED lamps have been advocated as the newest and best environmental lighting method. According to the Energy Saving Trust, LED lamps use only 10% power compared <P> 45 watts (low beam) at 12.8 volts. Other US approved halogen bulbs include the HB3 (65 W, 12.8 V), HB4 (55 W, 12.8 V), and HB5 (65/55 watts, 12.8 V). All of the European-designed and internationally approved bulbs except H4 are presently approved for use in headlamps complying with US requirements. Halogen infrared reflective (HIR) A further development of the tungsten-halogen bulb has a dichroic coating that passes visible light and reflects infrared radiation. The glass in such a bulb may be spherical or tubular. The reflected infrared radiation strikes the filament located at the center of the glass envelope, heating the filament to a <P> full rated current and most ammeters consist of a shunt and a voltmeter with full-scale deflections of 50, 75, or 100 mV. All shunts have a derating factor for continuous (2+ minutes) use, 66% being the most common, so the example shunt should not be operated above 330 A (and 50 m drop) longer than that. This limitation is due to thermal limits at which a shunt will no longer operate correctly. For manganin, a common shunt material, at 80 °C thermal drift begins to occur, at 120 °C thermal drift is a significant problem where error, depending on the design of the shunt, can <P> displaced by LEDs Incandescent bulbs are being phased out in many countries due to their low energy efficiency. Less than 3% of the input energy is converted into usable light. Nearly all of the input energy ends up as heat that, in warm climates, must then be removed from the building by ventilation or air conditioning, often resulting in more energy consumption. In colder climates where heating and lighting is required during the cold and dark winter months, the heat byproduct has at least some value. Halogen lamp Halogen lamps are usually much smaller than standard incandescent lamps, because for successful <P> replacing defective lamps. Many mini sets use standard 3 mm dome-shaped LEDs, and have a plastic cover over them to provide refraction, which is an important step in diffusing the unidirectional light they cast. These covers come in C5, C6, and C7 sizes (⅝, ¾, and ⅞-inch, or 16, 19, and 22 mm diameters, respectively) pointed "strawberries", G12 (12mm or almost ½-inch) globe "raspberries", and "M5" (5mm or ⁷⁄₃₂-inch) pointed cylinders, equivalent to the T1¾ mini lights so common since the 1980s. For blue and green, these covers may have some fluorescence, leading to a lighter color. Other sets have <P> micrometer. <P> (SI) unit is cd·m⁻²·lx⁻¹, i.e. candelas per meter squared per lux. The older convention is Fl/Fc (foot-lamberts per foot-candle). This creates issues with comparative gain measurements since neither is a pure ratio, although both are measured as a value of output intensity over input intensity. This creates ambiguity in the marketing of night vision devices as the difference between the two measurements is effectively pi or approximately 3.142x. This means that a gain of 10,000 cd/m²/lx is the same as 31.42 Fl/Fc. MTBF (mean time between failure) This value, expressed in hours, gives an idea how long a tube typically should <P> hour. <P> 16 ly.	question: how do lumens and watts relate in lightbulbs? context: <P> legalised in the United States in 1993. More recent single-filament bulb designs include the H7 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1500 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V), H8 (35 W @ 12.0 V, 800 lm ±15% @ 13.2 V), H9 (65 W @ 12.0 V, 2100 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V), and H11 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1350 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V). 24-volt versions of many bulb types are available for use in trucks, buses, and other commercial and military vehicles. The first dual-filament halogen bulb to produce both a low and a high beam, the H4 (60/55 W @ 12 V, 1650/1000 lm ±15% @ 13.2 V), was released in 1971 and quickly became the predominant headlamp bulb throughout <P> the same amount of light generated, they typically use around one-quarter to one-third the power of an incandescent. The typical luminous efficacy of fluorescent lighting systems is 50–100 lumens per watt, several times the efficacy of incandescent bulbs with comparable light output. Fluorescent lamp fixtures are more costly than incandescent lamps, because they require a ballast to regulate the current through the lamp, but the lower energy cost typically offsets the higher initial cost. Compact fluorescent lamps are available in the same popular sizes as incandescent lamps and are used as an energy-saving alternative in homes. Because they contain mercury, <P> the world except in the United States, where the H4 is still not legal for automotive use. In 1989, the Americans created their own standard for a bulb called HB2: almost identical to H4 except with more stringent constraints on filament geometry and positional variance, and power consumption and light output expressed at the US test voltage of 12.8V. The first US halogen headlamp bulb, introduced in 1983, was the HB1/9004. It is a 12.8-volt, transverse dual-filament design that produces 700 lumens on low beam and 1200 lumens on high beam. The 9004 is rated for 65 watts (high beam) and <P> This number is convenient for stars, which have a total of ten points (five outward and five inward), and often have another light in the middle, occasionally on both sides. Incandescent miniatures now usually come in sets of 50 or 100 (which contains two circuits of 50) 2.5 V 170 mA bulbs, though decorative sets with larger bulbs (C6 or pearl style) typically come in sets of 35 or 70. Several "extra-bright" sets also use 70 or 105 bulbs, keeping the per-bulb voltage at 3.5 instead of 2.5. LED sets can vary greatly. Common is a set of 60 (2 volts <P> of the lower half of the reflector. This is used to create the upsweep or upstep characteristic of ECE low beam light distributions. The bulb's rotative position within the reflector depends on the type of beam pattern to be produced and the traffic directionality of the market for which the headlamp is intended. This system was first used with the tungsten incandescent Bilux/Duplo R2 bulb of 1954, and later with the halogen H4 bulb of 1971. In 1992, US regulations were amended to permit the use of H4 bulbs redesignated HB2 and 9003, and with slightly different production tolerances stipulated. These <P> enclosed by the luminaire. Those designed for 12- or 24-volt operation have compact filaments, useful for good optical control. Also, they have higher efficacies (lumens per watt) and better lives than non-halogen types. The light output remains almost constant throughout their life. Fluorescent lamp Fluorescent lamps consist of a glass tube that contains mercury vapour or argon under low pressure. Electricity flowing through the tube causes the gases to give off ultraviolet energy. The inside of the tubes are coated with phosphors that give off visible light when struck by ultraviolet photons. They have much higher efficiency than incandescent lamps. For <P> wide variety of styles for various functions. The most important functions are as a holder for the light source, to provide directed light and to avoid visual glare. Some are very plain and functional, while some are pieces of art in themselves. Nearly any material can be used, so long as it can tolerate the excess heat and is in keeping with safety codes. An important property of light fixtures is the luminous efficacy or wall-plug efficiency, meaning the amount of usable light emanating from the fixture per used energy, usually measured in lumen per watt. A fixture using replaceable light <P> but still well shy of the international European limit of 225,000 cd. After replaceable halogen bulbs were permitted in US headlamps in 1983, development of US bulbs continued to favor long bulb life and low power consumption, while European designs continued to prioritise optical precision and maximum output. The H1 lamp was the first tungsten-halogen headlamp light source. It was introduced in 1962 by a consortium of European bulb and headlamp makers. This bulb has a single axial filament that consumes 55 watts at 12.0 volts, and produces 1550 lumens ±15% when operated at 13.2 V. H2 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1820 lm @ 13.2 V) <P> Form factors Many lamp units, or light bulbs, are specified in standardized shape codes and socket names. Incandescent bulbs and their retrofit replacements are often specified as "A19/A60 E26/E27", a common size for these kind of light bulbs. In this example, the "A" parameters describe the bulb size and shape while the "E" parameters describe the Edison screw base size and thread characteristics. Lamp life expectancy Life expectancy for many types of lamp is defined as the number of hours of operation at which 50% of them fail, that is the median life of the lamps. Production tolerances as <P> measure of the density of luminous intensity in a given direction. It describes the amount of light that passes through or is emitted from a particular area, and falls within a given solid angle. The SI unit for luminance is candela per square metre (cd/m²). The CGS unit of luminance is the stilb, which is equal to one candela per square centimetre or 10 kcd/m². The amount of useful light emitted from a source or the luminous flux is measured in lumen (lm). The SI unit of illuminance and luminous emittance, being the luminous power per area, is measured in Lux. It <P> on a string to increase the life of the bulbs by reducing the voltage each lamp received (120 volts divided by 9 lamps = 13 volts per bulb) but not significantly reducing the light output of the bulbs. Large C7½ and C9¼ bulbs typically come in sets of 25, though bubble lights come in sets of seven, and some non-holiday sets come in ten or twelve. Sockets are usually spaced about one foot (30 cm) apart, and are clamped to the wire with an integrated insulation-piercing connector. Some older parallel sets had 15 bulbs, as do some of the newer globe <P> consumption, many organizations encourage the adoption of CFLs. Some electric utilities and local governments have subsidized CFLs or provided them free to customers as a means of reducing electricity demand. For a given light output, CFLs use between one fifth and one quarter the power of an equivalent incandescent lamp. Unlike incandescent lamps CFLs need a little time to warm up and reach full brightness. Not all CFLs are suitable for dimming. LED lamps LED lamps have been advocated as the newest and best environmental lighting method. According to the Energy Saving Trust, LED lamps use only 10% power compared <P> 45 watts (low beam) at 12.8 volts. Other US approved halogen bulbs include the HB3 (65 W, 12.8 V), HB4 (55 W, 12.8 V), and HB5 (65/55 watts, 12.8 V). All of the European-designed and internationally approved bulbs except H4 are presently approved for use in headlamps complying with US requirements. Halogen infrared reflective (HIR) A further development of the tungsten-halogen bulb has a dichroic coating that passes visible light and reflects infrared radiation. The glass in such a bulb may be spherical or tubular. The reflected infrared radiation strikes the filament located at the center of the glass envelope, heating the filament to a <P> full rated current and most ammeters consist of a shunt and a voltmeter with full-scale deflections of 50, 75, or 100 mV. All shunts have a derating factor for continuous (2+ minutes) use, 66% being the most common, so the example shunt should not be operated above 330 A (and 50 m drop) longer than that. This limitation is due to thermal limits at which a shunt will no longer operate correctly. For manganin, a common shunt material, at 80 °C thermal drift begins to occur, at 120 °C thermal drift is a significant problem where error, depending on the design of the shunt, can <P> displaced by LEDs Incandescent bulbs are being phased out in many countries due to their low energy efficiency. Less than 3% of the input energy is converted into usable light. Nearly all of the input energy ends up as heat that, in warm climates, must then be removed from the building by ventilation or air conditioning, often resulting in more energy consumption. In colder climates where heating and lighting is required during the cold and dark winter months, the heat byproduct has at least some value. Halogen lamp Halogen lamps are usually much smaller than standard incandescent lamps, because for successful <P> replacing defective lamps. Many mini sets use standard 3 mm dome-shaped LEDs, and have a plastic cover over them to provide refraction, which is an important step in diffusing the unidirectional light they cast. These covers come in C5, C6, and C7 sizes (⅝, ¾, and ⅞-inch, or 16, 19, and 22 mm diameters, respectively) pointed "strawberries", G12 (12mm or almost ½-inch) globe "raspberries", and "M5" (5mm or ⁷⁄₃₂-inch) pointed cylinders, equivalent to the T1¾ mini lights so common since the 1980s. For blue and green, these covers may have some fluorescence, leading to a lighter color. Other sets have <P> micrometer. <P> (SI) unit is cd·m⁻²·lx⁻¹, i.e. candelas per meter squared per lux. The older convention is Fl/Fc (foot-lamberts per foot-candle). This creates issues with comparative gain measurements since neither is a pure ratio, although both are measured as a value of output intensity over input intensity. This creates ambiguity in the marketing of night vision devices as the difference between the two measurements is effectively pi or approximately 3.142x. This means that a gain of 10,000 cd/m²/lx is the same as 31.42 Fl/Fc. MTBF (mean time between failure) This value, expressed in hours, gives an idea how long a tube typically should <P> hour. <P> 16 ly.	answer: They don't relate as well as you'd hope. Back in the days of just incandescent bulbs a 40W bulb gave you 400ish lumens, unfortunately things have changed. The incandescent bulbs you find today are halogen and more efficient so they're only 32W for 400 lumens. With LEDs you only need 5-9W depending on the tech in the bulbReally what your lamp cares about is wattage. A 40W incandescent bulb would give off 39W of heat, and a 60W would give off 59. If you put too big of a bulb in then the lamp would overheat and run the risk of fire.These days bulbs are a lot more efficient. You can put any LED you want in there and it won't overheat. You might blind yourself but it won't overheat
29,481	2j19md	when a guys pee hits the toilet water and causes splash droplets that spray out of the bowl are the droplets pee or toilet water?	I would imagine the line between piss and water gets fuzzy pretty quickly.	[ "I would imagine the line between piss and water gets fuzzy pretty quickly. ", "In chemistry labs in college we were always told to pour acid into water not water into acid. The reasoning is that the substance you are pouring into is likely to be what splashes out. Of course I wouldn't perform a taste test in the...	6	[ "I would imagine the line between piss and water gets fuzzy pretty quickly. ", "In chemistry labs in college we were always told to pour acid into water not water into acid. The reasoning is that the substance you are pouring into is likely to be what splashes out. Of course I wouldn't perform a taste test in the...	4	<P> the notable side-effect of causing red-colored urine. <P> interfere with the oxidation reaction of the blood and glucose pad on common urine test strips. Some urine test strips are protected against the interference with iodate, which eliminates ascorbic acid by oxidation. Urinary sediment During routine screening, if a positive test for leukocytes, blood, protein, nitrite, and a pH greater than 7 is identified, the urine sediment be microscopically analysed to further pinpoint a diagnosis. Automated urine test strip analysers Automatic analysis of urine test strips using automated urine test strip analysers is a well-established practice in modern-day urinalysis. They can measure calcium, blood, glucose, bilirubin, urobilinogen, ketones, leukocytes, <P> Miss Belgium contest. Women are catered for by providing them with a cardboard cone to direct their urine. Global Warming In 2009, artist Ricardo Carvalho and programmer Alias Cummings created an interactive urinal entitled Global Warming in which the trail of urine hits on a grid of ultra sensitive piezos housed within the urinal. The strength and direction of the urine is calculated and used to control the navigation of a 3D Earth globe, leaving a trail of thousands of Google Earth place markers on its surface. The spectator's action is reminiscent of spraying, the animal behaviour of identifying and <P> are not conveniently accessible or identifiable. Inflow tends to peak during precipitation events, and causes greater flow variation than infiltration. Peak flows caused by inflow may generate a foul flush of accumulated biofilm and sanitary solids scoured from the dry weather wetted perimeter of oversized sewers during peak flow turbulence. Sources of inflow can sometimes be identified by smoke testing. Smoke is blown into the sewer during dry weather while observers watch for smoke emerging from yards, cellars, or roof gutters. Significance Dilution of sewage directly increases costs of pumping and chlorination, ozonation, or ultraviolet disinfection. Physical <P> at the bottom of the container and may not be detected if the sample is not properly mixed, and in the same way, if an excess of urine remains on the strip after it has been removed from the test sample, may cause the reagents to leak from the pads onto adjacent pads resulting in mixing and distortion of the colours. To ensure that this does not occur it is recommended the edges of the strip are dried on absorbent paper. pH The lungs and kidneys are the main regulators of an organism’s acid / alkali balance. The balance is <P> little pee in the miso.' And so we put a little P in the miso: Mipso." This story has subsequently been published and re-confirmed in various publications. <P> In the range 5 to 9 the strips show colours that change from orange at pH 5, passing through yellow and green to dark blue at pH 9. Blood Blood may be present in the urine either in the form of intact red blood cells (hematuria) or as the product of red blood cell destruction, hemoglobin (hemoglobinuria). Blood present in large quantities can be detected visually. Hematuria produces cloudy red urine, and hemoglobinuria appears as a clear red specimen. Any amount of blood greater than five cells per microliter of urine is considered clinically significant, visual examination cannot be relied <P> that they process. The sluice box was used extensively during the California gold rush for larger scale operations. When streams became increasingly depleted, the grizzly and undercurrent variants of the sluice box were developed. The grizzly is a set of parallel bars placed at a 45 degree angle over the main sluice box, which filter out larger material. The undercurrent variety includes additional, auxiliary sluice boxes where material is initially filtered. It then travels through a trough into the primary sluice box where it is filtered again. Both the grizzly and undercurrent are designed to increase efficiency, and were often used <P> five red blood cells per microliter; however, care must be taken when comparing these figures with the actual microscopic values, because the absorbent nature of the pad attracts some of urine. The terms trace, small, moderate, and large or trace, 1+, 2+, and 3+ are used for reporting. False-positive reactions due to menstrual contamination may be seen. They also occur if strong oxidizing detergents are present in the specimen container. Vegetable peroxidase and bacterial enzymes, including an Escherichia coli peroxidase, may also cause false-positive reactions. Therefore, sediments containing bacteria should be checked closely for the presence of red blood cells. Traditionally, <P> ascorbic acid (vitamin C) has been associated with false-negative reagent strip reactions for blood. Both Multitistix and Chemstrip have modified their reagent strips to reduce this interference to very high levels of ascorbic acid, and Chemstip overlays the reagent pad with an iodate-impregnated mesh that oxidizes the ascorbic acid prior to its reaching the reaction pad. False-negative reactions can result when urine with a high specific gravity contains crenated red blood cells that do not lyse when they come in contact with the reagent pad. Decreased reactivity may also be seen when formalin is used as a preservative or when <P> issues Besides the street runoff from Bloomington, Clear Creek also receives the effluent from the city's Dillman Road Wastewater Treatment Plant. After an outbreak of Legionnaires disease in the Indiana Memorial Union in 1978, CDC bacteriologist discovered a new bacterial species in a sample of water taken from the "Jordan River" in front of the IMU. They named it Legionella jordanis after the river. Later, the bacterium was found at other sites in the country as well. <P> the film to fake crying. This movie has gained notoriety for encouraging the deadly prank of putting Visine eyedrops in drinking water bottles, threatening severe or fatal injury to drinkers. The urban legend about Visine's explosive diarrhea-inducing capacity is also perpetuated in the movie version of I Hope They Serve Beer in Hell. In the movie, the main character Tucker Max (played by Matt Czuchry) is making fun of two women at the bar, in which one of them squirts Visine into his beer bottle. This leads to Tucker and an allegedly married woman he leaves the bar with to both <P> hydrodynamic resistance force FW, the charged particles migrate from the filter medium, thus reducing significantly the thickness of the filter cake on the membrane. When the solid particles, subject to separation, are negatively charged they migrate towards the anode (positive pole) and deposit on the filter cloth situated there. As a result, on the cathode side’s membrane (negative pole) there is only a very thin film allowing nearly the whole filtrate to efflux through this membrane. Figure 1 presents schematic description of electrofiltration chamber with flushing electrodes. For the flushing circulation a buffer solution is used. This approach has been patented. <P> that overrides the acid buffer system, producing a rise in pH and a colour change unrelated to protein concentration. Likewise, a technical error of allowing the reagent pa to remain in contact with the urine for a prolonged period may remove the buffer. False-positive readings are obtained when the reaction does not take place under acidic conditions. Highly pigmented urine and contamination of the container with quaternary ammonium compounds, detergents and antiseptics also cause false-positive readings. A false-positive trace reading may occur in specimens with a high specific gravity. Liver diseases and haemolytic disorders In many liver diseases the patients <P> Water, Brown Clee. <P> pollution in a stream in Vienna that originated in a DuPont chemical company landfill was the trigger for a landmark class-action lawsuit over PFOA contamination in the region. <P> Urine test strip Test method The test method consists of immersing the test strip completely in a well mixed sample of urine for a short period of time, then extracting it from the container and supporting the edge of the strip over the mouth of the container to remove excess urine. The strip is then left to stand for the time necessary for the reactions to occur (usually 1 to 2 minutes), and finally the colours that appear are compared against the chromatic scale provided by the manufacturer. An improper technique can produce false results, for example, leukocytes and erythrocytes precipitate <P> or removed because of broadcast censors. Originally, just after Peter hands Brian his test results from the MacArthur Program, Peter was to ask "Would a retarded person have peed in their pants?", then urinate in his trousers. However, because broadcasting standards prohibited this, it was changed to "Well, would a mentally retarded guy have hired a bulldozer with a drunk driver to level half of his house in celebration of his fantastic test results?". Brian stating to Peter "In your fucking face, Fuckwad" after Peter performs poorly on the test was censored from television broadcasting and on the censored track <P> 1857. Struvite kidney stones Struvite precipitates in alkaline urine, forming kidney stones. Struvite is the most common mineral found in urinary tract stones in dogs, and is found also in urinary tract stones of cats and humans. Struvite stones are potentiated by bacterial infection that hydrolyzes urea to ammonium and raises urine pH to neutral or alkaline values. Urea-splitting organisms include Proteus, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella, Staphylococcus, and Mycoplasma. Even in the absence of infection, accumulation of struvite crystals in the urinary bladder is a problem frequently seen in housecats, with symptoms including difficulty urinating (which may be mistaken for constipation) or blood <P> identified by the same test in animals such as apes, dogs, and cats (including big cats). Adverse effects Urea can be irritating to skin, eyes, and the respiratory tract. Repeated or prolonged contact with urea in fertilizer form on the skin may cause dermatitis. High concentrations in the blood can be damaging. Ingestion of low concentrations of urea, such as are found in typical human urine, are not dangerous with additional water ingestion within a reasonable time-frame. Many animals (e.g., dogs) have a much more concentrated urine and it contains a higher urea amount than normal human urine; this can	question: when a guys pee hits the toilet water and causes splash droplets that spray out of the bowl are the droplets pee or toilet water? context: <P> the notable side-effect of causing red-colored urine. <P> interfere with the oxidation reaction of the blood and glucose pad on common urine test strips. Some urine test strips are protected against the interference with iodate, which eliminates ascorbic acid by oxidation. Urinary sediment During routine screening, if a positive test for leukocytes, blood, protein, nitrite, and a pH greater than 7 is identified, the urine sediment be microscopically analysed to further pinpoint a diagnosis. Automated urine test strip analysers Automatic analysis of urine test strips using automated urine test strip analysers is a well-established practice in modern-day urinalysis. They can measure calcium, blood, glucose, bilirubin, urobilinogen, ketones, leukocytes, <P> Miss Belgium contest. Women are catered for by providing them with a cardboard cone to direct their urine. Global Warming In 2009, artist Ricardo Carvalho and programmer Alias Cummings created an interactive urinal entitled Global Warming in which the trail of urine hits on a grid of ultra sensitive piezos housed within the urinal. The strength and direction of the urine is calculated and used to control the navigation of a 3D Earth globe, leaving a trail of thousands of Google Earth place markers on its surface. The spectator's action is reminiscent of spraying, the animal behaviour of identifying and <P> are not conveniently accessible or identifiable. Inflow tends to peak during precipitation events, and causes greater flow variation than infiltration. Peak flows caused by inflow may generate a foul flush of accumulated biofilm and sanitary solids scoured from the dry weather wetted perimeter of oversized sewers during peak flow turbulence. Sources of inflow can sometimes be identified by smoke testing. Smoke is blown into the sewer during dry weather while observers watch for smoke emerging from yards, cellars, or roof gutters. Significance Dilution of sewage directly increases costs of pumping and chlorination, ozonation, or ultraviolet disinfection. Physical <P> at the bottom of the container and may not be detected if the sample is not properly mixed, and in the same way, if an excess of urine remains on the strip after it has been removed from the test sample, may cause the reagents to leak from the pads onto adjacent pads resulting in mixing and distortion of the colours. To ensure that this does not occur it is recommended the edges of the strip are dried on absorbent paper. pH The lungs and kidneys are the main regulators of an organism’s acid / alkali balance. The balance is <P> little pee in the miso.' And so we put a little P in the miso: Mipso." This story has subsequently been published and re-confirmed in various publications. <P> In the range 5 to 9 the strips show colours that change from orange at pH 5, passing through yellow and green to dark blue at pH 9. Blood Blood may be present in the urine either in the form of intact red blood cells (hematuria) or as the product of red blood cell destruction, hemoglobin (hemoglobinuria). Blood present in large quantities can be detected visually. Hematuria produces cloudy red urine, and hemoglobinuria appears as a clear red specimen. Any amount of blood greater than five cells per microliter of urine is considered clinically significant, visual examination cannot be relied <P> that they process. The sluice box was used extensively during the California gold rush for larger scale operations. When streams became increasingly depleted, the grizzly and undercurrent variants of the sluice box were developed. The grizzly is a set of parallel bars placed at a 45 degree angle over the main sluice box, which filter out larger material. The undercurrent variety includes additional, auxiliary sluice boxes where material is initially filtered. It then travels through a trough into the primary sluice box where it is filtered again. Both the grizzly and undercurrent are designed to increase efficiency, and were often used <P> five red blood cells per microliter; however, care must be taken when comparing these figures with the actual microscopic values, because the absorbent nature of the pad attracts some of urine. The terms trace, small, moderate, and large or trace, 1+, 2+, and 3+ are used for reporting. False-positive reactions due to menstrual contamination may be seen. They also occur if strong oxidizing detergents are present in the specimen container. Vegetable peroxidase and bacterial enzymes, including an Escherichia coli peroxidase, may also cause false-positive reactions. Therefore, sediments containing bacteria should be checked closely for the presence of red blood cells. Traditionally, <P> ascorbic acid (vitamin C) has been associated with false-negative reagent strip reactions for blood. Both Multitistix and Chemstrip have modified their reagent strips to reduce this interference to very high levels of ascorbic acid, and Chemstip overlays the reagent pad with an iodate-impregnated mesh that oxidizes the ascorbic acid prior to its reaching the reaction pad. False-negative reactions can result when urine with a high specific gravity contains crenated red blood cells that do not lyse when they come in contact with the reagent pad. Decreased reactivity may also be seen when formalin is used as a preservative or when <P> issues Besides the street runoff from Bloomington, Clear Creek also receives the effluent from the city's Dillman Road Wastewater Treatment Plant. After an outbreak of Legionnaires disease in the Indiana Memorial Union in 1978, CDC bacteriologist discovered a new bacterial species in a sample of water taken from the "Jordan River" in front of the IMU. They named it Legionella jordanis after the river. Later, the bacterium was found at other sites in the country as well. <P> the film to fake crying. This movie has gained notoriety for encouraging the deadly prank of putting Visine eyedrops in drinking water bottles, threatening severe or fatal injury to drinkers. The urban legend about Visine's explosive diarrhea-inducing capacity is also perpetuated in the movie version of I Hope They Serve Beer in Hell. In the movie, the main character Tucker Max (played by Matt Czuchry) is making fun of two women at the bar, in which one of them squirts Visine into his beer bottle. This leads to Tucker and an allegedly married woman he leaves the bar with to both <P> hydrodynamic resistance force FW, the charged particles migrate from the filter medium, thus reducing significantly the thickness of the filter cake on the membrane. When the solid particles, subject to separation, are negatively charged they migrate towards the anode (positive pole) and deposit on the filter cloth situated there. As a result, on the cathode side’s membrane (negative pole) there is only a very thin film allowing nearly the whole filtrate to efflux through this membrane. Figure 1 presents schematic description of electrofiltration chamber with flushing electrodes. For the flushing circulation a buffer solution is used. This approach has been patented. <P> that overrides the acid buffer system, producing a rise in pH and a colour change unrelated to protein concentration. Likewise, a technical error of allowing the reagent pa to remain in contact with the urine for a prolonged period may remove the buffer. False-positive readings are obtained when the reaction does not take place under acidic conditions. Highly pigmented urine and contamination of the container with quaternary ammonium compounds, detergents and antiseptics also cause false-positive readings. A false-positive trace reading may occur in specimens with a high specific gravity. Liver diseases and haemolytic disorders In many liver diseases the patients <P> Water, Brown Clee. <P> pollution in a stream in Vienna that originated in a DuPont chemical company landfill was the trigger for a landmark class-action lawsuit over PFOA contamination in the region. <P> Urine test strip Test method The test method consists of immersing the test strip completely in a well mixed sample of urine for a short period of time, then extracting it from the container and supporting the edge of the strip over the mouth of the container to remove excess urine. The strip is then left to stand for the time necessary for the reactions to occur (usually 1 to 2 minutes), and finally the colours that appear are compared against the chromatic scale provided by the manufacturer. An improper technique can produce false results, for example, leukocytes and erythrocytes precipitate <P> or removed because of broadcast censors. Originally, just after Peter hands Brian his test results from the MacArthur Program, Peter was to ask "Would a retarded person have peed in their pants?", then urinate in his trousers. However, because broadcasting standards prohibited this, it was changed to "Well, would a mentally retarded guy have hired a bulldozer with a drunk driver to level half of his house in celebration of his fantastic test results?". Brian stating to Peter "In your fucking face, Fuckwad" after Peter performs poorly on the test was censored from television broadcasting and on the censored track <P> 1857. Struvite kidney stones Struvite precipitates in alkaline urine, forming kidney stones. Struvite is the most common mineral found in urinary tract stones in dogs, and is found also in urinary tract stones of cats and humans. Struvite stones are potentiated by bacterial infection that hydrolyzes urea to ammonium and raises urine pH to neutral or alkaline values. Urea-splitting organisms include Proteus, Pseudomonas, Klebsiella, Staphylococcus, and Mycoplasma. Even in the absence of infection, accumulation of struvite crystals in the urinary bladder is a problem frequently seen in housecats, with symptoms including difficulty urinating (which may be mistaken for constipation) or blood <P> identified by the same test in animals such as apes, dogs, and cats (including big cats). Adverse effects Urea can be irritating to skin, eyes, and the respiratory tract. Repeated or prolonged contact with urea in fertilizer form on the skin may cause dermatitis. High concentrations in the blood can be damaging. Ingestion of low concentrations of urea, such as are found in typical human urine, are not dangerous with additional water ingestion within a reasonable time-frame. Many animals (e.g., dogs) have a much more concentrated urine and it contains a higher urea amount than normal human urine; this can	answer: I would imagine the line between piss and water gets fuzzy pretty quickly.
221,963	476qle	why it's possible for a 'brain dead' person to wake up while being prepped for an organ donation?	It is a cause for concern. Generally a brain scan will be performed which will show if there is electrical activity in the brain.Doctors do want the freshest most viable organs, the ones least dead.When your brain is dead can be debated to a certain extent. There is an ancient part of the brain buried deep with our brains which resembles the brain of reptiles. In it are basic functions necessary for us to live. This part can be compared to reflex centers in the spinal cord. If stimulated, the reflex centers can cause the legs to walk.Walking legs do not mean a conscious brain. Nor does breathing although this does include relays in the brain.I do not know what your criteria for being alive is. If I cannot change the channels on a TV I want someone to pull the plug unless I am blinking in Morse Code.We lose brain cells every day. How many we need to function I do not know.The last step of organ donation probably includes turning off the breathing machine. This means the brain cells go hypoxic. Any that are alive will fire in a generalized discharge. This will cause a squeezing of the voluntary muscles, a last gasp, a last grasp. It does not mean that her brain was alive.You can probably find cases where a brain dead individual will actually sit up when the machinery is turned off. It does not mean the brain was alive or they were alive in any sense we know.	[ "It is a cause for concern. Generally a brain scan will be performed which will show if there is electrical activity in the brain.\n\nDoctors do want the freshest most viable organs, the ones least dead.\n\nWhen your brain is dead can be debated to a certain extent. There is an ancient part of the brain buried deep...	2	[ "It is a cause for concern. Generally a brain scan will be performed which will show if there is electrical activity in the brain.\n\nDoctors do want the freshest most viable organs, the ones least dead.\n\nWhen your brain is dead can be debated to a certain extent. There is an ancient part of the brain buried deep...	1	<P> at the request of his relations - placed in his hospital room. Almost a week later his parents were told he had made remarkable progress, and had awakened from his coma and not in a vegetative state as was believed. <P> after a patient has suffered cardiac arrest for two to five minutes. Whole-brain vs higher-brain vs brainstem criteria Deciding on which criteria to follow for determining brain death is still heavily debated today. Whole-brain criteria are the standard most countries follow including the United States. Under the whole-brain death criteria, all functions of the brain including the brainstem must be ceased. The brainstem criteria differs from the whole-brain formulation, in that only the brainstem function is ceased. The brainstem is responsible for breathing and carrying out somatic regulatory functions. <P> a state of total insomnia, which invariably leads to death. In contrast, damage to the thalamus can result in coma. <P> in cases where breathing is supported by machines. Brain death is determined by there being no signs of brain function during neurological examination of a person with a beating heart. Confirmatory tests document either no blood flow to the brain, or no brain electrical activity in absence of factors known to produce reversible loss of brain function. Unlike cardiopulmonary death which sometimes involves a decision not to resuscitate the heart, brain death is a determination that the brain biologically cannot be resuscitated. If a clinically dead person has suffered injuries so severe that resuscitation is obviously impossible, then in <P> suffered a brain injury. Doctors put him in a medically induced coma for three days. <P> Chettiar of Coimbatore has built the sanctum sanctorum and died. <P> unethical to allow a third party to dictate the life and future of the patient. For example, defining death is an issue that comes with patients with severe traumatic brain injuries. The decision to withdraw life-sustaining care from these patients can be based on uncertain assessments about the individual's conscious awareness. Case reports have shown that these patients in a persistent vegetative state can recover unexpectedly. This raises the ethical question about the premature termination of care by physicians. The hope is that one day, neuroimaging technologies can help us to define these different states of consciousness and enable <P> faint, then recovers. Soon after, he collapses into a coma-like state. The same series of events occurs again and again; it soon becomes clear that the agent released from the nodule can travel from person to person, leaving them in an unconscious state after it departs. Soon there are dozens of afflicted patients. The sole doctor on board, Dr. Wallace McNulty, improvises an isolation ward, but cases keep occurring, several per day. On the tenth day, the first patient, Geller, recovers, and soon it becomes clear that the coma is temporary. There are no ill effects, but the recovered patients have <P> evacuated. <P> CPPopt are believed to cause hypoperfusion and ischemia resulting in tissue damage. <P> of death. <P> So doth the life of man decay." The Jack now stands on a shelf near the organ and is rung to signal the start of services. <P> perform in As I Lay Dying. <P> of execution. <P> 3 days buried under snow avalanche by directing to transport them with heads in snow and then slowly warming while keeping heads at low temperature. The female patient died and three male patients survived. (need year (60s?) and details; one of the state awards) and two cases when a patient was shot in the heart during heart contraction, the pericarduim filled with blood preventing expansion, and the heart stopped. Both times the patient was revived (a battlefield soldier and a crime victim). Publications Indexed in pubmed and medline: Fridman ME, Kovaleva KS.,"Some data on the use of Nobel's operation in intestinal <P> a doctor sent for on his arrival home. He was immediately ordered to bed but his condition deteriorated and he died a few days later. <P> for some years, his death certificate reports that he had been ill "for a few minutes". <P> may perform critical care services within the scope of practice and licensure requirements for the NPP in the state where he/she practices." Time spent providing critical care services must be performed at the bedside or on the unit. The first critical care CPT code, 99291, is used when caring for critically ill or injured patients in the first 30 to 74 minutes. It can be used only once in a calendar day. The CPT code 99292 is used for each additional 30 minutes of care performed after the first 74 minutes. Time for face-to-face discussions with the patient and/or family (if <P> is offered up for immolation as a substitute for the sick man. <P> remembering the correct protocol for CPR is almost as old as the procedure itself, and is an important part of the history of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Throughout history, a variety of differing methods of resuscitation had been attempted and documented, although most yielded very poor outcomes. In 1957, Peter Safar wrote the book ABC of Resuscitation, which established the basis for mass training of CPR. This new concept was distributed in a 1962 training video called "The Pulse of Life" created by James Jude, Guy Knickerbocker and Peter Safar. Jude and Knickerbocker, along with William Kouwenhouen developed the method	question: why it's possible for a 'brain dead' person to wake up while being prepped for an organ donation? context: <P> at the request of his relations - placed in his hospital room. Almost a week later his parents were told he had made remarkable progress, and had awakened from his coma and not in a vegetative state as was believed. <P> after a patient has suffered cardiac arrest for two to five minutes. Whole-brain vs higher-brain vs brainstem criteria Deciding on which criteria to follow for determining brain death is still heavily debated today. Whole-brain criteria are the standard most countries follow including the United States. Under the whole-brain death criteria, all functions of the brain including the brainstem must be ceased. The brainstem criteria differs from the whole-brain formulation, in that only the brainstem function is ceased. The brainstem is responsible for breathing and carrying out somatic regulatory functions. <P> a state of total insomnia, which invariably leads to death. In contrast, damage to the thalamus can result in coma. <P> in cases where breathing is supported by machines. Brain death is determined by there being no signs of brain function during neurological examination of a person with a beating heart. Confirmatory tests document either no blood flow to the brain, or no brain electrical activity in absence of factors known to produce reversible loss of brain function. Unlike cardiopulmonary death which sometimes involves a decision not to resuscitate the heart, brain death is a determination that the brain biologically cannot be resuscitated. If a clinically dead person has suffered injuries so severe that resuscitation is obviously impossible, then in <P> suffered a brain injury. Doctors put him in a medically induced coma for three days. <P> Chettiar of Coimbatore has built the sanctum sanctorum and died. <P> unethical to allow a third party to dictate the life and future of the patient. For example, defining death is an issue that comes with patients with severe traumatic brain injuries. The decision to withdraw life-sustaining care from these patients can be based on uncertain assessments about the individual's conscious awareness. Case reports have shown that these patients in a persistent vegetative state can recover unexpectedly. This raises the ethical question about the premature termination of care by physicians. The hope is that one day, neuroimaging technologies can help us to define these different states of consciousness and enable <P> faint, then recovers. Soon after, he collapses into a coma-like state. The same series of events occurs again and again; it soon becomes clear that the agent released from the nodule can travel from person to person, leaving them in an unconscious state after it departs. Soon there are dozens of afflicted patients. The sole doctor on board, Dr. Wallace McNulty, improvises an isolation ward, but cases keep occurring, several per day. On the tenth day, the first patient, Geller, recovers, and soon it becomes clear that the coma is temporary. There are no ill effects, but the recovered patients have <P> evacuated. <P> CPPopt are believed to cause hypoperfusion and ischemia resulting in tissue damage. <P> of death. <P> So doth the life of man decay." The Jack now stands on a shelf near the organ and is rung to signal the start of services. <P> perform in As I Lay Dying. <P> of execution. <P> 3 days buried under snow avalanche by directing to transport them with heads in snow and then slowly warming while keeping heads at low temperature. The female patient died and three male patients survived. (need year (60s?) and details; one of the state awards) and two cases when a patient was shot in the heart during heart contraction, the pericarduim filled with blood preventing expansion, and the heart stopped. Both times the patient was revived (a battlefield soldier and a crime victim). Publications Indexed in pubmed and medline: Fridman ME, Kovaleva KS.,"Some data on the use of Nobel's operation in intestinal <P> a doctor sent for on his arrival home. He was immediately ordered to bed but his condition deteriorated and he died a few days later. <P> for some years, his death certificate reports that he had been ill "for a few minutes". <P> may perform critical care services within the scope of practice and licensure requirements for the NPP in the state where he/she practices." Time spent providing critical care services must be performed at the bedside or on the unit. The first critical care CPT code, 99291, is used when caring for critically ill or injured patients in the first 30 to 74 minutes. It can be used only once in a calendar day. The CPT code 99292 is used for each additional 30 minutes of care performed after the first 74 minutes. Time for face-to-face discussions with the patient and/or family (if <P> is offered up for immolation as a substitute for the sick man. <P> remembering the correct protocol for CPR is almost as old as the procedure itself, and is an important part of the history of cardiopulmonary resuscitation. Throughout history, a variety of differing methods of resuscitation had been attempted and documented, although most yielded very poor outcomes. In 1957, Peter Safar wrote the book ABC of Resuscitation, which established the basis for mass training of CPR. This new concept was distributed in a 1962 training video called "The Pulse of Life" created by James Jude, Guy Knickerbocker and Peter Safar. Jude and Knickerbocker, along with William Kouwenhouen developed the method	answer: It is a cause for concern. Generally a brain scan will be performed which will show if there is electrical activity in the brain.Doctors do want the freshest most viable organs, the ones least dead.When your brain is dead can be debated to a certain extent. There is an ancient part of the brain buried deep with our brains which resembles the brain of reptiles. In it are basic functions necessary for us to live. This part can be compared to reflex centers in the spinal cord. If stimulated, the reflex centers can cause the legs to walk.Walking legs do not mean a conscious brain. Nor does breathing although this does include relays in the brain.I do not know what your criteria for being alive is. If I cannot change the channels on a TV I want someone to pull the plug unless I am blinking in Morse Code.We lose brain cells every day. How many we need to function I do not know.The last step of organ donation probably includes turning off the breathing machine. This means the brain cells go hypoxic. Any that are alive will fire in a generalized discharge. This will cause a squeezing of the voluntary muscles, a last gasp, a last grasp. It does not mean that her brain was alive.You can probably find cases where a brain dead individual will actually sit up when the machinery is turned off. It does not mean the brain was alive or they were alive in any sense we know.
98,698	15g1k1	Is there an upper limit to how frozen water can get?	[There are many different kinds of ice at different temperatures and pressures](_URL_0_).	[ "[There are many different kinds of ice at different temperatures and pressures](_URL_0_). " ]	1	[ "[There are many different kinds of ice at different temperatures and pressures](_URL_0_). " ]	1	<P> expands as the temperature increases. Water near the boiling point is about 4% less dense than water at 4 °C (39 °F). The unusual density curve and lower density of ice than of water is vital to life—if water were most dense at the freezing point, then in winter the very cold water at the surface of lakes and other water bodies would sink, the lake could freeze from the bottom up, and all life in them would be killed. Furthermore, given that water is a good thermal insulator (due to its heat capacity), some frozen lakes might not completely thaw in summer. The <P> and viable seeds. The study demonstrated that tissue can survive ice preservation for tens of thousands of years. A 2016 outbreak of anthrax in the Yamal Peninsula is believed to be due to thawing permafrost. <P> cryogenic freezing with liquid nitrogen. Reaction According to a study, an American consumes on average 71 frozen foods a year, most of which are pre-cooked frozen meals. <P> minus 20 degrees Fahrenheit (−30 °C). During the 1990s, a few railcar manufacturers experimented with the use of liquid carbon dioxide (CO₂) as a cooling agent. The move was in response to rising fuel costs, and was an attempt to eliminate the standard mechanical refrigeration systems that required periodic maintenance. The CO₂ system can keep the cargo frozen solid as long as 14 to 16 days. Several hundred "cryogenic" refrigerator cars were placed in service transporting frozen foodstuffs, though they failed to gain wide acceptance (due, in part, to the rising cost of liquid carbon dioxide). Because cryogenic refrigeration is a proven <P> energy associated with iceberg calving and capsize, when direct local measurements of the event are impractical due to the hazards of deploying instruments on or below ice mélange. Jakobshavn Isbræ, Greenland The Jakobshavn Isbræ, or Jakobshavn Glacier, has a large drainage basin and is one of Greenland’s largest and fastest-flowing outlet glaciers. Large calving produces a long floating ice tongue that rapidly melts in spring suggesting that the tongue is formed by a dense pack of calved icebergs and is an ice mélange. Through visual observations of Jakobshavn Isbræ’s proglacial ice mélange it can be determined that the mélange forms <P> several freeze-thaw-cycles. Frost damage can be prevented by the use of frost proof materials, i.e. a material which has sufficient closed pores, by which the volume increase caused by the freezing of water in capillary pores can be absorbed by the ice-free closed pores. <P> Amery Ice Shelf Calving In September 2019, a large iceberg known as D-28 calved from the ice shelf. It was 1,636 square kilometres (632 sq mi) in size (twice the size of New York City) and with an estimated weight of 315 billion tonnes. As of October 2019, it continues to be monitored due to the threat it could pose to shipping channels. An adjacent ice formation, nicknamed the "loose tooth", was originally predicted to calve from the ice sheet between 2010 and 2015. <P> to ice fish under very thick ice. In -40 °C weather, he discovered that the fish he caught froze almost instantly, and when thawed, tasted fresh. He recognized immediately that the frozen seafood sold in New York was of lower quality than the frozen fish of Labrador. He saw that this knowledge would be lucrative. His journals from this period, which meticulously record these observations, are held in the Archives and Special Collections at Amherst College. Conventional freezing methods of the time were commonly done at higher temperatures, thus the freezing occurred much more slowly, giving ice crystals more time to grow. <P> increasing the ice fraction in the storage tank. However a small crystal in the supercooled water or a nucleation cell on the surface may act as a seed for ice crystals and block the generator. <P> For Arctic sea ice virtually all of the growth occurs on the bottom of the ice. Melting occurs on both the top and the bottom of the ice. In the vast majority of cases all of the snow melts during the summer, typically in just a couple of weeks. The mass balance is a powerful concept since it is the great integrator of the heat budget. If there is a net increase of heat, then the ice will thin. A net cooling will result in thicker ice. Making direct measurements of the mass balance is simple. An array of stakes and <P> grow very rapidly at reduced temperatures. The process is less effective in food preservation than are thermal techniques, such as boiling, because pathogens are more likely to be able to survive cold temperatures rather than hot temperatures. One of the problems surrounding the use of freezing as a method of food preservation is the danger that pathogens deactivated (but not killed) by the process will once again become active when the frozen food thaws. Foods may be preserved for several months by freezing. Long-term frozen storage requires a constant temperature of −18 °C (0 °F) or less. Quality The speed of the freezing <P> do not grow when the temperature of the food is below −9.5 °C (15 °F), which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product. History Natural food freezing (using winter frosts) had been in use by populations in cold climates for centuries. In 1861 Thomas Sutcliffe Mort established at Darling Harbour in Sydney, Australia, the first freezing works in the world, which afterwards became the <P> has a direct impact on the size and the number of ice crystals formed within a food product's cells and extracellular space. Slow freezing leads to fewer but larger ice crystals while fast freezing leads to smaller but more numerous ice crystals. Large ice crystals can puncture the walls of the cells of the food product which will cause a degradation of the texture of the product as well as the loss of its natural juices during thawing. That is why there will be a qualitative difference observed between food products frozen by ventilated mechanical freezing, non-ventilated mechanical freezing or <P> cover, since older ice tends to be thicker and more resilient than younger ice. Sea ice rejects salt over time and becomes less salty resulting in a higher melting point. A simple two-stage approach classifies sea ice into first year and multiyear ice. First-year is ice that has not yet survived a summer melt season, while multi-year ice has survived at least one summer and can be several years old. See sea ice growth processes. Sea ice mass balance Sea ice mass balance is the balance of how much the ice grows in the winter and melts in the summer. <P> associated change in volume by displacing its environment against ambient pressure. The temperature at which the phase transition occurs is the melting point or the freezing point, according to context. By convention, the pressure is assumed to be 1 atm (101.325 kPa) unless otherwise specified. <P> Clarence Birdseye introduced "flash freezing" to the American public. Birdseye first became interested in food freezing during fur-trapping expeditions to Labrador in 1912 and 1916, where he saw the natives use natural freezing to preserve foods. The Icelandic Fisheries Commission was created in 1934 to initiate innovation in the industry, and encouraged fishermen to start quick-freezing their catch. Íshúsfélag Ísfirðinga, one of the first frozen fish companies, was formed in Ísafjörður, Iceland by a merger in 1937. More advanced attempts include food frozen for Eleanor Roosevelt on her trip to Russia. Other experiments, involving orange juice, ice cream and vegetables were <P> being frozen for 40,000 years. Played dramatically in that film, the same concept was used for comedic effect in the 1992 film Encino Man. In both films, the prehistoric individual was depicted as having been flash-frozen naturally, with no special preparation to permit survival of the freezing experience, and thawing with no apparent lasting damage to their physical or mental abilities. In Iceman, the scientists examining the caveman before his thaw speculate that something in his diet acted as a natural antifreeze to prevent cell crystallization. Suspended animation is used during space travel in the James Cameron films Aliens (1986) and <P> convection of colder water is not blocked by an expansion of water as it becomes colder near the freezing point. The oceans' cold water near the freezing point continues to sink. So creatures that live at the bottom of cold oceans like the Arctic Ocean generally live in water 4 °C colder than at the bottom of frozen-over fresh water lakes and rivers. As the surface of sea water begins to freeze (at −1.9 °C for salinity 3.5%) the ice that forms is essentially salt-free, with about the same density as freshwater ice. This ice floats on the surface, and the salt <P> dried in a furnace, leaving the component. The advantages of freeze-geleation over sintering are essentially cost-based. It doesn't require high pressure equipment or powerful furnaces (drying temperatures are only just above water's boiling point), yet it creates a useful product which takes the shape of the mold very accurately. History In terms of being simply a process by which powder can be made into a monolith, freeze casting could be as old as the earth. A material called laminar opaline silica or LOS is believed to be formed by the freeze casting of volcanic ash, some soils containing the required sols <P> is currently located in Woodbridge, Ontario (Toronto), Canada. Sunwell also has operating facilities in Osaka, Japan through Sunwell Japan Corporation. Products Many food products require different types of ice during the various stages of processing and storage, to optimize quality and freshness. Being able to vary the ice state is important because changing the state of the medium also changes its behavior and allows one to create ideal preservation conditions. A single Variable-State Ice System can deliver ice in a complete range of ice-states to suit any preservation requirement: ice fraction can be varied from very liquid ice, to a	question: Is there an upper limit to how frozen water can get? context: <P> expands as the temperature increases. Water near the boiling point is about 4% less dense than water at 4 °C (39 °F). The unusual density curve and lower density of ice than of water is vital to life—if water were most dense at the freezing point, then in winter the very cold water at the surface of lakes and other water bodies would sink, the lake could freeze from the bottom up, and all life in them would be killed. Furthermore, given that water is a good thermal insulator (due to its heat capacity), some frozen lakes might not completely thaw in summer. The <P> and viable seeds. The study demonstrated that tissue can survive ice preservation for tens of thousands of years. A 2016 outbreak of anthrax in the Yamal Peninsula is believed to be due to thawing permafrost. <P> cryogenic freezing with liquid nitrogen. Reaction According to a study, an American consumes on average 71 frozen foods a year, most of which are pre-cooked frozen meals. <P> minus 20 degrees Fahrenheit (−30 °C). During the 1990s, a few railcar manufacturers experimented with the use of liquid carbon dioxide (CO₂) as a cooling agent. The move was in response to rising fuel costs, and was an attempt to eliminate the standard mechanical refrigeration systems that required periodic maintenance. The CO₂ system can keep the cargo frozen solid as long as 14 to 16 days. Several hundred "cryogenic" refrigerator cars were placed in service transporting frozen foodstuffs, though they failed to gain wide acceptance (due, in part, to the rising cost of liquid carbon dioxide). Because cryogenic refrigeration is a proven <P> energy associated with iceberg calving and capsize, when direct local measurements of the event are impractical due to the hazards of deploying instruments on or below ice mélange. Jakobshavn Isbræ, Greenland The Jakobshavn Isbræ, or Jakobshavn Glacier, has a large drainage basin and is one of Greenland’s largest and fastest-flowing outlet glaciers. Large calving produces a long floating ice tongue that rapidly melts in spring suggesting that the tongue is formed by a dense pack of calved icebergs and is an ice mélange. Through visual observations of Jakobshavn Isbræ’s proglacial ice mélange it can be determined that the mélange forms <P> several freeze-thaw-cycles. Frost damage can be prevented by the use of frost proof materials, i.e. a material which has sufficient closed pores, by which the volume increase caused by the freezing of water in capillary pores can be absorbed by the ice-free closed pores. <P> Amery Ice Shelf Calving In September 2019, a large iceberg known as D-28 calved from the ice shelf. It was 1,636 square kilometres (632 sq mi) in size (twice the size of New York City) and with an estimated weight of 315 billion tonnes. As of October 2019, it continues to be monitored due to the threat it could pose to shipping channels. An adjacent ice formation, nicknamed the "loose tooth", was originally predicted to calve from the ice sheet between 2010 and 2015. <P> to ice fish under very thick ice. In -40 °C weather, he discovered that the fish he caught froze almost instantly, and when thawed, tasted fresh. He recognized immediately that the frozen seafood sold in New York was of lower quality than the frozen fish of Labrador. He saw that this knowledge would be lucrative. His journals from this period, which meticulously record these observations, are held in the Archives and Special Collections at Amherst College. Conventional freezing methods of the time were commonly done at higher temperatures, thus the freezing occurred much more slowly, giving ice crystals more time to grow. <P> increasing the ice fraction in the storage tank. However a small crystal in the supercooled water or a nucleation cell on the surface may act as a seed for ice crystals and block the generator. <P> For Arctic sea ice virtually all of the growth occurs on the bottom of the ice. Melting occurs on both the top and the bottom of the ice. In the vast majority of cases all of the snow melts during the summer, typically in just a couple of weeks. The mass balance is a powerful concept since it is the great integrator of the heat budget. If there is a net increase of heat, then the ice will thin. A net cooling will result in thicker ice. Making direct measurements of the mass balance is simple. An array of stakes and <P> grow very rapidly at reduced temperatures. The process is less effective in food preservation than are thermal techniques, such as boiling, because pathogens are more likely to be able to survive cold temperatures rather than hot temperatures. One of the problems surrounding the use of freezing as a method of food preservation is the danger that pathogens deactivated (but not killed) by the process will once again become active when the frozen food thaws. Foods may be preserved for several months by freezing. Long-term frozen storage requires a constant temperature of −18 °C (0 °F) or less. Quality The speed of the freezing <P> do not grow when the temperature of the food is below −9.5 °C (15 °F), which is sufficient on its own in preventing food spoilage. Long-term preservation of food may call for food storage at even lower temperatures. Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), a tasteless and odorless stabilizer, is typically added to frozen food because it does not adulterate the quality of the product. History Natural food freezing (using winter frosts) had been in use by populations in cold climates for centuries. In 1861 Thomas Sutcliffe Mort established at Darling Harbour in Sydney, Australia, the first freezing works in the world, which afterwards became the <P> has a direct impact on the size and the number of ice crystals formed within a food product's cells and extracellular space. Slow freezing leads to fewer but larger ice crystals while fast freezing leads to smaller but more numerous ice crystals. Large ice crystals can puncture the walls of the cells of the food product which will cause a degradation of the texture of the product as well as the loss of its natural juices during thawing. That is why there will be a qualitative difference observed between food products frozen by ventilated mechanical freezing, non-ventilated mechanical freezing or <P> cover, since older ice tends to be thicker and more resilient than younger ice. Sea ice rejects salt over time and becomes less salty resulting in a higher melting point. A simple two-stage approach classifies sea ice into first year and multiyear ice. First-year is ice that has not yet survived a summer melt season, while multi-year ice has survived at least one summer and can be several years old. See sea ice growth processes. Sea ice mass balance Sea ice mass balance is the balance of how much the ice grows in the winter and melts in the summer. <P> associated change in volume by displacing its environment against ambient pressure. The temperature at which the phase transition occurs is the melting point or the freezing point, according to context. By convention, the pressure is assumed to be 1 atm (101.325 kPa) unless otherwise specified. <P> Clarence Birdseye introduced "flash freezing" to the American public. Birdseye first became interested in food freezing during fur-trapping expeditions to Labrador in 1912 and 1916, where he saw the natives use natural freezing to preserve foods. The Icelandic Fisheries Commission was created in 1934 to initiate innovation in the industry, and encouraged fishermen to start quick-freezing their catch. Íshúsfélag Ísfirðinga, one of the first frozen fish companies, was formed in Ísafjörður, Iceland by a merger in 1937. More advanced attempts include food frozen for Eleanor Roosevelt on her trip to Russia. Other experiments, involving orange juice, ice cream and vegetables were <P> being frozen for 40,000 years. Played dramatically in that film, the same concept was used for comedic effect in the 1992 film Encino Man. In both films, the prehistoric individual was depicted as having been flash-frozen naturally, with no special preparation to permit survival of the freezing experience, and thawing with no apparent lasting damage to their physical or mental abilities. In Iceman, the scientists examining the caveman before his thaw speculate that something in his diet acted as a natural antifreeze to prevent cell crystallization. Suspended animation is used during space travel in the James Cameron films Aliens (1986) and <P> convection of colder water is not blocked by an expansion of water as it becomes colder near the freezing point. The oceans' cold water near the freezing point continues to sink. So creatures that live at the bottom of cold oceans like the Arctic Ocean generally live in water 4 °C colder than at the bottom of frozen-over fresh water lakes and rivers. As the surface of sea water begins to freeze (at −1.9 °C for salinity 3.5%) the ice that forms is essentially salt-free, with about the same density as freshwater ice. This ice floats on the surface, and the salt <P> dried in a furnace, leaving the component. The advantages of freeze-geleation over sintering are essentially cost-based. It doesn't require high pressure equipment or powerful furnaces (drying temperatures are only just above water's boiling point), yet it creates a useful product which takes the shape of the mold very accurately. History In terms of being simply a process by which powder can be made into a monolith, freeze casting could be as old as the earth. A material called laminar opaline silica or LOS is believed to be formed by the freeze casting of volcanic ash, some soils containing the required sols <P> is currently located in Woodbridge, Ontario (Toronto), Canada. Sunwell also has operating facilities in Osaka, Japan through Sunwell Japan Corporation. Products Many food products require different types of ice during the various stages of processing and storage, to optimize quality and freshness. Being able to vary the ice state is important because changing the state of the medium also changes its behavior and allows one to create ideal preservation conditions. A single Variable-State Ice System can deliver ice in a complete range of ice-states to suit any preservation requirement: ice fraction can be varied from very liquid ice, to a	answer: [There are many different kinds of ice at different temperatures and pressures](_URL_0_).
113,049	67md05	why do humans appreciate views?	Don't know the answer, but something that could aid our survival is traveling, finding new lands, fresh resources. Gives us more physical room to populate and diversify. I've read before that other humanoids may have died off because of their lack of exploration/diversity. Appreciating views could help this along. And being curious about the next view. What's over the next hill top, mountain range, valley, lake, ocean.	[ "Don't know the answer, but something that could aid our survival is traveling, finding new lands, fresh resources. Gives us more physical room to populate and diversify. I've read before that other humanoids may have died off because of their lack of exploration/diversity. \n\nAppreciating views could help this al...	3	[ "Don't know the answer, but something that could aid our survival is traveling, finding new lands, fresh resources. Gives us more physical room to populate and diversify. I've read before that other humanoids may have died off because of their lack of exploration/diversity. \n\nAppreciating views could help this al...	2	<P> groups. Other research has shown that merely given people the "illusion" that they are being observed (e.g., by hanging up posters of "staring" human eyes) can generate significant changes in pro-social acts such as charitable giving and less littering. Pictures of human eyes trigger an involuntary neural gaze detection mechanism, which primes people to act pro-socially. There are two different forms of prosocial behaviors. Ordinary prosocial behavior requires, "situational and sociocultural demands." Extraordinary prosocial behavior doesn't include as much. This indicates that one form is used for a more selfish result while the other is not. Influence of perception of <P> memories with what is being viewed. Other methods of stimulating initial interest that can lead to emotion involves pattern recognition. Symmetry is often found in works of art, and the human brain unconsciously searches for symmetry for a number of reasons. Potential predators were bilaterally symmetrical, as were potential prey. Bilateral symmetry also exists in humans, and a healthy human is typically relatively symmetrical. This attraction to symmetry was therefore advantageous, as it helped humans recognize danger, food, and mates. Art containing symmetry therefore is typically approached and positively valenced to humans. Another example is to observe paintings or photographs of bright, <P> representations have also been investigated. There also seems to be something about shape that can guide human attention. <P> of seeing human relationships to the environment." <P> created cognitive dissonance, which refers to a discrepancy between attitudes and behaviors. High-choice participants reconciled their thoughts and actions by perceiving the distance as shorter. These results show the ability of internal states to affect perception of physical distance moved, which illustrates the reciprocal relationship of the body and mind in embodied cognition. Perspective Researchers have found that when making judgements about objects in photographs, people will take the perspective of a person in the picture instead of their own. They showed college undergraduate participants 1 of 3 photographs and asked where 1 object in the picture was compared <P> not seem unduly far-fetched to see a parallel in Monet's seascapes". In this context may be placed Debussy's pantheistic eulogy to Nature, in a 1911 interview with Henry Malherbe: I have made mysterious Nature my religion ... When I gaze at a sunset sky and spend hours contemplating its marvellous ever-changing beauty, an extraordinary emotion overwhelms me. Nature in all its vastness is truthfully reflected in my sincere though feeble soul. Around me are the trees stretching up their branches to the skies, the perfumed flowers gladdening the meadow, the gentle grass-carpeted earth, ... and my hands unconsciously assume an attitude of adoration. In contrast <P> so that we can continue to grow. Surmounting a self-referred vision of our own experience obligates us to confront a regional, national, European and universal horizon. That is why a new vision, not fragmentary, is necessary. Unity doesn’t mean uniformity. A spiritual energy, stronger and more attentive to cultural elaboration, a more evident solidarity in order to be recognised as bearers of hope, to help the people and communities grow." <P> are cognitions about the world—subjective probabilities that an object has a particular attribute or that an action will lead to a particular outcome (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Beliefs can be patently and unequivocally false. For example, surveys show that a third of U.S. adults think that vaccines cause autism, despite the preponderance of scientific research to the contrary (Dixon et al., 2015). It was found that beliefs like these are tenaciously held and highly resistant to change. Another important factor that affects attitude is symbolic interactionism, these are rife with powerful symbols and charged with affect which can lead to <P> Social tuning Theoretical approaches Social tuning theory describes the process whereby people adopt another person's attitudes or opinions regarding a particular subject. This phenomenon is also termed "shared reality theory." The study of this occurrence began in 1902 when Charles Cooley coined the term "looking glass self", stating that people see themselves and their own social world through the eyes of others. Research further discovered that people create their self-images through their beliefs of how others perceive them. Many people adopt the views of those surrounding them in an effort to feel like they belong and feel liked. In <P> "We usually seek clarity in details while the entire picture may be blurred. To me life is not about clear moments but seeking clarity in life as a whole.” <P> near to good is what is fair.' So I would say: 'How near to good is what is wild.' Here is this vast, savage, hovering mother of ours, Nature, lying all around, with such beauty, and such affection for her children, as the leopard; and yet we are so early weaned from her breast to society, to that culture which is exclusively an interaction of man on man... So we saunter toward the Holy Land, till one day the sun shall shine more brightly than ever he has done, shall perchance shine into our minds and hearts, and light up our whole <P> open landscapes that often evoke a feeling of beauty, relaxation, or happiness. This connection to pleasant emotions exists because it was advantageous to humans before today's society to be able to see far into the distance in a brightly lit vista. Similarly, visual images that are dark and/or obscure typically elicit emotions of anxiety and fear. This is because an impeded visual field is disadvantageous for a human to be able to defend itself. Meta-Emotions The optimal visual artwork creates what Noy & Noy-Sharav call "meta-emotions." These are multiple emotions that are triggered at the same time. They posit that <P> two thousand years a reserve of energy has fed and supported us, and filled our lives, but during the last century a split has opened in this reserve, and its components have begun to disintegrate: God, perspective, colour, the Bible, shape, line, traditions, the so-called humanities, love, devotion, family, school, education, the prophets and Christ himself. Have I too, perhaps, doubted in my time? I painted pictures upside down, decapitated people and dissected them, scattering the pieces in the air, all in the name of another perspective, another kind of picture composition and another formalism. He was also at pains to <P> that encourages autonomy and encompasses equally every aspect of one's humanity, as modeled by the noble eight-fold path (right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness and concentration). Such an approach is open to generating a wide range of responses to specific individual and communal needs, rather than insisting on there being "one true way" to "enlightenment" valid for all times and places. <P> enlightenment. <P> this the habit which causes us to end up in the whirling game of pursuit, when bit by bit discovering the beauty of an object. Intricacy arises from the love of this pursuit. Every difficulty in understanding or grasping the object enhances the pleasure of overcoming it, to continue the pursuit. There is a direct connection here to the Line of Beauty Hogarth dictates, along which every image is built up. Though the movement of our eye is discrete in itself, the movement of our "Mind's eye" follows a duplicate course of the line, a principal ray of light moving <P> experiences could lead to improved well-being and better health outcomes in individuals;instead of getting caught up in daily stress and negativity, they will be better able to identify and cultivate the positive aspects of their lives. Controversies There has been some debate in the scientific community over whether elevation is a uniquely human trait. Primatologist Jane Goodall argues that other animals are capable of experiencing awe, elevation and wonder. Dr. Goodall is famous for her execution of the longest uninterrupted study of a group of animals. She lived among wild chimpanzees in Tanzania, observing them for 45 years. Several times, <P> that were favorable to higher return to agricultural investment in the Malthusian era triggered a process of selection, adaptation, and learning that increase the prevalence of long-term orientation among individuals in society. They further establish the variations in these agricultural characteristics across the globe are associated with contemporary differences in economic and human behavior such as technological adoption, education, saving, and smoking. Evolution of Loss Aversion Oded Galor and Viacheslav Savitskiy explore the evolutionary foundation of the phenomenon of loss aversion. They theorize and confirm empirically that the evolution of loss aversion reflects an evolutionary process in which humans have <P> Amidst shifting conditions, multiple viewpoints and contrasting terrain, visitors become aware of the subjective processes through which they engage with the external world, with rural buildings and places; how they move between external and internal spaces, and how they remember such journeys and places. <P> in the south of France. There, in the south, for the first time in my life, I saw that rich greenness—the like of which I had never seen in my own country. In Holland I thought I discovered that familiar and throbbing light, like the light between the late afternoon and dusk. In Italy I found that peace of the museums which the sunlight brought to life. In Spain I was happy to find the inspiration of a mystical, if sometimes cruel, past, to find the song of its sky and of its people. And in the East [Palestine] I	question: why do humans appreciate views? context: <P> groups. Other research has shown that merely given people the "illusion" that they are being observed (e.g., by hanging up posters of "staring" human eyes) can generate significant changes in pro-social acts such as charitable giving and less littering. Pictures of human eyes trigger an involuntary neural gaze detection mechanism, which primes people to act pro-socially. There are two different forms of prosocial behaviors. Ordinary prosocial behavior requires, "situational and sociocultural demands." Extraordinary prosocial behavior doesn't include as much. This indicates that one form is used for a more selfish result while the other is not. Influence of perception of <P> memories with what is being viewed. Other methods of stimulating initial interest that can lead to emotion involves pattern recognition. Symmetry is often found in works of art, and the human brain unconsciously searches for symmetry for a number of reasons. Potential predators were bilaterally symmetrical, as were potential prey. Bilateral symmetry also exists in humans, and a healthy human is typically relatively symmetrical. This attraction to symmetry was therefore advantageous, as it helped humans recognize danger, food, and mates. Art containing symmetry therefore is typically approached and positively valenced to humans. Another example is to observe paintings or photographs of bright, <P> representations have also been investigated. There also seems to be something about shape that can guide human attention. <P> of seeing human relationships to the environment." <P> created cognitive dissonance, which refers to a discrepancy between attitudes and behaviors. High-choice participants reconciled their thoughts and actions by perceiving the distance as shorter. These results show the ability of internal states to affect perception of physical distance moved, which illustrates the reciprocal relationship of the body and mind in embodied cognition. Perspective Researchers have found that when making judgements about objects in photographs, people will take the perspective of a person in the picture instead of their own. They showed college undergraduate participants 1 of 3 photographs and asked where 1 object in the picture was compared <P> not seem unduly far-fetched to see a parallel in Monet's seascapes". In this context may be placed Debussy's pantheistic eulogy to Nature, in a 1911 interview with Henry Malherbe: I have made mysterious Nature my religion ... When I gaze at a sunset sky and spend hours contemplating its marvellous ever-changing beauty, an extraordinary emotion overwhelms me. Nature in all its vastness is truthfully reflected in my sincere though feeble soul. Around me are the trees stretching up their branches to the skies, the perfumed flowers gladdening the meadow, the gentle grass-carpeted earth, ... and my hands unconsciously assume an attitude of adoration. In contrast <P> so that we can continue to grow. Surmounting a self-referred vision of our own experience obligates us to confront a regional, national, European and universal horizon. That is why a new vision, not fragmentary, is necessary. Unity doesn’t mean uniformity. A spiritual energy, stronger and more attentive to cultural elaboration, a more evident solidarity in order to be recognised as bearers of hope, to help the people and communities grow." <P> are cognitions about the world—subjective probabilities that an object has a particular attribute or that an action will lead to a particular outcome (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975). Beliefs can be patently and unequivocally false. For example, surveys show that a third of U.S. adults think that vaccines cause autism, despite the preponderance of scientific research to the contrary (Dixon et al., 2015). It was found that beliefs like these are tenaciously held and highly resistant to change. Another important factor that affects attitude is symbolic interactionism, these are rife with powerful symbols and charged with affect which can lead to <P> Social tuning Theoretical approaches Social tuning theory describes the process whereby people adopt another person's attitudes or opinions regarding a particular subject. This phenomenon is also termed "shared reality theory." The study of this occurrence began in 1902 when Charles Cooley coined the term "looking glass self", stating that people see themselves and their own social world through the eyes of others. Research further discovered that people create their self-images through their beliefs of how others perceive them. Many people adopt the views of those surrounding them in an effort to feel like they belong and feel liked. In <P> "We usually seek clarity in details while the entire picture may be blurred. To me life is not about clear moments but seeking clarity in life as a whole.” <P> near to good is what is fair.' So I would say: 'How near to good is what is wild.' Here is this vast, savage, hovering mother of ours, Nature, lying all around, with such beauty, and such affection for her children, as the leopard; and yet we are so early weaned from her breast to society, to that culture which is exclusively an interaction of man on man... So we saunter toward the Holy Land, till one day the sun shall shine more brightly than ever he has done, shall perchance shine into our minds and hearts, and light up our whole <P> open landscapes that often evoke a feeling of beauty, relaxation, or happiness. This connection to pleasant emotions exists because it was advantageous to humans before today's society to be able to see far into the distance in a brightly lit vista. Similarly, visual images that are dark and/or obscure typically elicit emotions of anxiety and fear. This is because an impeded visual field is disadvantageous for a human to be able to defend itself. Meta-Emotions The optimal visual artwork creates what Noy & Noy-Sharav call "meta-emotions." These are multiple emotions that are triggered at the same time. They posit that <P> two thousand years a reserve of energy has fed and supported us, and filled our lives, but during the last century a split has opened in this reserve, and its components have begun to disintegrate: God, perspective, colour, the Bible, shape, line, traditions, the so-called humanities, love, devotion, family, school, education, the prophets and Christ himself. Have I too, perhaps, doubted in my time? I painted pictures upside down, decapitated people and dissected them, scattering the pieces in the air, all in the name of another perspective, another kind of picture composition and another formalism. He was also at pains to <P> that encourages autonomy and encompasses equally every aspect of one's humanity, as modeled by the noble eight-fold path (right view, intention, speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness and concentration). Such an approach is open to generating a wide range of responses to specific individual and communal needs, rather than insisting on there being "one true way" to "enlightenment" valid for all times and places. <P> enlightenment. <P> this the habit which causes us to end up in the whirling game of pursuit, when bit by bit discovering the beauty of an object. Intricacy arises from the love of this pursuit. Every difficulty in understanding or grasping the object enhances the pleasure of overcoming it, to continue the pursuit. There is a direct connection here to the Line of Beauty Hogarth dictates, along which every image is built up. Though the movement of our eye is discrete in itself, the movement of our "Mind's eye" follows a duplicate course of the line, a principal ray of light moving <P> experiences could lead to improved well-being and better health outcomes in individuals;instead of getting caught up in daily stress and negativity, they will be better able to identify and cultivate the positive aspects of their lives. Controversies There has been some debate in the scientific community over whether elevation is a uniquely human trait. Primatologist Jane Goodall argues that other animals are capable of experiencing awe, elevation and wonder. Dr. Goodall is famous for her execution of the longest uninterrupted study of a group of animals. She lived among wild chimpanzees in Tanzania, observing them for 45 years. Several times, <P> that were favorable to higher return to agricultural investment in the Malthusian era triggered a process of selection, adaptation, and learning that increase the prevalence of long-term orientation among individuals in society. They further establish the variations in these agricultural characteristics across the globe are associated with contemporary differences in economic and human behavior such as technological adoption, education, saving, and smoking. Evolution of Loss Aversion Oded Galor and Viacheslav Savitskiy explore the evolutionary foundation of the phenomenon of loss aversion. They theorize and confirm empirically that the evolution of loss aversion reflects an evolutionary process in which humans have <P> Amidst shifting conditions, multiple viewpoints and contrasting terrain, visitors become aware of the subjective processes through which they engage with the external world, with rural buildings and places; how they move between external and internal spaces, and how they remember such journeys and places. <P> in the south of France. There, in the south, for the first time in my life, I saw that rich greenness—the like of which I had never seen in my own country. In Holland I thought I discovered that familiar and throbbing light, like the light between the late afternoon and dusk. In Italy I found that peace of the museums which the sunlight brought to life. In Spain I was happy to find the inspiration of a mystical, if sometimes cruel, past, to find the song of its sky and of its people. And in the East [Palestine] I	answer: Don't know the answer, but something that could aid our survival is traveling, finding new lands, fresh resources. Gives us more physical room to populate and diversify. I've read before that other humanoids may have died off because of their lack of exploration/diversity. Appreciating views could help this along. And being curious about the next view. What's over the next hill top, mountain range, valley, lake, ocean.
146,458	1yn4zg	why does meat bleed after it has been cooked and taken off the heat?	The red liquid that leaks out of meat is not blood, it's water and myoglobin, which is a protein that stores oxygen in muscle cells. Cooking ruptures the cells in the meat, releasing the liquid. Most of the blood in an animal is drained out of it immediately after slaughter.	[ "The red liquid that leaks out of meat is not blood, it's water and myoglobin, which is a protein that stores oxygen in muscle cells. Cooking ruptures the cells in the meat, releasing the liquid. Most of the blood in an animal is drained out of it immediately after slaughter. " ]	1	[ "The red liquid that leaks out of meat is not blood, it's water and myoglobin, which is a protein that stores oxygen in muscle cells. Cooking ruptures the cells in the meat, releasing the liquid. Most of the blood in an animal is drained out of it immediately after slaughter. " ]	1	<P> to prevent pre-slaughter stress in the animal. Over time, the muscle proteins denature in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and elastin of connective tissue, and rigor mortis resolves. Because of these changes, the meat is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of rigor, but tough when cooked during rigor. As the muscle pigment myoglobin denatures, its iron oxidates, which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat. Ongoing proteolysis also contributes to conditioning. Hypoxanthine, a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to the meat's flavor and odor, as do other <P> glycolysis continues until the accumulation of lactic acid causes the pH to reach about 5.5. The remaining glycogen, about 18 g per kg, is believed to increase the water-holding capacity and tenderness of the flesh when cooked. Rigor mortis sets in a few hours after death as ATP is used up, causing actin and myosin to combine into rigid actomyosin and lowering the meat's water-holding capacity, causing it to lose water ("weep"). In muscles that enter rigor in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that is tough on cooking – hence again the need <P> amino-dimethylimidazo-quinoxaline (DiMelQx), and amino-methyl-phenylimidazo-pyridine (PhIP), which are mostly formed when meat is cooked at high temperatures. Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) is another compound found in meat cooked at extremely high temperatures. Likely because of these factors, marinating fresh lean red meat and thoroughly cooking it at a low temperature will reduce the production of carcinogenic compounds and thereby lower the risk of colorectal cancer. <P> skin is not bruised because this can lead to major rot issues. <P> and later consumption, possibly after further preparation. Fresh meat cuts or processed cuts may produce iridescence, commonly thought to be due to spoilage but actually caused by structural coloration and diffraction of the light. A common additive to processed meats, both for preservation and because it prevents discoloring, is sodium nitrite, which, however, is also a source of health concerns, because it may form carcinogenic nitrosamines when heated. Meat is prepared in many ways, as steaks, in stews, fondue, or as dried meat like beef jerky. It may be ground then formed into patties (as hamburgers or croquettes), loaves, or sausages, <P> If it's too dry, the meat is ruined. It needs to be damp but cool. The summer is too hot. In the winter—that's when you make salumi. Your prosciutto. Your soppressata. Your sausages. Today, the ham is first cleaned, salted, and left for about two months. During this time, the ham is pressed, gradually and carefully so as to avoid breaking the bone, to drain all blood left in the meat. Next, it is washed several times to remove the salt, and is hung in a dark, well-ventilated environment. The surrounding air is important to the final quality of the ham; <P> wild mugwort which gives the lamb a distinctive character. Preparation After having slaughtered and dismembered the young lamb, all the organs of the stomach cavity are removed, with the exception of the kidneys. This cavity is stitched after being sprinkled with spices, particularly ras el hanout. The lamb is skewered on a tree branch and cooked next to a pile of embers. The spindle is rotated slowly and evenly so as to ensure evenly distributed cooking. The prepared lamb is not placed directly above the embers, for the melting fat could ignite and char the outer flesh. The cooking <P> Elenski but Preparation The legs and quarters of the pig, traditionally singed and scraped, are taken from the body. Later the redundant parts are removed, so that the remaining meat is protected by hide or the skin that surrounds the muscle tissue. After the legs are shaped, they are well salted and put at the bottom of a postav, a special type of barrel designed for the occasion. The delicacy traditionally remains in salt for 40 days, then is taken out and left to dry. Preservation technologies There are various preservation technologies used to prepare elenski but these typically vary <P> in fire regimes, and the species occurs only when it has remained unburnt for many decades. <P> when they meet in the middle. In healing that results in a scar, sweat glands, hair follicles and nerves do not form. With the lack of hair follicles, nerves and sweat glands, the wound, and the resulting healing scar, provide a challenge to the body with regards to temperature control. Keratinocytes migrate without first proliferating. Migration can begin as early as a few hours after wounding. However, epithelial cells require viable tissue to migrate across, so if the wound is deep it must first be filled with granulation tissue. Thus the time of onset of migration is variable and may occur <P> hot iron. If the PU coating has decayed, it can be replaced. <P> about one day after wounding. Cells on the wound margins proliferate on the second and third day post-wounding in order to provide more cells for migration. If the basement membrane is not breached, epithelial cells are replaced within three days by division and upward migration of cells in the stratum basale in the same fashion that occurs in uninjured skin. However, if the basement membrane is ruined at the wound site, reepithelization must occur from the wound margins and from skin appendages such as hair follicles and sweat and oil glands that enter the dermis that are lined with viable keratinocytes. <P> meters deep. Wood is stacked in this cavity and burns for five or six hours. When the earth surrounding the hole is smoking and the wood is transformed into embers and ashes, most of it is removed to avoid flare-ups. The prepared lamb is added to the oven vertically and enclosed with a lid covered with clay, mud, or wet sand, sealing the lid as well as possible. Cooking lasts four to five hours. When the lamb is done, the hardened cover is broken to remove the lamb from the oven. Serving Traditionally, méchoui is served with cumin and salt, <P> of the epidermis hence they are not shed separately, but are ejected as a complete contiguous outer layer of skin during each moult, akin to a sock being turned inside out. Moulting is repeated periodically throughout a snake's life. Before a moult, the snake stops eating and often hides or moves to a safe place. Just prior to shedding, the skin becomes dull and dry looking and the eyes become cloudy or blue-colored. The old skin breaks near the mouth and the snake wriggles out, aided by rubbing against rough surfaces. In many cases the cast skin peels backward over <P> release more and more pectolytic enzymes that degrade and break down cell walls. And, because of the high turgor pressure within the cells, this maceration effectively causes the cells to explode and die providing more food for the bacteria. As they gorge on intracellular fluid, the bacteria continue to multiply and move into the intercellular spaces, with their cell-wall-degrading enzymes ahead of them preparing the plant tissues for digestion. Often the epidermis is left unscathed, keeping the rotten flesh contained within until a crack allows the ooze to leak out and infect others around it. When the plant organs are harvested and <P> and other circumstances of livestock transports. Slaughter Animals are usually slaughtered by being first stunned and then exsanguinated (bled out). Death results from the one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed. Stunning can be effected through asphyxiating the animals with carbon dioxide, shooting them with a gun or a captive bolt pistol, or shocking them with electric current. In most forms of ritual slaughter, stunning is not allowed. Draining as much blood as possible from the carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms. The exsanguination <P> that odor of cow's urine and dung has tremendous healing properties. <P> (grape vinegar is traditional but balsamic and cider also work very well) for a few hours, then the vinegar is poured off before the meat is flavoured with salt and spices. The spice mix is sprinkled liberally over the meat and rubbed in. Saltpetre is optional and can be added as an extra preservative (necessary only for wet biltong that is not going to be frozen). The meat should then be left for a further few hours (or refrigerated overnight) and any excess liquid poured off before the meat is hung in the dryer. Other recipes, which were handed down <P> meat extender. <P> cell wall, which allows the cell volume to increase by turgor and osmosis. A typical sequence leading up to this would involve the introduction of a plant hormone (auxin, for example) that causes protons (H⁺ ions) to be pumped out of the cell into the cell wall. As a result, the cell wall solution becomes more acidic. It was suggested by different scientist that the epidermis is a unique target of the auxin but this theory has been disapproved over time. This activates expansin activity, causing the wall to become more extensible and to undergo wall stress relaxation, which enables	question: why does meat bleed after it has been cooked and taken off the heat? context: <P> to prevent pre-slaughter stress in the animal. Over time, the muscle proteins denature in varying degree, with the exception of the collagen and elastin of connective tissue, and rigor mortis resolves. Because of these changes, the meat is tender and pliable when cooked just after death or after the resolution of rigor, but tough when cooked during rigor. As the muscle pigment myoglobin denatures, its iron oxidates, which may cause a brown discoloration near the surface of the meat. Ongoing proteolysis also contributes to conditioning. Hypoxanthine, a breakdown product of ATP, contributes to the meat's flavor and odor, as do other <P> glycolysis continues until the accumulation of lactic acid causes the pH to reach about 5.5. The remaining glycogen, about 18 g per kg, is believed to increase the water-holding capacity and tenderness of the flesh when cooked. Rigor mortis sets in a few hours after death as ATP is used up, causing actin and myosin to combine into rigid actomyosin and lowering the meat's water-holding capacity, causing it to lose water ("weep"). In muscles that enter rigor in a contracted position, actin and myosin filaments overlap and cross-bond, resulting in meat that is tough on cooking – hence again the need <P> amino-dimethylimidazo-quinoxaline (DiMelQx), and amino-methyl-phenylimidazo-pyridine (PhIP), which are mostly formed when meat is cooked at high temperatures. Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) is another compound found in meat cooked at extremely high temperatures. Likely because of these factors, marinating fresh lean red meat and thoroughly cooking it at a low temperature will reduce the production of carcinogenic compounds and thereby lower the risk of colorectal cancer. <P> skin is not bruised because this can lead to major rot issues. <P> and later consumption, possibly after further preparation. Fresh meat cuts or processed cuts may produce iridescence, commonly thought to be due to spoilage but actually caused by structural coloration and diffraction of the light. A common additive to processed meats, both for preservation and because it prevents discoloring, is sodium nitrite, which, however, is also a source of health concerns, because it may form carcinogenic nitrosamines when heated. Meat is prepared in many ways, as steaks, in stews, fondue, or as dried meat like beef jerky. It may be ground then formed into patties (as hamburgers or croquettes), loaves, or sausages, <P> If it's too dry, the meat is ruined. It needs to be damp but cool. The summer is too hot. In the winter—that's when you make salumi. Your prosciutto. Your soppressata. Your sausages. Today, the ham is first cleaned, salted, and left for about two months. During this time, the ham is pressed, gradually and carefully so as to avoid breaking the bone, to drain all blood left in the meat. Next, it is washed several times to remove the salt, and is hung in a dark, well-ventilated environment. The surrounding air is important to the final quality of the ham; <P> wild mugwort which gives the lamb a distinctive character. Preparation After having slaughtered and dismembered the young lamb, all the organs of the stomach cavity are removed, with the exception of the kidneys. This cavity is stitched after being sprinkled with spices, particularly ras el hanout. The lamb is skewered on a tree branch and cooked next to a pile of embers. The spindle is rotated slowly and evenly so as to ensure evenly distributed cooking. The prepared lamb is not placed directly above the embers, for the melting fat could ignite and char the outer flesh. The cooking <P> Elenski but Preparation The legs and quarters of the pig, traditionally singed and scraped, are taken from the body. Later the redundant parts are removed, so that the remaining meat is protected by hide or the skin that surrounds the muscle tissue. After the legs are shaped, they are well salted and put at the bottom of a postav, a special type of barrel designed for the occasion. The delicacy traditionally remains in salt for 40 days, then is taken out and left to dry. Preservation technologies There are various preservation technologies used to prepare elenski but these typically vary <P> in fire regimes, and the species occurs only when it has remained unburnt for many decades. <P> when they meet in the middle. In healing that results in a scar, sweat glands, hair follicles and nerves do not form. With the lack of hair follicles, nerves and sweat glands, the wound, and the resulting healing scar, provide a challenge to the body with regards to temperature control. Keratinocytes migrate without first proliferating. Migration can begin as early as a few hours after wounding. However, epithelial cells require viable tissue to migrate across, so if the wound is deep it must first be filled with granulation tissue. Thus the time of onset of migration is variable and may occur <P> hot iron. If the PU coating has decayed, it can be replaced. <P> about one day after wounding. Cells on the wound margins proliferate on the second and third day post-wounding in order to provide more cells for migration. If the basement membrane is not breached, epithelial cells are replaced within three days by division and upward migration of cells in the stratum basale in the same fashion that occurs in uninjured skin. However, if the basement membrane is ruined at the wound site, reepithelization must occur from the wound margins and from skin appendages such as hair follicles and sweat and oil glands that enter the dermis that are lined with viable keratinocytes. <P> meters deep. Wood is stacked in this cavity and burns for five or six hours. When the earth surrounding the hole is smoking and the wood is transformed into embers and ashes, most of it is removed to avoid flare-ups. The prepared lamb is added to the oven vertically and enclosed with a lid covered with clay, mud, or wet sand, sealing the lid as well as possible. Cooking lasts four to five hours. When the lamb is done, the hardened cover is broken to remove the lamb from the oven. Serving Traditionally, méchoui is served with cumin and salt, <P> of the epidermis hence they are not shed separately, but are ejected as a complete contiguous outer layer of skin during each moult, akin to a sock being turned inside out. Moulting is repeated periodically throughout a snake's life. Before a moult, the snake stops eating and often hides or moves to a safe place. Just prior to shedding, the skin becomes dull and dry looking and the eyes become cloudy or blue-colored. The old skin breaks near the mouth and the snake wriggles out, aided by rubbing against rough surfaces. In many cases the cast skin peels backward over <P> release more and more pectolytic enzymes that degrade and break down cell walls. And, because of the high turgor pressure within the cells, this maceration effectively causes the cells to explode and die providing more food for the bacteria. As they gorge on intracellular fluid, the bacteria continue to multiply and move into the intercellular spaces, with their cell-wall-degrading enzymes ahead of them preparing the plant tissues for digestion. Often the epidermis is left unscathed, keeping the rotten flesh contained within until a crack allows the ooze to leak out and infect others around it. When the plant organs are harvested and <P> and other circumstances of livestock transports. Slaughter Animals are usually slaughtered by being first stunned and then exsanguinated (bled out). Death results from the one or the other procedure, depending on the methods employed. Stunning can be effected through asphyxiating the animals with carbon dioxide, shooting them with a gun or a captive bolt pistol, or shocking them with electric current. In most forms of ritual slaughter, stunning is not allowed. Draining as much blood as possible from the carcass is necessary because blood causes the meat to have an unappealing appearance and is a breeding ground for microorganisms. The exsanguination <P> that odor of cow's urine and dung has tremendous healing properties. <P> (grape vinegar is traditional but balsamic and cider also work very well) for a few hours, then the vinegar is poured off before the meat is flavoured with salt and spices. The spice mix is sprinkled liberally over the meat and rubbed in. Saltpetre is optional and can be added as an extra preservative (necessary only for wet biltong that is not going to be frozen). The meat should then be left for a further few hours (or refrigerated overnight) and any excess liquid poured off before the meat is hung in the dryer. Other recipes, which were handed down <P> meat extender. <P> cell wall, which allows the cell volume to increase by turgor and osmosis. A typical sequence leading up to this would involve the introduction of a plant hormone (auxin, for example) that causes protons (H⁺ ions) to be pumped out of the cell into the cell wall. As a result, the cell wall solution becomes more acidic. It was suggested by different scientist that the epidermis is a unique target of the auxin but this theory has been disapproved over time. This activates expansin activity, causing the wall to become more extensible and to undergo wall stress relaxation, which enables	answer: The red liquid that leaks out of meat is not blood, it's water and myoglobin, which is a protein that stores oxygen in muscle cells. Cooking ruptures the cells in the meat, releasing the liquid. Most of the blood in an animal is drained out of it immediately after slaughter.
203,377	3ugsbp	Will antihydrogen still annihilate in a collision with bigger, more complicated molecules?	If antiprotons didn't annihilate with the protons in normal matter, we could easily bottle up the antiprotons.The antiprotons and positrons will annihilate the electrons and the protons in the elements. And the energy from the proton antiproton annihilation will probably fragment the nucleus._URL_0_ _URL_1_	[ "If antiprotons didn't annihilate with the protons in normal matter, we could easily bottle up the antiprotons.\n\nThe antiprotons and positrons will annihilate the electrons and the protons in the elements. And the energy from the proton antiproton annihilation will probably fragment the nucleus.\n\n_URL_0_ \n\n...	2	[ "If antiprotons didn't annihilate with the protons in normal matter, we could easily bottle up the antiprotons.\n\nThe antiprotons and positrons will annihilate the electrons and the protons in the elements. And the energy from the proton antiproton annihilation will probably fragment the nucleus.\n\n_URL_0_ \n\n...	1	<P> of hydrocarbons However, even for superacidic solutions, protons in the condensed phase are far from being unbound. For instance, in fluoroantimonic acid, they are bound to one or more molecules of hydrogen fluoride. Though hydrogen fluoride is normally regarded as an exceptionally weak proton acceptor (though a somewhat better one than the SbF₆– anion), dissociation of its protonated form, the fluoronium ion H₂F⁺ to HF and the truly naked H⁺ is still a highly endothermic process (ΔG° = +113 kcal/mol), and imagining the proton in the condensed phase as being "naked" or "unbound", like charged particles in <P> is involved. Electron-rich fulvenes react well with electron-poor dienes, and vice versa. Yields of transition-metal-mediated cycloadditions show a relatively weak dependence on the electronic nature of the substrates and yields are generally high. Substituted tropones can be problematic substrates for [6+4] cycloadditions. One method addressing this problem is the intramolecular [6+4], which employs tethered dienes. In addition, this method has the potential to generate complex, polycyclic frameworks. Unsubstituted fulvenes usually only react with electron-rich dienes in the [6+4] mode; however, substituting the fulvene with an electron-donating group in the 6 position facilitates reaction with electron-poor dienes via the fulvene NHOMO. Cheletropic extrusion <P> effort to further define the potential of Gephyronic acid as a chemotherapeutic lead. Screening of a library of compounds derived from myxobacteria found that Gephyronic acid was the strongest inhibitor of processing bodies (P-bodies) assembly. P-bodies are discrete cytoplasmic mRNP granules that contain non-translating mRNA and protein from the mRNA decay pathway and from miRNA silencing machinery. Within P-bodies, mRNAs can be degraded, but components of P-bodies can rapidly cycle in and out to return to translation. The mechanism of P-body assembly inhibition by Gephyronic acid has not been characterized, but initial studies suggest that the mode of action could be <P> by the camphor moiety. The reaction employs a phosphazene base to promote formation of the ylide. Catalytic reagents Catalytic reagents have been less successful, with most variations suffering from poor yield, poor enantioselectivity, or both. There are also issues with substrate scope, most having limitations with methylene transfer and aliphatic aldehydes. The trouble stems from the need for a nucleophilic sulfide that efficiently generates the ylide which can also act as a good leaving group to form the epoxide. Since the factors underlying these desiderata are at odds, tuning of the catalyst properties has proven difficult. Shown below are several <P> of products even when forced through a boat transition state, when perturbed with substituent effects, or put in competition with alternative rearrangements. Also significant is the relative ease of production of the reactants, which uses a Diels-Alder reaction paired with relatively simple workup steps, allowing for syntheses using complex cycling. Other methods of overcoming this thermodynamic barrier include pairing it with cyclopropane ring strain release, which allows the reaction to proceed at much lower temperatures. <P> opposed to antimatter or antihydrogen). Work has been performed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory on antiproton-initiated fusion as early as 2004. In contrast to the large mass, complexity and recirculating power of conventional drivers for inertial confinement fusion (ICF), antiproton annihilation offers a specific energy of 90 MJ per µg and thus a unique form of energy packaging and delivery. In principle, antiproton drivers could provide a profound reduction in system mass for advanced space propulsion by ICF. Antiproton-driven ICF is a speculative concept, and the handling of antiprotons and their required injection precision—temporally and spatially—will present significant technical challenges. The <P> Bioremediation Aerobic Aerobic bioremediation is the most common form of oxidative bioremediation process where oxygen is provided as the electron acceptor for oxidation of petroleum, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phenols, and other reduced pollutants. Oxygen is generally the preferred electron acceptor because of the higher energy yield and because oxygen is required for some enzyme systems to initiate the degradation process. Numerous laboratory and field studies have shown that microorganisms can degrade a wide variety of hydrocarbons, including components of gasoline, kerosene, diesel, and jet fuel. Under ideal conditions, the biodegradation rates of the low- to moderate-weight aliphatic, alicyclic, and <P> Differences of constitution are explained by quantum mechanics, which postulates discontinuity of physical processes. For a detectable distinction, some means should be physically available. One theoretical means would be through an ideal semi-permeable membrane. It should allow passage, backwards and forwards, of one species, while passage of the other is prevented entirely. The entirety of prevention should include perfect efficacy over a practically infinite time, in view of the nature of thermodynamic equilibrium. Even the slightest departure from ideality, as assessed over a finite time, would extend to utter non-ideality, as assessed over a practically infinite time. Such quantum phenomena as <P> although the exact limitations are not yet known, there have been a few examples. One such instance was when the oil conglomerate Roxxon discovered that a small island in the South Atlantic had a foundation composed of vibranium. Due to this, Roxxon found it necessary to destroy the island and so blew it up with bombs. Unable to absorb the force of the explosions, the vibranium was destroyed, but it did succeed in entirely absorbing the sound made by the explosion, preventing damage to the surrounding area. This variety of vibranium is a powerful mutagen. Vibranium exposure led to the mutation <P> radicals. In living organisms, which are composed mostly of water, majority of the damage is caused by the reactive oxygen species, free radicals produced from water. The free radicals attack the biomolecules forming structures within the cells, causing oxidative stress (a cumulative damage which may be significant enough to cause the cell death, or may cause DNA damage possibly leading to cancer). In cooling systems of nuclear reactors, the formation of free oxygen would promote corrosion and is counteracted by addition of hydrogen to the cooling water. The hydrogen is not consumed as for each molecule reacting with oxygen one molecule <P> was not dominant. Stability One of the key factors associated with the toxicity of CYN is its stability. Although the toxin has been found to degrade rapidly in an algal extract when exposed to sunlight, it is resistant to degradation by changes in pH and temperature, and shows no degradation in either the pure solid form or in pure water. As a result, in turbid and unmoving water the toxin can persist for long periods, and although boiling water will kill the cyanobacteria, it may not remove the toxin. Toxic effects Hawkins et al.. demonstrated the toxic effects of CYN <P> and may, or may not express the true number of phases within a given composition. Apparently clear single phase formulations can still consist of multiple iso-tropic phases (e.g. the apparently clear heptane/AOT/water microemulsions consist multiple phases). Since these systems can be in equilibrium with other phases, many systems, especially those with high volume fractions of both the two imiscible phases, can be easily destabilised by anything that changes this equilibrium e.g. high or low temperature or addition of surface tension modifying agents. However, examples of relatively stable microemulsions can be found. It is believed that the mechanism for removing acid build <P> Peracetic acid Peracetic acid (0.2%) is a recognized sterilant by the FDA for use in sterilizing medical devices such as endoscopes. Potential for chemical sterilization of prions Prions are highly resistant to chemical sterilization. Treatment with aldehydes, such as formaldehyde, have actually been shown to increase prion resistance. Hydrogen peroxide (3%) for one hour was shown to be ineffective, providing less than 3 logs (10⁻³) reduction in contamination. Iodine, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, and peracetic acid also fail this test (one hour treatment). Only chlorine, phenolic compounds, guanidinium thiocyanate, and sodium hydroxide reduce prion levels by more than 4 logs; chlorine (too <P> derived from aldehydes are not stable. This prevents the formation of 2,5-disubstituted pyrroles (where R=H) using this method. Modern Uses While the pyrroles produced by the Piloty-Robinson Synthesis are often very useful, the reaction itself is not always favorable because it requires high temperatures and long reaction times in addition to the problems mentioned above, the yield is often low or moderate. Modern methods have alleviated some of these concerns. Microwave Irradiation Microwave radiation decreases the time necessary for the reaction from around 3 days to 30-60 min. It can also affect the yield. Solid-Supported Solid-supported syntheses offer an easier <P> was able to couple nitrate reduction to phosphate uptake, while the genomically characterised CAP IIA could not. <P> to potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃). Because of this, alkaline fuel cells typically operate on pure oxygen, or at least purified air and would incorporate a 'scrubber' into the design to clean out as much of the carbon dioxide as is possible. Because the generation and storage requirements of oxygen make pure-oxygen AFCs expensive, there are few companies engaged in active development of the technology. There is, however, some debate in the research community over whether the poisoning is permanent or reversible. The main mechanisms of poisoning are blocking of the pores in the cathode with K₂CO₃, which is not reversible, and <P> the mother liquors are returned, yields of more than 90% are achieved. Problematic, particularly in the case of a continuous process, is the tendency of NTAN to precipitate at temperatures below 90 °C which can lead to clogging of tube reactors and conduits and thermal runaway of the reaction. Properties Nitrilotriacetonitrile is a colorless and odorless solid which dissolves hardly in water but dissolves well in nitromethane and acetone. Use Nitrilotriacetonitrile can be homopolymerized or copolymerized with iminodiacetonitrile in the melt in the presence of basic catalysts such as sodium methoxide to form dark-colored solid polymers which can be carbonized to form <P> can be applied in water and can virtually oxidize any compound present in the water matrix, often at a diffusion controlled reaction speed. Consequently, ·OH reacts unselectively once formed and contaminants will be quickly and efficiently fragmented and converted into small inorganic molecules. Hydroxyl radicals are produced with the help of one or more primary oxidants (e.g. ozone, hydrogen peroxide, oxygen) and/or energy sources (e.g. ultraviolet light) or catalysts (e.g. titanium dioxide). Precise, pre-programmed dosages, sequences and combinations of these reagents are applied in order to obtain a maximum •OH yield. In general, when applied in properly tuned conditions, AOPs <P> not see it as paradoxical. Distinguishability of two materials is a constitutive, not a thermodynamic, difference, for the laws of thermodynamics are the same for every material, while their constitutive characteristics are diverse. Though one might imagine a continuous decrease of the constitutive difference between any two chemical substances, physically it cannot be continuously decreased till it actually vanishes. It is hard to think of a smaller difference than that between ortho- and para-hydrogen. Yet they differ by a finite amount. The hypothesis, that the distinction might tend continuously to zero, is unphysical. This is neither examined nor explained by thermodynamics. <P> system such as composition of fluid and monazite, making this reaction no longer reactive. Implications for monazite geochronology Since the diffusion of reactants between dissolving phase and precipitating phase is slow, the fluid is essential to provide an easy transport for the reactants. Yet as reaction proceeds, dissolving phase and the fluid are separated by the solid precipitating phase, blocking the transport of reactants. Therefore, there must be some inter-connected porosity in the precipitating phase, which allows the fluid to infiltrate and fuel the reaction front. Most other geochronometers usually have a much lower closure temperature. Once they are subject to	question: Will antihydrogen still annihilate in a collision with bigger, more complicated molecules? context: <P> of hydrocarbons However, even for superacidic solutions, protons in the condensed phase are far from being unbound. For instance, in fluoroantimonic acid, they are bound to one or more molecules of hydrogen fluoride. Though hydrogen fluoride is normally regarded as an exceptionally weak proton acceptor (though a somewhat better one than the SbF₆– anion), dissociation of its protonated form, the fluoronium ion H₂F⁺ to HF and the truly naked H⁺ is still a highly endothermic process (ΔG° = +113 kcal/mol), and imagining the proton in the condensed phase as being "naked" or "unbound", like charged particles in <P> is involved. Electron-rich fulvenes react well with electron-poor dienes, and vice versa. Yields of transition-metal-mediated cycloadditions show a relatively weak dependence on the electronic nature of the substrates and yields are generally high. Substituted tropones can be problematic substrates for [6+4] cycloadditions. One method addressing this problem is the intramolecular [6+4], which employs tethered dienes. In addition, this method has the potential to generate complex, polycyclic frameworks. Unsubstituted fulvenes usually only react with electron-rich dienes in the [6+4] mode; however, substituting the fulvene with an electron-donating group in the 6 position facilitates reaction with electron-poor dienes via the fulvene NHOMO. Cheletropic extrusion <P> effort to further define the potential of Gephyronic acid as a chemotherapeutic lead. Screening of a library of compounds derived from myxobacteria found that Gephyronic acid was the strongest inhibitor of processing bodies (P-bodies) assembly. P-bodies are discrete cytoplasmic mRNP granules that contain non-translating mRNA and protein from the mRNA decay pathway and from miRNA silencing machinery. Within P-bodies, mRNAs can be degraded, but components of P-bodies can rapidly cycle in and out to return to translation. The mechanism of P-body assembly inhibition by Gephyronic acid has not been characterized, but initial studies suggest that the mode of action could be <P> by the camphor moiety. The reaction employs a phosphazene base to promote formation of the ylide. Catalytic reagents Catalytic reagents have been less successful, with most variations suffering from poor yield, poor enantioselectivity, or both. There are also issues with substrate scope, most having limitations with methylene transfer and aliphatic aldehydes. The trouble stems from the need for a nucleophilic sulfide that efficiently generates the ylide which can also act as a good leaving group to form the epoxide. Since the factors underlying these desiderata are at odds, tuning of the catalyst properties has proven difficult. Shown below are several <P> of products even when forced through a boat transition state, when perturbed with substituent effects, or put in competition with alternative rearrangements. Also significant is the relative ease of production of the reactants, which uses a Diels-Alder reaction paired with relatively simple workup steps, allowing for syntheses using complex cycling. Other methods of overcoming this thermodynamic barrier include pairing it with cyclopropane ring strain release, which allows the reaction to proceed at much lower temperatures. <P> opposed to antimatter or antihydrogen). Work has been performed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory on antiproton-initiated fusion as early as 2004. In contrast to the large mass, complexity and recirculating power of conventional drivers for inertial confinement fusion (ICF), antiproton annihilation offers a specific energy of 90 MJ per µg and thus a unique form of energy packaging and delivery. In principle, antiproton drivers could provide a profound reduction in system mass for advanced space propulsion by ICF. Antiproton-driven ICF is a speculative concept, and the handling of antiprotons and their required injection precision—temporally and spatially—will present significant technical challenges. The <P> Bioremediation Aerobic Aerobic bioremediation is the most common form of oxidative bioremediation process where oxygen is provided as the electron acceptor for oxidation of petroleum, polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phenols, and other reduced pollutants. Oxygen is generally the preferred electron acceptor because of the higher energy yield and because oxygen is required for some enzyme systems to initiate the degradation process. Numerous laboratory and field studies have shown that microorganisms can degrade a wide variety of hydrocarbons, including components of gasoline, kerosene, diesel, and jet fuel. Under ideal conditions, the biodegradation rates of the low- to moderate-weight aliphatic, alicyclic, and <P> Differences of constitution are explained by quantum mechanics, which postulates discontinuity of physical processes. For a detectable distinction, some means should be physically available. One theoretical means would be through an ideal semi-permeable membrane. It should allow passage, backwards and forwards, of one species, while passage of the other is prevented entirely. The entirety of prevention should include perfect efficacy over a practically infinite time, in view of the nature of thermodynamic equilibrium. Even the slightest departure from ideality, as assessed over a finite time, would extend to utter non-ideality, as assessed over a practically infinite time. Such quantum phenomena as <P> although the exact limitations are not yet known, there have been a few examples. One such instance was when the oil conglomerate Roxxon discovered that a small island in the South Atlantic had a foundation composed of vibranium. Due to this, Roxxon found it necessary to destroy the island and so blew it up with bombs. Unable to absorb the force of the explosions, the vibranium was destroyed, but it did succeed in entirely absorbing the sound made by the explosion, preventing damage to the surrounding area. This variety of vibranium is a powerful mutagen. Vibranium exposure led to the mutation <P> radicals. In living organisms, which are composed mostly of water, majority of the damage is caused by the reactive oxygen species, free radicals produced from water. The free radicals attack the biomolecules forming structures within the cells, causing oxidative stress (a cumulative damage which may be significant enough to cause the cell death, or may cause DNA damage possibly leading to cancer). In cooling systems of nuclear reactors, the formation of free oxygen would promote corrosion and is counteracted by addition of hydrogen to the cooling water. The hydrogen is not consumed as for each molecule reacting with oxygen one molecule <P> was not dominant. Stability One of the key factors associated with the toxicity of CYN is its stability. Although the toxin has been found to degrade rapidly in an algal extract when exposed to sunlight, it is resistant to degradation by changes in pH and temperature, and shows no degradation in either the pure solid form or in pure water. As a result, in turbid and unmoving water the toxin can persist for long periods, and although boiling water will kill the cyanobacteria, it may not remove the toxin. Toxic effects Hawkins et al.. demonstrated the toxic effects of CYN <P> and may, or may not express the true number of phases within a given composition. Apparently clear single phase formulations can still consist of multiple iso-tropic phases (e.g. the apparently clear heptane/AOT/water microemulsions consist multiple phases). Since these systems can be in equilibrium with other phases, many systems, especially those with high volume fractions of both the two imiscible phases, can be easily destabilised by anything that changes this equilibrium e.g. high or low temperature or addition of surface tension modifying agents. However, examples of relatively stable microemulsions can be found. It is believed that the mechanism for removing acid build <P> Peracetic acid Peracetic acid (0.2%) is a recognized sterilant by the FDA for use in sterilizing medical devices such as endoscopes. Potential for chemical sterilization of prions Prions are highly resistant to chemical sterilization. Treatment with aldehydes, such as formaldehyde, have actually been shown to increase prion resistance. Hydrogen peroxide (3%) for one hour was shown to be ineffective, providing less than 3 logs (10⁻³) reduction in contamination. Iodine, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, and peracetic acid also fail this test (one hour treatment). Only chlorine, phenolic compounds, guanidinium thiocyanate, and sodium hydroxide reduce prion levels by more than 4 logs; chlorine (too <P> derived from aldehydes are not stable. This prevents the formation of 2,5-disubstituted pyrroles (where R=H) using this method. Modern Uses While the pyrroles produced by the Piloty-Robinson Synthesis are often very useful, the reaction itself is not always favorable because it requires high temperatures and long reaction times in addition to the problems mentioned above, the yield is often low or moderate. Modern methods have alleviated some of these concerns. Microwave Irradiation Microwave radiation decreases the time necessary for the reaction from around 3 days to 30-60 min. It can also affect the yield. Solid-Supported Solid-supported syntheses offer an easier <P> was able to couple nitrate reduction to phosphate uptake, while the genomically characterised CAP IIA could not. <P> to potassium carbonate (K₂CO₃). Because of this, alkaline fuel cells typically operate on pure oxygen, or at least purified air and would incorporate a 'scrubber' into the design to clean out as much of the carbon dioxide as is possible. Because the generation and storage requirements of oxygen make pure-oxygen AFCs expensive, there are few companies engaged in active development of the technology. There is, however, some debate in the research community over whether the poisoning is permanent or reversible. The main mechanisms of poisoning are blocking of the pores in the cathode with K₂CO₃, which is not reversible, and <P> the mother liquors are returned, yields of more than 90% are achieved. Problematic, particularly in the case of a continuous process, is the tendency of NTAN to precipitate at temperatures below 90 °C which can lead to clogging of tube reactors and conduits and thermal runaway of the reaction. Properties Nitrilotriacetonitrile is a colorless and odorless solid which dissolves hardly in water but dissolves well in nitromethane and acetone. Use Nitrilotriacetonitrile can be homopolymerized or copolymerized with iminodiacetonitrile in the melt in the presence of basic catalysts such as sodium methoxide to form dark-colored solid polymers which can be carbonized to form <P> can be applied in water and can virtually oxidize any compound present in the water matrix, often at a diffusion controlled reaction speed. Consequently, ·OH reacts unselectively once formed and contaminants will be quickly and efficiently fragmented and converted into small inorganic molecules. Hydroxyl radicals are produced with the help of one or more primary oxidants (e.g. ozone, hydrogen peroxide, oxygen) and/or energy sources (e.g. ultraviolet light) or catalysts (e.g. titanium dioxide). Precise, pre-programmed dosages, sequences and combinations of these reagents are applied in order to obtain a maximum •OH yield. In general, when applied in properly tuned conditions, AOPs <P> not see it as paradoxical. Distinguishability of two materials is a constitutive, not a thermodynamic, difference, for the laws of thermodynamics are the same for every material, while their constitutive characteristics are diverse. Though one might imagine a continuous decrease of the constitutive difference between any two chemical substances, physically it cannot be continuously decreased till it actually vanishes. It is hard to think of a smaller difference than that between ortho- and para-hydrogen. Yet they differ by a finite amount. The hypothesis, that the distinction might tend continuously to zero, is unphysical. This is neither examined nor explained by thermodynamics. <P> system such as composition of fluid and monazite, making this reaction no longer reactive. Implications for monazite geochronology Since the diffusion of reactants between dissolving phase and precipitating phase is slow, the fluid is essential to provide an easy transport for the reactants. Yet as reaction proceeds, dissolving phase and the fluid are separated by the solid precipitating phase, blocking the transport of reactants. Therefore, there must be some inter-connected porosity in the precipitating phase, which allows the fluid to infiltrate and fuel the reaction front. Most other geochronometers usually have a much lower closure temperature. Once they are subject to	answer: If antiprotons didn't annihilate with the protons in normal matter, we could easily bottle up the antiprotons.The antiprotons and positrons will annihilate the electrons and the protons in the elements. And the energy from the proton antiproton annihilation will probably fragment the nucleus._URL_0_ _URL_1_
142,863	1eb2st	Mughals in India were originally invaders from the north-west. They were within a century completely assimilated and considered Indian. What other examples of such assimilation of invaders do we have?	The Norman conquest is a great example. The Normans conquered England in 1066 and the English aristocracy spoke French for generations. Gradually the nobility began to use English as the language of polite conversation, and then gradually the law. Parliament was first opened in English in the late 14th century, though intermarriage had eliminated the ethnic division between classes far earlier than that. However, like the Mughals, this assimilation had a profound effect on English society culturally, politically and linguistically. Jonathan Sumption explains this process quite well in the beginning of Hundred Years War I, the chapter is titled "the England of Edward III."	[ "The Mughals were descended from the Ilkhanids in Persia, who were Mongol invaders. The Ilkhanids were known for adopting Persian culture very quickly, they converted to Islam and adopted many Persian myths and stories like the Shanama. Your claim that the Mughals became \"Indian\" is a little off, since they large...	3	[ "The Mughals were descended from the Ilkhanids in Persia, who were Mongol invaders. The Ilkhanids were known for adopting Persian culture very quickly, they converted to Islam and adopted many Persian myths and stories like the Shanama. Your claim that the Mughals became \"Indian\" is a little off, since they large...	3	<P> availed himself, he still worked more disinterestedly than others, and was of great service to the Resident of Lahore. In November 1847, the title of the Raja of Kalanaur, with a jagir worth 20,000 rupees annually, was conferred upon him. With his clear head and business-like habits, it would have been almost impossible to disentangle the Darbar Accountancy, and after the annexation of the Panjab, Dina Nath's aid in Revenue and Jagir matters was almost as valuable as before. At the time of revolt of Sikh army in 1848, it was asserted by some that Raja Dina Nath was a traitor at <P> daughters, and even a courtesan were the primary patrons to 19 major structures in the city. Owing to the cultural precedent set by their Timurid ancestors, it was comparatively more acceptable for Mughal women to perform civic charity in the form of building projects and even engage in leisure activities outside the zenana like hunting, polo and pilgrimage, then it would have been for their Safavid contemporaries. Nur Jahan seems to be unique in that she had a particular affinity for hunting, and was able to gain permission to accompany her husband Jahangir on several outings, even once killing four <P> in keeping with the Rajputs' notions of female respectability; on the other, for Rajput honour, it was important to play down potentially suspect low-born origins. Thus, unless a slave woman became powerful or committed sati, she was invisible in the records (mainly epic song). Furthermore, contrary to Western distinctions of slavery and family, the boundaries between clan and lineage were fluid, and modified by histories of slavery. Freed slaves could rewrite their pasts to support clan memberships, while illegitimate offspring of Rajputs with lower-caste women would become slaves in turn. Awards Sreenivasan's The Many Lives of a Rajput Queen won <P> Begum Samru Life Begum Samru was of slight stature, fair complexion and distinguished by exceptional leadership abilities of an uncommon order. More than once, she headed her own troops in action. She was of Kashmiri descent. When she was in her early teens, she married (or started living with) a mercenary soldier Walter Reinhardt Sombre of Luxembourg, who was operating in India. Walter Reinhardt Sombre, a European mercenary, then 45-years-old, came to the red light area and fell for the charms of Farzana, then a girl of 14, says Johan Lall in his "Begum Samru - Faded Portrait in <P> his hands”. Fernao Nunes and the Persian envoy Adbur Razzak relate that Deva Raya II survived an assassination attempt “as he was a man who knew how to use both sword and dagger better than anyone in his kingdom, avoided by twists and turns of his body the thrusts aimed at him, freed himself from him, and slew him with a short sword that he had.” Mughal era (1526–1857) After a series of victories, the Central Asian conqueror Babur established Mughal rule in north India during the 16th century. The Mughals were patrons of India's native arts, not only recruiting <P> Katirs and numerous other communities of India proper. Also, he gives no further details of his conflict with the Siah-Poshes in his Tuzak-i-Timuri after this encounter, which clearly shows that the outcome of the fight against the Siah-Poshes was very costly and shameful for Timur. Other references to these Kafirs are made in the fifteenth and later in sixteenth century during the Mughal period. In 1839, the Kafirs sent a deputation to Sir William Macnaghten in Jalalabad claiming relationship with the fair skinned British troops who had invaded the country <P> India posed a unique problem to the colonialists as the demarcation between wandering criminal tribes (such as Thuggees), vagrants, itinerants, travelling tradesmen, nomads and gypsies seemed impossible, so they were all, even eunuchs (hijras), grouped together, and their subsequent generations were merely a "law and order problem" for the state. History Thuggees who were known for murdering and robbing travellers in caravans, had started around the 17th century and had reached significant proportions by the time the British established themselves in India. As the death toll rose, so did the myths and legend about them, so much so that they <P> Kadu Makrani British Imperialist Conflict Kadu Makrani migrated with his tribe from his birthplace to Kathiawar, Gujarat during the mid-nineteenth century. Makrani and his tribe fought for territories and resources, receiving tribute from the Nawabs of Kathiawar in return. The ascension of Makrani's tribe troubled Imperialists, who sought to disarm and disable his tribe; a false reason was given when Makrani and his tribe rejected Government social workers entering their homes on the pretense of registration and census. Given the option of armistice or dissension, the tribe rebelled. Makrani's small army with civilian support overcame British Imperialist forces, with many <P> the Raj's military generals migrated south and abandoned military pursuits or involvement. Family members migrated south to the Vipin region of Kerala were they were given rule over those lands. Later generations of Padamadans developed trade between China and the western coast of India. Family and historical palm and copper etched writings archive meetings and trade between the Padamadan rulers and Chinese emissaries sent by the Emperor of China, who stayed in Kerala for several months. These emissaries showed the Padamadans the benefits of installing Chinese nets and techniques for maintaining (manually dredging) ports in the <P> rebellion. When Delhi fell to the British, the city was ransacked, the palaces looted and the mosques desecrated in what has been called "a deliberate act of unnecessary vandalism". Despite the questionable authenticity of colonial accounts regarding the rebellion, the stereotype of the Indian "dark-skinned rapist" occurred frequently in English literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The idea of protecting British "female chastity" from the "lustful Indian male" had a significant influence on the British Raj's policies outlawing miscegenation between the British and the Indians. While some restrictive policies were imposed on British females to "protect" them <P> of Rajput kings and chiefs also took upon themselves the role of counselling the men over issues they felt transgressed warrior codes of behaviour and action. Women from ruling groups or warrior castes held property in their own names, with full rights over those lands. Many warrior clan women got lands for their maintenance as personal jagirs and haath-kharch ki jagir (personal spending from the province) from both, their natal families, and the families they married into, and administered such lands through personal administrative agents (kamdars, amils, and dewans). From within zenanas, these women remained fully informed about their individual <P> Sur Empire History The empire was founded by Sher Shah Suri, an ethnic Afghan of the tribal house of Sur, who supplanted the Mughal dynasty as rulers of North India during the reign of the relatively ineffectual second Mughal Humayun. Sher Shah defeated badshah-i-Hind ('Hindustani emperor') Humayun in the Battle of Chausa (26 June 1539) and again in the Battle of Bilgram (17 May 1540). Sher Shah Suri was known for the destruction of some old cities while conquering parts of India. He is accused by `Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni and other Muslim historians for destroying old cities in order to build <P> War and the occupied countries, as well as associate the INA troops to these atrocities. Every commanding officer of every British-Indian Army unit were instructed to create a Josh group. Through the activities of these groups, any anitpathy the Sepoy may have for "Britishers" would be paled by the hatred that was to be fanned for the Japanese. As Gajendra Singh notes, the work of Josh groups aimed to: a. Build in every Indian soldier the firm belief that the Japanese and everyone who worked with the Japanese were the Sepoy's own "personal enemies".... b.Introduce stories of British victories against <P> Khan and Subedar Wahid Ali and the other consisted of Subedar Dunde Khan plus Jemedars Chisti Khan and Abdul Ali Khan. According to the Court of Inquiry, discipline was compromised by this division and any particular policy innovation or other measure taken within the regiment was likely to be opposed by one faction or the other. The sepoys were also reportedly unable to adjust and adapt to the living conditions in their new environment. While in India, the sepoys had a constant supply of goat meat and milk but because it was difficult to receive a constant supply of goat in <P> Kunal, Haryana Historical significance This small settlement (1 hectare) yielded Hakra ware at entry level. Houses were built on an artificially elevated place. Earliest pre-Harappan This site is recognised as earliest Pre-Harappan site, with three successive phases of Pre-Harapan indigenous culture on the Saraswati river who also traded with Kalibanga and Lothal. The discovery of wikt:Regalis (royal items) excavated from this ound are the oldest of its kind in the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia and Iran. Discoveries include woman's complete dress, tribal head attire, copper spearheads, steatite seals with gometrical patterns (indicating seal making in IVC first begun here), terracotta antiques, <P> socially marginalised because their own numbers — around 4 - 5 per cent of the population — were inferior to the dominant Patidars, with whom the Kolis were also disenchanted. The Kolis were among those whom the Rajputs targeted because, although classified as a criminal tribe by the British administration, they were among the many communities of that period who had made genealogical claims of descent from the Kshatriya. The Rajput leaders preferred to view the Kolis as being Kshatriya by dint of military ethos rather than origin but, in whatever terminology, it was a marriage of political expedience. In 1947, around the <P> the reign of Mughal Emperor, Akbar Shah. Shah Alam II, the predecessor and father of Akbar Shah, regarded Begum Samru as his daughter. He did so because the Begum had saved Delhi from an invasion by a force of 30,000 Sikhs, under Baghel Singh in 1783. They had encamped at Tis Hazari (the name of the place being derived from the number of those who constituted the force, estimated at 30,000). Thanks to the Begum's parleys, the Sikhs did not enter the city and went back to Punjab after getting a generous monetary gift from Shah Alam. In 1787(?), when the <P> Misfortune brought upon him include the overlordship of the Sikhs and the British. Khan resisted them each with all his might. But where the Sikhs failed the British forced their writ, a law alien to the Baloch way of life. Proud and willful, the Qaisrani took it upon themselves to resist the new masters of their land. And so the first angrez ever to venture into this land of turbulent tribes in order to establish his government's decree was told by Kaura Khan that the new law would be unacceptable to him and his people. An altercation ensued in <P> to Gujarat, Rajasthan, the Deccan, and parts of Southern India. The Khalji dynasty reworked the tax system in India. Previously, the ruler would assign village locals to collect a share of the peasant's produce, using it to pay the soldiers and administrators. In 1300, Ala-al-din Khalji demanded that peasants pay one half of their produce, abolished the authority of local chiefs, and deprived the local lords of their power. If the Delhi Sultanate, an offshoot of the Islamic conquest, was to rule over India, it was necessary for there to be the cultural and ideological integration of the people. This effort <P> the west to modern-day Bangladesh in the east. During the almost 17-year rule of the Sur dynasty, until the return of the Mughals to the throne, the region of the South Asia witnessed much economic development and administrative reforms. A systematised relationship was created between the people and the ruler, minimising corruption and the oppression of the public. Their rule came to an end by a defeat that led to restoration of the Mughal Empire. It was at the time of this bounty of Sultán Bahlol [Lodi], that the grandfather of Sher Sháh, by name Ibráhím Khán Súr,*The Súr represent themselves as descendants	question: Mughals in India were originally invaders from the north-west. They were within a century completely assimilated and considered Indian. What other examples of such assimilation of invaders do we have? context: <P> availed himself, he still worked more disinterestedly than others, and was of great service to the Resident of Lahore. In November 1847, the title of the Raja of Kalanaur, with a jagir worth 20,000 rupees annually, was conferred upon him. With his clear head and business-like habits, it would have been almost impossible to disentangle the Darbar Accountancy, and after the annexation of the Panjab, Dina Nath's aid in Revenue and Jagir matters was almost as valuable as before. At the time of revolt of Sikh army in 1848, it was asserted by some that Raja Dina Nath was a traitor at <P> daughters, and even a courtesan were the primary patrons to 19 major structures in the city. Owing to the cultural precedent set by their Timurid ancestors, it was comparatively more acceptable for Mughal women to perform civic charity in the form of building projects and even engage in leisure activities outside the zenana like hunting, polo and pilgrimage, then it would have been for their Safavid contemporaries. Nur Jahan seems to be unique in that she had a particular affinity for hunting, and was able to gain permission to accompany her husband Jahangir on several outings, even once killing four <P> in keeping with the Rajputs' notions of female respectability; on the other, for Rajput honour, it was important to play down potentially suspect low-born origins. Thus, unless a slave woman became powerful or committed sati, she was invisible in the records (mainly epic song). Furthermore, contrary to Western distinctions of slavery and family, the boundaries between clan and lineage were fluid, and modified by histories of slavery. Freed slaves could rewrite their pasts to support clan memberships, while illegitimate offspring of Rajputs with lower-caste women would become slaves in turn. Awards Sreenivasan's The Many Lives of a Rajput Queen won <P> Begum Samru Life Begum Samru was of slight stature, fair complexion and distinguished by exceptional leadership abilities of an uncommon order. More than once, she headed her own troops in action. She was of Kashmiri descent. When she was in her early teens, she married (or started living with) a mercenary soldier Walter Reinhardt Sombre of Luxembourg, who was operating in India. Walter Reinhardt Sombre, a European mercenary, then 45-years-old, came to the red light area and fell for the charms of Farzana, then a girl of 14, says Johan Lall in his "Begum Samru - Faded Portrait in <P> his hands”. Fernao Nunes and the Persian envoy Adbur Razzak relate that Deva Raya II survived an assassination attempt “as he was a man who knew how to use both sword and dagger better than anyone in his kingdom, avoided by twists and turns of his body the thrusts aimed at him, freed himself from him, and slew him with a short sword that he had.” Mughal era (1526–1857) After a series of victories, the Central Asian conqueror Babur established Mughal rule in north India during the 16th century. The Mughals were patrons of India's native arts, not only recruiting <P> Katirs and numerous other communities of India proper. Also, he gives no further details of his conflict with the Siah-Poshes in his Tuzak-i-Timuri after this encounter, which clearly shows that the outcome of the fight against the Siah-Poshes was very costly and shameful for Timur. Other references to these Kafirs are made in the fifteenth and later in sixteenth century during the Mughal period. In 1839, the Kafirs sent a deputation to Sir William Macnaghten in Jalalabad claiming relationship with the fair skinned British troops who had invaded the country <P> India posed a unique problem to the colonialists as the demarcation between wandering criminal tribes (such as Thuggees), vagrants, itinerants, travelling tradesmen, nomads and gypsies seemed impossible, so they were all, even eunuchs (hijras), grouped together, and their subsequent generations were merely a "law and order problem" for the state. History Thuggees who were known for murdering and robbing travellers in caravans, had started around the 17th century and had reached significant proportions by the time the British established themselves in India. As the death toll rose, so did the myths and legend about them, so much so that they <P> Kadu Makrani British Imperialist Conflict Kadu Makrani migrated with his tribe from his birthplace to Kathiawar, Gujarat during the mid-nineteenth century. Makrani and his tribe fought for territories and resources, receiving tribute from the Nawabs of Kathiawar in return. The ascension of Makrani's tribe troubled Imperialists, who sought to disarm and disable his tribe; a false reason was given when Makrani and his tribe rejected Government social workers entering their homes on the pretense of registration and census. Given the option of armistice or dissension, the tribe rebelled. Makrani's small army with civilian support overcame British Imperialist forces, with many <P> the Raj's military generals migrated south and abandoned military pursuits or involvement. Family members migrated south to the Vipin region of Kerala were they were given rule over those lands. Later generations of Padamadans developed trade between China and the western coast of India. Family and historical palm and copper etched writings archive meetings and trade between the Padamadan rulers and Chinese emissaries sent by the Emperor of China, who stayed in Kerala for several months. These emissaries showed the Padamadans the benefits of installing Chinese nets and techniques for maintaining (manually dredging) ports in the <P> rebellion. When Delhi fell to the British, the city was ransacked, the palaces looted and the mosques desecrated in what has been called "a deliberate act of unnecessary vandalism". Despite the questionable authenticity of colonial accounts regarding the rebellion, the stereotype of the Indian "dark-skinned rapist" occurred frequently in English literature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The idea of protecting British "female chastity" from the "lustful Indian male" had a significant influence on the British Raj's policies outlawing miscegenation between the British and the Indians. While some restrictive policies were imposed on British females to "protect" them <P> of Rajput kings and chiefs also took upon themselves the role of counselling the men over issues they felt transgressed warrior codes of behaviour and action. Women from ruling groups or warrior castes held property in their own names, with full rights over those lands. Many warrior clan women got lands for their maintenance as personal jagirs and haath-kharch ki jagir (personal spending from the province) from both, their natal families, and the families they married into, and administered such lands through personal administrative agents (kamdars, amils, and dewans). From within zenanas, these women remained fully informed about their individual <P> Sur Empire History The empire was founded by Sher Shah Suri, an ethnic Afghan of the tribal house of Sur, who supplanted the Mughal dynasty as rulers of North India during the reign of the relatively ineffectual second Mughal Humayun. Sher Shah defeated badshah-i-Hind ('Hindustani emperor') Humayun in the Battle of Chausa (26 June 1539) and again in the Battle of Bilgram (17 May 1540). Sher Shah Suri was known for the destruction of some old cities while conquering parts of India. He is accused by `Abd al-Qadir Bada'uni and other Muslim historians for destroying old cities in order to build <P> War and the occupied countries, as well as associate the INA troops to these atrocities. Every commanding officer of every British-Indian Army unit were instructed to create a Josh group. Through the activities of these groups, any anitpathy the Sepoy may have for "Britishers" would be paled by the hatred that was to be fanned for the Japanese. As Gajendra Singh notes, the work of Josh groups aimed to: a. Build in every Indian soldier the firm belief that the Japanese and everyone who worked with the Japanese were the Sepoy's own "personal enemies".... b.Introduce stories of British victories against <P> Khan and Subedar Wahid Ali and the other consisted of Subedar Dunde Khan plus Jemedars Chisti Khan and Abdul Ali Khan. According to the Court of Inquiry, discipline was compromised by this division and any particular policy innovation or other measure taken within the regiment was likely to be opposed by one faction or the other. The sepoys were also reportedly unable to adjust and adapt to the living conditions in their new environment. While in India, the sepoys had a constant supply of goat meat and milk but because it was difficult to receive a constant supply of goat in <P> Kunal, Haryana Historical significance This small settlement (1 hectare) yielded Hakra ware at entry level. Houses were built on an artificially elevated place. Earliest pre-Harappan This site is recognised as earliest Pre-Harappan site, with three successive phases of Pre-Harapan indigenous culture on the Saraswati river who also traded with Kalibanga and Lothal. The discovery of wikt:Regalis (royal items) excavated from this ound are the oldest of its kind in the Indian subcontinent, Central Asia and Iran. Discoveries include woman's complete dress, tribal head attire, copper spearheads, steatite seals with gometrical patterns (indicating seal making in IVC first begun here), terracotta antiques, <P> socially marginalised because their own numbers — around 4 - 5 per cent of the population — were inferior to the dominant Patidars, with whom the Kolis were also disenchanted. The Kolis were among those whom the Rajputs targeted because, although classified as a criminal tribe by the British administration, they were among the many communities of that period who had made genealogical claims of descent from the Kshatriya. The Rajput leaders preferred to view the Kolis as being Kshatriya by dint of military ethos rather than origin but, in whatever terminology, it was a marriage of political expedience. In 1947, around the <P> the reign of Mughal Emperor, Akbar Shah. Shah Alam II, the predecessor and father of Akbar Shah, regarded Begum Samru as his daughter. He did so because the Begum had saved Delhi from an invasion by a force of 30,000 Sikhs, under Baghel Singh in 1783. They had encamped at Tis Hazari (the name of the place being derived from the number of those who constituted the force, estimated at 30,000). Thanks to the Begum's parleys, the Sikhs did not enter the city and went back to Punjab after getting a generous monetary gift from Shah Alam. In 1787(?), when the <P> Misfortune brought upon him include the overlordship of the Sikhs and the British. Khan resisted them each with all his might. But where the Sikhs failed the British forced their writ, a law alien to the Baloch way of life. Proud and willful, the Qaisrani took it upon themselves to resist the new masters of their land. And so the first angrez ever to venture into this land of turbulent tribes in order to establish his government's decree was told by Kaura Khan that the new law would be unacceptable to him and his people. An altercation ensued in <P> to Gujarat, Rajasthan, the Deccan, and parts of Southern India. The Khalji dynasty reworked the tax system in India. Previously, the ruler would assign village locals to collect a share of the peasant's produce, using it to pay the soldiers and administrators. In 1300, Ala-al-din Khalji demanded that peasants pay one half of their produce, abolished the authority of local chiefs, and deprived the local lords of their power. If the Delhi Sultanate, an offshoot of the Islamic conquest, was to rule over India, it was necessary for there to be the cultural and ideological integration of the people. This effort <P> the west to modern-day Bangladesh in the east. During the almost 17-year rule of the Sur dynasty, until the return of the Mughals to the throne, the region of the South Asia witnessed much economic development and administrative reforms. A systematised relationship was created between the people and the ruler, minimising corruption and the oppression of the public. Their rule came to an end by a defeat that led to restoration of the Mughal Empire. It was at the time of this bounty of Sultán Bahlol [Lodi], that the grandfather of Sher Sháh, by name Ibráhím Khán Súr,*The Súr represent themselves as descendants	answer: The Norman conquest is a great example. The Normans conquered England in 1066 and the English aristocracy spoke French for generations. Gradually the nobility began to use English as the language of polite conversation, and then gradually the law. Parliament was first opened in English in the late 14th century, though intermarriage had eliminated the ethnic division between classes far earlier than that. However, like the Mughals, this assimilation had a profound effect on English society culturally, politically and linguistically. Jonathan Sumption explains this process quite well in the beginning of Hundred Years War I, the chapter is titled "the England of Edward III."
129,795	1zot1x	Do germs kill other germs?	Penicillin was discovered because a bit of mold had a clear spot around it. This mold was of the opinion that it should rule the Petri dish (I know, I shouldn't anthropomorphize a fungus) and was cranking out penicillin to poison its neighboring competitors.Microbes do not always cooperate. Amoeba will gobble up anything, and bacteriophage viruses will rapidly destroy bacteria. There are complicated ecosystems of predators and prey in every drop of seawater.People have thought about using one live microbe to defeat or displace another, but this can be hard to design and control. One example is [phage therapy](_URL_0_).	[ "Penicillin was discovered because a bit of mold had a clear spot around it. This mold was of the opinion that it should rule the Petri dish (I know, I shouldn't anthropomorphize a fungus) and was cranking out penicillin to poison its neighboring competitors.\n\nMicrobes do not always cooperate. Amoeba will gobble ...	2	[ "Penicillin was discovered because a bit of mold had a clear spot around it. This mold was of the opinion that it should rule the Petri dish (I know, I shouldn't anthropomorphize a fungus) and was cranking out penicillin to poison its neighboring competitors.\n\nMicrobes do not always cooperate. Amoeba will gobble ...	1	<P> Penicillium notatum, Fusarium oxysporum. Its antibacterial activity is quite limited to bacterias such as Microccocus luteus. <P> strains of several bacterial species such as S. aureus, including MRSA and coagulase negative Staphylococcus, indicate potent activity against these pathogens In the UK and Australia, susceptibility is defined as a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.25 mg/l or 0.5 mg/l or less. Resistance is defined as an MIC of 2 mg/l or more. In laboratories using disc diffusion methods, susceptibility for a 2.5 µg disc is defined as a zone of 22 mm or more, and resistance is defined as a zone of 17 mm or less; intermediate values are defined as intermediate resistance. These susceptibility criteria are based on lower dosing regimens <P> bacteria from a site where it persists as commensal and then allowing it to colonise in a situation as a pathogen. It is now understood that it can be transmitted person to person, particularly in a hospital setting. While Corynebacterium infections are not common, when they have been observed it is in individuals with prosthetic devices or those who are immunosuppressed. When detected under these conditions it is considered a true pathogen. Non-diphtheria Corynebacterium types are also being recognised for their impact on those suffering from long term respiratory disease. Infection Many cases of infection with Corynebacterium striatum have been documented <P> Germplasm Germplasm are living genetic resources such as seeds or tissues that are maintained for the purpose of animal and plant breeding, preservation, and other research uses. These resources may take the form of seed collections stored in seed banks, trees growing in nurseries, animal breeding lines maintained in animal breeding programs or gene banks, etc. Germplasm collections can range from collections of wild species to elite, domesticated breeding lines that have undergone extensive human selection. Germplasm collection is important for the maintenance of biological diversity and food security. <P> compared to alcohol-sensitive E. faecium. This research has led some to question whether it may be possible for microbes to become entirely tolerant of alcohol. Treatment Linezolid, daptomycin, tigecycline and the streptogramins (e.g. quinupristin/dalfopristin) can have activity against VRE. VRE can be successfully treated with sultamicillin. <P> is suggested to lie in the over-expression of the sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) protein caused by a 199 base-pair insertion into the promoter region of the CYP51 gene and/or by duplications of the CYP51 gene. Human pathogenicity Species within the genus Penicillium do not generally cause disease in humans. However, being one of the most common producers of indoor moulds, certain species can become pathogenic upon long-term exposure as well as for individuals who are immunocompromised or hyper-sensitized to certain parts of the fungus. Spores, proteolytic enzymes and glycoproteins are amongst the components commonly reported as allergens in humans and animal <P> against treatment. Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive round-shaped (coccus) bacteria that is commonly found as a part of the human skin microbiota and is typically not harmful in humans with non-compromised immune systems in these environments. However, S. aureus has the ability to cause infections when it enters parts of the body that it does not typically inhabit, such as wounds. Similar to E. faecium, S. aureus can also cause infections on implanted medical devices and form biofilms that make treatment with antibiotics more difficult. Additionally, approximately 25% of S. aureus strains secrete the TSST-1 exotoxin responsible for <P> gene transfer, allowing them to pass resistance genes from one pathogen to another. This can be particularly problematic in nosocomial infections, where bacteria are constantly exposed to antibiotics and those benefiting from resistance as a result of random genetic mutations can share this resistance with bacteria in the area that have not yet developed this resistance on their own. Enterococcus faecium Enterococcus faecium is a Gram-positive rod-shaped (bacillus) bacteria, most commonly involved in HAI in immunocompromised patients. It often exhibits a resistance to β-lactam antibiotics including penicillin and other last resort antibiotics. There has also been a rise in vancomycin <P> was stored. Up until 1993 there had only been three documented cases of respiratory infections caused by the species. After this it was formally defined again in 1995. Coryneform bacteria had for a long time been described as commensals of humans, colonising the skin and mucous membranes without causing disease. More recently Corynebacterium striatum was found to in fact be the cause of infection and disease, given the opportunity. Early clinical testing of hospital patients found that infection generally only occurred in immunocompromised individuals or those that had some for of prosthetic device permanently or intermittently fitted. Not long after, <P> gloves when examining patients with CF to limit the spread of virulent bacterial strains. CF patients may also have their airways chronically colonized by filamentous fungi (such as Aspergillus fumigatus, Scedosporium apiospermum, Aspergillus terreus) and/or yeasts (such as Candida albicans); other filamentous fungi less commonly isolated include Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus nidulans (occur transiently in CF respiratory secretions) and Exophiala dermatitidis and Scedosporium prolificans (chronic airway-colonizers); some filamentous fungi such as Penicillium emersonii and Acrophialophora fusispora are encountered in patients almost exclusively in the context of CF. Defective mucociliary clearance characterizing CF is associated with local immunological disorders. In addition, the <P> the spread of E. faecium in a hospital setting. The study found that isolates of the bacterium from after 2010 were 10 times more tolerant of the alcohol-based disinfectants than older isolates. However, the isopropanol solutions tested in this study used isopropanol concentrations lower than those used in most hand desinfectants and the authors also stated that hand disinfectants using 70 % isopropanol were effective in full strength even against tolerant strains . However, a mouse gut colonization model of E. faecium transmission showed that alcohol-tolerant E. faecium resisted standard 70% isopropanol surface disinfection, resulting in greater mouse gut colonization <P> P. spinulosumis highly resistant to heavy metals, tannins and acids, and can be isolated from substrata contaminated by those materials. Pathogenicity The pathogenicity of P. spinulosum remains controversial. In vitro, spores produced by P. spinulosum were reported to cause toxic and inflammatory responses in mouse macrophages. However, according to an experiment done by Jussila, this fungus can induce inflammation due to the production of moderate pro-inflammatory cytokines. The response of which is dose- and time- dependent and not cytotoxic even at high spore dose, so it is not likely to cause acute respiratory inflammations. Respiratory tract infection due to P. <P> with particular relevance to acquisition of infection in hospitals - otherwise known as a nosocomial infection. Corynebacterium striatum has been known to colonise prosthetics, particularly - heart valves, prosthetic joints and even intravenous apparatus such as catheters. Infections of this type have been described as a local infection or they can progress into a larger disseminated infection otherwise known as bacteraemia. Other documented infections include osteomyelitis, an infection of the bone that can occur through blood born infection or injury to the bone itself. One of the first described infections of an individual with Corynebacterium striatum occurred in 1980. The man <P> Non-fermenter Non-fermenters (also non-fermenting bacteria) are a taxonomically heterogeneous group of bacteria of the division Proteobacteria that cannot catabolize glucose, and are thus unable to ferment. This does not necessarily exclude that species can catabolize other sugars or have anaerobiosis like fermenting bacteria. The coccoid or bacillary bacteria can be found in soil or wet areas. They are non-sporulating bacteria and Gram-negative. Some species are also pathogenic for humans, so their detection (e.g. with API 20 NE) has great relevance in the diagnosis of bacterial infections. <P> to the fungus Armillaria luteobubalina, with between a quarter and a half of plants exposed succumbing to the pathogen. <P> Invasive candidiasis Signs and symptoms Symptoms of invasive candidiasis can be confused with other medical conditions, however, the most common symptoms are fever and chills that do not improve with antibiotic treatment. Other symptoms develop as the infection spreads, depending on which parts of the body are involved. Presentation Invasive candidiasis can manifest as serious diseases including as fungemia, endocarditis, endophthalmitis, osteomyelitis, and central nervous system infections. Cause Invasive candidiasis is caused by 15 of the more than 150 known species of Candida. These species, all confirmed by isolation from patients, are: C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis, <P> seasons, in which the humid is greater than 90% and the temperature is roughly 20-24 °C . Humidity seems to be a larger factor than temperature when it comes to infection success . D. bryoniae can also be found in temperate regions, especially where winter squash and pumpkins are grown . This pathogen is also common in greenhouses where cucumbers are grown . In vitro, D. bryoniae does not form pycnidia without UV-light but if cultured in the presence of UV light and darkness, conidia/pycnidiospores produce mycelium rapidly . Management & Detection The standard management practice for D. bryoniae is to use <P> presence of pathogenic parasites requires medical attention. "Over one billion persons worldwide are estimated to be carriers of Ascaris. Approximately 480 million people are infected with Entamoeba histolytica. At least 500 million carry Trichuris. At present, 200 to 300 million people are infected with one or more of the Schistosoma species and it is estimated that more than 20 million persons throughout the world are infected with Hymenolepsis nana". Consequences of parasitic infection can include anemia due to blood loss and iron deficiency, malnutrition, growth retardation, invasive disease, and death. Refugees are particularly at risk given the likelihood of poor or contaminated water and poor <P> fungus causing infection in humans. Only a handful of other species in the Cladosporium genera contributed to human infections, including C. cladosporioides, C. herbarum, C. sphaerospermum, and C. elatum. Although it is a rare cause of disease in humans, C. oxysporum has been reported as a cause of keratitis and cutaneous infections. A study by Forster et al. reported on 16 cases of keratitis caused by C. oxysporum in which 9 patients were healed by the use of Natamycin (Pimaricin), suggesting that the damage caused by this fungus was reversible. It is also reported that C. oxysporum can also cause <P> Epidemiology Invasive candidiasis is estimated to affect more than 250,000 people and cause more than 50,000 deaths worldwide every year. The CDC estimates that approximately 46,000 cases of healthcare-associated invasive candidiasis occur each year in the US. The estimated mortality attributable to fungemia is 19-40%. However, because the majority of people who develop invasive candidiasis are already sick, it can be difficult to determine if the cause of death is directly attributable to the fungal infection. Fungemia is one of the most common bloodstream infections in the United States. In general, observed incidence rates have been stable or trending higher but	question: Do germs kill other germs? context: <P> Penicillium notatum, Fusarium oxysporum. Its antibacterial activity is quite limited to bacterias such as Microccocus luteus. <P> strains of several bacterial species such as S. aureus, including MRSA and coagulase negative Staphylococcus, indicate potent activity against these pathogens In the UK and Australia, susceptibility is defined as a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.25 mg/l or 0.5 mg/l or less. Resistance is defined as an MIC of 2 mg/l or more. In laboratories using disc diffusion methods, susceptibility for a 2.5 µg disc is defined as a zone of 22 mm or more, and resistance is defined as a zone of 17 mm or less; intermediate values are defined as intermediate resistance. These susceptibility criteria are based on lower dosing regimens <P> bacteria from a site where it persists as commensal and then allowing it to colonise in a situation as a pathogen. It is now understood that it can be transmitted person to person, particularly in a hospital setting. While Corynebacterium infections are not common, when they have been observed it is in individuals with prosthetic devices or those who are immunosuppressed. When detected under these conditions it is considered a true pathogen. Non-diphtheria Corynebacterium types are also being recognised for their impact on those suffering from long term respiratory disease. Infection Many cases of infection with Corynebacterium striatum have been documented <P> Germplasm Germplasm are living genetic resources such as seeds or tissues that are maintained for the purpose of animal and plant breeding, preservation, and other research uses. These resources may take the form of seed collections stored in seed banks, trees growing in nurseries, animal breeding lines maintained in animal breeding programs or gene banks, etc. Germplasm collections can range from collections of wild species to elite, domesticated breeding lines that have undergone extensive human selection. Germplasm collection is important for the maintenance of biological diversity and food security. <P> compared to alcohol-sensitive E. faecium. This research has led some to question whether it may be possible for microbes to become entirely tolerant of alcohol. Treatment Linezolid, daptomycin, tigecycline and the streptogramins (e.g. quinupristin/dalfopristin) can have activity against VRE. VRE can be successfully treated with sultamicillin. <P> is suggested to lie in the over-expression of the sterol 14α-demethylase (CYP51) protein caused by a 199 base-pair insertion into the promoter region of the CYP51 gene and/or by duplications of the CYP51 gene. Human pathogenicity Species within the genus Penicillium do not generally cause disease in humans. However, being one of the most common producers of indoor moulds, certain species can become pathogenic upon long-term exposure as well as for individuals who are immunocompromised or hyper-sensitized to certain parts of the fungus. Spores, proteolytic enzymes and glycoproteins are amongst the components commonly reported as allergens in humans and animal <P> against treatment. Staphylococcus aureus Staphylococcus aureus is a Gram-positive round-shaped (coccus) bacteria that is commonly found as a part of the human skin microbiota and is typically not harmful in humans with non-compromised immune systems in these environments. However, S. aureus has the ability to cause infections when it enters parts of the body that it does not typically inhabit, such as wounds. Similar to E. faecium, S. aureus can also cause infections on implanted medical devices and form biofilms that make treatment with antibiotics more difficult. Additionally, approximately 25% of S. aureus strains secrete the TSST-1 exotoxin responsible for <P> gene transfer, allowing them to pass resistance genes from one pathogen to another. This can be particularly problematic in nosocomial infections, where bacteria are constantly exposed to antibiotics and those benefiting from resistance as a result of random genetic mutations can share this resistance with bacteria in the area that have not yet developed this resistance on their own. Enterococcus faecium Enterococcus faecium is a Gram-positive rod-shaped (bacillus) bacteria, most commonly involved in HAI in immunocompromised patients. It often exhibits a resistance to β-lactam antibiotics including penicillin and other last resort antibiotics. There has also been a rise in vancomycin <P> was stored. Up until 1993 there had only been three documented cases of respiratory infections caused by the species. After this it was formally defined again in 1995. Coryneform bacteria had for a long time been described as commensals of humans, colonising the skin and mucous membranes without causing disease. More recently Corynebacterium striatum was found to in fact be the cause of infection and disease, given the opportunity. Early clinical testing of hospital patients found that infection generally only occurred in immunocompromised individuals or those that had some for of prosthetic device permanently or intermittently fitted. Not long after, <P> gloves when examining patients with CF to limit the spread of virulent bacterial strains. CF patients may also have their airways chronically colonized by filamentous fungi (such as Aspergillus fumigatus, Scedosporium apiospermum, Aspergillus terreus) and/or yeasts (such as Candida albicans); other filamentous fungi less commonly isolated include Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus nidulans (occur transiently in CF respiratory secretions) and Exophiala dermatitidis and Scedosporium prolificans (chronic airway-colonizers); some filamentous fungi such as Penicillium emersonii and Acrophialophora fusispora are encountered in patients almost exclusively in the context of CF. Defective mucociliary clearance characterizing CF is associated with local immunological disorders. In addition, the <P> the spread of E. faecium in a hospital setting. The study found that isolates of the bacterium from after 2010 were 10 times more tolerant of the alcohol-based disinfectants than older isolates. However, the isopropanol solutions tested in this study used isopropanol concentrations lower than those used in most hand desinfectants and the authors also stated that hand disinfectants using 70 % isopropanol were effective in full strength even against tolerant strains . However, a mouse gut colonization model of E. faecium transmission showed that alcohol-tolerant E. faecium resisted standard 70% isopropanol surface disinfection, resulting in greater mouse gut colonization <P> P. spinulosumis highly resistant to heavy metals, tannins and acids, and can be isolated from substrata contaminated by those materials. Pathogenicity The pathogenicity of P. spinulosum remains controversial. In vitro, spores produced by P. spinulosum were reported to cause toxic and inflammatory responses in mouse macrophages. However, according to an experiment done by Jussila, this fungus can induce inflammation due to the production of moderate pro-inflammatory cytokines. The response of which is dose- and time- dependent and not cytotoxic even at high spore dose, so it is not likely to cause acute respiratory inflammations. Respiratory tract infection due to P. <P> with particular relevance to acquisition of infection in hospitals - otherwise known as a nosocomial infection. Corynebacterium striatum has been known to colonise prosthetics, particularly - heart valves, prosthetic joints and even intravenous apparatus such as catheters. Infections of this type have been described as a local infection or they can progress into a larger disseminated infection otherwise known as bacteraemia. Other documented infections include osteomyelitis, an infection of the bone that can occur through blood born infection or injury to the bone itself. One of the first described infections of an individual with Corynebacterium striatum occurred in 1980. The man <P> Non-fermenter Non-fermenters (also non-fermenting bacteria) are a taxonomically heterogeneous group of bacteria of the division Proteobacteria that cannot catabolize glucose, and are thus unable to ferment. This does not necessarily exclude that species can catabolize other sugars or have anaerobiosis like fermenting bacteria. The coccoid or bacillary bacteria can be found in soil or wet areas. They are non-sporulating bacteria and Gram-negative. Some species are also pathogenic for humans, so their detection (e.g. with API 20 NE) has great relevance in the diagnosis of bacterial infections. <P> to the fungus Armillaria luteobubalina, with between a quarter and a half of plants exposed succumbing to the pathogen. <P> Invasive candidiasis Signs and symptoms Symptoms of invasive candidiasis can be confused with other medical conditions, however, the most common symptoms are fever and chills that do not improve with antibiotic treatment. Other symptoms develop as the infection spreads, depending on which parts of the body are involved. Presentation Invasive candidiasis can manifest as serious diseases including as fungemia, endocarditis, endophthalmitis, osteomyelitis, and central nervous system infections. Cause Invasive candidiasis is caused by 15 of the more than 150 known species of Candida. These species, all confirmed by isolation from patients, are: C. albicans, C. glabrata, C. tropicalis, C. parapsilosis, <P> seasons, in which the humid is greater than 90% and the temperature is roughly 20-24 °C . Humidity seems to be a larger factor than temperature when it comes to infection success . D. bryoniae can also be found in temperate regions, especially where winter squash and pumpkins are grown . This pathogen is also common in greenhouses where cucumbers are grown . In vitro, D. bryoniae does not form pycnidia without UV-light but if cultured in the presence of UV light and darkness, conidia/pycnidiospores produce mycelium rapidly . Management & Detection The standard management practice for D. bryoniae is to use <P> presence of pathogenic parasites requires medical attention. "Over one billion persons worldwide are estimated to be carriers of Ascaris. Approximately 480 million people are infected with Entamoeba histolytica. At least 500 million carry Trichuris. At present, 200 to 300 million people are infected with one or more of the Schistosoma species and it is estimated that more than 20 million persons throughout the world are infected with Hymenolepsis nana". Consequences of parasitic infection can include anemia due to blood loss and iron deficiency, malnutrition, growth retardation, invasive disease, and death. Refugees are particularly at risk given the likelihood of poor or contaminated water and poor <P> fungus causing infection in humans. Only a handful of other species in the Cladosporium genera contributed to human infections, including C. cladosporioides, C. herbarum, C. sphaerospermum, and C. elatum. Although it is a rare cause of disease in humans, C. oxysporum has been reported as a cause of keratitis and cutaneous infections. A study by Forster et al. reported on 16 cases of keratitis caused by C. oxysporum in which 9 patients were healed by the use of Natamycin (Pimaricin), suggesting that the damage caused by this fungus was reversible. It is also reported that C. oxysporum can also cause <P> Epidemiology Invasive candidiasis is estimated to affect more than 250,000 people and cause more than 50,000 deaths worldwide every year. The CDC estimates that approximately 46,000 cases of healthcare-associated invasive candidiasis occur each year in the US. The estimated mortality attributable to fungemia is 19-40%. However, because the majority of people who develop invasive candidiasis are already sick, it can be difficult to determine if the cause of death is directly attributable to the fungal infection. Fungemia is one of the most common bloodstream infections in the United States. In general, observed incidence rates have been stable or trending higher but	answer: Penicillin was discovered because a bit of mold had a clear spot around it. This mold was of the opinion that it should rule the Petri dish (I know, I shouldn't anthropomorphize a fungus) and was cranking out penicillin to poison its neighboring competitors.Microbes do not always cooperate. Amoeba will gobble up anything, and bacteriophage viruses will rapidly destroy bacteria. There are complicated ecosystems of predators and prey in every drop of seawater.People have thought about using one live microbe to defeat or displace another, but this can be hard to design and control. One example is [phage therapy](_URL_0_).
168,087	2klhb9	why does pushing on your closed eyelids gives you weird visions?	Increasing the pressure inside the eyeball (eg. by gently pressing on them, raising blood pressure due to coughing or exertion, etc.) directly stimulates the cells of the retina, causing them to signal as if they were detecting light. These non-light images are called 'phosphenes'.	[ "Increasing the pressure inside the eyeball (eg. by gently pressing on them, raising blood pressure due to coughing or exertion, etc.) directly stimulates the cells of the retina, causing them to signal as if they were detecting light. These non-light images are called 'phosphenes'.", "Since you're stimulating y...	15	[ "Increasing the pressure inside the eyeball (eg. by gently pressing on them, raising blood pressure due to coughing or exertion, etc.) directly stimulates the cells of the retina, causing them to signal as if they were detecting light. These non-light images are called 'phosphenes'.", "Since you're stimulating y...	10	<P> and eye-opening. <P> to concentrate. It increases the power of memory and brings the mind to a state of awareness, attention and focus. Description The practitioner may fix attention on a symbol or yantra, such as the Om symbol, a black dot, the image of some deity or guru, a flame, a mirror or any point, and stare at it. A candle should be three to four feet (1 metre plus) away, the flame level with the eyes. Relax but keep the spine erect and remain wakeful and vigilant. The eyes begin to water. Some authorities recommend that the eyes should then be <P> Trāṭaka Trataka (Sanskrit n. त्राटक Trāṭaka: "to look, or to gaze") is a yogic purification (a shatkarma) and a tantric method of meditation that involves staring at a single point such as a small object, black dot or candle flame. It is said to bring energy to the "third eye" (ājňā chakra) and promote various psychic abilities. Purpose By fixing the gaze the restless mind too comes to a halt. It is said also that control of the ciliary (blink) reflex stimulates the pineal gland, which Kundalini Yoga identify with the third eye. Trāṭaka is said to enhance the ability <P> had carried with him when he felt his vision problems lift and loaned it to Groeschel who blessed himself with it. Br. Shawn Conrad O'Connor, C.F.R. was with Groeschel at the time of his death. O'Connor stated that after "kind of a rough day" of pain, Groeschel and he prayed the rosary accompanying the recording of Mother Angelica on EWTN. After the prayer O'Connor noticed that Groeschel was unresponsive and he could not find his pulse. After a few times asking for a response O'Connor noticed his mouth and eyes move, and felt that Groeschel was either asleep or in a <P> is usually worsened when the lack of proprioceptive input cannot be compensated for by visual input, such as in poorly lit environments. Physicians can find evidence of sensory ataxia during physical examination by having the patient stand with his/her feet together and eyes shut. In affected patients, this will cause the instability to worsen markedly, producing wide oscillations and possibly a fall. This is called a positive Romberg's test. Worsening of the finger-pointing test with the eyes closed is another feature of sensory ataxia. Also, when the patient is standing with arms and hands extended toward the physician, if the eyes <P> Pseudoathetosis Presentation Analogous to Romberg's sign, the abnormal posturing is most pronounced when the eyes are closed as visual inputs are unavailable to guide corrective movements. Paradoxically, eye closure may decrease the amount of movement as the visual cues probably trigger corrective movements which return the limb to the desired "baseline" allowing a new phase of involuntary drift before a subsequent corrective phase occurs. Variants Hemipseudaoathetosis refers to pseudoathetosis on one side of the body, usually the upper limb and is most commonly caused by a lesion affecting the cuneate tract or cuneate nucleus in the cervical spine or lower <P> gave initiation to Mehi, teaching him the art of 'drishti sadhan'(the Yoga of Inner Light – a technique to still one's gaze in the inner sky in front of the centre of the two eyes, called variously as the Sushumna, Sukhamana, the Ajna Chakra, the Third Eye, the Tenth Door, the Shiva Netra etc.)aimed at transcending the Gross Sphere, the Realm of Darkness and, thus, moving into the Realm of Light, the Astral Plane. As the grateful Mehi tried to touch Mr. Rajendra Nath's feet in reverence, the latter forcibly stopped him and told, "Look, I am not your Guru. <P> each condition. For example, migraine sufferers often report fortification illusions. Neuroscience Perception is linked to specific brain activity and so can be elicited by brain stimulation. The (illusory) percepts that can be evoked range from simple phosphenes (detections of lights in the visual field) to high-level percepts. In a single-case study on a patient undergoing presurgical evaluation for epilepsy treatment, electrical stimulation at the left temporo-parietal junction evoked the percept of a nearby (illusory) person who "closely 'shadowed' changes in the patient's body position and posture". <P> and its corresponding section of the saphenous nerve were removed, mounted on a test stand immersed in interstitial fluid. Slowly adapting type 1 (SA1) mechanoreceptors output signals in response to mechanical vibrations below 500 Hz. The skin was mechanically stimulated with a broadband pressure signal with varying amounts of broadband noise using the up-and-down motion of a cylindrical probe. The intensity of the pressure signal was tested without noise and then set at a near sub-threshold intensity that would evoke 10 action potentials over a 60-second stimulation time. Several trials were then conducted with noise of increasing amplitude variance. Extracellular recordings were <P> a prestigious Sloan-Swartz Fellowship in Theoretical Neurobiology at Caltech, and in 2007 he became an assistant professor in the Department of Cognitive Science at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. In 2010 he took the post of Director of Human Cognition at a new research institute called 2ai Labs. Perceive the present Changizi says that visual illusions are due to a neural lag which most humans experience while awake. When light hits the retina, about one-tenth of a second goes by before the brain translates the signal into a visual perception of the world. Changizi asserts that the human visual system has evolved <P> The Nurse (2017 film) Plot Emily, a young girl with bandages wrapped around her eyes, suddenly hears the door to her ward opening and the scraping sound of a gurney moving. As she goes outside to investigate, holding on to her drip for balance, a strange nurse approaches, whom Emily cannot see. Panicking, she gets back to her ward and hits the call button for help. The nurse appears and tells Emily in a normal voice that she can remove the bandaging. After the nurse does so, Emily turns around to see the nurse’s disfigured, demonic face smiling back at her. <P> year 1108. Wall-gazing Tanlin, in the preface to Two Entrances and Four Acts, and Daoxuan, in the Further Biographies of Eminent Monks, mention a practice of Bodhidharma's termed "wall-gazing" (壁觀 bìguān). Both Tanlin and Daoxuan associate this "wall-gazing" with "quieting [the] mind" (Chinese: 安心; pinyin: ānxīn). In the Two Entrances and Four Acts, traditionally attributed to Bodhidharma, the term "wall-gazing" is given as follows: Those who turn from delusion back to reality, who meditate on walls, the absence of self and other, the oneness of mortal and sage, and who remain unmoved even by scriptures are in complete and unspoken agreement with <P> brainstem (medulla) respectively. Differential diagnosis It may be mistaken for choreoathetosis, however, these abnormal movements are relatively constant irrespective of whether the eyes are open or closed and occur in the absence of proprioceptive loss. <P> of coordination of movement, typified by the undershoot or overshoot of intended position with the hand, arm, leg, or eye. It is sometimes described as an inability to judge distance or scale. As Bálint states, optic ataxia impaired his patient's daily activities, since, ‘while cutting a slice of meat...which he held with a fork in his left hand, ...would search for it outside the plate with the knife in his right hand’, or ‘...while lighting a cigarette he often lit the middle and not the end’. Bálint pointed out the systematic nature of this disorder, which was evident in the patient's <P> processing. Irritation of visual association cortices (Brodmann's areas 18 and 19) cause complex visual hallucinations. The second mechanism is deafferentation, the interruption or destruction of the afferent connections of nerve cells, of the visual system, caused by lesions, leading to the removal of normal inhibitory processes on cortical input to visual association areas, leading to complex hallucinations as a release phenomenon. The third mechanism has to do with the reticular activating system, which plays a role in the maintenance of arousal. Lesions in the brain stem can cause visual hallucinations. Visual hallucinations are frequent in those with certain sleep disorders, occurring more <P> ataxia), relates to loss of sense of position in the legs and feet that are normally compensated for by the patient who uses vision to provide that information. But when the eyes are closed or in the dark, the loss of sense of position causes unsteadiness and sometimes falls, as Romberg described. He was one of a tiny number of truly innovative neurologists in Europe who in the 1820-50 period introduced order and clinical observation and deduction into what was then an elementary discipline. He is credited with having been "the first clinical neurologist". According to Pearce, Romberg acquired much of the <P> commercial version of the God helmet found no difference in response to graphic images whether the device was on or off. Neuropsychology and neuroimaging The first researcher to note and catalog the abnormal experiences associated with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) was neurologist Norman Geschwind, who noted a set of religious behavioral traits associated with TLE seizures. These include hypergraphia, hyperreligiosity, reduced sexual interest, fainting spells, and pedantism, often collectively ascribed to a condition known as Geschwind syndrome. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran explored the neural basis of the hyperreligiosity seen in TLE using the galvanic skin response (GSR), which correlates with emotional arousal, <P> environment trigger a schema to begin. The bottom-up feature is what is seen in ideational apraxia because an object appears to capture the attention of the patient. However, the schema that corresponds to the object cannot be fulfilled. For some reason there is a disconnect in the brain that does not allow the individual to produce the sequence of actions that they know should be happening with the object that is in their visual pathway. It is this area that is still an area of ambiguity to physicians and researchers alike. They are not sure <P> Miosis Physiology of the photomotor reflex Light entering the eye strikes three different photoreceptors in the retina: the familiar rods and cones used in image forming and the more newly discovered photosensitive ganglion cells. The ganglion cells give information about ambient light levels, and react sluggishly compared to the rods and cones. Signals from photosensitive ganglion cells have multiple functions including acute suppression of the hormone melatonin, entrainment of the body's circadian rhythms and regulation of the size of the pupil. The retinal photoceptors convert light stimuli into electric impulses. Nerves involved in the resizing of the pupil <P> in the ears. This amount of sensation has a definable value and is often considered to be a watch ticking in an otherwise soundless environment 20 feet away. Equilibrium Semi circular ducts, which are connected directly to the cochlea, can interpret and convey to the brain information about equilibrium by a similar method as the one used for hearing. Hair cells in these parts of the ear protrude kinocilia and stereocilia into a gelatinous material that lines the ducts of this canal. In parts of these semi circular canals, specifically the maculae, calcium carbonate crystals known as statoconia rest on	question: why does pushing on your closed eyelids gives you weird visions? context: <P> and eye-opening. <P> to concentrate. It increases the power of memory and brings the mind to a state of awareness, attention and focus. Description The practitioner may fix attention on a symbol or yantra, such as the Om symbol, a black dot, the image of some deity or guru, a flame, a mirror or any point, and stare at it. A candle should be three to four feet (1 metre plus) away, the flame level with the eyes. Relax but keep the spine erect and remain wakeful and vigilant. The eyes begin to water. Some authorities recommend that the eyes should then be <P> Trāṭaka Trataka (Sanskrit n. त्राटक Trāṭaka: "to look, or to gaze") is a yogic purification (a shatkarma) and a tantric method of meditation that involves staring at a single point such as a small object, black dot or candle flame. It is said to bring energy to the "third eye" (ājňā chakra) and promote various psychic abilities. Purpose By fixing the gaze the restless mind too comes to a halt. It is said also that control of the ciliary (blink) reflex stimulates the pineal gland, which Kundalini Yoga identify with the third eye. Trāṭaka is said to enhance the ability <P> had carried with him when he felt his vision problems lift and loaned it to Groeschel who blessed himself with it. Br. Shawn Conrad O'Connor, C.F.R. was with Groeschel at the time of his death. O'Connor stated that after "kind of a rough day" of pain, Groeschel and he prayed the rosary accompanying the recording of Mother Angelica on EWTN. After the prayer O'Connor noticed that Groeschel was unresponsive and he could not find his pulse. After a few times asking for a response O'Connor noticed his mouth and eyes move, and felt that Groeschel was either asleep or in a <P> is usually worsened when the lack of proprioceptive input cannot be compensated for by visual input, such as in poorly lit environments. Physicians can find evidence of sensory ataxia during physical examination by having the patient stand with his/her feet together and eyes shut. In affected patients, this will cause the instability to worsen markedly, producing wide oscillations and possibly a fall. This is called a positive Romberg's test. Worsening of the finger-pointing test with the eyes closed is another feature of sensory ataxia. Also, when the patient is standing with arms and hands extended toward the physician, if the eyes <P> Pseudoathetosis Presentation Analogous to Romberg's sign, the abnormal posturing is most pronounced when the eyes are closed as visual inputs are unavailable to guide corrective movements. Paradoxically, eye closure may decrease the amount of movement as the visual cues probably trigger corrective movements which return the limb to the desired "baseline" allowing a new phase of involuntary drift before a subsequent corrective phase occurs. Variants Hemipseudaoathetosis refers to pseudoathetosis on one side of the body, usually the upper limb and is most commonly caused by a lesion affecting the cuneate tract or cuneate nucleus in the cervical spine or lower <P> gave initiation to Mehi, teaching him the art of 'drishti sadhan'(the Yoga of Inner Light – a technique to still one's gaze in the inner sky in front of the centre of the two eyes, called variously as the Sushumna, Sukhamana, the Ajna Chakra, the Third Eye, the Tenth Door, the Shiva Netra etc.)aimed at transcending the Gross Sphere, the Realm of Darkness and, thus, moving into the Realm of Light, the Astral Plane. As the grateful Mehi tried to touch Mr. Rajendra Nath's feet in reverence, the latter forcibly stopped him and told, "Look, I am not your Guru. <P> each condition. For example, migraine sufferers often report fortification illusions. Neuroscience Perception is linked to specific brain activity and so can be elicited by brain stimulation. The (illusory) percepts that can be evoked range from simple phosphenes (detections of lights in the visual field) to high-level percepts. In a single-case study on a patient undergoing presurgical evaluation for epilepsy treatment, electrical stimulation at the left temporo-parietal junction evoked the percept of a nearby (illusory) person who "closely 'shadowed' changes in the patient's body position and posture". <P> and its corresponding section of the saphenous nerve were removed, mounted on a test stand immersed in interstitial fluid. Slowly adapting type 1 (SA1) mechanoreceptors output signals in response to mechanical vibrations below 500 Hz. The skin was mechanically stimulated with a broadband pressure signal with varying amounts of broadband noise using the up-and-down motion of a cylindrical probe. The intensity of the pressure signal was tested without noise and then set at a near sub-threshold intensity that would evoke 10 action potentials over a 60-second stimulation time. Several trials were then conducted with noise of increasing amplitude variance. Extracellular recordings were <P> a prestigious Sloan-Swartz Fellowship in Theoretical Neurobiology at Caltech, and in 2007 he became an assistant professor in the Department of Cognitive Science at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. In 2010 he took the post of Director of Human Cognition at a new research institute called 2ai Labs. Perceive the present Changizi says that visual illusions are due to a neural lag which most humans experience while awake. When light hits the retina, about one-tenth of a second goes by before the brain translates the signal into a visual perception of the world. Changizi asserts that the human visual system has evolved <P> The Nurse (2017 film) Plot Emily, a young girl with bandages wrapped around her eyes, suddenly hears the door to her ward opening and the scraping sound of a gurney moving. As she goes outside to investigate, holding on to her drip for balance, a strange nurse approaches, whom Emily cannot see. Panicking, she gets back to her ward and hits the call button for help. The nurse appears and tells Emily in a normal voice that she can remove the bandaging. After the nurse does so, Emily turns around to see the nurse’s disfigured, demonic face smiling back at her. <P> year 1108. Wall-gazing Tanlin, in the preface to Two Entrances and Four Acts, and Daoxuan, in the Further Biographies of Eminent Monks, mention a practice of Bodhidharma's termed "wall-gazing" (壁觀 bìguān). Both Tanlin and Daoxuan associate this "wall-gazing" with "quieting [the] mind" (Chinese: 安心; pinyin: ānxīn). In the Two Entrances and Four Acts, traditionally attributed to Bodhidharma, the term "wall-gazing" is given as follows: Those who turn from delusion back to reality, who meditate on walls, the absence of self and other, the oneness of mortal and sage, and who remain unmoved even by scriptures are in complete and unspoken agreement with <P> brainstem (medulla) respectively. Differential diagnosis It may be mistaken for choreoathetosis, however, these abnormal movements are relatively constant irrespective of whether the eyes are open or closed and occur in the absence of proprioceptive loss. <P> of coordination of movement, typified by the undershoot or overshoot of intended position with the hand, arm, leg, or eye. It is sometimes described as an inability to judge distance or scale. As Bálint states, optic ataxia impaired his patient's daily activities, since, ‘while cutting a slice of meat...which he held with a fork in his left hand, ...would search for it outside the plate with the knife in his right hand’, or ‘...while lighting a cigarette he often lit the middle and not the end’. Bálint pointed out the systematic nature of this disorder, which was evident in the patient's <P> processing. Irritation of visual association cortices (Brodmann's areas 18 and 19) cause complex visual hallucinations. The second mechanism is deafferentation, the interruption or destruction of the afferent connections of nerve cells, of the visual system, caused by lesions, leading to the removal of normal inhibitory processes on cortical input to visual association areas, leading to complex hallucinations as a release phenomenon. The third mechanism has to do with the reticular activating system, which plays a role in the maintenance of arousal. Lesions in the brain stem can cause visual hallucinations. Visual hallucinations are frequent in those with certain sleep disorders, occurring more <P> ataxia), relates to loss of sense of position in the legs and feet that are normally compensated for by the patient who uses vision to provide that information. But when the eyes are closed or in the dark, the loss of sense of position causes unsteadiness and sometimes falls, as Romberg described. He was one of a tiny number of truly innovative neurologists in Europe who in the 1820-50 period introduced order and clinical observation and deduction into what was then an elementary discipline. He is credited with having been "the first clinical neurologist". According to Pearce, Romberg acquired much of the <P> commercial version of the God helmet found no difference in response to graphic images whether the device was on or off. Neuropsychology and neuroimaging The first researcher to note and catalog the abnormal experiences associated with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) was neurologist Norman Geschwind, who noted a set of religious behavioral traits associated with TLE seizures. These include hypergraphia, hyperreligiosity, reduced sexual interest, fainting spells, and pedantism, often collectively ascribed to a condition known as Geschwind syndrome. Vilayanur S. Ramachandran explored the neural basis of the hyperreligiosity seen in TLE using the galvanic skin response (GSR), which correlates with emotional arousal, <P> environment trigger a schema to begin. The bottom-up feature is what is seen in ideational apraxia because an object appears to capture the attention of the patient. However, the schema that corresponds to the object cannot be fulfilled. For some reason there is a disconnect in the brain that does not allow the individual to produce the sequence of actions that they know should be happening with the object that is in their visual pathway. It is this area that is still an area of ambiguity to physicians and researchers alike. They are not sure <P> Miosis Physiology of the photomotor reflex Light entering the eye strikes three different photoreceptors in the retina: the familiar rods and cones used in image forming and the more newly discovered photosensitive ganglion cells. The ganglion cells give information about ambient light levels, and react sluggishly compared to the rods and cones. Signals from photosensitive ganglion cells have multiple functions including acute suppression of the hormone melatonin, entrainment of the body's circadian rhythms and regulation of the size of the pupil. The retinal photoceptors convert light stimuli into electric impulses. Nerves involved in the resizing of the pupil <P> in the ears. This amount of sensation has a definable value and is often considered to be a watch ticking in an otherwise soundless environment 20 feet away. Equilibrium Semi circular ducts, which are connected directly to the cochlea, can interpret and convey to the brain information about equilibrium by a similar method as the one used for hearing. Hair cells in these parts of the ear protrude kinocilia and stereocilia into a gelatinous material that lines the ducts of this canal. In parts of these semi circular canals, specifically the maculae, calcium carbonate crystals known as statoconia rest on	answer: Increasing the pressure inside the eyeball (eg. by gently pressing on them, raising blood pressure due to coughing or exertion, etc.) directly stimulates the cells of the retina, causing them to signal as if they were detecting light. These non-light images are called 'phosphenes'.
186,818	4bdgol	What did ancient Germany look like?	Just a question:There was an answer recommending reading (albeit with a disclaimer about his veracity and motives) Tacitus here yesterday, but now all I see "there doesnt seem to be anything here".Why is that? Is recommending Tacitus against a rule?	[ "Just a question:\nThere was an answer recommending reading (albeit with a disclaimer about his veracity and motives) Tacitus here yesterday, but now all I see \"there doesnt seem to be anything here\".\nWhy is that? Is recommending Tacitus against a rule?" ]	1	[]	0	<P> service area. In the south there were four buildings, of which three shared the same facade. The function of the smaller buildings to the south is not clear, but they may have been used for workshops, storage and for housing the count's staff. The stone construction is unusual, since most buildings of that period in France were of wood, other than the great royal residences. Lifestyle Findings include coins, tools, weapons, many horse fittings, small glass vessels, flat glass plates, furniture of stone, bone and wood, ceramic vessels and small earthenware objects. There is evidence of weaving and a smithy, with abundant metal objects. These <P> of housing as well as Germanic pottery vessels that were found all across Gaul. Germanic peoples in Gaul lived in communities that were built by Germanic buildings, Germanic pottery and traditional burial rituals which clearly highlighted that they were not bothered with changing the culture they found, but rather merging into the existing condition. <P> the 15th Century Uzerche's development went from strength to strength. Louis XI visited the city in 1463 and decided to assign half the seats of the royal assize court from his Senechal to Uzerche. Manly newly created nobles (noblesse de robe) settled in Uzerche, building hostels, great houses and castles such as Chateau Pontier, Hotel des Joyet de Maubec, Maison Boyer-Chammard, Maison Eyssartier, Maison de Tayac and Hotel Becharie. This continued through to the 16th Century. To this day the skyline or Uzerche, with its many towers, bears witness to this spate of building. In 1558 the city obtained its <P> on the Magdalensberg in the early 1st century b.c., later replaced by the Roman town Virunum. Fortified hilltop settlements (oppida), e.g. Kulm (east Styria), Idunum (mod. Villach), Burg (Schwarzenbach), and Braunsberg (Hainburg), were centers of public life. Some cities such as Linz (Lentos) date back to this period also. First phase: Goths, 300–500 AD The Great Migration (Völkerwanderung) sealed the decline of Roman power in Austria. In the First Phase (300–500 AD) the Roman Empire was increasingly harassed by Germanic tribes from the 5th Century, including Goths and Vandals. As the fabric of the Roman Empire crumbled, the ability of <P> occasion to move, the joints of their iron clothing adapted themselves equally to any position.” Ammianus (16.10.8) Also the emperor Julian the Apostate made a detailed description: "Your cavalry was almost unlimited in numbers and they all sat their horses like statues, while their limbs were fitted with armour that followed closely the outline of the human form. It covers the arms from wrist to elbow and thence to the shoulder, while a cuirass made of small pieces protects the shoulders, back and breast. The head and face are covered by a metal mask which makes its wearer look like a glittering <P> occurred within the area giving it its current appearance with the majority of the built environment dating from the 1950s and 60s. <P> 1866. After the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 Goslar became part of the new Prussian Province of Hanover and was a popular retirement resort for retired city dwellers. Citizens of Berlin, Hanover and Braunschweig had villas built at Steinberg and Georgenberg, especially during the heyday of the Gründerzeit. Historical fervour encouraged by the House of Hohenzollern resulted in the restoration of the Imperial Palace in 1868 and it was developed into a national monument. The First World War and subsequent turmoil curbed this phase. 1000 year celebrations and "Imperial Peasants' Town" (1922–1945) Although the town's 1,000th anniversary was still celebrated in 1922 <P> the Sponheims’ arms. In the late 19th century, though, the old arms were reinstated. Buildings Worth putting foremost from the point of view of sightseeing are the two churches, one Lutheran and one Catholic. Very colourful old timber-frame houses can be found in narrow, very impressive laneways that bring back some of the flair of the Middle Ages. In the area near the church meadow are also remnants of the mediaeval town fortifications. As well as its historical timber-frame houses, Enkirch also has many Classicist buildings built between the mid 19th century and the end of the First World War, among which is <P> Godelhausen today have a 19th-century appearance. At Hauptstraße 67 stands the Godelhausen Mill, which was renovated in 1788 and in 1903 converted to a waterworks for Kusel according to plans by Regional Master Builder (Bezirksbaumeister) Kleinhans. Antiquity The Potzberg area was already settled in prehistoric times, to which archaeological finds bear witness. There have never been any confirmed prehistoric finds within Theisbergstegen's current limits. However, potsherds and bones from prehistoric times have supposedly been found, although their origins, and even their current whereabouts, are now unknown. Also apparently found was a “Gaulish coin”, which has disappeared. There was a Roman <P> area. Among the buildings here, which were thoroughly excavated in 1953-1955, was the main building, a palacelike villa with a risalto, an ostentatious portico and corner turrets. This 26-room villa rustica had floor heating by hypocaust and a luxurious bathing wing with cold, lukewarm and hot baths. Near the main building stood drying ovens for grain and smoked foods: a clear hint that there were both extensive cropraising and significant livestock raising here. In 1200, Weitersbach had its first documentary mention as Widemarsbach. Municipal council The council is made up of 6 council members, who were elected by majority vote at <P> and so on. The people were the mech. The chief ruler of a methlum was perhaps a zilach. Family The princely tombs were not of individuals. The inscription evidence shows that families were interred there over long periods, marking the growth of the aristocratic family as a fixed institution, parallel to the gens at Rome and perhaps even its model. The Etruscans could have used any model of the eastern Mediterranean. That the growth of this class is related to the new acquisition of wealth through trade is unquestioned. The wealthiest cities were located near the coast. At the centre <P> rooms, organised around a square court. Several of the rooms had been furnished with mosaics. To the north, the baths and other rooms were heated by hypocausts. The materials used were pisé (clay and grit well mixed and rammed down to form a wall), cob (a similar mixture of earth of a buttery consistency or marl, chopped straw and perhaps gravel) and timber framing, typical materials of Normandy’s later building tradition. Lillebonne is on the site of the main town of the Caletes, the Gaulish tribe of the region. The Gallo-Roman town was established with the name Juliobona, under Caesar Augustus <P> town was rather heavily settled, bearing witness to which are the extensive archaeological finds in Medard and Lohnweiler, for instance. Within Lauterecken's own limits in the late 19th century, a farmer discovered a Gallo-Roman villa rustica. As well, a Roman gravestone was once incorporated into a house wall in the town. Roman roads have been found on the heights around Lauterecken. Frankish times and Christianization After the Romans, who had occupied the area for more than three centuries, had withdrawn, the Franks began thrusting into the land, advancing their imperial realm well beyond and westwards into what is now France, <P> Lake Constance and the Alpine Rhine Valley, a funeral site at Elsbethen and a few other sites with microlithic artifacts which demonstrate the transition from living as hunter-gatherers and sedentary farmers and ranchers. Neolithic During the Neolithic era, most of those areas of Austria that were amenable to agriculture and were sources of raw materials were settled. Remains include those of the Linear pottery culture, one of the first agrarian cultures in Europe. The first recorded rural settlement from this time was at Brunn am Gebirge in Mödling. Austria's first industrial monument, the chert mine at Mauer-Antonshöhe in the Mauer <P> was followed by the mass-construction of large Panel System apartment blocks, most of which were built outside the city centre and thus do not encroach upon the beauty of the old or new towns. Some examples of the new style (e.g., Hotel Cracovia) recently listed as heritage monuments were built during the latter half of the 20th century in Kraków. After the Revolutions of 1989 and the birth of the Third Republic in the latter half of the 20th century, a number of new architectural projects were completed, including the construction of large business parks and commercial facilities such as the <P> partly fueled by the repressive domestic scene that diverted attention to domesticity and the arts. With the reign of Franz Joseph (1848–1916) came a new era of grandeur, typified by the Belle Époque style, with extensive building and the construction of the Ringstrasse in Vienna with its monumental buildings (officially opened 1 May 1865, after seven years). Architects of the period included Heinrich Ferstel (Votivkirche, Museum für angewandte Kunst Wien), Friedrich von Schmidt (Rathaus), Theophil Hansen (Parliament), Gottfried Semper (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Burgtheater), Eduard van der Nüll (Opera) and August Sicardsburg (Opera). 1897 saw the resignation of a group of artists <P> plain, unadorned farmhouses in farmsteads, typically enclosed by high earth banks, walls and a sheltering square of trees. (see also Architecture of Normandy). Independent Gaul Julius Caesar’s account of his military campaigns (Bellum Gallicum, The Gallic War) gives details of the Caletes, partly ancestors of the Cauchois (see Book II, 4, 9, ; Book VII, 75, 3–4, Book VIII, 7, 4) Roman Gaul Rescue archaeology undertaken on the line of the A29 autoroute revealed several Gallo-Roman villas. One of the most important is that of Sainte-Marguerite-sur-Mer, on the coast to the west of Dieppe. The archaeologists found a complex of several <P> Ann Gunter Ann Gunter is an art historian and Bertha and Max Dressler Professor in the Humanities at Northwestern University. Her work focuses on visual and material culture of the ancient Near East and neighboring parts of the eastern Mediterranean. <P> stronger and less expensive. The new age of railways and the enormous increase in travel that it caused required new train stations, large hotels, exposition halls and department stores in Paris. While the exteriors of most Second Empire monumental buildings usually remained eclectic, a revolution was taking place inside; based on the model of The Crystal Palace in London (1851), Parisian architects began to use cast-iron frames and walls of glass in their buildings. The most dramatic use of iron and glass was in the new central market of Paris, Les Halles (1853–1870), an ensemble of huge iron and <P> possibilities, regional, ethnic and religious specificities, the taste of the epoch, and many other forms of life. The studies can be carried out by analyzing the material remains or continents created and saved for most of the early 18th century to today. Many buildings were preserved in their original condition, especially from the second half of the 19th century (like the Spirta House from 1855), while a smaller number of buildings from the earliest period, from the period of the first decades of the 18th century, when Zemun became part of the Austrian Empire, was only partially preserved in its	question: What did ancient Germany look like? context: <P> service area. In the south there were four buildings, of which three shared the same facade. The function of the smaller buildings to the south is not clear, but they may have been used for workshops, storage and for housing the count's staff. The stone construction is unusual, since most buildings of that period in France were of wood, other than the great royal residences. Lifestyle Findings include coins, tools, weapons, many horse fittings, small glass vessels, flat glass plates, furniture of stone, bone and wood, ceramic vessels and small earthenware objects. There is evidence of weaving and a smithy, with abundant metal objects. These <P> of housing as well as Germanic pottery vessels that were found all across Gaul. Germanic peoples in Gaul lived in communities that were built by Germanic buildings, Germanic pottery and traditional burial rituals which clearly highlighted that they were not bothered with changing the culture they found, but rather merging into the existing condition. <P> the 15th Century Uzerche's development went from strength to strength. Louis XI visited the city in 1463 and decided to assign half the seats of the royal assize court from his Senechal to Uzerche. Manly newly created nobles (noblesse de robe) settled in Uzerche, building hostels, great houses and castles such as Chateau Pontier, Hotel des Joyet de Maubec, Maison Boyer-Chammard, Maison Eyssartier, Maison de Tayac and Hotel Becharie. This continued through to the 16th Century. To this day the skyline or Uzerche, with its many towers, bears witness to this spate of building. In 1558 the city obtained its <P> on the Magdalensberg in the early 1st century b.c., later replaced by the Roman town Virunum. Fortified hilltop settlements (oppida), e.g. Kulm (east Styria), Idunum (mod. Villach), Burg (Schwarzenbach), and Braunsberg (Hainburg), were centers of public life. Some cities such as Linz (Lentos) date back to this period also. First phase: Goths, 300–500 AD The Great Migration (Völkerwanderung) sealed the decline of Roman power in Austria. In the First Phase (300–500 AD) the Roman Empire was increasingly harassed by Germanic tribes from the 5th Century, including Goths and Vandals. As the fabric of the Roman Empire crumbled, the ability of <P> occasion to move, the joints of their iron clothing adapted themselves equally to any position.” Ammianus (16.10.8) Also the emperor Julian the Apostate made a detailed description: "Your cavalry was almost unlimited in numbers and they all sat their horses like statues, while their limbs were fitted with armour that followed closely the outline of the human form. It covers the arms from wrist to elbow and thence to the shoulder, while a cuirass made of small pieces protects the shoulders, back and breast. The head and face are covered by a metal mask which makes its wearer look like a glittering <P> occurred within the area giving it its current appearance with the majority of the built environment dating from the 1950s and 60s. <P> 1866. After the Austro-Prussian War of 1866 Goslar became part of the new Prussian Province of Hanover and was a popular retirement resort for retired city dwellers. Citizens of Berlin, Hanover and Braunschweig had villas built at Steinberg and Georgenberg, especially during the heyday of the Gründerzeit. Historical fervour encouraged by the House of Hohenzollern resulted in the restoration of the Imperial Palace in 1868 and it was developed into a national monument. The First World War and subsequent turmoil curbed this phase. 1000 year celebrations and "Imperial Peasants' Town" (1922–1945) Although the town's 1,000th anniversary was still celebrated in 1922 <P> the Sponheims’ arms. In the late 19th century, though, the old arms were reinstated. Buildings Worth putting foremost from the point of view of sightseeing are the two churches, one Lutheran and one Catholic. Very colourful old timber-frame houses can be found in narrow, very impressive laneways that bring back some of the flair of the Middle Ages. In the area near the church meadow are also remnants of the mediaeval town fortifications. As well as its historical timber-frame houses, Enkirch also has many Classicist buildings built between the mid 19th century and the end of the First World War, among which is <P> Godelhausen today have a 19th-century appearance. At Hauptstraße 67 stands the Godelhausen Mill, which was renovated in 1788 and in 1903 converted to a waterworks for Kusel according to plans by Regional Master Builder (Bezirksbaumeister) Kleinhans. Antiquity The Potzberg area was already settled in prehistoric times, to which archaeological finds bear witness. There have never been any confirmed prehistoric finds within Theisbergstegen's current limits. However, potsherds and bones from prehistoric times have supposedly been found, although their origins, and even their current whereabouts, are now unknown. Also apparently found was a “Gaulish coin”, which has disappeared. There was a Roman <P> area. Among the buildings here, which were thoroughly excavated in 1953-1955, was the main building, a palacelike villa with a risalto, an ostentatious portico and corner turrets. This 26-room villa rustica had floor heating by hypocaust and a luxurious bathing wing with cold, lukewarm and hot baths. Near the main building stood drying ovens for grain and smoked foods: a clear hint that there were both extensive cropraising and significant livestock raising here. In 1200, Weitersbach had its first documentary mention as Widemarsbach. Municipal council The council is made up of 6 council members, who were elected by majority vote at <P> and so on. The people were the mech. The chief ruler of a methlum was perhaps a zilach. Family The princely tombs were not of individuals. The inscription evidence shows that families were interred there over long periods, marking the growth of the aristocratic family as a fixed institution, parallel to the gens at Rome and perhaps even its model. The Etruscans could have used any model of the eastern Mediterranean. That the growth of this class is related to the new acquisition of wealth through trade is unquestioned. The wealthiest cities were located near the coast. At the centre <P> rooms, organised around a square court. Several of the rooms had been furnished with mosaics. To the north, the baths and other rooms were heated by hypocausts. The materials used were pisé (clay and grit well mixed and rammed down to form a wall), cob (a similar mixture of earth of a buttery consistency or marl, chopped straw and perhaps gravel) and timber framing, typical materials of Normandy’s later building tradition. Lillebonne is on the site of the main town of the Caletes, the Gaulish tribe of the region. The Gallo-Roman town was established with the name Juliobona, under Caesar Augustus <P> town was rather heavily settled, bearing witness to which are the extensive archaeological finds in Medard and Lohnweiler, for instance. Within Lauterecken's own limits in the late 19th century, a farmer discovered a Gallo-Roman villa rustica. As well, a Roman gravestone was once incorporated into a house wall in the town. Roman roads have been found on the heights around Lauterecken. Frankish times and Christianization After the Romans, who had occupied the area for more than three centuries, had withdrawn, the Franks began thrusting into the land, advancing their imperial realm well beyond and westwards into what is now France, <P> Lake Constance and the Alpine Rhine Valley, a funeral site at Elsbethen and a few other sites with microlithic artifacts which demonstrate the transition from living as hunter-gatherers and sedentary farmers and ranchers. Neolithic During the Neolithic era, most of those areas of Austria that were amenable to agriculture and were sources of raw materials were settled. Remains include those of the Linear pottery culture, one of the first agrarian cultures in Europe. The first recorded rural settlement from this time was at Brunn am Gebirge in Mödling. Austria's first industrial monument, the chert mine at Mauer-Antonshöhe in the Mauer <P> was followed by the mass-construction of large Panel System apartment blocks, most of which were built outside the city centre and thus do not encroach upon the beauty of the old or new towns. Some examples of the new style (e.g., Hotel Cracovia) recently listed as heritage monuments were built during the latter half of the 20th century in Kraków. After the Revolutions of 1989 and the birth of the Third Republic in the latter half of the 20th century, a number of new architectural projects were completed, including the construction of large business parks and commercial facilities such as the <P> partly fueled by the repressive domestic scene that diverted attention to domesticity and the arts. With the reign of Franz Joseph (1848–1916) came a new era of grandeur, typified by the Belle Époque style, with extensive building and the construction of the Ringstrasse in Vienna with its monumental buildings (officially opened 1 May 1865, after seven years). Architects of the period included Heinrich Ferstel (Votivkirche, Museum für angewandte Kunst Wien), Friedrich von Schmidt (Rathaus), Theophil Hansen (Parliament), Gottfried Semper (Kunsthistorisches Museum, Kunsthistorisches Museum, Burgtheater), Eduard van der Nüll (Opera) and August Sicardsburg (Opera). 1897 saw the resignation of a group of artists <P> plain, unadorned farmhouses in farmsteads, typically enclosed by high earth banks, walls and a sheltering square of trees. (see also Architecture of Normandy). Independent Gaul Julius Caesar’s account of his military campaigns (Bellum Gallicum, The Gallic War) gives details of the Caletes, partly ancestors of the Cauchois (see Book II, 4, 9, ; Book VII, 75, 3–4, Book VIII, 7, 4) Roman Gaul Rescue archaeology undertaken on the line of the A29 autoroute revealed several Gallo-Roman villas. One of the most important is that of Sainte-Marguerite-sur-Mer, on the coast to the west of Dieppe. The archaeologists found a complex of several <P> Ann Gunter Ann Gunter is an art historian and Bertha and Max Dressler Professor in the Humanities at Northwestern University. Her work focuses on visual and material culture of the ancient Near East and neighboring parts of the eastern Mediterranean. <P> stronger and less expensive. The new age of railways and the enormous increase in travel that it caused required new train stations, large hotels, exposition halls and department stores in Paris. While the exteriors of most Second Empire monumental buildings usually remained eclectic, a revolution was taking place inside; based on the model of The Crystal Palace in London (1851), Parisian architects began to use cast-iron frames and walls of glass in their buildings. The most dramatic use of iron and glass was in the new central market of Paris, Les Halles (1853–1870), an ensemble of huge iron and <P> possibilities, regional, ethnic and religious specificities, the taste of the epoch, and many other forms of life. The studies can be carried out by analyzing the material remains or continents created and saved for most of the early 18th century to today. Many buildings were preserved in their original condition, especially from the second half of the 19th century (like the Spirta House from 1855), while a smaller number of buildings from the earliest period, from the period of the first decades of the 18th century, when Zemun became part of the Austrian Empire, was only partially preserved in its	answer: Just a question:There was an answer recommending reading (albeit with a disclaimer about his veracity and motives) Tacitus here yesterday, but now all I see "there doesnt seem to be anything here".Why is that? Is recommending Tacitus against a rule?
203,740	38aki4	why are cable companies constantly trying to push their home phone service? most people already have cell phones and it sounds like an added burden to their existing infrastructure.	Somewhere around 40% of Americans live without a landline in their home. Virtually all of those homes had a phone at one time, the streets that those homes are on all have telephone poles/lines and the all the infrastructure is already in place to operate them all. There's not much that the cable companies have to do if you opt to pay the monthly fee beyond flipping a switch.	[ "Money, if they can make $10/mo off of landline service, why not? \n \n > added burden to their existing infrastructure \n \nWhat burden would it create? Adding landlines aren't that difficult.", "Because they want to stay in business. A lot of people still prefer home phone services, especially for emergenc...	4	[ "Money, if they can make $10/mo off of landline service, why not? \n \n > added burden to their existing infrastructure \n \nWhat burden would it create? Adding landlines aren't that difficult.", "Somewhere around 40% of Americans live without a landline in their home. Virtually all of those homes had a pho...	3	<P> factors inevitably contributes to increased service quality. <P> little incentive to compete over another in establishing relevant facilities. This problem is particularly salient for indigenous parts of the U.S, where tribal lands "have some of the lowest internet access rates of any demographic". Policy goals of equity, not profit, have been driving the few access projects targeted towards these communities as a result of unrewarding demand. In other circumstances, where demand is high enough to propel investment, the fixed costs associated with building broadband infrastructure are high enough to deter even the larger providers. Sprint claims it spent "tens of millions of dollars" in their checking for compliance <P> expanding AT&T's interest in re-building it local access services business. <P> support their own set-top boxes. The adoption proceeded slowly with 141,000 units by February 2006. The resistance softened somewhat with the July 2007 FCC ban on integrated security in set-top boxes, which required all new set-top boxes to use CableCARDs as their decryption mechanism. By June 2009, the top 10 "incumbent" U.S. cable operators had deployed more than 14 million operator-supplied set-tops with CableCARDs and 437,800 CableCARD modules for use in retail devices. The National Cable Television Association reported in April 2016 that only 621,400 CableCARDs were deployed for use in retail devices by the nine largest incumbent cable <P> areas where private companies cannot own and operate public broadband networks. Enhanced services are included whereby townspeople can benefit from a greater diversity of value-added products. Security is a further issue with the need for a reliable integrated high-speed communications infrastructure at both a national, and a local level necessary for hospitals, schools, businesses etc. to provide a quick and large-scale responses to emergencies. The city of Philadelphia had the nonprofit Wireless Philadelphia accept bid from Earthlink to set up a network in 2004. "Philadelphia’s expectations were high; the city was eager, optimistic and, by the end of the decade, altogether <P> subscriptions was 13.35 million. Of those, 7.33 million were from the urban segment and 6.02 million from the rural segment. The subscription growth rate on a monthly basis is 55% for urban segments and 45% for rural segments. Given this context, it is possible to consider the mobile phone as an economically viable instrument to enable inclusive access to financial services. Impact of mobile phones on welfare Mobile telephony has had an impact mainly by allowing for agents in information restricted areas to engage in more optimal arbitrage. The adoption of mobile phones by fishermen and wholesalers resulted in a <P> has completed about 35 years of service in the IFS. <P> detracts from global network providers' user experience and branding, and BYOA is therefore often regarded as an interim approach. <P> carrier, represent $2.7 billion per year for which they can bill subscribers. Often, incumbent carriers will threaten small communities with substantial increases in the monthly cost of an individual line if rate center consolidation expands local calling areas. The rare exceptions have been small groups of suburbs which each already have the same local calling area; one unified rate center would allow wire-line subscribers to keep existing numbers if they move from one of the communities to another. Nonetheless, a proliferation of multiple small rate centers increases the quantity of wasted numbers as multiple competitive local exchange carriers each obtain blocks <P> in the fixed-line segment are determined by the Federal Tariff Service on an annual basis, taking into consideration inflation and the operators' expenses. The price competition in the long-distance segment increased as mobile operators began implementing promotional tariffs to stimulate voice traffic growth after the crisis (long-distance traffic is predominantly built by corporate clients). At the same time, traditional operators had limited room for maneuver as intra-zonal and domestic LD tariffs, which are subject to regulation by the government, remained flat over the last three years. As a result, mobile operators managed to bite off a heavy share of intraregional <P> example, local as well as long distance calls are now open to competition), the incumbent has so far managed in many areas to restrict access and protect its monopoly. For example, wholesale line rental is still not available to alternative operators, making it necessary for subscribers to pay two bills (one for line rental to the incumbent, and one to the chosen operator). The incumbent has so far managed to prevent any operator from connecting its own fiber optic cable at local loop unbundling exchanges, though it is technically required to allow this. Recently, the incumbent announced it <P> service disconnection of the defaulter consumer, customers’ house wiring inspection, new electric connection, meter installation, change of old or unserviceable meter etc. DESCO has outsourced a group of experienced workers for field level activities, including other logistic support services like security service, cleaning service and partial transport service. To this end, DESCO engaged in several experienced contractors through competitive bidding process. With the proper maintenance of the distribution system, service complaints from consumers have been reduced significantly. The procedure for new connection has been simplified to achieve greater consumer satisfaction and efforts are on to further reduce the average time now taken. <P> service at all households because they had not yet received permission from landlords. They added that the city did not assist them in drafting neutral letters to request access from landlords for installation, and rejected proposals to increase its use of telephone poles as part of its build-out of the network. The company stated that it planned to invest $1 billion to install Fios in 1 million additional homes, and small businesses, over the next four years. Verizon also stated that its obligation to "pass" all households was based on an understanding that the company would "generally place its <P> Operation After the commencement of service, system failures still occurred occasionally. Between its opening on 18 September and 27 October, eight service suspensions were recorded, prompting a legislative panel to challenge the operator's continued operation. A serious incident occurred on 11 June 2007, during a brake test which was part of the annual examination of the cable, when an empty cabin fell off the cable and crashed into a hilly area near Chek Lap Kok South Road. Despite the fact that there were no injuries caused, an investigation resulted in the operating company and its CEO being charged with criminal negligence <P> service for less than eight years. <P> to watch their DVR recordings remotely. A service note in the 3.1.2 iOS app dated November 22, 2016 states "coming soon to qualified subscribers in CA, TX, and FL". Traditional telephone Verizon offered plain old telephone service (POTS). There have been reports in various markets that Verizon physically disconnected the copper lines (or the network interface device, necessary for Copper-line phone service) at the time that FiOS was installed, and that Verizon customer service talked customers into upgrading from copper with false promises of no changes in service rates. Verizon sold landline operations in the markets of northern New England <P> line was subsequently upgraded and reopened in 2011. <P> the operator the best ARPU in the industry for a number of consecutive years. Triple-play services in the United States are offered by cable television operators as well as by telecommunication operators, who directly compete with one another. Providers expect that an integrated solution will increase opportunity costs for customers who may want to choose between service providers, permit more cross-selling, and hold off the power companies deploying G.hn and IEEE P1901 technology with its radically superior service and deployment characteristics for at least another decade or so. Outside the United States, notably in Ecuador, Pakistan, India, Japan, and China, power <P> Internet in the United States Competition A lack of competition and choice in the broadband provider market has been attributed to past stringent regulation from federal, state, and local levels. Specifically, such criticism has referenced limitations regarding access to and development of the physical infrastructure necessary to broadband, including right-of-way to land and ownership of utility poles. The Rural Broadband Association, an organization representing rural-centric providers, has pointed to the expensive permits and procedural delays in preventing "universal" broadband access. For rural areas such as the ones the RBA represents, financial returns can be insufficient and thus private actors have <P> those with broadband, the fee was US$99 yearly.	question: why are cable companies constantly trying to push their home phone service? most people already have cell phones and it sounds like an added burden to their existing infrastructure. context: <P> factors inevitably contributes to increased service quality. <P> little incentive to compete over another in establishing relevant facilities. This problem is particularly salient for indigenous parts of the U.S, where tribal lands "have some of the lowest internet access rates of any demographic". Policy goals of equity, not profit, have been driving the few access projects targeted towards these communities as a result of unrewarding demand. In other circumstances, where demand is high enough to propel investment, the fixed costs associated with building broadband infrastructure are high enough to deter even the larger providers. Sprint claims it spent "tens of millions of dollars" in their checking for compliance <P> expanding AT&T's interest in re-building it local access services business. <P> support their own set-top boxes. The adoption proceeded slowly with 141,000 units by February 2006. The resistance softened somewhat with the July 2007 FCC ban on integrated security in set-top boxes, which required all new set-top boxes to use CableCARDs as their decryption mechanism. By June 2009, the top 10 "incumbent" U.S. cable operators had deployed more than 14 million operator-supplied set-tops with CableCARDs and 437,800 CableCARD modules for use in retail devices. The National Cable Television Association reported in April 2016 that only 621,400 CableCARDs were deployed for use in retail devices by the nine largest incumbent cable <P> areas where private companies cannot own and operate public broadband networks. Enhanced services are included whereby townspeople can benefit from a greater diversity of value-added products. Security is a further issue with the need for a reliable integrated high-speed communications infrastructure at both a national, and a local level necessary for hospitals, schools, businesses etc. to provide a quick and large-scale responses to emergencies. The city of Philadelphia had the nonprofit Wireless Philadelphia accept bid from Earthlink to set up a network in 2004. "Philadelphia’s expectations were high; the city was eager, optimistic and, by the end of the decade, altogether <P> subscriptions was 13.35 million. Of those, 7.33 million were from the urban segment and 6.02 million from the rural segment. The subscription growth rate on a monthly basis is 55% for urban segments and 45% for rural segments. Given this context, it is possible to consider the mobile phone as an economically viable instrument to enable inclusive access to financial services. Impact of mobile phones on welfare Mobile telephony has had an impact mainly by allowing for agents in information restricted areas to engage in more optimal arbitrage. The adoption of mobile phones by fishermen and wholesalers resulted in a <P> has completed about 35 years of service in the IFS. <P> detracts from global network providers' user experience and branding, and BYOA is therefore often regarded as an interim approach. <P> carrier, represent $2.7 billion per year for which they can bill subscribers. Often, incumbent carriers will threaten small communities with substantial increases in the monthly cost of an individual line if rate center consolidation expands local calling areas. The rare exceptions have been small groups of suburbs which each already have the same local calling area; one unified rate center would allow wire-line subscribers to keep existing numbers if they move from one of the communities to another. Nonetheless, a proliferation of multiple small rate centers increases the quantity of wasted numbers as multiple competitive local exchange carriers each obtain blocks <P> in the fixed-line segment are determined by the Federal Tariff Service on an annual basis, taking into consideration inflation and the operators' expenses. The price competition in the long-distance segment increased as mobile operators began implementing promotional tariffs to stimulate voice traffic growth after the crisis (long-distance traffic is predominantly built by corporate clients). At the same time, traditional operators had limited room for maneuver as intra-zonal and domestic LD tariffs, which are subject to regulation by the government, remained flat over the last three years. As a result, mobile operators managed to bite off a heavy share of intraregional <P> example, local as well as long distance calls are now open to competition), the incumbent has so far managed in many areas to restrict access and protect its monopoly. For example, wholesale line rental is still not available to alternative operators, making it necessary for subscribers to pay two bills (one for line rental to the incumbent, and one to the chosen operator). The incumbent has so far managed to prevent any operator from connecting its own fiber optic cable at local loop unbundling exchanges, though it is technically required to allow this. Recently, the incumbent announced it <P> service disconnection of the defaulter consumer, customers’ house wiring inspection, new electric connection, meter installation, change of old or unserviceable meter etc. DESCO has outsourced a group of experienced workers for field level activities, including other logistic support services like security service, cleaning service and partial transport service. To this end, DESCO engaged in several experienced contractors through competitive bidding process. With the proper maintenance of the distribution system, service complaints from consumers have been reduced significantly. The procedure for new connection has been simplified to achieve greater consumer satisfaction and efforts are on to further reduce the average time now taken. <P> service at all households because they had not yet received permission from landlords. They added that the city did not assist them in drafting neutral letters to request access from landlords for installation, and rejected proposals to increase its use of telephone poles as part of its build-out of the network. The company stated that it planned to invest $1 billion to install Fios in 1 million additional homes, and small businesses, over the next four years. Verizon also stated that its obligation to "pass" all households was based on an understanding that the company would "generally place its <P> Operation After the commencement of service, system failures still occurred occasionally. Between its opening on 18 September and 27 October, eight service suspensions were recorded, prompting a legislative panel to challenge the operator's continued operation. A serious incident occurred on 11 June 2007, during a brake test which was part of the annual examination of the cable, when an empty cabin fell off the cable and crashed into a hilly area near Chek Lap Kok South Road. Despite the fact that there were no injuries caused, an investigation resulted in the operating company and its CEO being charged with criminal negligence <P> service for less than eight years. <P> to watch their DVR recordings remotely. A service note in the 3.1.2 iOS app dated November 22, 2016 states "coming soon to qualified subscribers in CA, TX, and FL". Traditional telephone Verizon offered plain old telephone service (POTS). There have been reports in various markets that Verizon physically disconnected the copper lines (or the network interface device, necessary for Copper-line phone service) at the time that FiOS was installed, and that Verizon customer service talked customers into upgrading from copper with false promises of no changes in service rates. Verizon sold landline operations in the markets of northern New England <P> line was subsequently upgraded and reopened in 2011. <P> the operator the best ARPU in the industry for a number of consecutive years. Triple-play services in the United States are offered by cable television operators as well as by telecommunication operators, who directly compete with one another. Providers expect that an integrated solution will increase opportunity costs for customers who may want to choose between service providers, permit more cross-selling, and hold off the power companies deploying G.hn and IEEE P1901 technology with its radically superior service and deployment characteristics for at least another decade or so. Outside the United States, notably in Ecuador, Pakistan, India, Japan, and China, power <P> Internet in the United States Competition A lack of competition and choice in the broadband provider market has been attributed to past stringent regulation from federal, state, and local levels. Specifically, such criticism has referenced limitations regarding access to and development of the physical infrastructure necessary to broadband, including right-of-way to land and ownership of utility poles. The Rural Broadband Association, an organization representing rural-centric providers, has pointed to the expensive permits and procedural delays in preventing "universal" broadband access. For rural areas such as the ones the RBA represents, financial returns can be insufficient and thus private actors have <P> those with broadband, the fee was US$99 yearly.	answer: Somewhere around 40% of Americans live without a landline in their home. Virtually all of those homes had a phone at one time, the streets that those homes are on all have telephone poles/lines and the all the infrastructure is already in place to operate them all. There's not much that the cable companies have to do if you opt to pay the monthly fee beyond flipping a switch.
204,322	56vjp7	why does google market pixel phone as verizon exclusive when it's not?	Verizon probably paid them for the privilege of it being the only US carrier to directly carry or market the phone. This is pretty common to give very good deals for types of exclusivity of a product.	[ "Verizon probably paid them for the privilege of it being the only US carrier to directly carry or market the phone. This is pretty common to give very good deals for types of exclusivity of a product." ]	1	[]	0	<P> "cooperation agreement" in which it would sell non-exclusive rights to certain intellectual property, as well as smartphone talent, to Google for $1.1 billion. <P> branch (made by the Stakebrand company) that falls into the audience. <P> and Android devices are all available for purchase through the company either online or in-stores. Company background TracFone Wireless, Inc. (TFWI) brands sells phones by many manufacturers. Each phone contains a SIM card applicable to that brand. TFWI brands sell phones for several networks; models using the Verizon or Sprint CDMA network have the letter C in the model name, while phones using the AT&T or T-Mobile GSM network have the letter G. The choice of phone thus determines the network used and the quality of service in specific locations. A typical retail display includes a coverage map (or several, <P> Stakeholders The major shareholder of U Mobile includes Straits Mobile Investments Pte. Ltd (49%), followed by U Telemedia Sdn Bhd (21.46%), DYMM Sultan Ibrahim (15%), Magnum Bhd (6.33%), Tan Sri Vincent Tan Chee Yioun (6.2%), and Berjaya Infrastructure Sdn Bhd (2.01%). <P> Zoom Telephonics History Founded in 1977, Zoom is a publicly traded company with headquarters in Boston, Massachusetts. Its wholly owned division, MTRLC LLC, has the exclusive worldwide license to the Motorola brand for cable modems, Wi-Fi routers, Wi-Fi range extenders, home powerline network adapters, and some related products. <P> CamGSM History CamGSM Co. Ltd, a corporation duly established in 1996, and the mother brand of Cellcard (launched in 1998), was originally a joint venture between Luxembourg-based Millicom International Cellular S.A. (61.5%) and The Royal Group of Companies (38.5%). In 2009, RG acquired Millicom’s share for US$346 million, making it the only telecommunications company in the country, 100% Cambodian owned and operated. <P> Hyundai Blue Link Connectivity Smartphones can connect to Hyundai Blue Link using Bluetooth technology or a USB cable and an installed Hyundai Blue Link mobile application. Hyundai Blue Link is wirelessly upgradeable, so in-vehicle applications may be upgraded. Hyundai Blue Link is compatible with a wide variety of mobile phones (iOS & Android) with a data plan. When Blue Link first launched, the connectivity was provided by a joint relationship of Aeris Communications, Inc. and Sprint Corp. On January 21, 2014 Hyundai announced it had selected Verizon Enterprise Solutions with integration provided by Covisint Corp. The Covisint platform also supports other <P> confusion within the targeted consumer group is purposefully maintained, so choices are based on emotional factors. In reality the mobile phone market is a perfect example of Dilbert’s confusopoly. That is, various price propositions are on offer with different combinations of free minutes, texts, and other services, whilst in reality the same level of usage would result in roughly the same cost, leaving the user so confused that they simply choose the product with the name they like the most – a fact most notably recognised by the operator Orange with their animal-themed tariffs, such as Dolphin and Raccoon, and <P> neither brand of phone was sold, will be reserved exclusively for Motorola. In China, both brands are sold after the re-introduction of Motorola smartphones after a two-year absence. Both brands are also sold in India. Lenovo announced in April 2015, that the two brands would continue to operate separately in India. Branding The "Le" series of devices, including the LePhone, LePad, and the LeTV were sold under the "idea" brand outside of China. The LePhone was thus known as the "ideaphone" in other markets. The "Le" pre-fix means "happy" in Mandarin Chinese and this branding is only used in Mainland <P> Texas Instruments AR7 Ownership history In 2007, TI sold its DSL business to Infineon. In 2009, Infineon Technologies spins off its wireline division to Lantiq. On November 6, 2009, Lantiq announced that it became a standalone company. <P> Here (company) History Here has built its mapping and location business by acquiring location technology and know-how: the company is a combination of what was formerly Navteq and Nokia Maps. Navteq Navteq was an American company founded in 1985 as Karlin & Collins, Inc., later known as Navigation Technologies Corporation and eventually as Navteq. At the time of its acquisition by Nokia, Navteq was the largest maker of automotive grade map data used in car navigation equipment. Nokia Maps Nokia Maps began in 2001 as Smart2Go, a generic 3D-map interface for access to tourist information on mobile terminals. It was <P> developed by an EU consortium named TellMaris. Nokia gained the rights to the software when it acquired Berlin-based route planning software company Gate 5 in August 2006, which has become the cornerstone for the company's mapping business. It then made the Smart2Go application free to download. Acquisition by Nokia In October 2007, Nokia acquired Navteq, which brought 25 years of experience in creating automotive grade map content, and a deep footprint in the automotive industry. Nokia ran Navteq's business along with their own Nokia Maps (later known as Ovi Maps, then again as Nokia Maps from 2011). The two divisions <P> Avea The Name "Avea" "Avea" is a derived name from the names of merged two operators which are "Aycell" and "Aria". That is "Avea" is a combination of first letters of names of two merged operators. "A" "ve" "A" in Turkish which means "A" "and" "A". Coverage area The merging of two GSM operators has resulted in the need of redesigning the network architecture to extend coverage and to solve the issues created by the network load. Avea has been able to complete most of that process about one year after its creation, and currently covers a vast majority of <P> aren't slated for fiber upgrades ... Verizon also has been shopping a package dubbed "GTE North" that comprises about 3.4 million access lines in former GTE Corp. territories in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio and Michigan. In addition to expanding its customer base, Verizon expanded its services in the first few years. Home Media DVR, a digital video recorder, was released in 2006. Fios updated its user interface in 2007, allowing customers to access widgets for localized content, such as weather and traffic. Verizon announced in January 2008 that one million people subscribed to the service. By the end of 2008, Fios offered <P> vehicles have also formed the basis for other HICOM-badged vehicles, most notably the DefTech-built HICOM Handalan series. In 2007, Isuzu acquired a 51% majority stake in MTB, and the company was subsequently renamed Isuzu HICOM Malaysia. Aside from the joint venture with Isuzu, AMM had also hosted a second concurrent partnership with national car company Proton. In June 1994, Usahasama Proton-DRB (USPD) was established under 51:30:19 joint venture between DRB, Proton and Erat Bakti. USPD was established to market niche or non-mainstream Proton models, as a complement to HICOM-directed Edaran Otomobil Nasional (EON), which concentrated on mainstream Proton models. By November <P> remained as separate entities of Nokia Corporation until Navteq was amalgamated into the core Nokia operations in 2011. The service was rebranded as HERE in 2012, bringing together mapping, location businesses, satellite navigation and other services under one brand. Further acquisitions and development In 2008, Nokia picked up geosocial networking site Plazes and the following year it bought mobile applications developer Bit-Side, social location pioneer Plum, and social travel service Dopplr. In 2010, it acquired MetaCarta a leading enterprise local search service used by security and military. In April 2011, Nokia released a beta version of 3D maps that covered 20 <P> History In 2007, IPCom acquired a portfolio of mobile technology patents from Robert Bosch GmbH. This comprises more than 160 patent families in 2G, 2.5G, 3G and LTE technologies, 30 of which are SEPs covering the USA, Europe and Asia. Technologies covered in the portfolio span areas including interface, MMS and digital rights management, applications, synchronization and packet data transmission. In acquiring the Bosch patent portfolio, IPCom also acquired telecoms European Patent (EP 1 841 268) (the 100A), which in January 2018 was found by England’s Court of Appeal to be standard-essential and mandatory to the UMTS standard. 100A relates <P> 2016, Retrobrands USA LLC has obtained the trademark and plans to re-launch the brand. <P> and suppliers. United States The Galaxy tab has been released in the US from T-Mobile, Sprint, AT&T, U.S. Cellular and Verizon. T-Mobile started offering the SGH-T849 Galaxy Tab on 10 November 2010. Verizon started offering the SCH-I800 Galaxy Tab on 11 November 2010. Verizon's version of the Galaxy Tab has a textured black back, as opposed to the standard plastic rear of the T-Mobile, Sprint, and AT&T versions. The Verizon and Sprint versions disable the Human Interface Device (HID) bluetooth features so it will not work with bluetooth keyboards, mice, etc. However, updates did correct this issue for both carriers. Sprint started offering <P> and 3G option. Google also offered a monthly payment scheme for business and education customers at $28 and $20 per user, per month, respectively for a three-year contract, including replacements and upgrades. Verizon offers models equipped with 3G/4G LTE connectivity 100–200 MB of free wireless data per month, for two years. Google's early marketing efforts relied primarily on hands-on experience: giving away Samsung machines to 10 Cr-48 pilot program participants along with the title Chromebook Guru and lending Chromebooks to passengers on some Virgin America flights. At the end of September 2011, Google launched the Chrome Zone, a "store within a store", inside	question: why does google market pixel phone as verizon exclusive when it's not? context: <P> "cooperation agreement" in which it would sell non-exclusive rights to certain intellectual property, as well as smartphone talent, to Google for $1.1 billion. <P> branch (made by the Stakebrand company) that falls into the audience. <P> and Android devices are all available for purchase through the company either online or in-stores. Company background TracFone Wireless, Inc. (TFWI) brands sells phones by many manufacturers. Each phone contains a SIM card applicable to that brand. TFWI brands sell phones for several networks; models using the Verizon or Sprint CDMA network have the letter C in the model name, while phones using the AT&T or T-Mobile GSM network have the letter G. The choice of phone thus determines the network used and the quality of service in specific locations. A typical retail display includes a coverage map (or several, <P> Stakeholders The major shareholder of U Mobile includes Straits Mobile Investments Pte. Ltd (49%), followed by U Telemedia Sdn Bhd (21.46%), DYMM Sultan Ibrahim (15%), Magnum Bhd (6.33%), Tan Sri Vincent Tan Chee Yioun (6.2%), and Berjaya Infrastructure Sdn Bhd (2.01%). <P> Zoom Telephonics History Founded in 1977, Zoom is a publicly traded company with headquarters in Boston, Massachusetts. Its wholly owned division, MTRLC LLC, has the exclusive worldwide license to the Motorola brand for cable modems, Wi-Fi routers, Wi-Fi range extenders, home powerline network adapters, and some related products. <P> CamGSM History CamGSM Co. Ltd, a corporation duly established in 1996, and the mother brand of Cellcard (launched in 1998), was originally a joint venture between Luxembourg-based Millicom International Cellular S.A. (61.5%) and The Royal Group of Companies (38.5%). In 2009, RG acquired Millicom’s share for US$346 million, making it the only telecommunications company in the country, 100% Cambodian owned and operated. <P> Hyundai Blue Link Connectivity Smartphones can connect to Hyundai Blue Link using Bluetooth technology or a USB cable and an installed Hyundai Blue Link mobile application. Hyundai Blue Link is wirelessly upgradeable, so in-vehicle applications may be upgraded. Hyundai Blue Link is compatible with a wide variety of mobile phones (iOS & Android) with a data plan. When Blue Link first launched, the connectivity was provided by a joint relationship of Aeris Communications, Inc. and Sprint Corp. On January 21, 2014 Hyundai announced it had selected Verizon Enterprise Solutions with integration provided by Covisint Corp. The Covisint platform also supports other <P> confusion within the targeted consumer group is purposefully maintained, so choices are based on emotional factors. In reality the mobile phone market is a perfect example of Dilbert’s confusopoly. That is, various price propositions are on offer with different combinations of free minutes, texts, and other services, whilst in reality the same level of usage would result in roughly the same cost, leaving the user so confused that they simply choose the product with the name they like the most – a fact most notably recognised by the operator Orange with their animal-themed tariffs, such as Dolphin and Raccoon, and <P> neither brand of phone was sold, will be reserved exclusively for Motorola. In China, both brands are sold after the re-introduction of Motorola smartphones after a two-year absence. Both brands are also sold in India. Lenovo announced in April 2015, that the two brands would continue to operate separately in India. Branding The "Le" series of devices, including the LePhone, LePad, and the LeTV were sold under the "idea" brand outside of China. The LePhone was thus known as the "ideaphone" in other markets. The "Le" pre-fix means "happy" in Mandarin Chinese and this branding is only used in Mainland <P> Texas Instruments AR7 Ownership history In 2007, TI sold its DSL business to Infineon. In 2009, Infineon Technologies spins off its wireline division to Lantiq. On November 6, 2009, Lantiq announced that it became a standalone company. <P> Here (company) History Here has built its mapping and location business by acquiring location technology and know-how: the company is a combination of what was formerly Navteq and Nokia Maps. Navteq Navteq was an American company founded in 1985 as Karlin & Collins, Inc., later known as Navigation Technologies Corporation and eventually as Navteq. At the time of its acquisition by Nokia, Navteq was the largest maker of automotive grade map data used in car navigation equipment. Nokia Maps Nokia Maps began in 2001 as Smart2Go, a generic 3D-map interface for access to tourist information on mobile terminals. It was <P> developed by an EU consortium named TellMaris. Nokia gained the rights to the software when it acquired Berlin-based route planning software company Gate 5 in August 2006, which has become the cornerstone for the company's mapping business. It then made the Smart2Go application free to download. Acquisition by Nokia In October 2007, Nokia acquired Navteq, which brought 25 years of experience in creating automotive grade map content, and a deep footprint in the automotive industry. Nokia ran Navteq's business along with their own Nokia Maps (later known as Ovi Maps, then again as Nokia Maps from 2011). The two divisions <P> Avea The Name "Avea" "Avea" is a derived name from the names of merged two operators which are "Aycell" and "Aria". That is "Avea" is a combination of first letters of names of two merged operators. "A" "ve" "A" in Turkish which means "A" "and" "A". Coverage area The merging of two GSM operators has resulted in the need of redesigning the network architecture to extend coverage and to solve the issues created by the network load. Avea has been able to complete most of that process about one year after its creation, and currently covers a vast majority of <P> aren't slated for fiber upgrades ... Verizon also has been shopping a package dubbed "GTE North" that comprises about 3.4 million access lines in former GTE Corp. territories in Indiana, Illinois, Ohio and Michigan. In addition to expanding its customer base, Verizon expanded its services in the first few years. Home Media DVR, a digital video recorder, was released in 2006. Fios updated its user interface in 2007, allowing customers to access widgets for localized content, such as weather and traffic. Verizon announced in January 2008 that one million people subscribed to the service. By the end of 2008, Fios offered <P> vehicles have also formed the basis for other HICOM-badged vehicles, most notably the DefTech-built HICOM Handalan series. In 2007, Isuzu acquired a 51% majority stake in MTB, and the company was subsequently renamed Isuzu HICOM Malaysia. Aside from the joint venture with Isuzu, AMM had also hosted a second concurrent partnership with national car company Proton. In June 1994, Usahasama Proton-DRB (USPD) was established under 51:30:19 joint venture between DRB, Proton and Erat Bakti. USPD was established to market niche or non-mainstream Proton models, as a complement to HICOM-directed Edaran Otomobil Nasional (EON), which concentrated on mainstream Proton models. By November <P> remained as separate entities of Nokia Corporation until Navteq was amalgamated into the core Nokia operations in 2011. The service was rebranded as HERE in 2012, bringing together mapping, location businesses, satellite navigation and other services under one brand. Further acquisitions and development In 2008, Nokia picked up geosocial networking site Plazes and the following year it bought mobile applications developer Bit-Side, social location pioneer Plum, and social travel service Dopplr. In 2010, it acquired MetaCarta a leading enterprise local search service used by security and military. In April 2011, Nokia released a beta version of 3D maps that covered 20 <P> History In 2007, IPCom acquired a portfolio of mobile technology patents from Robert Bosch GmbH. This comprises more than 160 patent families in 2G, 2.5G, 3G and LTE technologies, 30 of which are SEPs covering the USA, Europe and Asia. Technologies covered in the portfolio span areas including interface, MMS and digital rights management, applications, synchronization and packet data transmission. In acquiring the Bosch patent portfolio, IPCom also acquired telecoms European Patent (EP 1 841 268) (the 100A), which in January 2018 was found by England’s Court of Appeal to be standard-essential and mandatory to the UMTS standard. 100A relates <P> 2016, Retrobrands USA LLC has obtained the trademark and plans to re-launch the brand. <P> and suppliers. United States The Galaxy tab has been released in the US from T-Mobile, Sprint, AT&T, U.S. Cellular and Verizon. T-Mobile started offering the SGH-T849 Galaxy Tab on 10 November 2010. Verizon started offering the SCH-I800 Galaxy Tab on 11 November 2010. Verizon's version of the Galaxy Tab has a textured black back, as opposed to the standard plastic rear of the T-Mobile, Sprint, and AT&T versions. The Verizon and Sprint versions disable the Human Interface Device (HID) bluetooth features so it will not work with bluetooth keyboards, mice, etc. However, updates did correct this issue for both carriers. Sprint started offering <P> and 3G option. Google also offered a monthly payment scheme for business and education customers at $28 and $20 per user, per month, respectively for a three-year contract, including replacements and upgrades. Verizon offers models equipped with 3G/4G LTE connectivity 100–200 MB of free wireless data per month, for two years. Google's early marketing efforts relied primarily on hands-on experience: giving away Samsung machines to 10 Cr-48 pilot program participants along with the title Chromebook Guru and lending Chromebooks to passengers on some Virgin America flights. At the end of September 2011, Google launched the Chrome Zone, a "store within a store", inside	answer: Verizon probably paid them for the privilege of it being the only US carrier to directly carry or market the phone. This is pretty common to give very good deals for types of exclusivity of a product.
162,702	k95nm	Hysteresis? (tried ELI5: no joy...)	Hysteresis: when you set an input (the thermostat) the output (temperature) depends upon the history of the system.If no hysteresis exists, when you set an input, you always get the same output.	[ "Hysteresis for thermostats prevents damage to boiler/ac from turning off/on too frequently. It sets a reasonable margin of error between measured and desired temperature. Basically, if set temperature is 70 deg F and thermostat measures temperature say 2 deg above that, then boiler turns off, and maybe ac turns on...	4	[ "Hysteresis: when you set an input (the thermostat) the output (temperature) depends upon the history of the system.\n\nIf no hysteresis exists, when you set an input, you always get the same output.", "Hysteresis: when you set an input (the thermostat) the output (temperature) depends upon the history of the s...	2	<P> be found in the textbook Superfluid States of Matter Experiments While several experiments yielded negative results, in the 1980s, John Goodkind from UCSD discovered the first 'anomaly' in a solid by using ultrasound. Inspired by his observation, Eun-Seong Kim and Moses Chan at Pennsylvania State University saw phenomena which were interpreted as supersolid behavior. Specifically, they observed what they later named Non-Classical Rotational Inertia, an unusual decoupling of the solid helium from a container's walls which could not be explained by classical models but which was consistent with a superfluid-like decoupling of a small percentage of the atoms from <P> psi (lying down) to over 300 psi (lifting with a rounded back). Herniation of the contents of the disc into the spinal canal often occurs when the anterior side (stomach side) of the disc is compressed while sitting or bending forward, and the contents (nucleus pulposus) get pressed against the tightly stretched and thinned membrane (anulus fibrosus) on the posterior side (back side) of the disc. The combination of membrane-thinning from stretching and increased internal pressure (200 to 300 psi) results in the rupture of the confining membrane. The jelly-like contents of the disc then move into the spinal canal, <P> just the two transistors on one side of the load, similar to a class AB amplifier. Such a configuration is called a "half bridge". The half bridge is used in some switched-mode power supplies that use synchronous rectifiers and in switching amplifiers. The half-H bridge type is commonly abbreviated to "Half-H" to distinguish it from full ("Full-H") H bridges. Another common variation, adding a third 'leg' to the bridge, creates a three-phase inverter. The three-phase inverter is the core of any AC motor drive. A further variation is the half-controlled bridge, where the low-side switching device on one side of the <P> of gyri as the brain matures after the cranial plates fuse. Axonal tension An alternative theory suggests that axonal tension forces between highly interconnected cortical areas pull local cortical areas towards each other, inducing folds. There is some evidence to support this hypothesis. For example, axons in areas of the brain with high gyrification levels are straight, short in length, and found to connect gyral walls. This evidence, however, cannot be determined to be a cause or result of cortical folding. While short connections may be a result of axons pulling on the walls of forming gyri, the axons <P> buckling forces due to the expanding brain tissue cause the cortical surface to fold. Many theories since have been loosely tied to this hypothesis. An external growth constraint of the cranium is not thought to cause gyrification. This is principally because the primordium of the cranium during the period of fetal brain development is not yet ossified (hardened into bone through calcification). The tissue covering the embryonic cerebral cortex is several thin layers of ectoderm (future skin) and mesenchyme (future muscle and connective tissue, including the future cranium). These thin layers grow easily along with cortical expansion but eventually <P> the nerves on both sides within the spinal column or the cauda equina, both sides of the body may be affected, often with serious consequences. Compression of the cauda equina can cause permanent nerve damage or paralysis which can result in loss of bowel and bladder control and sexual dysfunction. This disorder is called cauda equina syndrome. Other complications include chronic pain. Cause When the spine is straight, such as in standing or lying down, internal pressure is equalized on all parts of the discs. While sitting or bending to lift, internal pressure on a disc can move from 17 <P> by this sound. The activated hair cell rapidly fills with calcium entering from the outside of the cell, which in turn activates the release of neurotransmitters that start a signal to the brain. Hudspeth proposed the existence of a "gating spring" opened by direct mechanical force that would open an hypothetical channel responsible for the entry of calcium ions. The hypothesis was based on the following evidence: 1) Part of the energy needed to bend the filament bundle was mysteriously lost, but could be explained if it was used to opening this gating spring, 2) The entry of calcium <P> years. He presided over the Physical Sciences Section of the Romanian Academy between 1990 and 1992. In 1982, Iovitzu Popescu wrote that the aether is "a form of existence of the matter, but it differs qualitatively from the common (atomic and molecular) substance or radiation (photons)". The fluid aether is "governed by the principle of inertia and its presence produces a modification of the space-time geometry". Built upon Le Sage's ultra-mundane corpuscles, Popescu's theory posits a finite Universe "filled with some particles of exceedingly small mass (of about 10⁻⁶⁹ kg), traveling chaotically at speed of light" and material bodies "made up <P> Magnocellular red nucleus Overview The red nucleus (RN), a group of neurons composed of the parvocellular red nucleus (pRN) and the magnocellular red nucleus (mRN), contributes to movement and motor control within the forelimb. The pRN is located in the diencephalon, a division of the forebrain, and the mRN is located in the mesencephalon (midbrain). The RN is capable of projection onto the spinal cord interneurons and motor neurons of signals integrated from the motor cortex and cerebellum. The mRN already existed in tetrapods after they became terrestrial. It became further developed in mammals, when the volume of the mRN <P> the related radial unit hypothesis, forms our core understanding of the embryonic development of the cerebral cortex. Once the basic structure is present and cortical neurons have migrated to their final destinations, many other processes contribute to the maturation of functional cortical circuits. <P> its configuration to stabilize the effects of any disturbances introduced into the system. In 1946, Ashby described the design of the units thus "Its principle is that it uses multiple coils in a milliammeter & uses the needle movement to dip in a trough carrying a current, so getting a potential which goes to the grid of a valve, the anode of which provides an output current." It was the realization of what he had described in 1946 as an "Isomorphism making machine". When Alan Turing heard of Ashby's intention to build the Homeostat, he wrote to Ashby to suggest that <P> paths are points of thermodynamic equilibrium, it is customary to think of the "processes" described by the paths as fictively "reversible". Reversible processes are always quasistatic processes, but the converse is not always true. Unnatural process Unnatural processes are logically conceivable but do not occur in nature. They would decrease the sum of the entropies if they occurred. Quasistatic process A quasistatic process is an idealized or fictive model of a thermodynamic "process" considered in theoretical studies. It does not occur in physical reality. It may be imagined as happening infinitely slowly so that the system passes through a continuum <P> placing structural backstay insulators at either end of the backstay. <P> excretion, or solely in excretion are located in the cytoplasmic loops and the cytoplasmic side of transmembrane segments, whereas residues involved in uptake are located in the periplasmic loops and the transmembrane segments. A hydrophilic cavity is proposed to be formed by the transmembrane segments II, III, IV, VI, VII, X, XI, and XII. Based on 3-D structures of APC superfamily members, Rudnick (2011) has proposed the pathway for transport and suggested a "rocking bundle" mechanism. The structure and function of the cadaverine-lysine antiporter, CadB (2.A.3.2.2), and the putrescine-ornithine antiporter, PotE (2.A.3.2.1), in E. coli have been evaluated using model structures <P> Cerebral peduncle Structure The descending upper fibers from the internal capsule continue on through the midbrain and are then seen as the fibers in the cerebral peduncles. The cortico-pontine fibers are found in the outer and inner third of the cerebral peduncle, these are the cortical input to the pontine nuclei. The cortico-bulbar and cortico-spinal fibers are found in the middle third of the cerebral peduncle. The cortico-spinal tract exits the internal capsule and is seen in the mid portion of the cerebral peduncles. Cranial nerves Cranial nerve 3 (oculomotor nerve) appears ventrally between the two cerebral peduncles in <P> Phase precession Phase precession is a neurophysiological process in which the firing of action potentials by individual neurons is timed in relation to the phase of neural oscillations in the surrounding cells. In place cells, a type of neuron found in the hippocampal region of the brain, phase precession is believed to play a major role in the neural coding of information. John O'Keefe, who later shared the 2014 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery that place cells help form a "map" of the body's position in space, co-discovered phase precession with Michael Recce in 1993. Place <P> Jahn–Teller effect The Jahn–Teller effect (JT effect or JTE) is an important mechanism of spontaneous symmetry breaking in molecular and solid-state systems which has far-reaching consequences in different fields, and is responsible for a variety of phenomena in spectroscopy, stereochemistry, crystal chemistry, molecular and solid-state physics, and materials science. The effect is named for Hermann Arthur Jahn and Edward Teller, who first reported studies about it in 1937. Simplified overview The Jahn–Teller effect, sometimes also referred to as Jahn–Teller distortion, describes the geometrical distortion of molecules and ions that result from certain electron configurations. The Jahn–Teller theorem essentially states that <P> final step in the graph requires resolving the separation between quantum mechanics and gravitation, often equated with general relativity. Numerous researchers concentrate their efforts on this specific step; nevertheless, no accepted theory of quantum gravity – and thus no accepted theory of everything – has emerged yet. It is usually assumed that the TOE will also solve the remaining problems of GUTs. In addition to explaining the forces listed in the graph, a TOE may also explain the status of at least two candidate forces suggested by modern cosmology: an inflationary force and dark energy. Furthermore, cosmological experiments also suggest the existence of <P> RhoA at the equatorial cortex. A third hypothesis is the astral relaxation hypothesis. It postulates that active actin-myosin bundles are distributed throughout the cell cortex, and inhibition of their contraction near the spindle poles results in a gradient of contractile activity that is highest at the midpoint between poles. In other words, astral microtubules generate a negative signal that increases cortical relaxation close to the poles. Genetic and laser-micromanipulation studies in C. elegans embryos have shown that the spindle sends two redundant signals to the cell cortex, one originating from the central spindle, and a second signal deriving from the <P> published a description of the Homeostat in his influential book Design for a brain. In total, between 1946 and 1967, he wrote 38 entries about the Homeostat in his journal.	question: Hysteresis? (tried ELI5: no joy...) context: <P> be found in the textbook Superfluid States of Matter Experiments While several experiments yielded negative results, in the 1980s, John Goodkind from UCSD discovered the first 'anomaly' in a solid by using ultrasound. Inspired by his observation, Eun-Seong Kim and Moses Chan at Pennsylvania State University saw phenomena which were interpreted as supersolid behavior. Specifically, they observed what they later named Non-Classical Rotational Inertia, an unusual decoupling of the solid helium from a container's walls which could not be explained by classical models but which was consistent with a superfluid-like decoupling of a small percentage of the atoms from <P> psi (lying down) to over 300 psi (lifting with a rounded back). Herniation of the contents of the disc into the spinal canal often occurs when the anterior side (stomach side) of the disc is compressed while sitting or bending forward, and the contents (nucleus pulposus) get pressed against the tightly stretched and thinned membrane (anulus fibrosus) on the posterior side (back side) of the disc. The combination of membrane-thinning from stretching and increased internal pressure (200 to 300 psi) results in the rupture of the confining membrane. The jelly-like contents of the disc then move into the spinal canal, <P> just the two transistors on one side of the load, similar to a class AB amplifier. Such a configuration is called a "half bridge". The half bridge is used in some switched-mode power supplies that use synchronous rectifiers and in switching amplifiers. The half-H bridge type is commonly abbreviated to "Half-H" to distinguish it from full ("Full-H") H bridges. Another common variation, adding a third 'leg' to the bridge, creates a three-phase inverter. The three-phase inverter is the core of any AC motor drive. A further variation is the half-controlled bridge, where the low-side switching device on one side of the <P> of gyri as the brain matures after the cranial plates fuse. Axonal tension An alternative theory suggests that axonal tension forces between highly interconnected cortical areas pull local cortical areas towards each other, inducing folds. There is some evidence to support this hypothesis. For example, axons in areas of the brain with high gyrification levels are straight, short in length, and found to connect gyral walls. This evidence, however, cannot be determined to be a cause or result of cortical folding. While short connections may be a result of axons pulling on the walls of forming gyri, the axons <P> buckling forces due to the expanding brain tissue cause the cortical surface to fold. Many theories since have been loosely tied to this hypothesis. An external growth constraint of the cranium is not thought to cause gyrification. This is principally because the primordium of the cranium during the period of fetal brain development is not yet ossified (hardened into bone through calcification). The tissue covering the embryonic cerebral cortex is several thin layers of ectoderm (future skin) and mesenchyme (future muscle and connective tissue, including the future cranium). These thin layers grow easily along with cortical expansion but eventually <P> the nerves on both sides within the spinal column or the cauda equina, both sides of the body may be affected, often with serious consequences. Compression of the cauda equina can cause permanent nerve damage or paralysis which can result in loss of bowel and bladder control and sexual dysfunction. This disorder is called cauda equina syndrome. Other complications include chronic pain. Cause When the spine is straight, such as in standing or lying down, internal pressure is equalized on all parts of the discs. While sitting or bending to lift, internal pressure on a disc can move from 17 <P> by this sound. The activated hair cell rapidly fills with calcium entering from the outside of the cell, which in turn activates the release of neurotransmitters that start a signal to the brain. Hudspeth proposed the existence of a "gating spring" opened by direct mechanical force that would open an hypothetical channel responsible for the entry of calcium ions. The hypothesis was based on the following evidence: 1) Part of the energy needed to bend the filament bundle was mysteriously lost, but could be explained if it was used to opening this gating spring, 2) The entry of calcium <P> years. He presided over the Physical Sciences Section of the Romanian Academy between 1990 and 1992. In 1982, Iovitzu Popescu wrote that the aether is "a form of existence of the matter, but it differs qualitatively from the common (atomic and molecular) substance or radiation (photons)". The fluid aether is "governed by the principle of inertia and its presence produces a modification of the space-time geometry". Built upon Le Sage's ultra-mundane corpuscles, Popescu's theory posits a finite Universe "filled with some particles of exceedingly small mass (of about 10⁻⁶⁹ kg), traveling chaotically at speed of light" and material bodies "made up <P> Magnocellular red nucleus Overview The red nucleus (RN), a group of neurons composed of the parvocellular red nucleus (pRN) and the magnocellular red nucleus (mRN), contributes to movement and motor control within the forelimb. The pRN is located in the diencephalon, a division of the forebrain, and the mRN is located in the mesencephalon (midbrain). The RN is capable of projection onto the spinal cord interneurons and motor neurons of signals integrated from the motor cortex and cerebellum. The mRN already existed in tetrapods after they became terrestrial. It became further developed in mammals, when the volume of the mRN <P> the related radial unit hypothesis, forms our core understanding of the embryonic development of the cerebral cortex. Once the basic structure is present and cortical neurons have migrated to their final destinations, many other processes contribute to the maturation of functional cortical circuits. <P> its configuration to stabilize the effects of any disturbances introduced into the system. In 1946, Ashby described the design of the units thus "Its principle is that it uses multiple coils in a milliammeter & uses the needle movement to dip in a trough carrying a current, so getting a potential which goes to the grid of a valve, the anode of which provides an output current." It was the realization of what he had described in 1946 as an "Isomorphism making machine". When Alan Turing heard of Ashby's intention to build the Homeostat, he wrote to Ashby to suggest that <P> paths are points of thermodynamic equilibrium, it is customary to think of the "processes" described by the paths as fictively "reversible". Reversible processes are always quasistatic processes, but the converse is not always true. Unnatural process Unnatural processes are logically conceivable but do not occur in nature. They would decrease the sum of the entropies if they occurred. Quasistatic process A quasistatic process is an idealized or fictive model of a thermodynamic "process" considered in theoretical studies. It does not occur in physical reality. It may be imagined as happening infinitely slowly so that the system passes through a continuum <P> placing structural backstay insulators at either end of the backstay. <P> excretion, or solely in excretion are located in the cytoplasmic loops and the cytoplasmic side of transmembrane segments, whereas residues involved in uptake are located in the periplasmic loops and the transmembrane segments. A hydrophilic cavity is proposed to be formed by the transmembrane segments II, III, IV, VI, VII, X, XI, and XII. Based on 3-D structures of APC superfamily members, Rudnick (2011) has proposed the pathway for transport and suggested a "rocking bundle" mechanism. The structure and function of the cadaverine-lysine antiporter, CadB (2.A.3.2.2), and the putrescine-ornithine antiporter, PotE (2.A.3.2.1), in E. coli have been evaluated using model structures <P> Cerebral peduncle Structure The descending upper fibers from the internal capsule continue on through the midbrain and are then seen as the fibers in the cerebral peduncles. The cortico-pontine fibers are found in the outer and inner third of the cerebral peduncle, these are the cortical input to the pontine nuclei. The cortico-bulbar and cortico-spinal fibers are found in the middle third of the cerebral peduncle. The cortico-spinal tract exits the internal capsule and is seen in the mid portion of the cerebral peduncles. Cranial nerves Cranial nerve 3 (oculomotor nerve) appears ventrally between the two cerebral peduncles in <P> Phase precession Phase precession is a neurophysiological process in which the firing of action potentials by individual neurons is timed in relation to the phase of neural oscillations in the surrounding cells. In place cells, a type of neuron found in the hippocampal region of the brain, phase precession is believed to play a major role in the neural coding of information. John O'Keefe, who later shared the 2014 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his discovery that place cells help form a "map" of the body's position in space, co-discovered phase precession with Michael Recce in 1993. Place <P> Jahn–Teller effect The Jahn–Teller effect (JT effect or JTE) is an important mechanism of spontaneous symmetry breaking in molecular and solid-state systems which has far-reaching consequences in different fields, and is responsible for a variety of phenomena in spectroscopy, stereochemistry, crystal chemistry, molecular and solid-state physics, and materials science. The effect is named for Hermann Arthur Jahn and Edward Teller, who first reported studies about it in 1937. Simplified overview The Jahn–Teller effect, sometimes also referred to as Jahn–Teller distortion, describes the geometrical distortion of molecules and ions that result from certain electron configurations. The Jahn–Teller theorem essentially states that <P> final step in the graph requires resolving the separation between quantum mechanics and gravitation, often equated with general relativity. Numerous researchers concentrate their efforts on this specific step; nevertheless, no accepted theory of quantum gravity – and thus no accepted theory of everything – has emerged yet. It is usually assumed that the TOE will also solve the remaining problems of GUTs. In addition to explaining the forces listed in the graph, a TOE may also explain the status of at least two candidate forces suggested by modern cosmology: an inflationary force and dark energy. Furthermore, cosmological experiments also suggest the existence of <P> RhoA at the equatorial cortex. A third hypothesis is the astral relaxation hypothesis. It postulates that active actin-myosin bundles are distributed throughout the cell cortex, and inhibition of their contraction near the spindle poles results in a gradient of contractile activity that is highest at the midpoint between poles. In other words, astral microtubules generate a negative signal that increases cortical relaxation close to the poles. Genetic and laser-micromanipulation studies in C. elegans embryos have shown that the spindle sends two redundant signals to the cell cortex, one originating from the central spindle, and a second signal deriving from the <P> published a description of the Homeostat in his influential book Design for a brain. In total, between 1946 and 1967, he wrote 38 entries about the Homeostat in his journal.	answer: Hysteresis: when you set an input (the thermostat) the output (temperature) depends upon the history of the system.If no hysteresis exists, when you set an input, you always get the same output.
136,286	2p0h5w	Are there any modern examples of countries with institutional corruption like Mexico or Russia that have corrected that and how?	Many South American countries improved significantly following the rise of democratization and the fall of many of the military regimes of the 60s-80s.. but none are completely free of corruption. Argentina post-1982 is an example.	[ "Many South American countries improved significantly following the rise of democratization and the fall of many of the military regimes of the 60s-80s.. but none are completely free of corruption. Argentina post-1982 is an example.", "It's funny to think that not so long ago, parts of the United States were co...	2	[ "Many South American countries improved significantly following the rise of democratization and the fall of many of the military regimes of the 60s-80s.. but none are completely free of corruption. Argentina post-1982 is an example.", "It's funny to think that not so long ago, parts of the United States were co...	2	<P> than an illegal guerrilla roadblock. Corruption Corruption in Colombia is a pervasive problem at all levels of government. A 2005 study published by Transparency for Colombia (Transparencia por Colombia) assessed the index of integrity of governments, assemblies and comptrollers at the departmental level and concluded that none of those dependencies scored an appropriate level of integrity. 51% were prone to high or very high levels of corruption. Many institutions in Colombia have been the subject of administrative corruption. Large institutions that span across industries are example of major cases of corruption including: Ferrovias (national railroad administration), Caprecom (health care), Foncolpuertos (ports <P> of corruption. <P> found that 68% of those believed that the government's efforts to fight corruption were ineffective; a majority of those surveyed said the government's effort against corruption were ineffective, that corruption had increased from 2007 to 2010, and perceived political parties, the judiciary, the parliament and the police to be the institutions most affected by corruption. In 2014, the World Justice Project ranked Venezuela's government in 99th place worldwide and gave it the worst ranking of countries in Latin America according to the Rule of Law Index 2014 and in 2015, the World Justice Project's Rule of Law Index 2015 report <P> that judges may face reprisals if they rule against government interests. In December 2014, moderate left newspaper El Espectador stated in an article about the accusations against María Corina Machado saying that prosecutions in Venezuela go by a "familiar script", stating that "[t]he executive branch first publicly launches accusations at an opposition politician, state prosecutors then set about compiling formal charges, and the entire process is ultimately confirmed by the Supreme Court". Public opinion In a 2014 Gallup poll, 61% of Venezuelan's lack confidence in the judicial system. According to the World Justice Project's Rule of Law Index 2015, Venezuela's justice <P> and the Ombudsman Act of 1989, the Office of the Ombudsman independently monitors all three branches of the government for political corruption. Laws on Graft and Corruption in the Philippines Laws on graft and corruption have been in effect as early as the 1950s, before the creation of the Sandiganbayan. Graft and corruption laws govern both public officers and natural persons. The collection of these laws is overseen by the Office of the Ombudsman. Republic Act Nos. 3019 and 1379 The Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act is a law which stipulates that the Philippine Government shall repress certain acts of <P> of anonymous complaints and lack of penalties for officials who victimise whistleblowers. If enacted, the law to protect whistleblowers will assist in detecting corruption, ensuring better information flow and paving the way for successful prosecution of corrupt individuals through clear and protected processes. However, the public in India have a low level of confidence in fighting corruption because they fear retaliation and intimidation against those who file complaints. Another worry pertains to the delay in disposing of these cases. Without public debate on the provisions of this proposed law, it is clear that people cannot measure its effectiveness when the draft <P> Between 1886 and 2014, only one of Colombia's 40 presidents, Gustavo Rojas Pinilla, was charged and sentenced by Congress in 1959 (after the end of his term), and that ruling was overturned by the Supreme Court seven years later. Between 1992 and 2014, the accusations commission received a total of 3,496 complaints, of which 56% were closed and 44% still pending. No case resulted in impeachment, and in fact only one case ever made its way to the floor of the House, that of President Ernesto Samper for the Proceso 8000. Comisión de Aforados The government's constitutional reform in 2015 <P> 90% of respondents in Mexico City had “little” or “no” trust in the police. Such a lack of public confidence translates into a lack of support—that is, an unwillingness to report crimes or assist in investigations, which is crucial to solving crimes. Nationwide, only 12% of the population has expressed confidence in the police. In 2002, an advocacy group (Transparency International) estimated that the median Mexican household spends 8% of its income on bribes (mordidas or “bites”). According to the president of the CCE (Spanish: Consejo Coordinador Empresarial; CCE), businesses spend 10% of their income in bribes. On the TI scale, <P> government The role of the national government in Colombia has largely been complicit cooperation with the National Police. By failing to deal with crime and then also effectively granting impunity to police and military groups, the state has allowed safety issues to be addressed with violence and has perpetuated a "cycle of crime, lack of public safety, violent response, and impunity" due to "terrifying inefficiency and unwillingness to hold people accountable for their acts". While the government at least tries to protect street children through programs to put them in state-run homes, these programs often do not align <P> Recent Russian governments have attempted to replace the policlinic model introduced during Soviet times with a more western model. However, this has failed. In Czechia, many policlinics were privatized or leasehold and decentralized in the post-communist era: some of them are just lessors and coordinators of a healtcare provided by private doctor's offices in the policlinic building. India has also set up huge numbers of polyclinics for former defence personnel. The network envisages 426 polyclinics in 343 districts of the country which will benefit about 33 lakh (3.3 million) ex-servicemen residing in remote and far-flung areas. Polyclinics are also the backbone of <P> prepare a defense. Beginning in 2002, Chile began to incorporate more adversarial aspects into its inquisitorial system, and this reform was implemented fully by 2005. The transition to a separation of judicial and investigative roles meant that public prosecutors (fiscales) obtained many responsibilities that were historically performed by investigative magistrates. However, investigations in past human rights abuses in Chile have continued to use investigative magistrates at the first stage. Greece Greece, which follows a French-style legal system, has retained the investigative magistrate. In Greece, the investigative magistrate interviews witnesses, reviews the evidence, and refers cases to the public prosecutor, who <P> the courts to the Indigenous Development Fund (Fondo de Desarrollo Indígena; FONDIOC) corruption case. <P> to access public information can be done online through a single portal, and government offices are obliged to respond within 15 days. Paraguay became internationally committed to promote transparency, empower citizens, fight corruption, and harness new technologies to strengthen governance after becoming a member of the Open Government Partnership. Presently, most government offices have Transparency offices and can provide information to citizens and receive reports of corruption. The main Executive agency in charge of promoting Electronic Government is the SENATICS. Art 28 of the Constitution also states that any person affected by the diffusion of a false, distorted, or ambiguous information has <P> allocation of public funding to media. No institution is responsible for monitoring how such funds are spent and allocated. Information and public record of public spending on advertising and other forms of public funds financing media outlets are not available. This opens opportunities for government intervention in the work of Montenegrin media. Political interferences Contents are influenced by business and political interests of media owners. Those media that are critical of the government do not receive advertising placement from state ministries and state-owned organisations. Independent journalists still face pressures from business leaders and government officials, who often behave with blatant <P> Mr Kazal to then NSW Premier Mike Baird, who agreed to meet the businessman to hear his complaints. Fairfax Media reported: The outgoing acting inspector of NSW's anti-graft watchdog has recommended winding back the agency's ability to label people "corrupt" because he says an aspect of the power "undermines the presumption of innocence". Legislation governing the Independent Commission Against Corruption states that such a finding can be made if a person's actions "could" adversely affect those of a public official or authority. People can also be found to have acted corruptly if ICAC decides their actions "could impair" public confidence in public <P> Organizations with investments in such opaque countries as Zimbabwe, Myanmar, and Vietnam have long-term experiences about how the political risk affects their business behaviors (Harvard Business Review, 2014). The following are the examples of political issues: 1.The politically jailing of Mikhail Khodorkovsky, the business giant, in Russia (Wade, 2005); 2.The "Open-door" policy of China(Deng,2001); 3.The Ukraine disputed elections resulting in the uncertain president recent years (Harvard Business Review, 2014); 4.The corrupt legal system in many countries, such as Russia (Samara, 2008) Case analysis of Foreign Direct Investment of Telecommunication Company in Albania Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is an important factor for a country's economic <P> bill comes into force as law. Central Vigilance Commission Initiative: Blow your whistle The Central Vigilance Commission plans to create more awareness about corruption in India. To encourage the fight against corruption, CVC has provided on their website, a "Lodge Complaints Online" portal. The earlier publicized portal Blow your whistle is no longer functional. <P> actions within the U.S. Cold War doctrine of "National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from an internal conflict (see Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement and Shining Path). Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is now widespread. Allegations of corruption remain common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession has continued. International indebtedness became a recurrent problem, with examples like the 1980s debt crisis, the mid 1990s <P> the country. In addition, corruption scandals involving politicians from major political parties are not uncommon and when these get uncovered, little to no effort in taken to pursue them. The usual “defense” employed by accused politicians, involves official statements indicating that “they know too much” and if their case is pursued, they will uncover dirt involving other political party members. Transparency International's 2017 Corruption Perception Index ranks the country 42nd place out of 180 countries. 2013 Global Corruption Barometer report of TI shows that 72% of respondents believe that level of corruption increased in Cyprus <P> compound. Anti-corruption efforts The Liberian Anti-Corruption Commission (LACC) and the Ministry of Justice are responsible for exposing and combating official corruption. Liberian Anti-Corruption Commission An underfunded and understaffed Liberian Anti-Corruption Commission, created in 2008, is supposedly empowered to prosecute crimes that effectively amount to corruption. Human Rights Watch (HRW) noted in 2011 that though there had been a multiplicity of high-level corruption scandals during the previous year, they had resulted in "few investigations and only two convictions." In 2013 the LACC received 25 cases, investigated 23, and recommended 4 for prosecution. There were no convictions. The Anti-Corruption Commission, HRW complained,	question: Are there any modern examples of countries with institutional corruption like Mexico or Russia that have corrected that and how? context: <P> than an illegal guerrilla roadblock. Corruption Corruption in Colombia is a pervasive problem at all levels of government. A 2005 study published by Transparency for Colombia (Transparencia por Colombia) assessed the index of integrity of governments, assemblies and comptrollers at the departmental level and concluded that none of those dependencies scored an appropriate level of integrity. 51% were prone to high or very high levels of corruption. Many institutions in Colombia have been the subject of administrative corruption. Large institutions that span across industries are example of major cases of corruption including: Ferrovias (national railroad administration), Caprecom (health care), Foncolpuertos (ports <P> of corruption. <P> found that 68% of those believed that the government's efforts to fight corruption were ineffective; a majority of those surveyed said the government's effort against corruption were ineffective, that corruption had increased from 2007 to 2010, and perceived political parties, the judiciary, the parliament and the police to be the institutions most affected by corruption. In 2014, the World Justice Project ranked Venezuela's government in 99th place worldwide and gave it the worst ranking of countries in Latin America according to the Rule of Law Index 2014 and in 2015, the World Justice Project's Rule of Law Index 2015 report <P> that judges may face reprisals if they rule against government interests. In December 2014, moderate left newspaper El Espectador stated in an article about the accusations against María Corina Machado saying that prosecutions in Venezuela go by a "familiar script", stating that "[t]he executive branch first publicly launches accusations at an opposition politician, state prosecutors then set about compiling formal charges, and the entire process is ultimately confirmed by the Supreme Court". Public opinion In a 2014 Gallup poll, 61% of Venezuelan's lack confidence in the judicial system. According to the World Justice Project's Rule of Law Index 2015, Venezuela's justice <P> and the Ombudsman Act of 1989, the Office of the Ombudsman independently monitors all three branches of the government for political corruption. Laws on Graft and Corruption in the Philippines Laws on graft and corruption have been in effect as early as the 1950s, before the creation of the Sandiganbayan. Graft and corruption laws govern both public officers and natural persons. The collection of these laws is overseen by the Office of the Ombudsman. Republic Act Nos. 3019 and 1379 The Anti-Graft and Corrupt Practices Act is a law which stipulates that the Philippine Government shall repress certain acts of <P> of anonymous complaints and lack of penalties for officials who victimise whistleblowers. If enacted, the law to protect whistleblowers will assist in detecting corruption, ensuring better information flow and paving the way for successful prosecution of corrupt individuals through clear and protected processes. However, the public in India have a low level of confidence in fighting corruption because they fear retaliation and intimidation against those who file complaints. Another worry pertains to the delay in disposing of these cases. Without public debate on the provisions of this proposed law, it is clear that people cannot measure its effectiveness when the draft <P> Between 1886 and 2014, only one of Colombia's 40 presidents, Gustavo Rojas Pinilla, was charged and sentenced by Congress in 1959 (after the end of his term), and that ruling was overturned by the Supreme Court seven years later. Between 1992 and 2014, the accusations commission received a total of 3,496 complaints, of which 56% were closed and 44% still pending. No case resulted in impeachment, and in fact only one case ever made its way to the floor of the House, that of President Ernesto Samper for the Proceso 8000. Comisión de Aforados The government's constitutional reform in 2015 <P> 90% of respondents in Mexico City had “little” or “no” trust in the police. Such a lack of public confidence translates into a lack of support—that is, an unwillingness to report crimes or assist in investigations, which is crucial to solving crimes. Nationwide, only 12% of the population has expressed confidence in the police. In 2002, an advocacy group (Transparency International) estimated that the median Mexican household spends 8% of its income on bribes (mordidas or “bites”). According to the president of the CCE (Spanish: Consejo Coordinador Empresarial; CCE), businesses spend 10% of their income in bribes. On the TI scale, <P> government The role of the national government in Colombia has largely been complicit cooperation with the National Police. By failing to deal with crime and then also effectively granting impunity to police and military groups, the state has allowed safety issues to be addressed with violence and has perpetuated a "cycle of crime, lack of public safety, violent response, and impunity" due to "terrifying inefficiency and unwillingness to hold people accountable for their acts". While the government at least tries to protect street children through programs to put them in state-run homes, these programs often do not align <P> Recent Russian governments have attempted to replace the policlinic model introduced during Soviet times with a more western model. However, this has failed. In Czechia, many policlinics were privatized or leasehold and decentralized in the post-communist era: some of them are just lessors and coordinators of a healtcare provided by private doctor's offices in the policlinic building. India has also set up huge numbers of polyclinics for former defence personnel. The network envisages 426 polyclinics in 343 districts of the country which will benefit about 33 lakh (3.3 million) ex-servicemen residing in remote and far-flung areas. Polyclinics are also the backbone of <P> prepare a defense. Beginning in 2002, Chile began to incorporate more adversarial aspects into its inquisitorial system, and this reform was implemented fully by 2005. The transition to a separation of judicial and investigative roles meant that public prosecutors (fiscales) obtained many responsibilities that were historically performed by investigative magistrates. However, investigations in past human rights abuses in Chile have continued to use investigative magistrates at the first stage. Greece Greece, which follows a French-style legal system, has retained the investigative magistrate. In Greece, the investigative magistrate interviews witnesses, reviews the evidence, and refers cases to the public prosecutor, who <P> the courts to the Indigenous Development Fund (Fondo de Desarrollo Indígena; FONDIOC) corruption case. <P> to access public information can be done online through a single portal, and government offices are obliged to respond within 15 days. Paraguay became internationally committed to promote transparency, empower citizens, fight corruption, and harness new technologies to strengthen governance after becoming a member of the Open Government Partnership. Presently, most government offices have Transparency offices and can provide information to citizens and receive reports of corruption. The main Executive agency in charge of promoting Electronic Government is the SENATICS. Art 28 of the Constitution also states that any person affected by the diffusion of a false, distorted, or ambiguous information has <P> allocation of public funding to media. No institution is responsible for monitoring how such funds are spent and allocated. Information and public record of public spending on advertising and other forms of public funds financing media outlets are not available. This opens opportunities for government intervention in the work of Montenegrin media. Political interferences Contents are influenced by business and political interests of media owners. Those media that are critical of the government do not receive advertising placement from state ministries and state-owned organisations. Independent journalists still face pressures from business leaders and government officials, who often behave with blatant <P> Mr Kazal to then NSW Premier Mike Baird, who agreed to meet the businessman to hear his complaints. Fairfax Media reported: The outgoing acting inspector of NSW's anti-graft watchdog has recommended winding back the agency's ability to label people "corrupt" because he says an aspect of the power "undermines the presumption of innocence". Legislation governing the Independent Commission Against Corruption states that such a finding can be made if a person's actions "could" adversely affect those of a public official or authority. People can also be found to have acted corruptly if ICAC decides their actions "could impair" public confidence in public <P> Organizations with investments in such opaque countries as Zimbabwe, Myanmar, and Vietnam have long-term experiences about how the political risk affects their business behaviors (Harvard Business Review, 2014). The following are the examples of political issues: 1.The politically jailing of Mikhail Khodorkovsky, the business giant, in Russia (Wade, 2005); 2.The "Open-door" policy of China(Deng,2001); 3.The Ukraine disputed elections resulting in the uncertain president recent years (Harvard Business Review, 2014); 4.The corrupt legal system in many countries, such as Russia (Samara, 2008) Case analysis of Foreign Direct Investment of Telecommunication Company in Albania Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is an important factor for a country's economic <P> bill comes into force as law. Central Vigilance Commission Initiative: Blow your whistle The Central Vigilance Commission plans to create more awareness about corruption in India. To encourage the fight against corruption, CVC has provided on their website, a "Lodge Complaints Online" portal. The earlier publicized portal Blow your whistle is no longer functional. <P> actions within the U.S. Cold War doctrine of "National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from an internal conflict (see Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement and Shining Path). Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is now widespread. Allegations of corruption remain common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession has continued. International indebtedness became a recurrent problem, with examples like the 1980s debt crisis, the mid 1990s <P> the country. In addition, corruption scandals involving politicians from major political parties are not uncommon and when these get uncovered, little to no effort in taken to pursue them. The usual “defense” employed by accused politicians, involves official statements indicating that “they know too much” and if their case is pursued, they will uncover dirt involving other political party members. Transparency International's 2017 Corruption Perception Index ranks the country 42nd place out of 180 countries. 2013 Global Corruption Barometer report of TI shows that 72% of respondents believe that level of corruption increased in Cyprus <P> compound. Anti-corruption efforts The Liberian Anti-Corruption Commission (LACC) and the Ministry of Justice are responsible for exposing and combating official corruption. Liberian Anti-Corruption Commission An underfunded and understaffed Liberian Anti-Corruption Commission, created in 2008, is supposedly empowered to prosecute crimes that effectively amount to corruption. Human Rights Watch (HRW) noted in 2011 that though there had been a multiplicity of high-level corruption scandals during the previous year, they had resulted in "few investigations and only two convictions." In 2013 the LACC received 25 cases, investigated 23, and recommended 4 for prosecution. There were no convictions. The Anti-Corruption Commission, HRW complained,	answer: Many South American countries improved significantly following the rise of democratization and the fall of many of the military regimes of the 60s-80s.. but none are completely free of corruption. Argentina post-1982 is an example.
115,679	dukvyz	why don’t body builders get stretch marks and excess skin like overweight people do?	Body builders absolutely get stretch marks. Source: am a massage therapist, i see/feel them all the time.They also get excess skin when their muscles atrophyQuestion: why do you think they don't get them?	[ "They do get stretch marks. You can see it on guys who lift a lot of weight and start building up quickly.", "Body builders absolutely get stretch marks. \nSource: am a massage therapist, i see/feel them all the time.\n\nThey also get excess skin when their muscles atrophy\n\nQuestion: why do you think they don't...	4	[ "They do get stretch marks. You can see it on guys who lift a lot of weight and start building up quickly.", "Body builders absolutely get stretch marks. \nSource: am a massage therapist, i see/feel them all the time.\n\nThey also get excess skin when their muscles atrophy\n\nQuestion: why do you think they don't...	2	<P> Peter Shmock wrote a monthly column called "The Life Athlete" for the neighborhood Belltown Messenger, and he contributed to the book Conditioning for Outdoor Fitness: Functional Exercise and Nutrition for Every Body. ZUM was threatened in 2004 when the Seattle Monorail Project (SMP) planned to condemn the health club's building and redevelop the site as a monorail station. The monorail said "just compensation" for condemnation only applied to the owner of the property, Clise, and it would only pay ZUM's "relocation fees and up to $50,000 in related expenses." Standing to lose his nearly $900,000 investment in tenant improvements, founder Peter <P> slimmer body." <P> exercise more. Amanda Hallay, professor of fashion and cultural history at New York City's LIM College, said that "Everyone wants to look like they're running to the gym, even if they're not". Demand for comfortable active, athletic, sports and casual wear has increased since the turn of the 21st century. Nike, Inc. reported their women's business comprised $7 billion in 2010 and the larger athleisure market grew to $33.6 billion by 2015. Nike claims the driving factor has been the demand for fashionable and flattering workout gear. New colors, patterns, and structural design have created more versatility and increased the wearing <P> 2000. Liposuction of the arms The least-invasive manner to contour the upper arms is to simply remove extra fat via liposuction. However, traditional deep liposuction often leaves sagging and wrinkled skin. An alternative to this is Circumferential para-Axillary Superficial Tumescent (CAST) liposuction, which maximizes the skin retraction. Hidden/Minimal incision brachioplasty Under the right conditions such as adequate skin elasticity and minimal excess skin, the surgical incision for the brachioplasty can be placed under the arm. This allows for easy concealment of the scar. Minimal incision brachioplasty includes lipoplasty of the upper arm, wide-axillary and upper-arm skin excision, and dermal suspension <P> their Twitter account, hosts of the podcast Sophia Carter-Kahn and April K. Quioh stated: "We're not sure how our show could inspire a thin actress to don a fat suit as we've discussed at length how this very act is incredibly harmful to the fat community." <P> shows that following a high intensity treadmill workout, compression garments helped to decrease the heart rate and lactic acid buildup in athletes. According to a study by Duffield R. and M. Portis, although there were few observed changes during their event, cricket players wearing compression garments showed fewer blood markers of muscle damage and reported less soreness during the 24-hour post-workout period. Other studies have supported the idea that compression garments are effective in reducing post-workout declines in jump height, minimizing strength loss, decreasing swelling, and easing muscle soreness after competition. <P> enhances their quality of life immediately. The Bionic Kid Comic Book Series In December 2018, Limbitless Solutions released a comic book entitled “The Bionic Kid.” Created by student artists at the University of Central Florida with assistance from professors at UCF School of Visual Arts and Design, “The Bionic Kid” is being sold in order to support those with limb difference. This comic tells the story of Zachary, one of the bionic kids, and his brother Christo after both boys are electrocuted in an accident and turned into superheroes. They attend the 8-Bit-World Finals where Zachary ends up playing <P> may work as hard - and the work may be of the same value, but they do not perform the same kind of work." — Fridtjuv Berg The proposal went through year 1906. <P> he continued working with Pacific Northwest Ballet dancers and teaching classes at Woodland Park and at Sound Mind & Body. In 1998, The Seattle Times listed Peter Shmock as one of the city's top fitness experts and quoted him saying, in his typical mellow style, "I just do a smattering of things that make the most sense for my energy." By 2000 Shmock had "a national reputation as a teacher", and the one-minute and five-minute exercise ball routine he developed for The Seattle Times was republished in Wichita, Kan. ZUM Health Club Peter Shmock opened Zum, his "long-awaited new health club" <P> provide cover for bariatric surgery in April 2011. <P> lifestyle. <P> is grooming to eventually take over. <P> her not to lift more than 20 pounds. She was assigned light-duty work for a little while, but then was told there were no more light assignments available and she was directed to go back to regular work. While lifting, she began to bleed, and upon telling her boss she was told to go back to work, and later learned she had suffered a miscarriage. She became pregnant again 4 months later, and was given orders to lift no more than 10 pounds, but was cleared to work by her doctor. Wal-Mart again said they had no light-duty assignments for <P> We want to protect that for years to come, for our runners and for our community.” <P> as the benefits outweigh the risks of not doing so. <P> also the legend 8 has an upper similar to the magistas only little bit better in almost everything though. Special editions In 2015, special edition Nike Tiempos were released to commemorate the careers of Ronaldinho and Francesco Totti. They became the most expensive Tiempos in history, costing €300. They were individually numbered and only 3,000 of each were made. Shin guards Nike Tiempo shin guards are made out of polypropylene shell for comfortable and durable protection. They have straps for a secure and adjustable fit. <P> Unequal leg length Treatment The most common treatment for discrepancies in leg length is the use of a simple heel lift, which can be placed within the shoe. In cases where the length discrepancy is moderate, an external build up to the shoe is usually more comfortable. In severe cases, surgery can be used to make the longer leg shorter (or impede its growth), and/or make the shorter leg longer via limb lengthening. <P> noticeable and are difficult to get rid of. <P> absolutely perfect condition - a bit skinny and suntanned". <P> designed for running. Runners in this class can have lower metabolic costs compared to elite runners over middle and long distances. In general, track athletes with amputations should be considerate of the surface they are running on, and avoid asphalt and cinder tracks. A study comparing the performance of athletics competitors at the 1984 Summer Paralympics found there was no significant difference in performance in times between women in A1, A2 and A3 in the discus, women in A2 and A3 in the discus, women in A1 and A2 in the javelin, women in A2 and A3 in the shot put,	question: why don’t body builders get stretch marks and excess skin like overweight people do? context: <P> Peter Shmock wrote a monthly column called "The Life Athlete" for the neighborhood Belltown Messenger, and he contributed to the book Conditioning for Outdoor Fitness: Functional Exercise and Nutrition for Every Body. ZUM was threatened in 2004 when the Seattle Monorail Project (SMP) planned to condemn the health club's building and redevelop the site as a monorail station. The monorail said "just compensation" for condemnation only applied to the owner of the property, Clise, and it would only pay ZUM's "relocation fees and up to $50,000 in related expenses." Standing to lose his nearly $900,000 investment in tenant improvements, founder Peter <P> slimmer body." <P> exercise more. Amanda Hallay, professor of fashion and cultural history at New York City's LIM College, said that "Everyone wants to look like they're running to the gym, even if they're not". Demand for comfortable active, athletic, sports and casual wear has increased since the turn of the 21st century. Nike, Inc. reported their women's business comprised $7 billion in 2010 and the larger athleisure market grew to $33.6 billion by 2015. Nike claims the driving factor has been the demand for fashionable and flattering workout gear. New colors, patterns, and structural design have created more versatility and increased the wearing <P> 2000. Liposuction of the arms The least-invasive manner to contour the upper arms is to simply remove extra fat via liposuction. However, traditional deep liposuction often leaves sagging and wrinkled skin. An alternative to this is Circumferential para-Axillary Superficial Tumescent (CAST) liposuction, which maximizes the skin retraction. Hidden/Minimal incision brachioplasty Under the right conditions such as adequate skin elasticity and minimal excess skin, the surgical incision for the brachioplasty can be placed under the arm. This allows for easy concealment of the scar. Minimal incision brachioplasty includes lipoplasty of the upper arm, wide-axillary and upper-arm skin excision, and dermal suspension <P> their Twitter account, hosts of the podcast Sophia Carter-Kahn and April K. Quioh stated: "We're not sure how our show could inspire a thin actress to don a fat suit as we've discussed at length how this very act is incredibly harmful to the fat community." <P> shows that following a high intensity treadmill workout, compression garments helped to decrease the heart rate and lactic acid buildup in athletes. According to a study by Duffield R. and M. Portis, although there were few observed changes during their event, cricket players wearing compression garments showed fewer blood markers of muscle damage and reported less soreness during the 24-hour post-workout period. Other studies have supported the idea that compression garments are effective in reducing post-workout declines in jump height, minimizing strength loss, decreasing swelling, and easing muscle soreness after competition. <P> enhances their quality of life immediately. The Bionic Kid Comic Book Series In December 2018, Limbitless Solutions released a comic book entitled “The Bionic Kid.” Created by student artists at the University of Central Florida with assistance from professors at UCF School of Visual Arts and Design, “The Bionic Kid” is being sold in order to support those with limb difference. This comic tells the story of Zachary, one of the bionic kids, and his brother Christo after both boys are electrocuted in an accident and turned into superheroes. They attend the 8-Bit-World Finals where Zachary ends up playing <P> may work as hard - and the work may be of the same value, but they do not perform the same kind of work." — Fridtjuv Berg The proposal went through year 1906. <P> he continued working with Pacific Northwest Ballet dancers and teaching classes at Woodland Park and at Sound Mind & Body. In 1998, The Seattle Times listed Peter Shmock as one of the city's top fitness experts and quoted him saying, in his typical mellow style, "I just do a smattering of things that make the most sense for my energy." By 2000 Shmock had "a national reputation as a teacher", and the one-minute and five-minute exercise ball routine he developed for The Seattle Times was republished in Wichita, Kan. ZUM Health Club Peter Shmock opened Zum, his "long-awaited new health club" <P> provide cover for bariatric surgery in April 2011. <P> lifestyle. <P> is grooming to eventually take over. <P> her not to lift more than 20 pounds. She was assigned light-duty work for a little while, but then was told there were no more light assignments available and she was directed to go back to regular work. While lifting, she began to bleed, and upon telling her boss she was told to go back to work, and later learned she had suffered a miscarriage. She became pregnant again 4 months later, and was given orders to lift no more than 10 pounds, but was cleared to work by her doctor. Wal-Mart again said they had no light-duty assignments for <P> We want to protect that for years to come, for our runners and for our community.” <P> as the benefits outweigh the risks of not doing so. <P> also the legend 8 has an upper similar to the magistas only little bit better in almost everything though. Special editions In 2015, special edition Nike Tiempos were released to commemorate the careers of Ronaldinho and Francesco Totti. They became the most expensive Tiempos in history, costing €300. They were individually numbered and only 3,000 of each were made. Shin guards Nike Tiempo shin guards are made out of polypropylene shell for comfortable and durable protection. They have straps for a secure and adjustable fit. <P> Unequal leg length Treatment The most common treatment for discrepancies in leg length is the use of a simple heel lift, which can be placed within the shoe. In cases where the length discrepancy is moderate, an external build up to the shoe is usually more comfortable. In severe cases, surgery can be used to make the longer leg shorter (or impede its growth), and/or make the shorter leg longer via limb lengthening. <P> noticeable and are difficult to get rid of. <P> absolutely perfect condition - a bit skinny and suntanned". <P> designed for running. Runners in this class can have lower metabolic costs compared to elite runners over middle and long distances. In general, track athletes with amputations should be considerate of the surface they are running on, and avoid asphalt and cinder tracks. A study comparing the performance of athletics competitors at the 1984 Summer Paralympics found there was no significant difference in performance in times between women in A1, A2 and A3 in the discus, women in A2 and A3 in the discus, women in A1 and A2 in the javelin, women in A2 and A3 in the shot put,	answer: Body builders absolutely get stretch marks. Source: am a massage therapist, i see/feel them all the time.They also get excess skin when their muscles atrophyQuestion: why do you think they don't get them?
136,602	j7s2w	explain the abc series "lost" like i'm five	A plane crashes on an island. There are many survivors. The survivors that are in the mid-section of the plane crash land on one side of the island while those in the tail section crash on the other side. The cockpit lands a few miles from the mid-section and the pilot dies.The island is very strange and seems to have mystical powers. There is a monster made of smoke that terrorizes the survivors by taking the form of people from their past as well as people who have died on the island in addition to killing people.The island is very hard to locate and cannot be found by traditional navigational means.There are also people already living on the island when the plane crashes. They are called the "Others." They are led by a man named Ben and hostile to the survivors of the plane crash.The survivors struggle to survive amongst the harsh conditions of living on a desert island, hostile inhabitants called the Others, and the smoke monster on the island.In the end it is show that all of these people were essentially in purgatory and move on to an afterlife at the end of the series.	[ "A plane crashes on an island. There are many survivors. The survivors that are in the mid-section of the plane crash land on one side of the island while those in the tail section crash on the other side. The cockpit lands a few miles from the mid-section and the pilot dies.\n\nThe island is very strange and se...	4	[]	0	<P> ABC series Lost (2004–10). <P> john gives him money and helps him escape the club. Having finally cried "on cue," Roger believes he can be a star again. In the cave, Becky is crushed to death when she tries to collect rainwater, and the Smiths reluctantly resort to eating her to survive. The hunters then find them, and the family learns that the island—and the hunt—was part of the cruise. When partially asked about Becky, Francine says "Well, nothing bonds a family like a dark, horrible secret." Stan quickly asks where the family wants to go next year. The scene then changes to the Smiths happily floating <P> it is eventually decided that the Keyser parents may regain custody of their children. After Clifton Village closes, Jessie, her family, and the rest of the Clifton residents will live in the present day with the rest of the world. Plagiarism allegation Simon & Schuster, who published Running Out of Time, noted that the film The Village (2004) had a number of similarities to the book. The film's plot also features a village whose inhabitants choose to live in a manner reminiscent of the 1800s, when the year is 1996, and a young female protagonist who escapes the village in <P> Tom's Midnight Garden Premise Tom is a modern boy living under quarantine with his aunt and uncle in a city flat, part of a converted building that was a country house during the 1880s–1890s. At night he slips back in time to the old garden where he finds a girl playmate. Plot summary When Tom Long's brother Peter gets measles, Tom is sent to stay with his Uncle Alan and Aunt Gwen. They live in an upstairs flat of a big house with no garden, only a tiny yard for parking. The former grounds of the big house have been <P> close to finding all 39 clues in his Indonesian lab. His work was destroyed by the Krakatoa eruption and he fled to Australia. Amy and Dan find a note written by him, a strange poem seemingly pointing to the clue. The Cahills discover the clue – water – with the help of Alistair Oh. However, Isabel Kabra sets the house they are staying in on fire, and Irina Spasky chooses to save Amy, Dan, and Alistair at the price of her own life. The book ends with Amy and Dan thinking that they now are doing the clue hunt for <P> "Wayward Children" series, later volumes of which further explore characters and settings this one establishes. <P> and in some later episodes go on romantic cruises, for example to Venice. The first seven episodes also feature Bibi's little brother Boris. He is often very jealous of Bibi's magical powers, which leads to many arguments between them. According to episode #1, he is eight years old. In episode #9, he moves to his grandparents' house at the North Sea. The reason that is given is that he has a cough and needs fresh sea air. He is never mentioned again and doesn't return to his parents and sister, not even on important occasions, such as when the Blocksbergs are <P> House of Secrets (novel) Synopsis Cordelia, Brendan, and Eleanor Walker are less than pleased when their parents purchase the old and creepy, suspiciously inexpensive yet too-perfect Kristoff House; even less when, after just a few days of living in the house, a mysterious woman called Dahlia Kristoff appears and demolishes it. She claims to be the "Wind Witch" and the daughter of the original owner of the house, Denver Kristoff. The three Walker children are horrified when they find that suddenly, they weren't in San Francisco anymore, and their parents were nowhere to be found. Cordelia is mystified when they <P> The Remains (film) Plot In 1891, a couple visit a spiritualist named Madame Addison at 3:00 AM—the so-called witching hour—in order to try to find their lost daughter. Due to either ghostly or demonic intervention, all five people in the house die that night. Present day, John, whose wife has recently passed, purchases the same house, having no knowledge of the deaths that occurred there more than a century earlier. He is joined by his elder daughter, Izzy, and his two younger children, Victoria and Aiden. One day, while playing hide-and-seek, Victoria and Aiden come across a chest in the attic containing <P> Over the Garden Wall Plot The series follows two half-brothers, Wirt and Greg (voiced by Elijah Wood and Collin Dean respectively), who become lost in a strange forest called the Unknown. In order to find their way home, the two must travel across the seemingly supernatural forest with the occasional help of the wandering, mysterious and elderly Woodsman (Christopher Lloyd) and Beatrice (Melanie Lynskey), an irritable bluebird who travels with the boys in order to find a woman called Adelaide, who can supposedly undo the curse on Beatrice and her family and show the half-brothers the way home. Wirt, the older <P> Crawlspace (2013 film) Synopsis Tim (Jonathan Silverman) and Susan (Lori Loughlin) Gates are eager to move into their new house with their teenage son Shane (Sterling Beaumon) and their younger son Taylor (Xander Stolberg), as well as their college-bound daughter Kayla (Raleigh Holmes), despite the house's dark history of drowned children and foreclosure. As they settle into the house, strange things frequently occur, like the garbage cans being taken out for collection without explanation. While Kayla and her boyfriend Derek (Paul James) are sorting out items for a garage sale, the garage door inexplicably opens and closes. The next day, the <P> interest with Fritz and Ernst. Jacob is reunited with his family during a battle with the pirates over Emily, and she is returned to her father. In the end, the family goes their own ways, some staying on the island, some going home. Critical reception The film received positive reviews, with Dan Heaton of Digitally Obsessed saying, "Although I enjoyed the Disney version of Swiss Family Robinson as a small child, its one-dimensional characters quickly become tiresome as an adult. Luckily, Stranded crafts a much deeper story that should please both adults and older kids. Strong acting and well-fleshed characters <P> of crewmen) arrive from Bobbie's ship. Things become crowded in the lighthouse, until people start to mysteriously disappear during the night, leaving an anxious Pilbeam to discover what has been happening to everyone and why. Finally, only Pilbeam is left. It turns out that Nazi agents have been secretly sweeping the waters of mines and have taken everyone else prisoner, leaving Pilbeam free just so he can send away a rescue party without arousing suspicion. But between Pilbeam, Jane's uncle (from the neighboring island) and the women, they manage to turn the tables on their captors. They tie the Germans up <P> develops a romantic connection, but who has her own secrets; and "11–12", Number 2's son, who begins to question the reality of the Village. Background A remake of the 1967 TV series The Prisoner had been in the works since 2005. The miniseries was promoted at 2008 San Diego ComicCon via a skywriter airplane that sketched the phrase "Seek the Six" in the sky over San Diego. Although "Seek the Six" was initially thought to be a catchphrase of some sort, it did not appear in the final cut of the miniseries. A further promotional event for the miniseries was held at <P> a storyline which Herbert describes as follows: "Every day, a woman walks the beach alone, obsessively collecting every discarded and washed up object that she finds. She takes them home to catalogue each one with the care and rigour of a scientist. The artefacts are then placed in 'The Sea Cabinet', and every one sings with the memory of a secret sea-set story – the victory of a Fishguard cobbler's wife, a jaded seaside hotel, a sunken chapel, the shifting sands of wartime Alderney, the dangerous allure of the King's Shilling, the loves and the losses and the stars and the <P> The Shape of Things to Come (Lost) Plot The episode is set on December 27, 2004, the survivors' 97th day on the island. At the beach camp, the corpse of Ray (Marc Vann), the freighter Kahana's doctor, washes ashore. Daniel Faraday (Jeremy Davies) calls the freighter and asks what happened to Ray via morse code. Daniel lies about the response, saying that rescue helicopters will be sent soon; however, Bernard Nadler (Sam Anderson) calls him out on this and correctly interprets the freighter's message: "What are you talking about? The doctor is fine." Jack Shephard (Matthew <P> The Returned (Mott novel) Plot The series follows the residents of Arcadia, North Carolina, in particular the Hargrave family, whose lives are upended when their loved ones return from the dead, unaged since their deaths. Among the returned is Jacob Hargrave, an eight-year-old boy who drowned 32 years earlier. Having been found alive, Jacob is brought back by the Bureau, which investigates the phenomenon of the Returned. The military agent Bellamy returns Jacob to his parents, Harold and Lucille Hargrave, who must deal with his return. The novel also occasionally looks at the phenomenon from the viewpoint of the Returned, who <P> Agent Anna Premise Anna Kingston's husband has left her and their two teenage daughters and gone to Australia leaving behind substantial debts. The family home has been sold, leaving the family to move into Anna's parents' basement. Armed with a new real estate agent's diploma and a motivational CD, Anna gets a job in an Auckland real estate office. Her co-workers steal her listings and treat her poorly, her daughters miss their previous private school, and her mother is unsympathetic. Broadcast In Australia, the show premiered on 7Two on 15 January 2014, while series 2 eventually premiered shortly after midnight <P> mess" thanks to Rádiós, who lives there. Its other permanent inhabitant is Robinson. There are three ways to get into the attic: from downstairs, from the attic of the neighbour's house (Süni's house) and from the dormer door on the roof. The attic also contains a cubbyhole usually used for hiding. The importance of the attic is that the Révész arrives there to bring the ghosts to the past-planet of "eternal beauty", it is a port. The planet of memories has a great significance in the play. The ghosts are searching for the attic since centuries because they want to <P> A Letter from the Clearys Plot summary "A Letter from the Clearys" starts with a young teenage girl and her dog making their way home through the countryside after a visit to the town's post office. The main character is living with her parents, older brother and a neighbour. She feels somewhat neglected as her family are very busy building a greenhouse. In addition, while calling her dog she contrasts him with her first dog. When the protagonist arrives home she reveals that she has found a letter from their friends, the Clearys. This family was due to have visited them 'before'	question: explain the abc series "lost" like i'm five context: <P> ABC series Lost (2004–10). <P> john gives him money and helps him escape the club. Having finally cried "on cue," Roger believes he can be a star again. In the cave, Becky is crushed to death when she tries to collect rainwater, and the Smiths reluctantly resort to eating her to survive. The hunters then find them, and the family learns that the island—and the hunt—was part of the cruise. When partially asked about Becky, Francine says "Well, nothing bonds a family like a dark, horrible secret." Stan quickly asks where the family wants to go next year. The scene then changes to the Smiths happily floating <P> it is eventually decided that the Keyser parents may regain custody of their children. After Clifton Village closes, Jessie, her family, and the rest of the Clifton residents will live in the present day with the rest of the world. Plagiarism allegation Simon & Schuster, who published Running Out of Time, noted that the film The Village (2004) had a number of similarities to the book. The film's plot also features a village whose inhabitants choose to live in a manner reminiscent of the 1800s, when the year is 1996, and a young female protagonist who escapes the village in <P> Tom's Midnight Garden Premise Tom is a modern boy living under quarantine with his aunt and uncle in a city flat, part of a converted building that was a country house during the 1880s–1890s. At night he slips back in time to the old garden where he finds a girl playmate. Plot summary When Tom Long's brother Peter gets measles, Tom is sent to stay with his Uncle Alan and Aunt Gwen. They live in an upstairs flat of a big house with no garden, only a tiny yard for parking. The former grounds of the big house have been <P> close to finding all 39 clues in his Indonesian lab. His work was destroyed by the Krakatoa eruption and he fled to Australia. Amy and Dan find a note written by him, a strange poem seemingly pointing to the clue. The Cahills discover the clue – water – with the help of Alistair Oh. However, Isabel Kabra sets the house they are staying in on fire, and Irina Spasky chooses to save Amy, Dan, and Alistair at the price of her own life. The book ends with Amy and Dan thinking that they now are doing the clue hunt for <P> "Wayward Children" series, later volumes of which further explore characters and settings this one establishes. <P> and in some later episodes go on romantic cruises, for example to Venice. The first seven episodes also feature Bibi's little brother Boris. He is often very jealous of Bibi's magical powers, which leads to many arguments between them. According to episode #1, he is eight years old. In episode #9, he moves to his grandparents' house at the North Sea. The reason that is given is that he has a cough and needs fresh sea air. He is never mentioned again and doesn't return to his parents and sister, not even on important occasions, such as when the Blocksbergs are <P> House of Secrets (novel) Synopsis Cordelia, Brendan, and Eleanor Walker are less than pleased when their parents purchase the old and creepy, suspiciously inexpensive yet too-perfect Kristoff House; even less when, after just a few days of living in the house, a mysterious woman called Dahlia Kristoff appears and demolishes it. She claims to be the "Wind Witch" and the daughter of the original owner of the house, Denver Kristoff. The three Walker children are horrified when they find that suddenly, they weren't in San Francisco anymore, and their parents were nowhere to be found. Cordelia is mystified when they <P> The Remains (film) Plot In 1891, a couple visit a spiritualist named Madame Addison at 3:00 AM—the so-called witching hour—in order to try to find their lost daughter. Due to either ghostly or demonic intervention, all five people in the house die that night. Present day, John, whose wife has recently passed, purchases the same house, having no knowledge of the deaths that occurred there more than a century earlier. He is joined by his elder daughter, Izzy, and his two younger children, Victoria and Aiden. One day, while playing hide-and-seek, Victoria and Aiden come across a chest in the attic containing <P> Over the Garden Wall Plot The series follows two half-brothers, Wirt and Greg (voiced by Elijah Wood and Collin Dean respectively), who become lost in a strange forest called the Unknown. In order to find their way home, the two must travel across the seemingly supernatural forest with the occasional help of the wandering, mysterious and elderly Woodsman (Christopher Lloyd) and Beatrice (Melanie Lynskey), an irritable bluebird who travels with the boys in order to find a woman called Adelaide, who can supposedly undo the curse on Beatrice and her family and show the half-brothers the way home. Wirt, the older <P> Crawlspace (2013 film) Synopsis Tim (Jonathan Silverman) and Susan (Lori Loughlin) Gates are eager to move into their new house with their teenage son Shane (Sterling Beaumon) and their younger son Taylor (Xander Stolberg), as well as their college-bound daughter Kayla (Raleigh Holmes), despite the house's dark history of drowned children and foreclosure. As they settle into the house, strange things frequently occur, like the garbage cans being taken out for collection without explanation. While Kayla and her boyfriend Derek (Paul James) are sorting out items for a garage sale, the garage door inexplicably opens and closes. The next day, the <P> interest with Fritz and Ernst. Jacob is reunited with his family during a battle with the pirates over Emily, and she is returned to her father. In the end, the family goes their own ways, some staying on the island, some going home. Critical reception The film received positive reviews, with Dan Heaton of Digitally Obsessed saying, "Although I enjoyed the Disney version of Swiss Family Robinson as a small child, its one-dimensional characters quickly become tiresome as an adult. Luckily, Stranded crafts a much deeper story that should please both adults and older kids. Strong acting and well-fleshed characters <P> of crewmen) arrive from Bobbie's ship. Things become crowded in the lighthouse, until people start to mysteriously disappear during the night, leaving an anxious Pilbeam to discover what has been happening to everyone and why. Finally, only Pilbeam is left. It turns out that Nazi agents have been secretly sweeping the waters of mines and have taken everyone else prisoner, leaving Pilbeam free just so he can send away a rescue party without arousing suspicion. But between Pilbeam, Jane's uncle (from the neighboring island) and the women, they manage to turn the tables on their captors. They tie the Germans up <P> develops a romantic connection, but who has her own secrets; and "11–12", Number 2's son, who begins to question the reality of the Village. Background A remake of the 1967 TV series The Prisoner had been in the works since 2005. The miniseries was promoted at 2008 San Diego ComicCon via a skywriter airplane that sketched the phrase "Seek the Six" in the sky over San Diego. Although "Seek the Six" was initially thought to be a catchphrase of some sort, it did not appear in the final cut of the miniseries. A further promotional event for the miniseries was held at <P> a storyline which Herbert describes as follows: "Every day, a woman walks the beach alone, obsessively collecting every discarded and washed up object that she finds. She takes them home to catalogue each one with the care and rigour of a scientist. The artefacts are then placed in 'The Sea Cabinet', and every one sings with the memory of a secret sea-set story – the victory of a Fishguard cobbler's wife, a jaded seaside hotel, a sunken chapel, the shifting sands of wartime Alderney, the dangerous allure of the King's Shilling, the loves and the losses and the stars and the <P> The Shape of Things to Come (Lost) Plot The episode is set on December 27, 2004, the survivors' 97th day on the island. At the beach camp, the corpse of Ray (Marc Vann), the freighter Kahana's doctor, washes ashore. Daniel Faraday (Jeremy Davies) calls the freighter and asks what happened to Ray via morse code. Daniel lies about the response, saying that rescue helicopters will be sent soon; however, Bernard Nadler (Sam Anderson) calls him out on this and correctly interprets the freighter's message: "What are you talking about? The doctor is fine." Jack Shephard (Matthew <P> The Returned (Mott novel) Plot The series follows the residents of Arcadia, North Carolina, in particular the Hargrave family, whose lives are upended when their loved ones return from the dead, unaged since their deaths. Among the returned is Jacob Hargrave, an eight-year-old boy who drowned 32 years earlier. Having been found alive, Jacob is brought back by the Bureau, which investigates the phenomenon of the Returned. The military agent Bellamy returns Jacob to his parents, Harold and Lucille Hargrave, who must deal with his return. The novel also occasionally looks at the phenomenon from the viewpoint of the Returned, who <P> Agent Anna Premise Anna Kingston's husband has left her and their two teenage daughters and gone to Australia leaving behind substantial debts. The family home has been sold, leaving the family to move into Anna's parents' basement. Armed with a new real estate agent's diploma and a motivational CD, Anna gets a job in an Auckland real estate office. Her co-workers steal her listings and treat her poorly, her daughters miss their previous private school, and her mother is unsympathetic. Broadcast In Australia, the show premiered on 7Two on 15 January 2014, while series 2 eventually premiered shortly after midnight <P> mess" thanks to Rádiós, who lives there. Its other permanent inhabitant is Robinson. There are three ways to get into the attic: from downstairs, from the attic of the neighbour's house (Süni's house) and from the dormer door on the roof. The attic also contains a cubbyhole usually used for hiding. The importance of the attic is that the Révész arrives there to bring the ghosts to the past-planet of "eternal beauty", it is a port. The planet of memories has a great significance in the play. The ghosts are searching for the attic since centuries because they want to <P> A Letter from the Clearys Plot summary "A Letter from the Clearys" starts with a young teenage girl and her dog making their way home through the countryside after a visit to the town's post office. The main character is living with her parents, older brother and a neighbour. She feels somewhat neglected as her family are very busy building a greenhouse. In addition, while calling her dog she contrasts him with her first dog. When the protagonist arrives home she reveals that she has found a letter from their friends, the Clearys. This family was due to have visited them 'before'	answer: A plane crashes on an island. There are many survivors. The survivors that are in the mid-section of the plane crash land on one side of the island while those in the tail section crash on the other side. The cockpit lands a few miles from the mid-section and the pilot dies.The island is very strange and seems to have mystical powers. There is a monster made of smoke that terrorizes the survivors by taking the form of people from their past as well as people who have died on the island in addition to killing people.The island is very hard to locate and cannot be found by traditional navigational means.There are also people already living on the island when the plane crashes. They are called the "Others." They are led by a man named Ben and hostile to the survivors of the plane crash.The survivors struggle to survive amongst the harsh conditions of living on a desert island, hostile inhabitants called the Others, and the smoke monster on the island.In the end it is show that all of these people were essentially in purgatory and move on to an afterlife at the end of the series.
150,871	5qlti2	Is there a temperature gradient on Mercury?	You are correct that there is a small range of hospitable temperatures near the terminator between night and day. In the polar regions, the temperature is more stable (never becoming warmer than about 180K).Taking a spacecraft to Mercury is a bit tricky. Spacecraft tend to speed up as they move closer to the sun, so they need more fuel (slowing down) to enter orbit and/or land. Colonizing Mars is much more feasible.	[ "You are correct that there is a small range of hospitable temperatures near the terminator between night and day. In the polar regions, the temperature is more stable (never becoming warmer than about 180K).\n\nTaking a spacecraft to Mercury is a bit tricky. Spacecraft tend to speed up as they move closer to the s...	2	[ "You are correct that there is a small range of hospitable temperatures near the terminator between night and day. In the polar regions, the temperature is more stable (never becoming warmer than about 180K).\n\nTaking a spacecraft to Mercury is a bit tricky. Spacecraft tend to speed up as they move closer to the s...	2	<P> Mercury (element) Physical properties Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white liquid metal. Compared to other metals, it is a poor conductor of heat, but a fair conductor of electricity. It has a freezing point of −38.83 °C and a boiling point of 356.73 °C, both the lowest of any stable metal, although preliminary experiments on copernicium and flerovium have indicated that they have even lower boiling points (copernicium being the element below mercury in the periodic table, following the trend of decreasing boiling points down group 12). Upon freezing, the volume of mercury decreases by 3.59% and its density changes from 13.69 g/cm³ when liquid <P> conditions, protected by a layer of cadmium oxide. Mercury is a liquid at room temperature. It has the weakest metallic bonding of all, as indicated by its bonding energy (61 kJ/mol) and melting point (−39 °C) which, together, are the lowest of all the metallic elements. Solid mercury (MH 1.5) has a distorted crystalline structure, with mixed metallic-covalent bonding, and a BCN of 6. "All of the [Group 12] metals, but especially mercury, tend to form covalent rather than ionic compounds." The oxide of mercury in its preferred oxidation state (HgO; +2) is weakly amphoteric, as is the congener sulfide HgS. It <P> to 14.184 g/cm³ when solid. The coefficient of volume expansion is 181.59 × 10⁻⁶ at 0 °C, 181.71 × 10⁻⁶ at 20 °C and 182.50 × 10⁻⁶ at 100 °C (per °C). Solid mercury is malleable and ductile and can be cut with a knife. A complete explanation of mercury's extreme volatility delves deep into the realm of quantum physics, but it can be summarized as follows: mercury has a unique electron configuration where electrons fill up all the available 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f, 5s, 5p, 5d, and 6s subshells. Because this configuration strongly resists removal of an electron, mercury <P> heating near 400 °C, as was demonstrated by Joseph Priestley in an early synthesis of pure oxygen. Hydroxides of mercury are poorly characterized, as they are for its neighbors gold and silver. Being a soft metal, mercury forms very stable derivatives with the heavier chalcogens. Preeminent is mercury(II) sulfide, HgS, which occurs in nature as the ore cinnabar and is the brilliant pigment vermillion. Like ZnS, HgS crystallizes in two forms, the reddish cubic form and the black zinc blende form. The latter sometimes occurs naturally as metacinnabar. Mercury(II) selenide (HgSe) and mercury(II) telluride (HgTe) are also known, these as well as <P> this regard. After about 1985, all new chloralkali production facilities that were built in the United States used membrane cell or diaphragm cell technologies to produce chlorine. Laboratory uses Some medical thermometers, especially those for high temperatures, are filled with mercury; they are gradually disappearing. In the United States, non-prescription sale of mercury fever thermometers has been banned since 2003. Mercury is also found in liquid mirror telescopes. Some transit telescopes use a basin of mercury to form a flat and absolutely horizontal mirror, useful in determining an absolute vertical or perpendicular reference. Concave horizontal parabolic mirrors may be formed by rotating <P> 581c, assuming an albedo (reflectivity) such as Venus' (0.64), would be −3 °C (27 °F), and assuming an Earth-like albedo (0.296), then it would be 40 °C (104 °F), a range of temperatures which overlaps with the range that water would be liquid at a pressure of 1 atmosphere. However, the effective temperature and actual surface temperature can be very different due to the greenhouse properties of the planetary atmosphere: for example, Venus has an effective temperature of 34.25 °C (307.40 K; 93.65 °F), but a surface temperature of 463.85 °C (737.00 K; 866.93 °F) (mainly due to a 96.5% carbon dioxide atmosphere), a difference of about 430 °C (770 °F). Studies <P> is likely only higher than that of flerovium. Solid copernicium is expected to crystallise in a close-packed body-centred cubic structure and have a density of about 14.7 g/cm³, decreasing to 14.0 g/cm³ on melting, which is similar to that of mercury (13.534 g/cm³). Copernicium chemistry is expected to be dominated by the +2 oxidation state, in which it would behave like a post-transition metal similar to mercury, although the relativistic stabilisation of the 7s orbitals means that this oxidation state involves giving up 6d rather than 7s electrons. A concurrent relativistic destabilisation of the 6d orbitals should allow higher oxidation states such as <P> forms anionic thiomercurates (such as Na₂HgS₂ and BaHgS₃) in strongly basic solutions. It forms or is a part of Zintl phases such as NaHg and K₈In₁₀Hg. Mercury is a relatively inert metal, showing little oxide formation at room temperature. Copernicium is expected to be a liquid at room temperature, although experiments have so far not succeeded in determining its boiling point with sufficient precision to prove this. Like its lighter congener mercury, many of its singular properties stem from its closed-shell d¹⁰s² electron configuration as well as strong relativistic effects. Its cohesive energy is even less than that of mercury and <P> standard for the International Temperature Scale (ITS-90). In polarography both the dropping mercury electrode and the hanging mercury drop electrode use elemental mercury. This use allows a new uncontaminated electrode to be available for each measurement or each new experiment. Mercury-containing compounds are also of use in the field of structural biology. Mercuric compounds such as mercury(II) chloride or potassium tetraiodomercurate(II) can be added to protein crystals in an effort to create heavy atom derivatives that can be used to solve the phase problem in X-ray crystallography via isomorphous replacement or anomalous scattering methods. Niche uses Gaseous mercury is used in mercury-vapor <P> lamps and some "neon sign" type advertising signs and fluorescent lamps. Those low-pressure lamps emit very spectrally narrow lines, which are traditionally used in optical spectroscopy for calibration of spectral position. Commercial calibration lamps are sold for this purpose; reflecting a fluorescent ceiling light into a spectrometer is a common calibration practice. Gaseous mercury is also found in some electron tubes, including ignitrons, thyratrons, and mercury arc rectifiers. It is also used in specialist medical care lamps for skin tanning and disinfection. Gaseous mercury is added to cold cathode argon-filled lamps to increase the ionization and electrical conductivity. An argon-filled <P> shown to occur in and around the city of London in association with fine grain muds and high total organic carbon content. The strong affinity of mercury for carbon rich sediments has also been observed in salt marsh sediments of the River Mersey mean of 2 mg/kg up to 5 mg/kg. These concentrations are far higher than those shown in salt marsh river creek sediments of New Jersey and mangroves of Southern China which exhibit low mercury concentrations of about 0.2 mg/kg. Occupational exposure Due to the health effects of mercury exposure, industrial and commercial uses are regulated in many countries. The World <P> liquid metals used in this application, such as lithium and mercury, the nonreactivity makes galinstan a safer material to use. Melting-point controversy The reported melting point of commercial Galinstan is inconsistent with the ternary eutectic alloy. Many commercially available gallium, indium, and tin eutectic alloys are advertised with a melting point of about +11°C, which is significantly higher than the −19°C reported for Galinstan. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) tests demonstrate the apparent source of discrepancy. On heating, solid Galinstan will melt at +11°C which is the eutectic point. On cooling, the alloy will remain liquid well below this point (depending on <P> are also resistant in forming amalgams. Other elements that do not readily form amalgams with mercury include platinum. Sodium amalgam is a common reducing agent in organic synthesis, and is also used in high-pressure sodium lamps. Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminium amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact. Since the amalgam destroys the aluminium oxide layer which protects metallic aluminium from oxidizing in-depth (as in iron rusting), even small amounts of mercury can seriously corrode aluminium. For this reason, mercury is not allowed aboard an aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it <P> Phosphorus pentafluoride Structure Single-crystal X-ray studies indicate that the PF₅ has trigonal bipyramidal geometry. Thus it has two distinct types of P−F bonds (axial and equatorial): the length of an axial P−F bond is distinct from the equatorial P−F bond in the solid phase, but not the liquid or gas phases due to Pseudo Berry Rotation. Fluorine-19 NMR spectroscopy, even at temperatures as low as −100 °C, fails to distinguish the axial from the equatorial fluorine environments. The apparent equivalency arises from the low barrier for pseudorotation via the Berry mechanism, by which the axial and equatorial fluorine <P> nonmetals. The hydroxide of astatine At(OH) is presumed to be amphoteric. Astatine forms covalent compounds with nonmetals, including hydrogen astatide HAt and carbon tetraastatide CAt₄. At⁻ anions have been reported to form astatides with silver, thallium, palladium and lead. Pruszyński et al. note that astatide ions should form strong complexes with soft metal cations such as Hg²⁺, Pd²⁺, Ag⁺ and Tl³⁺; they list the astatide formed with mercury as Hg(OH)At. Tennessine, despite being in the halogen column of the periodic table, is expected to go even further towards metallicity than astatine due to its small electron affinity. The −1 state should <P> of the electron exceeds about 1.3 million meters per second, collisions with a mercury atom become inelastic. This speed corresponds to a kinetic energy of 4.9 eV, which is deposited into the mercury atom. As shown in the figure, the electron's speed is reduced, and the mercury atom becomes "excited". A short time later, the 4.9 eV of energy that was deposited into the mercury atom is released as ultraviolet light that has a wavelength of precisely 254 nm. Following light emission, the mercury atom returns to its original, unexcited state. If electrons emitted from the cathode flew freely until they arrived <P> the planet. The magnetodisk has a thin current sheet at the middle plane, approximately near the magnetic equator. The magnetic field lines point away from Jupiter above the sheet and towards Jupiter below it. The load of plasma from Io greatly expands the size of the Jovian magnetosphere, because the magnetodisk creates an additional internal pressure which balances the pressure of the solar wind. In the absence of Io the distance from the planet to the magnetopause at the subsolar point would be no more than 42 RJ, whereas it is actually 75 RJ on average. The configuration of the magnetodisk's field is <P> mercury centers, capped with a positive charge. One example is Hg²⁺ ₃(AsF⁻ ₆) ₂. Compounds of mercury(II) Mercury(II) is the most common oxidation state and is the main one in nature as well. All four mercuric halides are known. They form tetrahedral complexes with other ligands but the halides adopt linear coordination geometry, somewhat like Ag⁺ does. Best known is mercury(II) chloride, an easily sublimating white solid. HgCl₂ forms coordination complexes that are typically tetrahedral, e.g. HgCl²⁻ ₄. Mercury(II) oxide, the main oxide of mercury, arises when the metal is exposed to air for long periods at elevated temperatures. It reverts to the elements upon <P> the hydrogen and helium layer. Uranus does not appear to have a significant heat source, but Neptune has a heat source that is attributed to a “hot” formation. Observed types The following summarizes known information about the planetary cores of given non-stellar bodies. Mercury Mercury has an observed magnetic field, which is believed to be generated within its metallic core. Mercury's core occupies 85% of the planet's radius, making it the largest core relative to the size of the planet in the Solar System; this indicates that much of Mercury's surface may have been lost early in the Solar System's <P> planets in our Solar System. However, it appears to have a somewhat higher fraction of iron than Earth. The planet's gravitational pull is around 1.91g, or over 90% greater than that of Earth. Based on the planet's close proximity to the star, HD 219134 c is much hotter than Earth. It receives about 62 times the incident flux of Earth, and has an equilibrium temperature of 782 K (509 °C; 948 °F), hot enough to melt certain metals. Depending on the greenhouse effect and/or the amount of cloud cover in the planet's atmosphere, its actual temperature may be significantly higher or lower. Orbit and	question: Is there a temperature gradient on Mercury? context: <P> Mercury (element) Physical properties Mercury is a heavy, silvery-white liquid metal. Compared to other metals, it is a poor conductor of heat, but a fair conductor of electricity. It has a freezing point of −38.83 °C and a boiling point of 356.73 °C, both the lowest of any stable metal, although preliminary experiments on copernicium and flerovium have indicated that they have even lower boiling points (copernicium being the element below mercury in the periodic table, following the trend of decreasing boiling points down group 12). Upon freezing, the volume of mercury decreases by 3.59% and its density changes from 13.69 g/cm³ when liquid <P> conditions, protected by a layer of cadmium oxide. Mercury is a liquid at room temperature. It has the weakest metallic bonding of all, as indicated by its bonding energy (61 kJ/mol) and melting point (−39 °C) which, together, are the lowest of all the metallic elements. Solid mercury (MH 1.5) has a distorted crystalline structure, with mixed metallic-covalent bonding, and a BCN of 6. "All of the [Group 12] metals, but especially mercury, tend to form covalent rather than ionic compounds." The oxide of mercury in its preferred oxidation state (HgO; +2) is weakly amphoteric, as is the congener sulfide HgS. It <P> to 14.184 g/cm³ when solid. The coefficient of volume expansion is 181.59 × 10⁻⁶ at 0 °C, 181.71 × 10⁻⁶ at 20 °C and 182.50 × 10⁻⁶ at 100 °C (per °C). Solid mercury is malleable and ductile and can be cut with a knife. A complete explanation of mercury's extreme volatility delves deep into the realm of quantum physics, but it can be summarized as follows: mercury has a unique electron configuration where electrons fill up all the available 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 3d, 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f, 5s, 5p, 5d, and 6s subshells. Because this configuration strongly resists removal of an electron, mercury <P> heating near 400 °C, as was demonstrated by Joseph Priestley in an early synthesis of pure oxygen. Hydroxides of mercury are poorly characterized, as they are for its neighbors gold and silver. Being a soft metal, mercury forms very stable derivatives with the heavier chalcogens. Preeminent is mercury(II) sulfide, HgS, which occurs in nature as the ore cinnabar and is the brilliant pigment vermillion. Like ZnS, HgS crystallizes in two forms, the reddish cubic form and the black zinc blende form. The latter sometimes occurs naturally as metacinnabar. Mercury(II) selenide (HgSe) and mercury(II) telluride (HgTe) are also known, these as well as <P> this regard. After about 1985, all new chloralkali production facilities that were built in the United States used membrane cell or diaphragm cell technologies to produce chlorine. Laboratory uses Some medical thermometers, especially those for high temperatures, are filled with mercury; they are gradually disappearing. In the United States, non-prescription sale of mercury fever thermometers has been banned since 2003. Mercury is also found in liquid mirror telescopes. Some transit telescopes use a basin of mercury to form a flat and absolutely horizontal mirror, useful in determining an absolute vertical or perpendicular reference. Concave horizontal parabolic mirrors may be formed by rotating <P> 581c, assuming an albedo (reflectivity) such as Venus' (0.64), would be −3 °C (27 °F), and assuming an Earth-like albedo (0.296), then it would be 40 °C (104 °F), a range of temperatures which overlaps with the range that water would be liquid at a pressure of 1 atmosphere. However, the effective temperature and actual surface temperature can be very different due to the greenhouse properties of the planetary atmosphere: for example, Venus has an effective temperature of 34.25 °C (307.40 K; 93.65 °F), but a surface temperature of 463.85 °C (737.00 K; 866.93 °F) (mainly due to a 96.5% carbon dioxide atmosphere), a difference of about 430 °C (770 °F). Studies <P> is likely only higher than that of flerovium. Solid copernicium is expected to crystallise in a close-packed body-centred cubic structure and have a density of about 14.7 g/cm³, decreasing to 14.0 g/cm³ on melting, which is similar to that of mercury (13.534 g/cm³). Copernicium chemistry is expected to be dominated by the +2 oxidation state, in which it would behave like a post-transition metal similar to mercury, although the relativistic stabilisation of the 7s orbitals means that this oxidation state involves giving up 6d rather than 7s electrons. A concurrent relativistic destabilisation of the 6d orbitals should allow higher oxidation states such as <P> forms anionic thiomercurates (such as Na₂HgS₂ and BaHgS₃) in strongly basic solutions. It forms or is a part of Zintl phases such as NaHg and K₈In₁₀Hg. Mercury is a relatively inert metal, showing little oxide formation at room temperature. Copernicium is expected to be a liquid at room temperature, although experiments have so far not succeeded in determining its boiling point with sufficient precision to prove this. Like its lighter congener mercury, many of its singular properties stem from its closed-shell d¹⁰s² electron configuration as well as strong relativistic effects. Its cohesive energy is even less than that of mercury and <P> standard for the International Temperature Scale (ITS-90). In polarography both the dropping mercury electrode and the hanging mercury drop electrode use elemental mercury. This use allows a new uncontaminated electrode to be available for each measurement or each new experiment. Mercury-containing compounds are also of use in the field of structural biology. Mercuric compounds such as mercury(II) chloride or potassium tetraiodomercurate(II) can be added to protein crystals in an effort to create heavy atom derivatives that can be used to solve the phase problem in X-ray crystallography via isomorphous replacement or anomalous scattering methods. Niche uses Gaseous mercury is used in mercury-vapor <P> lamps and some "neon sign" type advertising signs and fluorescent lamps. Those low-pressure lamps emit very spectrally narrow lines, which are traditionally used in optical spectroscopy for calibration of spectral position. Commercial calibration lamps are sold for this purpose; reflecting a fluorescent ceiling light into a spectrometer is a common calibration practice. Gaseous mercury is also found in some electron tubes, including ignitrons, thyratrons, and mercury arc rectifiers. It is also used in specialist medical care lamps for skin tanning and disinfection. Gaseous mercury is added to cold cathode argon-filled lamps to increase the ionization and electrical conductivity. An argon-filled <P> shown to occur in and around the city of London in association with fine grain muds and high total organic carbon content. The strong affinity of mercury for carbon rich sediments has also been observed in salt marsh sediments of the River Mersey mean of 2 mg/kg up to 5 mg/kg. These concentrations are far higher than those shown in salt marsh river creek sediments of New Jersey and mangroves of Southern China which exhibit low mercury concentrations of about 0.2 mg/kg. Occupational exposure Due to the health effects of mercury exposure, industrial and commercial uses are regulated in many countries. The World <P> liquid metals used in this application, such as lithium and mercury, the nonreactivity makes galinstan a safer material to use. Melting-point controversy The reported melting point of commercial Galinstan is inconsistent with the ternary eutectic alloy. Many commercially available gallium, indium, and tin eutectic alloys are advertised with a melting point of about +11°C, which is significantly higher than the −19°C reported for Galinstan. Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) tests demonstrate the apparent source of discrepancy. On heating, solid Galinstan will melt at +11°C which is the eutectic point. On cooling, the alloy will remain liquid well below this point (depending on <P> are also resistant in forming amalgams. Other elements that do not readily form amalgams with mercury include platinum. Sodium amalgam is a common reducing agent in organic synthesis, and is also used in high-pressure sodium lamps. Mercury readily combines with aluminium to form a mercury-aluminium amalgam when the two pure metals come into contact. Since the amalgam destroys the aluminium oxide layer which protects metallic aluminium from oxidizing in-depth (as in iron rusting), even small amounts of mercury can seriously corrode aluminium. For this reason, mercury is not allowed aboard an aircraft under most circumstances because of the risk of it <P> Phosphorus pentafluoride Structure Single-crystal X-ray studies indicate that the PF₅ has trigonal bipyramidal geometry. Thus it has two distinct types of P−F bonds (axial and equatorial): the length of an axial P−F bond is distinct from the equatorial P−F bond in the solid phase, but not the liquid or gas phases due to Pseudo Berry Rotation. Fluorine-19 NMR spectroscopy, even at temperatures as low as −100 °C, fails to distinguish the axial from the equatorial fluorine environments. The apparent equivalency arises from the low barrier for pseudorotation via the Berry mechanism, by which the axial and equatorial fluorine <P> nonmetals. The hydroxide of astatine At(OH) is presumed to be amphoteric. Astatine forms covalent compounds with nonmetals, including hydrogen astatide HAt and carbon tetraastatide CAt₄. At⁻ anions have been reported to form astatides with silver, thallium, palladium and lead. Pruszyński et al. note that astatide ions should form strong complexes with soft metal cations such as Hg²⁺, Pd²⁺, Ag⁺ and Tl³⁺; they list the astatide formed with mercury as Hg(OH)At. Tennessine, despite being in the halogen column of the periodic table, is expected to go even further towards metallicity than astatine due to its small electron affinity. The −1 state should <P> of the electron exceeds about 1.3 million meters per second, collisions with a mercury atom become inelastic. This speed corresponds to a kinetic energy of 4.9 eV, which is deposited into the mercury atom. As shown in the figure, the electron's speed is reduced, and the mercury atom becomes "excited". A short time later, the 4.9 eV of energy that was deposited into the mercury atom is released as ultraviolet light that has a wavelength of precisely 254 nm. Following light emission, the mercury atom returns to its original, unexcited state. If electrons emitted from the cathode flew freely until they arrived <P> the planet. The magnetodisk has a thin current sheet at the middle plane, approximately near the magnetic equator. The magnetic field lines point away from Jupiter above the sheet and towards Jupiter below it. The load of plasma from Io greatly expands the size of the Jovian magnetosphere, because the magnetodisk creates an additional internal pressure which balances the pressure of the solar wind. In the absence of Io the distance from the planet to the magnetopause at the subsolar point would be no more than 42 RJ, whereas it is actually 75 RJ on average. The configuration of the magnetodisk's field is <P> mercury centers, capped with a positive charge. One example is Hg²⁺ ₃(AsF⁻ ₆) ₂. Compounds of mercury(II) Mercury(II) is the most common oxidation state and is the main one in nature as well. All four mercuric halides are known. They form tetrahedral complexes with other ligands but the halides adopt linear coordination geometry, somewhat like Ag⁺ does. Best known is mercury(II) chloride, an easily sublimating white solid. HgCl₂ forms coordination complexes that are typically tetrahedral, e.g. HgCl²⁻ ₄. Mercury(II) oxide, the main oxide of mercury, arises when the metal is exposed to air for long periods at elevated temperatures. It reverts to the elements upon <P> the hydrogen and helium layer. Uranus does not appear to have a significant heat source, but Neptune has a heat source that is attributed to a “hot” formation. Observed types The following summarizes known information about the planetary cores of given non-stellar bodies. Mercury Mercury has an observed magnetic field, which is believed to be generated within its metallic core. Mercury's core occupies 85% of the planet's radius, making it the largest core relative to the size of the planet in the Solar System; this indicates that much of Mercury's surface may have been lost early in the Solar System's <P> planets in our Solar System. However, it appears to have a somewhat higher fraction of iron than Earth. The planet's gravitational pull is around 1.91g, or over 90% greater than that of Earth. Based on the planet's close proximity to the star, HD 219134 c is much hotter than Earth. It receives about 62 times the incident flux of Earth, and has an equilibrium temperature of 782 K (509 °C; 948 °F), hot enough to melt certain metals. Depending on the greenhouse effect and/or the amount of cloud cover in the planet's atmosphere, its actual temperature may be significantly higher or lower. Orbit and	answer: You are correct that there is a small range of hospitable temperatures near the terminator between night and day. In the polar regions, the temperature is more stable (never becoming warmer than about 180K).Taking a spacecraft to Mercury is a bit tricky. Spacecraft tend to speed up as they move closer to the sun, so they need more fuel (slowing down) to enter orbit and/or land. Colonizing Mars is much more feasible.
48,773	2hngk7	why it's easier to read text in reverse than say the alphabet in reverse?	Because they're single letters. Think of the ABC's like a long word. Ey, Bee, See. Then it's gonna be hard to say that backwords, and that's how you've learned it, as a long word. Just rapidly saying it as a whole. "abcdefgh..."It's the same problem that many dyslectics have, a dyslectic probably wouldn't be able to read that picture as easily as, maybe, you and I, because they see every letter individually in a word whereas you see the whole word.This is the reverse, you see the whole word and can't recall that word individually backwards.	[ "Because they're single letters. Think of the ABC's like a long word. Ey, Bee, See. Then it's gonna be hard to say that backwords, and that's how you've learned it, as a long word. Just rapidly saying it as a whole. \"abcdefgh...\"\n\nIt's the same problem that many dyslectics have, a dyslectic probably wouldn't...	1	[]	0	<P> around 1000, but proficiency in writing Insular Minuscule was in terminal decline by the time of the Textus Roffensis. The double-page opening of f95v and f96r is a good place to examine differences in the two scripts. The left-hand page contains the end of Hit becƿæð. ond becƿæl in English and the right-hand page the start of Henry I's Coronation Charter, in Latin. It is not only the general letter-shapes which show some differences. In the English, the only abbreviations are the tironian et for ond and the suspensions on dative endings e.g. beÞinū/ beminū for –um <P> strokes above or below the line being avoided. Sometimes, especially in tax-receipts and in stereotyped formulae, cursiveness is carried to an extreme. In a letter of the prefect, dated in 209, we have a fine example of the Chancery hand, with tall and laterally compressed letters, ο very narrow and α and ω often written high in the line. This style, from at least the latter part of the 2nd century, exercised considerable influence on the local hands, many of which show the same characteristics less pronounced; and its effects may be traced into the early part of the 4th <P> increasing right-branching and thus easing processing, center-embedded structures being more difficult to process. Extraposition occurs frequently in English and related languages. <P> left to right, and then from right to left, was more easily and quickly done in the left to right direction. For former dyslexic children, a substantial number read a series of 42 letters with equal speed in both directions, and some (10%) read better from right to left than from left to right. The phenomenon is clearly linked to the dynamics of sight, as it disappears when the space between letters is increased, transforming the reading into spelling. This experience also explains the ability to mirror-read. In April 1963, the conference Explorations into the Problems of the Perceptually Handicapped Child, <P> majuscule style of writing, based on two parallel lines, ADPL, is opposed to the minuscule, based on a system of four lines, with letters of unequal height, adpl. Another classification, according to the care taken in forming the letters, distinguishes between the set book-hand and the cursive script. The difference in this case is determined by the subject matter of the text; the writing used for books (scriptura libraria) is in all periods quite distinct from that used for letters and documents (epistolaris, diplomatica). While the set book-hand, in majuscule or minuscule, shows a tendency to stabilise the forms of <P> this form of writing, characterised by the boldness of the strokes and by the elimination of the last lingering majuscule forms. The Ravenna deeds of the 5th and 6th centuries exhibit this hand at its perfection. At this period, the minuscule cursive made its appearance as a book hand, first as marginal notes, and later for the complete books themselves. The only difference between the book-hand and that used for documents is that the principal strokes are shorter and the characters thicker. This form of the hand is usually called semi-cursive. Set minuscule writing One by one, the national minuscule cursive <P> [], and braces {}, as well as less/greater than <>, – are in the opposite order from the standard in other left-to-right languages. This results in "open"/"close" being consistent with right-to-left languages (Shift-9 always gives "close parenthesis" U+0029, which visually looks like "open parenthesis" in left-to-right languages). This is shared with Arabic keyboards. Certain Hebrew layouts are extended with the Nikkud symbols (Hebrew vowels), which require Alt+Shift or similar key combination in order to be typed. Inuktitut Inuktitut has two similar, though not identical, commonly available keyboard layouts for Windows. Both contain a basic Latin layout in its base and shift <P> well called by palaeographer Schubart the "severe" style, has a more angular appearance and not infrequently slopes to the right; though handsome, it has not the sumptuous appearance of the former. There are various classes of a less pretentious style, in which convenience rather than beauty was the first consideration and no pains were taken to avoid irregularities in the shape and alignment of the letters. Lastly may be mentioned a hand which is of great interest as being the ancestor of the type called (from its later occurrence in vellum codices of the Bible) the biblical hand. This, which <P> lack of concern for principles of proper textual accentuation. <P> Dž orthography in this case (for example džus). In this case, the two letters are always split when text is written vertically. Lithuanian and Latvian similarly use Dž without considering it a separate letter. Letter "Dž" is found in Unicode at code points U+01C4 (uppercase, Ǆ), U+01C5 (titlecase, ǅ), and U+01C6 (lowercase, ǆ). Unicode representations of the letter are very rarely used in digital media, which tends to favor the corresponding two-character combinations. Manufacturers of computer keyboards and typewriters for Croatian users typically do not provide a single key for the letter. X keyboard extension provides latinunicode keyboard layouts <P> of emphasising words. Research Since at least 2014, researchers in the area of optical character recognition have attempted to solve the problem of recognizing struck-out text in handwritten documents. <P> there are numerous less elaborate examples of cursive, varying according to the writer's skill and degree of education, and many of them strikingly easy and handsome. In some cursiveness is carried very far, the linking of letters reaching the point of illegibility, and the characters sloping to the right. A is reduced to a mere acute angle (∠), T has the cross-stroke only on the left, ω becomes an almost straight line, H acquires a shape somewhat like h, and the last stroke of N is extended far upwards and at times flattened out until it is little more than <P> have survived. Byzantine cursive tends to an exuberant hand, in which the long strokes are excessively extended and individual letters often much enlarged. But not a few hands of the 5th and 6th centuries are truly handsome and show considerable technical accomplishment. Both an upright and a sloping type occur and there are many less ornamental hands, but there gradually emerged towards the 7th century two general types, one (especially used in letters and contracts) a current hand, sloping to the right, with long strokes in such characters at τ, ρ, ξ, η (which has the h shape), ι, and <P> documents written in the early cursive show a mixture of majuscule and minuscule forms, so certain literary papyri of the 3rd century, and inscriptions on stone of the 4th century yield examples of a mixed set hand, with minuscule forms side by side with capital and uncial letters. The number of minuscule forms increases steadily in texts written in the mixed hand, and especially in marginal notes, until by the end of the 5th century the majuscule forms have almost entirely disappeared in some manuscripts. This quasi-minuscule writing, known as the "half-uncial" thus derives from a long line of mixed <P> forms. The same specimens show great inequality in the height of the letters; the main strokes are prolonged upwards (= b; = d) or downwards (= q; = s). In this direction, the cursive tends to become a minuscule hand. Early minuscule cursive In the ancient cursive writing, from the 1st century onward, there are symptoms of transformation in the form of certain letters, the shape and proportions of which correspond more closely to the definition of minuscule writing than to that of majuscule. Rare and irregular at first, they gradually become more numerous and more constant and by <P> reads can overlap each other, there is a new issue in deciding how to prioritize the writes with respect to the reads. For simplicity a java.util.concurrent.ReentrantLock can be used instead, which makes no read/write distinction. More operations on the locks are possible than with synchronization, such as tryLock() and tryLock(long timeout, TimeUnit unit). final ReentrantReadWriteLock lock = new ReentrantReadWriteLock(); final ReadLock readLock = lock.readLock(); final WriteLock writeLock = lock.writeLock(); .. // Thread A try { <P> alias names. Disused version 1.0-names were moved to the property Alias, to provide some backward compatibility. Other general characteristics Ideographic, alphabetic, noncharacter. Display-related properties Shaping, width. Casing The Case value is Normative in Unicode. It pertains to those scripts with uppercase (aka capital, majuscule) and the lowercase (aka small, minuscule) letters. Case-difference occurs in Adlam, Armenian, Cherokee, Coptic, Cyrillic, Deseret, Glagolitic, Greek, Khutsuri and Mkhedruli Georgian, Latin, Medefaidrin, Old Hungarian, Osage and Warang Citi scripts. (upper, lower, title, folding—both simple and full) Normalization properties Decompositions, decomposition type, canonical combining class, composition exclusions, and more. Age Age is the version of the <P> chording by pressing one or two keys at the same time. The layout divides the keys into two separate pads which are positioned near the sides of the screen, while text appears in the middle. The most frequent letters have dedicated keys and do not require chording. Some other layouts have also been designed specifically for use with mobile devices. The FITALY layout is optimised for use with a stylus by placing the most commonly used letters closest to the centre and thus minimising the distance travelled when entering words. A similar concept was followed to research and develop the MessagEase <P> analogous to the Apollonius letters, a loss of breadth and spaciousness. In the more formal types the letters stand rather stiffly upright, often without the linking strokes, and are more uniform in size; in the more cursive they are apt to be packed closely together. These features are more marked in the hands of the 2nd century. The less cursive often show am approximation to the book-hand, the letters growing rounder and less angular than in the 3rd century; in the more cursive linking was carried further, both by the insertion of coupling strokes and by the writing of several <P> also raise the porting effort. In practice the claim of languages, like C and C++, to have the WOCA (write once, compile anywhere) is arguable.	question: why it's easier to read text in reverse than say the alphabet in reverse? context: <P> around 1000, but proficiency in writing Insular Minuscule was in terminal decline by the time of the Textus Roffensis. The double-page opening of f95v and f96r is a good place to examine differences in the two scripts. The left-hand page contains the end of Hit becƿæð. ond becƿæl in English and the right-hand page the start of Henry I's Coronation Charter, in Latin. It is not only the general letter-shapes which show some differences. In the English, the only abbreviations are the tironian et for ond and the suspensions on dative endings e.g. beÞinū/ beminū for –um <P> strokes above or below the line being avoided. Sometimes, especially in tax-receipts and in stereotyped formulae, cursiveness is carried to an extreme. In a letter of the prefect, dated in 209, we have a fine example of the Chancery hand, with tall and laterally compressed letters, ο very narrow and α and ω often written high in the line. This style, from at least the latter part of the 2nd century, exercised considerable influence on the local hands, many of which show the same characteristics less pronounced; and its effects may be traced into the early part of the 4th <P> increasing right-branching and thus easing processing, center-embedded structures being more difficult to process. Extraposition occurs frequently in English and related languages. <P> left to right, and then from right to left, was more easily and quickly done in the left to right direction. For former dyslexic children, a substantial number read a series of 42 letters with equal speed in both directions, and some (10%) read better from right to left than from left to right. The phenomenon is clearly linked to the dynamics of sight, as it disappears when the space between letters is increased, transforming the reading into spelling. This experience also explains the ability to mirror-read. In April 1963, the conference Explorations into the Problems of the Perceptually Handicapped Child, <P> majuscule style of writing, based on two parallel lines, ADPL, is opposed to the minuscule, based on a system of four lines, with letters of unequal height, adpl. Another classification, according to the care taken in forming the letters, distinguishes between the set book-hand and the cursive script. The difference in this case is determined by the subject matter of the text; the writing used for books (scriptura libraria) is in all periods quite distinct from that used for letters and documents (epistolaris, diplomatica). While the set book-hand, in majuscule or minuscule, shows a tendency to stabilise the forms of <P> this form of writing, characterised by the boldness of the strokes and by the elimination of the last lingering majuscule forms. The Ravenna deeds of the 5th and 6th centuries exhibit this hand at its perfection. At this period, the minuscule cursive made its appearance as a book hand, first as marginal notes, and later for the complete books themselves. The only difference between the book-hand and that used for documents is that the principal strokes are shorter and the characters thicker. This form of the hand is usually called semi-cursive. Set minuscule writing One by one, the national minuscule cursive <P> [], and braces {}, as well as less/greater than <>, – are in the opposite order from the standard in other left-to-right languages. This results in "open"/"close" being consistent with right-to-left languages (Shift-9 always gives "close parenthesis" U+0029, which visually looks like "open parenthesis" in left-to-right languages). This is shared with Arabic keyboards. Certain Hebrew layouts are extended with the Nikkud symbols (Hebrew vowels), which require Alt+Shift or similar key combination in order to be typed. Inuktitut Inuktitut has two similar, though not identical, commonly available keyboard layouts for Windows. Both contain a basic Latin layout in its base and shift <P> well called by palaeographer Schubart the "severe" style, has a more angular appearance and not infrequently slopes to the right; though handsome, it has not the sumptuous appearance of the former. There are various classes of a less pretentious style, in which convenience rather than beauty was the first consideration and no pains were taken to avoid irregularities in the shape and alignment of the letters. Lastly may be mentioned a hand which is of great interest as being the ancestor of the type called (from its later occurrence in vellum codices of the Bible) the biblical hand. This, which <P> lack of concern for principles of proper textual accentuation. <P> Dž orthography in this case (for example džus). In this case, the two letters are always split when text is written vertically. Lithuanian and Latvian similarly use Dž without considering it a separate letter. Letter "Dž" is found in Unicode at code points U+01C4 (uppercase, Ǆ), U+01C5 (titlecase, ǅ), and U+01C6 (lowercase, ǆ). Unicode representations of the letter are very rarely used in digital media, which tends to favor the corresponding two-character combinations. Manufacturers of computer keyboards and typewriters for Croatian users typically do not provide a single key for the letter. X keyboard extension provides latinunicode keyboard layouts <P> of emphasising words. Research Since at least 2014, researchers in the area of optical character recognition have attempted to solve the problem of recognizing struck-out text in handwritten documents. <P> there are numerous less elaborate examples of cursive, varying according to the writer's skill and degree of education, and many of them strikingly easy and handsome. In some cursiveness is carried very far, the linking of letters reaching the point of illegibility, and the characters sloping to the right. A is reduced to a mere acute angle (∠), T has the cross-stroke only on the left, ω becomes an almost straight line, H acquires a shape somewhat like h, and the last stroke of N is extended far upwards and at times flattened out until it is little more than <P> have survived. Byzantine cursive tends to an exuberant hand, in which the long strokes are excessively extended and individual letters often much enlarged. But not a few hands of the 5th and 6th centuries are truly handsome and show considerable technical accomplishment. Both an upright and a sloping type occur and there are many less ornamental hands, but there gradually emerged towards the 7th century two general types, one (especially used in letters and contracts) a current hand, sloping to the right, with long strokes in such characters at τ, ρ, ξ, η (which has the h shape), ι, and <P> documents written in the early cursive show a mixture of majuscule and minuscule forms, so certain literary papyri of the 3rd century, and inscriptions on stone of the 4th century yield examples of a mixed set hand, with minuscule forms side by side with capital and uncial letters. The number of minuscule forms increases steadily in texts written in the mixed hand, and especially in marginal notes, until by the end of the 5th century the majuscule forms have almost entirely disappeared in some manuscripts. This quasi-minuscule writing, known as the "half-uncial" thus derives from a long line of mixed <P> forms. The same specimens show great inequality in the height of the letters; the main strokes are prolonged upwards (= b; = d) or downwards (= q; = s). In this direction, the cursive tends to become a minuscule hand. Early minuscule cursive In the ancient cursive writing, from the 1st century onward, there are symptoms of transformation in the form of certain letters, the shape and proportions of which correspond more closely to the definition of minuscule writing than to that of majuscule. Rare and irregular at first, they gradually become more numerous and more constant and by <P> reads can overlap each other, there is a new issue in deciding how to prioritize the writes with respect to the reads. For simplicity a java.util.concurrent.ReentrantLock can be used instead, which makes no read/write distinction. More operations on the locks are possible than with synchronization, such as tryLock() and tryLock(long timeout, TimeUnit unit). final ReentrantReadWriteLock lock = new ReentrantReadWriteLock(); final ReadLock readLock = lock.readLock(); final WriteLock writeLock = lock.writeLock(); .. // Thread A try { <P> alias names. Disused version 1.0-names were moved to the property Alias, to provide some backward compatibility. Other general characteristics Ideographic, alphabetic, noncharacter. Display-related properties Shaping, width. Casing The Case value is Normative in Unicode. It pertains to those scripts with uppercase (aka capital, majuscule) and the lowercase (aka small, minuscule) letters. Case-difference occurs in Adlam, Armenian, Cherokee, Coptic, Cyrillic, Deseret, Glagolitic, Greek, Khutsuri and Mkhedruli Georgian, Latin, Medefaidrin, Old Hungarian, Osage and Warang Citi scripts. (upper, lower, title, folding—both simple and full) Normalization properties Decompositions, decomposition type, canonical combining class, composition exclusions, and more. Age Age is the version of the <P> chording by pressing one or two keys at the same time. The layout divides the keys into two separate pads which are positioned near the sides of the screen, while text appears in the middle. The most frequent letters have dedicated keys and do not require chording. Some other layouts have also been designed specifically for use with mobile devices. The FITALY layout is optimised for use with a stylus by placing the most commonly used letters closest to the centre and thus minimising the distance travelled when entering words. A similar concept was followed to research and develop the MessagEase <P> analogous to the Apollonius letters, a loss of breadth and spaciousness. In the more formal types the letters stand rather stiffly upright, often without the linking strokes, and are more uniform in size; in the more cursive they are apt to be packed closely together. These features are more marked in the hands of the 2nd century. The less cursive often show am approximation to the book-hand, the letters growing rounder and less angular than in the 3rd century; in the more cursive linking was carried further, both by the insertion of coupling strokes and by the writing of several <P> also raise the porting effort. In practice the claim of languages, like C and C++, to have the WOCA (write once, compile anywhere) is arguable.	answer: Because they're single letters. Think of the ABC's like a long word. Ey, Bee, See. Then it's gonna be hard to say that backwords, and that's how you've learned it, as a long word. Just rapidly saying it as a whole. "abcdefgh..."It's the same problem that many dyslectics have, a dyslectic probably wouldn't be able to read that picture as easily as, maybe, you and I, because they see every letter individually in a word whereas you see the whole word.This is the reverse, you see the whole word and can't recall that word individually backwards.
95,286	gcf1r	RGB doesn't cut it. Why isn't the tech evolving past it?	RGB is not the problem. sRGB, by far the most common colour space, covers more or less what your image shows, but [Adobe RGB](_URL_1_), a common professional colour space, covers a lot more, and [ProPhoto RGB](_URL_0_), somewhat less common, covers the visible horseshoe as well as any three‐primary model can and even includes some colour the human eye can’t see.These expanded colour spaces are somewhat useful to professionals, but they’re of little use to consumers for one good reason: very few natural things are saturated enough to demand larger‐than‐sRGB gamut. There are, however, some problems raised by larger gamuts.Firstly, it’s simply not possible to make cyan, yellow, and magenta dyes much better than the ones we have today, saturation‐wise, so increasing printing gamut is a no‐go unless you want to use a lot more primaries.Screens that encompass the AdobeRGB gamut are available (I’m using two of them right now), but display connections, in general, are limited to eight bits (per primary per pixel), so this comes at the cost of fine gradations. For example, a skin tone might fall between two adjacent colours (differing by a value of one in one of their RGB values) such that neither of them is quite right.This isn’t a huge issue, but, for consumers, it’s better to stick with sRGB; the larger gamut colour spaces don’t add many practical colours anyway.	[ "Alright, so I'm a little late to the party here, but I see some common misconceptions throughout this thread, so I'll add my $.02:\n\nFor reference, the color field that is being compared to some RGB and some CMYK color space is the [CIE 1931 2° Standard Observer](_URL_0_). What this means, is that the CIE (Inte...	9	[ " > it's quite apparent that computer screens and prints don't even come close to reproducing all the color we can see\r\n\r\nIs it? Especially with those new HD screens and Bluray, the colors sometimes seem more real than real life. I never noticed any shortcomings. But then again I never heard of a gamut, so I'd ...	4	<P> from DVB. DisplayPort 1.3, finalized by VESA in late 2014, added support for 7680 × 4320 at 30 Hz (or 60 Hz with Y′CBCR 4:2:0 subsampling). VESA's Display Stream Compression (DSC), which was part of early DisplayPort 1.3 drafts and would have enabled 8K at 60 Hz without subsampling, was cut from the specification prior to publication of the final draft. DSC support was reintroduced with the publication of DisplayPort 1.4 in March 2016. Using DSC, a "visually lossless" form of compression, formats up to 7680 × 4320 (8K UHD) at 60 Hz with HDR and 30 bit/px color depth are possible without subsampling. 160 × 120 (QQVGA) Quarter-QVGA (QQVGA or qqVGA) denotes a resolution of <P> companies, first in 1958, by Lanston Monotype as 'Californian' and then under the name of 'Berkeley Old Style' by ITC. Both these versions have been digitized. Digitizations In digital versions, ITC released Berkeley Old Style under its pre-existing name. Digital versions were also issued as 'Californian' by Font Bureau (included with some versions of Microsoft Office and by LTC (in different digitizations) and by Richard Beatty under the name of 'University Old Style'. Most of these versions added a bold type, which Goudy did not design himself. Font Bureau added a more delicate optical size for display use. Academic use <P> would not be necessary for such cells, and would work on cloudy days when light is diffuse. 2011 Dyesol and Tata Steel Europe announced in June the development of the world's largest dye sensitized photovoltaic module, printed onto steel in a continuous line. Dyesol and CSIRO announced in October a Successful Completion of Second Milestone in Joint Dyesol / CSIRO Project. Dyesol Director Gordon Thompson said, "The materials developed during this joint collaboration have the potential to significantly advance the commercialisation of DSC in a range of applications where performance and stability are essential requirements. Dyesol is extremely encouraged by the breakthroughs <P> conversion between the RGB color space and YIQ for a non-FCC version of NTSC. <P> player with Bluetooth headphones. Apple contracted another company, Pixo, to help design and implement the user interface under the direct supervision of Steve Jobs. As development progressed, Apple continued to refine the software's look and feel. Starting with the iPod Mini, the Chicago font was replaced with Espy Sans. Later iPods switched fonts again to Podium Sans—a font similar to Apple's corporate font, Myriad. Color display iPods then adopted some Mac OS X themes like Aqua progress bars, and brushed metal meant to evoke a combination lock. In 2007, Apple modified the iPod interface again with the introduction of the <P> is not serious but the competition of different formats will get increasingly intense. Companies of the traditional format compete through the price, which makes their profit get less and less. Companies of the new format have edge on the others due to their advantages in other aspects like service, product quality and operation style. The situation of decline stage is similar to the innovation stage but in the term of traditional formats. After this stage, the market will enter the next life cycle. <P> buttons. The Apple menu icon was toned down to a more matte appearance and the new Spotlight search utility was permanently bound to the very right of the menu bar in the same color and gradient of the Apple menu. Mac OS X Leopard and Snow Leopard Mac OS X Leopard brought wide-ranging changes to Aqua. Aqua windows and "brushed metal" windows obtained the same metal-like, gray look, pin-striped backgrounds were removed entirely, toolbars and titlebars were fused into a whole, differences between active and inactive windows became more distinct through thicker drop shadows and a monochrome appearance of inactive <P> are attributed to the influence of retail life cycle, which makes the theory more convincing. However, this theory does not point out what are determinants of changes of retail formats and why the retail life cycle exists. In addition, the influence of interactions and responses consumers is not taken into consideration. Innovation stage In the innovation stage, in which the reformation and development of business methods promote the emergency of new retail formats, the operating characteristics of new formats have not been understood by both consumers and the industry, lowering market share. Moreover, because of the <P> Community & Technical Colleges (SBCTC) approved a state-level open licensing policy. All digital works created using grant funds administered by SBCTC must now carry a Creative Commons Attribution-only (CC BY) license. This license allows materials created by one institution to be updated by another. It was within this context that OCL was launched in 2010. Nicole Allen, a textbook advocate for the national Student Public Interest Research Group (PIRG) commended the state for putting its money where its mouth is. Long-term impact Washington State communities have integrated OCL into educational efforts in innovative ways. For instance, <P> SRGB sRGB (standard Red Green Blue) is an RGB color space that HP and Microsoft created cooperatively in 1996 to use on monitors, printers, and the Internet. It was subsequently standardized by the IEC as IEC 61966-2-1:1999. It is often the "default" color space for images that contain no color space information, especially if the images' pixels are stored in 8-bit integers per color channel. sRGB uses the ITU-R BT.709 primaries, the same as in studio monitors and HDTV, a transfer function (gamma curve) typical of CRTs, and a viewing environment designed to match typical home and office viewing conditions. This <P> Apple Macintosh computers coupled with laser printers led to a shift away from a small number of specialized print bureaux acquiring relatively expensive fonts to a growing market for cheap mass-produced fonts. The drawback of Ikarus for catering for this new market was that, while extremely accurate, it was very labour-intensive. After Adobe Systems started licensing BuildFont, its technology for converting existing digital typeface data into PostScript font format, Ikarus gradually lost its leading position. Ikarus is being further developed by URW++ and DTL, Dutch Type Library, ’s-Hertogenbosch, the Netherlands. Digitizing The first stage of digitization of a typeface is to <P> with Eidophor. Current technologies include liquid-crystal display (LCD) and digital light processing (DLP) projectors, both of which produce superior results from easily portable devices. <P> is chroma subsampling: the use of color spaces such as YIQ, used in NTSC, allow one to reduce the resolution on the components to accord with human perception – humans have highest resolution for black-and-white (luma), lower resolution for mid-spectrum colors like yellow and green, and lowest for red and blues – thus NTSC displays approximately 350 pixels of luma per scanline, 150 pixels of yellow vs. green, and 50 pixels of blue vs. red, which are proportional to human sensitivity to each component. Comparison The advantage of lossy methods over lossless methods is that in some cases a lossy <P> Much of Aqua's original design resembled the translucent two-tone look of Apple's contemporary hardware. In 2003 and 2004, Apple moved to the use of brushed aluminium in their industrial design (such as with the aluminium Apple Cinema Displays). The design of Aqua changed accordingly. This somewhat inconsistent mix of interface styles has been controversial among the Mac community. Litigation In the past, Apple has threatened legal action against those who make themes similar to their look and feel. The Mac skinning community took exception to Apple's heavy-handed actions against all Aqua lookalikes. Stardock's Brad Wardell contrasted the company's litigious approach <P> retail formats meet challenges of new formats with the positive attitude and apply some new methods in the existing formats. The competition of different retail formats is unique and increase the vitality in the market. Later in the stage, with the wide application of new formats, the competition of companies which accept new formats will emerge and augment. The competition of different retail formats does not take the main role in the market. In the competition of new formats, some companies lacking competence start considering to leave the market. The remaining companies are inclined to take actions like improvement of service <P> light source’s ability to make objects appear natural. However, these two metrics, developed in the last century, are facing increased challenges and criticisms as new types of light sources, particularly light emitting diodes (LEDs), become more prevalent in the market. For example, in order to meet the expectations for good color rendering in retail applications, research suggests using the well-established CRI along with another metric called gamut area index (GAI). GAI represents the relative separation of object colors illuminated by a light source; the greater the GAI, the greater the apparent saturation or vividness of the object colors. As a result, light <P> have The discussion on how much UV filtering is necessary in art framing is complex and controversial, driven by conflicting corporate interests. There have so far been no independent organizations, not tied to corporate sponsors, which have presented scientifically verifiable and conclusive evidence to the amount of UV filtering necessary for a glazing to both display and at the same time protect an artwork. On one hand, the issue is complicated by the varying amount of damaging light actually present in an indoor environment (from low level indirect sources to direct daylight). On the other, by the fact that not <P> Adobe's PostScript "reference models" (Atlas, Redstone, etc.) and even Linotype's first image setter which featured PostScript employed such a "reference model" (but with customization for the Linotronic's different video interface, plus the necessary implementation of "banding" and a hard drive frame buffer and font storage mechanism). Indeed, the PostScript language itself was concurrently enhanced and extended to support these high-resolution "banding" devices (as contrasted to the lower resolution "framing" devices, such as the LaserWriter, in which the entire "frame" could be contained within the available RAM). In most cases, such RAM was fixed in size and was soldered to the logic <P> which has an OLED display. In 2019, Apple announced that a light-on dark mode will be available across all native applications in iOS 13 and iPadOS. It will also be possible for third-party developers to implement their own dark themes. Google has announced an official dark mode is coming to Android with the release of Android 10. Materials recycling Recycling computing equipment can keep harmful materials such as lead, mercury, and hexavalent chromium out of landfills, and can also replace equipment that otherwise would need to be manufactured, saving further energy and emissions. Computer systems that have outlived their <P> source. By the end of the decade, Cymer had shipped more than 3,300 KrF (248 nm) and ArF (193 nm) and ArF Immersion light sources world-wide. In June 2009, Cymer shipped the world's first fully integrated LPP (laser produced plasma) EUV lithography light source to ASML Holding in Veldhoven, Netherlands, for integration into its EUV scanner. This new type of light source produces a wavelength of 13.5 nm and will be used to pattern chips for at least the next decade. In July 2005, TCZ was formed as a joint venture between Cymer, Inc. and Carl Zeiss SMT AG to develop and manufacture	question: RGB doesn't cut it. Why isn't the tech evolving past it? context: <P> from DVB. DisplayPort 1.3, finalized by VESA in late 2014, added support for 7680 × 4320 at 30 Hz (or 60 Hz with Y′CBCR 4:2:0 subsampling). VESA's Display Stream Compression (DSC), which was part of early DisplayPort 1.3 drafts and would have enabled 8K at 60 Hz without subsampling, was cut from the specification prior to publication of the final draft. DSC support was reintroduced with the publication of DisplayPort 1.4 in March 2016. Using DSC, a "visually lossless" form of compression, formats up to 7680 × 4320 (8K UHD) at 60 Hz with HDR and 30 bit/px color depth are possible without subsampling. 160 × 120 (QQVGA) Quarter-QVGA (QQVGA or qqVGA) denotes a resolution of <P> companies, first in 1958, by Lanston Monotype as 'Californian' and then under the name of 'Berkeley Old Style' by ITC. Both these versions have been digitized. Digitizations In digital versions, ITC released Berkeley Old Style under its pre-existing name. Digital versions were also issued as 'Californian' by Font Bureau (included with some versions of Microsoft Office and by LTC (in different digitizations) and by Richard Beatty under the name of 'University Old Style'. Most of these versions added a bold type, which Goudy did not design himself. Font Bureau added a more delicate optical size for display use. Academic use <P> would not be necessary for such cells, and would work on cloudy days when light is diffuse. 2011 Dyesol and Tata Steel Europe announced in June the development of the world's largest dye sensitized photovoltaic module, printed onto steel in a continuous line. Dyesol and CSIRO announced in October a Successful Completion of Second Milestone in Joint Dyesol / CSIRO Project. Dyesol Director Gordon Thompson said, "The materials developed during this joint collaboration have the potential to significantly advance the commercialisation of DSC in a range of applications where performance and stability are essential requirements. Dyesol is extremely encouraged by the breakthroughs <P> conversion between the RGB color space and YIQ for a non-FCC version of NTSC. <P> player with Bluetooth headphones. Apple contracted another company, Pixo, to help design and implement the user interface under the direct supervision of Steve Jobs. As development progressed, Apple continued to refine the software's look and feel. Starting with the iPod Mini, the Chicago font was replaced with Espy Sans. Later iPods switched fonts again to Podium Sans—a font similar to Apple's corporate font, Myriad. Color display iPods then adopted some Mac OS X themes like Aqua progress bars, and brushed metal meant to evoke a combination lock. In 2007, Apple modified the iPod interface again with the introduction of the <P> is not serious but the competition of different formats will get increasingly intense. Companies of the traditional format compete through the price, which makes their profit get less and less. Companies of the new format have edge on the others due to their advantages in other aspects like service, product quality and operation style. The situation of decline stage is similar to the innovation stage but in the term of traditional formats. After this stage, the market will enter the next life cycle. <P> buttons. The Apple menu icon was toned down to a more matte appearance and the new Spotlight search utility was permanently bound to the very right of the menu bar in the same color and gradient of the Apple menu. Mac OS X Leopard and Snow Leopard Mac OS X Leopard brought wide-ranging changes to Aqua. Aqua windows and "brushed metal" windows obtained the same metal-like, gray look, pin-striped backgrounds were removed entirely, toolbars and titlebars were fused into a whole, differences between active and inactive windows became more distinct through thicker drop shadows and a monochrome appearance of inactive <P> are attributed to the influence of retail life cycle, which makes the theory more convincing. However, this theory does not point out what are determinants of changes of retail formats and why the retail life cycle exists. In addition, the influence of interactions and responses consumers is not taken into consideration. Innovation stage In the innovation stage, in which the reformation and development of business methods promote the emergency of new retail formats, the operating characteristics of new formats have not been understood by both consumers and the industry, lowering market share. Moreover, because of the <P> Community & Technical Colleges (SBCTC) approved a state-level open licensing policy. All digital works created using grant funds administered by SBCTC must now carry a Creative Commons Attribution-only (CC BY) license. This license allows materials created by one institution to be updated by another. It was within this context that OCL was launched in 2010. Nicole Allen, a textbook advocate for the national Student Public Interest Research Group (PIRG) commended the state for putting its money where its mouth is. Long-term impact Washington State communities have integrated OCL into educational efforts in innovative ways. For instance, <P> SRGB sRGB (standard Red Green Blue) is an RGB color space that HP and Microsoft created cooperatively in 1996 to use on monitors, printers, and the Internet. It was subsequently standardized by the IEC as IEC 61966-2-1:1999. It is often the "default" color space for images that contain no color space information, especially if the images' pixels are stored in 8-bit integers per color channel. sRGB uses the ITU-R BT.709 primaries, the same as in studio monitors and HDTV, a transfer function (gamma curve) typical of CRTs, and a viewing environment designed to match typical home and office viewing conditions. This <P> Apple Macintosh computers coupled with laser printers led to a shift away from a small number of specialized print bureaux acquiring relatively expensive fonts to a growing market for cheap mass-produced fonts. The drawback of Ikarus for catering for this new market was that, while extremely accurate, it was very labour-intensive. After Adobe Systems started licensing BuildFont, its technology for converting existing digital typeface data into PostScript font format, Ikarus gradually lost its leading position. Ikarus is being further developed by URW++ and DTL, Dutch Type Library, ’s-Hertogenbosch, the Netherlands. Digitizing The first stage of digitization of a typeface is to <P> with Eidophor. Current technologies include liquid-crystal display (LCD) and digital light processing (DLP) projectors, both of which produce superior results from easily portable devices. <P> is chroma subsampling: the use of color spaces such as YIQ, used in NTSC, allow one to reduce the resolution on the components to accord with human perception – humans have highest resolution for black-and-white (luma), lower resolution for mid-spectrum colors like yellow and green, and lowest for red and blues – thus NTSC displays approximately 350 pixels of luma per scanline, 150 pixels of yellow vs. green, and 50 pixels of blue vs. red, which are proportional to human sensitivity to each component. Comparison The advantage of lossy methods over lossless methods is that in some cases a lossy <P> Much of Aqua's original design resembled the translucent two-tone look of Apple's contemporary hardware. In 2003 and 2004, Apple moved to the use of brushed aluminium in their industrial design (such as with the aluminium Apple Cinema Displays). The design of Aqua changed accordingly. This somewhat inconsistent mix of interface styles has been controversial among the Mac community. Litigation In the past, Apple has threatened legal action against those who make themes similar to their look and feel. The Mac skinning community took exception to Apple's heavy-handed actions against all Aqua lookalikes. Stardock's Brad Wardell contrasted the company's litigious approach <P> retail formats meet challenges of new formats with the positive attitude and apply some new methods in the existing formats. The competition of different retail formats is unique and increase the vitality in the market. Later in the stage, with the wide application of new formats, the competition of companies which accept new formats will emerge and augment. The competition of different retail formats does not take the main role in the market. In the competition of new formats, some companies lacking competence start considering to leave the market. The remaining companies are inclined to take actions like improvement of service <P> light source’s ability to make objects appear natural. However, these two metrics, developed in the last century, are facing increased challenges and criticisms as new types of light sources, particularly light emitting diodes (LEDs), become more prevalent in the market. For example, in order to meet the expectations for good color rendering in retail applications, research suggests using the well-established CRI along with another metric called gamut area index (GAI). GAI represents the relative separation of object colors illuminated by a light source; the greater the GAI, the greater the apparent saturation or vividness of the object colors. As a result, light <P> have The discussion on how much UV filtering is necessary in art framing is complex and controversial, driven by conflicting corporate interests. There have so far been no independent organizations, not tied to corporate sponsors, which have presented scientifically verifiable and conclusive evidence to the amount of UV filtering necessary for a glazing to both display and at the same time protect an artwork. On one hand, the issue is complicated by the varying amount of damaging light actually present in an indoor environment (from low level indirect sources to direct daylight). On the other, by the fact that not <P> Adobe's PostScript "reference models" (Atlas, Redstone, etc.) and even Linotype's first image setter which featured PostScript employed such a "reference model" (but with customization for the Linotronic's different video interface, plus the necessary implementation of "banding" and a hard drive frame buffer and font storage mechanism). Indeed, the PostScript language itself was concurrently enhanced and extended to support these high-resolution "banding" devices (as contrasted to the lower resolution "framing" devices, such as the LaserWriter, in which the entire "frame" could be contained within the available RAM). In most cases, such RAM was fixed in size and was soldered to the logic <P> which has an OLED display. In 2019, Apple announced that a light-on dark mode will be available across all native applications in iOS 13 and iPadOS. It will also be possible for third-party developers to implement their own dark themes. Google has announced an official dark mode is coming to Android with the release of Android 10. Materials recycling Recycling computing equipment can keep harmful materials such as lead, mercury, and hexavalent chromium out of landfills, and can also replace equipment that otherwise would need to be manufactured, saving further energy and emissions. Computer systems that have outlived their <P> source. By the end of the decade, Cymer had shipped more than 3,300 KrF (248 nm) and ArF (193 nm) and ArF Immersion light sources world-wide. In June 2009, Cymer shipped the world's first fully integrated LPP (laser produced plasma) EUV lithography light source to ASML Holding in Veldhoven, Netherlands, for integration into its EUV scanner. This new type of light source produces a wavelength of 13.5 nm and will be used to pattern chips for at least the next decade. In July 2005, TCZ was formed as a joint venture between Cymer, Inc. and Carl Zeiss SMT AG to develop and manufacture	answer: RGB is not the problem. sRGB, by far the most common colour space, covers more or less what your image shows, but [Adobe RGB](_URL_1_), a common professional colour space, covers a lot more, and [ProPhoto RGB](_URL_0_), somewhat less common, covers the visible horseshoe as well as any three‐primary model can and even includes some colour the human eye can’t see.These expanded colour spaces are somewhat useful to professionals, but they’re of little use to consumers for one good reason: very few natural things are saturated enough to demand larger‐than‐sRGB gamut. There are, however, some problems raised by larger gamuts.Firstly, it’s simply not possible to make cyan, yellow, and magenta dyes much better than the ones we have today, saturation‐wise, so increasing printing gamut is a no‐go unless you want to use a lot more primaries.Screens that encompass the AdobeRGB gamut are available (I’m using two of them right now), but display connections, in general, are limited to eight bits (per primary per pixel), so this comes at the cost of fine gradations. For example, a skin tone might fall between two adjacent colours (differing by a value of one in one of their RGB values) such that neither of them is quite right.This isn’t a huge issue, but, for consumers, it’s better to stick with sRGB; the larger gamut colour spaces don’t add many practical colours anyway.
17,449	1komcl	What's up with Comet ISON? Can you guys help explain these three distinct pieces?	I don't think those two bars are real, I think they're just pointers to locate the comet which for some reason have been included in that image. Although I'm quite puzzled as to why they were put into the .fits image, that doesn't really make much sense.Here's a [Hubble image](_URL_3_) that is the same as the picture in question. The bars are clearly not present, and it's not a contrast issue, they just aren't there.The bottom bar points due southeast and the top bar points due west, for what it's worth, which reinforces the idea that they're pointers put on the image artificially.Plus, if those were real, someone would have published it by now. Being the first one to identify such an utterly bizarre structure would be a gigantic boost to anyone's career.More images:_URL_2_[Video of its motion over a 43-minute period](_URL_1_) (that's a relatively hi res quicktime, other formats [can be found here](_URL_0_)). Note that the tail points away from the sun, rather than away from the comet's direction of motion, which is a common misunderstanding. The tail is blown away by solar wind particles which is why it points away from the sun.	[ "I don't think those two bars are real, I think they're just pointers to locate the comet which for some reason have been included in that image. Although I'm quite puzzled as to why they were put into the .fits image, that doesn't really make much sense.\n\nHere's a [Hubble image](_URL_3_) that is the same as the ...	1	[]	0	<P> Sungrazers consist of two major subgroups, which are descended from further breakups of two different fragments of the original comet. Studies have shown that Pereyra is a member of the subgroup which includes the Great Comet of 1843 and the Great Comet of 1882, although the separation of Pereyra from the larger fragment probably occurred one orbit before the two Great Comets separated. <P> 2000 DG8 Discovery 2000 DG₈ was first observed on 25 February 2000, by astronomers of the Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR) at the Lincoln Laboratory's Experimental Test Site near Socorro, New Mexico, United States. Orbit and classification 2000 DG₈ is a member of the dynamically unstable centaur and damocloid population. Given the body's dark surface and its cometary-like orbit, it may be a dormant comet. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2–19.3 AU once every 35 years and 4 months (12,893 days; semi-major axis of 10.76 AU). Its orbit has a high eccentricity of 0.79 and an inclination of 129° with <P> degree long. Over the next few days, the comet faded rapidly, having evidently already passed perihelion, although its tail grew to about 10° in length by late September. During its short period of naked eye visibility it was widely observed throughout the southern hemisphere. Orbital studies As the comet receded from the Sun, orbital studies showed that Pereyra had been a sungrazing comet, passing just 60,000 kilometres from the Sun's surface. Further analysis demonstrated that it was a member of the Kreutz Sungrazers, a group of comets all descended from one very large sungrazing comet which fragmented several centuries previously. The Kreutz <P> imaging by Goldstone in 2001 observed an ellipsoid 630±60 meters long and 250±30 meters wide. The Hayabusa mission confirmed these findings and also suggested that Itokawa may be a contact binary formed by two or more smaller asteroids that have gravitated toward each other and stuck together. The Hayabusa images show a surprising lack of impact craters and a very rough surface studded with boulders, described by the mission team as a rubble pile. Furthermore, the density of the asteroid is too low for it to be made from solid rock. This would mean that Itokawa is not a monolith but <P> Manx comet A Manx comet is a rocky, minor, celestial body that has a long-period comet orbit. Unlike most bodies long-period comet orbit which typically sport long, bright tails, the Manx comet is tailless, more typical of an inner Solar System asteroid. The nickname comes from the Manx breed of tailless cat. Examples include C/2013 P2 (PANSTARRS), discovered on 4 August 2013, which has an orbital period greater than 51 million years, and C/2014 S3 (PANSTARRS), discovered on 22 September 2014, which originates from the Oort cloud and could help explain the formation of the Solar System. <P> Eliot and escape the labs. Back in the control center, Janine uses the disk from Dr. Jacob to gather more information. The meteor that hit Earth 65 million years ago was actually an egg. Inside the egg is a large dinosaur-like monster that the scientists dubbed "Jascony". The virus and subsequent mutations it caused were side effects to allow "Jascony" to easier absorb the planet and move onto the next. Nephilim is actually revealed to be the spirit of the meteorite that hit the Gigadent in order to destroy Jascony, and the meteor is jammed inside a ventilation shaft within Gigadent. <P> 331P/Gibbs Description It is a rare type of comet called a main-belt comet. Although most comets come from the Oort cloud or the Kuiper belt, main-belt comets are instead members of the asteroid belt that have a coma and tail. As of 2016, it is one of only 15 known main-belt comets. Precovery observations of 331P/Gibbs in Sloan Digital Sky Survey data were found dating to August 2004, in which the object was visible as a regular asteroid. Further observations in 2014 by the Keck Observatory showed that the comet was fractured into 5 pieces and rotating rapidly, with a rotation <P> Baptistina. According to Bottke, the Chicxulub impactor was a fragment of a much larger parent body about 170 km (110 mi) across, with the impacting body being around 60 km (40 mi) in diameter. However, in 2011 new data from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer revised the date of the collision which created the Baptistina family to about 80 million years ago, casting doubt on the hypothesis, as typically the process of resonance and collision of an asteroid takes many tens of millions of years. Other work has associated the asteroid P/2010 A2, a member of the Flora family of asteroids, as a possible remnant cohort <P> or at best exhibit a weak dust coma, and SL9 had a peculiar morphology, its true nature was not recognised until the official announcement 5 days later. No precovery images dating back to earlier than March 1993 have been found. Before the comet was captured by Jupiter, it was probably a short-period comet with an aphelion just inside Jupiter's orbit, and a perihelion interior to the asteroid belt. The volume of space within which an object can be said to orbit Jupiter is defined by Jupiter's Hill sphere (also called the Roche sphere). When the comet passed Jupiter in the late <P> the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, 12.5 grams (0.44 oz) by the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, 9.7 grams (0.34 oz) by the Geological Survey of Canada, and others. Analysis Upon initial observation, Padvarninkai was classified as a shergottite due to the presence of maskelynite (a glassy material found in some meteorite impact craters). At the time, the class had only two meteorites, the Shergotty meteorite and Padvarninkai. The classification was reassessed when the Zagami meteorite fell in 1962. Padvarninkai is now classified as a monomict eucrite (i.e. eucrite with breccia of a single rock type). Padvarninkai, as many <P> orbit became more accurately established, the possibility of a collision became a certainty. The collision would provide a unique opportunity for scientists to look inside Jupiter's atmosphere, as the collisions were expected to cause eruptions of material from the layers normally hidden beneath the clouds. Astronomers estimated that the visible fragments of SL9 ranged in size from a few hundred metres (around 1,000 ft) to two kilometres (1.2 mi) across, suggesting that the original comet may have had a nucleus up to 5 km (3.1 mi) across—somewhat larger than Comet Hyakutake, which became very bright when it passed close to the Earth in 1996. One <P> planar translational symmetry, causing them to resemble goldberg polyhedra. The question of the exceptional nature of papovaviridae had been solved, but it was not a one-off - HK97 could not be considered a goldberg polyhedron either. Twarock's study of these viruses lead her to believe that there was much more insight into virology that could be gotten from mathematics. Mathematical virology had previously only studied the surfaces of virus, using models that were tilings of the 2-sphere; Twarock hoped to go further than this, to illuminate three-dimensional protein structure and genome packaging. It was known that, using rotations, simple capsid patterns <P> conduct experiments on them. The ultimate goal of this endeavour is to test CPT symmetry through comparison of the atomic spectra of hydrogen and antihydrogen (see hydrogen spectral series). The ALPHA collaboration consists of some former members of the ATHENA collaboration (the first group to produce cold antihydrogen, in 2002), as well as a number of new members. ALPHA physics ALPHA faces several challenges. Magnetic traps – wherein neutral atoms are trapped using their magnetic moments – are notoriously weak; only atoms with kinetic energies equivalent to less than one kelvin may be trapped. The cold antihydrogen created first in <P> and it was used to predict oil biodegradation under natural conditions (Geng et al. 2015) and with amendments (i.e., bioremediation) (Geng et al. 2016). The BIOMARUN model was also used to investigate the biodegradation of benzene in tidally influenced beaches (Geng et al. 2016) TMARUN To account for heat transfer through liquid and vapor transport, the model MARUN was coupled with equations for the migration of heat through conduction and vapor transport as documented closely in (Geng and M.C. 2015, Geng et al. 2016 ). The TMARUN model was used to explain the presence of high salinity (100 g/L <P> 20898 Fountainhills Orbit and classification Fountainhills is a non-family from the main belt's background population. For an object in the asteroid belt, its orbit is extremely eccentric and highly inclined. With a Jupiter tisserand (TJupiter) of less than 3 and with no observable coma, it is an asteroid in cometary orbit (ACO) and a candidate for being a dormant or extinct comet. It is however, not a damocloid based on current orbital criteria, which typically have a TJupiter of less than 2 (also see List of damocloids). The asteroid orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.3–6.2 AU <P> the very bright Revelstoke fall which yielded only two tiny fragments weighing below one gram. CI chondrites are characterized by a black fusion crust which sometimes is difficult to distinguish from the very similar matrix. The opaque matrix is rich in carbonaceous material and contains black minerals like magnetite and pyrrhotite. At some places white, water-bearing carbonates and sulfates are incorporated. The main characteristic of CI chondrites is the lack of recognizable chondrules (an exception being the sample from Tagish Lake). Yet small chondrule fragments and calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions (CAI's) do occur, but are quite rare. Chemical composition CI chondrites contain between <P> warn the scientists that they do not understand what they have found. Specific warnings are that the entire mountain it was found in is a place of evil, the creature exists only for the sole purpose of killing, and that the Tunit do not believe it is dead. In addition, after a reexamination of the creature by Marshall, Faraday, and Barbour, it is revealed that the creature is not a Smilodon at all, but a new, unknown animal entirely, which may be up to 16 feet in length. However, Conti and Wolff are determined to move forward with the production, <P> Opportunity's headshield landed. Examination with the Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mini-TES), Mossbauer spectrometer, and APXS lead researchers to, classify it as an IAB meteorite. The APXS determined it was composed of 93% iron and 7% nickel. The cobble named “Fig Tree Barberton” is thought to be a stony or stony-iron meteorite (mesosiderite silicate), while “Allan Hills,” and “Zhong Shan” may be iron meteorites. Geological history Observations at the site have led scientists to believe that the area was flooded with water a number of times and was subjected to evaporation and desiccation. In the process sulfates <P> Allendeite Occurrence Allendeite was found as nano-crystals in an ultrarefractory inclusion in the Allende meteorite. The Allende meteorite has shown to be full of new minerals, after nearly forty years it has produced one in ten of the now known minerals in meteorites. This CV3 carbonaceous chondrite was the largest ever recovered on earth and is referred to as the best-studied meteorite in history. The inclusion has only been viewed via electron microscopy. The sample is one centimeter in diameter and has been entrusted to the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History with the catalog number USNM7554. One crystal <P> that are dated to 12,890 YBP with 5 year accuracy. The authors of that study conclude that such a small impact of an iron meteorite is “unlikely to result in an airburst or trigger wide wildfires proposed by the YDB impact hypothesis." But they write that the large Pt anomaly "hints for an extraterrestrial source of Pt", showing that any disagreement with the proponents of the original YDIH is over the nature of the extraterrestrial object, not whether there was one, and it is much more likely that the Greenland Pt anomaly was caused by a small local iron meteorite fall without	question: What's up with Comet ISON? Can you guys help explain these three distinct pieces? context: <P> Sungrazers consist of two major subgroups, which are descended from further breakups of two different fragments of the original comet. Studies have shown that Pereyra is a member of the subgroup which includes the Great Comet of 1843 and the Great Comet of 1882, although the separation of Pereyra from the larger fragment probably occurred one orbit before the two Great Comets separated. <P> 2000 DG8 Discovery 2000 DG₈ was first observed on 25 February 2000, by astronomers of the Lincoln Near-Earth Asteroid Research (LINEAR) at the Lincoln Laboratory's Experimental Test Site near Socorro, New Mexico, United States. Orbit and classification 2000 DG₈ is a member of the dynamically unstable centaur and damocloid population. Given the body's dark surface and its cometary-like orbit, it may be a dormant comet. It orbits the Sun at a distance of 2.2–19.3 AU once every 35 years and 4 months (12,893 days; semi-major axis of 10.76 AU). Its orbit has a high eccentricity of 0.79 and an inclination of 129° with <P> degree long. Over the next few days, the comet faded rapidly, having evidently already passed perihelion, although its tail grew to about 10° in length by late September. During its short period of naked eye visibility it was widely observed throughout the southern hemisphere. Orbital studies As the comet receded from the Sun, orbital studies showed that Pereyra had been a sungrazing comet, passing just 60,000 kilometres from the Sun's surface. Further analysis demonstrated that it was a member of the Kreutz Sungrazers, a group of comets all descended from one very large sungrazing comet which fragmented several centuries previously. The Kreutz <P> imaging by Goldstone in 2001 observed an ellipsoid 630±60 meters long and 250±30 meters wide. The Hayabusa mission confirmed these findings and also suggested that Itokawa may be a contact binary formed by two or more smaller asteroids that have gravitated toward each other and stuck together. The Hayabusa images show a surprising lack of impact craters and a very rough surface studded with boulders, described by the mission team as a rubble pile. Furthermore, the density of the asteroid is too low for it to be made from solid rock. This would mean that Itokawa is not a monolith but <P> Manx comet A Manx comet is a rocky, minor, celestial body that has a long-period comet orbit. Unlike most bodies long-period comet orbit which typically sport long, bright tails, the Manx comet is tailless, more typical of an inner Solar System asteroid. The nickname comes from the Manx breed of tailless cat. Examples include C/2013 P2 (PANSTARRS), discovered on 4 August 2013, which has an orbital period greater than 51 million years, and C/2014 S3 (PANSTARRS), discovered on 22 September 2014, which originates from the Oort cloud and could help explain the formation of the Solar System. <P> Eliot and escape the labs. Back in the control center, Janine uses the disk from Dr. Jacob to gather more information. The meteor that hit Earth 65 million years ago was actually an egg. Inside the egg is a large dinosaur-like monster that the scientists dubbed "Jascony". The virus and subsequent mutations it caused were side effects to allow "Jascony" to easier absorb the planet and move onto the next. Nephilim is actually revealed to be the spirit of the meteorite that hit the Gigadent in order to destroy Jascony, and the meteor is jammed inside a ventilation shaft within Gigadent. <P> 331P/Gibbs Description It is a rare type of comet called a main-belt comet. Although most comets come from the Oort cloud or the Kuiper belt, main-belt comets are instead members of the asteroid belt that have a coma and tail. As of 2016, it is one of only 15 known main-belt comets. Precovery observations of 331P/Gibbs in Sloan Digital Sky Survey data were found dating to August 2004, in which the object was visible as a regular asteroid. Further observations in 2014 by the Keck Observatory showed that the comet was fractured into 5 pieces and rotating rapidly, with a rotation <P> Baptistina. According to Bottke, the Chicxulub impactor was a fragment of a much larger parent body about 170 km (110 mi) across, with the impacting body being around 60 km (40 mi) in diameter. However, in 2011 new data from the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer revised the date of the collision which created the Baptistina family to about 80 million years ago, casting doubt on the hypothesis, as typically the process of resonance and collision of an asteroid takes many tens of millions of years. Other work has associated the asteroid P/2010 A2, a member of the Flora family of asteroids, as a possible remnant cohort <P> or at best exhibit a weak dust coma, and SL9 had a peculiar morphology, its true nature was not recognised until the official announcement 5 days later. No precovery images dating back to earlier than March 1993 have been found. Before the comet was captured by Jupiter, it was probably a short-period comet with an aphelion just inside Jupiter's orbit, and a perihelion interior to the asteroid belt. The volume of space within which an object can be said to orbit Jupiter is defined by Jupiter's Hill sphere (also called the Roche sphere). When the comet passed Jupiter in the late <P> the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, 12.5 grams (0.44 oz) by the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, 9.7 grams (0.34 oz) by the Geological Survey of Canada, and others. Analysis Upon initial observation, Padvarninkai was classified as a shergottite due to the presence of maskelynite (a glassy material found in some meteorite impact craters). At the time, the class had only two meteorites, the Shergotty meteorite and Padvarninkai. The classification was reassessed when the Zagami meteorite fell in 1962. Padvarninkai is now classified as a monomict eucrite (i.e. eucrite with breccia of a single rock type). Padvarninkai, as many <P> orbit became more accurately established, the possibility of a collision became a certainty. The collision would provide a unique opportunity for scientists to look inside Jupiter's atmosphere, as the collisions were expected to cause eruptions of material from the layers normally hidden beneath the clouds. Astronomers estimated that the visible fragments of SL9 ranged in size from a few hundred metres (around 1,000 ft) to two kilometres (1.2 mi) across, suggesting that the original comet may have had a nucleus up to 5 km (3.1 mi) across—somewhat larger than Comet Hyakutake, which became very bright when it passed close to the Earth in 1996. One <P> planar translational symmetry, causing them to resemble goldberg polyhedra. The question of the exceptional nature of papovaviridae had been solved, but it was not a one-off - HK97 could not be considered a goldberg polyhedron either. Twarock's study of these viruses lead her to believe that there was much more insight into virology that could be gotten from mathematics. Mathematical virology had previously only studied the surfaces of virus, using models that were tilings of the 2-sphere; Twarock hoped to go further than this, to illuminate three-dimensional protein structure and genome packaging. It was known that, using rotations, simple capsid patterns <P> conduct experiments on them. The ultimate goal of this endeavour is to test CPT symmetry through comparison of the atomic spectra of hydrogen and antihydrogen (see hydrogen spectral series). The ALPHA collaboration consists of some former members of the ATHENA collaboration (the first group to produce cold antihydrogen, in 2002), as well as a number of new members. ALPHA physics ALPHA faces several challenges. Magnetic traps – wherein neutral atoms are trapped using their magnetic moments – are notoriously weak; only atoms with kinetic energies equivalent to less than one kelvin may be trapped. The cold antihydrogen created first in <P> and it was used to predict oil biodegradation under natural conditions (Geng et al. 2015) and with amendments (i.e., bioremediation) (Geng et al. 2016). The BIOMARUN model was also used to investigate the biodegradation of benzene in tidally influenced beaches (Geng et al. 2016) TMARUN To account for heat transfer through liquid and vapor transport, the model MARUN was coupled with equations for the migration of heat through conduction and vapor transport as documented closely in (Geng and M.C. 2015, Geng et al. 2016 ). The TMARUN model was used to explain the presence of high salinity (100 g/L <P> 20898 Fountainhills Orbit and classification Fountainhills is a non-family from the main belt's background population. For an object in the asteroid belt, its orbit is extremely eccentric and highly inclined. With a Jupiter tisserand (TJupiter) of less than 3 and with no observable coma, it is an asteroid in cometary orbit (ACO) and a candidate for being a dormant or extinct comet. It is however, not a damocloid based on current orbital criteria, which typically have a TJupiter of less than 2 (also see List of damocloids). The asteroid orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.3–6.2 AU <P> the very bright Revelstoke fall which yielded only two tiny fragments weighing below one gram. CI chondrites are characterized by a black fusion crust which sometimes is difficult to distinguish from the very similar matrix. The opaque matrix is rich in carbonaceous material and contains black minerals like magnetite and pyrrhotite. At some places white, water-bearing carbonates and sulfates are incorporated. The main characteristic of CI chondrites is the lack of recognizable chondrules (an exception being the sample from Tagish Lake). Yet small chondrule fragments and calcium-aluminium-rich inclusions (CAI's) do occur, but are quite rare. Chemical composition CI chondrites contain between <P> warn the scientists that they do not understand what they have found. Specific warnings are that the entire mountain it was found in is a place of evil, the creature exists only for the sole purpose of killing, and that the Tunit do not believe it is dead. In addition, after a reexamination of the creature by Marshall, Faraday, and Barbour, it is revealed that the creature is not a Smilodon at all, but a new, unknown animal entirely, which may be up to 16 feet in length. However, Conti and Wolff are determined to move forward with the production, <P> Opportunity's headshield landed. Examination with the Miniature Thermal Emission Spectrometer (Mini-TES), Mossbauer spectrometer, and APXS lead researchers to, classify it as an IAB meteorite. The APXS determined it was composed of 93% iron and 7% nickel. The cobble named “Fig Tree Barberton” is thought to be a stony or stony-iron meteorite (mesosiderite silicate), while “Allan Hills,” and “Zhong Shan” may be iron meteorites. Geological history Observations at the site have led scientists to believe that the area was flooded with water a number of times and was subjected to evaporation and desiccation. In the process sulfates <P> Allendeite Occurrence Allendeite was found as nano-crystals in an ultrarefractory inclusion in the Allende meteorite. The Allende meteorite has shown to be full of new minerals, after nearly forty years it has produced one in ten of the now known minerals in meteorites. This CV3 carbonaceous chondrite was the largest ever recovered on earth and is referred to as the best-studied meteorite in history. The inclusion has only been viewed via electron microscopy. The sample is one centimeter in diameter and has been entrusted to the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History with the catalog number USNM7554. One crystal <P> that are dated to 12,890 YBP with 5 year accuracy. The authors of that study conclude that such a small impact of an iron meteorite is “unlikely to result in an airburst or trigger wide wildfires proposed by the YDB impact hypothesis." But they write that the large Pt anomaly "hints for an extraterrestrial source of Pt", showing that any disagreement with the proponents of the original YDIH is over the nature of the extraterrestrial object, not whether there was one, and it is much more likely that the Greenland Pt anomaly was caused by a small local iron meteorite fall without	answer: I don't think those two bars are real, I think they're just pointers to locate the comet which for some reason have been included in that image. Although I'm quite puzzled as to why they were put into the .fits image, that doesn't really make much sense.Here's a [Hubble image](_URL_3_) that is the same as the picture in question. The bars are clearly not present, and it's not a contrast issue, they just aren't there.The bottom bar points due southeast and the top bar points due west, for what it's worth, which reinforces the idea that they're pointers put on the image artificially.Plus, if those were real, someone would have published it by now. Being the first one to identify such an utterly bizarre structure would be a gigantic boost to anyone's career.More images:_URL_2_[Video of its motion over a 43-minute period](_URL_1_) (that's a relatively hi res quicktime, other formats [can be found here](_URL_0_)). Note that the tail points away from the sun, rather than away from the comet's direction of motion, which is a common misunderstanding. The tail is blown away by solar wind particles which is why it points away from the sun.
151,611	r1sp5	I first heard about the Bloop a few years ago. Between then and now, have we gotten any ideas as to what made the sound?	Ideas, yes. Do we know what it is? No.What we know is that it almost certainly isn't man made and that it doesn't emanate from from any familiar geological event. The audio profile resembles that of a living creature, but the sound level is several times louder than the loudest animal we know of, the blue wale. This might mean that it's some sort of gigantic sea monster, kinda like Cthulhu.Another theory is that the sound is caused by [ice calving](_URL_1_) in Antarctica. However, this theory isn't as widely accepted as the theory that it's coming from a living thing.[Bloop$Wikipeida$](_URL_0_)Hope that's enough, there isn't really much that we know of about this phenomenon.EDIT: [Here's](_URL_2_) the sound itself for the curious ;)	[ "Ideas, yes. Do we know what it is? No.\n\nWhat we know is that it almost certainly isn't man made and that it doesn't emanate from from any familiar geological event. \n\nThe audio profile resembles that of a living creature, but the sound level is several times louder than the loudest animal we know of, the b...	1	[]	0	<P> 52-hertz whale The 52-hertz whale is an individual whale of unidentified species, which calls at the very unusual frequency of 52 Hz. This pitch is a much higher frequency than that of the other whale species with migration patterns most closely resembling this whale's – the blue whale (10–39 Hz) or fin whale (20 Hz). It has been detected regularly in many locations since the late 1980s and appears to be the only individual emitting a whale call at this frequency. It has been described as the "world's loneliest whale". History The 52-hertz whale was discovered by a team from the Woods Hole <P> for an air base. The winner of the race, Roald Amundsen, made his way to the Arctic Ocean, his actual field of interest. In the following years between 1918 and 1922, he attempted to repeat Nansen's enterprise without success. After the First World War interrupted oceanographic research, international scientific activities started anew in 1920. The invention of the echo sounder in 1912 reached a new significance for the international marine research. Henceforth, it was possible to measure the distance to the seabed by sending acoustic signals instead of using wires and weights. Warships used echo sounders during the First World War. <P> In 1922, the American destroyer Stewart took the first echo profile over the North Atlantic and one year later, the sonic logging between San Francisco and San Diego was published. Between 1929 and 1934 the USS Ramapo took about thirty profiles of the northern Pacific Ocean. In 1927, the German cruiser Emden was able to carry out a series of soundings of the ocean trench to the east of the Philippines. The German ship Meteor was the first to use the echo sounder for scientific purposes in the 1920s on the German Meteor expedition. For the first time an ocean, the <P> and whales especially humpback whales and southern right whales are increasingly observed due to recoveries of each species. The sound has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it is a breeding site for Fiordland penguins. History Milford Sound was initially overlooked by European explorers, because its narrow entry did not appear to lead into such large interior bays. Sailing ship captains such as James Cook, who bypassed Milford Sound on his journeys for just this reason, also feared venturing too close to the steep mountainsides, afraid that wind conditions would prevent escape. The fiord was a <P> Oceanographic Institution. Its call was first detected in 1989, then again in 1990 and 1991. In 1992, following the end of the Cold War, the U.S. Navy partially declassified the recordings and technical specifications of its SOSUS anti-submarine hydrophone arrays, and made SOSUS available for oceanographic research. As of 2014, the whale had been detected every year since. Film A feature-length documentary entitled 52: The Search for the Loneliest Whale is in production, shot by Joshua Zeman, the director of Cropsey, and produced by Adrian Grenier. Funded through a Kickstarter campaign, the film was due for release sometime in 2018 <P> Ulf Merbold. Thanks to the help of qualified scientists and state-of-the-art sensor technology, the MWP achieved its goal to gather and analyze wave structure data with impressive results at the operation in Mendoza in October 2006. Research flights and operations were completed in the region between the Tupungato (5.700 m) and Aconcagua (6.900m), which is very well known for its extremely treacherous turbulence. Record flights Between 2000 and 2004 MWP team member Klaus Ohlmann further developed and expanded on the knowledge about wave systems gained in the Andes in 1999, and accumulated a wealth of experience. This educational process allowed him <P> failed to show T-S waves. In 1943, Schubauer and Skramstad (S and S) created a wind tunnel that went to extremes to damp mechanical vibrations and sounds that might affect the airflow studies along a smooth flat plate. Using a vertical array of evenly spaced hot wire anemometers in the boundary layer (BL) airflow, they substantiated the existence of T-S oscillations by showing SH velocity fluctuations in the BL laminae. The T-S waves gradually increased in amplitude until a few random spikes of in-phase amplitude appeared, triggering focal vortices (turbulent spots), with noise. A further increase in flow rate resulted <P> with radio acoustic ranging. Under Heck's direction, Guide then conducted experiments off the coast of California during the early months of 1924 that demonstrated that accurate echo sounding was possible using the new formulas. Experiments with radio acoustic ranging, despite initial difficulties, demonstrated that the method also was practical, although difficulty with getting some of the explosive charges to detonate hampered some of the experimental program. In April 1924, the Coast and Geodetic Survey concluded that both echo sounding and radio acoustic ranging were fundamentally sound, with no foundational problems left to solve, and that all that remained necessary was <P> intended to be 50 storeys high rather than 47, but wind load tests showed that it would sway too much because of its slender shape and the 'glass blade' façade overrun caused by the height reduction has been blamed for the noise. The sound has been heard from about 300 metres away. It is close to the standard musical pitch of B3 (approximately 246.94 Hertz) and has been compared to a "UFO landing". The noise affected production of Coronation Street. Work to reduce or eradicate the noise took place in 2006, 2007 and 2010. Foam pads were installed in 2006, aluminium <P> with Hawkes as pilot. He had the descent depth every 100 metres, down to 1000 metres on the Underwater telephone (UQC). Amongst the people on the bridge of the R/V Egabrag, where the UQC was installed were the Captain and helmsman, his then wife Sylvia Earle, a reporter, cameraman and sound man from a San Francisco TV station, the Operations Manager from CANDIVE and the Diving Safety Officer from the University of Rhode Island, Phillip Sharkey. Hawkes reported, "1000 meters." There was a quiet ripple of applause on the bridge, and the reporter took the UQC microphone. <P> Geodetic Survey ship to use echo sounding to measure and record the depth of the sea at points along her course; she also measured water temperatures and took water samples so that the Scripps Institution for Biological Research (now the Scripps Institution of Oceanography) at La Jolla, California, could measure salinity levels. She also compared echo sounder soundings with those made by lead lines, discovering that using a single speed of sound through water, as had been the previous practice by those conducting echo sounding experiments, yielded acoustic depth-finding results that did not match the depths found by lead lines. <P> and researching the underlying acoustics," and in 1973 Crawford credits another professor with pointing out to him a toy which, "about a year or two ago...appeared in toy stores across the land," and gives the brand or trade names "Whirl-A-Sound", "Freeka", and "The Hummer"; the last being made by W. J. Seidler Co. of L.A., CA. Crawford invented the method of playing small enough hose by blowing, known as a corrugahorn. This requires a tube with a diameter smaller than commonly marketed as toys (a one inch diameter is too great, a half inch is not), Hopkin recommends 3/8" gas <P> after the Toya Maru accident, the largest marine accident to occur after the war, the ferryboats that went on commission after the accident were discovered to have a strange scar on their propeller, providing an example of where rumors started to spread about how the victims of the accident turned into funayurei and dug claws into the propellers. This funayurei appears in sea and on land, and in Nanaehama, Hokkaido, there is a rumor that at midnight, a female would appear completely wet riding in a taxi, who would disappear once one reaches the destination, and who was rumored to <P> She transited the Panama Canal on 8 December 1923. Before she reached San Diego later in December 1923, she had accumulated much data beneficial to the study of the movement of sound waves through water and measuring their velocity under varying conditions of salinity, density, and temperature, information essential both to depth-finding and radio acoustic ranging. Upon arriving in California, Heck and Guide personnel in consultation with the Scripps Institution developed formulas that allowed accurate echo sounding of depths in all but the shallowest waters and installed hydrophones at La Jolla and Oceanside, California, to allow experimentation in the Pacific Ocean <P> the wood behind the beak was undrilled but thin enough to pass the sound, or that the hollowed space acted like a soundboard to concentrate the sound from the room onto the microphone. The illuminating frequency used by the Soviets is said to be 330 MHz. Discovery The existence of the bug was discovered accidentally by a British radio operator at the British embassy who overheard American conversations on an open radio channel as the Soviets were beaming radio waves at the ambassador's office. An American State Department employee was then able to reproduce the results using an untuned wideband receiver with <P> whale and includes the line, "52 Hertz, 52 Hertz, I'm singing a love song that no-one can hear" in the chorus. In 2018, American singer Chrysta Bell released a song "52 Hz" inspired by the whale, in which she sings "52 Hertz I'm all alone, 52 Hertz on my hydrophone". "The Loneliest Mix" is an audio project by Mike Ambs, inspired by the 52-hertz whale. The project uses the 52-hertz song at real-time speed. <P> Schottel brand name and referred to as Rudderpropeller ever since. Joseph Becker was awarded the Elmer A. Sperry Award for this invention as a major contribution to the improvement of transportation worldwide. <P> make accurate depth soundings and conducted radio acoustic ranging experiments in cooperation with the United States Army Coast Artillery Corps. Despite many difficulties, testing of both echo sounding and radio acoustic ranging wrapped up successfully in November 1923. In late November 1923, with Heck aboard, Guide departed New London, Connecticut, bound for her new home port, San Diego, California, via Puerto Rico and the Panama Canal, with her route planned to take her over a wide variety of ocean depths so that she could continue to test her echo sounder. Guide made history during the voyage, becoming the first Coast and <P> a black creature about 40 feet (13 metres) long swimming, partially submerged, past their boat. In 1994 four persons in two separate boats reported a 30-foot-long (9.1 m), black, three-humped creature. Is the Memphre real or just another Mystery of Canada? "The McKay Avenue School & The Vogue Theatre" - Edmonton’s oldest surviving brick schoolhouse was the site of the first Alberta legislature in 1906-07. It was eventually to become the McKay Avenue School for young children. The sound of children laughing can still be heard in its halls. Not only are there ghostly children in this building; the eerie apparition of <P> Little Bahama Banks to Cape Hatteras—off Cape Canaveral nearly 200 miles wide, and gradually contracting in width to the northward until reaching Hatteras, where the depth is more than 1000 fathoms within thirty miles of shore. This plateau has a general depth of 400 fathoms, suddenly dropping off on its eastern edge to over 2000 fathoms. Bartlett reported the scouring effect of the current on the plateau, noting that on each side of the current the sounding cylinder, a device for sampling the nature of the bottom with the sounding, brought up ooze. Within the current the "bottom was washed nearly	question: I first heard about the Bloop a few years ago. Between then and now, have we gotten any ideas as to what made the sound? context: <P> 52-hertz whale The 52-hertz whale is an individual whale of unidentified species, which calls at the very unusual frequency of 52 Hz. This pitch is a much higher frequency than that of the other whale species with migration patterns most closely resembling this whale's – the blue whale (10–39 Hz) or fin whale (20 Hz). It has been detected regularly in many locations since the late 1980s and appears to be the only individual emitting a whale call at this frequency. It has been described as the "world's loneliest whale". History The 52-hertz whale was discovered by a team from the Woods Hole <P> for an air base. The winner of the race, Roald Amundsen, made his way to the Arctic Ocean, his actual field of interest. In the following years between 1918 and 1922, he attempted to repeat Nansen's enterprise without success. After the First World War interrupted oceanographic research, international scientific activities started anew in 1920. The invention of the echo sounder in 1912 reached a new significance for the international marine research. Henceforth, it was possible to measure the distance to the seabed by sending acoustic signals instead of using wires and weights. Warships used echo sounders during the First World War. <P> In 1922, the American destroyer Stewart took the first echo profile over the North Atlantic and one year later, the sonic logging between San Francisco and San Diego was published. Between 1929 and 1934 the USS Ramapo took about thirty profiles of the northern Pacific Ocean. In 1927, the German cruiser Emden was able to carry out a series of soundings of the ocean trench to the east of the Philippines. The German ship Meteor was the first to use the echo sounder for scientific purposes in the 1920s on the German Meteor expedition. For the first time an ocean, the <P> and whales especially humpback whales and southern right whales are increasingly observed due to recoveries of each species. The sound has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because it is a breeding site for Fiordland penguins. History Milford Sound was initially overlooked by European explorers, because its narrow entry did not appear to lead into such large interior bays. Sailing ship captains such as James Cook, who bypassed Milford Sound on his journeys for just this reason, also feared venturing too close to the steep mountainsides, afraid that wind conditions would prevent escape. The fiord was a <P> Oceanographic Institution. Its call was first detected in 1989, then again in 1990 and 1991. In 1992, following the end of the Cold War, the U.S. Navy partially declassified the recordings and technical specifications of its SOSUS anti-submarine hydrophone arrays, and made SOSUS available for oceanographic research. As of 2014, the whale had been detected every year since. Film A feature-length documentary entitled 52: The Search for the Loneliest Whale is in production, shot by Joshua Zeman, the director of Cropsey, and produced by Adrian Grenier. Funded through a Kickstarter campaign, the film was due for release sometime in 2018 <P> Ulf Merbold. Thanks to the help of qualified scientists and state-of-the-art sensor technology, the MWP achieved its goal to gather and analyze wave structure data with impressive results at the operation in Mendoza in October 2006. Research flights and operations were completed in the region between the Tupungato (5.700 m) and Aconcagua (6.900m), which is very well known for its extremely treacherous turbulence. Record flights Between 2000 and 2004 MWP team member Klaus Ohlmann further developed and expanded on the knowledge about wave systems gained in the Andes in 1999, and accumulated a wealth of experience. This educational process allowed him <P> failed to show T-S waves. In 1943, Schubauer and Skramstad (S and S) created a wind tunnel that went to extremes to damp mechanical vibrations and sounds that might affect the airflow studies along a smooth flat plate. Using a vertical array of evenly spaced hot wire anemometers in the boundary layer (BL) airflow, they substantiated the existence of T-S oscillations by showing SH velocity fluctuations in the BL laminae. The T-S waves gradually increased in amplitude until a few random spikes of in-phase amplitude appeared, triggering focal vortices (turbulent spots), with noise. A further increase in flow rate resulted <P> with radio acoustic ranging. Under Heck's direction, Guide then conducted experiments off the coast of California during the early months of 1924 that demonstrated that accurate echo sounding was possible using the new formulas. Experiments with radio acoustic ranging, despite initial difficulties, demonstrated that the method also was practical, although difficulty with getting some of the explosive charges to detonate hampered some of the experimental program. In April 1924, the Coast and Geodetic Survey concluded that both echo sounding and radio acoustic ranging were fundamentally sound, with no foundational problems left to solve, and that all that remained necessary was <P> intended to be 50 storeys high rather than 47, but wind load tests showed that it would sway too much because of its slender shape and the 'glass blade' façade overrun caused by the height reduction has been blamed for the noise. The sound has been heard from about 300 metres away. It is close to the standard musical pitch of B3 (approximately 246.94 Hertz) and has been compared to a "UFO landing". The noise affected production of Coronation Street. Work to reduce or eradicate the noise took place in 2006, 2007 and 2010. Foam pads were installed in 2006, aluminium <P> with Hawkes as pilot. He had the descent depth every 100 metres, down to 1000 metres on the Underwater telephone (UQC). Amongst the people on the bridge of the R/V Egabrag, where the UQC was installed were the Captain and helmsman, his then wife Sylvia Earle, a reporter, cameraman and sound man from a San Francisco TV station, the Operations Manager from CANDIVE and the Diving Safety Officer from the University of Rhode Island, Phillip Sharkey. Hawkes reported, "1000 meters." There was a quiet ripple of applause on the bridge, and the reporter took the UQC microphone. <P> Geodetic Survey ship to use echo sounding to measure and record the depth of the sea at points along her course; she also measured water temperatures and took water samples so that the Scripps Institution for Biological Research (now the Scripps Institution of Oceanography) at La Jolla, California, could measure salinity levels. She also compared echo sounder soundings with those made by lead lines, discovering that using a single speed of sound through water, as had been the previous practice by those conducting echo sounding experiments, yielded acoustic depth-finding results that did not match the depths found by lead lines. <P> and researching the underlying acoustics," and in 1973 Crawford credits another professor with pointing out to him a toy which, "about a year or two ago...appeared in toy stores across the land," and gives the brand or trade names "Whirl-A-Sound", "Freeka", and "The Hummer"; the last being made by W. J. Seidler Co. of L.A., CA. Crawford invented the method of playing small enough hose by blowing, known as a corrugahorn. This requires a tube with a diameter smaller than commonly marketed as toys (a one inch diameter is too great, a half inch is not), Hopkin recommends 3/8" gas <P> after the Toya Maru accident, the largest marine accident to occur after the war, the ferryboats that went on commission after the accident were discovered to have a strange scar on their propeller, providing an example of where rumors started to spread about how the victims of the accident turned into funayurei and dug claws into the propellers. This funayurei appears in sea and on land, and in Nanaehama, Hokkaido, there is a rumor that at midnight, a female would appear completely wet riding in a taxi, who would disappear once one reaches the destination, and who was rumored to <P> She transited the Panama Canal on 8 December 1923. Before she reached San Diego later in December 1923, she had accumulated much data beneficial to the study of the movement of sound waves through water and measuring their velocity under varying conditions of salinity, density, and temperature, information essential both to depth-finding and radio acoustic ranging. Upon arriving in California, Heck and Guide personnel in consultation with the Scripps Institution developed formulas that allowed accurate echo sounding of depths in all but the shallowest waters and installed hydrophones at La Jolla and Oceanside, California, to allow experimentation in the Pacific Ocean <P> the wood behind the beak was undrilled but thin enough to pass the sound, or that the hollowed space acted like a soundboard to concentrate the sound from the room onto the microphone. The illuminating frequency used by the Soviets is said to be 330 MHz. Discovery The existence of the bug was discovered accidentally by a British radio operator at the British embassy who overheard American conversations on an open radio channel as the Soviets were beaming radio waves at the ambassador's office. An American State Department employee was then able to reproduce the results using an untuned wideband receiver with <P> whale and includes the line, "52 Hertz, 52 Hertz, I'm singing a love song that no-one can hear" in the chorus. In 2018, American singer Chrysta Bell released a song "52 Hz" inspired by the whale, in which she sings "52 Hertz I'm all alone, 52 Hertz on my hydrophone". "The Loneliest Mix" is an audio project by Mike Ambs, inspired by the 52-hertz whale. The project uses the 52-hertz song at real-time speed. <P> Schottel brand name and referred to as Rudderpropeller ever since. Joseph Becker was awarded the Elmer A. Sperry Award for this invention as a major contribution to the improvement of transportation worldwide. <P> make accurate depth soundings and conducted radio acoustic ranging experiments in cooperation with the United States Army Coast Artillery Corps. Despite many difficulties, testing of both echo sounding and radio acoustic ranging wrapped up successfully in November 1923. In late November 1923, with Heck aboard, Guide departed New London, Connecticut, bound for her new home port, San Diego, California, via Puerto Rico and the Panama Canal, with her route planned to take her over a wide variety of ocean depths so that she could continue to test her echo sounder. Guide made history during the voyage, becoming the first Coast and <P> a black creature about 40 feet (13 metres) long swimming, partially submerged, past their boat. In 1994 four persons in two separate boats reported a 30-foot-long (9.1 m), black, three-humped creature. Is the Memphre real or just another Mystery of Canada? "The McKay Avenue School & The Vogue Theatre" - Edmonton’s oldest surviving brick schoolhouse was the site of the first Alberta legislature in 1906-07. It was eventually to become the McKay Avenue School for young children. The sound of children laughing can still be heard in its halls. Not only are there ghostly children in this building; the eerie apparition of <P> Little Bahama Banks to Cape Hatteras—off Cape Canaveral nearly 200 miles wide, and gradually contracting in width to the northward until reaching Hatteras, where the depth is more than 1000 fathoms within thirty miles of shore. This plateau has a general depth of 400 fathoms, suddenly dropping off on its eastern edge to over 2000 fathoms. Bartlett reported the scouring effect of the current on the plateau, noting that on each side of the current the sounding cylinder, a device for sampling the nature of the bottom with the sounding, brought up ooze. Within the current the "bottom was washed nearly	answer: Ideas, yes. Do we know what it is? No.What we know is that it almost certainly isn't man made and that it doesn't emanate from from any familiar geological event. The audio profile resembles that of a living creature, but the sound level is several times louder than the loudest animal we know of, the blue wale. This might mean that it's some sort of gigantic sea monster, kinda like Cthulhu.Another theory is that the sound is caused by [ice calving](_URL_1_) in Antarctica. However, this theory isn't as widely accepted as the theory that it's coming from a living thing.[Bloop$Wikipeida$](_URL_0_)Hope that's enough, there isn't really much that we know of about this phenomenon.EDIT: [Here's](_URL_2_) the sound itself for the curious ;)
181,956	46hy8e	what happens to a person's mobile # when they die?	When you die, most of your contractual agreements are null and void, including the phone line contract so the phone can be disconnected once the family provides proof of death to the company. After a while, the number itself is given to a new subscriber, just like any other expired number.	[ "When you die, most of your contractual agreements are null and void, including the phone line contract so the phone can be disconnected once the family provides proof of death to the company. After a while, the number itself is given to a new subscriber, just like any other expired number.", "AT & T does not cha...	2	[]	0	<P> inconvenience to customers. The public telecommunication service providers - SingTel and StarHub, will implement the 8-digit numbering plan and ensure smooth service continuity for their customers after the migration. There will be a parallel run of 7-digit and 8-digit numbers from 1 March 2002 to 31 March 2002. From 1 April 2002 to 30 June 2002, the 7-digit numbers will hear the change number announcement and after which calls will be disconnected, before re-dialing "6" again. Callers will be disconnected with service unavailable after the conversion. In March 2004, in response to the growing mobile phone numbering in Singapore, 8-digit mobile <P> placed to summon the Fire Brigade as well, whereas the call will be again diverted. The number is accessible from any part of the island on all telephone and cellular networks. 119 in Maldives The 1-1-9 in Maldives is a direct-dial free emergency number that connects the caller to the national police (Maldives Police Service). <P> are assigned a telephone number and can ring if the number is called. The phone can then be used to make and receive calls by anyone, making it a potential tool in anonymous criminal activity such as narcotics trafficking. Where a payphone does not have any number listed on the unit, the number can be discovered by calling an ANAC service. Late in the 20th century, after caller ID and pre-paid cell phone service became commonplace and with these services being more easily exploited for criminal purposes, especially in the case of burner phones, this type of abuse of payphones faded <P> a fixed phone. Since 2010 Nulltel Call-through services have been discontinued. <P> Development Programme and their staff Wolfgang Scholtes and Kumar Navaratnum. In order to use a callback service, a subscriber is allocated a unique number in, for example, the US, which must first be dialled in order to trigger a return call. This is known (in the US) as a Direct Inbound Dialing (DID) number, or in the UK as a Direct Dial-In (DDI) number. Where Caller ID is available, it may be possible to use the same DID number for many different subscribers, as the callback system will be able to recognise each subscriber's registered number. On hearing a ringing tone, the <P> 19, 2019, phone providers must block all calls with IDs that "[purport] to originate from telephone numbers that do not conform to established numbering plans". United Kingdom In the UK, the spoofed number is called the "presentation number". This must be either allocated to the caller, or if allocated to a third party, it is only to be used with the third party's explicit permission. Starting 2016, direct marketing companies are obliged to display their phone numbers. Any offending companies can be hit by fines up to £2 million by OFCOM. United States Caller ID spoofing is generally legal in the <P> 119 (emergency telephone number) 119 in Sri Lanka 119 is a direct-dial emergency number for fire brigade and ambulance service operated by the National Emergency Management Agency. The caller's location is automatically traced once the call is connected, and operators who can speak Chinese, English, Japanese and Korean should be available. 1339 is a separate number reserved for non-emergency medical information calls. An emergency pager service called "U119" also exists for registered people such as the elderly or cancer patients. 112 is the emergency number for police, with other numbers dedicated for other situations, such as discovery of missing <P> number. For example, a call placed from Mexico to Port Harcourt would be dialled as 00 + 234 + 84 + six digit phone number. <P> Restoring Family Links Restoring Family Links (RFL) is a program of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, more specifically the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies involving activities that aim to prevent separation and disappearance, look for missing persons, restore and maintain contact between family members and clarify the fate of persons reported missing. The activities are carried out by the components of the RFL is sometimes also referred to as family tracing. The ICRC and National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies form together a global network, the <P> persons. 119 in Japan 119 in Japan is a direct-dial emergency number that connects the caller to the fire brigade and emergency medical services. On certain older pay phones, the number can be dialed by pushing a special button that will automatically connect the caller with the 119 dispatch center. Although the dispatchers still record the address of the emergency call manually, most systems are now set up to automatically log the location of the call as well (for cases of emergency calls where the caller is not proficient in Japanese, distraught or otherwise unable to respond coherently). Unlike many <P> is 112. This is harmonised across the EU. To avoid confusion, the long-established 999 number continues to be advertised alongside 112. Either number can be dialed. SMS Emergency Service 112 can be contacted by text message (SMS). While the service is open to all users, it is primarily aimed at the deaf community. NB: Before you can use this service, you must register: See link below: Further information can be found at 112.ie. Line information codes These services give you more information about your phone line (applicable only to lines provided using the OpenEir access network.) Call management services / supplementary service codes <P> means, such as short letters called Red Cross Messages (RCMs), normal telephones or satellite phones. Technological developments have led to a decreased in the use of RCMs in favour of telephones. The total number of calls made for RFL purposes increased from 3,958 to 210,096 between 2008 and 2012. However, in some contexts such as for instance the Democratic Republic of Congo, phone and postal services can be limited, and the Red Cross message are sometimes brought personally by Red Cross volunteers, often on bicycles over very long distances to remote villages across the country. Reuniting families The national authorities have <P> through the phone's Internet browser notifies the company if the user is safe or in distress. In Finland rescue services suggest hikers carry mobile phones in case of emergency even when deep in the forests beyond cellular coverage, as the radio signal of a cellphone attempting to connect to a base station can be detected by overflying rescue aircraft with special detection gear. Also, users in the United States can sign up through their provider for free text messages when an AMBER Alert goes out for a missing person in their area. However, most mobile phone networks operate close to capacity <P> TEs. If a subscriber dials digit "8" (prefix of the long-distance connection in the national PSTN) all further processing of the call is a function of a toll exchange. The numbering plan for the cellular networks based on the Area Code (three digits) and number of mobile terminal (seven digits). In this case, the Area Code defines the concrete cellular network. Mobile phone There are four mobile phone service brands that cover all Russia: Beeline, MegaFon, Mobile TeleSystems and Tele2. At the end of 2013 there were about 239 million SIM cards in use in the country, which is equal <P> transferred to 8-1-1. ‘Customized 8-1-1’ refers to identified callers or groups that are provided customized services by utilizing 8-1-1 resources. Examples include: FHA Hospice Palliative Care – after-hours, clients call 8-1-1 and receive a customized service that supplements their ongoing palliative care program; and, Yukon Territory – when a caller accesses 8-1-1 from the Yukon, they receive a customized service that reflects the resources and services available to their locale. <P> calling service numbers. This lack of confidence caused some people to avoid using service numbers where possible. The new system As of 1 July 2015, the cost of calling service numbers is made up of two parts: • An access charge: This part of the call charge goes to the caller’s telephone company, charged as pence per minute. The phone company is in charge of telling the caller how much the access charge for these calls is. • A service charge: The service charge makes up the rest of the call charge. The organisation being called decides this, and must inform the <P> transmit. With the proper equipment, it's possible to intercept the re-connect signal and encode the data it contains into a 'blank' phone—in all respects, the 'blank' is then an exact duplicate of the real phone and any calls made on the 'clone' will be charged to the original account. This problem was widespread with the first generation analogue technology, however the modern digital standards such as GSM greatly improve security and make cloning hard to achieve. In an effort to limit the potential harm from having a transmitter close to the user's body, the first fixed/mobile cellular phones that <P> subscriber simply hangs up and awaits the callback. On receiving this, usually within a few seconds, the customer picks up the phone and dials the required number. This may mean dialling in the North American format, as most callback services are US-based, and callers are effectively calling from the US. For example, a number in Manhattan would be dialled with the trunk code, area code and subscriber's number, as follows: 1 212 xxx xxxx A call to London in the UK, would require the international access code and country calling code, as follows: 011 44 20 xxxx xxxx In the North American Numbering Plan, <P> from concern. In Canada, this behaviour has always been more difficult. As a matter of course, incoming calls to payphones are disabled; furthermore, the Bell ANAC number is also disabled (although the telephone number is marked on the payphone itself as it is needed to report a non-working coin phone to 6-1-1 repair service). There are some private national toll-free numbers that use ANI and then have a computer read back the number that is calling, but these are not intended for use in identifying the customer's own phone number. They are used in order for the agent in the call <P> name is not Arlis. Anyway, next time you get the urge to call, the number is -------. This time I guarantee you'll get the right Bruce Perry." Bruce Perry Arlis's widower, Bruce D. Perry, is a clinician and researcher in children's mental health and the neurosciences, and an internationally recognized authority on children in crisis.	question: what happens to a person's mobile # when they die? context: <P> inconvenience to customers. The public telecommunication service providers - SingTel and StarHub, will implement the 8-digit numbering plan and ensure smooth service continuity for their customers after the migration. There will be a parallel run of 7-digit and 8-digit numbers from 1 March 2002 to 31 March 2002. From 1 April 2002 to 30 June 2002, the 7-digit numbers will hear the change number announcement and after which calls will be disconnected, before re-dialing "6" again. Callers will be disconnected with service unavailable after the conversion. In March 2004, in response to the growing mobile phone numbering in Singapore, 8-digit mobile <P> placed to summon the Fire Brigade as well, whereas the call will be again diverted. The number is accessible from any part of the island on all telephone and cellular networks. 119 in Maldives The 1-1-9 in Maldives is a direct-dial free emergency number that connects the caller to the national police (Maldives Police Service). <P> are assigned a telephone number and can ring if the number is called. The phone can then be used to make and receive calls by anyone, making it a potential tool in anonymous criminal activity such as narcotics trafficking. Where a payphone does not have any number listed on the unit, the number can be discovered by calling an ANAC service. Late in the 20th century, after caller ID and pre-paid cell phone service became commonplace and with these services being more easily exploited for criminal purposes, especially in the case of burner phones, this type of abuse of payphones faded <P> a fixed phone. Since 2010 Nulltel Call-through services have been discontinued. <P> Development Programme and their staff Wolfgang Scholtes and Kumar Navaratnum. In order to use a callback service, a subscriber is allocated a unique number in, for example, the US, which must first be dialled in order to trigger a return call. This is known (in the US) as a Direct Inbound Dialing (DID) number, or in the UK as a Direct Dial-In (DDI) number. Where Caller ID is available, it may be possible to use the same DID number for many different subscribers, as the callback system will be able to recognise each subscriber's registered number. On hearing a ringing tone, the <P> 19, 2019, phone providers must block all calls with IDs that "[purport] to originate from telephone numbers that do not conform to established numbering plans". United Kingdom In the UK, the spoofed number is called the "presentation number". This must be either allocated to the caller, or if allocated to a third party, it is only to be used with the third party's explicit permission. Starting 2016, direct marketing companies are obliged to display their phone numbers. Any offending companies can be hit by fines up to £2 million by OFCOM. United States Caller ID spoofing is generally legal in the <P> 119 (emergency telephone number) 119 in Sri Lanka 119 is a direct-dial emergency number for fire brigade and ambulance service operated by the National Emergency Management Agency. The caller's location is automatically traced once the call is connected, and operators who can speak Chinese, English, Japanese and Korean should be available. 1339 is a separate number reserved for non-emergency medical information calls. An emergency pager service called "U119" also exists for registered people such as the elderly or cancer patients. 112 is the emergency number for police, with other numbers dedicated for other situations, such as discovery of missing <P> number. For example, a call placed from Mexico to Port Harcourt would be dialled as 00 + 234 + 84 + six digit phone number. <P> Restoring Family Links Restoring Family Links (RFL) is a program of the Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement, more specifically the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) and National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies involving activities that aim to prevent separation and disappearance, look for missing persons, restore and maintain contact between family members and clarify the fate of persons reported missing. The activities are carried out by the components of the RFL is sometimes also referred to as family tracing. The ICRC and National Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies form together a global network, the <P> persons. 119 in Japan 119 in Japan is a direct-dial emergency number that connects the caller to the fire brigade and emergency medical services. On certain older pay phones, the number can be dialed by pushing a special button that will automatically connect the caller with the 119 dispatch center. Although the dispatchers still record the address of the emergency call manually, most systems are now set up to automatically log the location of the call as well (for cases of emergency calls where the caller is not proficient in Japanese, distraught or otherwise unable to respond coherently). Unlike many <P> is 112. This is harmonised across the EU. To avoid confusion, the long-established 999 number continues to be advertised alongside 112. Either number can be dialed. SMS Emergency Service 112 can be contacted by text message (SMS). While the service is open to all users, it is primarily aimed at the deaf community. NB: Before you can use this service, you must register: See link below: Further information can be found at 112.ie. Line information codes These services give you more information about your phone line (applicable only to lines provided using the OpenEir access network.) Call management services / supplementary service codes <P> means, such as short letters called Red Cross Messages (RCMs), normal telephones or satellite phones. Technological developments have led to a decreased in the use of RCMs in favour of telephones. The total number of calls made for RFL purposes increased from 3,958 to 210,096 between 2008 and 2012. However, in some contexts such as for instance the Democratic Republic of Congo, phone and postal services can be limited, and the Red Cross message are sometimes brought personally by Red Cross volunteers, often on bicycles over very long distances to remote villages across the country. Reuniting families The national authorities have <P> through the phone's Internet browser notifies the company if the user is safe or in distress. In Finland rescue services suggest hikers carry mobile phones in case of emergency even when deep in the forests beyond cellular coverage, as the radio signal of a cellphone attempting to connect to a base station can be detected by overflying rescue aircraft with special detection gear. Also, users in the United States can sign up through their provider for free text messages when an AMBER Alert goes out for a missing person in their area. However, most mobile phone networks operate close to capacity <P> TEs. If a subscriber dials digit "8" (prefix of the long-distance connection in the national PSTN) all further processing of the call is a function of a toll exchange. The numbering plan for the cellular networks based on the Area Code (three digits) and number of mobile terminal (seven digits). In this case, the Area Code defines the concrete cellular network. Mobile phone There are four mobile phone service brands that cover all Russia: Beeline, MegaFon, Mobile TeleSystems and Tele2. At the end of 2013 there were about 239 million SIM cards in use in the country, which is equal <P> transferred to 8-1-1. ‘Customized 8-1-1’ refers to identified callers or groups that are provided customized services by utilizing 8-1-1 resources. Examples include: FHA Hospice Palliative Care – after-hours, clients call 8-1-1 and receive a customized service that supplements their ongoing palliative care program; and, Yukon Territory – when a caller accesses 8-1-1 from the Yukon, they receive a customized service that reflects the resources and services available to their locale. <P> calling service numbers. This lack of confidence caused some people to avoid using service numbers where possible. The new system As of 1 July 2015, the cost of calling service numbers is made up of two parts: • An access charge: This part of the call charge goes to the caller’s telephone company, charged as pence per minute. The phone company is in charge of telling the caller how much the access charge for these calls is. • A service charge: The service charge makes up the rest of the call charge. The organisation being called decides this, and must inform the <P> transmit. With the proper equipment, it's possible to intercept the re-connect signal and encode the data it contains into a 'blank' phone—in all respects, the 'blank' is then an exact duplicate of the real phone and any calls made on the 'clone' will be charged to the original account. This problem was widespread with the first generation analogue technology, however the modern digital standards such as GSM greatly improve security and make cloning hard to achieve. In an effort to limit the potential harm from having a transmitter close to the user's body, the first fixed/mobile cellular phones that <P> subscriber simply hangs up and awaits the callback. On receiving this, usually within a few seconds, the customer picks up the phone and dials the required number. This may mean dialling in the North American format, as most callback services are US-based, and callers are effectively calling from the US. For example, a number in Manhattan would be dialled with the trunk code, area code and subscriber's number, as follows: 1 212 xxx xxxx A call to London in the UK, would require the international access code and country calling code, as follows: 011 44 20 xxxx xxxx In the North American Numbering Plan, <P> from concern. In Canada, this behaviour has always been more difficult. As a matter of course, incoming calls to payphones are disabled; furthermore, the Bell ANAC number is also disabled (although the telephone number is marked on the payphone itself as it is needed to report a non-working coin phone to 6-1-1 repair service). There are some private national toll-free numbers that use ANI and then have a computer read back the number that is calling, but these are not intended for use in identifying the customer's own phone number. They are used in order for the agent in the call <P> name is not Arlis. Anyway, next time you get the urge to call, the number is -------. This time I guarantee you'll get the right Bruce Perry." Bruce Perry Arlis's widower, Bruce D. Perry, is a clinician and researcher in children's mental health and the neurosciences, and an internationally recognized authority on children in crisis.	answer: When you die, most of your contractual agreements are null and void, including the phone line contract so the phone can be disconnected once the family provides proof of death to the company. After a while, the number itself is given to a new subscriber, just like any other expired number.
180,924	25zlfy	How did Air doctrine differ between nations in WW2?	Not a full answer but in case you get no other replies i will try to give some input:*Western allies. Great Britain and the USA:Both put quite some emphasise on their bomber arms. Both countries thought that bombers could have strategic effects and even end wars on its own. Very early in the war both countries decided that its from utmost importance to destroy German industry and therefore damage German capabilities of sustaining a war. Both countries were in a far different position than Germany. Great Britain for example had far less troops employed than Germany or Russia. The British army wasn't able to contribute to war effort in the same way the Red army did. Being pretty safe on the island Great Britain tried to damage the German war efforts without direct confrontation via ground troops. Strategic bombers provided this possiblity. The Battle of Britain showed the importance of the airforce when it came down to defending the country. The British airforce got higher funding than the Luftwaffe in relative terms. The British implented their ideas of stragetic bombing and build a strong stragetic bomber fleet.Germany* did not value bombers the same way the western allies did. Before the war the Luftwaffe had strong proponents for a stragetic bomber arm ( long range heavy bombers) but the Luftwaffe failed to implement these ideas, mainly because the persons in charge were not able to find a consense. Germany had a bomber arm but eventually put more effort into building tactical bombers to support ground offensives. The well known Stuka dive bombers are a good example for the Luftwaffe doctrine. The Luftwaffe doctrine was often more of a tactical and operational nature than a strategic. Destroying enemy armored forces was the main goal and not destroying the industrial capabilities of the enemy. That doesn't mean the Luftwaffe didn't understand the concept of bombing the industry of the enemy they just choose to distribute the ressources differently. The Luftwaffe was in a different situation than the RAF or USAAF. Tactical bombing > strategic bombing. It should be noted that the different countries had to deal with different situations. While its easy to question the German decisions in regards to their airforce you have to consider the objectives they had in mind. Germany tried to win a land war against the Russia. Building a strong air superiority fleet which could enable ground attack aircrafts and protect the ground troops from enemy attacks was maybe a better choice than building a huge bomber fleet which couldn't reach Soviet factories anyways how could have insignificant effects against Great Britain. Some numbers:The US ratio for bombers to fighters was about 1to1The German ratio was about 2 fighters for one bomber or ground attack.Hopefully i was able to give some input.	[ "Not a full answer but in case you get no other replies i will try to give some input:\n\n*Western allies*. Great Britain and the USA:\n\nBoth put quite some emphasise on their bomber arms. Both countries thought that bombers could have strategic effects and even end wars on its own. Very early in the war both...	1	[ "Not a full answer but in case you get no other replies i will try to give some input:\n\n*Western allies*. Great Britain and the USA:\n\nBoth put quite some emphasise on their bomber arms. Both countries thought that bombers could have strategic effects and even end wars on its own. Very early in the war both...	1	<P> August 1963, thus concluding decades of debates and negotiations of some of the foremost outstanding problems in international air law. Tokyo Convention, 1963 The Conference was finally convened at Tokyo by ICAO Council, 20 August to 14 September 1963 for the purpose of further consideration, finalisation, adoption and opening for signature of the Rome Draft. Sixty-one States and five international organisations were represented at the Conference. During the discussions certain changes were made along with the addition of certain provisions, including the final clauses. The Tokyo Convention emerged in present form on 14 September 1963. The Convention entered into force on 4 <P> work in aeronautics and aerial reconnaissance were heard abroad. In 1864, Lowe was offered a Major-General position with the Brazilian Army, which was at war with Paraguay, but he turned it down. In the 19th century, the idea of dropping ordnance on the enemy from an aerial station was not seriously considered, although there was a patent issued to a Charles Perley in February 1863 for a bomb-dropping device that could be floated aloft by balloon. The balloon bomb was to be unmanned, and the plan was a theory which had no effective way of assuring that a bomb could be <P> AIC), as it was to be named, to life. When General John J. Pershing first saw the site it was nothing but a series of flat fields, with no barracks, hangars, buildings or classroom facilities. Under the agreement with the French, the United States was, “…to furnish 200 workman to erect it (3d AIC) and ‘all the tools, nails and other implements necessary,’ including a narrow-gauge railroad, while France was to furnish the planes, motors and suitably cleared land.” With this accomplished, American pilots were to begin training in July of 1917 and be ready for the front in <P> for fuel were in limited supply and soon became scarce. Many manufacturers, especially in the Soviet Union and, later on, in Germany turned to more readily-available raw materials such as timber and coal. The de Havilland Mosquito fighter-bomber was a rare British example of a wooden aeroplane. Airfields At the outbreak of war there were relatively few aerodromes capable of supporting military aircraft operations. Land-based aircraft with retracting undercarriage had superior performance to the equivalent seaplanes, leading to the widespread construction of aerodromes throughout all theatres of campaign. After the war many of these would become civil airports, providing <P> Orly Air Base History Paris Orly Airport's beginnings date to World War I, and the entry of the United States into the conflict on the Western Front. The Air Service, United States Army had no suitable combat aircraft of its own when it entered the conflict in April 1917, In order to provide an effective contribution to the Allied war effort, it would be required to obtain front-line combat aircraft from its British and French allies. As nearly all of the French aircraft factories were in the Paris area at the time, a place was necessary for the American <P> been used on Aeronáutica Naval aircraft during the monarchy in the 1920s, before the time of the Republic. Many innovative, and often lethal, aeronautical bombing techniques were tested by Germany's Condor Legion forces on Spanish soil against the areas that remained loyal to the Republican Government with the permission of Generalísimo Franco. Nazi help to the Nationalist Air Force was part of Hitler's German re-armament strategy and the techniques that German Nazi pilots learned in Spain would later be used in World War II. Despite the devastation and the human casualties caused by the bombing of the Basque city of Guernica <P> army spent on aviation. The Treaty of Versailles banned most aspects of aerial development in Germany. For all of its diligence the treaty did not prohibit naval exercises with aircraft. The loophole allowed for the development of aircraft in the naval sphere of influence. The Paris Treaty of 1926 restated the terms of the treaty in Versailles but relented over the issue of air defence. Germany would be permitted to develop air defence systems to guard against aerial aggression. Although this did not translate into a green light to develop naval aircraft by 1927 the Germans were initiating secret training and <P> Issoudun Aerodrome Background By the summer of 1917, two and a half years of the air war had begun to take a serious toll on the number of French and British aviators. While the United States possessed a relatively enormous pool of human resources, she lacked the well developed training methods and aircraft production capabilities of the Allies. In order to maximize the resources of both, the French submitted a memorandum to General George O. Squier, then the Chief Signal Officer of the U.S. Army, suggesting the establishment of an American advanced flying school in France. The site decided upon for <P> surveillance vessels, aircraft, UAVs, etc. can guide the HN action without violating their own rules of engagement and participating in unauthorized direct combat. History Rather than the formal definition, it is more understandable with some historical context. The British generally seemed to be most consistent between theory and practice, although the minimum-effort theory, which worked in Malaya, did not seem to apply to Northern Ireland. French doctrine at the turn of the 20th century, involving working with locals, did not seem to be the heart of doctrine in Algeria and Indochina. France does seem to manage cooperation with former colonies, <P> of these conditions apply", and that it was clear that no poison gas was used. Douglas observed that Churchill's forceful statement had served to convince observers of the existence of weapons of mass destruction which were not actually there, which ironically matched events in 2003. British policy The British Manual of Military Law stated that the rules of war applied only to conflict "between civilized nations." Already in the Manual of 1914, it was clearly stated that "they do not apply in wars with uncivilized States and tribes"; instead the British commander should observe "the rules of justice and humanity" <P> and often lethal, aeronautical bombing techniques were tested by Condor Legion German expeditionary forces against loyalist areas on Spanish soil with the permission of Generalísimo Franco. The pilots of the Spanish Republican Air Force were unable to check these modern-warfare attacks. Their planes were mostly obsolete and often in a bad state of disrepair. The ungainly French Potez 540, a highly vulnerable plane that proved itself a failure in Spanish skies during the Civil War, was labelled as 'Flying Coffin' (Spanish: Ataúd Volante) by loyalist pilots. The rebel side, however, claimed that both air forces were almost equal, since the Soviet <P> was requested on 3 September 1942 and approved the following day. Commander Edward Travis, Deputy Director and Frank Birch, Head of the German Naval Section travelled from Bletchley Park to Washington in September 1942. With Carl Frederick Holden, US Director of Naval Communications they established, on 2 October 1942, a UK:US accord which may have "a stronger claim than BRUSA to being the forerunner of the UKUSA Agreement," being the first agreement "to establish the special Sigint relationship between the two countries," and "it set the pattern for UKUSA, in that the United States was very much the senior partner in <P> special incendiary bombing mission to create forest fires in North America. I-25 left Yokosuka on 15 August 1942 carrying six 76-kilogram (168 lb) incendiary bombs. On 9 September, the crew again deployed the "Glen", which dropped two bombs over forest land near Brookings, Oregon. This attack by an enemy airplane was later called the "Lookout Air Raids", and was the only time that the mainland United States was ever bombed by enemy aircraft and the second continental territory to be bombed as such during wartime, after the bombing of Dutch Harbor in Unalaska, Alaska. Warrant Officer Fujita's mission had been <P> Casablanca directive The Casablanca directive was approved by the Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCOS) of the Western Allies at their 65th meeting on 21 January 1943 and issued to the appropriate the Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces commanders on 4 February 1943. It remained in force until 17 April 1944, when the Allied strategic bomber commands based in Britain were directed to help with preparations for Operation Overlord. The CCOS met during the Casablanca Conference when the Allies were deciding the future strategy of the war. The directive set out a series of priorities for the strategic <P> the principles and techniques of international air navigation and to foster the planning and development of international air transport so as to ... [p]romote safety of flight in international air navigation... " The Legal Committee of ICAO, established by the Interim Council on 24 June 1946 and approved by the First Assembly on 23 May 1947, acting on a proposal by the Mexican representative placed the question of the legal status of the aircraft on its work programme in 1950. The Committee appointed Dr. Enrique M. Loaeza (Mexico) as rapporteur on the subject. On 15 May 1953 the Council of <P> including Airborne Early Warning, electronic warfare, weather reconnaissance, and flying lifeboats. Great Britain used aircraft to suppress revolts throughout the Empire during the interwar period and introduced the first military transports, which revolutionized logistics, allowing troops and supplies to be quickly delivered over vastly greater distances. While they first appeared during World War I, ground attack aircraft didn't provide a decisive contribution until the Germans introduced Blitzkrieg during the Invasion of Poland and Battle of France, where aircraft functioned as mobile flying artillery to quickly disrupt defensive formations. The Allies would later use rocket-equipped fighters in the same role, immobilizing <P> survival equation. Planning for a Warsaw Pact first strike survival in both conventional and nuclear wars had to be considered. The main air bases were built on small parcels of land with very limited dispersal space. It was decided to use Cambrai-Niergnies as an emergency "backup" airfield, consisting of a "bare bones" facility of a runway with minimal facilities intended for use by all NATO air forces to disperse their aircraft in case of war. Beginning about 1953, French demolition companies returned to Laon-Athies and began demolishing the German structures and removing the wreckage of the World War II air base. <P> and drivers, luncheons, photographers, press rooms, secure telephone communications, and security police. At four summit meetings, arrangements were made with Orly Airport management to close an active runway and use it for DV aircraft parking. Space at Orly was becoming critical in the late 1950s. During the 1950s, the United States became very committed to building military facilities in France, and the Paris area became a center for activities of the Army and Air Force. In 1954, with the conflict in Korea over, plans were made to expand the facilities at Orly. The 1950 lease was re-negotiated to <P> of aeronautics. The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) would provide an ideal testing ground for the proficiency of the new weapons produced by the German factories during the re-armament years. Many aeronautical bombing techniques (i.e. dive bombing) were tested by the Condor Legion German expeditionary forces against the Republican Government on Spanish soil with the permission of Generalísimo Francisco Franco. Hitler insisted, however, that his long-term designs were peaceful, a strategy labelled as Blumenkrieg ("Flower War"). Re-armament in the 1930s saw the development of different theories of how to prepare the German economy for total war. The first amongst these was 'defence in <P> available to restore the commercial airport that existed before the war. As a result, the Air Ministry leased the land, concrete runways, structures and all, out to farmers for agricultural use, sending in unexploded ordnance teams to remove the dangerous munitions. In 1950 when as a result of the Cold War threat of the Soviet Union, the air base at Cambrai-Niergnies was offered to the United States Air Force by the French Air Ministry as part of their NATO commitment to establish a modern Air Force Base at the site. NATO faced several problems when attempting to solve the air power	question: How did Air doctrine differ between nations in WW2? context: <P> August 1963, thus concluding decades of debates and negotiations of some of the foremost outstanding problems in international air law. Tokyo Convention, 1963 The Conference was finally convened at Tokyo by ICAO Council, 20 August to 14 September 1963 for the purpose of further consideration, finalisation, adoption and opening for signature of the Rome Draft. Sixty-one States and five international organisations were represented at the Conference. During the discussions certain changes were made along with the addition of certain provisions, including the final clauses. The Tokyo Convention emerged in present form on 14 September 1963. The Convention entered into force on 4 <P> work in aeronautics and aerial reconnaissance were heard abroad. In 1864, Lowe was offered a Major-General position with the Brazilian Army, which was at war with Paraguay, but he turned it down. In the 19th century, the idea of dropping ordnance on the enemy from an aerial station was not seriously considered, although there was a patent issued to a Charles Perley in February 1863 for a bomb-dropping device that could be floated aloft by balloon. The balloon bomb was to be unmanned, and the plan was a theory which had no effective way of assuring that a bomb could be <P> AIC), as it was to be named, to life. When General John J. Pershing first saw the site it was nothing but a series of flat fields, with no barracks, hangars, buildings or classroom facilities. Under the agreement with the French, the United States was, “…to furnish 200 workman to erect it (3d AIC) and ‘all the tools, nails and other implements necessary,’ including a narrow-gauge railroad, while France was to furnish the planes, motors and suitably cleared land.” With this accomplished, American pilots were to begin training in July of 1917 and be ready for the front in <P> for fuel were in limited supply and soon became scarce. Many manufacturers, especially in the Soviet Union and, later on, in Germany turned to more readily-available raw materials such as timber and coal. The de Havilland Mosquito fighter-bomber was a rare British example of a wooden aeroplane. Airfields At the outbreak of war there were relatively few aerodromes capable of supporting military aircraft operations. Land-based aircraft with retracting undercarriage had superior performance to the equivalent seaplanes, leading to the widespread construction of aerodromes throughout all theatres of campaign. After the war many of these would become civil airports, providing <P> Orly Air Base History Paris Orly Airport's beginnings date to World War I, and the entry of the United States into the conflict on the Western Front. The Air Service, United States Army had no suitable combat aircraft of its own when it entered the conflict in April 1917, In order to provide an effective contribution to the Allied war effort, it would be required to obtain front-line combat aircraft from its British and French allies. As nearly all of the French aircraft factories were in the Paris area at the time, a place was necessary for the American <P> been used on Aeronáutica Naval aircraft during the monarchy in the 1920s, before the time of the Republic. Many innovative, and often lethal, aeronautical bombing techniques were tested by Germany's Condor Legion forces on Spanish soil against the areas that remained loyal to the Republican Government with the permission of Generalísimo Franco. Nazi help to the Nationalist Air Force was part of Hitler's German re-armament strategy and the techniques that German Nazi pilots learned in Spain would later be used in World War II. Despite the devastation and the human casualties caused by the bombing of the Basque city of Guernica <P> army spent on aviation. The Treaty of Versailles banned most aspects of aerial development in Germany. For all of its diligence the treaty did not prohibit naval exercises with aircraft. The loophole allowed for the development of aircraft in the naval sphere of influence. The Paris Treaty of 1926 restated the terms of the treaty in Versailles but relented over the issue of air defence. Germany would be permitted to develop air defence systems to guard against aerial aggression. Although this did not translate into a green light to develop naval aircraft by 1927 the Germans were initiating secret training and <P> Issoudun Aerodrome Background By the summer of 1917, two and a half years of the air war had begun to take a serious toll on the number of French and British aviators. While the United States possessed a relatively enormous pool of human resources, she lacked the well developed training methods and aircraft production capabilities of the Allies. In order to maximize the resources of both, the French submitted a memorandum to General George O. Squier, then the Chief Signal Officer of the U.S. Army, suggesting the establishment of an American advanced flying school in France. The site decided upon for <P> surveillance vessels, aircraft, UAVs, etc. can guide the HN action without violating their own rules of engagement and participating in unauthorized direct combat. History Rather than the formal definition, it is more understandable with some historical context. The British generally seemed to be most consistent between theory and practice, although the minimum-effort theory, which worked in Malaya, did not seem to apply to Northern Ireland. French doctrine at the turn of the 20th century, involving working with locals, did not seem to be the heart of doctrine in Algeria and Indochina. France does seem to manage cooperation with former colonies, <P> of these conditions apply", and that it was clear that no poison gas was used. Douglas observed that Churchill's forceful statement had served to convince observers of the existence of weapons of mass destruction which were not actually there, which ironically matched events in 2003. British policy The British Manual of Military Law stated that the rules of war applied only to conflict "between civilized nations." Already in the Manual of 1914, it was clearly stated that "they do not apply in wars with uncivilized States and tribes"; instead the British commander should observe "the rules of justice and humanity" <P> and often lethal, aeronautical bombing techniques were tested by Condor Legion German expeditionary forces against loyalist areas on Spanish soil with the permission of Generalísimo Franco. The pilots of the Spanish Republican Air Force were unable to check these modern-warfare attacks. Their planes were mostly obsolete and often in a bad state of disrepair. The ungainly French Potez 540, a highly vulnerable plane that proved itself a failure in Spanish skies during the Civil War, was labelled as 'Flying Coffin' (Spanish: Ataúd Volante) by loyalist pilots. The rebel side, however, claimed that both air forces were almost equal, since the Soviet <P> was requested on 3 September 1942 and approved the following day. Commander Edward Travis, Deputy Director and Frank Birch, Head of the German Naval Section travelled from Bletchley Park to Washington in September 1942. With Carl Frederick Holden, US Director of Naval Communications they established, on 2 October 1942, a UK:US accord which may have "a stronger claim than BRUSA to being the forerunner of the UKUSA Agreement," being the first agreement "to establish the special Sigint relationship between the two countries," and "it set the pattern for UKUSA, in that the United States was very much the senior partner in <P> special incendiary bombing mission to create forest fires in North America. I-25 left Yokosuka on 15 August 1942 carrying six 76-kilogram (168 lb) incendiary bombs. On 9 September, the crew again deployed the "Glen", which dropped two bombs over forest land near Brookings, Oregon. This attack by an enemy airplane was later called the "Lookout Air Raids", and was the only time that the mainland United States was ever bombed by enemy aircraft and the second continental territory to be bombed as such during wartime, after the bombing of Dutch Harbor in Unalaska, Alaska. Warrant Officer Fujita's mission had been <P> Casablanca directive The Casablanca directive was approved by the Combined Chiefs of Staff (CCOS) of the Western Allies at their 65th meeting on 21 January 1943 and issued to the appropriate the Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces commanders on 4 February 1943. It remained in force until 17 April 1944, when the Allied strategic bomber commands based in Britain were directed to help with preparations for Operation Overlord. The CCOS met during the Casablanca Conference when the Allies were deciding the future strategy of the war. The directive set out a series of priorities for the strategic <P> the principles and techniques of international air navigation and to foster the planning and development of international air transport so as to ... [p]romote safety of flight in international air navigation... " The Legal Committee of ICAO, established by the Interim Council on 24 June 1946 and approved by the First Assembly on 23 May 1947, acting on a proposal by the Mexican representative placed the question of the legal status of the aircraft on its work programme in 1950. The Committee appointed Dr. Enrique M. Loaeza (Mexico) as rapporteur on the subject. On 15 May 1953 the Council of <P> including Airborne Early Warning, electronic warfare, weather reconnaissance, and flying lifeboats. Great Britain used aircraft to suppress revolts throughout the Empire during the interwar period and introduced the first military transports, which revolutionized logistics, allowing troops and supplies to be quickly delivered over vastly greater distances. While they first appeared during World War I, ground attack aircraft didn't provide a decisive contribution until the Germans introduced Blitzkrieg during the Invasion of Poland and Battle of France, where aircraft functioned as mobile flying artillery to quickly disrupt defensive formations. The Allies would later use rocket-equipped fighters in the same role, immobilizing <P> survival equation. Planning for a Warsaw Pact first strike survival in both conventional and nuclear wars had to be considered. The main air bases were built on small parcels of land with very limited dispersal space. It was decided to use Cambrai-Niergnies as an emergency "backup" airfield, consisting of a "bare bones" facility of a runway with minimal facilities intended for use by all NATO air forces to disperse their aircraft in case of war. Beginning about 1953, French demolition companies returned to Laon-Athies and began demolishing the German structures and removing the wreckage of the World War II air base. <P> and drivers, luncheons, photographers, press rooms, secure telephone communications, and security police. At four summit meetings, arrangements were made with Orly Airport management to close an active runway and use it for DV aircraft parking. Space at Orly was becoming critical in the late 1950s. During the 1950s, the United States became very committed to building military facilities in France, and the Paris area became a center for activities of the Army and Air Force. In 1954, with the conflict in Korea over, plans were made to expand the facilities at Orly. The 1950 lease was re-negotiated to <P> of aeronautics. The Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) would provide an ideal testing ground for the proficiency of the new weapons produced by the German factories during the re-armament years. Many aeronautical bombing techniques (i.e. dive bombing) were tested by the Condor Legion German expeditionary forces against the Republican Government on Spanish soil with the permission of Generalísimo Francisco Franco. Hitler insisted, however, that his long-term designs were peaceful, a strategy labelled as Blumenkrieg ("Flower War"). Re-armament in the 1930s saw the development of different theories of how to prepare the German economy for total war. The first amongst these was 'defence in <P> available to restore the commercial airport that existed before the war. As a result, the Air Ministry leased the land, concrete runways, structures and all, out to farmers for agricultural use, sending in unexploded ordnance teams to remove the dangerous munitions. In 1950 when as a result of the Cold War threat of the Soviet Union, the air base at Cambrai-Niergnies was offered to the United States Air Force by the French Air Ministry as part of their NATO commitment to establish a modern Air Force Base at the site. NATO faced several problems when attempting to solve the air power	answer: Not a full answer but in case you get no other replies i will try to give some input:*Western allies. Great Britain and the USA:Both put quite some emphasise on their bomber arms. Both countries thought that bombers could have strategic effects and even end wars on its own. Very early in the war both countries decided that its from utmost importance to destroy German industry and therefore damage German capabilities of sustaining a war. Both countries were in a far different position than Germany. Great Britain for example had far less troops employed than Germany or Russia. The British army wasn't able to contribute to war effort in the same way the Red army did. Being pretty safe on the island Great Britain tried to damage the German war efforts without direct confrontation via ground troops. Strategic bombers provided this possiblity. The Battle of Britain showed the importance of the airforce when it came down to defending the country. The British airforce got higher funding than the Luftwaffe in relative terms. The British implented their ideas of stragetic bombing and build a strong stragetic bomber fleet.Germany* did not value bombers the same way the western allies did. Before the war the Luftwaffe had strong proponents for a stragetic bomber arm ( long range heavy bombers) but the Luftwaffe failed to implement these ideas, mainly because the persons in charge were not able to find a consense. Germany had a bomber arm but eventually put more effort into building tactical bombers to support ground offensives. The well known Stuka dive bombers are a good example for the Luftwaffe doctrine. The Luftwaffe doctrine was often more of a tactical and operational nature than a strategic. Destroying enemy armored forces was the main goal and not destroying the industrial capabilities of the enemy. That doesn't mean the Luftwaffe didn't understand the concept of bombing the industry of the enemy they just choose to distribute the ressources differently. The Luftwaffe was in a different situation than the RAF or USAAF. Tactical bombing > strategic bombing. It should be noted that the different countries had to deal with different situations. While its easy to question the German decisions in regards to their airforce you have to consider the objectives they had in mind. Germany tried to win a land war against the Russia. Building a strong air superiority fleet which could enable ground attack aircrafts and protect the ground troops from enemy attacks was maybe a better choice than building a huge bomber fleet which couldn't reach Soviet factories anyways how could have insignificant effects against Great Britain. Some numbers:The US ratio for bombers to fighters was about 1to1The German ratio was about 2 fighters for one bomber or ground attack.Hopefully i was able to give some input.
108,339	hwqny	Is there any connection between tiredness and depression?	I had anxiety-related depression where, I'm told, basically I would worry so much that my limbic system crashed and I'd end up depressed and exhausted. I only sought when for a few weeks I'd been sleeping nearly 16hrs a day, wake up exhausted and thought I was dying of something.	[ "I had anxiety-related depression where, I'm told, basically I would worry so much that my limbic system crashed and I'd end up depressed and exhausted. I only sought when for a few weeks I'd been sleeping nearly 16hrs a day, wake up exhausted and thought I was dying of something.", "I have been through multiple ...	3	[]	0	<P> depression being a strong predictor for the onset of future episodes. <P> findings support the theory first proposed by Ehlers, Frank, and Kupfer in 1988 that says that stressful life events can lead to depressive episodes by disrupting social and biological rhythms, leading to negative symptoms like sleep disturbance that can trigger depression in vulnerable individuals. Recent work has also demonstrated that interventions like light therapy, sleep deprivation, and some pharmacological antidepressants may be effective in treating depression by reordering these rhythms to their natural state. Such interventions influence an individual's mood, body temperature, cortisol levels, and melatonin production, all of which appear to be irregular in depressed individuals. Social zeitgebers and <P> mood disorders Some researchers have suggested that the disturbances in biological rhythms present in depressed individuals may actually be the result of previous disruptions in social interactions, which serve as cues for those rhythms. This possibility may help to explain the relationship between stressful life events and the development of mood disorders. For example, newly married or cohabiting couples often need to adjust to each other's sleeping rhythms when beginning to share the same bed for the first time. This adjustment can be difficult and may lead to disruptions in sleep quality and quantity, and possibly increase risk for depression <P> neurogenesis caused by elevated cortisol levels. <P> menstrual cycles because the FSH and LH normal levels changes radically. Medical students may also have disturbed sleep cycles in these periods. Psychological effects An optimal level of stress is considered good because medical students develop coping abilities. However, too much stress causes problems. Previous studies have reported that a significant percentage of medical students suffer anxiety disorders because stress has a strong relationship to emotional and behavioral problems. Feelings of disappointment academically are most prevalent in those students who have poor academic performance. The major emotional disorders that have been observed include the inability to feel reasonably happy, loss <P> anxiety disorders. Depression Freedom From Fear also specializes in the treatment of Depression. Depression affects approximately 20 million adult Americans causing them to have symptoms such as hopelessness, sleep problems and feelings of being "down" and "blue". Depression is a chronic condition that impairs individuals in getting the most out of their daily lives. In depression, neural circuits responsible for the regulation of moods, thinking, sleep, appetite, and behavior fail to function properly. Critical neurotransmitters-chemicals used by nerve cells to communicate-are also out of balance. A combination of genetic, cognitive, and environmental factors are involved in the onset of a <P> individuals with MS. Changes in lifestyle are usually recommended to reduce fatigue. These include taking frequent naps and implementing exercise. MS patients who smoke are also advised to stop. Pharmacological treatment include anti-depressants and caffeine. Aspirin has also been experimented with and from clinical trial data, MS patients preferred using aspirin as compared to the placebo in the test. One hypothesis is that aspirin has an effect on the hypothalamus and can affect the perception of fatigue through altering the release of neurotransmitters and the autonomic responses. Treatment of cognitive dysfunction There are no approved drugs for the treatment of <P> patterns. Mork and Nielsen used prospective data and identified a dose-dependent association between sleep problems and risk of FM. Psychological factors There is strong evidence that major depression is associated with fibromyalgia as with other chronic pain conditions (1999), although the direction of the causal relationship is unclear. A comprehensive review into the relationship between fibromyalgia and major depressive disorder (MDD) found substantial similarities in neuroendocrine abnormalities, psychological characteristics, physical symptoms and treatments between fibromyalgia and MDD, but currently available findings do not support the assumption that MDD and fibromyalgia refer to the same underlying construct or can be <P> In work/family stress, COR research has looked at how the distribution of one’s resources have affected their home life, with some articles finding that putting too much of one’s resources into one’s work may lead to family problems at home. Research into COR and burnout has examined how the use of resources has impacted one’s mood, with recent research finding that emotional exhaustion had the strongest relationship with depressive symptoms. In regards to general stress, research has explored how the loss of resources impacts the levels of one’s stress. COR has primarily been studied within the <P> load, change in strategy, hemispheric dominance, ability to suppress wrong answers, age, level of practice, and morningness-eveningness, many of which fluctuate according to time of day. Based on these findings, researchers conclude that factors that disturb circadian rhythms can also affect cognitive performance. Mood disorders Disturbances in zeitgebers can exert a negative influence on emotion and mood as well as cognitive functioning. The disturbance of biological rhythms by zeitgebers is theorized to increase risk for some forms of psychopathology. There is strong evidence that individuals with depression experience irregular biological rhythms, including disrupted sleep-wake cycles, temperature, and cortisol rhythms. These <P> of their hyper-intended goal. A person, then, who fears (i.e. experiences anticipatory anxiety over) not getting a good night's sleep may try too hard (that is, hyper-intend) to fall asleep, and this would hinder their ability to do so. A logotherapist would recommend, then, that the person go to bed and intentionally try not to fall asleep. This would relieve the anticipatory anxiety which kept the person awake in the first place, thus allowing them to fall asleep in an acceptable amount of time. Depression Viktor Frankl believed depression occurred at the psychological, physiological, and spiritual levels. At the psychological level, <P> as a result. Researchers have attempted to explore the effect life events that disturb social rhythms might have on depressive symptoms in a number of ways. A number of studies have looked at whether the loss of a spouse, a significant negative life event often associated with increased depressive symptoms, might lead to increased depression via disrupted social rhythms. In addition to grief, bereaved spouses may also be dealing with changes in numerous social zeitgebers. For instance, bereaved spouses may suddenly be faced with changes in meal times, responsibilities for additional chores, social expectations, or simply the reality of living <P> to stabilize the patient's mood, typically through a combination of pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy. The likelihood of having a relapse is very high for those who have experienced two or more episodes of mania or depression. While medication for bipolar disorder is important to manage symptoms of mania and depression, studies show relying on medications alone is not the most effective method of treatment. Medication is most effective when used in combination with other bipolar disorder treatments, including psychotherapy, self-help coping strategies, and healthy lifestyle choices. Lithium is the classic mood stabilizer to prevent further manic and depressive episodes. A systematic <P> exacerbate one's symptoms and put more strain on one's social relationships. Time spent in major depressive episodes is also negatively correlated with social support, but it is unclear whether longer bouts of depression lessen perceived or actual support or if social support helped the depressed return to normal faster. However, the degree to which the relationship to between social support and depression is casual is still uncertain. Questions about causality often come from the possibility that social support levels may be tied to other traits that also play a role in depression. For example, in addition to depression tending to <P> sleep disturbance. Reduced total sleep time and sleep efficiency have been observed in people with OCD, with delayed sleep onset and offset and an increased prevalence of delayed sleep phase disorder. Behaviorally, there is some research demonstrating a link between drug addiction and the disorder as well. For example, there is a higher risk of drug addiction among those with any anxiety disorder (possibly as a way of coping with the heightened levels of anxiety), but drug addiction among people with OCD may serve as a type of compulsive behavior and not just as a coping mechanism. Depression is also extremely <P> authors note that unhappy moods can also cause mind-wandering, but the time-lags between mind-wandering and mood suggests that mind-wandering itself can also lead to negative moods. Furthermore, research suggests that regardless of working memory capacity, participants participating in mind-wandering experiments report more mind-wandering when bored, stressed, unhappy. Executive functions Executive functions (EFs) are cognitive processes that make a person pay attention or concentrate on a task. Three executive functions that relate to memory are inhibiting, updating and shifting. Inhibiting controls a person's attention and thoughts when distractions are abundant. Updating reviews old information and replaces it with new information <P> may relate to differences in how stress is experienced. For example, episodic events like romantic breakups, economic hardship, or assault can result in long periods of chronic stress. This may be due to the likelihood that these events are often caused ongoing problems or the result in them, where a quick fix is often not possible. Although it is less often mentioned in case studies, a lack of social support has also been implicated as a form of chronic stress that increases the likelihood of major depression. Like with the previously mentioned example of romantic breakups, a lack of <P> Randy Gardner (record holder) Health effects It is often claimed that Gardner's experiment demonstrated that extreme sleep deprivation has little effect, other than the mood changes associated with tiredness. This is primarily due to a report by researcher William Dement, who stated that on the tenth day of the experiment, Gardner had been, among other things, able to beat Dement at pinball. However, Lt. Cmdr. John J. Ross, who monitored his health, reported serious cognitive and behavioral changes. These included moodiness, problems with concentration and short term memory, paranoia, and hallucinations. On the eleventh day, when he was asked to subtract <P> are less associated with depression and social content, they are still positively associated with depression. In addition to this, they have helped contribute evidence for the causal relationship between negative life events and depression, as with dependent events there is always the question of whether depression symptoms played a role in their occurrence. Episodic events and chronic stress Like other types of negative life events, the social experiences that lead to higher probabilities of developing major depression, can either be one-time events or repeated. Episodic events are those with clear beginnings and endings, which usually involve a specific time frame. <P> the result of traits that lead individuals into situations that are more likely to result in depression. In addition to this, they are likely to be more directly related to interpersonal content, at least immediately following when the stressor is felt. Dependent events are also thought to be more strongly associated with major depression symptoms in people who have a history of it than those experiencing it for the first time. However, the validity of this statement may be dependent on whether one is focusing on relapse or recurrence, with the evidence from recurrent major depression being more supportive. Although independent events	question: Is there any connection between tiredness and depression? context: <P> depression being a strong predictor for the onset of future episodes. <P> findings support the theory first proposed by Ehlers, Frank, and Kupfer in 1988 that says that stressful life events can lead to depressive episodes by disrupting social and biological rhythms, leading to negative symptoms like sleep disturbance that can trigger depression in vulnerable individuals. Recent work has also demonstrated that interventions like light therapy, sleep deprivation, and some pharmacological antidepressants may be effective in treating depression by reordering these rhythms to their natural state. Such interventions influence an individual's mood, body temperature, cortisol levels, and melatonin production, all of which appear to be irregular in depressed individuals. Social zeitgebers and <P> mood disorders Some researchers have suggested that the disturbances in biological rhythms present in depressed individuals may actually be the result of previous disruptions in social interactions, which serve as cues for those rhythms. This possibility may help to explain the relationship between stressful life events and the development of mood disorders. For example, newly married or cohabiting couples often need to adjust to each other's sleeping rhythms when beginning to share the same bed for the first time. This adjustment can be difficult and may lead to disruptions in sleep quality and quantity, and possibly increase risk for depression <P> neurogenesis caused by elevated cortisol levels. <P> menstrual cycles because the FSH and LH normal levels changes radically. Medical students may also have disturbed sleep cycles in these periods. Psychological effects An optimal level of stress is considered good because medical students develop coping abilities. However, too much stress causes problems. Previous studies have reported that a significant percentage of medical students suffer anxiety disorders because stress has a strong relationship to emotional and behavioral problems. Feelings of disappointment academically are most prevalent in those students who have poor academic performance. The major emotional disorders that have been observed include the inability to feel reasonably happy, loss <P> anxiety disorders. Depression Freedom From Fear also specializes in the treatment of Depression. Depression affects approximately 20 million adult Americans causing them to have symptoms such as hopelessness, sleep problems and feelings of being "down" and "blue". Depression is a chronic condition that impairs individuals in getting the most out of their daily lives. In depression, neural circuits responsible for the regulation of moods, thinking, sleep, appetite, and behavior fail to function properly. Critical neurotransmitters-chemicals used by nerve cells to communicate-are also out of balance. A combination of genetic, cognitive, and environmental factors are involved in the onset of a <P> individuals with MS. Changes in lifestyle are usually recommended to reduce fatigue. These include taking frequent naps and implementing exercise. MS patients who smoke are also advised to stop. Pharmacological treatment include anti-depressants and caffeine. Aspirin has also been experimented with and from clinical trial data, MS patients preferred using aspirin as compared to the placebo in the test. One hypothesis is that aspirin has an effect on the hypothalamus and can affect the perception of fatigue through altering the release of neurotransmitters and the autonomic responses. Treatment of cognitive dysfunction There are no approved drugs for the treatment of <P> patterns. Mork and Nielsen used prospective data and identified a dose-dependent association between sleep problems and risk of FM. Psychological factors There is strong evidence that major depression is associated with fibromyalgia as with other chronic pain conditions (1999), although the direction of the causal relationship is unclear. A comprehensive review into the relationship between fibromyalgia and major depressive disorder (MDD) found substantial similarities in neuroendocrine abnormalities, psychological characteristics, physical symptoms and treatments between fibromyalgia and MDD, but currently available findings do not support the assumption that MDD and fibromyalgia refer to the same underlying construct or can be <P> In work/family stress, COR research has looked at how the distribution of one’s resources have affected their home life, with some articles finding that putting too much of one’s resources into one’s work may lead to family problems at home. Research into COR and burnout has examined how the use of resources has impacted one’s mood, with recent research finding that emotional exhaustion had the strongest relationship with depressive symptoms. In regards to general stress, research has explored how the loss of resources impacts the levels of one’s stress. COR has primarily been studied within the <P> load, change in strategy, hemispheric dominance, ability to suppress wrong answers, age, level of practice, and morningness-eveningness, many of which fluctuate according to time of day. Based on these findings, researchers conclude that factors that disturb circadian rhythms can also affect cognitive performance. Mood disorders Disturbances in zeitgebers can exert a negative influence on emotion and mood as well as cognitive functioning. The disturbance of biological rhythms by zeitgebers is theorized to increase risk for some forms of psychopathology. There is strong evidence that individuals with depression experience irregular biological rhythms, including disrupted sleep-wake cycles, temperature, and cortisol rhythms. These <P> of their hyper-intended goal. A person, then, who fears (i.e. experiences anticipatory anxiety over) not getting a good night's sleep may try too hard (that is, hyper-intend) to fall asleep, and this would hinder their ability to do so. A logotherapist would recommend, then, that the person go to bed and intentionally try not to fall asleep. This would relieve the anticipatory anxiety which kept the person awake in the first place, thus allowing them to fall asleep in an acceptable amount of time. Depression Viktor Frankl believed depression occurred at the psychological, physiological, and spiritual levels. At the psychological level, <P> as a result. Researchers have attempted to explore the effect life events that disturb social rhythms might have on depressive symptoms in a number of ways. A number of studies have looked at whether the loss of a spouse, a significant negative life event often associated with increased depressive symptoms, might lead to increased depression via disrupted social rhythms. In addition to grief, bereaved spouses may also be dealing with changes in numerous social zeitgebers. For instance, bereaved spouses may suddenly be faced with changes in meal times, responsibilities for additional chores, social expectations, or simply the reality of living <P> to stabilize the patient's mood, typically through a combination of pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy. The likelihood of having a relapse is very high for those who have experienced two or more episodes of mania or depression. While medication for bipolar disorder is important to manage symptoms of mania and depression, studies show relying on medications alone is not the most effective method of treatment. Medication is most effective when used in combination with other bipolar disorder treatments, including psychotherapy, self-help coping strategies, and healthy lifestyle choices. Lithium is the classic mood stabilizer to prevent further manic and depressive episodes. A systematic <P> exacerbate one's symptoms and put more strain on one's social relationships. Time spent in major depressive episodes is also negatively correlated with social support, but it is unclear whether longer bouts of depression lessen perceived or actual support or if social support helped the depressed return to normal faster. However, the degree to which the relationship to between social support and depression is casual is still uncertain. Questions about causality often come from the possibility that social support levels may be tied to other traits that also play a role in depression. For example, in addition to depression tending to <P> sleep disturbance. Reduced total sleep time and sleep efficiency have been observed in people with OCD, with delayed sleep onset and offset and an increased prevalence of delayed sleep phase disorder. Behaviorally, there is some research demonstrating a link between drug addiction and the disorder as well. For example, there is a higher risk of drug addiction among those with any anxiety disorder (possibly as a way of coping with the heightened levels of anxiety), but drug addiction among people with OCD may serve as a type of compulsive behavior and not just as a coping mechanism. Depression is also extremely <P> authors note that unhappy moods can also cause mind-wandering, but the time-lags between mind-wandering and mood suggests that mind-wandering itself can also lead to negative moods. Furthermore, research suggests that regardless of working memory capacity, participants participating in mind-wandering experiments report more mind-wandering when bored, stressed, unhappy. Executive functions Executive functions (EFs) are cognitive processes that make a person pay attention or concentrate on a task. Three executive functions that relate to memory are inhibiting, updating and shifting. Inhibiting controls a person's attention and thoughts when distractions are abundant. Updating reviews old information and replaces it with new information <P> may relate to differences in how stress is experienced. For example, episodic events like romantic breakups, economic hardship, or assault can result in long periods of chronic stress. This may be due to the likelihood that these events are often caused ongoing problems or the result in them, where a quick fix is often not possible. Although it is less often mentioned in case studies, a lack of social support has also been implicated as a form of chronic stress that increases the likelihood of major depression. Like with the previously mentioned example of romantic breakups, a lack of <P> Randy Gardner (record holder) Health effects It is often claimed that Gardner's experiment demonstrated that extreme sleep deprivation has little effect, other than the mood changes associated with tiredness. This is primarily due to a report by researcher William Dement, who stated that on the tenth day of the experiment, Gardner had been, among other things, able to beat Dement at pinball. However, Lt. Cmdr. John J. Ross, who monitored his health, reported serious cognitive and behavioral changes. These included moodiness, problems with concentration and short term memory, paranoia, and hallucinations. On the eleventh day, when he was asked to subtract <P> are less associated with depression and social content, they are still positively associated with depression. In addition to this, they have helped contribute evidence for the causal relationship between negative life events and depression, as with dependent events there is always the question of whether depression symptoms played a role in their occurrence. Episodic events and chronic stress Like other types of negative life events, the social experiences that lead to higher probabilities of developing major depression, can either be one-time events or repeated. Episodic events are those with clear beginnings and endings, which usually involve a specific time frame. <P> the result of traits that lead individuals into situations that are more likely to result in depression. In addition to this, they are likely to be more directly related to interpersonal content, at least immediately following when the stressor is felt. Dependent events are also thought to be more strongly associated with major depression symptoms in people who have a history of it than those experiencing it for the first time. However, the validity of this statement may be dependent on whether one is focusing on relapse or recurrence, with the evidence from recurrent major depression being more supportive. Although independent events	answer: I had anxiety-related depression where, I'm told, basically I would worry so much that my limbic system crashed and I'd end up depressed and exhausted. I only sought when for a few weeks I'd been sleeping nearly 16hrs a day, wake up exhausted and thought I was dying of something.
141,818	hwoe6	Is there a difference in stopping distance between a bicycle and a motorcycle? Why?	They don't have the same brakes, so you can't simply compare momentum.	[ "It depends on a lot of different things. Disc/pad ratio, brake pressure, weight, speed, tyre pressure etc. \n\nMotorbike brakes are designed to slow 200kg+rider from sometimes over 100mph to stop as quickly as possible. But of course a pedal bike would never go that fast.\n\nThere's no real fair test here. If both...	2	[]	0	<P> lever arm. If two bicycles have different crank lengths but are otherwise identical, a longer lever arm gives a greater mechanical advantage. To take this into account, Sheldon Brown proposed a gear measurement system called "gain ratio," which is calculated by the distance travelled by the bike divided by the distance travelled by the pedals during one turn of the crank. He argued that it also has the advantage of being dimensionless. <P> track series held in both the UK and Australia, and the ATRA NCS series in the United States. Riding position Aerodynamic drag is a significant factor in both road and track racing. Frames are often constructed of moulded carbon fiber, for a lightweight design. More recently, track (and road) bikes have employed airfoil designs on the tubes of the frame to reduce aerodynamic drag. On a dedicated track bicycle there are few components, with no need for brakes or derailleurs (and therefore shifters). In fact the only moving part on a bicycle is the drivetrain, which includes the <P> minimal clearance between tires and frame tubes for fenders, or were ridden only in mild conditions, although there are a few fenders that are designed to be attached to the seat post. The trend towards urban biking, which has doubled in the past decade, led to a production, import, and use boom in utility bikes. European utility bicycles, traditional roadsters, serious touring bicycles, and beach cruisers are nearly always fitted with fenders. Motorcycles In the UK it is a legal requirement that a motorcycle should be fitted with mudguards. While motorcycles are invariably fitted with mudguards, only touring cycles generally <P> design whereby the disc "floats" on bobbins and can move slightly, allowing better disc centering with a fixed caliper. A floating disc also avoids disc warping and reduces heat transfer to the wheel hub. Calipers have evolved from simple single-piston units to two-, four- and even six-piston items. Compared to cars, motorcycles have a higher center of mass:wheelbase ratio, so they experience more weight transfer when braking. Front brakes absorb most of the braking forces, while the rear brake serves mainly to balance the motorcycle during braking. Modern sport bikes typically have twin large front discs, with a much smaller <P> Police motorcycle A police motorcycle is a motorcycle used by various police departments. They may be custom designed to meet the requirements unique of a particular use. A police motorcycle is often called a "motor" by police officers in the United States. Similarly, motorcycle units are known as "motor units" and motorcycle officers are known as motor officers. The maneuverability of the motorcycle on crowded streets offer advantages not provided by larger, more traditional police vehicles. The motorcycle's relatively small size allows it to get to accident scenes more quickly when incidents such as traffic collisions slow down access by four-wheel <P> sizes such as 16" -Schwinn Pixie -Malvern Star and Speedwell dragster bicycles both in short and long frame varieties are popular bicycles of choice in Australia - Bratz beauty bikes are popular both in Australia, America and other countries. -Aztlan Cruiser - Pre-built and even custom-made one-of-a-kind lowriders are available from lowrider bicycle shops and even some lowrider car workshops. Some top lowrider bicycles shops are Manny's (Compton), Fantasy Toys Lowrider & Hobby (Cleveland), Krazy Kutting (Yuma). Lowrider tricycles Some lowrider bikes are modified into lowrider tricycles, for style. Converting a lowrider bicycle into a tricycle often allows the bike to sit closer to the <P> strength, safety, and durability rather than high performance. Additionally, utility bikes tend to incorporate fewer technological advances in material design and engineering in comparison to sport bicycles, though there are exceptions. In particular, the small-tired Moulton portable utility cycles incorporate advanced engineering with relatively light weight. Most utility bikes feature an upright riding position. The handlebars are almost always curved back and positioned higher than the saddle so that the rider can operate controls without changing his or her riding posture. Some people add a child seat or a trailer. The utility bike's combination of parts, <P> ones) have leading link swingarm front suspension, as conventional telescopic forks are less capable of absorbing the stresses incurred. Several sidecar manufacturers (for example VMC, Bastech and EML) in Europe make special chassis, usually with corresponding shocks which, except for the engine, wheels, plastics, and other components from commonly available large-bore motocross bikes such as the Honda CR500, Kawasaki KX500, and large KTMs. There are also specialised "monster-size" 2-stroke engines such as the MTH 630, and 700cc Zabel which are made just for sidecar motocross racing. The Zabel and MTH are currently the top engines in the World Championship. HOCOB manufacturer <P> of bicyclists constituted 18% of injurious or fatal bike-vehicle incidents in which the cyclist was likely not at fault. A 2015 study for the City of Vancouver, British Columbia found that doorings accounted for 15.2% of all bike collisions and was the foremost cause of bike-vehicle collision injuries which resulted in hospital emergency department treatment (22%) - not including additional injury incidents due to dooring avoidant swerve crashes requiring emergency treatment. Collisions In Toronto, "motorist opens door in path of cyclist" collisions were 11.9% of all reported car/bike collisions in 2003. Eight percent of serious injuries to cyclists in London <P> ground while still being rideable, and even hop without falling over if they have airbag suspension or hydraulic suspension. Converting a bicycle into a tricycle often creates extra carry-space at the back of the bike. The space between the two rear wheels is sometimes used to mount either a two-seater "love seat", a "boombox," or even pumps for hydraulic or air suspension. Commercially bolt on conversion kits to convert any existing lowrider bicycle into a tricycle are available from many sources. In popular culture In 1992, the Beastie Boys mentioned Lowrider bicycles in their song "Professor Booty", on the album "Check Your <P> utility roadster typically weighs 35–50 pounds (16–23 kg), compared with 14–22 pounds (6–10 kg) for the average road racing bike and 22–29 pounds (10–13 kg) for the typical modern mountain bike, touring bicycle, or hybrid city bike, commuter, or cross bike. A steel-frame European city bike with hub gear, chain case, and other features is heavier and more difficult to ride uphill than a road bike. A steel-frame bike is more cumbersome to carry and store, so it might not be the best choice for commuters needing to transport their bicycles on public transportation nor cyclists living or working in upper floor residences. <P> 5, 7, 8 or 11 speeds. In a few high-end models, a Rohloff 14-speed geared hub is available. Batavus makes several models of full-featured city bikes that have a NuVinci hub with continuously variable drive ratio. The NuVinci has nearly the same range as an 8-speed hub (around 300%), selectable at any ratio within the range. With most bikes, the bicycle gearing may be scaled up or down as needed, for example by installing a smaller chainring in front and/or larger sprocket in back to facilitate climbing. Hub gearing permits the use of a fully enclosed chaincase, <P> cranks, pedals, the single chainring, one cog fixed to the hub without a freewheel mechanism and the chain itself. Because of this the need for aerodynamic components is minimised, and the aerodynamics to weight ratio makes aerodynamic componentry, at present, an idea with more cons than pros. Given the importance of aerodynamics, the riders' sitting position becomes extremely important. The riding position is similar to the road racing position, but is ultimately dependent on the frame geometry of the bicycle and the handlebars used. Handlebars on track bikes used for longer events such as the points race are similar to <P> the bike shows increased precision in following the riders input through the handlebars, which is transmitted by wider radial tyres on both front and rear YZF-R6 lightweight wheels. On the other hand, the long suspension stroke and setting still ensures a pleasant absorption of bumps, making the bike a first choice for critical surface conditions. The increased steering accuracy is also a result of the improved weight distribution. The 30° mounting angle (instead of 40° on previous TDM) of engine and cylinders and other dimension changes enabled the engineers to achieve a favourable weight distribution of 47% to 49,8% on the <P> feature lights powered through electromagnetic induction. The lights are mounted on the bike wheels, eliminating the need for batteries while incurring less resistance to the rider than traditional dynamos. Front suspension with built-in headlight A front suspension fork is common on high-end, contemporary-styled European city bikes. This is often a coil/oil or air/oil suspension fork with adjustable compression and rebound. A traditional roadster has no front suspension, or a spring-based front suspension that has more limited travel and adjustability. Some high-end models integrate the headlight into the front fork and fender assembly. This discourages vandalism, protects the <P> forks from a Suzuki GSX-R1000, front disc brake rotors from a Suzuki GSX-R600 and a rear rotor from a Suzuki GSX-R750. The use of enormous sport bike brakes, designed to stop motorcycles with more than ten times the horsepower, and three times the top speed, was intended, Colosimo said, to create a visual "contradiction", explaining that, "you do a double-take to see what kind of bike sits behind the massive rotors. Let's just say it only takes one finger to stop this bike!" Colosimo said his custom M21, with nicks and scrapes, and some crash damage, is meant to be <P> intended for use by a single operator, although some companies have developed ATVs intended for use by the operator and one passenger. In some countries, the passenger is not required to wear a helmet. These ATVs are referred to as tandem ATVs. The rider sits on and operates these vehicles like a motorcycle, but the extra wheels give more stability at slower speeds. Also dirt bikes are considered to be ATVs as that they were designed for off-road use only. Although most are equipped with three or four wheels, six-wheel models exist for specialized applications. Engine sizes of ATVs currently <P> and thus can travel at the same speed while expending less effort. This fact has led to a variety of racing styles that allow skilled riders or teams to exploit this tactical advantage, as well as formats that simply test strength, speed and endurance. During the early 1990s in individual pursuit events, some riders, most notably Graeme Obree, adopted a straight-armed Superman-like position with their arms fully extended horizontally, but this position was subsequently outlawed by the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), the sport's ruling body. Recumbent bicycles can actually be ridden faster due to their aerodynamic advantage, but are similarly banned <P> about 15 seconds. The folded size of the bike is 34"L x 27"H x 13"W. Specifications The Melon Bicycles Slice model's frame and fork is made from 7005 aluminum. The Slice uses a large size 52T chainring and a 12-25T cassette to provide enough of a gear range to conquer all terrains with only 8 speeds. Grip shifters are used for shifting with an easy to read display indicating the current gear chosen. The Slice uses 20" wheels (406mm) in the 1.75" width. The bicycle geometry features a slacker head tube angle than most folding bikes which <P> Trilogy The Batcycle is known as the Batpod for The Dark Knight (2008) and The Dark Knight Rises (2012). The bike has 20" front and rear tires and is powered by a high-performance, water-cooled, single-cylinder engine - geared toward the lower end for faster acceleration and with no exhaust pipes: the exhaust is routed through the hollow steel/aluminum/magnesium tubing used for the frame of the bike. The Batpod is steered by the shoulders instead of hands, and the rider's arms are protected by shields. The two foot pegs are set 3½ feet apart on either side of the tank, which	question: Is there a difference in stopping distance between a bicycle and a motorcycle? Why? context: <P> lever arm. If two bicycles have different crank lengths but are otherwise identical, a longer lever arm gives a greater mechanical advantage. To take this into account, Sheldon Brown proposed a gear measurement system called "gain ratio," which is calculated by the distance travelled by the bike divided by the distance travelled by the pedals during one turn of the crank. He argued that it also has the advantage of being dimensionless. <P> track series held in both the UK and Australia, and the ATRA NCS series in the United States. Riding position Aerodynamic drag is a significant factor in both road and track racing. Frames are often constructed of moulded carbon fiber, for a lightweight design. More recently, track (and road) bikes have employed airfoil designs on the tubes of the frame to reduce aerodynamic drag. On a dedicated track bicycle there are few components, with no need for brakes or derailleurs (and therefore shifters). In fact the only moving part on a bicycle is the drivetrain, which includes the <P> minimal clearance between tires and frame tubes for fenders, or were ridden only in mild conditions, although there are a few fenders that are designed to be attached to the seat post. The trend towards urban biking, which has doubled in the past decade, led to a production, import, and use boom in utility bikes. European utility bicycles, traditional roadsters, serious touring bicycles, and beach cruisers are nearly always fitted with fenders. Motorcycles In the UK it is a legal requirement that a motorcycle should be fitted with mudguards. While motorcycles are invariably fitted with mudguards, only touring cycles generally <P> design whereby the disc "floats" on bobbins and can move slightly, allowing better disc centering with a fixed caliper. A floating disc also avoids disc warping and reduces heat transfer to the wheel hub. Calipers have evolved from simple single-piston units to two-, four- and even six-piston items. Compared to cars, motorcycles have a higher center of mass:wheelbase ratio, so they experience more weight transfer when braking. Front brakes absorb most of the braking forces, while the rear brake serves mainly to balance the motorcycle during braking. Modern sport bikes typically have twin large front discs, with a much smaller <P> Police motorcycle A police motorcycle is a motorcycle used by various police departments. They may be custom designed to meet the requirements unique of a particular use. A police motorcycle is often called a "motor" by police officers in the United States. Similarly, motorcycle units are known as "motor units" and motorcycle officers are known as motor officers. The maneuverability of the motorcycle on crowded streets offer advantages not provided by larger, more traditional police vehicles. The motorcycle's relatively small size allows it to get to accident scenes more quickly when incidents such as traffic collisions slow down access by four-wheel <P> sizes such as 16" -Schwinn Pixie -Malvern Star and Speedwell dragster bicycles both in short and long frame varieties are popular bicycles of choice in Australia - Bratz beauty bikes are popular both in Australia, America and other countries. -Aztlan Cruiser - Pre-built and even custom-made one-of-a-kind lowriders are available from lowrider bicycle shops and even some lowrider car workshops. Some top lowrider bicycles shops are Manny's (Compton), Fantasy Toys Lowrider & Hobby (Cleveland), Krazy Kutting (Yuma). Lowrider tricycles Some lowrider bikes are modified into lowrider tricycles, for style. Converting a lowrider bicycle into a tricycle often allows the bike to sit closer to the <P> strength, safety, and durability rather than high performance. Additionally, utility bikes tend to incorporate fewer technological advances in material design and engineering in comparison to sport bicycles, though there are exceptions. In particular, the small-tired Moulton portable utility cycles incorporate advanced engineering with relatively light weight. Most utility bikes feature an upright riding position. The handlebars are almost always curved back and positioned higher than the saddle so that the rider can operate controls without changing his or her riding posture. Some people add a child seat or a trailer. The utility bike's combination of parts, <P> ones) have leading link swingarm front suspension, as conventional telescopic forks are less capable of absorbing the stresses incurred. Several sidecar manufacturers (for example VMC, Bastech and EML) in Europe make special chassis, usually with corresponding shocks which, except for the engine, wheels, plastics, and other components from commonly available large-bore motocross bikes such as the Honda CR500, Kawasaki KX500, and large KTMs. There are also specialised "monster-size" 2-stroke engines such as the MTH 630, and 700cc Zabel which are made just for sidecar motocross racing. The Zabel and MTH are currently the top engines in the World Championship. HOCOB manufacturer <P> of bicyclists constituted 18% of injurious or fatal bike-vehicle incidents in which the cyclist was likely not at fault. A 2015 study for the City of Vancouver, British Columbia found that doorings accounted for 15.2% of all bike collisions and was the foremost cause of bike-vehicle collision injuries which resulted in hospital emergency department treatment (22%) - not including additional injury incidents due to dooring avoidant swerve crashes requiring emergency treatment. Collisions In Toronto, "motorist opens door in path of cyclist" collisions were 11.9% of all reported car/bike collisions in 2003. Eight percent of serious injuries to cyclists in London <P> ground while still being rideable, and even hop without falling over if they have airbag suspension or hydraulic suspension. Converting a bicycle into a tricycle often creates extra carry-space at the back of the bike. The space between the two rear wheels is sometimes used to mount either a two-seater "love seat", a "boombox," or even pumps for hydraulic or air suspension. Commercially bolt on conversion kits to convert any existing lowrider bicycle into a tricycle are available from many sources. In popular culture In 1992, the Beastie Boys mentioned Lowrider bicycles in their song "Professor Booty", on the album "Check Your <P> utility roadster typically weighs 35–50 pounds (16–23 kg), compared with 14–22 pounds (6–10 kg) for the average road racing bike and 22–29 pounds (10–13 kg) for the typical modern mountain bike, touring bicycle, or hybrid city bike, commuter, or cross bike. A steel-frame European city bike with hub gear, chain case, and other features is heavier and more difficult to ride uphill than a road bike. A steel-frame bike is more cumbersome to carry and store, so it might not be the best choice for commuters needing to transport their bicycles on public transportation nor cyclists living or working in upper floor residences. <P> 5, 7, 8 or 11 speeds. In a few high-end models, a Rohloff 14-speed geared hub is available. Batavus makes several models of full-featured city bikes that have a NuVinci hub with continuously variable drive ratio. The NuVinci has nearly the same range as an 8-speed hub (around 300%), selectable at any ratio within the range. With most bikes, the bicycle gearing may be scaled up or down as needed, for example by installing a smaller chainring in front and/or larger sprocket in back to facilitate climbing. Hub gearing permits the use of a fully enclosed chaincase, <P> cranks, pedals, the single chainring, one cog fixed to the hub without a freewheel mechanism and the chain itself. Because of this the need for aerodynamic components is minimised, and the aerodynamics to weight ratio makes aerodynamic componentry, at present, an idea with more cons than pros. Given the importance of aerodynamics, the riders' sitting position becomes extremely important. The riding position is similar to the road racing position, but is ultimately dependent on the frame geometry of the bicycle and the handlebars used. Handlebars on track bikes used for longer events such as the points race are similar to <P> the bike shows increased precision in following the riders input through the handlebars, which is transmitted by wider radial tyres on both front and rear YZF-R6 lightweight wheels. On the other hand, the long suspension stroke and setting still ensures a pleasant absorption of bumps, making the bike a first choice for critical surface conditions. The increased steering accuracy is also a result of the improved weight distribution. The 30° mounting angle (instead of 40° on previous TDM) of engine and cylinders and other dimension changes enabled the engineers to achieve a favourable weight distribution of 47% to 49,8% on the <P> feature lights powered through electromagnetic induction. The lights are mounted on the bike wheels, eliminating the need for batteries while incurring less resistance to the rider than traditional dynamos. Front suspension with built-in headlight A front suspension fork is common on high-end, contemporary-styled European city bikes. This is often a coil/oil or air/oil suspension fork with adjustable compression and rebound. A traditional roadster has no front suspension, or a spring-based front suspension that has more limited travel and adjustability. Some high-end models integrate the headlight into the front fork and fender assembly. This discourages vandalism, protects the <P> forks from a Suzuki GSX-R1000, front disc brake rotors from a Suzuki GSX-R600 and a rear rotor from a Suzuki GSX-R750. The use of enormous sport bike brakes, designed to stop motorcycles with more than ten times the horsepower, and three times the top speed, was intended, Colosimo said, to create a visual "contradiction", explaining that, "you do a double-take to see what kind of bike sits behind the massive rotors. Let's just say it only takes one finger to stop this bike!" Colosimo said his custom M21, with nicks and scrapes, and some crash damage, is meant to be <P> intended for use by a single operator, although some companies have developed ATVs intended for use by the operator and one passenger. In some countries, the passenger is not required to wear a helmet. These ATVs are referred to as tandem ATVs. The rider sits on and operates these vehicles like a motorcycle, but the extra wheels give more stability at slower speeds. Also dirt bikes are considered to be ATVs as that they were designed for off-road use only. Although most are equipped with three or four wheels, six-wheel models exist for specialized applications. Engine sizes of ATVs currently <P> and thus can travel at the same speed while expending less effort. This fact has led to a variety of racing styles that allow skilled riders or teams to exploit this tactical advantage, as well as formats that simply test strength, speed and endurance. During the early 1990s in individual pursuit events, some riders, most notably Graeme Obree, adopted a straight-armed Superman-like position with their arms fully extended horizontally, but this position was subsequently outlawed by the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI), the sport's ruling body. Recumbent bicycles can actually be ridden faster due to their aerodynamic advantage, but are similarly banned <P> about 15 seconds. The folded size of the bike is 34"L x 27"H x 13"W. Specifications The Melon Bicycles Slice model's frame and fork is made from 7005 aluminum. The Slice uses a large size 52T chainring and a 12-25T cassette to provide enough of a gear range to conquer all terrains with only 8 speeds. Grip shifters are used for shifting with an easy to read display indicating the current gear chosen. The Slice uses 20" wheels (406mm) in the 1.75" width. The bicycle geometry features a slacker head tube angle than most folding bikes which <P> Trilogy The Batcycle is known as the Batpod for The Dark Knight (2008) and The Dark Knight Rises (2012). The bike has 20" front and rear tires and is powered by a high-performance, water-cooled, single-cylinder engine - geared toward the lower end for faster acceleration and with no exhaust pipes: the exhaust is routed through the hollow steel/aluminum/magnesium tubing used for the frame of the bike. The Batpod is steered by the shoulders instead of hands, and the rider's arms are protected by shields. The two foot pegs are set 3½ feet apart on either side of the tank, which	answer: They don't have the same brakes, so you can't simply compare momentum.
208,051	14ptr1	how despite trade embargoes north korea has successfully launched a rocket to place a satellite into orbit	North Korea is not really cut off from the rest of the world. A lot of companies are doing business with them. Take the Ryugyong Hotel for instance. It is being build by an Egyptian company and will be run by a German company.	[ "North Korea is not really cut off from the rest of the world. A lot of companies are doing business with them. Take the Ryugyong Hotel for instance. It is being build by an Egyptian company and will be run by a German company. " ]	1	[]	0	<P> in the United States with the help of a team of South Korean engineers who were familiar with the production process. <P> a number of "high-tech development zones". International sanctions remain a significant obstacle to their development. The Miraewon network of electronic libraries was established in 2014 under similar slogans. Significant resources have been allocated to the national space program, which is managed by the National Aerospace Development Administration (formerly managed by the Korean Committee of Space Technology until April 2013) Domestically produced launch vehicles and the Kwangmyŏngsŏng satellite class are launched from two spaceports, the Tonghae Satellite Launching Ground and the Sohae Satellite Launching Station. After four failed attempts, North Korea became the tenth spacefaring nation with the launch of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit <P> sanctions in a follow-up to a landmark deal reached with the United States and five world powers over Tehran's disputed nuclear program. "I am here to pursue the path of common prosperity with our old friend Iran,” Park said in a forum attended by some 450 South Korean and Iranian business executives and leaders in the Iranian capital. On Monday, Park and Rouhani observed the signing of nearly 20 out of 66 memorandums of understanding worth up to US$45.6 billion after their summit. Seoul hopes the MOUs could pave the way for South Korean companies to eventually win massive infrastructure projects <P> further acquisitions, but South Korean officials denied that any further barter deals had been agreed. During November 2018, three additional KT-1B aircraft were ordered for the Indonesian Air Force (IAF). In addition to its use as a basic trainer, the IAF have equipped their Jupiter Aerobatic Team with the KT-1. On 15 March 2015, a serious midair collision occurred during a practice session for Malaysia's Langkawi International Maritime and Aerospace Exhibition. Initial reports stated that all four pilots survived the collision. During June 2007, South Korea and Turkey successfully negotiated a KRW₩500,000,000,000 (approximately US$540,000,000) contract for 40 (+15) KT-1s; this exchange involved <P> under way in Iran. She also said she expects the MOUs signed between the two governments on transportation and infrastructure as well as water resources to further boost bilateral cooperation down the line. South Korea and Iran “can produce a win-win outcome in overall infrastructure” projects, including railways and airport, Park said at the business gathering. The forum is part of South Korea’s efforts to help business executives from both countries build a network and facilitate economic cooperation. More than 230 South Korean business executives and leaders have accompanied the president on her state visit to the Islamic Republic to explore <P> like anti-personnel blinding lasers, GPS jammers, midget submarines and human torpedoes, stealth paint, and cyberwarfare units. In 2015, North Korea was estimated as having 6,000 sophisticated computer security personnel. KPA units have allegedly attempted to jam South Korean military satellites. Much of the equipment is engineered and produced by a domestic defense industry. Weapons are manufactured in roughly 1,800 underground defense industry plants scattered throughout the country, most of them located in Chagang Province. The defense industry is capable of producing a full range of individual and crew-served weapons, artillery, armored vehicles, tanks, missiles, helicopters, surface combatants, submarines, landing and infiltration <P> before moving to its present building in 1952. Since 1978 the mess has proudly served the Commanding Generals of United Nations Command, ROK/US Combined Forces, United States Forces Korea, and Eighth U.S. Army. American military personnel and their families who wanted to spend R&R time in Seoul used to stay at the Naija Hotel, in downtown Seoul. The Naija was comfortable, but small, had limited parking, and was distant from other American facilities at Yongsan. The need for a new facility was obvious, and in 1987, ground was broken for the Dragon Hill Lodge, across the parking lot from <P> ROKAF later on; ROKAF developed the software, successfully carried out 3 tests, and finished pilot training at the end of January 2011. The South Korean JDAMs are equipped with wing kits, which are absent from normal JDAMs, but not from the 2,000 pound JDAM Extended Range kit, which is being developed by Boeing and South Korea. The South Korean F-16s can also employ LIG Nex1's ALQ-200K radar jammer and other locally developed tactical ELINT and EO/IR targeting pods. In late 2011, Korea kicked off the contest for KF-16's mid-life upgrade, which will incorporate, among others, a new AESA radar. The radar <P> the same time with no USN warships assigned to the theater. Icebreakers By 2015, due to lack of funding allocated to the billion-dollar class of craft, the United States was operating one medium and one heavy icebreaker, down from a fleet of eight. The Coast Guard estimated it needs three heavy and three medium icebreakers to fulfil its mission. With Russia operating about 27, China preparing to launch a second, and Canada, Finland and Sweden operating more than the United States, President Obama, various lawmakers, and the FY2017 Coast Guard budget request have called for funding at least <P> and 381 passengers; on 28 August, 398 tonnes of cargo and 343 passengers; and, on August 29, 326 tonnes of cargo and 347 passengers. Sea resupply The majority of resupply by sea was conducted by cargo ships of the US Army and US Navy. The massive demand for ships forced the UN Command to charter private ships and bring ships out of the reserve fleet to augment the military vessels in service. The UN had a major advantage in its sealift operations in that the most developed port in Korea was Pusan which was at the southeastern tip of the peninsula. Pusan <P> Transit will be operating up till 01 Sep 2018. The depot will be handed over to the SBS Transit for outfitting and preparatory works before operations can commence. <P> 2 in December 2012, which successfully reached orbit but was believed to be crippled and non-operational. It joined the Outer Space Treaty in 2009 and has stated its intentions to undertake manned and Moon missions. The government insists the space program is for peaceful purposes, but the United States, Japan, South Korea and other countries maintain that it serves to advance military ballistic missile programs. On 7 February 2016, North Korea successfully launched a long-range rocket, supposedly to place a satellite into orbit. Critics believe that the real purpose of the launch was to test a ballistic missile. The launch was <P> participating in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), as Foreign Minister Paek Nam-sun attended the ARF ministerial meeting in Bangkok 26–27 July. North Korea also expanded its bilateral diplomatic ties in that year, establishing diplomatic relations with Italy, Australia and the Philippines. The United Kingdom established diplomatic relations with North Korea on 13 December 2000, as did Canada in February 2001, followed by Germany and New Zealand on 1 March 2001. In 2006, North Korea test-fired a series of ballistic missiles, after Chinese officials had advised North Korean authorities not to do so. As a result, Chinese authorities publicly rebuked what the <P> the North’s long-range rocket launch in December 2012 and underground nuclear test in February 2013" (Pg. 310). Providing valuable information on the peninsula as well as translations, KATUSA soldiers carry out their MOS effectively, allowing for a future of more foreign cooperation with America. Nirav Patel and Lindsey Ford (2009), authors of "The future of the U.S.-ROK alliance: global perspectives" go on to state that "The alliance between the United States and the Republic of Korea (ROK) has been a key component of America’s bilateral alliance system in Asia for almost 60 years. South Korea has been a close friend <P> would likely be stored at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base or be given to other organizations willing to take them. The U.S. Customs and Border Protection has shown interest, but already operate higher-performance Reapers and are having difficulty with operating costs. The U.S. Coast Guard has also shown interest in land-based UAV surveillance. Foreign sales are also an option, but the MQ-1 may be subject to limitations of the Missile Technology Control Regime because it can be armed; export markets are also limited by the Reaper as well. Given the Predator's phasing out and low size, weight, and <P> South China Sea Fleet Overview South China Sea Fleet (CMS)'s headquarters is at Guangzhou, Guangdong. <P> and North Korea increased, and there was heightened rhetoric between the two, with Trump threatening "fire and fury" and North Korea threatening to test missiles that would land near Guam. In 2018, a détente developed. A series of summits took place between Kim Jong-un of North Korea, President Moon Jae-in of South Korea, and President Trump. Geography North Korea occupies the northern portion of the Korean Peninsula, lying between latitudes 37° and 43°N, and longitudes 124° and 131°E. It covers an area of 120,540 square kilometers (46,541 sq mi). North Korea shares land borders with China and Russia to the north, and borders <P> China's missile forces. <P> under much international dispute due to their military applications and concerns about safety. Transport infrastructure includes railways, highways, water and air routes, but rail transport is by far the most widespread. North Korea has some 5,200 kilometers of railways mostly in standard gauge which carry 80% of annual passenger traffic and 86% of freight, but electricity shortages undermine their efficiency. Construction of a high-speed railway connecting Kaesong, Pyongyang and Sinuiju with speeds exceeding 200 km/h was approved in 2013. North Korea connects with the Trans-Siberian Railway through Rajin. Road transport is very limited — only 724 kilometers of the 25,554 kilometer road network <P> Hwasong-10 Development In the mid-1990s, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, North Korea invited the Makeyev Design Bureau's ballistic missile designers and engineers to develop this missile, based on the R-27 Zyb. In 1992, a large contract between Korea Yon’gwang Trading Company and Makeyev Rocket Design Bureau of Miass, Russia was signed. The agreement stated that Russian engineers would go to the DPRK and assist in the development of the Zyb Space Launch Vehicle (SLV). It was decided that, as the Korean People's Army's MAZ-547A/MAZ-7916 Transporter erector launcher could carry 20 tonnes, and the R-27 Zyb was	question: how despite trade embargoes north korea has successfully launched a rocket to place a satellite into orbit context: <P> in the United States with the help of a team of South Korean engineers who were familiar with the production process. <P> a number of "high-tech development zones". International sanctions remain a significant obstacle to their development. The Miraewon network of electronic libraries was established in 2014 under similar slogans. Significant resources have been allocated to the national space program, which is managed by the National Aerospace Development Administration (formerly managed by the Korean Committee of Space Technology until April 2013) Domestically produced launch vehicles and the Kwangmyŏngsŏng satellite class are launched from two spaceports, the Tonghae Satellite Launching Ground and the Sohae Satellite Launching Station. After four failed attempts, North Korea became the tenth spacefaring nation with the launch of Kwangmyŏngsŏng-3 Unit <P> sanctions in a follow-up to a landmark deal reached with the United States and five world powers over Tehran's disputed nuclear program. "I am here to pursue the path of common prosperity with our old friend Iran,” Park said in a forum attended by some 450 South Korean and Iranian business executives and leaders in the Iranian capital. On Monday, Park and Rouhani observed the signing of nearly 20 out of 66 memorandums of understanding worth up to US$45.6 billion after their summit. Seoul hopes the MOUs could pave the way for South Korean companies to eventually win massive infrastructure projects <P> further acquisitions, but South Korean officials denied that any further barter deals had been agreed. During November 2018, three additional KT-1B aircraft were ordered for the Indonesian Air Force (IAF). In addition to its use as a basic trainer, the IAF have equipped their Jupiter Aerobatic Team with the KT-1. On 15 March 2015, a serious midair collision occurred during a practice session for Malaysia's Langkawi International Maritime and Aerospace Exhibition. Initial reports stated that all four pilots survived the collision. During June 2007, South Korea and Turkey successfully negotiated a KRW₩500,000,000,000 (approximately US$540,000,000) contract for 40 (+15) KT-1s; this exchange involved <P> under way in Iran. She also said she expects the MOUs signed between the two governments on transportation and infrastructure as well as water resources to further boost bilateral cooperation down the line. South Korea and Iran “can produce a win-win outcome in overall infrastructure” projects, including railways and airport, Park said at the business gathering. The forum is part of South Korea’s efforts to help business executives from both countries build a network and facilitate economic cooperation. More than 230 South Korean business executives and leaders have accompanied the president on her state visit to the Islamic Republic to explore <P> like anti-personnel blinding lasers, GPS jammers, midget submarines and human torpedoes, stealth paint, and cyberwarfare units. In 2015, North Korea was estimated as having 6,000 sophisticated computer security personnel. KPA units have allegedly attempted to jam South Korean military satellites. Much of the equipment is engineered and produced by a domestic defense industry. Weapons are manufactured in roughly 1,800 underground defense industry plants scattered throughout the country, most of them located in Chagang Province. The defense industry is capable of producing a full range of individual and crew-served weapons, artillery, armored vehicles, tanks, missiles, helicopters, surface combatants, submarines, landing and infiltration <P> before moving to its present building in 1952. Since 1978 the mess has proudly served the Commanding Generals of United Nations Command, ROK/US Combined Forces, United States Forces Korea, and Eighth U.S. Army. American military personnel and their families who wanted to spend R&R time in Seoul used to stay at the Naija Hotel, in downtown Seoul. The Naija was comfortable, but small, had limited parking, and was distant from other American facilities at Yongsan. The need for a new facility was obvious, and in 1987, ground was broken for the Dragon Hill Lodge, across the parking lot from <P> ROKAF later on; ROKAF developed the software, successfully carried out 3 tests, and finished pilot training at the end of January 2011. The South Korean JDAMs are equipped with wing kits, which are absent from normal JDAMs, but not from the 2,000 pound JDAM Extended Range kit, which is being developed by Boeing and South Korea. The South Korean F-16s can also employ LIG Nex1's ALQ-200K radar jammer and other locally developed tactical ELINT and EO/IR targeting pods. In late 2011, Korea kicked off the contest for KF-16's mid-life upgrade, which will incorporate, among others, a new AESA radar. The radar <P> the same time with no USN warships assigned to the theater. Icebreakers By 2015, due to lack of funding allocated to the billion-dollar class of craft, the United States was operating one medium and one heavy icebreaker, down from a fleet of eight. The Coast Guard estimated it needs three heavy and three medium icebreakers to fulfil its mission. With Russia operating about 27, China preparing to launch a second, and Canada, Finland and Sweden operating more than the United States, President Obama, various lawmakers, and the FY2017 Coast Guard budget request have called for funding at least <P> and 381 passengers; on 28 August, 398 tonnes of cargo and 343 passengers; and, on August 29, 326 tonnes of cargo and 347 passengers. Sea resupply The majority of resupply by sea was conducted by cargo ships of the US Army and US Navy. The massive demand for ships forced the UN Command to charter private ships and bring ships out of the reserve fleet to augment the military vessels in service. The UN had a major advantage in its sealift operations in that the most developed port in Korea was Pusan which was at the southeastern tip of the peninsula. Pusan <P> Transit will be operating up till 01 Sep 2018. The depot will be handed over to the SBS Transit for outfitting and preparatory works before operations can commence. <P> 2 in December 2012, which successfully reached orbit but was believed to be crippled and non-operational. It joined the Outer Space Treaty in 2009 and has stated its intentions to undertake manned and Moon missions. The government insists the space program is for peaceful purposes, but the United States, Japan, South Korea and other countries maintain that it serves to advance military ballistic missile programs. On 7 February 2016, North Korea successfully launched a long-range rocket, supposedly to place a satellite into orbit. Critics believe that the real purpose of the launch was to test a ballistic missile. The launch was <P> participating in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF), as Foreign Minister Paek Nam-sun attended the ARF ministerial meeting in Bangkok 26–27 July. North Korea also expanded its bilateral diplomatic ties in that year, establishing diplomatic relations with Italy, Australia and the Philippines. The United Kingdom established diplomatic relations with North Korea on 13 December 2000, as did Canada in February 2001, followed by Germany and New Zealand on 1 March 2001. In 2006, North Korea test-fired a series of ballistic missiles, after Chinese officials had advised North Korean authorities not to do so. As a result, Chinese authorities publicly rebuked what the <P> the North’s long-range rocket launch in December 2012 and underground nuclear test in February 2013" (Pg. 310). Providing valuable information on the peninsula as well as translations, KATUSA soldiers carry out their MOS effectively, allowing for a future of more foreign cooperation with America. Nirav Patel and Lindsey Ford (2009), authors of "The future of the U.S.-ROK alliance: global perspectives" go on to state that "The alliance between the United States and the Republic of Korea (ROK) has been a key component of America’s bilateral alliance system in Asia for almost 60 years. South Korea has been a close friend <P> would likely be stored at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base or be given to other organizations willing to take them. The U.S. Customs and Border Protection has shown interest, but already operate higher-performance Reapers and are having difficulty with operating costs. The U.S. Coast Guard has also shown interest in land-based UAV surveillance. Foreign sales are also an option, but the MQ-1 may be subject to limitations of the Missile Technology Control Regime because it can be armed; export markets are also limited by the Reaper as well. Given the Predator's phasing out and low size, weight, and <P> South China Sea Fleet Overview South China Sea Fleet (CMS)'s headquarters is at Guangzhou, Guangdong. <P> and North Korea increased, and there was heightened rhetoric between the two, with Trump threatening "fire and fury" and North Korea threatening to test missiles that would land near Guam. In 2018, a détente developed. A series of summits took place between Kim Jong-un of North Korea, President Moon Jae-in of South Korea, and President Trump. Geography North Korea occupies the northern portion of the Korean Peninsula, lying between latitudes 37° and 43°N, and longitudes 124° and 131°E. It covers an area of 120,540 square kilometers (46,541 sq mi). North Korea shares land borders with China and Russia to the north, and borders <P> China's missile forces. <P> under much international dispute due to their military applications and concerns about safety. Transport infrastructure includes railways, highways, water and air routes, but rail transport is by far the most widespread. North Korea has some 5,200 kilometers of railways mostly in standard gauge which carry 80% of annual passenger traffic and 86% of freight, but electricity shortages undermine their efficiency. Construction of a high-speed railway connecting Kaesong, Pyongyang and Sinuiju with speeds exceeding 200 km/h was approved in 2013. North Korea connects with the Trans-Siberian Railway through Rajin. Road transport is very limited — only 724 kilometers of the 25,554 kilometer road network <P> Hwasong-10 Development In the mid-1990s, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, North Korea invited the Makeyev Design Bureau's ballistic missile designers and engineers to develop this missile, based on the R-27 Zyb. In 1992, a large contract between Korea Yon’gwang Trading Company and Makeyev Rocket Design Bureau of Miass, Russia was signed. The agreement stated that Russian engineers would go to the DPRK and assist in the development of the Zyb Space Launch Vehicle (SLV). It was decided that, as the Korean People's Army's MAZ-547A/MAZ-7916 Transporter erector launcher could carry 20 tonnes, and the R-27 Zyb was	answer: North Korea is not really cut off from the rest of the world. A lot of companies are doing business with them. Take the Ryugyong Hotel for instance. It is being build by an Egyptian company and will be run by a German company.
161,852	1lm3wn	if anyone was confused about whats up with this whole syria thing and why the us may or may not attack, i just made a eli5-prezi to explain it to my students for next week. check it out!	Syriasly, well done.	[ "Syriasly, well done.", "from it's military proxies = > from its military proxies", "Thank you - but seriously, that's so depressing.", "Very well put together.", "Brilliant. Well done.", "I foresee lots of artifacts being lost like how artifacts in Iraq were lost a few years back. It is always sad to se...	27	[ "Syriasly, well done.", "from it's military proxies = > from its military proxies", "Thank you - but seriously, that's so depressing.", "Brilliant. Well done.", "I foresee lots of artifacts being lost like how artifacts in Iraq were lost a few years back. It is always sad to see a bit of the world's histor...	14	<P> how can the U.S. presence stabilize the region? ... The longer we stay in Lebanon, the harder it will be for us to leave. We will be trapped by the case we make for having our troops there in the first place. What can we expect if we withdraw from Lebanon? The same as will happen if we stay. I acknowledge that the level of fighting will increase if we leave. I regretfully acknowledge that many innocent civilians will be hurt. But I firmly believe this will happen in any event. In February 2000, during a Republican debate, McCain and other candidates <P> Protect and Preserve International Cultural Property Act Provisions The bill urges the President (Barack Obama at the time) to establish an interagency coordinating committee to "advance executive branch efforts to protect and preserve international cultural property at risk from political instability, armed conflict, or natural or other disasters". It also establishes the President should apply import restrictions specifically targeting archaeological or ethnological material from Syria. Such restrictions include those for "illicit import, export, and transfer of ownership of cultural property" (adopted by the UNESCO). The President is to determine yearly whether at least one of the following is met: 1) "Syria is <P> member Friends of Syria group of states in December 2012. <P> the near future, despite government reassurances. AL RAI Chief International Correspondent, Elijah J. Magnier, reported that Syria was heading towards partition after recent events in Idlib. Jane's Information Group stated that the offensive threatened to show president Bashar al-Assad as "incapable even of protecting the coastal mountain areas where the Alawites (his core support base) are concentrated" and speculated Iran would not see him as the primary keeper of their interests in Syria. In early June, a Syrian security source reported that thousands of Iranian and Iraqi fighters were being assembled; "[t]he goal is to reach 10,000 men to support the <P> Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL, also known as ISIS). This has resulted in airstrikes by Iran, Syria, and other countries – including the United States In January 2017, US President Donald Trump issued an executive order banning the entry of all Iraqi citizens, as well as citizens of six other countries. After sharp criticism and public protests as well as lawsuits against the executive order, Trump relaxed the travel restrictions somewhat and dropped Iraq from the list of non-entry countries in March 2017. <P> of the Syrian society. It also put its hopes in the multiplications of acts of civil disobedience as they "can be generalized, developed and expanded. This is because they are peaceful. These will be supported by businesses and others who are afraid of the costs of war. Peaceful methods are generalizable." However, the SNC came to review its position on the peaceful nature of the uprising. According to the SNC, the opposition is now faced with two options: "greater militarization of local resistance or foreign intervention." With China and Russia veto impeding a Security Council resolution, the international intervention scenario is <P> September 2016 Deir ez-Zor air raid Accusations of previous attacks Previously, in December 2015, the Syrian government made an accusation, rejected by the U.S., that United States forces killed 3 Syrian soldiers and wounded 13 others during a Sunday evening attack on a camp in Deir al-Zour province. The U.S. led coalition had been targeting ISIL militants in Syria since September 2014 although it has never coordinated any attacks with the Syrian government, which it had been trying to overthrow. U.S.-Russian brokered Syrian ceasefire At the time of this attack, a U.S. and Russian brokered ceasefire, which had come into <P> chemical attack, Trump stated "my attitude toward Syria and Assad has changed very much" and that the attack "crossed many, many lines." He accused the Obama administration's decision not to follow through with its proposed 2013 military intervention against the Assad regime in Syria of having led to the chemical attack. On April 7, 2017, Trump ordered the United States Navy to launch cruise missiles at Shayrat Air Base in response to the Khan Shaykhun chemical attack. The response had wide international support and was highly praised by the majority of Republicans as well as Democratic senators, and many countries, however <P> in Syria, stating: "If Putin wants to knock the hell out of ISIS, I'm all for it 100 percent and I can't understand how anybody would be against that ... He's going in and we can go in and everybody should go in." During his speech at the Oklahoma State Fair, Trump accused his opponents of wanting to "start World War III over Syria." Trump stated in November 2015, "I know more about ISIS than the generals do. Believe me." When asked in the March 11 CNN debate if he would send ground troops to fight ISIL, Trump answered, "We really have <P> unlikely to unfold. As a result, in the context of increasing defections in the military and the escalating violence in Syria, the SNC and the Free Syrian Army struck a deal in January 2012, recognising the units of anti-government rebels fighting in Syria. The SNC said that it was the duty of the opposition "to assist the rebels." While the SNC asserted that it would not provide arms directly to the Free Syrian Army, it will provide funds to "keep the Free Syrian Army afloat." For this reason, donations can be made on the SNC website. Analysis from war observers <P> cabinet in the Moroccan city of Skhirat, weeks after an earlier lineup was rejected. The internationally recognized parliament has to endorse the new unity cabinet. If approved, the new unity government could eventually seek international military intervention against ISIL extremists who have taken advantage of the country's political vacuum since 2014. On 1 August 2016, U.S. crewed and uncrewed aircraft carried out airstrikes on ISIL targets in Libya, responding to the U.N.-backed government's request to help push the militants from their former stronghold of Sirte (where several hundred ISIL fighters remained), in what U.S. officials described as the start of a <P> Force has been concentrating on destroying Syrian oil refineries by airstrikes, instead of trying to protect civilians from ISIL attacks. For example, in the night of 24 to 25 September, the US Air Force flew 13 attacks against targets in Syria: 12 of those attacks were against oil refineries, and just one attack was against an ISIL troops' vehicle. US officials indicated to CNN that they were not concerned if Kobanî fell and that the US goals in Syria are "not to save cities and towns, but to go after ISIS' senior leadership, oil refineries and other infrastructure that would <P> the policies adopted from the 1960s through the late 1980s, Syria refused to join the "global economy". In late 2001, however, Syria submitted a request to the World Trade Organization (WTO) to begin the accession process. Syria had been an original contracting party of the former General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade but withdrew in 1951 because of Israel's joining. Major elements of current Syrian trade rules would have to change in order to be consistent with the WTO. In March 2007, Syria signed an Association Agreement with the European Union that would encourage both sides to negotiate a free <P> tried to make direct contact with the latter. And so, after a succession of secret meetings, I ended up, stupidly, in Damascus. Needless to say, I never gave the Syrians a scrap of information." <P> assessment" carried out by the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) and the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 2013 concluded that Turkey had effectively transformed the secret U.S. arms program in support of moderate rebels, who no longer existed, into an indiscriminate program to provide technical and logistical support for al-Nusra Front and ISIL. Saudi Arabia Although Saudi Arabia's government rejected the claims, former Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki accused Saudi Arabia of funding ISIL. Some media outlets, such as NBC, the BBC and The New York Times, and the US-based think tank Washington Institute for Near East Policy have written about <P> productive than anything performed by the year-long air operations by the US-led coalition. According to Assad the countries involved in Us-led coalition, themselves support terrorism, thus they cannot fight terrorism. That is why, he says, several months of fighting against terrorism, has resulted in spreading it. After 2015 After the loss of Idlib province to a rebel offensive in the first half of 2015, the situation was judged to have become critical for Assad's survival. High level talks were held between Moscow and Tehran in the first half of 2015 and a political agreement was achieved. In October 2015, it <P> effect on Monday 12 September 2016 at 7 p.m. Syria time (1600 GMT) and was intended to last one week, had been in place for more than its fifth day and was less than 48 hours away from its completion which, had its completion come to pass, would have resulted in the U.S. and Russia jointly creating and running, per the ceasefire agreement, "the Joint Implementation Group" – an intelligence sharing group that would have been dedicated to coordinating U.S. and Russian attacks against al-Qaeda and ISIL in Syria. Some of the United States' top national security officials, particularly the <P> Syrian army and pro-government militias, firstly in Damascus, and then to retake Jisr al-Shughur because it is key to the Mediterranean coast and the Hama region". This came days after Iranian Quds force general Qasem Soleimani pledged that "In the coming days the world will be surprised by what we are preparing, in cooperation with Syrian military leaders", yet Soleimani was reported to be infuriated that his remarks were leaked by a Syrian official in an attempt to boost morale. The SOHR reported the arrival of 6,000 fighters from Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan. <P> war and refused to submit to Washington's demand for co-operation. It acted in concert with Russia, France, and Germany in the Security Council, even voting in support of Resolution 1441, mandating the renewal of United Nations weapons inspections in Iraq. Syria's UN ambassador, Makhail Wehbe, said he believed that the evidence presented by the United States to the Security Council on Iraq's weapons had been fabricated. Syrian commentators explained that none of Iraq's neighbors felt it was a threat, and that weapons of mass destruction were a mere pretext for a war motivated by the interests of Israel and the <P> no-fly zones declared by the U.S. and the UK to protect the Kurds in Iraqi Kurdistan and Shias in the south from aerial attacks by the Iraqi government; and ongoing inspections. Iraqi military helicopters and planes regularly contested the no-fly zones. In October 1998, removing the Iraqi government became official U.S. foreign policy with enactment of the Iraq Liberation Act. Enacted following the expulsion of UN weapons inspectors the preceding August (after some had been accused of spying for the U.S.), the act provided $97 million for Iraqi "democratic opposition organizations" to "establish a program to support a transition to democracy	question: if anyone was confused about whats up with this whole syria thing and why the us may or may not attack, i just made a eli5-prezi to explain it to my students for next week. check it out! context: <P> how can the U.S. presence stabilize the region? ... The longer we stay in Lebanon, the harder it will be for us to leave. We will be trapped by the case we make for having our troops there in the first place. What can we expect if we withdraw from Lebanon? The same as will happen if we stay. I acknowledge that the level of fighting will increase if we leave. I regretfully acknowledge that many innocent civilians will be hurt. But I firmly believe this will happen in any event. In February 2000, during a Republican debate, McCain and other candidates <P> Protect and Preserve International Cultural Property Act Provisions The bill urges the President (Barack Obama at the time) to establish an interagency coordinating committee to "advance executive branch efforts to protect and preserve international cultural property at risk from political instability, armed conflict, or natural or other disasters". It also establishes the President should apply import restrictions specifically targeting archaeological or ethnological material from Syria. Such restrictions include those for "illicit import, export, and transfer of ownership of cultural property" (adopted by the UNESCO). The President is to determine yearly whether at least one of the following is met: 1) "Syria is <P> member Friends of Syria group of states in December 2012. <P> the near future, despite government reassurances. AL RAI Chief International Correspondent, Elijah J. Magnier, reported that Syria was heading towards partition after recent events in Idlib. Jane's Information Group stated that the offensive threatened to show president Bashar al-Assad as "incapable even of protecting the coastal mountain areas where the Alawites (his core support base) are concentrated" and speculated Iran would not see him as the primary keeper of their interests in Syria. In early June, a Syrian security source reported that thousands of Iranian and Iraqi fighters were being assembled; "[t]he goal is to reach 10,000 men to support the <P> Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL, also known as ISIS). This has resulted in airstrikes by Iran, Syria, and other countries – including the United States In January 2017, US President Donald Trump issued an executive order banning the entry of all Iraqi citizens, as well as citizens of six other countries. After sharp criticism and public protests as well as lawsuits against the executive order, Trump relaxed the travel restrictions somewhat and dropped Iraq from the list of non-entry countries in March 2017. <P> of the Syrian society. It also put its hopes in the multiplications of acts of civil disobedience as they "can be generalized, developed and expanded. This is because they are peaceful. These will be supported by businesses and others who are afraid of the costs of war. Peaceful methods are generalizable." However, the SNC came to review its position on the peaceful nature of the uprising. According to the SNC, the opposition is now faced with two options: "greater militarization of local resistance or foreign intervention." With China and Russia veto impeding a Security Council resolution, the international intervention scenario is <P> September 2016 Deir ez-Zor air raid Accusations of previous attacks Previously, in December 2015, the Syrian government made an accusation, rejected by the U.S., that United States forces killed 3 Syrian soldiers and wounded 13 others during a Sunday evening attack on a camp in Deir al-Zour province. The U.S. led coalition had been targeting ISIL militants in Syria since September 2014 although it has never coordinated any attacks with the Syrian government, which it had been trying to overthrow. U.S.-Russian brokered Syrian ceasefire At the time of this attack, a U.S. and Russian brokered ceasefire, which had come into <P> chemical attack, Trump stated "my attitude toward Syria and Assad has changed very much" and that the attack "crossed many, many lines." He accused the Obama administration's decision not to follow through with its proposed 2013 military intervention against the Assad regime in Syria of having led to the chemical attack. On April 7, 2017, Trump ordered the United States Navy to launch cruise missiles at Shayrat Air Base in response to the Khan Shaykhun chemical attack. The response had wide international support and was highly praised by the majority of Republicans as well as Democratic senators, and many countries, however <P> in Syria, stating: "If Putin wants to knock the hell out of ISIS, I'm all for it 100 percent and I can't understand how anybody would be against that ... He's going in and we can go in and everybody should go in." During his speech at the Oklahoma State Fair, Trump accused his opponents of wanting to "start World War III over Syria." Trump stated in November 2015, "I know more about ISIS than the generals do. Believe me." When asked in the March 11 CNN debate if he would send ground troops to fight ISIL, Trump answered, "We really have <P> unlikely to unfold. As a result, in the context of increasing defections in the military and the escalating violence in Syria, the SNC and the Free Syrian Army struck a deal in January 2012, recognising the units of anti-government rebels fighting in Syria. The SNC said that it was the duty of the opposition "to assist the rebels." While the SNC asserted that it would not provide arms directly to the Free Syrian Army, it will provide funds to "keep the Free Syrian Army afloat." For this reason, donations can be made on the SNC website. Analysis from war observers <P> cabinet in the Moroccan city of Skhirat, weeks after an earlier lineup was rejected. The internationally recognized parliament has to endorse the new unity cabinet. If approved, the new unity government could eventually seek international military intervention against ISIL extremists who have taken advantage of the country's political vacuum since 2014. On 1 August 2016, U.S. crewed and uncrewed aircraft carried out airstrikes on ISIL targets in Libya, responding to the U.N.-backed government's request to help push the militants from their former stronghold of Sirte (where several hundred ISIL fighters remained), in what U.S. officials described as the start of a <P> Force has been concentrating on destroying Syrian oil refineries by airstrikes, instead of trying to protect civilians from ISIL attacks. For example, in the night of 24 to 25 September, the US Air Force flew 13 attacks against targets in Syria: 12 of those attacks were against oil refineries, and just one attack was against an ISIL troops' vehicle. US officials indicated to CNN that they were not concerned if Kobanî fell and that the US goals in Syria are "not to save cities and towns, but to go after ISIS' senior leadership, oil refineries and other infrastructure that would <P> the policies adopted from the 1960s through the late 1980s, Syria refused to join the "global economy". In late 2001, however, Syria submitted a request to the World Trade Organization (WTO) to begin the accession process. Syria had been an original contracting party of the former General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade but withdrew in 1951 because of Israel's joining. Major elements of current Syrian trade rules would have to change in order to be consistent with the WTO. In March 2007, Syria signed an Association Agreement with the European Union that would encourage both sides to negotiate a free <P> tried to make direct contact with the latter. And so, after a succession of secret meetings, I ended up, stupidly, in Damascus. Needless to say, I never gave the Syrians a scrap of information." <P> assessment" carried out by the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) and the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 2013 concluded that Turkey had effectively transformed the secret U.S. arms program in support of moderate rebels, who no longer existed, into an indiscriminate program to provide technical and logistical support for al-Nusra Front and ISIL. Saudi Arabia Although Saudi Arabia's government rejected the claims, former Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki accused Saudi Arabia of funding ISIL. Some media outlets, such as NBC, the BBC and The New York Times, and the US-based think tank Washington Institute for Near East Policy have written about <P> productive than anything performed by the year-long air operations by the US-led coalition. According to Assad the countries involved in Us-led coalition, themselves support terrorism, thus they cannot fight terrorism. That is why, he says, several months of fighting against terrorism, has resulted in spreading it. After 2015 After the loss of Idlib province to a rebel offensive in the first half of 2015, the situation was judged to have become critical for Assad's survival. High level talks were held between Moscow and Tehran in the first half of 2015 and a political agreement was achieved. In October 2015, it <P> effect on Monday 12 September 2016 at 7 p.m. Syria time (1600 GMT) and was intended to last one week, had been in place for more than its fifth day and was less than 48 hours away from its completion which, had its completion come to pass, would have resulted in the U.S. and Russia jointly creating and running, per the ceasefire agreement, "the Joint Implementation Group" – an intelligence sharing group that would have been dedicated to coordinating U.S. and Russian attacks against al-Qaeda and ISIL in Syria. Some of the United States' top national security officials, particularly the <P> Syrian army and pro-government militias, firstly in Damascus, and then to retake Jisr al-Shughur because it is key to the Mediterranean coast and the Hama region". This came days after Iranian Quds force general Qasem Soleimani pledged that "In the coming days the world will be surprised by what we are preparing, in cooperation with Syrian military leaders", yet Soleimani was reported to be infuriated that his remarks were leaked by a Syrian official in an attempt to boost morale. The SOHR reported the arrival of 6,000 fighters from Iraq, Iran and Afghanistan. <P> war and refused to submit to Washington's demand for co-operation. It acted in concert with Russia, France, and Germany in the Security Council, even voting in support of Resolution 1441, mandating the renewal of United Nations weapons inspections in Iraq. Syria's UN ambassador, Makhail Wehbe, said he believed that the evidence presented by the United States to the Security Council on Iraq's weapons had been fabricated. Syrian commentators explained that none of Iraq's neighbors felt it was a threat, and that weapons of mass destruction were a mere pretext for a war motivated by the interests of Israel and the <P> no-fly zones declared by the U.S. and the UK to protect the Kurds in Iraqi Kurdistan and Shias in the south from aerial attacks by the Iraqi government; and ongoing inspections. Iraqi military helicopters and planes regularly contested the no-fly zones. In October 1998, removing the Iraqi government became official U.S. foreign policy with enactment of the Iraq Liberation Act. Enacted following the expulsion of UN weapons inspectors the preceding August (after some had been accused of spying for the U.S.), the act provided $97 million for Iraqi "democratic opposition organizations" to "establish a program to support a transition to democracy	answer: Syriasly, well done.
227,426	1hpyxz	Meta: Historians, tell me about your interdisciplinary activities? Do you talk to scientists? Linguists? Anthropologists? Do you study other areas? What other discipline do you think would be most useful to you to have specialist knowledge of in your field and why?	As a Comic Book historian, I am constantly forced to look outside the field of history for my information and research.Those few (and I mean few) comic book historians that have written manuscripts (either articles or books) on the subject have either faded into academic obscurity or moved on to more "profitable" avenues of study. One is hard pressed to find information on any of the "big"...and I use that word with a tinge of sarcasm...comic historians. In this respect, I have often found myself plodding alone through the mires of comic book research.Thankfully, however, Comic Book studies are alive and well in other departments, especially Fine Arts and Literature/English departments. It is from these departments that most of my contacts/partnerships have come. While writing my thesis, I consulted with my historian supervisor for what he referred to as "co-temporality" (concurrent events, trends, and movements in society) while I met with a faculty member in the English department for the more nitty gritty analysis sections of my thesis. This has benefited me greatly as "literature analysis" is perhaps my greatest weakness as a scholar. I can dissect all different types of documents, ledgers, censuses, and memoirs, but when it comes to fiction, I'm lost. Thankfully, the comic books I'm looking at aren't exactly "dense literature" so my lack of experience analyzing fiction isn't too much of a drawback.The main problem I have had with interdisciplinary study is that our methods are completely different. When discussing ideas with the professor in the English department, I often found it difficult to lead her away from "text analysis" and back into the realm of "history". The two aren't mutually exclusive, I admit, but in the greater scheme of things my research has to be weighted far more to the "history" side of things.The other major problem I have faced is that my research will likely never be published in any of the major "historical journals". While it is too early in my academic "career" to really be thinking about that, most of the professors I have talked to have told me that my more likely avenue of publishing would be in an American Studies, Pop Culture, or Fine Arts journal. While this isn't in of itself a major roadblock, it sort of shatters that freshman dream of being featured in the American Historical Review or some other major publication. Interdisciplinary study comes with bonuses and drawbacks. Getting taken seriously is difficult sometimes, but pursue what you're interested in and don't worry about whether you're "history" or "near-history". The research is what matters.	[ "As a Comic Book historian, I am constantly forced to look outside the field of history for my information and research.\n\nThose few (and I mean few) comic book historians that have written manuscripts (either articles or books) on the subject have either faded into academic obscurity or moved on to more \"profita...	9	[ "As a Comic Book historian, I am constantly forced to look outside the field of history for my information and research.\n\nThose few (and I mean few) comic book historians that have written manuscripts (either articles or books) on the subject have either faded into academic obscurity or moved on to more \"profita...	5	<P> of which is at the forefront of knowledge in a field of work or study, as the basis for original thinking and/or research. Critical awareness of knowledge issues in a field and at the interface between different fields. EQF Level 7 Skills : specialised problem-solving skills required in research and/or innovation in order to develop new knowledge and procedures and to integrate knowledge from different fields. EQF Level 7 Responsibility and autonomy : manage and transform work or study contexts that are complex, unpredictable and require new strategic approaches; take responsibility for contributing to professional knowledge and practice and/or for reviewing the strategic performance <P> Several scholarly journals reflect the efforts of scientists in these areas, notably Psychometrika, Multivariate Behavioral Research, Structural Equation Modeling and Psychological Methods. <P> in Political Science and Spanish from St. Olaf College in 2000. <P> elements and discussions of personal experiences of the professor or students. <P> the study of religion and emotion. Spatial humanities The term "spatial humanities," which has been globally adopted, was coined by Corrigan, David Bodenhamer, and Trevor Harris at an expert workshop at the Polis Center in 2008. It identifies a collaboration between humanities scholars and other researchers, and especially the ways in which scholarship that exploits digitally-enabled representations of space (through GIS and media software) can help to bridge the epistemological divide between the humanities and the sciences. Corrigan and others have proposed that the "deep map," a detailed, multilayered, fluid, and polyvocal representation of space that blends quantitative and qualitative <P> has been argued as an effective means by which archaeologists can create multivocal and more broadly accessible interpretations and presentations. The use of storytelling “demonstrate[s] how narrative is a powerful tool for bringing texture, nuance, and humanity to women’s experiences as evidenced through archaeology”). Intersectional analysis A common analytical technique employed by feminist (and some non-feminist) archaeologists is intersectional analysis, which, following the assertions of black feminists leading third-wave feminism in the U.S., maintains that gender cannot be accessed by itself but must be studied in conjunction with other forms of identity. In historical archaeology the linkage between gender, race, <P> past. Students might formulate their own questions or begin with an essential question such as "Why are men and women expected to follow different codes of etiquette?" Students explore change and continuity of manners over time and the perspectives of different cultures and groups of people. They analyze primary source documents such as books of etiquette from different time periods and form conclusions that answer the inquiry questions. Students finally communicate their conclusions in formal essays or creative projects. They may also take action by recommending solutions for improving school climate. Robert Bain in How Students Learn described a similar approach <P> of Bulgaria, there are a limited number of field-research sites, a limited number of subjects, and a limited number of methods taken advantage of by Bulgarian anthropologists. Much attention is paid to community formation, complex societies, power, polity, statehood, nationalism, myth, ritual, religion, marriage, kinship, ethnicity, nation-hood, magic, medicine, and multiculturality. Czech Republic The Czech Republic takes a constructivist approach to anthropology (closely connected to ethnology), which they take a positivist approach to. Ethnology is taken to be trying to get at objective truth, where anthropology is getting at social constructs and beliefs. Despite this split between ideas of ethnology <P> Alberto Valdivia Baselli Life and work Valdivia-Baselli studied Hispanic Philology (Linguistics and Literature) at Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED) in Spain and a master's degree in Philosophy and contemporary thought at the European Higher Education Area system through UNED. He holds a PhD in Philosophy (Latin American Philosophy, Cultural Products and Political Thought) from UNED (Spain). As a PhD student at the CUNY-Graduate Center, he also studied at the PhD program in Iberian and Latin American Cultures at Columbia University (NYC). He is currently doctoral candidate at the Latin American, Iberian and Latino Cultures PhD program at the <P> translation of Plato is in currency within PTCD) in particular praised the PTCD curriculum in a visit before his death. Social Relations and Policy The Social Relations and Policy (SRP) major explores the both social relations among groups and public policy. public issues It is explicitly historical and comparative, looking at social relations in the United States and internationally, over time. Courses focus on the interplay of such factors as class, race, ethnicity, sex/gender, religious belief and national identity. In addition, the program also teaches students how to analyze and investigate problems in public policy, such as health care, welfare <P> Computers and writing The field The field, which (in the United States, at least) has grown out of rhetoric and composition studies, is inter-disciplinary, and members also do scholarly work and teaching in such allied and diverse areas as technical and professional communication, linguistics, sociology, and law. The most important journals supporting this field are Computers & Composition, Computers & Composition Online, and Kairos: A Journal of Rhetoric, Technology, and Pedagogy. Though there is no single professional organization covering this field, an information resource portal exists at http://computersandwriting.org. The professional organization Conference on College Composition and Communication has a committee, <P> research tools in their work. The interdisciplinary disciplines of study varies, depending on the school, association, and academic program. For example, the Latin American Centre of the School of Interdisciplinary Area Studies (SIAS) at the University of Oxford heavily focuses on the social sciences, such as the economics, politics, and development of the region. On the other hand, schools like Teresa Lozano Long Institute of Latin American Studies (LLILAS) at The University of Texas at Austin, focus on the humanities; with the language, culture, and history of Latin America as a central component. Others include the study of environment and <P> competition or conflict between actors on the other, and generally, to increase power in relation to others. There are at least three bases of structural control with respect to such systems: control of action opportunities, control of differential payoffs or outcomes of interaction, and control of cultural orientations and ideology. That is, conditions of social action and interaction are structured with the result that certain social relationships and institutional arrangements are established and maintained. In investigations of the exercise of meta-power, one is also interested in differences among actors in resources, skills, strategies, and so forth, but the main focus is on <P> (TSS) and the Computing and Communications Services work alongside the Department of Mathematics and Statistics to maintain the success of the Repository. Subjects include Percentages & Percentiles, Nominal, z-scores, Measures of Central Tendency, and t-tests, with the option to search the Repository for various topics. Students are encouraged to reach out to the Learning Centre and to seek assistance through the Numeracy and Quantitative Reasoning Repository. Further help for Math & Stats students can be found through seminars held periodically in sections such as Colloquium Series, Thesis/Project Presentation, Applied Analysis, Biomathematics & Biostatistics, Operations Research, Quantum Information & Geometric Statistics, and <P> visual anthropology. The realm of continental philosophy is represented with academics such as Saul Newman, Alberto Toscano and Jean Paul Martinon as well as Visiting Professors Andrew Benjamin and Bernard Stiegler. In the area of Psychology there is Chris French who specialises in the psychology of paranormal beliefs and experiences, cognition and emotion. Saul Newman - notable for developing the concept of post-anarchism - is currently leading the department of politics. English and comparative literature The English & Comparative Literature Department is one of the university's largest and it covers English, comparative literature, American literature, creative writing and linguistics. Current <P> activity in terms of books and studies on different topics. <P> the information processing analogy, but not necessarily lead to an abandonment of the information processing terminology, the Flowchart, or the concept of control structures. The meta-technical sciences can contribute to a psychology of cognition as well as to cognitive psychology. What should be abandoned is rather the tendency to think in elementaristic terms and to increase the plethora of mini-and micro-theories. ... To conclude, if the psychological study of cognition shall have a future that is not a continued description of human information processing, its theories must be at what we have called the macro-level. This means that they must correspond to <P> Max Planck Institute for the History of Science The Max Planck Institute for the History of Science (German: Max-Planck-Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte) in Berlin was established in March 1994. Its research is primarily devoted to a theoretically oriented history of science, principally of the natural sciences, but with methodological perspectives drawn from the cognitive sciences and from cultural history. All three departments of the Institute aim at the construction of a 'historical epistemology' of the sciences. Historical epistemology deals with the historical development of knowledge and the technical, social, intellectual, and cultural processes surrounding the acquisition of knowledge in context. Building upon <P> archival research, which examines "objective data collected from repositories"; experimental research, which examines data "the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects"; analytical research, which is "based on the act of formally modeling theories or substantiating ideas in mathematical terms"; interpretive research, which emphasizes the role of language, interpretation and understanding in accounting practice, "highlighting the symbolic structures and taken-for-granted themes which pattern the world in distinct ways"; critical research, which emphasizes the role of power and conflict in accounting practice; case studies; computer simulation; and field research. Empirical studies document that leading accounting journals publish in total fewer research articles <P> the opportunity to use language as a demonstration of their independent thoughts. Discussion elicits sustained responses from students that encourage meaning-making through negotiating with the ideas of others. This type of learning “promotes retention and in-depth processing associated with the cognitive manipulation of information”. One recent branch of work exploring social constructivist perspectives on learning focuses on the role of social technologies and social media in facilitating the generation of socially constructed knowledge and understanding in online environments. Academic writing In a constructivist approach, the focus is on the sociocultural conventions of academic discourse such as citing evidence, hedging and boosting	question: Meta: Historians, tell me about your interdisciplinary activities? Do you talk to scientists? Linguists? Anthropologists? Do you study other areas? What other discipline do you think would be most useful to you to have specialist knowledge of in your field and why? context: <P> of which is at the forefront of knowledge in a field of work or study, as the basis for original thinking and/or research. Critical awareness of knowledge issues in a field and at the interface between different fields. EQF Level 7 Skills : specialised problem-solving skills required in research and/or innovation in order to develop new knowledge and procedures and to integrate knowledge from different fields. EQF Level 7 Responsibility and autonomy : manage and transform work or study contexts that are complex, unpredictable and require new strategic approaches; take responsibility for contributing to professional knowledge and practice and/or for reviewing the strategic performance <P> Several scholarly journals reflect the efforts of scientists in these areas, notably Psychometrika, Multivariate Behavioral Research, Structural Equation Modeling and Psychological Methods. <P> in Political Science and Spanish from St. Olaf College in 2000. <P> elements and discussions of personal experiences of the professor or students. <P> the study of religion and emotion. Spatial humanities The term "spatial humanities," which has been globally adopted, was coined by Corrigan, David Bodenhamer, and Trevor Harris at an expert workshop at the Polis Center in 2008. It identifies a collaboration between humanities scholars and other researchers, and especially the ways in which scholarship that exploits digitally-enabled representations of space (through GIS and media software) can help to bridge the epistemological divide between the humanities and the sciences. Corrigan and others have proposed that the "deep map," a detailed, multilayered, fluid, and polyvocal representation of space that blends quantitative and qualitative <P> has been argued as an effective means by which archaeologists can create multivocal and more broadly accessible interpretations and presentations. The use of storytelling “demonstrate[s] how narrative is a powerful tool for bringing texture, nuance, and humanity to women’s experiences as evidenced through archaeology”). Intersectional analysis A common analytical technique employed by feminist (and some non-feminist) archaeologists is intersectional analysis, which, following the assertions of black feminists leading third-wave feminism in the U.S., maintains that gender cannot be accessed by itself but must be studied in conjunction with other forms of identity. In historical archaeology the linkage between gender, race, <P> past. Students might formulate their own questions or begin with an essential question such as "Why are men and women expected to follow different codes of etiquette?" Students explore change and continuity of manners over time and the perspectives of different cultures and groups of people. They analyze primary source documents such as books of etiquette from different time periods and form conclusions that answer the inquiry questions. Students finally communicate their conclusions in formal essays or creative projects. They may also take action by recommending solutions for improving school climate. Robert Bain in How Students Learn described a similar approach <P> of Bulgaria, there are a limited number of field-research sites, a limited number of subjects, and a limited number of methods taken advantage of by Bulgarian anthropologists. Much attention is paid to community formation, complex societies, power, polity, statehood, nationalism, myth, ritual, religion, marriage, kinship, ethnicity, nation-hood, magic, medicine, and multiculturality. Czech Republic The Czech Republic takes a constructivist approach to anthropology (closely connected to ethnology), which they take a positivist approach to. Ethnology is taken to be trying to get at objective truth, where anthropology is getting at social constructs and beliefs. Despite this split between ideas of ethnology <P> Alberto Valdivia Baselli Life and work Valdivia-Baselli studied Hispanic Philology (Linguistics and Literature) at Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia (UNED) in Spain and a master's degree in Philosophy and contemporary thought at the European Higher Education Area system through UNED. He holds a PhD in Philosophy (Latin American Philosophy, Cultural Products and Political Thought) from UNED (Spain). As a PhD student at the CUNY-Graduate Center, he also studied at the PhD program in Iberian and Latin American Cultures at Columbia University (NYC). He is currently doctoral candidate at the Latin American, Iberian and Latino Cultures PhD program at the <P> translation of Plato is in currency within PTCD) in particular praised the PTCD curriculum in a visit before his death. Social Relations and Policy The Social Relations and Policy (SRP) major explores the both social relations among groups and public policy. public issues It is explicitly historical and comparative, looking at social relations in the United States and internationally, over time. Courses focus on the interplay of such factors as class, race, ethnicity, sex/gender, religious belief and national identity. In addition, the program also teaches students how to analyze and investigate problems in public policy, such as health care, welfare <P> Computers and writing The field The field, which (in the United States, at least) has grown out of rhetoric and composition studies, is inter-disciplinary, and members also do scholarly work and teaching in such allied and diverse areas as technical and professional communication, linguistics, sociology, and law. The most important journals supporting this field are Computers & Composition, Computers & Composition Online, and Kairos: A Journal of Rhetoric, Technology, and Pedagogy. Though there is no single professional organization covering this field, an information resource portal exists at http://computersandwriting.org. The professional organization Conference on College Composition and Communication has a committee, <P> research tools in their work. The interdisciplinary disciplines of study varies, depending on the school, association, and academic program. For example, the Latin American Centre of the School of Interdisciplinary Area Studies (SIAS) at the University of Oxford heavily focuses on the social sciences, such as the economics, politics, and development of the region. On the other hand, schools like Teresa Lozano Long Institute of Latin American Studies (LLILAS) at The University of Texas at Austin, focus on the humanities; with the language, culture, and history of Latin America as a central component. Others include the study of environment and <P> competition or conflict between actors on the other, and generally, to increase power in relation to others. There are at least three bases of structural control with respect to such systems: control of action opportunities, control of differential payoffs or outcomes of interaction, and control of cultural orientations and ideology. That is, conditions of social action and interaction are structured with the result that certain social relationships and institutional arrangements are established and maintained. In investigations of the exercise of meta-power, one is also interested in differences among actors in resources, skills, strategies, and so forth, but the main focus is on <P> (TSS) and the Computing and Communications Services work alongside the Department of Mathematics and Statistics to maintain the success of the Repository. Subjects include Percentages & Percentiles, Nominal, z-scores, Measures of Central Tendency, and t-tests, with the option to search the Repository for various topics. Students are encouraged to reach out to the Learning Centre and to seek assistance through the Numeracy and Quantitative Reasoning Repository. Further help for Math & Stats students can be found through seminars held periodically in sections such as Colloquium Series, Thesis/Project Presentation, Applied Analysis, Biomathematics & Biostatistics, Operations Research, Quantum Information & Geometric Statistics, and <P> visual anthropology. The realm of continental philosophy is represented with academics such as Saul Newman, Alberto Toscano and Jean Paul Martinon as well as Visiting Professors Andrew Benjamin and Bernard Stiegler. In the area of Psychology there is Chris French who specialises in the psychology of paranormal beliefs and experiences, cognition and emotion. Saul Newman - notable for developing the concept of post-anarchism - is currently leading the department of politics. English and comparative literature The English & Comparative Literature Department is one of the university's largest and it covers English, comparative literature, American literature, creative writing and linguistics. Current <P> activity in terms of books and studies on different topics. <P> the information processing analogy, but not necessarily lead to an abandonment of the information processing terminology, the Flowchart, or the concept of control structures. The meta-technical sciences can contribute to a psychology of cognition as well as to cognitive psychology. What should be abandoned is rather the tendency to think in elementaristic terms and to increase the plethora of mini-and micro-theories. ... To conclude, if the psychological study of cognition shall have a future that is not a continued description of human information processing, its theories must be at what we have called the macro-level. This means that they must correspond to <P> Max Planck Institute for the History of Science The Max Planck Institute for the History of Science (German: Max-Planck-Institut für Wissenschaftsgeschichte) in Berlin was established in March 1994. Its research is primarily devoted to a theoretically oriented history of science, principally of the natural sciences, but with methodological perspectives drawn from the cognitive sciences and from cultural history. All three departments of the Institute aim at the construction of a 'historical epistemology' of the sciences. Historical epistemology deals with the historical development of knowledge and the technical, social, intellectual, and cultural processes surrounding the acquisition of knowledge in context. Building upon <P> archival research, which examines "objective data collected from repositories"; experimental research, which examines data "the researcher gathered by administering treatments to subjects"; analytical research, which is "based on the act of formally modeling theories or substantiating ideas in mathematical terms"; interpretive research, which emphasizes the role of language, interpretation and understanding in accounting practice, "highlighting the symbolic structures and taken-for-granted themes which pattern the world in distinct ways"; critical research, which emphasizes the role of power and conflict in accounting practice; case studies; computer simulation; and field research. Empirical studies document that leading accounting journals publish in total fewer research articles <P> the opportunity to use language as a demonstration of their independent thoughts. Discussion elicits sustained responses from students that encourage meaning-making through negotiating with the ideas of others. This type of learning “promotes retention and in-depth processing associated with the cognitive manipulation of information”. One recent branch of work exploring social constructivist perspectives on learning focuses on the role of social technologies and social media in facilitating the generation of socially constructed knowledge and understanding in online environments. Academic writing In a constructivist approach, the focus is on the sociocultural conventions of academic discourse such as citing evidence, hedging and boosting	answer: As a Comic Book historian, I am constantly forced to look outside the field of history for my information and research.Those few (and I mean few) comic book historians that have written manuscripts (either articles or books) on the subject have either faded into academic obscurity or moved on to more "profitable" avenues of study. One is hard pressed to find information on any of the "big"...and I use that word with a tinge of sarcasm...comic historians. In this respect, I have often found myself plodding alone through the mires of comic book research.Thankfully, however, Comic Book studies are alive and well in other departments, especially Fine Arts and Literature/English departments. It is from these departments that most of my contacts/partnerships have come. While writing my thesis, I consulted with my historian supervisor for what he referred to as "co-temporality" (concurrent events, trends, and movements in society) while I met with a faculty member in the English department for the more nitty gritty analysis sections of my thesis. This has benefited me greatly as "literature analysis" is perhaps my greatest weakness as a scholar. I can dissect all different types of documents, ledgers, censuses, and memoirs, but when it comes to fiction, I'm lost. Thankfully, the comic books I'm looking at aren't exactly "dense literature" so my lack of experience analyzing fiction isn't too much of a drawback.The main problem I have had with interdisciplinary study is that our methods are completely different. When discussing ideas with the professor in the English department, I often found it difficult to lead her away from "text analysis" and back into the realm of "history". The two aren't mutually exclusive, I admit, but in the greater scheme of things my research has to be weighted far more to the "history" side of things.The other major problem I have faced is that my research will likely never be published in any of the major "historical journals". While it is too early in my academic "career" to really be thinking about that, most of the professors I have talked to have told me that my more likely avenue of publishing would be in an American Studies, Pop Culture, or Fine Arts journal. While this isn't in of itself a major roadblock, it sort of shatters that freshman dream of being featured in the American Historical Review or some other major publication. Interdisciplinary study comes with bonuses and drawbacks. Getting taken seriously is difficult sometimes, but pursue what you're interested in and don't worry about whether you're "history" or "near-history". The research is what matters.
29,325	3d16fu	Are slave narratives from the Federal Writers' Project regarded as legitimate sources?	They are largely regarded as legitimate by those who study and use them (including myself), but as /u/The_Alaskan said, they need to be taken with a grain of salt. Depending on the time and date of the interview as well as the race or gender of the interviewer, the responses given by the interviewee are going to be different. In my own research as a white male, I know that when I interview an African-American, their responses would be different if another African-American were interviewing them. The same issues applied to the WPA Narratives.	[ "They are largely regarded as legitimate by those who study and use them (including myself), but as /u/The_Alaskan said, they need to be taken with a grain of salt. Depending on the time and date of the interview as well as the race or gender of the interviewer, the responses given by the interviewee are going to b...	1	[]	0	<P> Thus, while previous critics, scholars and biographers have all treated Macaria’s appearance in the North as unauthorized, the truth is much more meaningful. Some scholars say that by dispensing with the romantic notion that the novel appeared in a "bootleg" edition, Homestead debunks the hard and fast distinction between Northern and Southern readerships as an invention of historians and critics rather than an accurate reflection of reading practices of the period. However, a great number of discrepancies exist between the version published in the North and the version published in the South, which remove huge portions of the text which <P> have freed some slaves without harming his children's future, if he had wanted to. Mason's biographers and interpreters have long differed about how to present his views on slavery-related issues. A two-volume biography (1892) by Kate Mason Rowland, who Broadwater noted was "a sympathetic white southerner writing during the heyday of Jim Crow" denied that Mason (her ancestor) was "an abolitionist in the modern sense of the term". She noted that Mason "regretted" that there was slavery and was against the slave trade, but wanted slavery protected in the constitution. In 1919, Robert C. Mason published a biography of his prominent <P> her book The Ship of Ice with other poems in 1948, which won the Sydney Morning Herald award for poetry that year. Dobson's poem places the discovery of the Jenny in 1860, adding 20 years to the period of entrapment. The poem speaks of her as a "ship caught in a bottle / [....] / Becalmed in Time and sealed with a cork of ice". According to Dobson, her source was the anonymous report The Drift of the Jenny, 1823–1840. An explanation of the story is given in the short story, "The Drift of the Jenny" in published in Stew and <P> War for the Soul of America, calls it "fake history", based upon the mistaken premise that the Underground Railroad activities "were so secret that the truth is essentially unknowable". He says that most of the people who successfully escaped slavery were "enterprising and well informed." Even so, there are museums, schools, and others who believe the story to be true. An education coordinator at the Plymouth Historical Museum in Michigan, Anna Lopez said to Time, "What I tell kids is, who writes history? Men do. Mostly white men. Then I ask, who made quilts? Women did, and a lot of black <P> of The Education of Little Tree was revealed to be a hoax. In 2007, Oprah Winfrey pulled the book from a list of recommended titles on her website. While Winfrey had promoted the book on her TV show in 1994, calling the novel "very spiritual," after learning the truth about Carter she said she "had to take the book off my shelf." Whether or not Carter wrote The Education of Little Tree from his actual childhood memories of his Cherokee uncle and grandparents has been disputed. The publisher's remarks in the original edition of the book inaccurately describe Carter as "Storyteller in <P> Council" to the Cherokee Nation. When Carter's background was widely publicized in 1991, the book was reclassified by the publisher as fiction. Today, a debate continues as to whether the book's lessons are altered by the identity of the author. As award-winning author Sherman Alexie has said, "Little Tree is a lovely little book, and I sometimes wonder if it is an act of romantic atonement by a guilt-ridden White supremacist, but ultimately I think it is the racial hypocrisy of a White supremacist." Members of the Cherokee Nation have said that so-called "Cherokee" words and many customs in The Education <P> and necessary part of slave discipline. Although it was supposed to be applied only in a calm and rational manner, overtly physical domination of slaves, unchecked by law, was always brutal and potentially savage." In 2003, Bernice-Marie Yates's The Perfect Gentleman, cited Freeman's denial and followed his account in holding that, because of Lee's family connections to George Washington, he "was a prime target for abolitionists who lacked all the facts of the situation." Lee biographer Elizabeth Brown Pryor concluded in 2008 that "the facts are verifiable," based on "the consistency of the five extant descriptions of the episode (the only element <P> 1933, the book became a target of the Nazi book burnings due to Sinclair's endorsement of socialism. Federal response President Theodore Roosevelt had described Sinclair as a "crackpot" because of the writer's socialist positions. He wrote privately to journalist William Allen White, expressing doubts about the accuracy of Sinclair's claims: "I have an utter contempt for him. He is hysterical, unbalanced, and untruthful. Three-fourths of the things he said were absolute falsehoods. For some of the remainder there was only a basis of truth." After reading The Jungle, Roosevelt agreed with some of Sinclair's conclusions. The president wrote "radical action <P> swayed." "Although it is difficult to grant the book any immediate practical value, it must be recognized that it has a cultural interest, that of exposing the sexual substrata of our culture." Other writers with a feminist orientation have, however, reviewed the book more harshly. Kay L. Cothran, in the Journal of American Folklore, wrote, "the book is an example of folklore misapplied" . . . "The problem of evidence runs throughout the book, which is heavily footnoted and jammed with quotations. The difference between citations and evidence has not impressed itself upon [Gould] Davis. Her notes come from a librarian's <P> but Phillips's prejudice remained. The success of Life and Labor earned Phillips the year-long Albert Kahn Foundation Fellowship in 1929-30 to observe blacks and other laborers worldwide. In 1929 Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, appointed Phillips professor of history. Phillips contended that masters treated slaves relatively well. His views were rejected most sharply by Kenneth M. Stampp in the 1950s. However, to a large degree Phillips' interpretive model of the dynamic between master and slave was revived by Eugene Genovese, who wrote that Phillips's "work, taken as a whole, remains the best and most subtle introduction to <P> issue, it is submitted that the writings of Ellen G. White were conclusively unplagiaristic." Richard W. Schwarz from the Department of History, Andrews University, opines that any plagiarism results through supernatural inspiration of all those authors, which spoke in more or less the same words to all of them. Critics have especially targeted Ellen White's book The Great Controversy arguing in contains plagiarized material. However, in her introduction she wrote... In some cases where a historian has so grouped together events as to afford, in brief, a comprehensive view of the subject, or has summarized details in a convenient manner, his <P> added a note that only "unessential details" had been excised from the translation. This confused many scholars into taking the book as a primary source, which was not the intention of the publication. Smith was troubled that the book was marketed as being historically accurate and reliable, with no mention of the excised text. Smith later left the book off of his resume, and later publishers did not connect the editor of this book with the man who later became a well known scholar. The book was illustrated by Jerry Bywaters. It included an introduction written by historian Herbert P. <P> enough. In turn Fogel came under sharp attack by other scholars. An essay by the historians George M. Fredrickson and Christopher Lasch (1967) analyzed limitations of both Phillips and his critics. They argued that far too much attention was given to slave "treatment" in examining the social and psychological effects of slavery on Afro-Americans. They said Phillips had defined the treatment issue and his most severe critics had failed to redefine it: By compiling instances of the kindness and benevolence of masters, Phillips proved to his satisfaction that slavery was a mild and permissive institution, the primary function of which was not <P> African Observer History During the mid-1820s, Lewis was recruited by the Pennsylvania Free Produce Society to design, launch and disseminate a new abolitionist publication. He was chosen by that group, according to historian Brian Temple, because he had rescued a runaway slave in 1803 by purchasing the man's freedom and had also invited a former slave to educate his [Lewis's] mathematics class about what life was genuinely like in America for enslaved men, women and children. A half century after the publication's demise, Lewis's son, Joseph J. Lewis, reflected back on his father's involvement, calling it "a labor of love … <P> 2012, she was appointed the Charles Warren Professor of American Legal History at HLS. In 2014, she was the Harold Vyvyan Harmsworth Visiting Professor at Queen's College, University of Oxford. Reception Gordon-Reed "drew on her legal training to apply context and reasonable interpretation to the sparse documentation" and analyzed the historiography as well. The writer Christopher Hitchens in Slate described her analysis as "brilliant." Critics such as John Works and Robert F. Turner of the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society have pointed out several transcription errors in Gordon-Reed's first book. Although Gordon-Reed said the errors were a "mistake," Works and Turner <P> operation, The African Observer "attempted to quell animosity between the North and South, dispel party disaffection, 'trace the moral influence of slavery on those who breathe its atmosphere" and "point out the best means for its peaceful extinction,'" according to historian Paul Finkelman. Its content included essays, source materials, and articles which were intended to objectively illustrate for Lewis's white contemporaries the evils of the institution of slavery. Essays and documents also traced the early origin of the African slave trade from the continent of Africa to the Americas. The publication also included accounts of kidnappings of free people who were <P> "one of the earliest ... [and] one of the most radical" tracts produced by "various strands of the American women's liberation movement". Lyon said that "by 1969 it had become a kind of bible" for Cell 16, in Boston. According to a 2012 article by Arthur Goldwag on the Southern Poverty Law Center Hatewatch blog, "Solanas continues to be much-read and quoted in some feminist circles." Whether the Manifesto should be considered a feminist classic is challenged by Heller because the Manifesto rejected a hierarchy of greatness, but she said it "remains an influential feminist text." Women and shooting Laura Winkiel <P> from New York and twelve years spent as a slave in Louisiana. His book sold 30,000 copies upon release. His narrative was made into a 2013 film, which won three Academy Awards. Comfort: A Novel of the Reverse Underground Railroad by H. A. Maxson and Claudia H. Young came out in 2014. Abolitionist publications frequently used accounts of people who were kidnapped into slavery for their publications. Notable works that published these accounts include The African Observer, a monthly publication that used firsthand accounts to demonstrate the evils of slavery, as well as Isaac Hopper's Tales of Oppression, a compilation <P> that during the writing process, Washington was able to hear critiques and requests from his audience and could more easily adapt his paper to his diverse audience. Washington was a controversial figure in his own lifetime, and W. E. B. Du Bois, among others, criticized some of his views. The book was, however, a best-seller, and remained the most popular African American autobiography until that of Malcolm X. In 1998, the Modern Library listed the book at No. 3 on its list of the 100 best nonfiction books of the 20th century, and in 1999 it was also listed by the <P> so much to produce a marketable surplus as to ease the accommodation of the lower race into the culture of the higher. The critics of Phillips have tried to meet him on his own ground. Where he compiled lists of indulgences and benefactions, they have assembled lists of atrocities. Both methods suffer from the same defect: they attempt to solve a conceptual problem—what did slavery do to the slave?—by accumulating quantitative evidence.... The only conclusion that one can legitimately draw from this debate is that great variations in treatment existed from plantation to plantation. Biases John David Smith of North	question: Are slave narratives from the Federal Writers' Project regarded as legitimate sources? context: <P> Thus, while previous critics, scholars and biographers have all treated Macaria’s appearance in the North as unauthorized, the truth is much more meaningful. Some scholars say that by dispensing with the romantic notion that the novel appeared in a "bootleg" edition, Homestead debunks the hard and fast distinction between Northern and Southern readerships as an invention of historians and critics rather than an accurate reflection of reading practices of the period. However, a great number of discrepancies exist between the version published in the North and the version published in the South, which remove huge portions of the text which <P> have freed some slaves without harming his children's future, if he had wanted to. Mason's biographers and interpreters have long differed about how to present his views on slavery-related issues. A two-volume biography (1892) by Kate Mason Rowland, who Broadwater noted was "a sympathetic white southerner writing during the heyday of Jim Crow" denied that Mason (her ancestor) was "an abolitionist in the modern sense of the term". She noted that Mason "regretted" that there was slavery and was against the slave trade, but wanted slavery protected in the constitution. In 1919, Robert C. Mason published a biography of his prominent <P> her book The Ship of Ice with other poems in 1948, which won the Sydney Morning Herald award for poetry that year. Dobson's poem places the discovery of the Jenny in 1860, adding 20 years to the period of entrapment. The poem speaks of her as a "ship caught in a bottle / [....] / Becalmed in Time and sealed with a cork of ice". According to Dobson, her source was the anonymous report The Drift of the Jenny, 1823–1840. An explanation of the story is given in the short story, "The Drift of the Jenny" in published in Stew and <P> War for the Soul of America, calls it "fake history", based upon the mistaken premise that the Underground Railroad activities "were so secret that the truth is essentially unknowable". He says that most of the people who successfully escaped slavery were "enterprising and well informed." Even so, there are museums, schools, and others who believe the story to be true. An education coordinator at the Plymouth Historical Museum in Michigan, Anna Lopez said to Time, "What I tell kids is, who writes history? Men do. Mostly white men. Then I ask, who made quilts? Women did, and a lot of black <P> of The Education of Little Tree was revealed to be a hoax. In 2007, Oprah Winfrey pulled the book from a list of recommended titles on her website. While Winfrey had promoted the book on her TV show in 1994, calling the novel "very spiritual," after learning the truth about Carter she said she "had to take the book off my shelf." Whether or not Carter wrote The Education of Little Tree from his actual childhood memories of his Cherokee uncle and grandparents has been disputed. The publisher's remarks in the original edition of the book inaccurately describe Carter as "Storyteller in <P> Council" to the Cherokee Nation. When Carter's background was widely publicized in 1991, the book was reclassified by the publisher as fiction. Today, a debate continues as to whether the book's lessons are altered by the identity of the author. As award-winning author Sherman Alexie has said, "Little Tree is a lovely little book, and I sometimes wonder if it is an act of romantic atonement by a guilt-ridden White supremacist, but ultimately I think it is the racial hypocrisy of a White supremacist." Members of the Cherokee Nation have said that so-called "Cherokee" words and many customs in The Education <P> and necessary part of slave discipline. Although it was supposed to be applied only in a calm and rational manner, overtly physical domination of slaves, unchecked by law, was always brutal and potentially savage." In 2003, Bernice-Marie Yates's The Perfect Gentleman, cited Freeman's denial and followed his account in holding that, because of Lee's family connections to George Washington, he "was a prime target for abolitionists who lacked all the facts of the situation." Lee biographer Elizabeth Brown Pryor concluded in 2008 that "the facts are verifiable," based on "the consistency of the five extant descriptions of the episode (the only element <P> 1933, the book became a target of the Nazi book burnings due to Sinclair's endorsement of socialism. Federal response President Theodore Roosevelt had described Sinclair as a "crackpot" because of the writer's socialist positions. He wrote privately to journalist William Allen White, expressing doubts about the accuracy of Sinclair's claims: "I have an utter contempt for him. He is hysterical, unbalanced, and untruthful. Three-fourths of the things he said were absolute falsehoods. For some of the remainder there was only a basis of truth." After reading The Jungle, Roosevelt agreed with some of Sinclair's conclusions. The president wrote "radical action <P> swayed." "Although it is difficult to grant the book any immediate practical value, it must be recognized that it has a cultural interest, that of exposing the sexual substrata of our culture." Other writers with a feminist orientation have, however, reviewed the book more harshly. Kay L. Cothran, in the Journal of American Folklore, wrote, "the book is an example of folklore misapplied" . . . "The problem of evidence runs throughout the book, which is heavily footnoted and jammed with quotations. The difference between citations and evidence has not impressed itself upon [Gould] Davis. Her notes come from a librarian's <P> but Phillips's prejudice remained. The success of Life and Labor earned Phillips the year-long Albert Kahn Foundation Fellowship in 1929-30 to observe blacks and other laborers worldwide. In 1929 Yale University in New Haven, Connecticut, appointed Phillips professor of history. Phillips contended that masters treated slaves relatively well. His views were rejected most sharply by Kenneth M. Stampp in the 1950s. However, to a large degree Phillips' interpretive model of the dynamic between master and slave was revived by Eugene Genovese, who wrote that Phillips's "work, taken as a whole, remains the best and most subtle introduction to <P> issue, it is submitted that the writings of Ellen G. White were conclusively unplagiaristic." Richard W. Schwarz from the Department of History, Andrews University, opines that any plagiarism results through supernatural inspiration of all those authors, which spoke in more or less the same words to all of them. Critics have especially targeted Ellen White's book The Great Controversy arguing in contains plagiarized material. However, in her introduction she wrote... In some cases where a historian has so grouped together events as to afford, in brief, a comprehensive view of the subject, or has summarized details in a convenient manner, his <P> added a note that only "unessential details" had been excised from the translation. This confused many scholars into taking the book as a primary source, which was not the intention of the publication. Smith was troubled that the book was marketed as being historically accurate and reliable, with no mention of the excised text. Smith later left the book off of his resume, and later publishers did not connect the editor of this book with the man who later became a well known scholar. The book was illustrated by Jerry Bywaters. It included an introduction written by historian Herbert P. <P> enough. In turn Fogel came under sharp attack by other scholars. An essay by the historians George M. Fredrickson and Christopher Lasch (1967) analyzed limitations of both Phillips and his critics. They argued that far too much attention was given to slave "treatment" in examining the social and psychological effects of slavery on Afro-Americans. They said Phillips had defined the treatment issue and his most severe critics had failed to redefine it: By compiling instances of the kindness and benevolence of masters, Phillips proved to his satisfaction that slavery was a mild and permissive institution, the primary function of which was not <P> African Observer History During the mid-1820s, Lewis was recruited by the Pennsylvania Free Produce Society to design, launch and disseminate a new abolitionist publication. He was chosen by that group, according to historian Brian Temple, because he had rescued a runaway slave in 1803 by purchasing the man's freedom and had also invited a former slave to educate his [Lewis's] mathematics class about what life was genuinely like in America for enslaved men, women and children. A half century after the publication's demise, Lewis's son, Joseph J. Lewis, reflected back on his father's involvement, calling it "a labor of love … <P> 2012, she was appointed the Charles Warren Professor of American Legal History at HLS. In 2014, she was the Harold Vyvyan Harmsworth Visiting Professor at Queen's College, University of Oxford. Reception Gordon-Reed "drew on her legal training to apply context and reasonable interpretation to the sparse documentation" and analyzed the historiography as well. The writer Christopher Hitchens in Slate described her analysis as "brilliant." Critics such as John Works and Robert F. Turner of the Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society have pointed out several transcription errors in Gordon-Reed's first book. Although Gordon-Reed said the errors were a "mistake," Works and Turner <P> operation, The African Observer "attempted to quell animosity between the North and South, dispel party disaffection, 'trace the moral influence of slavery on those who breathe its atmosphere" and "point out the best means for its peaceful extinction,'" according to historian Paul Finkelman. Its content included essays, source materials, and articles which were intended to objectively illustrate for Lewis's white contemporaries the evils of the institution of slavery. Essays and documents also traced the early origin of the African slave trade from the continent of Africa to the Americas. The publication also included accounts of kidnappings of free people who were <P> "one of the earliest ... [and] one of the most radical" tracts produced by "various strands of the American women's liberation movement". Lyon said that "by 1969 it had become a kind of bible" for Cell 16, in Boston. According to a 2012 article by Arthur Goldwag on the Southern Poverty Law Center Hatewatch blog, "Solanas continues to be much-read and quoted in some feminist circles." Whether the Manifesto should be considered a feminist classic is challenged by Heller because the Manifesto rejected a hierarchy of greatness, but she said it "remains an influential feminist text." Women and shooting Laura Winkiel <P> from New York and twelve years spent as a slave in Louisiana. His book sold 30,000 copies upon release. His narrative was made into a 2013 film, which won three Academy Awards. Comfort: A Novel of the Reverse Underground Railroad by H. A. Maxson and Claudia H. Young came out in 2014. Abolitionist publications frequently used accounts of people who were kidnapped into slavery for their publications. Notable works that published these accounts include The African Observer, a monthly publication that used firsthand accounts to demonstrate the evils of slavery, as well as Isaac Hopper's Tales of Oppression, a compilation <P> that during the writing process, Washington was able to hear critiques and requests from his audience and could more easily adapt his paper to his diverse audience. Washington was a controversial figure in his own lifetime, and W. E. B. Du Bois, among others, criticized some of his views. The book was, however, a best-seller, and remained the most popular African American autobiography until that of Malcolm X. In 1998, the Modern Library listed the book at No. 3 on its list of the 100 best nonfiction books of the 20th century, and in 1999 it was also listed by the <P> so much to produce a marketable surplus as to ease the accommodation of the lower race into the culture of the higher. The critics of Phillips have tried to meet him on his own ground. Where he compiled lists of indulgences and benefactions, they have assembled lists of atrocities. Both methods suffer from the same defect: they attempt to solve a conceptual problem—what did slavery do to the slave?—by accumulating quantitative evidence.... The only conclusion that one can legitimately draw from this debate is that great variations in treatment existed from plantation to plantation. Biases John David Smith of North	answer: They are largely regarded as legitimate by those who study and use them (including myself), but as /u/The_Alaskan said, they need to be taken with a grain of salt. Depending on the time and date of the interview as well as the race or gender of the interviewer, the responses given by the interviewee are going to be different. In my own research as a white male, I know that when I interview an African-American, their responses would be different if another African-American were interviewing them. The same issues applied to the WPA Narratives.
45,603	54brsc	why do babies sit up so straight? is it simply because they don't have a lot of weight to support?	They have proportionally big heavy heads and little strength. If they don't sit up straight, they'll flop right over.	[ "They have proportionally big heavy heads and little strength. If they don't sit up straight, they'll flop right over." ]	1	[ "They have proportionally big heavy heads and little strength. If they don't sit up straight, they'll flop right over." ]	1	<P> positions Upright birth positions in general Various people have promoted the adoption of upright birthing positions, particularly squatting, for Western countries, such as Grantly Dick-Read, Janet Balaskas, Moysés Paciornik and Hugo Sabatino. The adoption of the non-lithotomy positions is also promoted by the natural childbirth movement. Being upright during labour and birth can increase the available space within the pelvis by 28-30% giving more room to the baby for rotation and descent. There is also a 54% decreased incidence of foetal heart rate abnormalities when the mother is upright. These birthing positions can also reduce the duration of the second stage <P> the elevated heels or another person supporting the squatter. In ancient Egypt, women delivered babies while squatting on a pair of bricks, known as birth bricks. All-fours Some mothers may choose the all-fours position instinctively. It can help the baby turn around in the case of a malpresentation of the head. Since this position uses gravity, it decreases back pain, as the mother is able to tilt her hips. Side lying Side lying may help slow the baby's descent down the birth canal, thereby giving the perineum more time to naturally stretch. To assume this position, the mother lies on her <P> caregiver because it permits him or her more access to the perineum. However, this is not a comfortable position for most patients, considering the pressure on the vaginal walls because the baby's head is uneven and the labor process is working against gravity. <P> needs to occur. This happens when the mother's pelvic floor muscles cause the baby to turn so that it can be born with one hip directly in front of the other. At this point the baby is facing one of the mother's inner thighs. Then, the shoulders follow the same path as the hips did. At this time the baby usually turns to face the mother's back. Next occurs external rotation, which is when the shoulders emerge as the baby’s head enters the maternal pelvis. The combination of maternal muscle tone and <P> uterine contractions cause the baby’s head to flex, chin to chest. Then the back of the baby's head emerges and finally the face. Due to the increased pressure during labour and birth, it is normal for the baby's leading hip to be bruised and genitalia to be swollen. Babies who assumed the frank breech position in utero may continue to hold their legs in this position for some days after birth. Cesarean or vaginal delivery When a baby is born bottom first there is more risk that the birth will not be straight forward and that the baby <P> Twisting the body such that an arm trails behind the shoulder, it will tend to cross down over the face to a position where it can be reached by the obstetrician's finger, and brought to a position below the head. A similar rotation in the opposite direction is made to deliver the other arm. In order to present the smallest diameter (9.5 cm) to the pelvis, the baby’s head must be flexed (chin to chest). If the head is in a deflexed position, the risk of entrapment is increased. Uterine contractions and maternal muscle tone encourage the head to flex. Oxygen <P> of labour as well as reduce the risk for emergency caesarian sections by 29%. They are also associated with the lower need for epidural. Different positions may be associated with different rates of perineal injury. Squatting position The squatting position gives a greater increase of pressure in the pelvic cavity with minimal muscular effort. The birth canal will open 20 to 30% more in a squat than in any other position. It is recommended for the second stage of childbirth. As most Western adults find it difficult to squat with heels down, compromises are often made such as putting a support under <P> of the fetal head to negotiate the maternal midpelvis. At full term, the fetal bitrochanteric diameter (the distance between the outer points of the hips) is about the same as the biparietal diameter (the transverse diameter of the skull)—simply put the size of the hips are the same as the size of the head. The relatively larger buttocks dilate the cervix as effectively as the head does in the typical head-down presentation. In contrast, the relative head size of a preterm baby is greater than the fetal buttocks. If the baby is preterm, it may be possible for the <P> presentations, the baby’s bottom (rather than feet or knees) is what is first to descend through the maternal pelvis and emerge from the vagina. At the beginning of labour, the baby is generally in an oblique position, facing either the right or left side. The baby's bottom is the same size in the term baby as the baby's head. Descent is thus as for the presenting fetal head and delay in descent is a cardinal sign of possible problems with the delivery of the head. In order to begin the birth, descent of podalic pole along with compaction and internal rotation <P> dropping in a "baby arm". <P> the head and reduce decompression. Related to potential head trauma, researchers have identified a relationship between breech birth and autism. Squeezing the baby’s abdomen can damage internal organs. Positioning the baby incorrectly while using forceps to deliver the after coming head can damage the spine or spinal cord. It is important for the birth attendant to be knowledgeable, skilled, and experienced with all variations of breech birth. Management As in labour with a baby in a normal head-down position, uterine contractions typically occur at regular intervals and gradually the cervix begins to thin and open. In the more common breech <P> Childbirth positions The term childbirth positions (or "maternal birthing position") refers to the physical postures the pregnant mother may assume during the process of childbirth. They may also be referred to as delivery positions or labor positions. In addition to the lithotomy position, still commonly used by many obstetricians, other positions are successfully used by midwives and traditional birth-attendants around the world. Engelmann's seminal work "Labor among primitive peoples" publicised the childbirth positions amongst primitive cultures to the Western world. They frequently use squatting, standing, kneeling and all fours positions, often in a sequence. They are referred to as upright birth <P> body, palms upwards. Variations If need be, and during pregnancy, the knees can be spread. The arms may be stretched forward in front of the head. Discomfort in the neck and shoulders while performing Child's Pose can be alleviated "by placing a thickly rolled blanket between your buttocks and heels, then bend your elbows and stack your forearms so you can rest your forehead on them." Ananda Balasana or "Happy Baby Pose" has the body on the back, the thighs alongside the body, the knees bent and the hands grasping the toes. Uttana Shishosana or "Extended Puppy Pose" stretches forwards from all <P> Shoulder presentation Frequency and causes Shoulder presentations are uncommon (about 0.5% of births) as usually towards the end of gestation either the head or the buttocks start to enter the upper part of the pelvis anchoring the fetus in a longitudinal lie. It is not known in all cases of shoulder presentation why the longitudinal lie is not reached, but possible causes include bony abnormalities of the pelvis, uterine abnormalities such as malformations or tumors (fibroids), and other tumors in the pelvis or abdomen can also lead to a shoulder presentation. Other factors are a lax abdominal musculature, uterine overdistension <P> to a medical intervention within the hospital. There are significant advantages to assuming an upright position in labor and birth, such as stronger and more efficient uterine contractions aiding cervical dilatation, increased pelvic inlet and outlet diameters and improved uterine contractility. Upright positions in the second stage include sitting, squatting, kneeling, and being on hands and knees. Postpartum period For women who have a hospital birth, the minimum hospital stay is six hours. Women who leave before this do so against medical advice. Women may choose when to leave the hospital. Full postnatal assessments are conducted daily whilst inpatient, or <P> dilated cervix. When the waters break the amniotic sac, it is possible for the umbilical cord to drop down and become compressed. This complication severely diminishes oxygen flow to the baby, so the baby must be delivered immediately (usually by Caesarean section) so that he or she can breathe. If there is a delay in delivery, the brain can be damaged. Among full-term, head-down babies, cord prolapse is quite rare, occurring in 0.4 percent. Among frank breech babies the incidence is 0.5 percent, among complete breeches 5 percent, and among footling breeches 15 percent. Head entrapment is caused by the failure <P> vertebrae with wide transverse foramina, almost as wide as the centra. <P> Congenital fourth nerve palsy Signs and symptoms Though present from birth, symptoms of congenital fourth cranial nerve palsy may start as subtle and increase with age. Hence, diagnosis by a healthcare practitioner may not be made until later childhood or adulthood. Young children adopt a compensatory head position in order to compensate for the underacting superior oblique muscle, or have a tendency to close one eye whilst reading. The characteristic head tilt is usually away from the affected side to reduce eye strain and prevent double vision (diplopia). Old photographs may reveal the presence of a consistent head <P> need of developmental growth. <P> patients on non breakable tabletops, positioning aids are available, i.e. inflatable cushions. Truly floating tabletops are not available with conventional OR tables. As a compromise, floatable angiography tables specifically made for surgery with vertical and lateral tilt are recommended. To further accommodate typical surgical needs, side rails for mounting surgical equipment like retractors or limb holders should be available for the table. The position of the table in the room also impacts surgical workflow. A diagonal position in the OR may be considered in order to gain space and flexibility in the room, as well as access to the patient from	question: why do babies sit up so straight? is it simply because they don't have a lot of weight to support? context: <P> positions Upright birth positions in general Various people have promoted the adoption of upright birthing positions, particularly squatting, for Western countries, such as Grantly Dick-Read, Janet Balaskas, Moysés Paciornik and Hugo Sabatino. The adoption of the non-lithotomy positions is also promoted by the natural childbirth movement. Being upright during labour and birth can increase the available space within the pelvis by 28-30% giving more room to the baby for rotation and descent. There is also a 54% decreased incidence of foetal heart rate abnormalities when the mother is upright. These birthing positions can also reduce the duration of the second stage <P> the elevated heels or another person supporting the squatter. In ancient Egypt, women delivered babies while squatting on a pair of bricks, known as birth bricks. All-fours Some mothers may choose the all-fours position instinctively. It can help the baby turn around in the case of a malpresentation of the head. Since this position uses gravity, it decreases back pain, as the mother is able to tilt her hips. Side lying Side lying may help slow the baby's descent down the birth canal, thereby giving the perineum more time to naturally stretch. To assume this position, the mother lies on her <P> caregiver because it permits him or her more access to the perineum. However, this is not a comfortable position for most patients, considering the pressure on the vaginal walls because the baby's head is uneven and the labor process is working against gravity. <P> needs to occur. This happens when the mother's pelvic floor muscles cause the baby to turn so that it can be born with one hip directly in front of the other. At this point the baby is facing one of the mother's inner thighs. Then, the shoulders follow the same path as the hips did. At this time the baby usually turns to face the mother's back. Next occurs external rotation, which is when the shoulders emerge as the baby’s head enters the maternal pelvis. The combination of maternal muscle tone and <P> uterine contractions cause the baby’s head to flex, chin to chest. Then the back of the baby's head emerges and finally the face. Due to the increased pressure during labour and birth, it is normal for the baby's leading hip to be bruised and genitalia to be swollen. Babies who assumed the frank breech position in utero may continue to hold their legs in this position for some days after birth. Cesarean or vaginal delivery When a baby is born bottom first there is more risk that the birth will not be straight forward and that the baby <P> Twisting the body such that an arm trails behind the shoulder, it will tend to cross down over the face to a position where it can be reached by the obstetrician's finger, and brought to a position below the head. A similar rotation in the opposite direction is made to deliver the other arm. In order to present the smallest diameter (9.5 cm) to the pelvis, the baby’s head must be flexed (chin to chest). If the head is in a deflexed position, the risk of entrapment is increased. Uterine contractions and maternal muscle tone encourage the head to flex. Oxygen <P> of labour as well as reduce the risk for emergency caesarian sections by 29%. They are also associated with the lower need for epidural. Different positions may be associated with different rates of perineal injury. Squatting position The squatting position gives a greater increase of pressure in the pelvic cavity with minimal muscular effort. The birth canal will open 20 to 30% more in a squat than in any other position. It is recommended for the second stage of childbirth. As most Western adults find it difficult to squat with heels down, compromises are often made such as putting a support under <P> of the fetal head to negotiate the maternal midpelvis. At full term, the fetal bitrochanteric diameter (the distance between the outer points of the hips) is about the same as the biparietal diameter (the transverse diameter of the skull)—simply put the size of the hips are the same as the size of the head. The relatively larger buttocks dilate the cervix as effectively as the head does in the typical head-down presentation. In contrast, the relative head size of a preterm baby is greater than the fetal buttocks. If the baby is preterm, it may be possible for the <P> presentations, the baby’s bottom (rather than feet or knees) is what is first to descend through the maternal pelvis and emerge from the vagina. At the beginning of labour, the baby is generally in an oblique position, facing either the right or left side. The baby's bottom is the same size in the term baby as the baby's head. Descent is thus as for the presenting fetal head and delay in descent is a cardinal sign of possible problems with the delivery of the head. In order to begin the birth, descent of podalic pole along with compaction and internal rotation <P> dropping in a "baby arm". <P> the head and reduce decompression. Related to potential head trauma, researchers have identified a relationship between breech birth and autism. Squeezing the baby’s abdomen can damage internal organs. Positioning the baby incorrectly while using forceps to deliver the after coming head can damage the spine or spinal cord. It is important for the birth attendant to be knowledgeable, skilled, and experienced with all variations of breech birth. Management As in labour with a baby in a normal head-down position, uterine contractions typically occur at regular intervals and gradually the cervix begins to thin and open. In the more common breech <P> Childbirth positions The term childbirth positions (or "maternal birthing position") refers to the physical postures the pregnant mother may assume during the process of childbirth. They may also be referred to as delivery positions or labor positions. In addition to the lithotomy position, still commonly used by many obstetricians, other positions are successfully used by midwives and traditional birth-attendants around the world. Engelmann's seminal work "Labor among primitive peoples" publicised the childbirth positions amongst primitive cultures to the Western world. They frequently use squatting, standing, kneeling and all fours positions, often in a sequence. They are referred to as upright birth <P> body, palms upwards. Variations If need be, and during pregnancy, the knees can be spread. The arms may be stretched forward in front of the head. Discomfort in the neck and shoulders while performing Child's Pose can be alleviated "by placing a thickly rolled blanket between your buttocks and heels, then bend your elbows and stack your forearms so you can rest your forehead on them." Ananda Balasana or "Happy Baby Pose" has the body on the back, the thighs alongside the body, the knees bent and the hands grasping the toes. Uttana Shishosana or "Extended Puppy Pose" stretches forwards from all <P> Shoulder presentation Frequency and causes Shoulder presentations are uncommon (about 0.5% of births) as usually towards the end of gestation either the head or the buttocks start to enter the upper part of the pelvis anchoring the fetus in a longitudinal lie. It is not known in all cases of shoulder presentation why the longitudinal lie is not reached, but possible causes include bony abnormalities of the pelvis, uterine abnormalities such as malformations or tumors (fibroids), and other tumors in the pelvis or abdomen can also lead to a shoulder presentation. Other factors are a lax abdominal musculature, uterine overdistension <P> to a medical intervention within the hospital. There are significant advantages to assuming an upright position in labor and birth, such as stronger and more efficient uterine contractions aiding cervical dilatation, increased pelvic inlet and outlet diameters and improved uterine contractility. Upright positions in the second stage include sitting, squatting, kneeling, and being on hands and knees. Postpartum period For women who have a hospital birth, the minimum hospital stay is six hours. Women who leave before this do so against medical advice. Women may choose when to leave the hospital. Full postnatal assessments are conducted daily whilst inpatient, or <P> dilated cervix. When the waters break the amniotic sac, it is possible for the umbilical cord to drop down and become compressed. This complication severely diminishes oxygen flow to the baby, so the baby must be delivered immediately (usually by Caesarean section) so that he or she can breathe. If there is a delay in delivery, the brain can be damaged. Among full-term, head-down babies, cord prolapse is quite rare, occurring in 0.4 percent. Among frank breech babies the incidence is 0.5 percent, among complete breeches 5 percent, and among footling breeches 15 percent. Head entrapment is caused by the failure <P> vertebrae with wide transverse foramina, almost as wide as the centra. <P> Congenital fourth nerve palsy Signs and symptoms Though present from birth, symptoms of congenital fourth cranial nerve palsy may start as subtle and increase with age. Hence, diagnosis by a healthcare practitioner may not be made until later childhood or adulthood. Young children adopt a compensatory head position in order to compensate for the underacting superior oblique muscle, or have a tendency to close one eye whilst reading. The characteristic head tilt is usually away from the affected side to reduce eye strain and prevent double vision (diplopia). Old photographs may reveal the presence of a consistent head <P> need of developmental growth. <P> patients on non breakable tabletops, positioning aids are available, i.e. inflatable cushions. Truly floating tabletops are not available with conventional OR tables. As a compromise, floatable angiography tables specifically made for surgery with vertical and lateral tilt are recommended. To further accommodate typical surgical needs, side rails for mounting surgical equipment like retractors or limb holders should be available for the table. The position of the table in the room also impacts surgical workflow. A diagonal position in the OR may be considered in order to gain space and flexibility in the room, as well as access to the patient from	answer: They have proportionally big heavy heads and little strength. If they don't sit up straight, they'll flop right over.
90,438	aslqkm	How long ago did the platypus split off from other mammals? Why does the platypus have several distinct features not found elsewhere in combination? What genetic or fossil evidence supports the theories?	The monotremes split from the therians in the late Triassic/early Jurassic. Early monotremes did not resemble platypuses. The unique modern platypus form is a combination of derived (duck-like bill, webbed feet) and ancestral traits (lack of teats, oviparity, fur). The general platypus morphology has existed since at least late Oligocene as evident in the fossil record exemplified by the extinct genus Obdurodon.	[ "The monotremes split from the therians in the late Triassic/early Jurassic. Early monotremes did not resemble platypuses. The unique modern platypus form is a combination of derived (duck-like bill, webbed feet) and ancestral traits (lack of teats, oviparity, fur). The general platypus morphology has existed since...	3	[ "The monotremes split from the therians in the late Triassic/early Jurassic. Early monotremes did not resemble platypuses. The unique modern platypus form is a combination of derived (duck-like bill, webbed feet) and ancestral traits (lack of teats, oviparity, fur). The general platypus morphology has existed since...	2	<P> of the nostrils. Classic images and toys familiar to many people show the animal with a short trunk. However, a recent study comparing the skulls of tapirs and various other herbivorous extant and extinct mammal species instead saw similarities with the skulls of moose, suggesting that Macrauchenia and other macraucheniids such as Huayqueriana did not possess trunks. The snout of Macrauchenia is completely enclosed by bone, and the animal has an elongated neck that allowed it to reach upward; no living mammal with a proboscis has these features. An alternative hypothesis is that these litopterns were high browsers on <P> specimen, unlike in Desmostylus and other Afrotheria, and they concluded that (1) Desmostylidae and Paleoparadoxiidae probably diverged earlier than previously believed and that (2) delayed dentition can not be the most primitive state of Desmostylia. <P> Symmetrodontoides, and the illusive Potamotelses and picopsids. These were the last non-therian mammals (other than the highly successful multituberculates) in North America, suggesting a relictual element to the region's fauna. <P> is the Meridiungulata. Together with Neolicaphrium, Macrauchenia was among the youngest genera of litopterns, and these two appear to have been the only members of the group to survive the Great American Interchange; they became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene. Those that died out during this faunal exchange are presumed to have been driven to extinction at least in part by competition with invading North American ungulates. The Litopterna, like the notoungulates and pyrotheres, are examples of ungulate mammals that arose relatively independently in "splendid isolation" on the island continent of South America. Like Australia, South America was isolated <P> one of the earlier species, living in the same time of the Australopithecus afarensis. After the finding of the K. platyops skull, the common ancestor has shifted to the K. platyops from the A. afarensis. <P> from all other continents following the breakup of Gondwana. During this period of isolation, unique mammals evolved to fill ecological niches similar to other mammals elsewhere. The Litopterna occupied ecological roles as browsers and grazers similar to horses and camels in Laurasia. Sequencing of mitochondrial DNA recently extracted from an Macrauchenia patachonica fossil from a cave in southern Chile indicates that Litopterna is the sister group to Perissodactyla, making them true ungulates. The estimated divergence date is 66 million years ago. Analyses of collagen sequences obtained from Macrauchenia and the notoungulate Toxodon have led to the same conclusion, and add notoungulates <P> Meiolania Description Meiolania had an unusually shaped skull that sported many knob-like and horn-like protrusions. Two large horns faced sideways, and would have prevented the animal fully withdrawing its head into its shell. The tail was protected by armored 'rings', and sported thorn-like spikes at the end. The body form of Meiolania may be viewed as having converged towards those of dinosaurian ankylosaurids and xenarthran glyptodonts. There are two species of Meiolania known from the Australian continent: M. brevicollis and an unnamed species. The unnamed species could reach 2 metres (6.6 ft) in carapace length, making it the second-largest known nonmarine turtle <P> vestigial tubercles that correspond to the compound eyes of their ancestors. Distribution Raphiophoridae currently includes two officially recognized subfamilies. The nominal subfamily Raphiophorinae originated from the Upper Tremadocian and died out during the Lower Ludlow, and has 217 species assigned to it divided over 26 genera. The subfamily Endymioniinae occurred from the Floian or possibly from the Lower Tremadocian to the Upper Katian and contains 36 species in 13 genera. The time of the first occurrence depends on whether the inadequately known monotypic genus Typhlokorynetes from the Lower Tremadocian of Laurentia is considered an endymioniin. Raphiophorids are generally found in <P> Bretesuchus Discovery Fossils of Bretesuchus have been found in the El Brete locality, from the Maíz Gordo Formation of northwestern Argentina and date back to the Thanetian stage of the late Palaeocene, about 58.7-55.8 million years ago. The highly bent premaxilla shows that it lies within the suborder Sebecosuchia, a group of mostly South American terrestrial carnivorous crocodylomorphs with distinctive laterally compressed snouts. Bretesuchus was originally assigned to its own family, the Bretesuchidae which was found to be the sister group of Sebecus. In 2007, a species of Sebecus, S. querejazus from the Early Paleocene Santa Lucia Formation in Bolivia, <P> Clymeniidae Distribution Fossils of species within this family have been found in the Devonian of Australia. <P> the three groups of large theropods that were known to have inhabited the southern continents during this time (namely the Abelisauridae, Carcharodontosauridae or Spinosauridae). Sereno suggested that it might be related to the allosauroid radiation of the Jurassic period, and this was supported in subsequent studies that recognized a clade of late-surviving, lightly built, advanced allosauroids with large hand claws similar to the spinosaurs, called the Megaraptora, within the allosaur family Neovenatoridae. A later analysis has placed Megaraptora, including Aerosteon, within the Tyrannosauroidea. Megaraptorans have since been also considered as non-tyrannosauroid basal coelurosaurs in some analyses. Physiology Some of Aerosteon's <P> northern hemisphere. Some dental features can possibly link the most primitve pantodonts to the palaeoryctids, a group of small and insectivorous mammals that evolved during the Cretaceous. Recently a close relationship with Periptychidae has been suggested. This would make pantodonts crown-group ungulate placentals and not related to cimolestids at all. Genera from North America tended to be large and robust, starting with Pantolambda and Caenolambda in the Middle Paleocene epoch, and later in the epoch started to get larger, with Barylambda as the largest Paleocene form of pantodont. However, Asian forms, such as Archaeolambda, tended to be thinner and less robust, <P> Titanogomphodon Diet Like Diademodon, Titanogomphodon was probably herbivorous. It is part of a very diverse fossil assemblage in the Omingonde Formation that includes several other types of cynodonts, including Diademodon, Cynognathus, and Trirachodon, as well as other therapsids such as Dolichuranus and Herpetogale. The Omingonde assemblage was part of a larger continental fauna that ranged across much of Gondwana during the Middle Triassic. Other finds An isolated upper jaw of a diademodontid described from the Fremouw Formation of Antarctica in 1995 may also belong to Titanogomphodon based on its large size. However, since the only known fossil of Titanogomphodon is <P> lizards, Aiolosaurus, Cherminotus, and the related Ovoo are representative of the first evolutionary radiation of varanids. <P> these sabre-toothed animals are believed to have been the direct ancestors of all modern antlered deer, though they themselves lacked antlers. Another contemporaneous form was the four-horned protoceratid Protoceras, that was replaced by Syndyoceras in the Miocene; these animals were unique in having a horn on the nose. Late Eocene fossils dated approximately 35 million years ago, which were found in North America, show that Syndyoceras had bony skull outgrowths that resembled non-deciduous antlers. Miocene epoch Fossil evidence suggests that the earliest members of the superfamily Cervoidea appeared in Eurasia in the Miocene. Dicrocerus, Euprox and Heteroprox were probably the <P> nasal bones suggests that they possessed a short proboscis, leading to the nickname of the "marsupial tapir". Since they are unrelated to tapirs, this similarity in nose shape is an example of convergent evolution. A structural detail of the first molar is regarded as characteristic of this genus, the development of a midlink at the crown, distinguishing it from the earlier Propalorchestes and other Miocene genera. The dentition and morphological features of the genus indicate they browsed for plant material such as shrubs and roots. Distribution and habitat Specimens of Palorchestes have been found at sites in the east of the <P> feeders among the creodonts. Evolution Creodonts were traditionally considered ancestors to Carnivora, but are now considered to have been more closely related to pangolins. Oxyaenids are first known from the Palaeocene of North America while hyaenodonts hail from the Palaeocene of Africa. They share with the Carnivora, and many other predatory mammal clades, the carnassial shear, a modification of teeth that evolved to slice meat in a manner like scissors and gave both orders the tools to dominate the niche, an adaptation also seen in other clades of predatory mammals. Their origins may lie at least as far back as the <P> riverbed, suggests that Didelphodon may have possessed an otter-like body with a tasmanian devil-like skull. A study that is being prepared by Kraig Derstler, Greg Wilson, Robert Bakker, Ray Vodden and Mike Triebold will describe this new specimen, housed in the Rocky Mountain Dinosaur Resource Center. A study on Mesozoic mammal locomotion demonstrates that Didelphodon groups with semi-aquatic species. The evolution of Didelphodon and other large stagodontids (as well as large deltatheroideans like Nanocuris) occurs after the local extinction of eutriconodont mammals, suggesting passive or direct ecological replacement. Given that all insectivorous and carnivorous mammal groups suffered heavy losses during the <P> (Graphephasianus) and the three remaining species then transferred to Calophasis; as noted above, although this may eventually turn out to be warranted it is not well supported by the available evidence. Evolution Of Late Miocene origin, the genus Syrmaticus originated from some pheasant species inhabiting the submontane to montane subtropical rainforest at the northwestern end of the Himalayas some 10-7 million years ago (mya) during the Tortonian – the genus is thus about as old as Gallus and originated somewhat before the time the ancestors of humans and chimpanzees finally diverged. The original long-tailed pheasant (which probably did not have <P> Toromeryx Taxonomy Toromeryx was named by Wilson (1974). Its type is Toromeryx marginensis. It was assigned to Protoceratidae by Wilson (1974), Carroll (1988), Prothero (1998) and Prothero and Ludtke (2007). Morphology Toromeryx resembled deer. However they were more closely related to camelids. In addition to having horns in the more usual place, protoceratids had additional, rostral horns above the orbital cavity. Toromeryx was smaller than Miocene members of Tylopoda: Paratoceras, Protoceras, and. Pseudoprotoceras.	question: How long ago did the platypus split off from other mammals? Why does the platypus have several distinct features not found elsewhere in combination? What genetic or fossil evidence supports the theories? context: <P> of the nostrils. Classic images and toys familiar to many people show the animal with a short trunk. However, a recent study comparing the skulls of tapirs and various other herbivorous extant and extinct mammal species instead saw similarities with the skulls of moose, suggesting that Macrauchenia and other macraucheniids such as Huayqueriana did not possess trunks. The snout of Macrauchenia is completely enclosed by bone, and the animal has an elongated neck that allowed it to reach upward; no living mammal with a proboscis has these features. An alternative hypothesis is that these litopterns were high browsers on <P> specimen, unlike in Desmostylus and other Afrotheria, and they concluded that (1) Desmostylidae and Paleoparadoxiidae probably diverged earlier than previously believed and that (2) delayed dentition can not be the most primitive state of Desmostylia. <P> Symmetrodontoides, and the illusive Potamotelses and picopsids. These were the last non-therian mammals (other than the highly successful multituberculates) in North America, suggesting a relictual element to the region's fauna. <P> is the Meridiungulata. Together with Neolicaphrium, Macrauchenia was among the youngest genera of litopterns, and these two appear to have been the only members of the group to survive the Great American Interchange; they became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene. Those that died out during this faunal exchange are presumed to have been driven to extinction at least in part by competition with invading North American ungulates. The Litopterna, like the notoungulates and pyrotheres, are examples of ungulate mammals that arose relatively independently in "splendid isolation" on the island continent of South America. Like Australia, South America was isolated <P> one of the earlier species, living in the same time of the Australopithecus afarensis. After the finding of the K. platyops skull, the common ancestor has shifted to the K. platyops from the A. afarensis. <P> from all other continents following the breakup of Gondwana. During this period of isolation, unique mammals evolved to fill ecological niches similar to other mammals elsewhere. The Litopterna occupied ecological roles as browsers and grazers similar to horses and camels in Laurasia. Sequencing of mitochondrial DNA recently extracted from an Macrauchenia patachonica fossil from a cave in southern Chile indicates that Litopterna is the sister group to Perissodactyla, making them true ungulates. The estimated divergence date is 66 million years ago. Analyses of collagen sequences obtained from Macrauchenia and the notoungulate Toxodon have led to the same conclusion, and add notoungulates <P> Meiolania Description Meiolania had an unusually shaped skull that sported many knob-like and horn-like protrusions. Two large horns faced sideways, and would have prevented the animal fully withdrawing its head into its shell. The tail was protected by armored 'rings', and sported thorn-like spikes at the end. The body form of Meiolania may be viewed as having converged towards those of dinosaurian ankylosaurids and xenarthran glyptodonts. There are two species of Meiolania known from the Australian continent: M. brevicollis and an unnamed species. The unnamed species could reach 2 metres (6.6 ft) in carapace length, making it the second-largest known nonmarine turtle <P> vestigial tubercles that correspond to the compound eyes of their ancestors. Distribution Raphiophoridae currently includes two officially recognized subfamilies. The nominal subfamily Raphiophorinae originated from the Upper Tremadocian and died out during the Lower Ludlow, and has 217 species assigned to it divided over 26 genera. The subfamily Endymioniinae occurred from the Floian or possibly from the Lower Tremadocian to the Upper Katian and contains 36 species in 13 genera. The time of the first occurrence depends on whether the inadequately known monotypic genus Typhlokorynetes from the Lower Tremadocian of Laurentia is considered an endymioniin. Raphiophorids are generally found in <P> Bretesuchus Discovery Fossils of Bretesuchus have been found in the El Brete locality, from the Maíz Gordo Formation of northwestern Argentina and date back to the Thanetian stage of the late Palaeocene, about 58.7-55.8 million years ago. The highly bent premaxilla shows that it lies within the suborder Sebecosuchia, a group of mostly South American terrestrial carnivorous crocodylomorphs with distinctive laterally compressed snouts. Bretesuchus was originally assigned to its own family, the Bretesuchidae which was found to be the sister group of Sebecus. In 2007, a species of Sebecus, S. querejazus from the Early Paleocene Santa Lucia Formation in Bolivia, <P> Clymeniidae Distribution Fossils of species within this family have been found in the Devonian of Australia. <P> the three groups of large theropods that were known to have inhabited the southern continents during this time (namely the Abelisauridae, Carcharodontosauridae or Spinosauridae). Sereno suggested that it might be related to the allosauroid radiation of the Jurassic period, and this was supported in subsequent studies that recognized a clade of late-surviving, lightly built, advanced allosauroids with large hand claws similar to the spinosaurs, called the Megaraptora, within the allosaur family Neovenatoridae. A later analysis has placed Megaraptora, including Aerosteon, within the Tyrannosauroidea. Megaraptorans have since been also considered as non-tyrannosauroid basal coelurosaurs in some analyses. Physiology Some of Aerosteon's <P> northern hemisphere. Some dental features can possibly link the most primitve pantodonts to the palaeoryctids, a group of small and insectivorous mammals that evolved during the Cretaceous. Recently a close relationship with Periptychidae has been suggested. This would make pantodonts crown-group ungulate placentals and not related to cimolestids at all. Genera from North America tended to be large and robust, starting with Pantolambda and Caenolambda in the Middle Paleocene epoch, and later in the epoch started to get larger, with Barylambda as the largest Paleocene form of pantodont. However, Asian forms, such as Archaeolambda, tended to be thinner and less robust, <P> Titanogomphodon Diet Like Diademodon, Titanogomphodon was probably herbivorous. It is part of a very diverse fossil assemblage in the Omingonde Formation that includes several other types of cynodonts, including Diademodon, Cynognathus, and Trirachodon, as well as other therapsids such as Dolichuranus and Herpetogale. The Omingonde assemblage was part of a larger continental fauna that ranged across much of Gondwana during the Middle Triassic. Other finds An isolated upper jaw of a diademodontid described from the Fremouw Formation of Antarctica in 1995 may also belong to Titanogomphodon based on its large size. However, since the only known fossil of Titanogomphodon is <P> lizards, Aiolosaurus, Cherminotus, and the related Ovoo are representative of the first evolutionary radiation of varanids. <P> these sabre-toothed animals are believed to have been the direct ancestors of all modern antlered deer, though they themselves lacked antlers. Another contemporaneous form was the four-horned protoceratid Protoceras, that was replaced by Syndyoceras in the Miocene; these animals were unique in having a horn on the nose. Late Eocene fossils dated approximately 35 million years ago, which were found in North America, show that Syndyoceras had bony skull outgrowths that resembled non-deciduous antlers. Miocene epoch Fossil evidence suggests that the earliest members of the superfamily Cervoidea appeared in Eurasia in the Miocene. Dicrocerus, Euprox and Heteroprox were probably the <P> nasal bones suggests that they possessed a short proboscis, leading to the nickname of the "marsupial tapir". Since they are unrelated to tapirs, this similarity in nose shape is an example of convergent evolution. A structural detail of the first molar is regarded as characteristic of this genus, the development of a midlink at the crown, distinguishing it from the earlier Propalorchestes and other Miocene genera. The dentition and morphological features of the genus indicate they browsed for plant material such as shrubs and roots. Distribution and habitat Specimens of Palorchestes have been found at sites in the east of the <P> feeders among the creodonts. Evolution Creodonts were traditionally considered ancestors to Carnivora, but are now considered to have been more closely related to pangolins. Oxyaenids are first known from the Palaeocene of North America while hyaenodonts hail from the Palaeocene of Africa. They share with the Carnivora, and many other predatory mammal clades, the carnassial shear, a modification of teeth that evolved to slice meat in a manner like scissors and gave both orders the tools to dominate the niche, an adaptation also seen in other clades of predatory mammals. Their origins may lie at least as far back as the <P> riverbed, suggests that Didelphodon may have possessed an otter-like body with a tasmanian devil-like skull. A study that is being prepared by Kraig Derstler, Greg Wilson, Robert Bakker, Ray Vodden and Mike Triebold will describe this new specimen, housed in the Rocky Mountain Dinosaur Resource Center. A study on Mesozoic mammal locomotion demonstrates that Didelphodon groups with semi-aquatic species. The evolution of Didelphodon and other large stagodontids (as well as large deltatheroideans like Nanocuris) occurs after the local extinction of eutriconodont mammals, suggesting passive or direct ecological replacement. Given that all insectivorous and carnivorous mammal groups suffered heavy losses during the <P> (Graphephasianus) and the three remaining species then transferred to Calophasis; as noted above, although this may eventually turn out to be warranted it is not well supported by the available evidence. Evolution Of Late Miocene origin, the genus Syrmaticus originated from some pheasant species inhabiting the submontane to montane subtropical rainforest at the northwestern end of the Himalayas some 10-7 million years ago (mya) during the Tortonian – the genus is thus about as old as Gallus and originated somewhat before the time the ancestors of humans and chimpanzees finally diverged. The original long-tailed pheasant (which probably did not have <P> Toromeryx Taxonomy Toromeryx was named by Wilson (1974). Its type is Toromeryx marginensis. It was assigned to Protoceratidae by Wilson (1974), Carroll (1988), Prothero (1998) and Prothero and Ludtke (2007). Morphology Toromeryx resembled deer. However they were more closely related to camelids. In addition to having horns in the more usual place, protoceratids had additional, rostral horns above the orbital cavity. Toromeryx was smaller than Miocene members of Tylopoda: Paratoceras, Protoceras, and. Pseudoprotoceras.	answer: The monotremes split from the therians in the late Triassic/early Jurassic. Early monotremes did not resemble platypuses. The unique modern platypus form is a combination of derived (duck-like bill, webbed feet) and ancestral traits (lack of teats, oviparity, fur). The general platypus morphology has existed since at least late Oligocene as evident in the fossil record exemplified by the extinct genus Obdurodon.
16,166	5zti68	why do phones measure power as ma and mah, while laptops use watts and wh?	Phones use a single 3.7 volt cell so Watt-Hours can be calculated by multiplying AH times 3.7 volts. Laptops use various numbers of cells, so WH gives a better predictor of performance. Amp-Hours are used when comparing cells of the same voltage.	[ "Phones use a single 3.7 volt cell so Watt-Hours can be calculated by multiplying AH times 3.7 volts. Laptops use various numbers of cells, so WH gives a better predictor of performance. \n\nAmp-Hours are used when comparing cells of the same voltage. " ]	1	[]	0	<P> cellphone. Besides energy storage in batteries, the concept of volumetric efficiency appears in design and application of capacitors, where the "CV product" is a figure of merit calculated by multiplying the capacitance (C) by the maximum voltage rating (V), divided by the volume. The concept of volumetric efficiency can be applied to any measurable electronic characteristic, including resistance, capacitance, inductance, voltage, current, energy storage, etc. <P> CPU, 512 MB of RAM and a dual-core PowerVR SGX543MP2 GPU. Other features include front and rear cameras, a three-axis gyroscope, headset controls, proximity and ambient light sensors, microphone, magnetometer, accelerometer and a 9.7 inch multi-touch screen with a maximum resolution of 1024×768 hence resulting in 132 ppi. The iPad 2 has four physical switches, including a home button near the display that returns the user to the home screen, and three plastic physical switches on the sides: wake/sleep, volume up/down, and a third switch for either screen rotation lock or mute. The home button on the iPad 2 is "easier <P> micrometer. <P> exceed 100. The LN of each device represents the percentage of total load allowed. In Europe 1 REN used to be equivalent to an 1800 Ω resistor in series with a 1 µF capacitor. The latest ETSI specification (2003–09) calls for 1 REN to be greater than 16 kΩ at 25 Hz and 50 Hz. <P> at 0-120 volts dc. They have peak current ratings from about 20 to 500 amperes, and peak energy ratings from 0.05 to 2.5 joules. <P> MA(). <P> had a separate transmitter, vehicle-mounted antenna, and handset (known as car phones and bag phones) were limited to a maximum 3 watts Effective Radiated Power. Modern handheld cellphones which must have the transmission antenna held inches from the user's skull are limited to a maximum transmission power of 0.6 watts ERP. Regardless of the potential biological effects, the reduced transmission range of modern handheld phones limits their usefulness in rural locations as compared to car/bag phones, and handhelds require that cell towers are spaced much closer together to compensate for their lack of transmission power. By civilians An increasing number <P> sensitivity may be expressed as a spectral responsivity, with units such as amperes per watt. <P> (resistor or conductor) that behaves according to Ohm's law over some operating range is referred to as an ohmic device (or an ohmic resistor) because Ohm's law and a single value for the resistance suffice to describe the behavior of the device over that range. Ohm's law holds for circuits containing only resistive elements (no capacitances or inductances) for all forms of driving voltage or current, regardless of whether the driving voltage or current is constant (DC) or time-varying such as AC. At any instant of time Ohm's law is valid for such circuits. Resistors which are in series or in <P> include spectral distribution, spatial distribution of power, temperature, and resistive load. IEC standard 61215 is used to compare the performance of cells and is designed around standard (terrestrial, temperate) temperature and conditions (STC): irradiance of 1 kW/m², a spectral distribution close to solar radiation through AM (airmass) of 1.5 and a cell temperature 25 °C. The resistive load is varied until the peak or maximum power point (MPP) is achieved. The power at this point is recorded as Watt-peak (Wp). The same standard is used for measuring the power and efficiency of PV modules. Air mass affects output. In space, <P> used for charging the device, the sink is required to provide power to maintain the state of charge (or even recharge) while it is being used (although this is dependent on the power available being sufficient e.g., MHL 2 & 3 provide a minimum of 4.5 W / 900 mA, while superMHL can provide up to 40 W). The use of the power line in this way differs from HDMI, which expects the source to provide 55 mA for the purpose of reading the EDID of a display. Due to the low pin count of MHL versus HDMI, the functions that are carried on separate <P> with the AMP Project specifications. As of July 2017, the AMP Project's website listed around 120 advertising companies and around 30 analytics companies as AMP Project participants. Performance Google reports that AMP pages served in Google search typically load in less than one second and use ten times less data than the equivalent non-AMP pages. CNBC reported a 75% decrease in mobile page load time for AMP Pages over non-AMP pages, while Gizmodo reported that AMP pages loaded three times faster than non-AMP pages. An academic paper about AMP reveals that AMP pages' page load time is 2.5 times faster than <P> than hundreds of farads. Voltage ratings can reach 100 kilovolts. In general, capacitance and voltage correlate with physical size and cost. Miniaturization As in other areas of electronics, volumetric efficiency measures the performance of electronic function per unit volume. For capacitors, the volumetric efficiency is measured with the "CV product", calculated by multiplying the capacitance (C) by the maximum voltage rating (V), divided by the volume. From 1970 to 2005, volumetric efficiencies have improved dramatically. Overlapping range of the applications These individual capacitors can perform their application independent of their affiliation to an above shown capacitor type, so that an <P> Manufacturers claim gross efficiencies of up to 80% depending upon the specification of the unit. The characteristics of this device are attributable to the relationship between the physical size of the unit, in particular the air path distance, and the spacing of the plates. For an equal air pressure drop through the device, a small unit will have a narrower plate spacing and a lower air velocity than a larger unit, but both units may be just as efficient. Because of the cross-flow design of the unit, its physical size will dictate the air path length, and as this increases, heat <P> speed for the installed power. <P> to 8035'. <P> be considered. These two are static and dynamic loads. Static load is the force capability of the actuator while not in motion. Conversely, the dynamic load of the actuator is the force capability while in motion. Speed Speed should be considered primarily at a no-load pace, since the speed will invariably decrease as the load amount increases. The rate the speed will decrease will directly correlate with the amount of force and the initial speed. Operating conditions Actuators are commonly rated using the standard IP Code rating system. Those that are rated for dangerous environments will have a higher IP <P> includes a 100 W fast charger. Remote Controller with [optional HDMI out] and USB in for tablets and smartphones to connect to controller. A bigger clamp also allows this remote to hold up to a 9.7inch iPad. Advanced Records in 2.7K and includes a 57 W charger. Remote Controller with optional HDMI out and USB in for tablets and smartphones to connect to controller. A bigger clamp also allows this remote to hold up to a 9.7 inch iPad. Standard The Standard was released in August 2015. It features 2.7K video recording. The standard is the basic model without lightbridge, instead it <P> voltage or current is DC (direct current) of either positive or negative polarity or AC (alternating current). In a true ohmic device, the same value of resistance will be calculated from R = V/I regardless of the value of the applied voltage V. That is, the ratio of V/I is constant, and when current is plotted as a function of voltage the curve is linear (a straight line). If voltage is forced to some value V, then that voltage V divided by measured current I will equal R. Or if the current is forced to some value I, <P> nominal speed rather than actual RPM, for ease of display and interpretation.	question: why do phones measure power as ma and mah, while laptops use watts and wh? context: <P> cellphone. Besides energy storage in batteries, the concept of volumetric efficiency appears in design and application of capacitors, where the "CV product" is a figure of merit calculated by multiplying the capacitance (C) by the maximum voltage rating (V), divided by the volume. The concept of volumetric efficiency can be applied to any measurable electronic characteristic, including resistance, capacitance, inductance, voltage, current, energy storage, etc. <P> CPU, 512 MB of RAM and a dual-core PowerVR SGX543MP2 GPU. Other features include front and rear cameras, a three-axis gyroscope, headset controls, proximity and ambient light sensors, microphone, magnetometer, accelerometer and a 9.7 inch multi-touch screen with a maximum resolution of 1024×768 hence resulting in 132 ppi. The iPad 2 has four physical switches, including a home button near the display that returns the user to the home screen, and three plastic physical switches on the sides: wake/sleep, volume up/down, and a third switch for either screen rotation lock or mute. The home button on the iPad 2 is "easier <P> micrometer. <P> exceed 100. The LN of each device represents the percentage of total load allowed. In Europe 1 REN used to be equivalent to an 1800 Ω resistor in series with a 1 µF capacitor. The latest ETSI specification (2003–09) calls for 1 REN to be greater than 16 kΩ at 25 Hz and 50 Hz. <P> at 0-120 volts dc. They have peak current ratings from about 20 to 500 amperes, and peak energy ratings from 0.05 to 2.5 joules. <P> MA(). <P> had a separate transmitter, vehicle-mounted antenna, and handset (known as car phones and bag phones) were limited to a maximum 3 watts Effective Radiated Power. Modern handheld cellphones which must have the transmission antenna held inches from the user's skull are limited to a maximum transmission power of 0.6 watts ERP. Regardless of the potential biological effects, the reduced transmission range of modern handheld phones limits their usefulness in rural locations as compared to car/bag phones, and handhelds require that cell towers are spaced much closer together to compensate for their lack of transmission power. By civilians An increasing number <P> sensitivity may be expressed as a spectral responsivity, with units such as amperes per watt. <P> (resistor or conductor) that behaves according to Ohm's law over some operating range is referred to as an ohmic device (or an ohmic resistor) because Ohm's law and a single value for the resistance suffice to describe the behavior of the device over that range. Ohm's law holds for circuits containing only resistive elements (no capacitances or inductances) for all forms of driving voltage or current, regardless of whether the driving voltage or current is constant (DC) or time-varying such as AC. At any instant of time Ohm's law is valid for such circuits. Resistors which are in series or in <P> include spectral distribution, spatial distribution of power, temperature, and resistive load. IEC standard 61215 is used to compare the performance of cells and is designed around standard (terrestrial, temperate) temperature and conditions (STC): irradiance of 1 kW/m², a spectral distribution close to solar radiation through AM (airmass) of 1.5 and a cell temperature 25 °C. The resistive load is varied until the peak or maximum power point (MPP) is achieved. The power at this point is recorded as Watt-peak (Wp). The same standard is used for measuring the power and efficiency of PV modules. Air mass affects output. In space, <P> used for charging the device, the sink is required to provide power to maintain the state of charge (or even recharge) while it is being used (although this is dependent on the power available being sufficient e.g., MHL 2 & 3 provide a minimum of 4.5 W / 900 mA, while superMHL can provide up to 40 W). The use of the power line in this way differs from HDMI, which expects the source to provide 55 mA for the purpose of reading the EDID of a display. Due to the low pin count of MHL versus HDMI, the functions that are carried on separate <P> with the AMP Project specifications. As of July 2017, the AMP Project's website listed around 120 advertising companies and around 30 analytics companies as AMP Project participants. Performance Google reports that AMP pages served in Google search typically load in less than one second and use ten times less data than the equivalent non-AMP pages. CNBC reported a 75% decrease in mobile page load time for AMP Pages over non-AMP pages, while Gizmodo reported that AMP pages loaded three times faster than non-AMP pages. An academic paper about AMP reveals that AMP pages' page load time is 2.5 times faster than <P> than hundreds of farads. Voltage ratings can reach 100 kilovolts. In general, capacitance and voltage correlate with physical size and cost. Miniaturization As in other areas of electronics, volumetric efficiency measures the performance of electronic function per unit volume. For capacitors, the volumetric efficiency is measured with the "CV product", calculated by multiplying the capacitance (C) by the maximum voltage rating (V), divided by the volume. From 1970 to 2005, volumetric efficiencies have improved dramatically. Overlapping range of the applications These individual capacitors can perform their application independent of their affiliation to an above shown capacitor type, so that an <P> Manufacturers claim gross efficiencies of up to 80% depending upon the specification of the unit. The characteristics of this device are attributable to the relationship between the physical size of the unit, in particular the air path distance, and the spacing of the plates. For an equal air pressure drop through the device, a small unit will have a narrower plate spacing and a lower air velocity than a larger unit, but both units may be just as efficient. Because of the cross-flow design of the unit, its physical size will dictate the air path length, and as this increases, heat <P> speed for the installed power. <P> to 8035'. <P> be considered. These two are static and dynamic loads. Static load is the force capability of the actuator while not in motion. Conversely, the dynamic load of the actuator is the force capability while in motion. Speed Speed should be considered primarily at a no-load pace, since the speed will invariably decrease as the load amount increases. The rate the speed will decrease will directly correlate with the amount of force and the initial speed. Operating conditions Actuators are commonly rated using the standard IP Code rating system. Those that are rated for dangerous environments will have a higher IP <P> includes a 100 W fast charger. Remote Controller with [optional HDMI out] and USB in for tablets and smartphones to connect to controller. A bigger clamp also allows this remote to hold up to a 9.7inch iPad. Advanced Records in 2.7K and includes a 57 W charger. Remote Controller with optional HDMI out and USB in for tablets and smartphones to connect to controller. A bigger clamp also allows this remote to hold up to a 9.7 inch iPad. Standard The Standard was released in August 2015. It features 2.7K video recording. The standard is the basic model without lightbridge, instead it <P> voltage or current is DC (direct current) of either positive or negative polarity or AC (alternating current). In a true ohmic device, the same value of resistance will be calculated from R = V/I regardless of the value of the applied voltage V. That is, the ratio of V/I is constant, and when current is plotted as a function of voltage the curve is linear (a straight line). If voltage is forced to some value V, then that voltage V divided by measured current I will equal R. Or if the current is forced to some value I, <P> nominal speed rather than actual RPM, for ease of display and interpretation.	answer: Phones use a single 3.7 volt cell so Watt-Hours can be calculated by multiplying AH times 3.7 volts. Laptops use various numbers of cells, so WH gives a better predictor of performance. Amp-Hours are used when comparing cells of the same voltage.
217,304	5mlqrm	Why are car starters powered by as low voltage as 12V?	A higher voltage system has advantages like lower weight wiring, but need more cells in the battery. That means a bigger battery and a high impedance in one cell will render the whole battery useless. It would require more windings in the starter and alternator to get the same power. 12 volts is a good compromise because lead acid batteries are capable of providing the needed current and the starter cables are not long.	[ "A higher voltage system has advantages like lower weight wiring, but need more cells in the battery. That means a bigger battery and a high impedance in one cell will render the whole battery useless. It would require more windings in the starter and alternator to get the same power. 12 volts is a good compromise ...	2	[ "A higher voltage system has advantages like lower weight wiring, but need more cells in the battery. That means a bigger battery and a high impedance in one cell will render the whole battery useless. It would require more windings in the starter and alternator to get the same power. 12 volts is a good compromise ...	1	<P> to its large diameter, the connector and appliances can have a robust design against damage such as bending. Additionally, the connector is reversible. A second problem is that nominally "twelve-volt" power in cars fluctuates widely. The outlet is connected directly to the electrical system of the car. The actual voltage, matching the car battery's voltage, will be approximately 12.5 volts when dormant (less in cold conditions), approximately 14.5 volts when the engine and the alternator/generator are operating (more when cold), and may briefly drop as low as 5–6 volts during engine start due to the high temporary battery current usage. When <P> mounted in a vehicle, using a clip in kit for example. It could also provide a full charge cycle over 4.5 Hours from flat, switching itself out of circuit when complete. (A clip-in kit locked the radio in a convenient frame for rapid deployment when dismounting, and had the charger as part of the installation.) There were a few exceptions where 24 Volts was not used in vehicles, such as in the General Service (GS) Landrover where a 12v system was used for example. A 12 Volt DCCU was provided. The Clansman 24V 4Ah Nickel <P> front passengers, one for the rear passengers and one for the luggage trunk. The voltage of the power outlet is usually near 12 V DC, (14V to 15V while the running engine is turning the alternator, in order to charge the car battery while providing electrical power), because it is unregulatedly directly powered from the car's electrical system. Accessories Most accessories that can be plugged into the outlet are rated for input voltages of up to 24V, some are even rated for 30V or 32V, because larger vehicles such as lorry trucks and busses often have 24-volt electrical systems, with a <P> wasted spark ignition system; as the spark ignites nothing and so is 'wasted'. Wasted spark systems are generally used as a production economy as half the number of coils are required (which consequently have to fire twice as many times), e.g. a four-cylinder four-stroke engine (with a single plug per cylinder) requires only 2 coils alternately firing every 180° of crankshaft rotation, each coil firing every 360° crank rotation to fire all four cylinders. In the 16 Valve Twin Spark 4 coils are required by the eight plugs, so production economy was unlikely to be a factor in <P> higher voltage while their alternator is generating power. Accessories might partially work with lower input voltages such as 9V. Examples of devices that can be operated from an automobile power outlet include lights, fans, beverage heating devices, and small motorized tools such as air compressors for inflating tires. Many portable electronic devices such as music players, mobile telephones and power banks use an adapter (usually a USB charger) connected to the car power outlet to recharge their internal batteries or to directly operate from the vehicle electrical system. Adapters for electronic devices often regulate the output voltage to be compatible with the <P> fully electric. <P> supplied device, e.g. 5V for normal USB chargers. Higher output voltages such as 9V or 12V can be outputted by some fast chargers, while some others use higher output currents only. Devices that require alternating-current mains electricity can be operated with a plug-in inverter, which outputs voltage levels and patterns similar to the home electrical outlet. Automobiles may provide several 12 V receptacles that are intended only to operate electrical accessories, and which cannot be used with a cigarette lighter, despite of having the same shape and diameter. Car manufacturers may offer a cigarette lighter only as an optional extra-cost accessory. Usually, only <P> and also that had accurate speed regulation under changing load, so as to maintain the correct voltage. Maintaining the correct frequency for AC systems was even more important, but AC systems tended to favour slow-speed engines with large flywheels, rather than the high-speed engines used for DC. Mills Willans engines were also used for powering textile mills, although as many mills had been built by this date, the longer-established cross-compound Corliss and drop-valve engines are better known in this application. The Willans engine, its low inertia and accurate speed control made it highly suitable for mill work. The constant shaft <P> to a 240 volt supply has an equivalent rating of at least: 1,000 VA (240 V – 120 V) / 240 V = 500 VA. However, the actual rating (shown on the tally plate) must be at least 1000 VA. For voltage ratios that don't exceed about 3:1, an autotransformer is cheaper, lighter, smaller, and more efficient than an isolating (two-winding) transformer of the same rating. Large three-phase autotransformers are used in electric power distribution systems, for example, to interconnect 33 kV and 66 kV sub-transmission networks. Variable autotransformer By exposing part of the winding coils of an autotransformer, and making the secondary connection through a sliding carbon brush, an autotransformer <P> developed, power conversion devices were purely electro-mechanical in design. Mechanical rectification systems used some form of rotation or resonant vibration (e.g. vibrators) driven by electromagnets, which operated a switch or commutator to reverse the current. These mechanical rectifiers were noisy and had high maintenance requirements. The moving parts had friction, which required lubrication and replacement due to wear. Opening mechanical contacts under load resulted in electrical arcs and sparks that heated and eroded the contacts. They also were not able to handle AC frequencies above several thousand cycles per second. Synchronous rectifier To convert alternating into direct current in <P> had the same problem with the first Command control sets (1978). In the 1990s Tyco revamped the system. They bought the rights to 'TCR' from Ideal and were able to lower the voltage to increase the amperes and skirt the child safety laws. This gave the customer a 1/2 amp back, for 3 years Tyco tried to make a go of the command control revamp called 'TCR' but it never caught on, stalls and derails were always a problem. It is not until you run these systems on custom power supplies that give the racing set the full 2-2.5 amps <P> the relatively large air gap that is often present will typically reduce the forces produced for the same electrical power. Similarly, the efficiency during generator operation (electric braking/recuperating) with a linear induction motor was reported as relatively low due to end effects. The larger air gap also increases the inductance of the motor which can require larger and more expensive capacitors. However, linear induction motors can avoid the need for gearboxes and similar drivetrains, and these have their own losses; and working knowledge of the importance of the goodness factor can minimise the effects of the larger air gap. In any <P> legalised in the United States in 1993. More recent single-filament bulb designs include the H7 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1500 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V), H8 (35 W @ 12.0 V, 800 lm ±15% @ 13.2 V), H9 (65 W @ 12.0 V, 2100 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V), and H11 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1350 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V). 24-volt versions of many bulb types are available for use in trucks, buses, and other commercial and military vehicles. The first dual-filament halogen bulb to produce both a low and a high beam, the H4 (60/55 W @ 12 V, 1650/1000 lm ±15% @ 13.2 V), was released in 1971 and quickly became the predominant headlamp bulb throughout <P> jam cars used. The original set released in the early 1970s gave the customer a 1/2 amp transformer which was reported to give children electric shocks when they went to fix a stalled or 'de-railed' car. As a response Ideal changed the transformer in the mid 1970s to a 1/4 amp transformer; this was barely enough to run one car, when players used 2 cars plus the jam cars it was very hard to maintain the rhythm needed to keep the cars rolling properly with such low amperes. Sales for the product dropped off dramatically because of the change. Tyco <P> default 12 V the fan was designed for. Increasing the voltage over the default 12 V can be achieved by e.g. connecting the −12 V or −5 V power line instead of the ground wire in the fan connector, and by connecting the 5 V power line in the +12 V input of the fan connector. Through this procedure, 10, 17 and 24 V voltages can be achieved, with voltages exceeding 12 V being potentially damaging to the computer fans rated at 12 V. However, the combination of modern power supplies no longer being required to provide a −5 V power line and the limited power delivery capability of the −12 V <P> stalled squirrel-cage motor (overloaded or with a jammed shaft) will consume current limited only by circuit resistance as it attempts to start. Unless something else limits the current (or cuts it off completely) overheating and destruction of the winding insulation is the likely outcome. Virtually every washing machine, dishwasher, standalone fan, record player, etc. uses some variant of a squirrel-cage motor. Polyphase wound rotor An alternate design, called the wound rotor, is used when variable speed is required. In this case, the rotor has the same number of poles as the stator and the windings are made of wire, connected to <P> bolt, with the number of stacks determined by voltage; each cell was rated for about 20 V. An automotive battery charger rectifier might have only one cell: the high-voltage power supply for a vacuum tube might have dozens of stacked plates. Current density in an air-cooled selenium stack was about 600 mA per square inch of active area (about 90 mA per square centimeter). Silicon and germanium diodes Silicon diodes are the most widely used rectifiers for lower voltages and powers, and have largely replaced other rectifiers. Due to their substantially lower forward voltage (0.3V versus 0.7V for <P> that insert into cigarette lighter receptacles. In Europe, 12 volt plugs and sockets are not specially regulated, and do not require approvals for the CE mark. The male plug is sometimes used to feed power into a vehicle to recharge its battery, because it usually has no regulatory circuitry between the outlet and the car battery. For instance, portable solar battery maintainers generally connect to a vehicle's battery in this manner. Trickle chargers also sometimes connect in this way, eliminating the need to leave a vehicle's hood open, as well as eliminating the possibility of reversed polarity. Most cars nowadays are <P> nominal speed rather than actual RPM, for ease of display and interpretation. <P> field winding was connected to a switch which could be adjusted (by inserting or removing resistance) to give "low" or "high" charge. This switch was sometimes combined with the vehicle's light switch so that switching on the headlights simultaneously put the dynamo in high charge mode. Disadvantages The third-brush dynamo had the advantage of simplicity but, by modern standards, it gave poor voltage regulation. This led to short battery life as a result of over-charging or under-charging.	question: Why are car starters powered by as low voltage as 12V? context: <P> to its large diameter, the connector and appliances can have a robust design against damage such as bending. Additionally, the connector is reversible. A second problem is that nominally "twelve-volt" power in cars fluctuates widely. The outlet is connected directly to the electrical system of the car. The actual voltage, matching the car battery's voltage, will be approximately 12.5 volts when dormant (less in cold conditions), approximately 14.5 volts when the engine and the alternator/generator are operating (more when cold), and may briefly drop as low as 5–6 volts during engine start due to the high temporary battery current usage. When <P> mounted in a vehicle, using a clip in kit for example. It could also provide a full charge cycle over 4.5 Hours from flat, switching itself out of circuit when complete. (A clip-in kit locked the radio in a convenient frame for rapid deployment when dismounting, and had the charger as part of the installation.) There were a few exceptions where 24 Volts was not used in vehicles, such as in the General Service (GS) Landrover where a 12v system was used for example. A 12 Volt DCCU was provided. The Clansman 24V 4Ah Nickel <P> front passengers, one for the rear passengers and one for the luggage trunk. The voltage of the power outlet is usually near 12 V DC, (14V to 15V while the running engine is turning the alternator, in order to charge the car battery while providing electrical power), because it is unregulatedly directly powered from the car's electrical system. Accessories Most accessories that can be plugged into the outlet are rated for input voltages of up to 24V, some are even rated for 30V or 32V, because larger vehicles such as lorry trucks and busses often have 24-volt electrical systems, with a <P> wasted spark ignition system; as the spark ignites nothing and so is 'wasted'. Wasted spark systems are generally used as a production economy as half the number of coils are required (which consequently have to fire twice as many times), e.g. a four-cylinder four-stroke engine (with a single plug per cylinder) requires only 2 coils alternately firing every 180° of crankshaft rotation, each coil firing every 360° crank rotation to fire all four cylinders. In the 16 Valve Twin Spark 4 coils are required by the eight plugs, so production economy was unlikely to be a factor in <P> higher voltage while their alternator is generating power. Accessories might partially work with lower input voltages such as 9V. Examples of devices that can be operated from an automobile power outlet include lights, fans, beverage heating devices, and small motorized tools such as air compressors for inflating tires. Many portable electronic devices such as music players, mobile telephones and power banks use an adapter (usually a USB charger) connected to the car power outlet to recharge their internal batteries or to directly operate from the vehicle electrical system. Adapters for electronic devices often regulate the output voltage to be compatible with the <P> fully electric. <P> supplied device, e.g. 5V for normal USB chargers. Higher output voltages such as 9V or 12V can be outputted by some fast chargers, while some others use higher output currents only. Devices that require alternating-current mains electricity can be operated with a plug-in inverter, which outputs voltage levels and patterns similar to the home electrical outlet. Automobiles may provide several 12 V receptacles that are intended only to operate electrical accessories, and which cannot be used with a cigarette lighter, despite of having the same shape and diameter. Car manufacturers may offer a cigarette lighter only as an optional extra-cost accessory. Usually, only <P> and also that had accurate speed regulation under changing load, so as to maintain the correct voltage. Maintaining the correct frequency for AC systems was even more important, but AC systems tended to favour slow-speed engines with large flywheels, rather than the high-speed engines used for DC. Mills Willans engines were also used for powering textile mills, although as many mills had been built by this date, the longer-established cross-compound Corliss and drop-valve engines are better known in this application. The Willans engine, its low inertia and accurate speed control made it highly suitable for mill work. The constant shaft <P> to a 240 volt supply has an equivalent rating of at least: 1,000 VA (240 V – 120 V) / 240 V = 500 VA. However, the actual rating (shown on the tally plate) must be at least 1000 VA. For voltage ratios that don't exceed about 3:1, an autotransformer is cheaper, lighter, smaller, and more efficient than an isolating (two-winding) transformer of the same rating. Large three-phase autotransformers are used in electric power distribution systems, for example, to interconnect 33 kV and 66 kV sub-transmission networks. Variable autotransformer By exposing part of the winding coils of an autotransformer, and making the secondary connection through a sliding carbon brush, an autotransformer <P> developed, power conversion devices were purely electro-mechanical in design. Mechanical rectification systems used some form of rotation or resonant vibration (e.g. vibrators) driven by electromagnets, which operated a switch or commutator to reverse the current. These mechanical rectifiers were noisy and had high maintenance requirements. The moving parts had friction, which required lubrication and replacement due to wear. Opening mechanical contacts under load resulted in electrical arcs and sparks that heated and eroded the contacts. They also were not able to handle AC frequencies above several thousand cycles per second. Synchronous rectifier To convert alternating into direct current in <P> had the same problem with the first Command control sets (1978). In the 1990s Tyco revamped the system. They bought the rights to 'TCR' from Ideal and were able to lower the voltage to increase the amperes and skirt the child safety laws. This gave the customer a 1/2 amp back, for 3 years Tyco tried to make a go of the command control revamp called 'TCR' but it never caught on, stalls and derails were always a problem. It is not until you run these systems on custom power supplies that give the racing set the full 2-2.5 amps <P> the relatively large air gap that is often present will typically reduce the forces produced for the same electrical power. Similarly, the efficiency during generator operation (electric braking/recuperating) with a linear induction motor was reported as relatively low due to end effects. The larger air gap also increases the inductance of the motor which can require larger and more expensive capacitors. However, linear induction motors can avoid the need for gearboxes and similar drivetrains, and these have their own losses; and working knowledge of the importance of the goodness factor can minimise the effects of the larger air gap. In any <P> legalised in the United States in 1993. More recent single-filament bulb designs include the H7 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1500 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V), H8 (35 W @ 12.0 V, 800 lm ±15% @ 13.2 V), H9 (65 W @ 12.0 V, 2100 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V), and H11 (55 W @ 12.0 V, 1350 lm ±10% @ 13.2 V). 24-volt versions of many bulb types are available for use in trucks, buses, and other commercial and military vehicles. The first dual-filament halogen bulb to produce both a low and a high beam, the H4 (60/55 W @ 12 V, 1650/1000 lm ±15% @ 13.2 V), was released in 1971 and quickly became the predominant headlamp bulb throughout <P> jam cars used. The original set released in the early 1970s gave the customer a 1/2 amp transformer which was reported to give children electric shocks when they went to fix a stalled or 'de-railed' car. As a response Ideal changed the transformer in the mid 1970s to a 1/4 amp transformer; this was barely enough to run one car, when players used 2 cars plus the jam cars it was very hard to maintain the rhythm needed to keep the cars rolling properly with such low amperes. Sales for the product dropped off dramatically because of the change. Tyco <P> default 12 V the fan was designed for. Increasing the voltage over the default 12 V can be achieved by e.g. connecting the −12 V or −5 V power line instead of the ground wire in the fan connector, and by connecting the 5 V power line in the +12 V input of the fan connector. Through this procedure, 10, 17 and 24 V voltages can be achieved, with voltages exceeding 12 V being potentially damaging to the computer fans rated at 12 V. However, the combination of modern power supplies no longer being required to provide a −5 V power line and the limited power delivery capability of the −12 V <P> stalled squirrel-cage motor (overloaded or with a jammed shaft) will consume current limited only by circuit resistance as it attempts to start. Unless something else limits the current (or cuts it off completely) overheating and destruction of the winding insulation is the likely outcome. Virtually every washing machine, dishwasher, standalone fan, record player, etc. uses some variant of a squirrel-cage motor. Polyphase wound rotor An alternate design, called the wound rotor, is used when variable speed is required. In this case, the rotor has the same number of poles as the stator and the windings are made of wire, connected to <P> bolt, with the number of stacks determined by voltage; each cell was rated for about 20 V. An automotive battery charger rectifier might have only one cell: the high-voltage power supply for a vacuum tube might have dozens of stacked plates. Current density in an air-cooled selenium stack was about 600 mA per square inch of active area (about 90 mA per square centimeter). Silicon and germanium diodes Silicon diodes are the most widely used rectifiers for lower voltages and powers, and have largely replaced other rectifiers. Due to their substantially lower forward voltage (0.3V versus 0.7V for <P> that insert into cigarette lighter receptacles. In Europe, 12 volt plugs and sockets are not specially regulated, and do not require approvals for the CE mark. The male plug is sometimes used to feed power into a vehicle to recharge its battery, because it usually has no regulatory circuitry between the outlet and the car battery. For instance, portable solar battery maintainers generally connect to a vehicle's battery in this manner. Trickle chargers also sometimes connect in this way, eliminating the need to leave a vehicle's hood open, as well as eliminating the possibility of reversed polarity. Most cars nowadays are <P> nominal speed rather than actual RPM, for ease of display and interpretation. <P> field winding was connected to a switch which could be adjusted (by inserting or removing resistance) to give "low" or "high" charge. This switch was sometimes combined with the vehicle's light switch so that switching on the headlights simultaneously put the dynamo in high charge mode. Disadvantages The third-brush dynamo had the advantage of simplicity but, by modern standards, it gave poor voltage regulation. This led to short battery life as a result of over-charging or under-charging.	answer: A higher voltage system has advantages like lower weight wiring, but need more cells in the battery. That means a bigger battery and a high impedance in one cell will render the whole battery useless. It would require more windings in the starter and alternator to get the same power. 12 volts is a good compromise because lead acid batteries are capable of providing the needed current and the starter cables are not long.
61,372	23yqjz	Hey /r/askscience, I'm having a hard time understanding how force carrier particles (gluons, etc.) work, can you help me clarify?	There is a general miscommunication between experts and lay people that leads to your confusion. That miscommunication is the couching of forces in terms of "virtual particles." This is misleading on a number of fronts, but I'll just say that "virtual particles" are the result of a mathematical tool, and not a fundamental description of reality. The fundamental description of reality is: things (described by quantum fields) attract and repel from other things. It is misleading to think that this is "caused by" exchanging photons or other force carriers. It is more accurate to simply say that the EM field is associated with the force between electrically charged particles, and photons are ripples in the EM field. Similarly for the other forces. Now, to answer your other questions: > I am wondering if the force carriers of the EM field are the photons? And if Gravitons are the force carriers of gravity and the curving of space time?Yes in the language of gauge theory the "force carriers" of the EM field are photons, and gravitons are the force carriers of gravity and the curving of space time. A caveat to the latter is that we don't have an agreed-upon theory of quantum gravity, and it may not turn out to be a gauge theory; nonetheless in any such theory it is likely that what you say about gravitons is essentially true. > And last I have what might seem as a bit odd question. How can gravity pull on photons if photons are massless particles that are moving in the speed of light, just as gravitons are. In another perspective my question is like this; If I am driving my bike trying to push my friend who is also biking. We are driving at the same speed. How can I (Graviton) catch up with my friend (the Photon) and push him?This misunderstanding is one and the same as what I addressed in my first paragraph. Gravitons are not literally sent out from the sun (for example) and "catch up with photons" and hit them in such a way that the photon is pulled toward the sun. The more simple and correct statement is simply that photons interact gravitationally. One way of calculating this gravitational interaction involves summing over un-physical graviton exchanges. But this should not be taken literally.	[ "There is a general miscommunication between experts and lay people that leads to your confusion. That miscommunication is the couching of forces in terms of \"virtual particles.\" This is misleading on a number of fronts, but I'll just say that \"virtual particles\" are the result of a mathematical tool, and not a...	3	[ "There is a general miscommunication between experts and lay people that leads to your confusion. That miscommunication is the couching of forces in terms of \"virtual particles.\" This is misleading on a number of fronts, but I'll just say that \"virtual particles\" are the result of a mathematical tool, and not a...	2	<P> particle's Hilbert space. This is unlike the usual Fock space description, where the Hilbert space includes particle states with different velocities. Because of their infraparticle properties, charged particles do not have a sharp delta function density of states like an ordinary particle, but instead the density of states rises like an inverse power at the mass of the particle. This collection of states which are very close in mass to m consist of the particle together with low-energy excitation of the electromagnetic field. Implication for particle behavior The directional charges are different for an electron that has always been at rest <P> electromagnetic and weak forces appear distinct at low energies because the particles carrying the weak force, the W and Z bosons, have non-zero masses of 80.4 GeV/c² and 91.2 GeV/c², whereas the photon, which carries the electromagnetic force, is massless. At higher energies Ws and Zs can be created easily and the unified nature of the force becomes apparent. While the strong and electroweak forces peacefully coexist in the Standard Model of particle physics, they remain distinct. So far, the quest for a theory of everything is thus unsuccessful on two points: neither a unification of the strong and electroweak forces – which Laplace <P> element of the interrogative particle. <P> Stress–energy–momentum pseudotensor In the theory of general relativity, a stress–energy–momentum pseudotensor, such as the Landau–Lifshitz pseudotensor, is an extension of the non-gravitational stress–energy tensor that incorporates the energy–momentum of gravity. It allows the energy–momentum of a system of gravitating matter to be defined. In particular it allows the total of matter plus the gravitating energy–momentum to form a conserved current within the framework of general relativity, so that the total energy–momentum crossing the hypersurface (3-dimensional boundary) of any compact space–time hypervolume (4-dimensional submanifold) vanishes. Some people (such as Erwin Schrödinger) have objected to this derivation on the grounds that pseudotensors are <P> called an instanton. In the case of a symmetry related to the conservation of a fermionic particle number, one may understand the creation of such particles as follows. The definition of a particle is different in the two vacuum states between which the tunneling occurs; therefore a state of no particles in one vacuum corresponds to a state with some particles in the other vacuum. In particular, there is a Dirac sea of fermions and, when such a tunneling happens, it causes the energy levels of the sea fermions to gradually shift upwards for the particles and downwards for the anti-particles, or <P> particle (denoting a small object whose mass is too small to contribute appreciably to the ambient gravitational field). Here, it is useful to know that any Killing vectors which may be present will (in the case of a vacuum solution) automatically satisfy the curved spacetime Maxwell equations. Note that this procedure amounts to assuming that the electromagnetic field, but not the gravitational field, is "weak". Sometimes we can go even further; if the gravitational field is also considered "weak", we can independently solve the linearised Einstein field equations and the (flat spacetime) Maxwell equations on a Minkowksi vacuum background. Then <P> such as the electron, the uncertainty of the energy allows for the creation of virtual particles near the electron. This wavelength explains the "static" of virtual particles around elementary particles at a close distance. Interaction An electron generates an electric field that exerts an attractive force on a particle with a positive charge, such as the proton, and a repulsive force on a particle with a negative charge. The strength of this force in nonrelativistic approximation is determined by Coulomb's inverse square law. When an electron is in motion, it generates a magnetic field. The Ampère-Maxwell law relates the magnetic <P> be obtained from (varying) the action with a specific Lagrangian density that is given by: If one varies this with respect to ψ one gets the Adjoint Dirac equation. Meanwhile, if one varies this with respect to ψ one gets the Dirac equation. Hole theory The negative E solutions to the equation are problematic, for it was assumed that the particle has a positive energy. Mathematically speaking, however, there seems to be no reason for us to reject the negative-energy solutions. Since they exist, we cannot simply ignore them, for once we include the interaction between the electron and the electromagnetic <P> described later). Carithers and Grannis state: "Ordinary matter is composed entirely of first-generation particles, namely the [up] and [down] quarks, plus the electron and its neutrino." (Higher generations particles quickly decay into first-generation particles, and thus are not commonly encountered.) This definition of ordinary matter is more subtle than it first appears. All the particles that make up ordinary matter (leptons and quarks) are elementary fermions, while all the force carriers are elementary bosons. The W and Z bosons that mediate the weak force are not made of quarks or leptons, and so are not ordinary matter, even if they have <P> charge of the particle), and the local field line connecting the two mirror points at any moment, slowly sweeps out a surface connecting them as it moves in longitude. Eventually the particle will drift entirely around the Earth, and the surface will be closed upon itself. These drift surfaces, nested like the skin of an onion, are the surfaces of constant L in the McIlwain coordinate system. They apply not only for a perfect dipole field, but also for fields that are approximately dipolar. For a given particle, as long as only the Lorentz force is <P> as either contact or body forces. A contact force is produced by direct physical contact; an example is the force exerted on a body by a supporting surface. A body force is generated by virtue of the position of a body within a force field such as a gravitational, electric, or magnetic field and is independent of contact with any other body. An example of a body force is the weight of a body in the Earth's gravitational field. Moment of a force In addition to the tendency to move a body in the direction of its application, a force <P> which is used to derive the equations of motion for a mechanical system of rigid bodies. The expression compatible displacements means that the particles remain in contact and displace together so that the work done by pairs of action/reaction inter-particle forces cancel out. Various forms of this principle have been credited to Johann (Jean) Bernoulli (1667–1748) and Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782). <P> both terminologies are used. For this reason, phrases like "the quantum of charge" or "the indivisible unit of charge" can be ambiguous unless further specification is given. On the other hand, the term "elementary charge" is unambiguous: it refers to a quantity of charge equal to that of a proton. Lack of fractional charges Paul Dirac persuasively argued in 1931 that if magnetic monopoles exist, then electric charge must be quantized; however, it is unknown whether magnetic monopoles actually exist. It is currently unknown why isolatable particles are restricted to integer charges; much of the string theory landscape appears to <P> conductor, called a Fermi sea, contains electrons with energies up to the chemical potential of the system. An unfilled state in the Fermi sea behaves like a positively charged electron, though it is referred to as a "hole" rather than a "positron". The negative charge of the Fermi sea is balanced by the positively charged ionic lattice of the material. In quantum field theory In quantum field theories such as quantum electrodynamics, the Dirac field is subject to a process of second quantization, which resolves some of the paradoxical features of the equation. Other formulations The Dirac equation can be <P> binding energies of the nuclear components involved in the transmutation. The nuclear force Electrons and nuclei are kept together by electrostatic attraction (negative attracts positive). Furthermore, electrons are sometimes shared by neighboring atoms or transferred to them (by processes of quantum physics), and this link between atoms is referred to as a chemical bond, and is responsible for the formation of all chemical compounds. The force of electric attraction does not hold nuclei together, because all protons carry a positive charge and repel each other. Thus, electric forces do not hold nuclei together, because they act in the opposite direction. It <P> gravity. In quantum field theory, particles or systems of "particles" like electrons and photons are associated with fields, allowing for infinite degrees of freedom (unlike finite degrees of freedom in particle mechanics) and variable particle numbers which can be created or annihilated. Origin Usually, field equations are postulated (like the Einstein field equations and the Schrödinger equation, which underlies all quantum field equations) or obtained from the results of experiments (like Maxwell's equations). The extent of their validity is their extent to correctly predict and agree with experimental results. From a theoretical viewpoint, field equations can be formulated in the frameworks <P> in classical physics, must be combined with the local current density (a 3-vector) to comprise a relativistic 4-vector. Similarly, energy density must be combined with momentum density and pressure into the stress–energy tensor. Examples of scalar quantities in relativity include electric charge, spacetime interval (e.g., proper time and proper length), and invariant mass. <P> inappropriate objects in general relativity, but the conservation law only requires the use of the 4-divergence of a pseudotensor which is, in this case, a tensor (which also vanishes). Also, most pseudotensors are sections of jet bundles, which are now recognized as perfectly valid objects in GR. Landau–Lifshitz pseudotensor The use of the Landau–Lifshitz pseudotensor, a stress–energy–momentum pseudotensor for combined matter (including photons and neutrinos) plus gravity, allows the energy–momentum conservation laws to be extended into general relativity. Subtraction of the matter stress–energy–momentum tensor from the combined pseudotensor results in the gravitational stress–energy–momentum pseudotensor. <P> than the number of protons in nuclei, the object is said to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A macroscopic body can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the triboelectric effect. Independent electrons moving in vacuum are termed free electrons. Electrons in metals also behave as if they were free. In reality the particles that are commonly termed electrons in metals and other solids are quasi-electrons—quasiparticles, which have the same electrical charge, spin, and magnetic moment as <P> electrons and ions to drift across the field, and eventually hit the walls of the torus. The solution is to shape the lines so they do not simply run around the torus, but twist around like the stripes on a barber pole or candycane. In such a field any single particle will find itself at the outside edge where it will drift one way, say up, and then as it follows its magnetic line around the torus it will find itself on the inside edge, where it will drift the other way. This cancellation is not perfect, but calculations showed it	question: Hey /r/askscience, I'm having a hard time understanding how force carrier particles (gluons, etc.) work, can you help me clarify? context: <P> particle's Hilbert space. This is unlike the usual Fock space description, where the Hilbert space includes particle states with different velocities. Because of their infraparticle properties, charged particles do not have a sharp delta function density of states like an ordinary particle, but instead the density of states rises like an inverse power at the mass of the particle. This collection of states which are very close in mass to m consist of the particle together with low-energy excitation of the electromagnetic field. Implication for particle behavior The directional charges are different for an electron that has always been at rest <P> electromagnetic and weak forces appear distinct at low energies because the particles carrying the weak force, the W and Z bosons, have non-zero masses of 80.4 GeV/c² and 91.2 GeV/c², whereas the photon, which carries the electromagnetic force, is massless. At higher energies Ws and Zs can be created easily and the unified nature of the force becomes apparent. While the strong and electroweak forces peacefully coexist in the Standard Model of particle physics, they remain distinct. So far, the quest for a theory of everything is thus unsuccessful on two points: neither a unification of the strong and electroweak forces – which Laplace <P> element of the interrogative particle. <P> Stress–energy–momentum pseudotensor In the theory of general relativity, a stress–energy–momentum pseudotensor, such as the Landau–Lifshitz pseudotensor, is an extension of the non-gravitational stress–energy tensor that incorporates the energy–momentum of gravity. It allows the energy–momentum of a system of gravitating matter to be defined. In particular it allows the total of matter plus the gravitating energy–momentum to form a conserved current within the framework of general relativity, so that the total energy–momentum crossing the hypersurface (3-dimensional boundary) of any compact space–time hypervolume (4-dimensional submanifold) vanishes. Some people (such as Erwin Schrödinger) have objected to this derivation on the grounds that pseudotensors are <P> called an instanton. In the case of a symmetry related to the conservation of a fermionic particle number, one may understand the creation of such particles as follows. The definition of a particle is different in the two vacuum states between which the tunneling occurs; therefore a state of no particles in one vacuum corresponds to a state with some particles in the other vacuum. In particular, there is a Dirac sea of fermions and, when such a tunneling happens, it causes the energy levels of the sea fermions to gradually shift upwards for the particles and downwards for the anti-particles, or <P> particle (denoting a small object whose mass is too small to contribute appreciably to the ambient gravitational field). Here, it is useful to know that any Killing vectors which may be present will (in the case of a vacuum solution) automatically satisfy the curved spacetime Maxwell equations. Note that this procedure amounts to assuming that the electromagnetic field, but not the gravitational field, is "weak". Sometimes we can go even further; if the gravitational field is also considered "weak", we can independently solve the linearised Einstein field equations and the (flat spacetime) Maxwell equations on a Minkowksi vacuum background. Then <P> such as the electron, the uncertainty of the energy allows for the creation of virtual particles near the electron. This wavelength explains the "static" of virtual particles around elementary particles at a close distance. Interaction An electron generates an electric field that exerts an attractive force on a particle with a positive charge, such as the proton, and a repulsive force on a particle with a negative charge. The strength of this force in nonrelativistic approximation is determined by Coulomb's inverse square law. When an electron is in motion, it generates a magnetic field. The Ampère-Maxwell law relates the magnetic <P> be obtained from (varying) the action with a specific Lagrangian density that is given by: If one varies this with respect to ψ one gets the Adjoint Dirac equation. Meanwhile, if one varies this with respect to ψ one gets the Dirac equation. Hole theory The negative E solutions to the equation are problematic, for it was assumed that the particle has a positive energy. Mathematically speaking, however, there seems to be no reason for us to reject the negative-energy solutions. Since they exist, we cannot simply ignore them, for once we include the interaction between the electron and the electromagnetic <P> described later). Carithers and Grannis state: "Ordinary matter is composed entirely of first-generation particles, namely the [up] and [down] quarks, plus the electron and its neutrino." (Higher generations particles quickly decay into first-generation particles, and thus are not commonly encountered.) This definition of ordinary matter is more subtle than it first appears. All the particles that make up ordinary matter (leptons and quarks) are elementary fermions, while all the force carriers are elementary bosons. The W and Z bosons that mediate the weak force are not made of quarks or leptons, and so are not ordinary matter, even if they have <P> charge of the particle), and the local field line connecting the two mirror points at any moment, slowly sweeps out a surface connecting them as it moves in longitude. Eventually the particle will drift entirely around the Earth, and the surface will be closed upon itself. These drift surfaces, nested like the skin of an onion, are the surfaces of constant L in the McIlwain coordinate system. They apply not only for a perfect dipole field, but also for fields that are approximately dipolar. For a given particle, as long as only the Lorentz force is <P> as either contact or body forces. A contact force is produced by direct physical contact; an example is the force exerted on a body by a supporting surface. A body force is generated by virtue of the position of a body within a force field such as a gravitational, electric, or magnetic field and is independent of contact with any other body. An example of a body force is the weight of a body in the Earth's gravitational field. Moment of a force In addition to the tendency to move a body in the direction of its application, a force <P> which is used to derive the equations of motion for a mechanical system of rigid bodies. The expression compatible displacements means that the particles remain in contact and displace together so that the work done by pairs of action/reaction inter-particle forces cancel out. Various forms of this principle have been credited to Johann (Jean) Bernoulli (1667–1748) and Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782). <P> both terminologies are used. For this reason, phrases like "the quantum of charge" or "the indivisible unit of charge" can be ambiguous unless further specification is given. On the other hand, the term "elementary charge" is unambiguous: it refers to a quantity of charge equal to that of a proton. Lack of fractional charges Paul Dirac persuasively argued in 1931 that if magnetic monopoles exist, then electric charge must be quantized; however, it is unknown whether magnetic monopoles actually exist. It is currently unknown why isolatable particles are restricted to integer charges; much of the string theory landscape appears to <P> conductor, called a Fermi sea, contains electrons with energies up to the chemical potential of the system. An unfilled state in the Fermi sea behaves like a positively charged electron, though it is referred to as a "hole" rather than a "positron". The negative charge of the Fermi sea is balanced by the positively charged ionic lattice of the material. In quantum field theory In quantum field theories such as quantum electrodynamics, the Dirac field is subject to a process of second quantization, which resolves some of the paradoxical features of the equation. Other formulations The Dirac equation can be <P> binding energies of the nuclear components involved in the transmutation. The nuclear force Electrons and nuclei are kept together by electrostatic attraction (negative attracts positive). Furthermore, electrons are sometimes shared by neighboring atoms or transferred to them (by processes of quantum physics), and this link between atoms is referred to as a chemical bond, and is responsible for the formation of all chemical compounds. The force of electric attraction does not hold nuclei together, because all protons carry a positive charge and repel each other. Thus, electric forces do not hold nuclei together, because they act in the opposite direction. It <P> gravity. In quantum field theory, particles or systems of "particles" like electrons and photons are associated with fields, allowing for infinite degrees of freedom (unlike finite degrees of freedom in particle mechanics) and variable particle numbers which can be created or annihilated. Origin Usually, field equations are postulated (like the Einstein field equations and the Schrödinger equation, which underlies all quantum field equations) or obtained from the results of experiments (like Maxwell's equations). The extent of their validity is their extent to correctly predict and agree with experimental results. From a theoretical viewpoint, field equations can be formulated in the frameworks <P> in classical physics, must be combined with the local current density (a 3-vector) to comprise a relativistic 4-vector. Similarly, energy density must be combined with momentum density and pressure into the stress–energy tensor. Examples of scalar quantities in relativity include electric charge, spacetime interval (e.g., proper time and proper length), and invariant mass. <P> inappropriate objects in general relativity, but the conservation law only requires the use of the 4-divergence of a pseudotensor which is, in this case, a tensor (which also vanishes). Also, most pseudotensors are sections of jet bundles, which are now recognized as perfectly valid objects in GR. Landau–Lifshitz pseudotensor The use of the Landau–Lifshitz pseudotensor, a stress–energy–momentum pseudotensor for combined matter (including photons and neutrinos) plus gravity, allows the energy–momentum conservation laws to be extended into general relativity. Subtraction of the matter stress–energy–momentum tensor from the combined pseudotensor results in the gravitational stress–energy–momentum pseudotensor. <P> than the number of protons in nuclei, the object is said to be positively charged. When the number of electrons and the number of protons are equal, their charges cancel each other and the object is said to be electrically neutral. A macroscopic body can develop an electric charge through rubbing, by the triboelectric effect. Independent electrons moving in vacuum are termed free electrons. Electrons in metals also behave as if they were free. In reality the particles that are commonly termed electrons in metals and other solids are quasi-electrons—quasiparticles, which have the same electrical charge, spin, and magnetic moment as <P> electrons and ions to drift across the field, and eventually hit the walls of the torus. The solution is to shape the lines so they do not simply run around the torus, but twist around like the stripes on a barber pole or candycane. In such a field any single particle will find itself at the outside edge where it will drift one way, say up, and then as it follows its magnetic line around the torus it will find itself on the inside edge, where it will drift the other way. This cancellation is not perfect, but calculations showed it	answer: There is a general miscommunication between experts and lay people that leads to your confusion. That miscommunication is the couching of forces in terms of "virtual particles." This is misleading on a number of fronts, but I'll just say that "virtual particles" are the result of a mathematical tool, and not a fundamental description of reality. The fundamental description of reality is: things (described by quantum fields) attract and repel from other things. It is misleading to think that this is "caused by" exchanging photons or other force carriers. It is more accurate to simply say that the EM field is associated with the force between electrically charged particles, and photons are ripples in the EM field. Similarly for the other forces. Now, to answer your other questions: > I am wondering if the force carriers of the EM field are the photons? And if Gravitons are the force carriers of gravity and the curving of space time?Yes in the language of gauge theory the "force carriers" of the EM field are photons, and gravitons are the force carriers of gravity and the curving of space time. A caveat to the latter is that we don't have an agreed-upon theory of quantum gravity, and it may not turn out to be a gauge theory; nonetheless in any such theory it is likely that what you say about gravitons is essentially true. > And last I have what might seem as a bit odd question. How can gravity pull on photons if photons are massless particles that are moving in the speed of light, just as gravitons are. In another perspective my question is like this; If I am driving my bike trying to push my friend who is also biking. We are driving at the same speed. How can I (Graviton) catch up with my friend (the Photon) and push him?This misunderstanding is one and the same as what I addressed in my first paragraph. Gravitons are not literally sent out from the sun (for example) and "catch up with photons" and hit them in such a way that the photon is pulled toward the sun. The more simple and correct statement is simply that photons interact gravitationally. One way of calculating this gravitational interaction involves summing over un-physical graviton exchanges. But this should not be taken literally.
154,308	1lhlzt	what would happen if russian and american soldiers end up killing eachother in syria?	Russian soldiers are not in Syria, and will not enter Syria. US soldiers are not in Syria, and currently have no plans to enter Syria. So I don't think your question is really answerable; there are a ton of things that would have to change before it could happen.	[ "Russian soldiers are not in Syria, and will not enter Syria. US soldiers are not in Syria, and currently have no plans to enter Syria. So I don't think your question is really answerable; there are a ton of things that would have to change before it could happen." ]	1	[]	0	<P> Russian Armed Forces casualties in Syria The Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War started on 30 September 2015, with 4,000 Russian military personnel being stationed in Syria. The Russian forces also consisted of 25 strategic bombers, 20 tactical bombers, 12 attack bombers, 8 fighter aircraft, 16 attack helicopters and various other aircraft. As of 23 February 2019, there have been 116 officially confirmed Russian Armed Forces fatalities in the war. Also, two investigative groups, Fontanka and the Moscow-based Conflict Intelligence Team (CIT), reported a conservative estimate of at least 73–101 private military contractors (PMCs) being killed between October 2015 <P> and mid-December 2017, 40–60 of whom died during the first several months of 2017, according to Fontanka. The founder of CIT stated the PMCs' death toll was at least 100–200, while another CIT blogger said at least 150 were killed and more than 900 were wounded. They belonged to the Russian company "Wagner". One more PMC was killed in late December 2017. In addition, at least 25 fighters have been killed that were possibly regular military, but their status has not been officially confirmed. Out-of-country deaths related to the Operation On 25 December 2016, a Russian military Tupolev Tu-154 with <P> in all future wars that either country might engage in. <P> Syrian Marines seemed unlikely since the personnel from this unit have also began transferring to other units. <P> as long as they continue to fight the Syrian government. <P> of the Light Brigade, when Lord Lucan remarked "This is a most serious matter", General Airey replied, "These sort of things will happen in war. It is nothing to Chillianwala." <P> Venezuela can't transfer these defense articles, and in this case F-16s, to a third country". According to Moscow Defense Brief, Russia delivered 6 Su-25UBK ground attack fighter-trainers, 12 Mi-171Sh military transport helicopters, 21 Mi-171 transport helicopters, and 3 Mi-17B-5 medical helicopters to Iran between 2000 and 2006. A $700 million repair and modernization program of the IRIAF MiG-29 and Su-24 fighters was also completed. On 22 September 2009, an IRIAF Il-76 collided with an F-5E shortly after an annual parade in Tehran and crashed near Varamin, killing all seven people on board. 2010s At the end of 2014, there was evidence that the <P> his country. In the end, who will save this soldier? <P> stopped] some way", drawing the comparison to enemies of the country. <P> intervention would have to be approached in an exceptional way. <P> again defeated. <P> repaired and brought back to service by the Ukrainians were two MiG-23ML fighter jets from the Rassvet Libya group, one of the key militias in the GNA forces. Both of those aircraft then carried out airstrikes against ISIL militants and pro-LNA forces throughout 2015. One of the pro-GNA fighter jets, a MiG-23UB aircraft, was shot down on 22 March 2015 at Al-Zintan by pro-LNA fighters with an Igla MANPADs while bombing the pro-LNA positions at Al-Zintan airport. A second pro-GNA fighter jet, this time MiG-23ML aircraft, crashed on 22 December 2016 at Tarhouna due to technical problems—both of its pilots, <P> in 2008. Meanwhile, NATO's International Security Assistance Force has said that only just over 200 civilians were mistakenly killed by foreign troops last year. According to NATO spokesman James Appathurai, 97 civilian deaths were caused by ISAF in 2008, while 987 civilian deaths were caused by militant groups. The number of civilian deaths caused by US-led military forces operating outside of ISAF was not mentioned in that statement. In October 2008, Professor Marc W. Herold of the University of New Hampshire reported that the number of civilians killed in direct action by U.S. and other NATO forces from 2005 up that point in <P> maximum effect. Wahabi and Baathist insurgents foment revolt across the Middle East and the Soviet Union, with enough time to train and equip its armies, has begun seizing the Afghan passes leading to India. Unbeknownst to either the Allies or Axis, the HMS Vanguard materialized on the Siberian ice pack (one day before the other ships) and is now providing the Soviets with invaluable resources and information. Stalin has also impounded the ships of Convoy PQ 17 and has his own atomic bomb program in place; it may take a decade of fighting, but Stalin will see nothing but global triumph <P> upcoming rivalry with the West, including Russia. <P> Second Chechen War. Deployment In 2013, after initially arriving in Beirut, Lebanon, the PMCs were first transferred to Damascus, Syria and then to a Syrian army base in Latakia. By October, the Slavonic Corps had a strength of 267 contractors divided into two companies that were present in Latakia. The contractors were provided with outdated equipment which raised concerns among the participants. They soon realized that the FSB and the Syrian government had no involvement with the operation. Those wishing to return to Russia were left with no choice but to earn their ticket back through direct participation in the Syrian <P> under imminent threat. <P> disarmed by the Soviet Union forces. <P> killed by anti-government forces, accounting for 55% of the 2008 total, while 828 were killed by international-led military forces, accounting for 39% of the 2008 total. The remaining 6% – 130 deaths – could not be attributed to any of the parties since some of them died as a result of crossfire or were killed by unexploded ordnance, for example. Of the civilians killed by anti-government elements, 85% died as a result of suicide or improvised explosive devices. Of the civilians killed by pro-government forces, 64% were killed by U.S./NATO airstrikes. (Note: UNAMA's report includes in its count of civilian/non-combatant deaths <P> began it’s our view that at least 190 civilians have been killed by coalition airstrikes, mostly US. We are concerned that the US-led alliance appears to have relaxed some of their rules concerning civilian casualties". Since the beginning of the American-led intervention in Syria, independent monitoring group Airwars estimate 1,422 civilians have been killed in airstrikes carried out by the US Air Force, though the overall total could be as high as between 3,181 and 4,267 civilian non-combatant fatalities from 493 separate reported incidents. Attack On Tuesday 19 July 2016, American warplanes attacked the Syrian village of Tokhar, which was housing	question: what would happen if russian and american soldiers end up killing eachother in syria? context: <P> Russian Armed Forces casualties in Syria The Russian military intervention in the Syrian Civil War started on 30 September 2015, with 4,000 Russian military personnel being stationed in Syria. The Russian forces also consisted of 25 strategic bombers, 20 tactical bombers, 12 attack bombers, 8 fighter aircraft, 16 attack helicopters and various other aircraft. As of 23 February 2019, there have been 116 officially confirmed Russian Armed Forces fatalities in the war. Also, two investigative groups, Fontanka and the Moscow-based Conflict Intelligence Team (CIT), reported a conservative estimate of at least 73–101 private military contractors (PMCs) being killed between October 2015 <P> and mid-December 2017, 40–60 of whom died during the first several months of 2017, according to Fontanka. The founder of CIT stated the PMCs' death toll was at least 100–200, while another CIT blogger said at least 150 were killed and more than 900 were wounded. They belonged to the Russian company "Wagner". One more PMC was killed in late December 2017. In addition, at least 25 fighters have been killed that were possibly regular military, but their status has not been officially confirmed. Out-of-country deaths related to the Operation On 25 December 2016, a Russian military Tupolev Tu-154 with <P> in all future wars that either country might engage in. <P> Syrian Marines seemed unlikely since the personnel from this unit have also began transferring to other units. <P> as long as they continue to fight the Syrian government. <P> of the Light Brigade, when Lord Lucan remarked "This is a most serious matter", General Airey replied, "These sort of things will happen in war. It is nothing to Chillianwala." <P> Venezuela can't transfer these defense articles, and in this case F-16s, to a third country". According to Moscow Defense Brief, Russia delivered 6 Su-25UBK ground attack fighter-trainers, 12 Mi-171Sh military transport helicopters, 21 Mi-171 transport helicopters, and 3 Mi-17B-5 medical helicopters to Iran between 2000 and 2006. A $700 million repair and modernization program of the IRIAF MiG-29 and Su-24 fighters was also completed. On 22 September 2009, an IRIAF Il-76 collided with an F-5E shortly after an annual parade in Tehran and crashed near Varamin, killing all seven people on board. 2010s At the end of 2014, there was evidence that the <P> his country. In the end, who will save this soldier? <P> stopped] some way", drawing the comparison to enemies of the country. <P> intervention would have to be approached in an exceptional way. <P> again defeated. <P> repaired and brought back to service by the Ukrainians were two MiG-23ML fighter jets from the Rassvet Libya group, one of the key militias in the GNA forces. Both of those aircraft then carried out airstrikes against ISIL militants and pro-LNA forces throughout 2015. One of the pro-GNA fighter jets, a MiG-23UB aircraft, was shot down on 22 March 2015 at Al-Zintan by pro-LNA fighters with an Igla MANPADs while bombing the pro-LNA positions at Al-Zintan airport. A second pro-GNA fighter jet, this time MiG-23ML aircraft, crashed on 22 December 2016 at Tarhouna due to technical problems—both of its pilots, <P> in 2008. Meanwhile, NATO's International Security Assistance Force has said that only just over 200 civilians were mistakenly killed by foreign troops last year. According to NATO spokesman James Appathurai, 97 civilian deaths were caused by ISAF in 2008, while 987 civilian deaths were caused by militant groups. The number of civilian deaths caused by US-led military forces operating outside of ISAF was not mentioned in that statement. In October 2008, Professor Marc W. Herold of the University of New Hampshire reported that the number of civilians killed in direct action by U.S. and other NATO forces from 2005 up that point in <P> maximum effect. Wahabi and Baathist insurgents foment revolt across the Middle East and the Soviet Union, with enough time to train and equip its armies, has begun seizing the Afghan passes leading to India. Unbeknownst to either the Allies or Axis, the HMS Vanguard materialized on the Siberian ice pack (one day before the other ships) and is now providing the Soviets with invaluable resources and information. Stalin has also impounded the ships of Convoy PQ 17 and has his own atomic bomb program in place; it may take a decade of fighting, but Stalin will see nothing but global triumph <P> upcoming rivalry with the West, including Russia. <P> Second Chechen War. Deployment In 2013, after initially arriving in Beirut, Lebanon, the PMCs were first transferred to Damascus, Syria and then to a Syrian army base in Latakia. By October, the Slavonic Corps had a strength of 267 contractors divided into two companies that were present in Latakia. The contractors were provided with outdated equipment which raised concerns among the participants. They soon realized that the FSB and the Syrian government had no involvement with the operation. Those wishing to return to Russia were left with no choice but to earn their ticket back through direct participation in the Syrian <P> under imminent threat. <P> disarmed by the Soviet Union forces. <P> killed by anti-government forces, accounting for 55% of the 2008 total, while 828 were killed by international-led military forces, accounting for 39% of the 2008 total. The remaining 6% – 130 deaths – could not be attributed to any of the parties since some of them died as a result of crossfire or were killed by unexploded ordnance, for example. Of the civilians killed by anti-government elements, 85% died as a result of suicide or improvised explosive devices. Of the civilians killed by pro-government forces, 64% were killed by U.S./NATO airstrikes. (Note: UNAMA's report includes in its count of civilian/non-combatant deaths <P> began it’s our view that at least 190 civilians have been killed by coalition airstrikes, mostly US. We are concerned that the US-led alliance appears to have relaxed some of their rules concerning civilian casualties". Since the beginning of the American-led intervention in Syria, independent monitoring group Airwars estimate 1,422 civilians have been killed in airstrikes carried out by the US Air Force, though the overall total could be as high as between 3,181 and 4,267 civilian non-combatant fatalities from 493 separate reported incidents. Attack On Tuesday 19 July 2016, American warplanes attacked the Syrian village of Tokhar, which was housing	answer: Russian soldiers are not in Syria, and will not enter Syria. US soldiers are not in Syria, and currently have no plans to enter Syria. So I don't think your question is really answerable; there are a ton of things that would have to change before it could happen.
49,499	332itl	why does a video on youtube buffer when i pause it but a show on netflix doesn't?	Netflix does buffer. Flip off your router, you'll get a few seconds of playback before the show cuts out.	[ "Netflix does buffer. Flip off your router, you'll get a few seconds of playback before the show cuts out. " ]	1	[]	0	<P> already streaming. <P> stream. <P> launched an offline playback feature, allowing users of the Netflix mobile apps on Android or iOS to cache content on their devices in standard or high quality for viewing without an Internet connection. The feature is primarily available on selected series and films, and Netflix stated that more content would be supported by the feature over time. Netflix will partner with airlines to provide them with its mobile streaming technology. This will start in early 2018 as part of an effort to get airlines to provide better in-flight Wi-Fi. In 2018, Netflix introduced the "Skip Intro" feature which allows customers to <P> experience while watching video. In 2018, Mux announced an API for video streaming using per-title encoding, a technique similar to that used by Netflix. <P> on this stream. <P> ads to recorded programs when the program is viewed. This way the ads could be not just topical but also personalized to viewers interests. DirecTV in March 2011 signed an arrangement with NDS Group to enable the delivery of such addressable advertisement. It is believed that viewers prefer to forward ads, than to switch the channel. By switching channels, viewers will have the probability of skipping the beginning of their program. Users might switch to a channel that is also showing ads. Having the ability to pause, rewind, and forward live TV gives users a chance to change <P> drawn directly from the U.S. streaming service's linear channel. The subscription also includes access to a video on demand library with a limited number of offerings, accessible via cable set-top box (somewhat similar to the former WWE Classics on Demand package), but does not currently provide access to the Internet-based on-demand library. <P> name; some commands evaluate arbitrary Elisp code from buffers (e.g. eval-region or eval-buffer). Buffers are displayed in windows, which are tiled portions of the terminal screen or the GUI window (called a frame in Emacs terms; multiple frames are possible). Unless configured otherwise, windows include scroll bars, line numbers, a header line at the top (usually displaying the buffer title or filename) and a mode line at the bottom (usually listing the active modes and point position of the buffer). Multiple windows can be opened onto the same buffer, for example to see different parts of a long text, and multiple buffers <P> definition. The encore episodes are currently uploading on Formosa Television Drama's Youtube Page. <P> manner, including "end screens" (a customizable array of thumbnails for specified videos displayed near the end of the video) and "cards", but they are not backwards compatible with existing annotations, while the removal of annotations will also break all interactive experiences which depended on them. Live streaming YouTube carried out early experiments with live streaming, including a concert by U2 in 2009, and a question-and-answer session with US President Barack Obama in February 2010. These tests had relied on technology from 3rd-party partners, but in September 2010, YouTube began testing its own live streaming infrastructure. In April 2011, YouTube announced <P> content. <P> Stream (computer science) In type theory and functional programming, a stream is a potentially infinite analog of a list, given by the coinductive definition: data Stream α = Nil \| Cons α (Stream α) Generating and computing with streams requires lazy evaluation, either implicitly in a lazily evaluated language or by creating and forcing thunks in an eager language. In total languages they must be defined as codata and can be iterated over using (guarded) corecursion. <P> of double buffering may be used to improve video performance. In this case, while the processor is updating the contents of one set of physical memory locations, the video generation hardware is accessing and displaying the contents of a second set. When the processor has completed its update, it can signal to the video display hardware to swap active banks, so that the transition visible on screen is free of artifacts or distortion. In this case, the processor may have access to all the memory at once, but the video display hardware is bank-switched between parts of the video memory. <P> viewing." <P> video is starting. <P> ability for its content (along with those of other online video services) to be presented within a unified search interface alongside linear television programming as an "all-in-one" solution. 4K streaming requires a 4K-compatible device and display, both supporting HDCP 2.2. 4K streaming on personal computers requires hardware and software support of the Microsoft PlayReady 3.0 digital rights management solution, which requires a compatible CPU, graphics card, and software environment. Currently, this feature is limited to 7th generation Intel Core or later CPUs, Windows 10, Nvidia Geforce 10 series and AMD Radeon 400 series or later graphics cards, and running through Microsoft <P> & Away <P> have watched the film given that it would have made the film more popular than the finale of Game of Thrones. Effects and legacy The rise of Netflix has affected the way that audiences watch televised content. Netflix's CPO Neil Hunt points out that the Internet allows users the freedom to watch shows at their own pace, so an episode does not need cliffhangers to tease the audience to keep tuning in week after week because they can just continue into the next episode. Netflix has allowed content creators to deviate from traditional formats that force 30-minute or 60-minute time <P> service, and in July 2009, Sony announced the addition of the Netflix service. Public Reaction Initial reviews of the BIVL service were mixed. While the BIVL device and service offers an easy way to access video on select Sony TVs, much of the content is already freely available and also available via other devices that had superior UIs and offered better performance. <P> views on YouTube.	question: why does a video on youtube buffer when i pause it but a show on netflix doesn't? context: <P> already streaming. <P> stream. <P> launched an offline playback feature, allowing users of the Netflix mobile apps on Android or iOS to cache content on their devices in standard or high quality for viewing without an Internet connection. The feature is primarily available on selected series and films, and Netflix stated that more content would be supported by the feature over time. Netflix will partner with airlines to provide them with its mobile streaming technology. This will start in early 2018 as part of an effort to get airlines to provide better in-flight Wi-Fi. In 2018, Netflix introduced the "Skip Intro" feature which allows customers to <P> experience while watching video. In 2018, Mux announced an API for video streaming using per-title encoding, a technique similar to that used by Netflix. <P> on this stream. <P> ads to recorded programs when the program is viewed. This way the ads could be not just topical but also personalized to viewers interests. DirecTV in March 2011 signed an arrangement with NDS Group to enable the delivery of such addressable advertisement. It is believed that viewers prefer to forward ads, than to switch the channel. By switching channels, viewers will have the probability of skipping the beginning of their program. Users might switch to a channel that is also showing ads. Having the ability to pause, rewind, and forward live TV gives users a chance to change <P> drawn directly from the U.S. streaming service's linear channel. The subscription also includes access to a video on demand library with a limited number of offerings, accessible via cable set-top box (somewhat similar to the former WWE Classics on Demand package), but does not currently provide access to the Internet-based on-demand library. <P> name; some commands evaluate arbitrary Elisp code from buffers (e.g. eval-region or eval-buffer). Buffers are displayed in windows, which are tiled portions of the terminal screen or the GUI window (called a frame in Emacs terms; multiple frames are possible). Unless configured otherwise, windows include scroll bars, line numbers, a header line at the top (usually displaying the buffer title or filename) and a mode line at the bottom (usually listing the active modes and point position of the buffer). Multiple windows can be opened onto the same buffer, for example to see different parts of a long text, and multiple buffers <P> definition. The encore episodes are currently uploading on Formosa Television Drama's Youtube Page. <P> manner, including "end screens" (a customizable array of thumbnails for specified videos displayed near the end of the video) and "cards", but they are not backwards compatible with existing annotations, while the removal of annotations will also break all interactive experiences which depended on them. Live streaming YouTube carried out early experiments with live streaming, including a concert by U2 in 2009, and a question-and-answer session with US President Barack Obama in February 2010. These tests had relied on technology from 3rd-party partners, but in September 2010, YouTube began testing its own live streaming infrastructure. In April 2011, YouTube announced <P> content. <P> Stream (computer science) In type theory and functional programming, a stream is a potentially infinite analog of a list, given by the coinductive definition: data Stream α = Nil \| Cons α (Stream α) Generating and computing with streams requires lazy evaluation, either implicitly in a lazily evaluated language or by creating and forcing thunks in an eager language. In total languages they must be defined as codata and can be iterated over using (guarded) corecursion. <P> of double buffering may be used to improve video performance. In this case, while the processor is updating the contents of one set of physical memory locations, the video generation hardware is accessing and displaying the contents of a second set. When the processor has completed its update, it can signal to the video display hardware to swap active banks, so that the transition visible on screen is free of artifacts or distortion. In this case, the processor may have access to all the memory at once, but the video display hardware is bank-switched between parts of the video memory. <P> viewing." <P> video is starting. <P> ability for its content (along with those of other online video services) to be presented within a unified search interface alongside linear television programming as an "all-in-one" solution. 4K streaming requires a 4K-compatible device and display, both supporting HDCP 2.2. 4K streaming on personal computers requires hardware and software support of the Microsoft PlayReady 3.0 digital rights management solution, which requires a compatible CPU, graphics card, and software environment. Currently, this feature is limited to 7th generation Intel Core or later CPUs, Windows 10, Nvidia Geforce 10 series and AMD Radeon 400 series or later graphics cards, and running through Microsoft <P> & Away <P> have watched the film given that it would have made the film more popular than the finale of Game of Thrones. Effects and legacy The rise of Netflix has affected the way that audiences watch televised content. Netflix's CPO Neil Hunt points out that the Internet allows users the freedom to watch shows at their own pace, so an episode does not need cliffhangers to tease the audience to keep tuning in week after week because they can just continue into the next episode. Netflix has allowed content creators to deviate from traditional formats that force 30-minute or 60-minute time <P> service, and in July 2009, Sony announced the addition of the Netflix service. Public Reaction Initial reviews of the BIVL service were mixed. While the BIVL device and service offers an easy way to access video on select Sony TVs, much of the content is already freely available and also available via other devices that had superior UIs and offered better performance. <P> views on YouTube.	answer: Netflix does buffer. Flip off your router, you'll get a few seconds of playback before the show cuts out.
180,686	196m1q	Are there any famous deaths in history which at the time were considered natural, but with modern expertise are now thought to be caused by foul play?	Napoleon Bonaparte's death, at the time, was seen as a natural death Due to stomach cancer. Although testing done in the 20th century on his hair shows high levels of arsenic, which may indicate he was poisoned. At this point the results are not conclusive, and there is still much discussion over the cause of death.	[ "Napoleon Bonaparte's death, at the time, was seen as a natural death Due to stomach cancer. Although testing done in the 20th century on his hair shows high levels of arsenic, which may indicate he was poisoned. At this point the results are not conclusive, and there is still much discussion over the cause of deat...	1	[]	0	<P> it was unlikely to be deadly. Contemporary accounts Gerald of Wales commented on the power of the Welsh longbow in the 12th century: [I]n the war against the Welsh, one of the men of arms was struck by an arrow shot at him by a Welshman. It went right through his thigh, high up, where it was protected inside and outside the leg by his iron chausses, and then through the skirt of his leather tunic; next it penetrated that part of the saddle which is called the alva or seat; and finally it lodged in his horse, driving so deep <P> died of disease, for a total of 149 fatalities. <P> of maturity. Tragedy of an Elderly Gentleman: A.D. 3000 The Tragedy of an Elderly Gentleman begins in 3000 AD, on the south shore of Galway Bay where an old man is found sitting on an ancient stone bollard, once used as a mooring for ships. His face is buried in his hands and he is sobbing. A woman approaches to ask if he needs help. He says no and tries to hide his tears, which he attributes to hay fever. She asks if he is a foreigner and he denies it and says he is a Briton who lives in <P> been connected to these deaths, since at the time he was acting as William's assistant. However, persons who have studied life in Georgian London agree that the number of gravid women who died in London during the years of Hunter's and Smellie's work was not particularly high for that locality and time; the prevalence of pre-eclampsia — a common condition affecting 10% of all pregnancies, and one which is easily treated today, but for which no treatment was known in Hunter's time — would more than suffice to explain a mortality rate that seems suspiciously high to 21st-century readers. <P> samples had a standard deviation of plus or minus 60 years, so Mahaney's findings were not definitive despite widespread speculation at the time. In particular, no Carthaginian artifacts (or elephant bones) attributable to the numerous fatalities suffered by the army have been found. <P> or not. It is commonly stated that if they considered it "puny and deformed", the baby was thrown into a chasm on Mount Taygetos known euphemistically as the Apothetae (Gr., ἀποθέται, "Deposits"). This was, in effect, a primitive form of eugenics. Sparta is often viewed as being unique in this regard, however, anthropologist Laila Williamson notes that "Infanticide has been practiced on every continent and by people on every level of cultural complexity, from hunter gatherers to high civilizations. Rather than being an exception, then, it has been the rule."There is controversy about the matter in Sparta, since excavations <P> who predated the Middle Eastern assassins and Japanese ninjas by centuries. In the Middle Ages, regicide was rare in Western Europe, but it was a recurring theme in the Eastern Roman Empire. Blinding and strangling in the bathtub were the most commonly used procedures. With the Renaissance, tyrannicide—or assassination for personal or political reasons—became more common again in Western Europe. High medieval sources mention the assassination of King Demetrius Zvonimir (1089), dying at the hands of his own people, who objected to a proposition by the pope to go on a campaign to aid the Byzantines against the Seljuk Turks. <P> about sacrifice in which Numa, second king of Rome, negotiates with Jupiter to replace the requested human victims with vegetables. In the first century BC, human sacrifice survived perhaps only as travesty or accusation. Julius Caesar was accused — rather vaguely — of sacrificing two mutinous soldiers in the Campus Martius. On the anniversary of Caesar's death in 40 BC, after achieving a victory at the siege of Perugia, the future Augustus executed 300 senators and knights who had fought against him under Lucius Antonius. Lucius was spared. Perceptions of the clemency of Augustus on this occasion vary wildly. Both <P> and yelling "God is great!", the desperation of their situation was readily apparent to the French and some knights broke and fled back down the slope. The rest fought on "no frothing boar nor enraged wolf more fiercely," in the words of one contemporary chronicler. Admiral de Vienne, to whom was granted the honor as the eldest knight of carrying the French standard into battle, was wounded many times as he attempted to rally the morale of his countrymen, before being struck down dead. Other notable knights who were slain include Jean de Carrouges, Philippe de Bar <P> this period are silent, as there are no 6th-century English documents. The Romano-British may have been disproportionately affected because of trade contacts with Gaul and other factors, such as British settlement patterns being more dispersive than English ones, which "could have served to facilitate plague transmission by the rat". The differential effects may have been exaggerated. British sources were then more likely to report natural disasters than Saxon ones. In addition, "the evidence for artifact trade between the British and the English" implies significant interaction and "just minimal interaction would surely have involved a high risk of plague transmission". However, scholars <P> of war, pointing out that oral histories tend to emphasise warfare rather than peace even if there is far more of the latter than the former, and that estimating the frequency of war based on the number of weapons and fortifications is like estimating the number of house fires based on the number of insurance policies. However it is clear that in most societies warriors were held in high esteem and that completely pacifist societies were very unusual. One exception was the Moriori of the Chatham Islands. A range of weapons were used in Oceania. These included the woomera and boomerang <P> later, the war horses, many now of an advanced age, had been lost to view, toiling for the very poorest owners, or at night to avoid the police and Egyptian S.P.C.A., or in the stone quarries. Brooke had heard rumours from British residents who spoke of pitiful, emaciated creatures that they suspected were war horses. Their condition was said to be so bad that people could hardly bear to look at them. She was advised there could be two hundred. Weeks passed before she found the first, but there were to be more than two hundred. In fact in the <P> September–December 1915, and the effects of scurvy, he was unable to sustain the physical effort required on the main depot-laying journey south, and collapsed before the Beardmore was reached. Thereafter he had to be carried on the sledge, unable to help himself and dependent on Ernest Wild for his most basic needs. The party nevertheless completed its depot-laying mission and struggled back northward in worsening weather conditions, each man growing weaker as scurvy took hold, and progress forward was with acute difficulty. Spencer-Smith, uncomplaining but in the latter stages occasionally delirious, died on the Barrier on 9 March <P> a published book has been found. Death Corley Smith died 21 February 1989 in Loxton Cambridge, aged 66. <P> fail in the late 1920s. In 1928 he was reported to be home in Dallas recuperating from an unspecified illness, and by 1930 he was listed as a patient at the Loomis Sanatorium in Liberty, New York. His health did improve though, for a little over a year later he was reported slightly injured with Dr. Godfrey Dewey and others while testing an Olympic bob sled course at Lake Placid, New York. Fife's last film, the 1929 Hoot Gibson comedy Smilin' Guns, was an adaption of a popular magazine story he wrote. The latter half of Fife's career would <P> following year. From his surviving letters it is clear that Wakefield greatly missed his daughter, as he had enjoyed very little family life until she came to New Zealand. In March 1847 Wakefield fought a duel with his doctor, Isaac Featherston over an editorial in the Wellington Independent newspaper which questioned his honesty. Featherstone fired first and missed then Wakefield fired into the air saying he could not shoot a man who had seven daughters. Just as well, the following year Wakefield had great need of his services. Wakefield suffered a mild stroke early in 1848 and then a more severe one <P> in Kent in August 1905 aged 66. <P> Crawford died in Bristol on 30 December 1915, having been evacuated from Paris by her son that year. <P> Dukes of Buccleuch, one of the biggest landowners in Britain. The Newton Rebellion was one of the last times that the peasantry of England and the gentry were in open conflict. John Reynolds' pouch was found after he was captured. It was opened – all that was in it was a piece of green cheese. Captain Reynolds was hanged. <P> fight with the bartender who had refused to continue serving him wine unless he paid for it. In an attempt to disrupt the commotion, army Lieutenant Storm approached Lucidor, at which point Lucidor drew his sword and scratched Storm's hand. Storm drew his own sword and stabbed Lucidor. Lucidor was buried in an unmarked poor man's grave in the north end of Maria Magdalena graveyard. Storm was charged with manslaughter on 22 August 1674, but managed to escape custody with the help of his mother, presumably to flee the country. Vercits from the 1400s may seem odd today. But in the	question: Are there any famous deaths in history which at the time were considered natural, but with modern expertise are now thought to be caused by foul play? context: <P> it was unlikely to be deadly. Contemporary accounts Gerald of Wales commented on the power of the Welsh longbow in the 12th century: [I]n the war against the Welsh, one of the men of arms was struck by an arrow shot at him by a Welshman. It went right through his thigh, high up, where it was protected inside and outside the leg by his iron chausses, and then through the skirt of his leather tunic; next it penetrated that part of the saddle which is called the alva or seat; and finally it lodged in his horse, driving so deep <P> died of disease, for a total of 149 fatalities. <P> of maturity. Tragedy of an Elderly Gentleman: A.D. 3000 The Tragedy of an Elderly Gentleman begins in 3000 AD, on the south shore of Galway Bay where an old man is found sitting on an ancient stone bollard, once used as a mooring for ships. His face is buried in his hands and he is sobbing. A woman approaches to ask if he needs help. He says no and tries to hide his tears, which he attributes to hay fever. She asks if he is a foreigner and he denies it and says he is a Briton who lives in <P> been connected to these deaths, since at the time he was acting as William's assistant. However, persons who have studied life in Georgian London agree that the number of gravid women who died in London during the years of Hunter's and Smellie's work was not particularly high for that locality and time; the prevalence of pre-eclampsia — a common condition affecting 10% of all pregnancies, and one which is easily treated today, but for which no treatment was known in Hunter's time — would more than suffice to explain a mortality rate that seems suspiciously high to 21st-century readers. <P> samples had a standard deviation of plus or minus 60 years, so Mahaney's findings were not definitive despite widespread speculation at the time. In particular, no Carthaginian artifacts (or elephant bones) attributable to the numerous fatalities suffered by the army have been found. <P> or not. It is commonly stated that if they considered it "puny and deformed", the baby was thrown into a chasm on Mount Taygetos known euphemistically as the Apothetae (Gr., ἀποθέται, "Deposits"). This was, in effect, a primitive form of eugenics. Sparta is often viewed as being unique in this regard, however, anthropologist Laila Williamson notes that "Infanticide has been practiced on every continent and by people on every level of cultural complexity, from hunter gatherers to high civilizations. Rather than being an exception, then, it has been the rule."There is controversy about the matter in Sparta, since excavations <P> who predated the Middle Eastern assassins and Japanese ninjas by centuries. In the Middle Ages, regicide was rare in Western Europe, but it was a recurring theme in the Eastern Roman Empire. Blinding and strangling in the bathtub were the most commonly used procedures. With the Renaissance, tyrannicide—or assassination for personal or political reasons—became more common again in Western Europe. High medieval sources mention the assassination of King Demetrius Zvonimir (1089), dying at the hands of his own people, who objected to a proposition by the pope to go on a campaign to aid the Byzantines against the Seljuk Turks. <P> about sacrifice in which Numa, second king of Rome, negotiates with Jupiter to replace the requested human victims with vegetables. In the first century BC, human sacrifice survived perhaps only as travesty or accusation. Julius Caesar was accused — rather vaguely — of sacrificing two mutinous soldiers in the Campus Martius. On the anniversary of Caesar's death in 40 BC, after achieving a victory at the siege of Perugia, the future Augustus executed 300 senators and knights who had fought against him under Lucius Antonius. Lucius was spared. Perceptions of the clemency of Augustus on this occasion vary wildly. Both <P> and yelling "God is great!", the desperation of their situation was readily apparent to the French and some knights broke and fled back down the slope. The rest fought on "no frothing boar nor enraged wolf more fiercely," in the words of one contemporary chronicler. Admiral de Vienne, to whom was granted the honor as the eldest knight of carrying the French standard into battle, was wounded many times as he attempted to rally the morale of his countrymen, before being struck down dead. Other notable knights who were slain include Jean de Carrouges, Philippe de Bar <P> this period are silent, as there are no 6th-century English documents. The Romano-British may have been disproportionately affected because of trade contacts with Gaul and other factors, such as British settlement patterns being more dispersive than English ones, which "could have served to facilitate plague transmission by the rat". The differential effects may have been exaggerated. British sources were then more likely to report natural disasters than Saxon ones. In addition, "the evidence for artifact trade between the British and the English" implies significant interaction and "just minimal interaction would surely have involved a high risk of plague transmission". However, scholars <P> of war, pointing out that oral histories tend to emphasise warfare rather than peace even if there is far more of the latter than the former, and that estimating the frequency of war based on the number of weapons and fortifications is like estimating the number of house fires based on the number of insurance policies. However it is clear that in most societies warriors were held in high esteem and that completely pacifist societies were very unusual. One exception was the Moriori of the Chatham Islands. A range of weapons were used in Oceania. These included the woomera and boomerang <P> later, the war horses, many now of an advanced age, had been lost to view, toiling for the very poorest owners, or at night to avoid the police and Egyptian S.P.C.A., or in the stone quarries. Brooke had heard rumours from British residents who spoke of pitiful, emaciated creatures that they suspected were war horses. Their condition was said to be so bad that people could hardly bear to look at them. She was advised there could be two hundred. Weeks passed before she found the first, but there were to be more than two hundred. In fact in the <P> September–December 1915, and the effects of scurvy, he was unable to sustain the physical effort required on the main depot-laying journey south, and collapsed before the Beardmore was reached. Thereafter he had to be carried on the sledge, unable to help himself and dependent on Ernest Wild for his most basic needs. The party nevertheless completed its depot-laying mission and struggled back northward in worsening weather conditions, each man growing weaker as scurvy took hold, and progress forward was with acute difficulty. Spencer-Smith, uncomplaining but in the latter stages occasionally delirious, died on the Barrier on 9 March <P> a published book has been found. Death Corley Smith died 21 February 1989 in Loxton Cambridge, aged 66. <P> fail in the late 1920s. In 1928 he was reported to be home in Dallas recuperating from an unspecified illness, and by 1930 he was listed as a patient at the Loomis Sanatorium in Liberty, New York. His health did improve though, for a little over a year later he was reported slightly injured with Dr. Godfrey Dewey and others while testing an Olympic bob sled course at Lake Placid, New York. Fife's last film, the 1929 Hoot Gibson comedy Smilin' Guns, was an adaption of a popular magazine story he wrote. The latter half of Fife's career would <P> following year. From his surviving letters it is clear that Wakefield greatly missed his daughter, as he had enjoyed very little family life until she came to New Zealand. In March 1847 Wakefield fought a duel with his doctor, Isaac Featherston over an editorial in the Wellington Independent newspaper which questioned his honesty. Featherstone fired first and missed then Wakefield fired into the air saying he could not shoot a man who had seven daughters. Just as well, the following year Wakefield had great need of his services. Wakefield suffered a mild stroke early in 1848 and then a more severe one <P> in Kent in August 1905 aged 66. <P> Crawford died in Bristol on 30 December 1915, having been evacuated from Paris by her son that year. <P> Dukes of Buccleuch, one of the biggest landowners in Britain. The Newton Rebellion was one of the last times that the peasantry of England and the gentry were in open conflict. John Reynolds' pouch was found after he was captured. It was opened – all that was in it was a piece of green cheese. Captain Reynolds was hanged. <P> fight with the bartender who had refused to continue serving him wine unless he paid for it. In an attempt to disrupt the commotion, army Lieutenant Storm approached Lucidor, at which point Lucidor drew his sword and scratched Storm's hand. Storm drew his own sword and stabbed Lucidor. Lucidor was buried in an unmarked poor man's grave in the north end of Maria Magdalena graveyard. Storm was charged with manslaughter on 22 August 1674, but managed to escape custody with the help of his mother, presumably to flee the country. Vercits from the 1400s may seem odd today. But in the	answer: Napoleon Bonaparte's death, at the time, was seen as a natural death Due to stomach cancer. Although testing done in the 20th century on his hair shows high levels of arsenic, which may indicate he was poisoned. At this point the results are not conclusive, and there is still much discussion over the cause of death.
180,180	cy34t6	why do laptops never seem to have the same types of chargers like phones do?	There is light at the end of the tunnel. Many new mid/highend laptops take USB c chargers, the same as most new Androids	[ "They use different voltage, Watts & amperage that are not comparable with cell phones. \n\nBesides if it was the same then the computer manufacturer couldn't make you buy their proprietary charger.", "There is light at the end of the tunnel. Many new mid/highend laptops take USB c chargers, the same as most ne...	4	[ "They use different voltage, Watts & amperage that are not comparable with cell phones. \n\nBesides if it was the same then the computer manufacturer couldn't make you buy their proprietary charger.", "There is light at the end of the tunnel. Many new mid/highend laptops take USB c chargers, the same as most ne...	3	<P> Backbone, 6510 switch and 1860 Fabric Adapter. The Brocade DCX 8510 is available in 8-slot or 4-slot chassis models supporting up to 384 16 Gbit/s ports at line-rate speeds and 8.2 terabits per second (Tbit/s) of chassis bandwidth. It includes optical UltraScale inter-chassis links (ICLs) which simplify scale-out design for multi-chassis architectures. The Brocade 6510 switch is a 48-port 16 Gbit/s switch designed for virtualized applications and high-performance storage including SSD arrays. Brocade also introduced the 1860 Fabric Adapter, the industry's first adapter which includes AnyIO 16 Gbit/s FC HBA, 10GbE CNA, and 10GbE NIC functionality <P> on them to provide charging power to the mobile device because standard HDMI ports do not supply sufficient current. Samsung Micro-USB-to-HDMI adapter and tip (eleven-pin) The Samsung Galaxy S III, and later Galaxy Note II and Galaxy S4, use an 11-pin connector and the six additional connector pins in order to achieve functional improvements over the 5-pin design (like simultaneous USB-OTG use). However, if consumers have a standard MHL-to-HDMI adapter all they need to purchase is a tip. With the launch of the Samsung Galaxy S4, Samsung also released MHL 2.0 smart adapter with a built-in 11-pin connector. The first <P> model having a free offer with limitations, and the possibility to upgrade to Premium packages which offer more storage space, bandwidth and extra features. <P> 3.1 Gen 1 speed (5 Gbit/s) and PD (charging via USB-C), HDMI, two USB Type-A 3.0 ports, one of which is "always on", allowing users to charge items plugged in while the laptop is off or asleep. X280 Lenovo ThinkPad x280 is the first in the X line to feature charging and docking to USB-C Thunderbolt. Unlike previous models in the series, this has soldered RAM, a non-removable battery, and no built-in RJ45 ethernet port (although one is available via an extension cable). Some users have contended that this eliminates several of the central appeals of the X2* series, and that it <P> computers and, when these later computers were introduced, Apple offered consumers a product upgrade path by letting them buy a new motherboard. Apple's motherboard upgrades of this type were considered expensive, however, and were not a popular option. The Centris 610 also provided the basis for the Workgroup Server 60. The base-model Centris 650 initially used a 25 MHz 68LC040 CPU; later models, and all models with built-in Ethernet, use a 68040. It uses the Macintosh IIvx-style desktop case. The Centris 660AV uses a 25 MHz 68040 and also includes a digital signal processor chip from AT&T Corporation. Like other "AV" computers from Apple, <P> in-line layout—it is impossible to provide the correct electrical connectivity. Sometimes small PCB adapters called "breakout adapters" can be used to fit the component to the board. Such adapters carry one or more components and have 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) spaced male connector pins in a single in-line or dual in-line layout, for insertion into a solderless breadboard. Larger components are usually plugged into a socket on the adapter, while smaller components (e.g., SMD resistors) are usually soldered directly onto the adapter. The adapter is then plugged into the breadboard via the 0.1 in (2.54 mm) connectors. However, the need to solder the <P> at lowest total cost. <P> Macintosh Quadra 630 Hardware Form factor: The Quadra 630 introduced a new case design to the Macintosh family. On the front, a headphone jack and volume up/down buttons are included, a first for the Macintosh. There is an infrared receiver, intended for use with the remote included with the TV tuner card included with the Performa 637CD and 638CD models. The case's motherboard is accessible by opening a cover at the bottom rear of the case and sliding out a drawer that the motherboard was mounted on; this similar to the LC 575. Memory: All 630 models have 4 MB <P> bolt, with the number of stacks determined by voltage; each cell was rated for about 20 V. An automotive battery charger rectifier might have only one cell: the high-voltage power supply for a vacuum tube might have dozens of stacked plates. Current density in an air-cooled selenium stack was about 600 mA per square inch of active area (about 90 mA per square centimeter). Silicon and germanium diodes Silicon diodes are the most widely used rectifiers for lower voltages and powers, and have largely replaced other rectifiers. Due to their substantially lower forward voltage (0.3V versus 0.7V for <P> examples being the MC3 connector and Radox connector. Both designs were essentially weatherproofed versions of small phono jacks, with the connector and sockets surrounded by rubberized material to protect them from water. These had the downside that they could be disconnected by pulling on them, which could occur naturally with snow buildup and similar effects. The code in the NEC required such connectors to lock, leading to a market for new designs. Most panel connectors are designed to be mounted with one end of the cable permanently and internally connected to the panel, with the other end of the cable equipped <P> front passengers, one for the rear passengers and one for the luggage trunk. The voltage of the power outlet is usually near 12 V DC, (14V to 15V while the running engine is turning the alternator, in order to charge the car battery while providing electrical power), because it is unregulatedly directly powered from the car's electrical system. Accessories Most accessories that can be plugged into the outlet are rated for input voltages of up to 24V, some are even rated for 30V or 32V, because larger vehicles such as lorry trucks and busses often have 24-volt electrical systems, with a <P> the products have the marketing names EeePC 8G, 4G, 4G Surf, and 2G Surf, though in other countries the machines are still designated by the model numbers 700 and 701. The 4G Surf uses socketed RAM but some revisions do not have a door to access the slot. Asus released a version of the Eee PC with Microsoft Windows XP pre-installed in January 2008. In Japan, the version is known as the 4G-X. Some early 700-series models drained the battery approximately 10% per day when the unit was completely powered off and not plugged in, thus emptying the battery even when not <P> given distance. The BNC connectors are also very important as are the crimping and cable stripping tools used to install them. Trompeter, Cannon, Amphenol, Kings, and Canare make some of the most reliable 75 ohm connectors known. RG-6 or even inexpensive RG-59 cable may work temporarily when properly terminated, though it does not meet telephony technical standards. Type 735 26 AWG is used for interconnects up to 225 feet, and Type 734 20 AWG is used for interconnects up to 450 feet. DS3 pricing DS3 service is provided to businesses in the United States through <P> supplied device, e.g. 5V for normal USB chargers. Higher output voltages such as 9V or 12V can be outputted by some fast chargers, while some others use higher output currents only. Devices that require alternating-current mains electricity can be operated with a plug-in inverter, which outputs voltage levels and patterns similar to the home electrical outlet. Automobiles may provide several 12 V receptacles that are intended only to operate electrical accessories, and which cannot be used with a cigarette lighter, despite of having the same shape and diameter. Car manufacturers may offer a cigarette lighter only as an optional extra-cost accessory. Usually, only <P> in the US. In December 2013, Google and HP recalled 145,000 chargers due to overheating. Sales were halted, resuming with a redesigned charger the following month. The HP Chromebook 14 was announced September 11, 2013 with an Intel Haswell Celeron processor, USB 3.0 ports, and 4G broadband. An updated version of the Chromebook lineup was announced on September 3, 2014. The 11-inch models included an Intel processor while the 14-inch models featured a fanless design powered by a Nvidia Tegra K1 processor. HP Chromebooks are available in several colors. Desktop variants Two types of desktop computers also run Chrome OS. <P> States is the leading market with 84,656 Volts delivered, followed by Canada with 5,023 Volts, and the Netherlands, the leading European market, with 4,976 Amperas and 1,065 units registered as of December 2014. As of June 2016, just over 10,000 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas had been sold in Europe plus about 1,750 Volts. As of December 2015, the other top selling plug-in hybrids are the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, with about 92,000 units sold, followed by the first generation Toyota Prius PHEV with about 75,000 units sold globally. Plug-in models released to the retail customers in 2015 include the Mercedes-Benz C 350e Plug-in Hybrid, Volvo S60L <P> can lead to many problems. In addition to the issues with partially-compatible physical dimensions, the plugs can vibrate out of the socket under normal driving conditions, owing to poor retention. Also, there have been reports of melted plug tips due to poor contact and heat generation from ohmic resistance. Non-vehicular use in stationary settings may avoid vibration problems when used as an alternative to 120 volt AC outlets, but low-quality connectors may still develop high resistance or intermittent contact. As a DC power connector, it has the disadvantages of bulkiness, relatively low current rating, and poor contact reliability. However, due <P> touchpad. Subsequent models use a USB-based trackpad. Physical In keeping with Apple's general philosophy of industrial design, Apple Desktop Bus was intended to be as simple to use as possible, while still being inexpensive to implement. A suitable connector was found in the form of the 4-pin mini-DIN connector, which is also used for S-Video. The connectors are small, widely available, and can only be inserted the "correct way". They do not lock into position, but even with a friction fit they are firm enough for light duties like those intended for Apple Desktop Bus. Apple Desktop Bus protocol requires only <P> impedance adapter, fixed attenuator and antenna simulator. Additional accessory kit MK-288 includes adapters and more dummy loads. Models and differences "URM" indicates general utility, radio, and maintenance and test assembly. The URM-25 units were released in several series from 25A through 25J; some differ substantially in both circuitry and configuration. It is common to find units having differing identification tags; i.e. front face tag may differ from the cabinet tag. Additionally, some units have additional minor circuitry that do not show up on the schematic. Overhauling Some present-day electronic hobbyists say the URM-25 series is a good cost-effective choice to <P> included as standard, on an internal 10MiB/s SCSI bus, with an external 5MiB/s SCSI port on the back panel.	question: why do laptops never seem to have the same types of chargers like phones do? context: <P> Backbone, 6510 switch and 1860 Fabric Adapter. The Brocade DCX 8510 is available in 8-slot or 4-slot chassis models supporting up to 384 16 Gbit/s ports at line-rate speeds and 8.2 terabits per second (Tbit/s) of chassis bandwidth. It includes optical UltraScale inter-chassis links (ICLs) which simplify scale-out design for multi-chassis architectures. The Brocade 6510 switch is a 48-port 16 Gbit/s switch designed for virtualized applications and high-performance storage including SSD arrays. Brocade also introduced the 1860 Fabric Adapter, the industry's first adapter which includes AnyIO 16 Gbit/s FC HBA, 10GbE CNA, and 10GbE NIC functionality <P> on them to provide charging power to the mobile device because standard HDMI ports do not supply sufficient current. Samsung Micro-USB-to-HDMI adapter and tip (eleven-pin) The Samsung Galaxy S III, and later Galaxy Note II and Galaxy S4, use an 11-pin connector and the six additional connector pins in order to achieve functional improvements over the 5-pin design (like simultaneous USB-OTG use). However, if consumers have a standard MHL-to-HDMI adapter all they need to purchase is a tip. With the launch of the Samsung Galaxy S4, Samsung also released MHL 2.0 smart adapter with a built-in 11-pin connector. The first <P> model having a free offer with limitations, and the possibility to upgrade to Premium packages which offer more storage space, bandwidth and extra features. <P> 3.1 Gen 1 speed (5 Gbit/s) and PD (charging via USB-C), HDMI, two USB Type-A 3.0 ports, one of which is "always on", allowing users to charge items plugged in while the laptop is off or asleep. X280 Lenovo ThinkPad x280 is the first in the X line to feature charging and docking to USB-C Thunderbolt. Unlike previous models in the series, this has soldered RAM, a non-removable battery, and no built-in RJ45 ethernet port (although one is available via an extension cable). Some users have contended that this eliminates several of the central appeals of the X2* series, and that it <P> computers and, when these later computers were introduced, Apple offered consumers a product upgrade path by letting them buy a new motherboard. Apple's motherboard upgrades of this type were considered expensive, however, and were not a popular option. The Centris 610 also provided the basis for the Workgroup Server 60. The base-model Centris 650 initially used a 25 MHz 68LC040 CPU; later models, and all models with built-in Ethernet, use a 68040. It uses the Macintosh IIvx-style desktop case. The Centris 660AV uses a 25 MHz 68040 and also includes a digital signal processor chip from AT&T Corporation. Like other "AV" computers from Apple, <P> in-line layout—it is impossible to provide the correct electrical connectivity. Sometimes small PCB adapters called "breakout adapters" can be used to fit the component to the board. Such adapters carry one or more components and have 0.1 inches (2.54 mm) spaced male connector pins in a single in-line or dual in-line layout, for insertion into a solderless breadboard. Larger components are usually plugged into a socket on the adapter, while smaller components (e.g., SMD resistors) are usually soldered directly onto the adapter. The adapter is then plugged into the breadboard via the 0.1 in (2.54 mm) connectors. However, the need to solder the <P> at lowest total cost. <P> Macintosh Quadra 630 Hardware Form factor: The Quadra 630 introduced a new case design to the Macintosh family. On the front, a headphone jack and volume up/down buttons are included, a first for the Macintosh. There is an infrared receiver, intended for use with the remote included with the TV tuner card included with the Performa 637CD and 638CD models. The case's motherboard is accessible by opening a cover at the bottom rear of the case and sliding out a drawer that the motherboard was mounted on; this similar to the LC 575. Memory: All 630 models have 4 MB <P> bolt, with the number of stacks determined by voltage; each cell was rated for about 20 V. An automotive battery charger rectifier might have only one cell: the high-voltage power supply for a vacuum tube might have dozens of stacked plates. Current density in an air-cooled selenium stack was about 600 mA per square inch of active area (about 90 mA per square centimeter). Silicon and germanium diodes Silicon diodes are the most widely used rectifiers for lower voltages and powers, and have largely replaced other rectifiers. Due to their substantially lower forward voltage (0.3V versus 0.7V for <P> examples being the MC3 connector and Radox connector. Both designs were essentially weatherproofed versions of small phono jacks, with the connector and sockets surrounded by rubberized material to protect them from water. These had the downside that they could be disconnected by pulling on them, which could occur naturally with snow buildup and similar effects. The code in the NEC required such connectors to lock, leading to a market for new designs. Most panel connectors are designed to be mounted with one end of the cable permanently and internally connected to the panel, with the other end of the cable equipped <P> front passengers, one for the rear passengers and one for the luggage trunk. The voltage of the power outlet is usually near 12 V DC, (14V to 15V while the running engine is turning the alternator, in order to charge the car battery while providing electrical power), because it is unregulatedly directly powered from the car's electrical system. Accessories Most accessories that can be plugged into the outlet are rated for input voltages of up to 24V, some are even rated for 30V or 32V, because larger vehicles such as lorry trucks and busses often have 24-volt electrical systems, with a <P> the products have the marketing names EeePC 8G, 4G, 4G Surf, and 2G Surf, though in other countries the machines are still designated by the model numbers 700 and 701. The 4G Surf uses socketed RAM but some revisions do not have a door to access the slot. Asus released a version of the Eee PC with Microsoft Windows XP pre-installed in January 2008. In Japan, the version is known as the 4G-X. Some early 700-series models drained the battery approximately 10% per day when the unit was completely powered off and not plugged in, thus emptying the battery even when not <P> given distance. The BNC connectors are also very important as are the crimping and cable stripping tools used to install them. Trompeter, Cannon, Amphenol, Kings, and Canare make some of the most reliable 75 ohm connectors known. RG-6 or even inexpensive RG-59 cable may work temporarily when properly terminated, though it does not meet telephony technical standards. Type 735 26 AWG is used for interconnects up to 225 feet, and Type 734 20 AWG is used for interconnects up to 450 feet. DS3 pricing DS3 service is provided to businesses in the United States through <P> supplied device, e.g. 5V for normal USB chargers. Higher output voltages such as 9V or 12V can be outputted by some fast chargers, while some others use higher output currents only. Devices that require alternating-current mains electricity can be operated with a plug-in inverter, which outputs voltage levels and patterns similar to the home electrical outlet. Automobiles may provide several 12 V receptacles that are intended only to operate electrical accessories, and which cannot be used with a cigarette lighter, despite of having the same shape and diameter. Car manufacturers may offer a cigarette lighter only as an optional extra-cost accessory. Usually, only <P> in the US. In December 2013, Google and HP recalled 145,000 chargers due to overheating. Sales were halted, resuming with a redesigned charger the following month. The HP Chromebook 14 was announced September 11, 2013 with an Intel Haswell Celeron processor, USB 3.0 ports, and 4G broadband. An updated version of the Chromebook lineup was announced on September 3, 2014. The 11-inch models included an Intel processor while the 14-inch models featured a fanless design powered by a Nvidia Tegra K1 processor. HP Chromebooks are available in several colors. Desktop variants Two types of desktop computers also run Chrome OS. <P> States is the leading market with 84,656 Volts delivered, followed by Canada with 5,023 Volts, and the Netherlands, the leading European market, with 4,976 Amperas and 1,065 units registered as of December 2014. As of June 2016, just over 10,000 Opel/Vauxhall Amperas had been sold in Europe plus about 1,750 Volts. As of December 2015, the other top selling plug-in hybrids are the Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV, with about 92,000 units sold, followed by the first generation Toyota Prius PHEV with about 75,000 units sold globally. Plug-in models released to the retail customers in 2015 include the Mercedes-Benz C 350e Plug-in Hybrid, Volvo S60L <P> can lead to many problems. In addition to the issues with partially-compatible physical dimensions, the plugs can vibrate out of the socket under normal driving conditions, owing to poor retention. Also, there have been reports of melted plug tips due to poor contact and heat generation from ohmic resistance. Non-vehicular use in stationary settings may avoid vibration problems when used as an alternative to 120 volt AC outlets, but low-quality connectors may still develop high resistance or intermittent contact. As a DC power connector, it has the disadvantages of bulkiness, relatively low current rating, and poor contact reliability. However, due <P> touchpad. Subsequent models use a USB-based trackpad. Physical In keeping with Apple's general philosophy of industrial design, Apple Desktop Bus was intended to be as simple to use as possible, while still being inexpensive to implement. A suitable connector was found in the form of the 4-pin mini-DIN connector, which is also used for S-Video. The connectors are small, widely available, and can only be inserted the "correct way". They do not lock into position, but even with a friction fit they are firm enough for light duties like those intended for Apple Desktop Bus. Apple Desktop Bus protocol requires only <P> impedance adapter, fixed attenuator and antenna simulator. Additional accessory kit MK-288 includes adapters and more dummy loads. Models and differences "URM" indicates general utility, radio, and maintenance and test assembly. The URM-25 units were released in several series from 25A through 25J; some differ substantially in both circuitry and configuration. It is common to find units having differing identification tags; i.e. front face tag may differ from the cabinet tag. Additionally, some units have additional minor circuitry that do not show up on the schematic. Overhauling Some present-day electronic hobbyists say the URM-25 series is a good cost-effective choice to <P> included as standard, on an internal 10MiB/s SCSI bus, with an external 5MiB/s SCSI port on the back panel.	answer: There is light at the end of the tunnel. Many new mid/highend laptops take USB c chargers, the same as most new Androids
175,688	37avsd	how does my bladder fill overnight, whilst i am laying horizontally which doesn't have the aide of gravity forcing fluids downwards?	Your ureters, the pipes connecting your kidneys to your bladder, aren't just straight tubes that drain via gravity. They contain smooth muscles and functioning similarly to your esophagus in that they pulsate to push fluid downwards. In addition, your kidneys are always excreting more fluid, creating a sort of 'pushing' force that keeps the urine flowing from kidney to bladders.	[ "Your ureters, the pipes connecting your kidneys to your bladder, aren't just straight tubes that drain via gravity. They contain smooth muscles and functioning similarly to your esophagus in that they pulsate to push fluid downwards. In addition, your kidneys are always excreting more fluid, creating a sort of 'pu...	1	[ "Your ureters, the pipes connecting your kidneys to your bladder, aren't just straight tubes that drain via gravity. They contain smooth muscles and functioning similarly to your esophagus in that they pulsate to push fluid downwards. In addition, your kidneys are always excreting more fluid, creating a sort of 'pu...	1	<P> Artificial urinary bladder The two main methods for replacing bladder function involve either redirecting urine flow or replacing the bladder in situ. Replacement can be done with an artificial urinary bladder, an artificial organ. Development On January 30, 1999, scientists announced that a lab-grown bladder had been successfully transplanted into dogs. These artificial bladders worked well for almost a year in the dogs. In 2000, a new procedure for creating artificial bladders for humans was developed. This procedure is called an orthotopic neobladder procedure. This procedure involves shaping a part (usually 35 to 40 inches) of a patient's small intestine <P> Overflow incontinence Causes Lesions affecting sacral segments or peripheral autonomic fibres result in atonic bladder with loss of sphincteric coordination. This results in loss of detrusor contraction, difficulty in initiating micturition and overflow incontinence. Anticholinergic side effects of certain medications (for example, certain antipsychotics and antidepressants) may cause urinary retention which may lead to overflow incontinence. Alpha-adrenergic agonists may cause urinary retention by stimulating the contraction of the urethral sphincter. Calcium channel blockers may decrease the contractility of the smooth muscle tissue in the urinary bladder, causing urinary retention with overflow incontinence. Epidural anesthesia and delivery also can cause the overflow <P> incontinence. Pathophysiology Overflow incontinence occurs when the patient's bladder is always full so that it frequently leaks urine. Weak bladder muscles, resulting in incomplete emptying of the bladder, or a blocked urethra can cause this type of incontinence. Autonomic neuropathy from diabetes or other diseases (e.g. Multiple sclerosis) can decrease neural signals from the bladder (allowing for overfilling) and may also decrease the expulsion of urine by the detrusor muscle (allowing for urinary retention). Additionally, tumors and kidney stones can block the urethra. Spinal cord injuries or nervous system disorders are additional causes of overflow incontinence. In men, benign <P> prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) may also restrict the flow of urine. Overflow incontinence is rare in women, although sometimes it is caused by fibroid or ovarian tumors. Also overflow incontinence can be from increased outlet resistance from advanced vaginal prolapse causing a "kink" in the urethra or after an anti-incontinence procedure which has overcorrected the problem. Early symptoms include a hesitant or slow stream of urine during voluntary urination. Anticholinergic and NSAIDs medications may worsen overflow incontinence. Diagnosis The gold standard for all urinary incontinence is an urodynamic study that looks for bladder capacity, detrusor stability, contractility, and voiding ability <P> into the thin descending limb of the tubule, through the collecting ducts, and into the excreted urine. The body uses this mechanism, which is controlled by the antidiuretic hormone, to create hyperosmotic urine—i.e., urine with a higher concentration of dissolved substances than the blood plasma. This mechanism is important to prevent the loss of water, maintain blood pressure, and maintain a suitable concentration of sodium ions in the blood plasma. The equivalent nitrogen content (in gram) of urea (in mmol) can be estimated by the conversion factor 0.028 g/mmol. Furthermore, 1 gram of nitrogen is roughly equivalent to 6.25 grams of protein, <P> or types of urine samples at various points in the micturition process. Aircraft pilots A common use of UCDs is in military fighter aircraft. Small aircraft such as fighter planes are not equipped with toilets, but pilots are sometimes required to fly them for several hours continuously. Since most people produce enough urine to fill their bladders after only a few hours under normal conditions, some method must be provided to allow a pilot to urinate without leaving their seat in the cockpit. A UCD makes this possible. UCDs are also used on spacecraft and occasionally in <P> of meeting their own elimination needs. Bedpan Patients who cannot get out of bed easily but who can control their bladder and bowels are able to request a bedpan. The bedpan is placed underneath the patient, who can urinate or defecate as needed. Some patients are able to place their own bedpans under themselves, and assistance is required only to empty them after the fact. Urinal A urinal is much like a bedpan but only for a male, the urinal is shaped in a way that the male may use it while still in bed and remain comfortable. The urinal is <P> to be tackled. Bowel and bladder control Rehabilitation of CES depends on the severity of the injury. If permanent damage occurs, then impairment in bladder and bowel control may result. Once surgery is performed, resting is required until the bladder and bowel dysfunction can be assessed. Urinary catheterization may help with bladder control. Gravity and exercise can help control bowel movement (Hodges, 2004). Pelvic floor exercises assist in controlling bowel movements (Pelvic Floor Exercises, 2010). These exercises can be done standing, lying, or on all fours with the knees slightly separated. Full recovery of bowel and bladder control can take <P> Internal anal sphincter Actions Its action is entirely involuntary, and it is in a state of continuous maximal contraction. It helps the Sphincter ani externus to occlude the anal aperture and aids in the expulsion of the feces. Sympathetic fibers from the superior rectal and hypogastric plexuses stimulate and maintain internal anal sphincter contraction. Its contraction is inhibited by parasympathetic fiber stimulation. This sphincter is tonically contracted most of the time to prevent leakage of fluid or gas, but is relaxed upon distention of the rectal ampulla, requiring voluntary contraction of the puborectalis and external anal sphincter. The internal anal <P> around the oblique muscles on one side of the body, and terminates at the peritoneal cavity, a cavity in the abdomen area of the body. Once in place the lumbar–peritoneal shunt is used to drain the excess cerebrospinal fluid from the brain via the Subarachnoid cavity and transport it to the peritoneal cavity, where it is eventually absorbed by the organs and passed out of the body during urination. The operation is performed under General anesthetic by a neurosurgeon and usually takes a couple of hours. Patients with lumbar–peritoneal shunts are left with two scars; a vertical scar down part of <P> states, and developmental stages to some level. There is also notable expression in bladder tissue. <P> sphincter is not innervated by the pudendal nerve, which carries somatic (motor and sensory) fibers that provide the innervation to the external anal sphincter. Role in continence The IAS contributes 55% of the resting pressure of the anal canal. It is very important for bowel continence, especially for liquid and gas. When the rectum fills beyond a certain capacity, the rectal walls are distended, triggering the defecation cycle. This begins with the rectoanal inhibitory reflex, RAIR, where the IAS relaxes. This is thought to allow a small amount of rectal contents to descend into the anal canal where specialized mucosa <P> in infancy specially following traumatic catheterization. Common symptoms of urethral diverticulum include incontinence, urinary frequency and urgency, pain during sex, and pain during urination. Other symptoms include pain localized to the urethra or pelvis and frequent urinary tract infection. When urethral diverticulum becomes severe, a painful mass can sometimes be felt inside the introitus of the vagina, which can discharge pus. If the mass is hard or bleeds, complications like cancer or kidney stones may be present. Causes Few urethral diverticula are present at birth; the vast majority are acquired. Acquired urethral diverticula can be caused by trauma and/or infection. When the <P> Urate bladder stones may form because of increased amounts of uric acid in circulation and excreted by the kidneys. Pathology Congenital PSS is caused by the failure of the fetal circulatory system of the liver to change. Normally, the blood from the placenta bypasses the liver and goes into circulation via the ductus venosus, a blood vessel found in the fetus. A failure of the ductus venosus to close causes an intrahepatic shunt, while extrahepatic shunts are usually a developmental abnormality of the vitelline veins, which connect the portal vein to the caudal vena cava. Thus <P> their urine as long as possible) are no longer recommended. Bladder stretching exercises can be dangerous because the person could develop the long-term habit of tightening the urethral sphincter muscle, which can cause bladder or kidney problems. Urinating on a regular basis is suggested. Epidemiology Daytime wetting is more common in girls than in boys, but bedwetting is three times as prevalent in boys (i.e., around 75% of sufferers are male). At the age of 7 approximately 3% of girls and 2% of boys experience functional daytime wetting at least once a week. <P> peri-urethral ducts become infected repeatedly, they can become blocked and eventually cause a diverticulum. They are usually found in the middle of the urethra or the end farthest from the bladder. Congenital urethral diverticula can arise from several embryological sources. These include defects in the primordial folds and remnants of Gartner's duct. Pathology Histopathologically, several characteristics are frequently visible in urethral diverticula. These include nephrogenic adenoma, chronic inflammation associated with fibrosis around the glands, small or absent epithelium, chronic cystitis, cystitis cystica, cystitis glandularis, squamous metaplasia, and adenomatous metaplasia. Approximately 1/3 of diverticula are compound or multiple, and some can extend to <P> devices are still sometimes fitted to modern military aircraft and small, private aircraft although they are difficult for women to use. Male glider pilots undertaking extended soaring flights may wear an external catheter that either drains into a collection bag or is connected to tubing that dumps the urine to the outside. If the latter approach is used, care must be taken when designing the system so that the stream of urine does not make contact with other parts of the aircraft, where it may eventually cause corrosion. Another solution to urinating on long military patrols, especially in modern naval patrol <P> Toileting Methods of toileting Depending on a patient's condition, his/her toileting needs may need to be met differently. This could be by assisting the patient to walk to a toilet, to a bedside commode chair, onto a bedpan, or to provide a male patient with a urinal. A more dependent or incontinent patient may have his/her toileting needs met solely through the use of adult diapers. Other options are incontinence pads and urinary catheters. Ambulatory assistance Some patients can walk with assistance from another person, usually a health care worker. Aside from the need for this help, they are capable <P> surround the urethra. Diagnosis Urethral diverticulum is often an incidental finding. It can be diagnosed using magnetic resonance imaging and/or micturating cystourethrography. Other studies that can be used to diagnose urethral diverticulum include intravenous urography, urethroscopy, and/or ultrasound. Conditions that should be distinguished from urethral diverticulum in a differential diagnosis include overactive bladder, Gartner's duct cyst, Gartner's duct abscess, ectopic caeco-ureterocele, interstitial cystitis, pelvic inflammatory disease, endometriosis, and cancer. Treatment The primary treatment for urethral diverticulum is surgical. In women the surgery is conducted transvaginally, usually when there is no acute inflammation to better aid dissection of the delicate <P> the urethra. Immediately before the procedure, sterile lubrication containing local anesthetic (lidocaine) is instilled into the urethra. Since no intravenous line is inserted and there is no anesthesia, you do not have to be accompanied by anyone else and you can eat normally before and after the procedure. A ureteric stent may also be retrieved without the use of a cystoscope by means of a magnetic removal system. The stent inserted has a small rare earth magnet attached to its bladder end which dangles freely within the bladder. When the stent needs to be removed a small catheter with a similar magnet	question: how does my bladder fill overnight, whilst i am laying horizontally which doesn't have the aide of gravity forcing fluids downwards? context: <P> Artificial urinary bladder The two main methods for replacing bladder function involve either redirecting urine flow or replacing the bladder in situ. Replacement can be done with an artificial urinary bladder, an artificial organ. Development On January 30, 1999, scientists announced that a lab-grown bladder had been successfully transplanted into dogs. These artificial bladders worked well for almost a year in the dogs. In 2000, a new procedure for creating artificial bladders for humans was developed. This procedure is called an orthotopic neobladder procedure. This procedure involves shaping a part (usually 35 to 40 inches) of a patient's small intestine <P> Overflow incontinence Causes Lesions affecting sacral segments or peripheral autonomic fibres result in atonic bladder with loss of sphincteric coordination. This results in loss of detrusor contraction, difficulty in initiating micturition and overflow incontinence. Anticholinergic side effects of certain medications (for example, certain antipsychotics and antidepressants) may cause urinary retention which may lead to overflow incontinence. Alpha-adrenergic agonists may cause urinary retention by stimulating the contraction of the urethral sphincter. Calcium channel blockers may decrease the contractility of the smooth muscle tissue in the urinary bladder, causing urinary retention with overflow incontinence. Epidural anesthesia and delivery also can cause the overflow <P> incontinence. Pathophysiology Overflow incontinence occurs when the patient's bladder is always full so that it frequently leaks urine. Weak bladder muscles, resulting in incomplete emptying of the bladder, or a blocked urethra can cause this type of incontinence. Autonomic neuropathy from diabetes or other diseases (e.g. Multiple sclerosis) can decrease neural signals from the bladder (allowing for overfilling) and may also decrease the expulsion of urine by the detrusor muscle (allowing for urinary retention). Additionally, tumors and kidney stones can block the urethra. Spinal cord injuries or nervous system disorders are additional causes of overflow incontinence. In men, benign <P> prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) may also restrict the flow of urine. Overflow incontinence is rare in women, although sometimes it is caused by fibroid or ovarian tumors. Also overflow incontinence can be from increased outlet resistance from advanced vaginal prolapse causing a "kink" in the urethra or after an anti-incontinence procedure which has overcorrected the problem. Early symptoms include a hesitant or slow stream of urine during voluntary urination. Anticholinergic and NSAIDs medications may worsen overflow incontinence. Diagnosis The gold standard for all urinary incontinence is an urodynamic study that looks for bladder capacity, detrusor stability, contractility, and voiding ability <P> into the thin descending limb of the tubule, through the collecting ducts, and into the excreted urine. The body uses this mechanism, which is controlled by the antidiuretic hormone, to create hyperosmotic urine—i.e., urine with a higher concentration of dissolved substances than the blood plasma. This mechanism is important to prevent the loss of water, maintain blood pressure, and maintain a suitable concentration of sodium ions in the blood plasma. The equivalent nitrogen content (in gram) of urea (in mmol) can be estimated by the conversion factor 0.028 g/mmol. Furthermore, 1 gram of nitrogen is roughly equivalent to 6.25 grams of protein, <P> or types of urine samples at various points in the micturition process. Aircraft pilots A common use of UCDs is in military fighter aircraft. Small aircraft such as fighter planes are not equipped with toilets, but pilots are sometimes required to fly them for several hours continuously. Since most people produce enough urine to fill their bladders after only a few hours under normal conditions, some method must be provided to allow a pilot to urinate without leaving their seat in the cockpit. A UCD makes this possible. UCDs are also used on spacecraft and occasionally in <P> of meeting their own elimination needs. Bedpan Patients who cannot get out of bed easily but who can control their bladder and bowels are able to request a bedpan. The bedpan is placed underneath the patient, who can urinate or defecate as needed. Some patients are able to place their own bedpans under themselves, and assistance is required only to empty them after the fact. Urinal A urinal is much like a bedpan but only for a male, the urinal is shaped in a way that the male may use it while still in bed and remain comfortable. The urinal is <P> to be tackled. Bowel and bladder control Rehabilitation of CES depends on the severity of the injury. If permanent damage occurs, then impairment in bladder and bowel control may result. Once surgery is performed, resting is required until the bladder and bowel dysfunction can be assessed. Urinary catheterization may help with bladder control. Gravity and exercise can help control bowel movement (Hodges, 2004). Pelvic floor exercises assist in controlling bowel movements (Pelvic Floor Exercises, 2010). These exercises can be done standing, lying, or on all fours with the knees slightly separated. Full recovery of bowel and bladder control can take <P> Internal anal sphincter Actions Its action is entirely involuntary, and it is in a state of continuous maximal contraction. It helps the Sphincter ani externus to occlude the anal aperture and aids in the expulsion of the feces. Sympathetic fibers from the superior rectal and hypogastric plexuses stimulate and maintain internal anal sphincter contraction. Its contraction is inhibited by parasympathetic fiber stimulation. This sphincter is tonically contracted most of the time to prevent leakage of fluid or gas, but is relaxed upon distention of the rectal ampulla, requiring voluntary contraction of the puborectalis and external anal sphincter. The internal anal <P> around the oblique muscles on one side of the body, and terminates at the peritoneal cavity, a cavity in the abdomen area of the body. Once in place the lumbar–peritoneal shunt is used to drain the excess cerebrospinal fluid from the brain via the Subarachnoid cavity and transport it to the peritoneal cavity, where it is eventually absorbed by the organs and passed out of the body during urination. The operation is performed under General anesthetic by a neurosurgeon and usually takes a couple of hours. Patients with lumbar–peritoneal shunts are left with two scars; a vertical scar down part of <P> states, and developmental stages to some level. There is also notable expression in bladder tissue. <P> sphincter is not innervated by the pudendal nerve, which carries somatic (motor and sensory) fibers that provide the innervation to the external anal sphincter. Role in continence The IAS contributes 55% of the resting pressure of the anal canal. It is very important for bowel continence, especially for liquid and gas. When the rectum fills beyond a certain capacity, the rectal walls are distended, triggering the defecation cycle. This begins with the rectoanal inhibitory reflex, RAIR, where the IAS relaxes. This is thought to allow a small amount of rectal contents to descend into the anal canal where specialized mucosa <P> in infancy specially following traumatic catheterization. Common symptoms of urethral diverticulum include incontinence, urinary frequency and urgency, pain during sex, and pain during urination. Other symptoms include pain localized to the urethra or pelvis and frequent urinary tract infection. When urethral diverticulum becomes severe, a painful mass can sometimes be felt inside the introitus of the vagina, which can discharge pus. If the mass is hard or bleeds, complications like cancer or kidney stones may be present. Causes Few urethral diverticula are present at birth; the vast majority are acquired. Acquired urethral diverticula can be caused by trauma and/or infection. When the <P> Urate bladder stones may form because of increased amounts of uric acid in circulation and excreted by the kidneys. Pathology Congenital PSS is caused by the failure of the fetal circulatory system of the liver to change. Normally, the blood from the placenta bypasses the liver and goes into circulation via the ductus venosus, a blood vessel found in the fetus. A failure of the ductus venosus to close causes an intrahepatic shunt, while extrahepatic shunts are usually a developmental abnormality of the vitelline veins, which connect the portal vein to the caudal vena cava. Thus <P> their urine as long as possible) are no longer recommended. Bladder stretching exercises can be dangerous because the person could develop the long-term habit of tightening the urethral sphincter muscle, which can cause bladder or kidney problems. Urinating on a regular basis is suggested. Epidemiology Daytime wetting is more common in girls than in boys, but bedwetting is three times as prevalent in boys (i.e., around 75% of sufferers are male). At the age of 7 approximately 3% of girls and 2% of boys experience functional daytime wetting at least once a week. <P> peri-urethral ducts become infected repeatedly, they can become blocked and eventually cause a diverticulum. They are usually found in the middle of the urethra or the end farthest from the bladder. Congenital urethral diverticula can arise from several embryological sources. These include defects in the primordial folds and remnants of Gartner's duct. Pathology Histopathologically, several characteristics are frequently visible in urethral diverticula. These include nephrogenic adenoma, chronic inflammation associated with fibrosis around the glands, small or absent epithelium, chronic cystitis, cystitis cystica, cystitis glandularis, squamous metaplasia, and adenomatous metaplasia. Approximately 1/3 of diverticula are compound or multiple, and some can extend to <P> devices are still sometimes fitted to modern military aircraft and small, private aircraft although they are difficult for women to use. Male glider pilots undertaking extended soaring flights may wear an external catheter that either drains into a collection bag or is connected to tubing that dumps the urine to the outside. If the latter approach is used, care must be taken when designing the system so that the stream of urine does not make contact with other parts of the aircraft, where it may eventually cause corrosion. Another solution to urinating on long military patrols, especially in modern naval patrol <P> Toileting Methods of toileting Depending on a patient's condition, his/her toileting needs may need to be met differently. This could be by assisting the patient to walk to a toilet, to a bedside commode chair, onto a bedpan, or to provide a male patient with a urinal. A more dependent or incontinent patient may have his/her toileting needs met solely through the use of adult diapers. Other options are incontinence pads and urinary catheters. Ambulatory assistance Some patients can walk with assistance from another person, usually a health care worker. Aside from the need for this help, they are capable <P> surround the urethra. Diagnosis Urethral diverticulum is often an incidental finding. It can be diagnosed using magnetic resonance imaging and/or micturating cystourethrography. Other studies that can be used to diagnose urethral diverticulum include intravenous urography, urethroscopy, and/or ultrasound. Conditions that should be distinguished from urethral diverticulum in a differential diagnosis include overactive bladder, Gartner's duct cyst, Gartner's duct abscess, ectopic caeco-ureterocele, interstitial cystitis, pelvic inflammatory disease, endometriosis, and cancer. Treatment The primary treatment for urethral diverticulum is surgical. In women the surgery is conducted transvaginally, usually when there is no acute inflammation to better aid dissection of the delicate <P> the urethra. Immediately before the procedure, sterile lubrication containing local anesthetic (lidocaine) is instilled into the urethra. Since no intravenous line is inserted and there is no anesthesia, you do not have to be accompanied by anyone else and you can eat normally before and after the procedure. A ureteric stent may also be retrieved without the use of a cystoscope by means of a magnetic removal system. The stent inserted has a small rare earth magnet attached to its bladder end which dangles freely within the bladder. When the stent needs to be removed a small catheter with a similar magnet	answer: Your ureters, the pipes connecting your kidneys to your bladder, aren't just straight tubes that drain via gravity. They contain smooth muscles and functioning similarly to your esophagus in that they pulsate to push fluid downwards. In addition, your kidneys are always excreting more fluid, creating a sort of 'pushing' force that keeps the urine flowing from kidney to bladders.
85,348	3r2lv1	how does my hard drive recover more formatted data than it can actually store?	As people said, when you delete something, it's not deleted, it's just marked as available for future use. So, if future data overwrites old data, how do you end up with more data than could have been stored on the drive at any given time? Let's say you have a text file that uses sector number 50 (among others). You delete that file. Later, you save a picture file that uses sector 50 (among others). You delete that file. Over the years you save and delete multiple audio/video files that use and then release sector 50. In the end, a dozen different files have stored data in sector 50 at some point or another. Sector 50 can only store one set of data, most likely belonging to the file which lived there most recently, so only that file can be (possibly) completely recovered. However, the second most recent file might be mostly recoverable, so let's save that entire file including the wrong information from sector 50. The next most recent file might be only partly recoverable, but let's save that entire file including the wrong information from sector 50. And so on for the who dozen files, including the probably wrong information from the same sectors over and over again, which adds up to a lot more data. Most recovery software will only recover files that can be completely recovered, but some will recover files that have any original data in the hopes that the tiny snippet it can recover is the part you're looking for. Even though the file is 1MB and we've only recovered 1KB, we'll write out the whole 1MB in a new file, which for a lot of files can add up to more data than you have the capacity to store. (Also, it's best to recover data to another drive, so that you don't overwrite other data you're trying to save from the original drive.)	[ "As people said, when you delete something, it's not deleted, it's just marked as available for future use. So, if future data overwrites old data, how do you end up with more data than could have been stored on the drive at any given time? Let's say you have a text file that uses sector number 50 (among others)....	1	[]	0	<P> unrecoverable. Viewing web pages has the same effect — potentially overwriting lost files with the temporary HTML and image files created when viewing a web page. File operations such as copying, editing, or deleting should also be avoided. Upon realizing data loss has occurred, it is often best to shut down the computer and remove the drive in question from the unit. Re-attach this drive to a secondary computer with a write blocker device and then attempt to recover lost data. If possible, create an image of the drive in order to establish a secondary copy of the data. This can <P> of files are irrecoverable. Data carving is the recovery of parts of damaged files using knowledge of their structure. Overwritten data After data has been physically overwritten on a hard disk drive, it is generally assumed that the previous data are no longer possible to recover. In 1996, Peter Gutmann, a computer scientist, presented a paper that suggested overwritten data could be recovered through the use of magnetic force microscopy. In 2001, he presented another paper on a similar topic. To guard against this type of data recovery, Gutmann and Colin Plumb designed a method of irreversibly scrubbing data, <P> inline or back-end deduplication. Duplication Sometimes backups are duplicated to a second set of storage media. This can be done to rearrange the archive files to optimize restore speed, or to have a second copy at a different location or on a different storage medium—as in the disk-to-disk-to-tape capability of Enterprise client-server backup. Encryption High-capacity removable storage media such as backup tapes present a data security risk if they are lost or stolen. Encrypting the data on these media can mitigate this problem, however encryption is a CPU intensive process that can slow down backup speeds, and the security of <P> known as the Gutmann method and used by several disk-scrubbing software packages. Substantial criticism has followed, primarily dealing with the lack of any concrete examples of significant amounts of overwritten data being recovered. Although Gutmann's theory may be correct, there is no practical evidence that overwritten data can be recovered, while research has shown to support that overwritten data cannot be recovered. Solid-state drives (SSD) overwrite data differently from hard disk drives (HDD) which makes at least some of their data easier to recover. Most SSDs use flash memory to store data in pages and blocks, referenced by logical block addresses (LBA) <P> take advantage of better calibration files and the much smaller storage area required if only raw files are kept in the archives. The system can also offer more calibration steps than were available when the data was first released and can implement improved pipeline software. Currently, for example, HST data are calibrated as they are received at the STScI. Raw and calibrated data are stored in the HST archive (DADS). Frequently, users must recalibrate the data at their home sites to take advantage of better calibration files or software. A large fraction (over 90%) of the calibrated data in the <P> which are managed by the flash translation layer (FTL). When the FTL modifies a sector it writes the new data to another location and updates the map so the new data appear at the target LBA. This leaves the pre-modification data in place, with possibly many generations, and recoverable by data recovery software. Lost, deleted, and formatted data Sometimes, data present in the physical drives (Internal/External Hard disk, Pen Drive, etc.) gets lost, deleted and formatted due to circumstances like virus attack, accidental deletion or accidental use of SHIFT+DELETE. In these cases, data recovery software are used to recover/restore the <P> moving data to a DR site. A more typical way would be remote disk mirroring, which keeps the DR data as up to date as possible. Selection and extraction of data A backup operation starts with selecting and extracting coherent units of data. Most data on modern computer systems is stored in discrete units, known as files. These files are organized into filesystems. Deciding what to back up at any given time involves tradeoffs. By backing up too much redundant data, the information repository will fill up too quickly. Backing up an insufficient amount of data can eventually lead to <P> and large-scale recovery. Management Various methods can be used to manage backup media, striking a balance between accessibility, security and cost. These media management methods are not mutually exclusive and are frequently combined to meet the user's needs. Using on-line disks for staging data before it is sent to a near-line tape library is a common example. Online Online backup storage is typically the most accessible type of data storage, and can begin a restore in milliseconds. An internal hard disk or a disk array (maybe connected to SAN) is an example of an online backup. This type of <P> the loss of critical information. Manipulation of data and dataset optimization It is frequently useful or required to manipulate the data being backed up to optimize the backup process. These manipulations can improve backup speed, restore speed, data security, media usage and/or reduced bandwidth requirements. Automated data grooming Out-of-date data can be automatically deleted, but for personal backup applications—as opposed to enterprise client-server backup applications where automated data "grooming" can be customized—the deletion can at most be globally delayed or be disabled. Compression Various schemes can be employed to shrink the size of the source data to be stored so <P> provide access to the data so it can be extracted and copied to a medium that is more stable. Lubrication loss is another source of damage to tapes. This is most commonly caused by heavy use, but can also be a result of improper storage or natural evaporation. As a result of heavy use, some of the lubricant can remain on the read-write heads which then collect dust and particles. This can cause damage to the tape. Loss of lubrication can be addressed by re-lubricating the tapes. This should be done cautiously, as excessive re-lubrication can cause <P> data will be able to be recovered. In the case of magnetic media, which are the most common type used for data storage, there are various techniques that can be used to recover the data depending on the type of damage. Humidity can cause tapes to become unusable as they begin to deteriorate and become sticky. In this case, a heat treatment can be applied to fix this problem, by causing the oils and residues to either be reabsorbed into the tape or evaporate off the surface of the tape. However, this should only be done in order to <P> data files. Logical bad sector In the list of logical failures of hard disks, logical bad sector is the most common in which data files cannot be retrieved from a particular sector of the media drives. To resolve this, software is used to correct the logical sectors of the media drive. If this is not enough, the hardware containing the logical bad sectors must be replaced. Remote data recovery Recovery experts do not always need to have physical access to the damaged hardware. When the lost data can be recovered by software techniques, they can often perform the <P> of the data that had been lost when the failure occurred. Of course there are exceptions to this, such as cases where severe damage to the hard drive platters may have occurred. However, if the hard drive can be repaired and a full image or clone created, then the logical file structure can be rebuilt in most instances. Most physical damage cannot be repaired by end users. For example, opening a hard disk drive in a normal environment can allow airborne dust to settle on the platter and become caught between the platter and the read/write head. During normal operation, read/write heads <P> documents should take care to employ digital preservation. <P> that it uses less storage space. Compression is frequently a built-in feature of tape drive hardware. Deduplication Redundancy due to backing up similarly configured workstations can be reduced, thus storing just one copy. This technique can be applied at the file or raw block level. This potentially large reduction is called deduplication. It can occur on a server before any data moves to backup media, sometimes referred to as source/client side deduplication. This approach also reduces bandwidth required to send backup data to its target media. The process can also occur at the target storage device, sometimes referred to as <P> in those incidents. Prevention The frequency of data loss and the impact can be greatly mitigated by taking proper precautions, those of which necessary can vary depending on the type of data loss. For example, multiple power circuits with battery backup and a generator only protect against power failures, though using an Uninterruptable Power Supply can protect drive against sudden power spikes. Similarly, using a journaling file system and RAID storage only protect against certain types of software and hardware failure. For hard disk drives, which are a physical storage medium, ensuring minimal vibration and movement will help protect against damaging <P> the encrypted backups is only as effective as the security of the key management policy. Multiplexing When there are many more computers to be backed up than there are destination storage devices, the ability to use a single storage device with several simultaneous backups can be useful. However cramming the scheduled backup window via "multiplexed backup" is only used for tape destinations. Refactoring The process of rearranging the backup sets in an archive file is known as refactoring. For example, if a backup system uses a single tape each day to store the incremental backups for all the protected computers, <P> the most recent backup of any type (full or incremental). Other variations of incremental backup include multi-level incrementals and block-level incrementals that compare parts of files instead of just entire files. Storage media Regardless of the repository model that is used, the data has to be copied onto an archive file data storage medium. The medium used is also referred to as the type of backup destination. Magnetic tape Magnetic tape was for a long time the most commonly used medium for bulk data storage, backup, archiving, and interchange. It was previously a less expensive option, but this is no <P> some direct action to provide access to the storage media: for example, inserting a tape into a tape drive or plugging in a cable. Because the data are not accessible via any computer except during limited periods in which they are written or read back, they are largely immune to on-line backup failure modes. Access time varies depending on whether the media are on-site or off-site. Off-site data protection Backup media may be sent to an off-site vault to protect against a disaster or other site-specific problem. The vault can be as simple as a system administrator's home office or <P> of storage medium, as well as the required security or cleanroom procedures. File system corruption can frequently be repaired by the user or the system administrator. For example, a deleted file is typically not immediately overwritten on disk, but more often simply has its entry deleted from the file system index. In such a case, the deletion can be easily reversed. Successful recovery from data loss generally requires implementation of an effective backup strategy. Without an implemented backup strategy, recovery requires reinstallation of programs and regeneration of data. Even with an effective backup strategy, restoring a system to the precise state it	question: how does my hard drive recover more formatted data than it can actually store? context: <P> unrecoverable. Viewing web pages has the same effect — potentially overwriting lost files with the temporary HTML and image files created when viewing a web page. File operations such as copying, editing, or deleting should also be avoided. Upon realizing data loss has occurred, it is often best to shut down the computer and remove the drive in question from the unit. Re-attach this drive to a secondary computer with a write blocker device and then attempt to recover lost data. If possible, create an image of the drive in order to establish a secondary copy of the data. This can <P> of files are irrecoverable. Data carving is the recovery of parts of damaged files using knowledge of their structure. Overwritten data After data has been physically overwritten on a hard disk drive, it is generally assumed that the previous data are no longer possible to recover. In 1996, Peter Gutmann, a computer scientist, presented a paper that suggested overwritten data could be recovered through the use of magnetic force microscopy. In 2001, he presented another paper on a similar topic. To guard against this type of data recovery, Gutmann and Colin Plumb designed a method of irreversibly scrubbing data, <P> inline or back-end deduplication. Duplication Sometimes backups are duplicated to a second set of storage media. This can be done to rearrange the archive files to optimize restore speed, or to have a second copy at a different location or on a different storage medium—as in the disk-to-disk-to-tape capability of Enterprise client-server backup. Encryption High-capacity removable storage media such as backup tapes present a data security risk if they are lost or stolen. Encrypting the data on these media can mitigate this problem, however encryption is a CPU intensive process that can slow down backup speeds, and the security of <P> known as the Gutmann method and used by several disk-scrubbing software packages. Substantial criticism has followed, primarily dealing with the lack of any concrete examples of significant amounts of overwritten data being recovered. Although Gutmann's theory may be correct, there is no practical evidence that overwritten data can be recovered, while research has shown to support that overwritten data cannot be recovered. Solid-state drives (SSD) overwrite data differently from hard disk drives (HDD) which makes at least some of their data easier to recover. Most SSDs use flash memory to store data in pages and blocks, referenced by logical block addresses (LBA) <P> take advantage of better calibration files and the much smaller storage area required if only raw files are kept in the archives. The system can also offer more calibration steps than were available when the data was first released and can implement improved pipeline software. Currently, for example, HST data are calibrated as they are received at the STScI. Raw and calibrated data are stored in the HST archive (DADS). Frequently, users must recalibrate the data at their home sites to take advantage of better calibration files or software. A large fraction (over 90%) of the calibrated data in the <P> which are managed by the flash translation layer (FTL). When the FTL modifies a sector it writes the new data to another location and updates the map so the new data appear at the target LBA. This leaves the pre-modification data in place, with possibly many generations, and recoverable by data recovery software. Lost, deleted, and formatted data Sometimes, data present in the physical drives (Internal/External Hard disk, Pen Drive, etc.) gets lost, deleted and formatted due to circumstances like virus attack, accidental deletion or accidental use of SHIFT+DELETE. In these cases, data recovery software are used to recover/restore the <P> moving data to a DR site. A more typical way would be remote disk mirroring, which keeps the DR data as up to date as possible. Selection and extraction of data A backup operation starts with selecting and extracting coherent units of data. Most data on modern computer systems is stored in discrete units, known as files. These files are organized into filesystems. Deciding what to back up at any given time involves tradeoffs. By backing up too much redundant data, the information repository will fill up too quickly. Backing up an insufficient amount of data can eventually lead to <P> and large-scale recovery. Management Various methods can be used to manage backup media, striking a balance between accessibility, security and cost. These media management methods are not mutually exclusive and are frequently combined to meet the user's needs. Using on-line disks for staging data before it is sent to a near-line tape library is a common example. Online Online backup storage is typically the most accessible type of data storage, and can begin a restore in milliseconds. An internal hard disk or a disk array (maybe connected to SAN) is an example of an online backup. This type of <P> the loss of critical information. Manipulation of data and dataset optimization It is frequently useful or required to manipulate the data being backed up to optimize the backup process. These manipulations can improve backup speed, restore speed, data security, media usage and/or reduced bandwidth requirements. Automated data grooming Out-of-date data can be automatically deleted, but for personal backup applications—as opposed to enterprise client-server backup applications where automated data "grooming" can be customized—the deletion can at most be globally delayed or be disabled. Compression Various schemes can be employed to shrink the size of the source data to be stored so <P> provide access to the data so it can be extracted and copied to a medium that is more stable. Lubrication loss is another source of damage to tapes. This is most commonly caused by heavy use, but can also be a result of improper storage or natural evaporation. As a result of heavy use, some of the lubricant can remain on the read-write heads which then collect dust and particles. This can cause damage to the tape. Loss of lubrication can be addressed by re-lubricating the tapes. This should be done cautiously, as excessive re-lubrication can cause <P> data will be able to be recovered. In the case of magnetic media, which are the most common type used for data storage, there are various techniques that can be used to recover the data depending on the type of damage. Humidity can cause tapes to become unusable as they begin to deteriorate and become sticky. In this case, a heat treatment can be applied to fix this problem, by causing the oils and residues to either be reabsorbed into the tape or evaporate off the surface of the tape. However, this should only be done in order to <P> data files. Logical bad sector In the list of logical failures of hard disks, logical bad sector is the most common in which data files cannot be retrieved from a particular sector of the media drives. To resolve this, software is used to correct the logical sectors of the media drive. If this is not enough, the hardware containing the logical bad sectors must be replaced. Remote data recovery Recovery experts do not always need to have physical access to the damaged hardware. When the lost data can be recovered by software techniques, they can often perform the <P> of the data that had been lost when the failure occurred. Of course there are exceptions to this, such as cases where severe damage to the hard drive platters may have occurred. However, if the hard drive can be repaired and a full image or clone created, then the logical file structure can be rebuilt in most instances. Most physical damage cannot be repaired by end users. For example, opening a hard disk drive in a normal environment can allow airborne dust to settle on the platter and become caught between the platter and the read/write head. During normal operation, read/write heads <P> documents should take care to employ digital preservation. <P> that it uses less storage space. Compression is frequently a built-in feature of tape drive hardware. Deduplication Redundancy due to backing up similarly configured workstations can be reduced, thus storing just one copy. This technique can be applied at the file or raw block level. This potentially large reduction is called deduplication. It can occur on a server before any data moves to backup media, sometimes referred to as source/client side deduplication. This approach also reduces bandwidth required to send backup data to its target media. The process can also occur at the target storage device, sometimes referred to as <P> in those incidents. Prevention The frequency of data loss and the impact can be greatly mitigated by taking proper precautions, those of which necessary can vary depending on the type of data loss. For example, multiple power circuits with battery backup and a generator only protect against power failures, though using an Uninterruptable Power Supply can protect drive against sudden power spikes. Similarly, using a journaling file system and RAID storage only protect against certain types of software and hardware failure. For hard disk drives, which are a physical storage medium, ensuring minimal vibration and movement will help protect against damaging <P> the encrypted backups is only as effective as the security of the key management policy. Multiplexing When there are many more computers to be backed up than there are destination storage devices, the ability to use a single storage device with several simultaneous backups can be useful. However cramming the scheduled backup window via "multiplexed backup" is only used for tape destinations. Refactoring The process of rearranging the backup sets in an archive file is known as refactoring. For example, if a backup system uses a single tape each day to store the incremental backups for all the protected computers, <P> the most recent backup of any type (full or incremental). Other variations of incremental backup include multi-level incrementals and block-level incrementals that compare parts of files instead of just entire files. Storage media Regardless of the repository model that is used, the data has to be copied onto an archive file data storage medium. The medium used is also referred to as the type of backup destination. Magnetic tape Magnetic tape was for a long time the most commonly used medium for bulk data storage, backup, archiving, and interchange. It was previously a less expensive option, but this is no <P> some direct action to provide access to the storage media: for example, inserting a tape into a tape drive or plugging in a cable. Because the data are not accessible via any computer except during limited periods in which they are written or read back, they are largely immune to on-line backup failure modes. Access time varies depending on whether the media are on-site or off-site. Off-site data protection Backup media may be sent to an off-site vault to protect against a disaster or other site-specific problem. The vault can be as simple as a system administrator's home office or <P> of storage medium, as well as the required security or cleanroom procedures. File system corruption can frequently be repaired by the user or the system administrator. For example, a deleted file is typically not immediately overwritten on disk, but more often simply has its entry deleted from the file system index. In such a case, the deletion can be easily reversed. Successful recovery from data loss generally requires implementation of an effective backup strategy. Without an implemented backup strategy, recovery requires reinstallation of programs and regeneration of data. Even with an effective backup strategy, restoring a system to the precise state it	answer: As people said, when you delete something, it's not deleted, it's just marked as available for future use. So, if future data overwrites old data, how do you end up with more data than could have been stored on the drive at any given time? Let's say you have a text file that uses sector number 50 (among others). You delete that file. Later, you save a picture file that uses sector 50 (among others). You delete that file. Over the years you save and delete multiple audio/video files that use and then release sector 50. In the end, a dozen different files have stored data in sector 50 at some point or another. Sector 50 can only store one set of data, most likely belonging to the file which lived there most recently, so only that file can be (possibly) completely recovered. However, the second most recent file might be mostly recoverable, so let's save that entire file including the wrong information from sector 50. The next most recent file might be only partly recoverable, but let's save that entire file including the wrong information from sector 50. And so on for the who dozen files, including the probably wrong information from the same sectors over and over again, which adds up to a lot more data. Most recovery software will only recover files that can be completely recovered, but some will recover files that have any original data in the hopes that the tiny snippet it can recover is the part you're looking for. Even though the file is 1MB and we've only recovered 1KB, we'll write out the whole 1MB in a new file, which for a lot of files can add up to more data than you have the capacity to store. (Also, it's best to recover data to another drive, so that you don't overwrite other data you're trying to save from the original drive.)
224,279	3ileqr	what's so great about kevin bacon?	I'm not so familiar with him myself, but just by the sheer volume and variety of films he has done, it's easy to pick something you like. Try typing "bacon number [name of another actor]" into Google, it will quickly became apparent just how well connected and involved he is.	[ "I'm not so familiar with him myself, but just by the sheer volume and variety of films he has done, it's easy to pick something you like. Try typing \"bacon number [name of another actor]\" into Google, it will quickly became apparent just how well connected and involved he is.", "He's usually part of large ense...	3	[]	0	<P> with both Charlie Harper's death/funeral and the introduction of Walden Schmidt in one episode. Lawson noted that Kutcher "ought to fit in just fine", but that viewers would still miss Sheen's "teetering-on-the-brink-of-oblivion verve" complementing the show's "tit jokes and dick jokes and fart jokes occasionally peppered by quips delivered by determinedly non-sexual women characters". Lori Rackl of Chicago Sun-Times gave the episode a positive review, stating, "Filling the void left by a well established character isn’t easy, but Kutcher mostly succeeded". Charlie Sheen's reaction Sheen watched the episode and was extremely pleased. He reportedly felt Charlie Harper's funeral was "eerie <P> career. During filming of Sinners' Holiday, he also demonstrated the stubbornness that characterized his work attitude. He later recalled an argument he had with director John Adolfi about a line: "There was a line in the show where I was supposed to be crying on my mother's breast... [The line] was 'I'm your baby, ain't I?' I refused to say it. Adolfi said 'I'm going to tell Zanuck.' I said 'I don't give a shit what you tell him, I'm not going to say that line.'" They took the line out. Despite this outburst, the studio liked him, and before his <P> in the feature film The Last Airbender. Unlike the show, Sokka is serious, with most of his immature and humorous qualities either toned down or removed altogether. Significant criticism was pointed at the character difference. Rathbone received the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor for his role in the film. <P> live intelligence, rushing things ahead on the screen, not worrying whether we'll understand." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune awarded three out of four stars and wrote, "Once again Altman has taken a story (this time a rather weak one) and given it a distinctive spirit and flavor thru casting, cinematic devices and odd juxtapositions. An Altman film, if two can make a genre, appears to be more of a mood than a story. This rarely works, but it does for him." Variety called the film "a sardonic fairy tale for the times. Extremely well cast and directed, Lou Adler's <P> face. Fryar also hosted several other children's shows over 43 years in local television. In 1965, Fryar was cast in the Three Stooges movie, The Outlaws Is Coming, playing the part of Johnny Ringo. Upon the movie's release, Fryar quickly received a number of complaints from English teachers because he appeared in a movie with the grammatically incorrect title. Many younger children, who went expecting to see his trademark battered straw hat and striped coat, were unable to recognize him in his outlaw makeup. Older children and their parents were able to appreciate the comedy. On October 2, 2008, Fryar was inducted <P> mouth." Rooker confirmed his appearance in the second-season episode "Chupacabra" at the 2011 Aliens to Zombies Convention at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel in Hollywood, California. "Nobody expected this level of Merle worship," he articulated. "He's such an out-there, crazy, anything goes kind of guy. There's an uncertainty about Merle—like he'll come back when you least expect it. He's the boogeyman, and viewers love that suspense. The number one question I'm asked is, 'When is your character coming back?' I can't say when, but I promise it'll be a wild ride." Writer Robert Kirkman insisted that Rooker was a delight during production, <P> his status as a Lannister to mitigate the impact of the marginalization and derision he has received all of his life. In May 2009, he was the first actor to be cast, as showrunners David Benioff and D. B. Weiss noted that Dinklage, whom they described as funny, smart and witty, was their first choice for the role, as the actor's "core of humanity, covered by a shell of sardonic dry wit, is pretty well in keeping with the character." Unfamiliar with the source material, Dinklage was cautious in his first meeting with the producers; as a dwarf, "he wouldn't <P> man" during the day, teaching himself the French classical repertoire in the evenings. A pivotal moment came when reading On Food and Cooking: the Science and Lore of the Kitchen by Harold McGee. This challenged kitchen practices such as searing meat to seal in the juices, and it encouraged Heston to "adopt a totally different attitude towards cuisine that at its most basic boiled down to: question everything". Blumenthal married his first wife Zanna in 1989, and had three children with her, Jack, Jessie and Joy, over the course of a twenty-two-year partnership. From 2011 until 2015 he was in a <P> "brought [the show] back to a more story-oriented" approach and increased the focus on characters and their emotions, although "at the same time still keeping it surreal and weird". Mirkin moved the show's focus toward Homer Simpson, and also developed some of its secondary characters, including Apu Nahasapeemapetilon. He also strongly opposed censorship and network interference, telling post-production supervisor Colin A.B.V. Lewis to ignore the list of changes sent by the Fox censors. He aimed to put "as much blood and guts" as possible into the episode "Treehouse of Horror V" as an attack on the censors. Ortved—using interviews with writers <P> started paying more attention to old style comedy film-making such as works of Monty Python and director Blake Edwards. In general, old-fashioned comedies appealed more to him than comedy films of recent history. Hewlett said he copied some old-fashioned techniques into his own project. He specifically mentioned A Fish Called Wanda and Fawlty Towers as major influences. Despite A Dog's Breakfast's murder theme, Hewlett wanted to avoid violence and gore as audience attraction, and rather produce a family film for all ages. He thinks that younger members of the audience will enjoy the cartoon-like elements of the movie. Hewlett further mentioned Buster <P> he said. "When I realized this, the logical next step was to think, how can I do a show in which the fundamental drive is toward change?" He added that his goal with Walter White was to turn him from Mr. Chips into Scarface. Gilligan believed the concept of showing the full drastic transformation of a character across the run of a television show was a risky concept and would be difficult to pitch without other powerful factors to support it, such as strong cinematography and acting. The show title is a Southern colloquialism meaning, among other things, "raising hell", and <P> adroit silliness and Whoopi Goldberg's unapologetic hamminess." On the show itself, he said that it "managed to do what Hollywood may not have: convince us that this was a great year for the movies." Film critic Andrew Sarris of The New York Observer wrote that the show was "the funniest and least tedious in memory." He also extolled producer Joe Roth by concluding, "As far as this old critic's concerned, Mr. Roth, you did a fine job." USA Today critic Robert Bianco commented that despite the lack of suspense due to the Lord of the Rings sweep of the awards <P> the most watched programme in the channel's history. Critical reception The episode received mixed reviews from numerous critics. Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter noted; "I couldn't quite figure out if Kutcher was going for vacant, naïve, nerdy or astonishingly dumb (for a character who is a billionaire), because I'll never watch this show by choice again." However, he believes Sheen would have the last laugh given "his new show – if it ever happens – will be exponentially funnier than the laugh-free 22 minutes from last night." Richard Lawson of Gawker Media was displeased with how the show dealt <P> episode to be "soppy" and "sickly sweet", criticising Corden for his "whooping", "annoying" performance, the reliance on "slapstick capers" that "lurched a bit too close to the CBBC end of the spectrum" and the "jaunty [and] smug" soundtrack. <P> a more sympathetic character. Kael explains, "Put [Charles Bronson] in modern clothes and he's a hard-bitten tough guy, but with that cap on he's one of the dispossessed — an honest man who's known hunger". Roger Ebert in his October 14, 1975 review of Hard Times in the Chicago Sun-Times called it "a powerful, brutal film containing a definitive Charles Bronson performance." <P> television ad for a yakisoba product named "UFO" produced by Nissin Foods (an executive officer was a fierce fan of Frye). His significant popularity in Japan in the 2000s might be attributed to his "good old tough fuddy-duddy" character reminiscent of sheriffs in some 1960s American movies. Frye appeared in an episode of It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia entitled "The Gang Wrestles for the Troops," in which he played a professional wrestler that was getting pummeled by Roddy Piper's character, "Da' Maniac". He is credited on IMDb for the role as "Wrestling Opponent". Frye also appeared in a new AT&T mini-movie advertisement for <P> in a 1984 episode of Simon & Simon. In The Duck Factory, he played a rival actor trying to steal the role of Dippy Duck from fellow voice actor Wally Wooster (Don Messick). In later years, he appeared in Steven Soderbergh's film The Informant! (2009) as Matt Damon's father. In 1978, Frank Welker appeared on The Dean Martin Celebrity Roast to George Burns. While saluting Burns, he showed his abilities as an impressionist by honoring George Burns with the voices of Walter Cronkite, Henry Kissinger, Muhammad Ali, David Frost, and Jimmy Carter. Transformers In the 1980s, Welker voiced many recurring characters <P> Nick Cannon's short cameo, but criticized the main plot for being too cartoonish. He concluded his review with "this was the first episode of the show I mostly didn't enjoy". <P> the two hour "movie" called "The Doorway" that opens the season April 7 is that Weiner has not lost his touch at writing a beautifully crafted script—jammed with the sadness and humor and personal revelations we’ve all come to appreciate. But in addition to that, he’s decided to really hit home Mad Men's key theme in the first two hours with a kind of ferocity of intent we’ve rarely seen from him." Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly had a decidedly more mixed reaction, stating "Like Betty's frumpy frocks, Mad Men supersize episodes aren't flattering. Weiner should stick with tighter, denser <P> still this is considered as his first flop. In the second half of the 90s, Kerkeling worked once more for ARD, presenting the show Warmumsherz (Heartwarming), and filmed several television films (Club Las Piranjas (1995), Willi und die Windzors, 1996; Die Oma ist tot, 1997). In 1999 Kerkeling returned to success with his Sat.1 show Darüber lacht die Welt (What makes the world laugh). He also presented the yearly fundraising gala for the German AIDS fund Deutsche AIDS-Hilfe. In 2003 he was awarded the Deutscher Fernsehpreis (German Television Prize) in the category Best Entertainment Presenter. In January 2004 Kerkeling made another film entitled	question: what's so great about kevin bacon? context: <P> with both Charlie Harper's death/funeral and the introduction of Walden Schmidt in one episode. Lawson noted that Kutcher "ought to fit in just fine", but that viewers would still miss Sheen's "teetering-on-the-brink-of-oblivion verve" complementing the show's "tit jokes and dick jokes and fart jokes occasionally peppered by quips delivered by determinedly non-sexual women characters". Lori Rackl of Chicago Sun-Times gave the episode a positive review, stating, "Filling the void left by a well established character isn’t easy, but Kutcher mostly succeeded". Charlie Sheen's reaction Sheen watched the episode and was extremely pleased. He reportedly felt Charlie Harper's funeral was "eerie <P> career. During filming of Sinners' Holiday, he also demonstrated the stubbornness that characterized his work attitude. He later recalled an argument he had with director John Adolfi about a line: "There was a line in the show where I was supposed to be crying on my mother's breast... [The line] was 'I'm your baby, ain't I?' I refused to say it. Adolfi said 'I'm going to tell Zanuck.' I said 'I don't give a shit what you tell him, I'm not going to say that line.'" They took the line out. Despite this outburst, the studio liked him, and before his <P> in the feature film The Last Airbender. Unlike the show, Sokka is serious, with most of his immature and humorous qualities either toned down or removed altogether. Significant criticism was pointed at the character difference. Rathbone received the Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actor for his role in the film. <P> live intelligence, rushing things ahead on the screen, not worrying whether we'll understand." Gene Siskel of the Chicago Tribune awarded three out of four stars and wrote, "Once again Altman has taken a story (this time a rather weak one) and given it a distinctive spirit and flavor thru casting, cinematic devices and odd juxtapositions. An Altman film, if two can make a genre, appears to be more of a mood than a story. This rarely works, but it does for him." Variety called the film "a sardonic fairy tale for the times. Extremely well cast and directed, Lou Adler's <P> face. Fryar also hosted several other children's shows over 43 years in local television. In 1965, Fryar was cast in the Three Stooges movie, The Outlaws Is Coming, playing the part of Johnny Ringo. Upon the movie's release, Fryar quickly received a number of complaints from English teachers because he appeared in a movie with the grammatically incorrect title. Many younger children, who went expecting to see his trademark battered straw hat and striped coat, were unable to recognize him in his outlaw makeup. Older children and their parents were able to appreciate the comedy. On October 2, 2008, Fryar was inducted <P> mouth." Rooker confirmed his appearance in the second-season episode "Chupacabra" at the 2011 Aliens to Zombies Convention at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel in Hollywood, California. "Nobody expected this level of Merle worship," he articulated. "He's such an out-there, crazy, anything goes kind of guy. There's an uncertainty about Merle—like he'll come back when you least expect it. He's the boogeyman, and viewers love that suspense. The number one question I'm asked is, 'When is your character coming back?' I can't say when, but I promise it'll be a wild ride." Writer Robert Kirkman insisted that Rooker was a delight during production, <P> his status as a Lannister to mitigate the impact of the marginalization and derision he has received all of his life. In May 2009, he was the first actor to be cast, as showrunners David Benioff and D. B. Weiss noted that Dinklage, whom they described as funny, smart and witty, was their first choice for the role, as the actor's "core of humanity, covered by a shell of sardonic dry wit, is pretty well in keeping with the character." Unfamiliar with the source material, Dinklage was cautious in his first meeting with the producers; as a dwarf, "he wouldn't <P> man" during the day, teaching himself the French classical repertoire in the evenings. A pivotal moment came when reading On Food and Cooking: the Science and Lore of the Kitchen by Harold McGee. This challenged kitchen practices such as searing meat to seal in the juices, and it encouraged Heston to "adopt a totally different attitude towards cuisine that at its most basic boiled down to: question everything". Blumenthal married his first wife Zanna in 1989, and had three children with her, Jack, Jessie and Joy, over the course of a twenty-two-year partnership. From 2011 until 2015 he was in a <P> "brought [the show] back to a more story-oriented" approach and increased the focus on characters and their emotions, although "at the same time still keeping it surreal and weird". Mirkin moved the show's focus toward Homer Simpson, and also developed some of its secondary characters, including Apu Nahasapeemapetilon. He also strongly opposed censorship and network interference, telling post-production supervisor Colin A.B.V. Lewis to ignore the list of changes sent by the Fox censors. He aimed to put "as much blood and guts" as possible into the episode "Treehouse of Horror V" as an attack on the censors. Ortved—using interviews with writers <P> started paying more attention to old style comedy film-making such as works of Monty Python and director Blake Edwards. In general, old-fashioned comedies appealed more to him than comedy films of recent history. Hewlett said he copied some old-fashioned techniques into his own project. He specifically mentioned A Fish Called Wanda and Fawlty Towers as major influences. Despite A Dog's Breakfast's murder theme, Hewlett wanted to avoid violence and gore as audience attraction, and rather produce a family film for all ages. He thinks that younger members of the audience will enjoy the cartoon-like elements of the movie. Hewlett further mentioned Buster <P> he said. "When I realized this, the logical next step was to think, how can I do a show in which the fundamental drive is toward change?" He added that his goal with Walter White was to turn him from Mr. Chips into Scarface. Gilligan believed the concept of showing the full drastic transformation of a character across the run of a television show was a risky concept and would be difficult to pitch without other powerful factors to support it, such as strong cinematography and acting. The show title is a Southern colloquialism meaning, among other things, "raising hell", and <P> adroit silliness and Whoopi Goldberg's unapologetic hamminess." On the show itself, he said that it "managed to do what Hollywood may not have: convince us that this was a great year for the movies." Film critic Andrew Sarris of The New York Observer wrote that the show was "the funniest and least tedious in memory." He also extolled producer Joe Roth by concluding, "As far as this old critic's concerned, Mr. Roth, you did a fine job." USA Today critic Robert Bianco commented that despite the lack of suspense due to the Lord of the Rings sweep of the awards <P> the most watched programme in the channel's history. Critical reception The episode received mixed reviews from numerous critics. Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter noted; "I couldn't quite figure out if Kutcher was going for vacant, naïve, nerdy or astonishingly dumb (for a character who is a billionaire), because I'll never watch this show by choice again." However, he believes Sheen would have the last laugh given "his new show – if it ever happens – will be exponentially funnier than the laugh-free 22 minutes from last night." Richard Lawson of Gawker Media was displeased with how the show dealt <P> episode to be "soppy" and "sickly sweet", criticising Corden for his "whooping", "annoying" performance, the reliance on "slapstick capers" that "lurched a bit too close to the CBBC end of the spectrum" and the "jaunty [and] smug" soundtrack. <P> a more sympathetic character. Kael explains, "Put [Charles Bronson] in modern clothes and he's a hard-bitten tough guy, but with that cap on he's one of the dispossessed — an honest man who's known hunger". Roger Ebert in his October 14, 1975 review of Hard Times in the Chicago Sun-Times called it "a powerful, brutal film containing a definitive Charles Bronson performance." <P> television ad for a yakisoba product named "UFO" produced by Nissin Foods (an executive officer was a fierce fan of Frye). His significant popularity in Japan in the 2000s might be attributed to his "good old tough fuddy-duddy" character reminiscent of sheriffs in some 1960s American movies. Frye appeared in an episode of It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia entitled "The Gang Wrestles for the Troops," in which he played a professional wrestler that was getting pummeled by Roddy Piper's character, "Da' Maniac". He is credited on IMDb for the role as "Wrestling Opponent". Frye also appeared in a new AT&T mini-movie advertisement for <P> in a 1984 episode of Simon & Simon. In The Duck Factory, he played a rival actor trying to steal the role of Dippy Duck from fellow voice actor Wally Wooster (Don Messick). In later years, he appeared in Steven Soderbergh's film The Informant! (2009) as Matt Damon's father. In 1978, Frank Welker appeared on The Dean Martin Celebrity Roast to George Burns. While saluting Burns, he showed his abilities as an impressionist by honoring George Burns with the voices of Walter Cronkite, Henry Kissinger, Muhammad Ali, David Frost, and Jimmy Carter. Transformers In the 1980s, Welker voiced many recurring characters <P> Nick Cannon's short cameo, but criticized the main plot for being too cartoonish. He concluded his review with "this was the first episode of the show I mostly didn't enjoy". <P> the two hour "movie" called "The Doorway" that opens the season April 7 is that Weiner has not lost his touch at writing a beautifully crafted script—jammed with the sadness and humor and personal revelations we’ve all come to appreciate. But in addition to that, he’s decided to really hit home Mad Men's key theme in the first two hours with a kind of ferocity of intent we’ve rarely seen from him." Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly had a decidedly more mixed reaction, stating "Like Betty's frumpy frocks, Mad Men supersize episodes aren't flattering. Weiner should stick with tighter, denser <P> still this is considered as his first flop. In the second half of the 90s, Kerkeling worked once more for ARD, presenting the show Warmumsherz (Heartwarming), and filmed several television films (Club Las Piranjas (1995), Willi und die Windzors, 1996; Die Oma ist tot, 1997). In 1999 Kerkeling returned to success with his Sat.1 show Darüber lacht die Welt (What makes the world laugh). He also presented the yearly fundraising gala for the German AIDS fund Deutsche AIDS-Hilfe. In 2003 he was awarded the Deutscher Fernsehpreis (German Television Prize) in the category Best Entertainment Presenter. In January 2004 Kerkeling made another film entitled	answer: I'm not so familiar with him myself, but just by the sheer volume and variety of films he has done, it's easy to pick something you like. Try typing "bacon number [name of another actor]" into Google, it will quickly became apparent just how well connected and involved he is.
180,761	1zg3fx	How efficient is the bouncing of kangaroos compared to other forms of bipedal movement?	Kangaroo, wallaby, and even kangaroo rat (to a lesser degree, the rats have more of a tradeoff between needing sturdy legs to handle such hard landings and storing elastic energy) bouncing is highly efficient! Even though it doesn't look that way! To the point that kangaroos can go faster without expending more energy -- unlike us humans (the faster we go, the more energy we need!) Terrence Dawson & Richard Taylor first discussed this in the journal Nature in 1973, proposing that these hops are "reminiscent of a ball bouncing" -- storing and releasing elastic energy with every hop! In the 90s, biomechanists studying muscle function created something called a tendon buckle, which was surgically inserted on the gastrocnemius tendon and allowed us to measure force. This, coupled with electrodes to measure muscle activity and sonomicrometry crystals to measure muscle length change, allowed us to measure how the muscle was acting relative to when force was being produced. The long and the short of it is that the long gastrocnemius tendon of a kangaroo (it's huge!) stores a whole bunch of energy during every hop! it effectively acts like a spring, compressed on landing, and recoiling during the hop! (check out this diagram [here](_URL_0_)!). This work was speareheaded by Andrew Biewener and colleagues at Harvard University. Check out their brief research description here: _URL_1_*edit: as to why other animals have not evolved this: some have! the kangaroo rats have totally independently converged on this form of bipedal locomotion! birds have a similar mechanism, to an extent, although it is not as energetically efficient (lots of birds do hop when they're on the ground!). Why we're not all hopping around may have a bit to do with habitat -- hopping is really efficient on smooth terrain, but when you introduce obstacles things get tougher! hopping isn't the most stable of things -- that's why kangaroos and kangaroo rats have such big tails!	[ "I can't speak to bipedal bouncing specifically, but tetra-pedal bouncing (called pronking or stotting) is highly inefficient. It's because you build up all this momentum and then land with all 4 feet at once and you experience deceleration. There are hypotheses that perhaps pronking is used to clear low brush, to ...	6	[ "I can't speak to bipedal bouncing specifically, but tetra-pedal bouncing (called pronking or stotting) is highly inefficient. It's because you build up all this momentum and then land with all 4 feet at once and you experience deceleration. There are hypotheses that perhaps pronking is used to clear low brush, to ...	5	<P> general is confounded by false interpretation. The difficulty is that there are a number of other behavioural interpretations for a wiggling appendage, and luring-like motions are associated with several other behavioural contexts (e.g., defence, stress, etc.). Caudal luring is thought to have evolved from a caudally localised intention movement (a behaviour derived from locomotor movements). Essentially, the act of remaining stationary while sensing prey produces general nervous system excitation that gets released in the form of tail movements. Caudal luring is not merely tail undulations, but must specifically be attractive to prey. Caudal distraction is another behaviour used by snakes, <P> family Sclerosomatidae. While this can mean an increased likelihood of immediate survival, it also leads to reduced food and water intake. Bobbing To deflect attacks and enhance escape, long-legged species – commonly known as daddy long-legs – from the Eupnoi suborder, use two mechanisms. One is bobbing, for which these particular individuals bounce their bodies. It potentially serves to confuse and deflect any identification of the exact location of their bodies. This can be a deceiving mechanism to avoid predation when they are in a large aggregation of individuals, which are all trembling at the same time. Cellar spiders (Pholcidae) <P> propel itself vertically into the air. Crickets In crickets (Acheta domesticus) ballistic movements can be seen in the way they jump. The kicks that propel the cricket occur over a period of only 2-6ms, but during the 18-40ms prior to the kick the potential energy required is built up by the co-contraction of the antagonistic extensor and flexor tibiae. The crickets can also use these same ballistic movements for swimming. Cone snail In the cone snail (Conus catus) ballistic movement can be seen in the way that it fires is harpoon-like radular tooth into its prey. After the cone snail’s <P> Stotting Stotting (also called pronking or pronging) is a behavior of quadrupeds, particularly gazelles, in which they spring into the air, lifting all four feet off the ground simultaneously. Usually, the legs are held in a relatively stiff position. Many explanations of stotting have been proposed; there is evidence that at least in some cases it is an honest signal to predators that the stotting animal would be difficult to catch. Etymology Stot is a common Scots and Northern England verb meaning "bounce" or "walk with a bounce". Uses in this sense include stotting a ball off a wall, and <P> the foot, thus allowing it to run on the water for short distances. This occurs in three steps. First is the slap, the downward movement of the foot that pushes water out and away from the leg. This also created pockets of air around the foot. Next is the stroke, the backwards movement of the foot, which propels it forward. Next is the recovery, when the foot comes up and out of the water and prepares to do the slap again. Smaller basilisks can run about 10–20 m without sinking. Juveniles can usually run farther than older basilisks, while holding more <P> bucking steers was recycled from the end of 1936's A Pain in the Pullman. <P> rolling. The Terries and Fermies have made a sport of their rolling abilities, causing earthquakes in the process. Northern Irish author James White's Sector General series features "Rollers" from the planet Drambo, doughnut-shaped aquatic organisms that do not have hearts, but which instead must roll continuously to maintain circulation by means of gravity. The Rollers are described in the short story "Spacebird" in the 1980 edition of Ambulance Ship, and in other works in the series. The 1982 puppet-animated fantasy film The Dark Crystal, directed by Jim Henson and Frank Oz, introduced the character Fizzgig, a dog-like companion creature that rolls from <P> training regimes have been introduced as knowledge has increased within the sport. Specific training has been developed to promote the dogs using ‘swimmers’ type turns on the Flyball box when catching the ball and turning. Flyball is not limited to the size of the breed, as smaller dogs such as Patterdale Terriers, Jack Russell Terriers, Whippets and even miniature poodles, often compete with great success in mixed-breed teams (teams consisting of dogs of various sizes and breeds). Smaller dogs are often prized as the hurdle height is based on the height of the smallest dog in the team, commonly known as <P> they use bog bilberries to make jam. <P> as Classic Thud except that trolls may now move up to 3 spaces in any direction (horizontal, vertical or diagonal). Dwarfs may move the Rock instead of moving a dwarf piece. It may move only one square in any direction. To be moved it must be next to a dwarf and it must also be next to a dwarf at the end of its move. Captures A troll captures a dwarf by trampling over it. It moves in a straight line from a square next to the dwarf, through the square the dwarf is on and lands on the empty square <P> and energy, the knees and hocks showing high flexing during the rhythmic and harmonious trot. <P> wide apart on each side; whoever’s legs touch any part of the body of the “it” becomes the next “it.” In the Korean and Japanese versions (말뚝박기 lit. "piledriving" and 馬跳びうまとび umatobi, lit. "horseleap", respectively), one player 'leaps' over the backs of the other players who stoop close enough to form a continuous line, attempting to cause the line to collapse under the weight of the riders. <P> but its long move carries the danger of causing unstoppable attacks in the opening and winning large amounts of material. Ralph Betza opined that the zebra's move was too large to be functional on an 8×8 board, and that only on a 10×10 board or larger would it be worth its ideal value of about a knight. <P> well-developed ability to defend themselves from terrestrial predators. The main predator of emus today is the dingo, which was originally introduced by Aboriginals thousands of years ago from a stock of semi-domesticated wolves. Dingoes try to kill the emu by attacking the head. The emu typically tries to repel the dingo by jumping into the air and kicking or stamping the dingo on its way down. The emu jumps as the dingo barely has the capacity to jump high enough to threaten its neck, so a correctly timed leap to coincide with the dingo's lunge can keep its head and <P> and herding, its traditional use; and for trekking and group sports. <P> one end to the other, depositing them in an envelope. The trouble is that running back and forth in the inflatable sausage may cause contenders to lose their footing and struggle to keep it. The first to 5 balls wins. Tightrope Trouble The players must balance themselves using two tightropes above the pool, holding a ball in their mouths while going back to the other side. The first to transfer 2 balls across to the opposite velcro post wins, and the loser's rope becomes a lot less tight, getting them dunked into the pool (unless they fell <P> on both side of cervical spinal origins would counteract these forces. Downward rotation would be prevented by co-contraction of other muscles that elevate the spine, the upper fibers of the trapezius, which is an upward rotator. When the shoulder is fixed, levator scapulae rotates to the same side and flexes the cervical spine laterally. When both shoulders are fixed, a simultaneous co-contraction of both levator scapulae muscles in equal amounts would not produce lateral flexion or rotation, and may produce straight flexion or extension of the cervical spine. Other animals The muscles of the shoulder can be categorized into three topographic <P> horse. <P> when they felt threatened, and some farted so energetically that they lifted themselves off the ground. Speed Gyalopion canum is quick in short bursts or spurts. <P> run boulders.	question: How efficient is the bouncing of kangaroos compared to other forms of bipedal movement? context: <P> general is confounded by false interpretation. The difficulty is that there are a number of other behavioural interpretations for a wiggling appendage, and luring-like motions are associated with several other behavioural contexts (e.g., defence, stress, etc.). Caudal luring is thought to have evolved from a caudally localised intention movement (a behaviour derived from locomotor movements). Essentially, the act of remaining stationary while sensing prey produces general nervous system excitation that gets released in the form of tail movements. Caudal luring is not merely tail undulations, but must specifically be attractive to prey. Caudal distraction is another behaviour used by snakes, <P> family Sclerosomatidae. While this can mean an increased likelihood of immediate survival, it also leads to reduced food and water intake. Bobbing To deflect attacks and enhance escape, long-legged species – commonly known as daddy long-legs – from the Eupnoi suborder, use two mechanisms. One is bobbing, for which these particular individuals bounce their bodies. It potentially serves to confuse and deflect any identification of the exact location of their bodies. This can be a deceiving mechanism to avoid predation when they are in a large aggregation of individuals, which are all trembling at the same time. Cellar spiders (Pholcidae) <P> propel itself vertically into the air. Crickets In crickets (Acheta domesticus) ballistic movements can be seen in the way they jump. The kicks that propel the cricket occur over a period of only 2-6ms, but during the 18-40ms prior to the kick the potential energy required is built up by the co-contraction of the antagonistic extensor and flexor tibiae. The crickets can also use these same ballistic movements for swimming. Cone snail In the cone snail (Conus catus) ballistic movement can be seen in the way that it fires is harpoon-like radular tooth into its prey. After the cone snail’s <P> Stotting Stotting (also called pronking or pronging) is a behavior of quadrupeds, particularly gazelles, in which they spring into the air, lifting all four feet off the ground simultaneously. Usually, the legs are held in a relatively stiff position. Many explanations of stotting have been proposed; there is evidence that at least in some cases it is an honest signal to predators that the stotting animal would be difficult to catch. Etymology Stot is a common Scots and Northern England verb meaning "bounce" or "walk with a bounce". Uses in this sense include stotting a ball off a wall, and <P> the foot, thus allowing it to run on the water for short distances. This occurs in three steps. First is the slap, the downward movement of the foot that pushes water out and away from the leg. This also created pockets of air around the foot. Next is the stroke, the backwards movement of the foot, which propels it forward. Next is the recovery, when the foot comes up and out of the water and prepares to do the slap again. Smaller basilisks can run about 10–20 m without sinking. Juveniles can usually run farther than older basilisks, while holding more <P> bucking steers was recycled from the end of 1936's A Pain in the Pullman. <P> rolling. The Terries and Fermies have made a sport of their rolling abilities, causing earthquakes in the process. Northern Irish author James White's Sector General series features "Rollers" from the planet Drambo, doughnut-shaped aquatic organisms that do not have hearts, but which instead must roll continuously to maintain circulation by means of gravity. The Rollers are described in the short story "Spacebird" in the 1980 edition of Ambulance Ship, and in other works in the series. The 1982 puppet-animated fantasy film The Dark Crystal, directed by Jim Henson and Frank Oz, introduced the character Fizzgig, a dog-like companion creature that rolls from <P> training regimes have been introduced as knowledge has increased within the sport. Specific training has been developed to promote the dogs using ‘swimmers’ type turns on the Flyball box when catching the ball and turning. Flyball is not limited to the size of the breed, as smaller dogs such as Patterdale Terriers, Jack Russell Terriers, Whippets and even miniature poodles, often compete with great success in mixed-breed teams (teams consisting of dogs of various sizes and breeds). Smaller dogs are often prized as the hurdle height is based on the height of the smallest dog in the team, commonly known as <P> they use bog bilberries to make jam. <P> as Classic Thud except that trolls may now move up to 3 spaces in any direction (horizontal, vertical or diagonal). Dwarfs may move the Rock instead of moving a dwarf piece. It may move only one square in any direction. To be moved it must be next to a dwarf and it must also be next to a dwarf at the end of its move. Captures A troll captures a dwarf by trampling over it. It moves in a straight line from a square next to the dwarf, through the square the dwarf is on and lands on the empty square <P> and energy, the knees and hocks showing high flexing during the rhythmic and harmonious trot. <P> wide apart on each side; whoever’s legs touch any part of the body of the “it” becomes the next “it.” In the Korean and Japanese versions (말뚝박기 lit. "piledriving" and 馬跳びうまとび umatobi, lit. "horseleap", respectively), one player 'leaps' over the backs of the other players who stoop close enough to form a continuous line, attempting to cause the line to collapse under the weight of the riders. <P> but its long move carries the danger of causing unstoppable attacks in the opening and winning large amounts of material. Ralph Betza opined that the zebra's move was too large to be functional on an 8×8 board, and that only on a 10×10 board or larger would it be worth its ideal value of about a knight. <P> well-developed ability to defend themselves from terrestrial predators. The main predator of emus today is the dingo, which was originally introduced by Aboriginals thousands of years ago from a stock of semi-domesticated wolves. Dingoes try to kill the emu by attacking the head. The emu typically tries to repel the dingo by jumping into the air and kicking or stamping the dingo on its way down. The emu jumps as the dingo barely has the capacity to jump high enough to threaten its neck, so a correctly timed leap to coincide with the dingo's lunge can keep its head and <P> and herding, its traditional use; and for trekking and group sports. <P> one end to the other, depositing them in an envelope. The trouble is that running back and forth in the inflatable sausage may cause contenders to lose their footing and struggle to keep it. The first to 5 balls wins. Tightrope Trouble The players must balance themselves using two tightropes above the pool, holding a ball in their mouths while going back to the other side. The first to transfer 2 balls across to the opposite velcro post wins, and the loser's rope becomes a lot less tight, getting them dunked into the pool (unless they fell <P> on both side of cervical spinal origins would counteract these forces. Downward rotation would be prevented by co-contraction of other muscles that elevate the spine, the upper fibers of the trapezius, which is an upward rotator. When the shoulder is fixed, levator scapulae rotates to the same side and flexes the cervical spine laterally. When both shoulders are fixed, a simultaneous co-contraction of both levator scapulae muscles in equal amounts would not produce lateral flexion or rotation, and may produce straight flexion or extension of the cervical spine. Other animals The muscles of the shoulder can be categorized into three topographic <P> horse. <P> when they felt threatened, and some farted so energetically that they lifted themselves off the ground. Speed Gyalopion canum is quick in short bursts or spurts. <P> run boulders.	answer: Kangaroo, wallaby, and even kangaroo rat (to a lesser degree, the rats have more of a tradeoff between needing sturdy legs to handle such hard landings and storing elastic energy) bouncing is highly efficient! Even though it doesn't look that way! To the point that kangaroos can go faster without expending more energy -- unlike us humans (the faster we go, the more energy we need!) Terrence Dawson & Richard Taylor first discussed this in the journal Nature in 1973, proposing that these hops are "reminiscent of a ball bouncing" -- storing and releasing elastic energy with every hop! In the 90s, biomechanists studying muscle function created something called a tendon buckle, which was surgically inserted on the gastrocnemius tendon and allowed us to measure force. This, coupled with electrodes to measure muscle activity and sonomicrometry crystals to measure muscle length change, allowed us to measure how the muscle was acting relative to when force was being produced. The long and the short of it is that the long gastrocnemius tendon of a kangaroo (it's huge!) stores a whole bunch of energy during every hop! it effectively acts like a spring, compressed on landing, and recoiling during the hop! (check out this diagram [here](_URL_0_)!). This work was speareheaded by Andrew Biewener and colleagues at Harvard University. Check out their brief research description here: _URL_1_*edit: as to why other animals have not evolved this: some have! the kangaroo rats have totally independently converged on this form of bipedal locomotion! birds have a similar mechanism, to an extent, although it is not as energetically efficient (lots of birds do hop when they're on the ground!). Why we're not all hopping around may have a bit to do with habitat -- hopping is really efficient on smooth terrain, but when you introduce obstacles things get tougher! hopping isn't the most stable of things -- that's why kangaroos and kangaroo rats have such big tails!
20,002	ik784	What does a chameleon's field of vision look like when it's eyes are pointing in different directions?	My brother has had vision problems all his life. His eyes work independently, i.e. he doesn't fuse the images from his eyes but, instead, has two entirely separate images. In elementary school, they asked him to look into a machine and tell them whether the ball was on or off the picnic table. He was very confused. He saw a picnic table with one eye and a black background with a red dot in the center with the other eye. He doesn't have 3D vision at all, and so games like ping-pong are more difficult for him than for people with normal vision. Interestingly, he currently is working with a doctor on eye exercises, trying to improve his situation. The exercises make him dizzy and nauseous. He often throws up. He isn't sure what he will see eventually but, whatever the final result, he knows he can't go back to seeing the way he used to see. Things have changed, even if he isn't seeing 3D yet.When the Mars rovers first landed, I experimented with 3D photography using the red/cyan overlay method NASA used in some of their photographs. I was amazed at how many people could not see the 3D effect, even though I had good-quality red/cyan glasses for them to use. It would seem reasonable to explore unmerged images as a potential reason for their failure to see 3D.All of my evidence is anecdotal, but, if you accept my brother's examples, then even some people do not have the merged, seamless whole. Extrapolating, I would not then be surprised if chameleons do not have it, either.	[ "My brother has had vision problems all his life. His eyes work independently, i.e. he doesn't fuse the images from his eyes but, instead, has two entirely separate images. In elementary school, they asked him to look into a machine and tell them whether the ball was on or off the picnic table. He was very confused...	7	[ "My brother has had vision problems all his life. His eyes work independently, i.e. he doesn't fuse the images from his eyes but, instead, has two entirely separate images. In elementary school, they asked him to look into a machine and tell them whether the ball was on or off the picnic table. He was very confused...	6	<P> There are no ridges that connect the eye to the glabella. The medium-sized eyes (over ⅓× the length of the glabella) are slightly behind the middle of the glabella. Genal angle ending in short spines extending backward about one thorax segment. The articulating middle part of the body (or thorax) has 12 segments. The axis is convex, and less than ½× as wide as each of the so-called pleurae to its sides. Segments pointed sideways with a rounded front (a shape called falcate). The tailshield (or pygidium) is about ½× as wide as the cephalon, almost twice as wide as <P> and a second lens in the back that focus images onto a four-layered retina, a narrow boomerang-shaped strip oriented vertically. Physiological experiments have shown they may have up to four different kinds of receptor cells, with different absorption spectra, giving them the possibility of tetrachromatic color vision, with sensitivity extending into the ultraviolet range. As the eyes are too close together to allow depth perception, and the animals do not make use of motion parallax, they have evolved a method called image defocus instead. Of the four photoreceptor layers in the retina, the first two closest to the surface contain <P> and he has an eye for goal". <P> Sagavia Description The glabella of Sagavia is elongate with parallel sides or slightly converging towards the front. The large eyes are separated at the front by the glabella and the cephalic doublure. The rostral suture is vaulted upwards. It has a thorax of five segments. Sagavia has a pygidium with well a defined axis and border with clear furrows. <P> Orthonevra chilensis Description Its head is metallic steel blue; the face straight except the ventral fifth produced anteriorly, strongly rugose and shiny; the macula is widely separated from the antennal base; the gena is shiny and rugose; the frontal triangle is shiny; frontal lunule smooth; vertical triangle black. Dichoptic, eyes separated by approximately the width of the anterior ocellus; the occiput is white; the eye brown, with a distinct medial dark vitta. The antenna is orange, except for the basofiagellomere, which is more brownish on its apical 2/3 and is elongate. The thorax is a metallic steel blue colour: its pile short <P> direction of motion. In effect this means that their forward-looking, anterior eyes are on "flat faces", as shown in the photographs. Their eye pattern is the clearest single identifying characteristic. They have eight eyes, as illustrated. Most diagnostic are the front row of four eyes, in which the anterior median pair are more dramatically prominent than any other spider eyes apart from the posterior median eyes of the Deinopidae. There is, however, a radical functional difference between the major (AME) eyes of Salticidae and the major (PME) eyes of the Deinopidae; the large posterior eyes of Deinopidae are adapted mainly <P> well-known phenomenon of "glowing eyes" or eyeshine in cats and other vertebrates (which are only reflecting light, rather than actually glowing). The combination of the eye's lens and the cornea form the refractive converging system, while the tapetum lucidum behind the retina forms the spherical concave mirror. Because the function of the eye is to form an image on the retina, an eye focused on a distant object has a focal surface that approximately follows the reflective tapetum lucidum structure, which is the condition required to form a good retroreflection. This type of retroreflector can consist of many small versions of <P> into more colourful patterns, as 2D spreads his arms and bright lights begin to shine out of his eyes. There is then a sequence of each member playing an instrument, starting with 2D on keyboard, Russel on drums, Ace on bass, and Noodle on guitar. The video again transitions to 2D’s arms spread out and glowing eyes, the sequence of characters playing their instrument plays again and becomes more distorted. Then, a close up of 2D’s face blowing in the wind is shown. It then shows the two 2Ds facing each other with another 2D coming out the mouth of <P> to light, but normally to accommodation, this is an Argyll Robertson pupil. Ocular motility Ocular motility should always be tested, especially when patients complain of double vision or physicians suspect neurologic disease. First, the doctor should visually assess the eyes for deviations that could result from strabismus, extraocular muscle dysfunction, or palsy of the cranial nerves innervating the extraocular muscles. Saccades are assessed by having the patient move his or her eye quickly to a target at the far right, left, top and bottom. This tests for saccadic dysfunction whereupon poor ability of the eyes to "jump" from one place to another <P> twist (see below). A number of alternative proposals have been published earlier, the most popular of which is the visual map theory. Visual map theory by Cajal The visual map theory was published by the famous neuroscientist and pioneer Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1898), see also and for English summaries. According to this theory, the function of the optic chiasm is to repair the retinal field image on the visual cortex. The pupil in the vertebrates’ eyes inverts the image on the retina, so that the visual periphery projects to the medial side of the retina. By the <P> eyes elate, Yet, unlike hers, was bless'd by every glance. <P> also be attributable to this species. The crevalle jack is morphologically similar to a number of other deep-bodied carangids, having an elongate, moderately compressed body with the dorsal profile more convex than the ventral profile, particularly anteriorly. The eye is covered by a well-developed adipose eyelid, and the posterior extremity of the jaw is vertically under or past the posterior margin of the eye. The dorsal fin is in two parts, the first consisting of eight spines and the second of one spine followed by 19 to 21 soft rays. The anal fin consists of two anteriorly detached spines <P> The caudal fin is asymmetrical; the lower lobe is narrow and well-developed, while the upper lobe has a gently convex upper margin and a prominent notch in the ventral margin near the tip. The body is covered by small, overlapping oval-shaped dermal denticles bearing three or five horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth. This species is plain slate-gray above, including the upper surfaces of the pectoral and pelvic fins, and the caudal fin; the underside is white. The boundary between dark and light runs through the bottom rim of the eye, through the gill slits, over the flank well above <P> in total length (including tail). Coloring varies greatly. Dorsally, it may be grayish, tan, brownish, or reddish, with darker blotches or bars in an irregular network. It usually has a dark streak from the eye to the corner of the mouth. Ventrally it is whitish or yellowish. It is heavy-bodied and has a short blunt tail. The ventrals are very narrow, less than ⅓ of the width of the body. The rostral is large and broad with an angular horizontal edge. The eye is separated from the labials by one or two rows of small scales. There are 10-14 upper <P> assign abnormal combinations of cue values to appropriate locations in space. In contrast, prisms cause a relatively coherent displacement of visual space while leaving auditory cues essentially unchanged. The task under these conditions is to assign normal ranges and combinations of cue values to abnormal locations in space”. <P> Devario micronema Description Body with 3–5 irregular vertical bars on anterior half. There are 14–17 pre-dorsal scales and 10–11 branched dorsal-fin rays. Danionin notch present. Lateral line complete. There is a prominent squareshaped process on its first infraorbital. Dorsum light yellowish brown with a metallic sheen. Body silvery sheen laterally and ventrally. Vertical bars metallic blue with bright yellowish interspaces. Fins hyaline. Ecology It is found from well-shaded areas of shallow, slow moving streams of Kitulgala area closer to Kelani Valley Forest Reserve. <P> lower portion curving inward and forming an elbow with the short wooden haft. Sometimes the head is more upswept, forming a wider angle with the haft. Most franciscas have a round or teardrop-shaped eye designed to fit the tapered haft, similar to Viking axes. Based on the measurements of modern replicas, the francisca had a haft length of around 40–45 cm (16–18 in) and a 10 cm (4 in) cutting edge with an average weight of around 600 g (21 oz, 1.3 lb). Based on the surviving heads of franciscas recovered at Burgh Castle and Morning Thorpe in county Norfolk, England, the length of <P> grasp the necks of the animals. All the figures are highly stylized, and often the whole composition is repeated underneath, facing in the opposite direction. The bodies of all three figures tend to merge at the middle into the central tube, before diverging again at the lower limbs. The "zoomorphic juncture", where the body of one animal turns into another, is very often seen, with a further human head and pair of animal heads appearing at the waist level of the top set of figures. This second human head often also has a body, and two further animal heads, these <P> Leptus pozzoicus Larva This species' dorsum counts with about 250 setulose setae, and one eye on each side. Its dorsal scutum has a concave anterior border. Its posterior border is pointed. Its scutalae possess distinct setules. Anterior sensillae and posterior sensillae are both nude. It presents a short line behind its sensillae's sockets, as well as two lines below and laterally to the posterior sensillae's sockets. Its idiosoma has eight setae between coxae I and II ventrally, 36 setae between coxae II and III and behind coxae III there are about 46 setulose setae. Its coxala Ib is <P> posterior section of the eye is covered by a moderately well developed adipose eyelid, and the posterior extremity of the jaw is vertically under the center of the eye. The dorsal fin is in two parts, the first consisting of 8 spines and the second of 1 spine followed by 22 to 25 soft rays. The anal fin consists of 2 anteriorly detached spines followed by 1 spine and 16 to 21 soft rays. The lobes of both the second dorsal and anal fin are slightly elongated and almost entirely covered in small scales, but are still much shorter than	question: What does a chameleon's field of vision look like when it's eyes are pointing in different directions? context: <P> There are no ridges that connect the eye to the glabella. The medium-sized eyes (over ⅓× the length of the glabella) are slightly behind the middle of the glabella. Genal angle ending in short spines extending backward about one thorax segment. The articulating middle part of the body (or thorax) has 12 segments. The axis is convex, and less than ½× as wide as each of the so-called pleurae to its sides. Segments pointed sideways with a rounded front (a shape called falcate). The tailshield (or pygidium) is about ½× as wide as the cephalon, almost twice as wide as <P> and a second lens in the back that focus images onto a four-layered retina, a narrow boomerang-shaped strip oriented vertically. Physiological experiments have shown they may have up to four different kinds of receptor cells, with different absorption spectra, giving them the possibility of tetrachromatic color vision, with sensitivity extending into the ultraviolet range. As the eyes are too close together to allow depth perception, and the animals do not make use of motion parallax, they have evolved a method called image defocus instead. Of the four photoreceptor layers in the retina, the first two closest to the surface contain <P> and he has an eye for goal". <P> Sagavia Description The glabella of Sagavia is elongate with parallel sides or slightly converging towards the front. The large eyes are separated at the front by the glabella and the cephalic doublure. The rostral suture is vaulted upwards. It has a thorax of five segments. Sagavia has a pygidium with well a defined axis and border with clear furrows. <P> Orthonevra chilensis Description Its head is metallic steel blue; the face straight except the ventral fifth produced anteriorly, strongly rugose and shiny; the macula is widely separated from the antennal base; the gena is shiny and rugose; the frontal triangle is shiny; frontal lunule smooth; vertical triangle black. Dichoptic, eyes separated by approximately the width of the anterior ocellus; the occiput is white; the eye brown, with a distinct medial dark vitta. The antenna is orange, except for the basofiagellomere, which is more brownish on its apical 2/3 and is elongate. The thorax is a metallic steel blue colour: its pile short <P> direction of motion. In effect this means that their forward-looking, anterior eyes are on "flat faces", as shown in the photographs. Their eye pattern is the clearest single identifying characteristic. They have eight eyes, as illustrated. Most diagnostic are the front row of four eyes, in which the anterior median pair are more dramatically prominent than any other spider eyes apart from the posterior median eyes of the Deinopidae. There is, however, a radical functional difference between the major (AME) eyes of Salticidae and the major (PME) eyes of the Deinopidae; the large posterior eyes of Deinopidae are adapted mainly <P> well-known phenomenon of "glowing eyes" or eyeshine in cats and other vertebrates (which are only reflecting light, rather than actually glowing). The combination of the eye's lens and the cornea form the refractive converging system, while the tapetum lucidum behind the retina forms the spherical concave mirror. Because the function of the eye is to form an image on the retina, an eye focused on a distant object has a focal surface that approximately follows the reflective tapetum lucidum structure, which is the condition required to form a good retroreflection. This type of retroreflector can consist of many small versions of <P> into more colourful patterns, as 2D spreads his arms and bright lights begin to shine out of his eyes. There is then a sequence of each member playing an instrument, starting with 2D on keyboard, Russel on drums, Ace on bass, and Noodle on guitar. The video again transitions to 2D’s arms spread out and glowing eyes, the sequence of characters playing their instrument plays again and becomes more distorted. Then, a close up of 2D’s face blowing in the wind is shown. It then shows the two 2Ds facing each other with another 2D coming out the mouth of <P> to light, but normally to accommodation, this is an Argyll Robertson pupil. Ocular motility Ocular motility should always be tested, especially when patients complain of double vision or physicians suspect neurologic disease. First, the doctor should visually assess the eyes for deviations that could result from strabismus, extraocular muscle dysfunction, or palsy of the cranial nerves innervating the extraocular muscles. Saccades are assessed by having the patient move his or her eye quickly to a target at the far right, left, top and bottom. This tests for saccadic dysfunction whereupon poor ability of the eyes to "jump" from one place to another <P> twist (see below). A number of alternative proposals have been published earlier, the most popular of which is the visual map theory. Visual map theory by Cajal The visual map theory was published by the famous neuroscientist and pioneer Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1898), see also and for English summaries. According to this theory, the function of the optic chiasm is to repair the retinal field image on the visual cortex. The pupil in the vertebrates’ eyes inverts the image on the retina, so that the visual periphery projects to the medial side of the retina. By the <P> eyes elate, Yet, unlike hers, was bless'd by every glance. <P> also be attributable to this species. The crevalle jack is morphologically similar to a number of other deep-bodied carangids, having an elongate, moderately compressed body with the dorsal profile more convex than the ventral profile, particularly anteriorly. The eye is covered by a well-developed adipose eyelid, and the posterior extremity of the jaw is vertically under or past the posterior margin of the eye. The dorsal fin is in two parts, the first consisting of eight spines and the second of one spine followed by 19 to 21 soft rays. The anal fin consists of two anteriorly detached spines <P> The caudal fin is asymmetrical; the lower lobe is narrow and well-developed, while the upper lobe has a gently convex upper margin and a prominent notch in the ventral margin near the tip. The body is covered by small, overlapping oval-shaped dermal denticles bearing three or five horizontal ridges leading to marginal teeth. This species is plain slate-gray above, including the upper surfaces of the pectoral and pelvic fins, and the caudal fin; the underside is white. The boundary between dark and light runs through the bottom rim of the eye, through the gill slits, over the flank well above <P> in total length (including tail). Coloring varies greatly. Dorsally, it may be grayish, tan, brownish, or reddish, with darker blotches or bars in an irregular network. It usually has a dark streak from the eye to the corner of the mouth. Ventrally it is whitish or yellowish. It is heavy-bodied and has a short blunt tail. The ventrals are very narrow, less than ⅓ of the width of the body. The rostral is large and broad with an angular horizontal edge. The eye is separated from the labials by one or two rows of small scales. There are 10-14 upper <P> assign abnormal combinations of cue values to appropriate locations in space. In contrast, prisms cause a relatively coherent displacement of visual space while leaving auditory cues essentially unchanged. The task under these conditions is to assign normal ranges and combinations of cue values to abnormal locations in space”. <P> Devario micronema Description Body with 3–5 irregular vertical bars on anterior half. There are 14–17 pre-dorsal scales and 10–11 branched dorsal-fin rays. Danionin notch present. Lateral line complete. There is a prominent squareshaped process on its first infraorbital. Dorsum light yellowish brown with a metallic sheen. Body silvery sheen laterally and ventrally. Vertical bars metallic blue with bright yellowish interspaces. Fins hyaline. Ecology It is found from well-shaded areas of shallow, slow moving streams of Kitulgala area closer to Kelani Valley Forest Reserve. <P> lower portion curving inward and forming an elbow with the short wooden haft. Sometimes the head is more upswept, forming a wider angle with the haft. Most franciscas have a round or teardrop-shaped eye designed to fit the tapered haft, similar to Viking axes. Based on the measurements of modern replicas, the francisca had a haft length of around 40–45 cm (16–18 in) and a 10 cm (4 in) cutting edge with an average weight of around 600 g (21 oz, 1.3 lb). Based on the surviving heads of franciscas recovered at Burgh Castle and Morning Thorpe in county Norfolk, England, the length of <P> grasp the necks of the animals. All the figures are highly stylized, and often the whole composition is repeated underneath, facing in the opposite direction. The bodies of all three figures tend to merge at the middle into the central tube, before diverging again at the lower limbs. The "zoomorphic juncture", where the body of one animal turns into another, is very often seen, with a further human head and pair of animal heads appearing at the waist level of the top set of figures. This second human head often also has a body, and two further animal heads, these <P> Leptus pozzoicus Larva This species' dorsum counts with about 250 setulose setae, and one eye on each side. Its dorsal scutum has a concave anterior border. Its posterior border is pointed. Its scutalae possess distinct setules. Anterior sensillae and posterior sensillae are both nude. It presents a short line behind its sensillae's sockets, as well as two lines below and laterally to the posterior sensillae's sockets. Its idiosoma has eight setae between coxae I and II ventrally, 36 setae between coxae II and III and behind coxae III there are about 46 setulose setae. Its coxala Ib is <P> posterior section of the eye is covered by a moderately well developed adipose eyelid, and the posterior extremity of the jaw is vertically under the center of the eye. The dorsal fin is in two parts, the first consisting of 8 spines and the second of 1 spine followed by 22 to 25 soft rays. The anal fin consists of 2 anteriorly detached spines followed by 1 spine and 16 to 21 soft rays. The lobes of both the second dorsal and anal fin are slightly elongated and almost entirely covered in small scales, but are still much shorter than	answer: My brother has had vision problems all his life. His eyes work independently, i.e. he doesn't fuse the images from his eyes but, instead, has two entirely separate images. In elementary school, they asked him to look into a machine and tell them whether the ball was on or off the picnic table. He was very confused. He saw a picnic table with one eye and a black background with a red dot in the center with the other eye. He doesn't have 3D vision at all, and so games like ping-pong are more difficult for him than for people with normal vision. Interestingly, he currently is working with a doctor on eye exercises, trying to improve his situation. The exercises make him dizzy and nauseous. He often throws up. He isn't sure what he will see eventually but, whatever the final result, he knows he can't go back to seeing the way he used to see. Things have changed, even if he isn't seeing 3D yet.When the Mars rovers first landed, I experimented with 3D photography using the red/cyan overlay method NASA used in some of their photographs. I was amazed at how many people could not see the 3D effect, even though I had good-quality red/cyan glasses for them to use. It would seem reasonable to explore unmerged images as a potential reason for their failure to see 3D.All of my evidence is anecdotal, but, if you accept my brother's examples, then even some people do not have the merged, seamless whole. Extrapolating, I would not then be surprised if chameleons do not have it, either.
171,263	8j8cmn	how can wood be "fire-hardened" without burning to ash?	Fire-hardening involves removing moisture from the wood, then burning off an outer layer. The fibers are burned away from this section but much of the lignin, which is a complex repeating molecule (or polymer) is left behind. These tightly interlock to form a smooth, waterproof surface that can be deep enough to protect the wood even when scratched.This was used in early weapon production, and a method of Japanese wood preservation known as Shou Sugi Ban. Often other plant oils are added before or after burning to enhance the effect of the coating.	[ "Cooking the moisture out of green wood and starting to brown it results in a moisture content around 3-5% which makes the lignin quite hard... And a little brittle. ", "Fire-hardening involves removing moisture from the wood, then burning off an outer layer. The fibers are burned away from this section but much ...	2	[ "Cooking the moisture out of green wood and starting to brown it results in a moisture content around 3-5% which makes the lignin quite hard... And a little brittle. ", "Fire-hardening involves removing moisture from the wood, then burning off an outer layer. The fibers are burned away from this section but much ...	2	<P> is charcoal. If air (which contains oxygen) is present, the wood will catch fire and burn when it reaches a temperature of about 400–500°C and the fuel product is wood ash. If wood is heated away from air, first the moisture is driven off. Until this is complete, the wood temperature remains at about 100–110°C. When the wood is dry its temperature rises, and at about 270°C, it begins to spontaneously decompose. This is the well known exothermic reaction which takes place in charcoal burning. At this stage evolution of the by-products of wood carbonization starts. These substances are given <P> off gradually as the temperature rises and at about 450°C the evolution is complete. The solid residue, charcoal, is mainly carbon (about 70%) and small amounts of tarry substances which can be driven off or decomposed completely only by raising the temperature to above about 600°C. In the common practice of charcoal burning using internal heating of the charged wood by burning a part of it, all the by-product vapors and gas escapes into the atmosphere as smoke. The by-products can be recovered by passing the off-gases through a series of water to yield so-called wood vinegar (pyroligneous acid) and the <P> material of the wood cells; lignin acts as a kind of cell-bonding glue. Some softwoods, especially pines and firs, hold significant quantities of resin, which produces a harsh-tasting soot when burned; these woods are not often used for smoking. Cellulose and hemicellulose are aggregate sugar molecules; when burnt, they effectively caramelize, producing carbonyls, which provide most of the color components and sweet, flowery, and fruity aromas. Lignin, a highly complex arrangement of interlocked phenolic molecules, also produces a number of distinctive aromatic elements when burnt, including smoky, spicy, and pungent compounds such as guaiacol, phenol, and syringol, and sweeter scents such <P> chemicals that improve its performance in a fire. One of the early treatments to "fireproof lumber", which retard fires, was developed in 1936 by the Protexol Corporation, in which lumber is heavily treated with salt. Wood does not deteriorate simply because it gets wet. When wood breaks down, it is because an organism is eating it. Preservatives work by making the food source inedible to these organisms. Properly preservative-treated wood can have 5 to 10 times the service life of untreated wood. Preserved wood is used most often for railroad ties, utility poles, marine piles, decks, fences and other outdoor applications. <P> it is very weak and deteriorates because of the soluble water substance making it dissolve in marine environments. The cellulose of the wood goes through the process of hydrolysis and attacked by anaerobic bacteria that decompose the wood, leaving it only with the lignin network. Over an extended period of time the lignin network will also decompose. The result of the decomposition of cellulose and lignin will increase in the space between cells and the molecules within cells, this will render the wood to a more porous and permeable to water. All of the wood's cavities will be filled with <P> other wood") <P> will not rot. Farmers sometimes find old buried stumps in fields, even in some that were cleared a century ago, and these usually are dug up and sold as fatwood, "fat lighter", or "lighter wood", which is in demand as kindling for fireplaces, wood stoves, and barbecue pits. In old-growth pine, the heartwood of the bole is often saturated in the same way. When boards are cut from the fat lighter wood, they are very heavy and will not rot, but buildings constructed of them are quite flammable and make extremely hot fires. Cultural significance The longleaf pine is the <P> drying in these locations. Seasoning The seasoning of lumber is typically either kiln- or air-dried. Defects due to seasoning are the main cause of splits, bowing and honeycombing. Moisture control Wood is a hygroscopic material, which means it naturally absorbs and releases water to balance its internal moisture content with the surrounding environment. The moisture content of wood is measured by the weight of water as a percentage of the oven-dry weight of the wood fiber. The key to controlling decay is controlling moisture. Once decay fungi are established, the minimum moisture content for decay to propagate is 22 to <P> nature of the decomposition products depend on the nature of the raw material and the conditions under which the dry distillation is done. Decomposition within a temperature range of 450 to about 600°C is called carbonization or low-temperature degassing. At temperatures above 900°C, the process is called coking or high-temperature degassing. If coal is gasified to make coal gas or carbonized to make coke then Coal tar is among the by-products. Wood When wood is heated above 270°C it begins to carbonize. If air is absent, the final product (since there is no oxygen present to react with the wood) <P> with an approved termiticide to provide protection against subterranean termites Preservatives To avoid decay and termite infestation, untreated wood is separated from the ground and other sources of moisture. These separations are required by many building codes and are considered necessary to maintain wood elements in permanent structures at a safe moisture content for decay protection. When it is not possible to separate wood from the sources of moisture, designers often rely on preservative-treated wood. Wood can be treated with a preservative that improves service life under severe conditions without altering its basic characteristics. It can also be pressure-impregnated with fire-retardant <P> charcoal. Birch tar from birch bark is a particularly fine tar, known as "Russian oil", suitable for leather protection. The by-products of wood tar are turpentine and charcoal. Tar kilns are dry distillation ovens, historically used in Scandinavia for producing tar from wood. They were built close to the forest, from limestone or from more primitive holes in the ground. The bottom is sloped into an outlet hole to allow the tar to pour out. The wood is split into dimensions of a finger, stacked densely, and finally covered tight with dirt and moss. If oxygen can enter, the wood might <P> and dirt and was set on fire in the center. The fires were allowed to smolder for ten to fourteen days, under the careful, round the clock, supervision of the collier. The colliers were careful to make sure that enough heat was produced to expel moisture, tar and other substances from the wood without burning the wood up entirely. Wood was not charred until just before it was needed to keep it from getting wet and becoming useless. The demand for charcoal was so tremendous that Cornwall Furnace used an entire acre of wood every day for making charcoal. Working <P> to inhabit. They can also decompose woods with high levels of compounds that are resistant to biological attack. Bark in woody plants contains a high concentration of tannin, which is difficult for fungi to decompose, and suberin which may act as a microbial barrier. The bark acts as form of protection for the more vulnerable interior of the plant. Soft-rot fungi do not tend to be able to decompose matter as effectively as white-rot fungi: they are less aggressive decomposers. White rot White-rot fungi break down the lignin in wood, leaving the lighter-colored cellulose behind; some of them break down both <P> but most are composed of shellac and sandarach dissolved in spirit. It is applied to the perfectly smooth surface of hard woods with a pad of flannel or wadding wrapped in linen, and well rubbed in with a circular motion. A dull polish is procured by rubbing beeswax into the wood. It must be thoroughly rubbed in, a little turpentine being added as a lubricant when the rubber works stiffly. If paint were applied over the bare knots of new wood it would be destroyed, or at least discolored, by the exudation of resin from the knots. For the purpose of <P> a protective coating over oiled wood finishes (e.g., tung oil). Source of organic compounds Turpentine is also used as a source of raw materials in the synthesis of fragrant chemical compounds. Commercially used camphor, linalool, alpha-terpineol, and geraniol are all usually produced from alpha-pinene and beta-pinene, which are two of the chief chemical components of turpentine. These pinenes are separated and purified by distillation. The mixture of diterpenes and triterpenes that is left as residue after turpentine distillation is sold as rosin. Medicinal elixir Turpentine and petroleum distillates such as coal oil and kerosene have been used medicinally since ancient <P> oil refinery. Multi-stage counter-current extraction is commonly used so fresh naphtha first contacts wood leached in previous stages and naphtha laden with turpentine from previous stages contacts fresh wood before vacuum distillation to recover naphtha from the turpentine. Leached wood is steamed for additional naphtha recovery prior to burning for energy recovery. When producing chemical wood pulp from pines or other coniferous trees, sulfate turpentine may be condensed from the gas generated in Kraft process pulp digesters. The average yield of crude sulfate turpentine is 5–10 kg/t pulp. Unless burned at the mill for energy production, sulfate turpentine may require <P> Xing, water engenders Wood, "as rain or dew makes plant life flourish"; Wood begets fire as "fire is generated by rubbing together two pieces of wood" and it must be fueled by burning wood. In the conquest cycle: Wood overcomes earth by binding it together with the roots of trees and drawing sustenance from the soil; Metal overcomes Wood, as the metal axe can topple the largest trees. <P> non-condensible wood gas passes on through the condenser and may be burned to provide heat. The wood gas is only usable as fuel and consists typically of 17% methane; 2% hydrogen; 23% carbon monoxide; 38% carbon dioxide; 2% oxygen and 18% nitrogen. It has a gas calorific value of about 10.8 MJoules per m³ (290 BTU/cu.ft.) i.e. about one third the value of natural gas. When deciduous tree woods are subjected to distillation, the products are methanol (wood alcohol) and charcoal. The distillation of pine wood causes Pine tar and pitch to drip away from the wood and leave behind <P> woodworking products. For example, in the television series Northern Exposure season 3 episode "Things Become Extinct" (1992), Native American Ira Wingfeather makes duck flutes out of alder tree branches while Ed Chigliak films. Alder bark and wood (like oak and sweet chestnut) contain tannin and are traditionally used to tan leather. A red dye can also be extracted from the outer bark, and a yellow dye from the inner bark. <P> Various treatment methods and types of chemicals are available, depending on the attributes required in the particular application and the level of protection needed. There are two basic methods of treating: with and without pressure. Non-pressure methods are the application of preservative by brushing, spraying or dipping the piece to be treated. Deeper, more thorough penetration is achieved by driving the preservative into the wood cells with pressure. Various combinations of pressure and vacuum are used to force adequate levels of chemical into the wood. Pressure-treating preservatives consist of chemicals carried in a solvent. Chromated copper arsenate, once the most commonly used	question: how can wood be "fire-hardened" without burning to ash? context: <P> is charcoal. If air (which contains oxygen) is present, the wood will catch fire and burn when it reaches a temperature of about 400–500°C and the fuel product is wood ash. If wood is heated away from air, first the moisture is driven off. Until this is complete, the wood temperature remains at about 100–110°C. When the wood is dry its temperature rises, and at about 270°C, it begins to spontaneously decompose. This is the well known exothermic reaction which takes place in charcoal burning. At this stage evolution of the by-products of wood carbonization starts. These substances are given <P> off gradually as the temperature rises and at about 450°C the evolution is complete. The solid residue, charcoal, is mainly carbon (about 70%) and small amounts of tarry substances which can be driven off or decomposed completely only by raising the temperature to above about 600°C. In the common practice of charcoal burning using internal heating of the charged wood by burning a part of it, all the by-product vapors and gas escapes into the atmosphere as smoke. The by-products can be recovered by passing the off-gases through a series of water to yield so-called wood vinegar (pyroligneous acid) and the <P> material of the wood cells; lignin acts as a kind of cell-bonding glue. Some softwoods, especially pines and firs, hold significant quantities of resin, which produces a harsh-tasting soot when burned; these woods are not often used for smoking. Cellulose and hemicellulose are aggregate sugar molecules; when burnt, they effectively caramelize, producing carbonyls, which provide most of the color components and sweet, flowery, and fruity aromas. Lignin, a highly complex arrangement of interlocked phenolic molecules, also produces a number of distinctive aromatic elements when burnt, including smoky, spicy, and pungent compounds such as guaiacol, phenol, and syringol, and sweeter scents such <P> chemicals that improve its performance in a fire. One of the early treatments to "fireproof lumber", which retard fires, was developed in 1936 by the Protexol Corporation, in which lumber is heavily treated with salt. Wood does not deteriorate simply because it gets wet. When wood breaks down, it is because an organism is eating it. Preservatives work by making the food source inedible to these organisms. Properly preservative-treated wood can have 5 to 10 times the service life of untreated wood. Preserved wood is used most often for railroad ties, utility poles, marine piles, decks, fences and other outdoor applications. <P> it is very weak and deteriorates because of the soluble water substance making it dissolve in marine environments. The cellulose of the wood goes through the process of hydrolysis and attacked by anaerobic bacteria that decompose the wood, leaving it only with the lignin network. Over an extended period of time the lignin network will also decompose. The result of the decomposition of cellulose and lignin will increase in the space between cells and the molecules within cells, this will render the wood to a more porous and permeable to water. All of the wood's cavities will be filled with <P> other wood") <P> will not rot. Farmers sometimes find old buried stumps in fields, even in some that were cleared a century ago, and these usually are dug up and sold as fatwood, "fat lighter", or "lighter wood", which is in demand as kindling for fireplaces, wood stoves, and barbecue pits. In old-growth pine, the heartwood of the bole is often saturated in the same way. When boards are cut from the fat lighter wood, they are very heavy and will not rot, but buildings constructed of them are quite flammable and make extremely hot fires. Cultural significance The longleaf pine is the <P> drying in these locations. Seasoning The seasoning of lumber is typically either kiln- or air-dried. Defects due to seasoning are the main cause of splits, bowing and honeycombing. Moisture control Wood is a hygroscopic material, which means it naturally absorbs and releases water to balance its internal moisture content with the surrounding environment. The moisture content of wood is measured by the weight of water as a percentage of the oven-dry weight of the wood fiber. The key to controlling decay is controlling moisture. Once decay fungi are established, the minimum moisture content for decay to propagate is 22 to <P> nature of the decomposition products depend on the nature of the raw material and the conditions under which the dry distillation is done. Decomposition within a temperature range of 450 to about 600°C is called carbonization or low-temperature degassing. At temperatures above 900°C, the process is called coking or high-temperature degassing. If coal is gasified to make coal gas or carbonized to make coke then Coal tar is among the by-products. Wood When wood is heated above 270°C it begins to carbonize. If air is absent, the final product (since there is no oxygen present to react with the wood) <P> with an approved termiticide to provide protection against subterranean termites Preservatives To avoid decay and termite infestation, untreated wood is separated from the ground and other sources of moisture. These separations are required by many building codes and are considered necessary to maintain wood elements in permanent structures at a safe moisture content for decay protection. When it is not possible to separate wood from the sources of moisture, designers often rely on preservative-treated wood. Wood can be treated with a preservative that improves service life under severe conditions without altering its basic characteristics. It can also be pressure-impregnated with fire-retardant <P> charcoal. Birch tar from birch bark is a particularly fine tar, known as "Russian oil", suitable for leather protection. The by-products of wood tar are turpentine and charcoal. Tar kilns are dry distillation ovens, historically used in Scandinavia for producing tar from wood. They were built close to the forest, from limestone or from more primitive holes in the ground. The bottom is sloped into an outlet hole to allow the tar to pour out. The wood is split into dimensions of a finger, stacked densely, and finally covered tight with dirt and moss. If oxygen can enter, the wood might <P> and dirt and was set on fire in the center. The fires were allowed to smolder for ten to fourteen days, under the careful, round the clock, supervision of the collier. The colliers were careful to make sure that enough heat was produced to expel moisture, tar and other substances from the wood without burning the wood up entirely. Wood was not charred until just before it was needed to keep it from getting wet and becoming useless. The demand for charcoal was so tremendous that Cornwall Furnace used an entire acre of wood every day for making charcoal. Working <P> to inhabit. They can also decompose woods with high levels of compounds that are resistant to biological attack. Bark in woody plants contains a high concentration of tannin, which is difficult for fungi to decompose, and suberin which may act as a microbial barrier. The bark acts as form of protection for the more vulnerable interior of the plant. Soft-rot fungi do not tend to be able to decompose matter as effectively as white-rot fungi: they are less aggressive decomposers. White rot White-rot fungi break down the lignin in wood, leaving the lighter-colored cellulose behind; some of them break down both <P> but most are composed of shellac and sandarach dissolved in spirit. It is applied to the perfectly smooth surface of hard woods with a pad of flannel or wadding wrapped in linen, and well rubbed in with a circular motion. A dull polish is procured by rubbing beeswax into the wood. It must be thoroughly rubbed in, a little turpentine being added as a lubricant when the rubber works stiffly. If paint were applied over the bare knots of new wood it would be destroyed, or at least discolored, by the exudation of resin from the knots. For the purpose of <P> a protective coating over oiled wood finishes (e.g., tung oil). Source of organic compounds Turpentine is also used as a source of raw materials in the synthesis of fragrant chemical compounds. Commercially used camphor, linalool, alpha-terpineol, and geraniol are all usually produced from alpha-pinene and beta-pinene, which are two of the chief chemical components of turpentine. These pinenes are separated and purified by distillation. The mixture of diterpenes and triterpenes that is left as residue after turpentine distillation is sold as rosin. Medicinal elixir Turpentine and petroleum distillates such as coal oil and kerosene have been used medicinally since ancient <P> oil refinery. Multi-stage counter-current extraction is commonly used so fresh naphtha first contacts wood leached in previous stages and naphtha laden with turpentine from previous stages contacts fresh wood before vacuum distillation to recover naphtha from the turpentine. Leached wood is steamed for additional naphtha recovery prior to burning for energy recovery. When producing chemical wood pulp from pines or other coniferous trees, sulfate turpentine may be condensed from the gas generated in Kraft process pulp digesters. The average yield of crude sulfate turpentine is 5–10 kg/t pulp. Unless burned at the mill for energy production, sulfate turpentine may require <P> Xing, water engenders Wood, "as rain or dew makes plant life flourish"; Wood begets fire as "fire is generated by rubbing together two pieces of wood" and it must be fueled by burning wood. In the conquest cycle: Wood overcomes earth by binding it together with the roots of trees and drawing sustenance from the soil; Metal overcomes Wood, as the metal axe can topple the largest trees. <P> non-condensible wood gas passes on through the condenser and may be burned to provide heat. The wood gas is only usable as fuel and consists typically of 17% methane; 2% hydrogen; 23% carbon monoxide; 38% carbon dioxide; 2% oxygen and 18% nitrogen. It has a gas calorific value of about 10.8 MJoules per m³ (290 BTU/cu.ft.) i.e. about one third the value of natural gas. When deciduous tree woods are subjected to distillation, the products are methanol (wood alcohol) and charcoal. The distillation of pine wood causes Pine tar and pitch to drip away from the wood and leave behind <P> woodworking products. For example, in the television series Northern Exposure season 3 episode "Things Become Extinct" (1992), Native American Ira Wingfeather makes duck flutes out of alder tree branches while Ed Chigliak films. Alder bark and wood (like oak and sweet chestnut) contain tannin and are traditionally used to tan leather. A red dye can also be extracted from the outer bark, and a yellow dye from the inner bark. <P> Various treatment methods and types of chemicals are available, depending on the attributes required in the particular application and the level of protection needed. There are two basic methods of treating: with and without pressure. Non-pressure methods are the application of preservative by brushing, spraying or dipping the piece to be treated. Deeper, more thorough penetration is achieved by driving the preservative into the wood cells with pressure. Various combinations of pressure and vacuum are used to force adequate levels of chemical into the wood. Pressure-treating preservatives consist of chemicals carried in a solvent. Chromated copper arsenate, once the most commonly used	answer: Fire-hardening involves removing moisture from the wood, then burning off an outer layer. The fibers are burned away from this section but much of the lignin, which is a complex repeating molecule (or polymer) is left behind. These tightly interlock to form a smooth, waterproof surface that can be deep enough to protect the wood even when scratched.This was used in early weapon production, and a method of Japanese wood preservation known as Shou Sugi Ban. Often other plant oils are added before or after burning to enhance the effect of the coating.
65,952	20w2fy	what is the best way this ukraine/russia hullabaloo can end? what is the worst? what is most likely at this point?	Putin will get what he wants in exchange for some token concessions and everybody will relax. Soon after that, he'll do it again with another area. Same thing will follow. Then he'll get over confident and really step in it and a real conflict will erupt.	[ "Putin will get what he wants in exchange for some token concessions and everybody will relax. Soon after that, he'll do it again with another area. Same thing will follow. Then he'll get over confident and really step in it and a real conflict will erupt. " ]	1	[]	0	<P> and secure Ukraine. <P> penalties or who have links to the criminal underworld will be fired. For those officers surviving the reduction, salaries will be increased by 30%. Centralisation As a result of the reform, the Russian police will be made a federal-level institution, with funding accomplished fully from the federal budget. Under the old system, police units responsible for public order and petty crimes were under the jurisdiction of regional and city authorities, financed from regional budget and responsible more to the regional governors than to the federal center. Changes to police and detainee rights According to the new law, the detainee will <P> war with Russia. However, according to experts, Russia will enhance the information and economic impact on Ukraine. Senior Advisor to the Russian Embassy in Ukraine Igor Sevastiyanov indirectly confirmed this statement, saying this embargo is "training". Also, according to Radio "Liberty" with reference to the heads of the companies in the end of August 2013 it was reported that some Ukrainian companies through the trade confrontation between Ukraine and Russia are shifting to other markets. Some companies do not feel any problems with exports. Representatives of EU said they are ready to introduce additional steps to support Ukraine - from simplification of <P> allowing it to exploit a significant but undetermined portion of an estimated 100 billion cubic meters of deposits and 15 million tonnes of petrol under the seabed. However, according to UN International Court Ukrainian commissioner Volodymyr Vasylenko, nearly all the oil and gas reserves are concentrated in the seabed that went to Ukraine. Ukrainian President Viktor Yuschenko considered the ruling "just and final" and hoped that it would open "new opportunities for further fruitful cooperation in all sectors of the bilateral cooperation between Ukraine and Romania". <P> 2015 Ukraine budget Overview Ukraine's parliament approves austerity laws needed for the draft budget on the early morning of 29 December 2014. "This budget, like other budgets adopted in this hall, is far from perfect," Yatsenyuk said before the vote. "That’s why the budget must be reviewed no later than February 2015". The Rada was under pressure to approve a budget as soon as possible before the new financial year. Ukraine was seeking to unlock the next tranche of a $17 billion bailout loan from the IMF. Total revenues and spending These tables are in billions of hryvnias. The draft budget <P> passed 19 million USD in cash to fund the DPR administration as well as 35,000 blank Russian passports. Since late February 2015, the DPR-controlled territory received its natural gas directly from Russia, which is opposed by Ukraine. According to Russia, Ukraine should pay for these deliveries while Ukraine claims it does not receive payments for the supplies from the DPR-controlled territory. On 2 July 2015, Ukrainian Energy Minister Volodymyr Demchyshyn announced that he "did not expect" that Ukraine would supply natural gas to territory controlled by separatist troops in the 2015–2016 heating season. Since 25 November 2015 Ukraine has halted all <P> to Tolyatti in 2010. Ukraine On 16 May 2015, Armed Forces of Ukraine reported that troops of the 92nd Mechanized Brigade captured two Russians soldiers of the 3rd Guards Spetsnaz Brigade during a fight near Shchastya town (Luhansk oblast, eastern Ukraine). Captured soldiers said they were spetsnaz from Tolyatti, specifically Military Unit 21208. On May 18, 2015, police broke up a brief protest of approximately 12 people at a checkpoint near the Tolyatti base, with some protesters expressing concern about the Russians captured in Ukraine. While the representative of pro-Russian militants Eduard Basurin out of the eastern Ukraine said <P> Security and Cooperation in Europe; he doubts the sacrifices borne by the Ukrainian people in the times of the Soviet totalitarianism". 5,000 people hold a rally in Lviv in support of Tabachnyk's dismissal on March 17, 2010. Vyacheslav Kyrylenko, leader of For Ukraine!, stated during the rally that his party would work tirelessly to oust Tabachnyk from his post. Kyrylenko has introduced a resolution asking the Ukrainian parliament to dismiss Tabachnyk; the vote could take place as early as March 30, 2010. The initiative is being supported by other opposition groups, including Bloc Yulia Tymoshenko. Faced with these protests Tabachnyk stated <P> on the topic at such a senior level. In response, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin claimed that such a deployment could lead to a new arms race and could enhance the likelihood of mutual destruction. He also suggested that his country would freeze its compliance with the 1990 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE)—which limits military deployments across the continent—until all NATO countries had ratified the adapted CFE treaty. Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer claimed the system would not affect strategic balance or threaten Russia, as the plan is to base only ten interceptor missiles in Poland <P> banned. On 9 April, the Rada has passed a declaration, stating: Via his entourage and the political circles he relies on, the President of Ukraine interferes with the activities of legislators, brings pressure on judges of Constitutional Court and other courts, since in the legal dimension he does not have any chance to defend his unconstitutional decree. — 2007 Rada declaration Furthermore, the Rada called upon the heads of European states, governments, and parliaments to send its representatives to mediate the political crisis. Ukraine's parliament on 9 April, raising the stakes in the country's ongoing political confrontation, stated that it would only support early parliamentary <P> renewed Ukraine." On 18 January 2017 Plotnitsky (on his official website) declared "we will never return to Ukraine!" and that the LPR was "returning to its home – Russia, the Russian world". On 22 November 2017 Russian media citing unofficial sources stated that he had been overthrown by the former interior minister on 21 November 2017 and had fled to Russia while other Russian media reported that he had not left Luhansk. On 24 November 2017 a separatist website stated that Plotnitsky had retired from the presidency citing poor health - "For health reasons. Multiple war wounds, the effects of blast injuries <P> whole Ukraine is only 500 million hryvnias. Experts also believe that the unpredictable behaviour of Russia will force Ukrainian businessmen to seek new markets for their products, as well as make supporters of joining the "Customs Union" change their mind. On 24 August 2013 on Radio "Liberty" MP of European Parliament Pawel Kowal published an article in which he suggested that the situation of tension in relations between Ukraine and Russia is just the beginning of the pressure that will continue and increase. Sociologist, Director of "Democratic initiatives" Irina Bekeshkina said that Ukraine at the end of August 2013 is winning information <P> flagrant violation of Ukrainian sovereignty and domestic law, of the UN Charter and the UN General Assembly resolution "Territorial integrity of Ukraine" adopted on March 27, 2014, that may have deeply negative effect on further development of Ukrainian - Eritrean relations. <P> 150 Danish companies are operating in Ukraine. Cooperation On 1 June 1994, Denmark and Ukraine signed an environmental protection agreement. Denmark assisted Ukraine with 18,5 million DKK, for the concernings about the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. Operation "Northern Falcon" In March 2009, in Thule Air Base, American, Danish and Ukrainian air forces transported about 140,000 gallons of fuel and 17 tons of supplies from Thule Air Base to Station Nord, which is 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) away. Ukraine assisted with an Ilyushin Il-76. Expatriates About 200 Danes live in Ukraine, most of them work for Maersk. The Danish community in Lviv <P> and conquering new markets. Otherwise, the EU will simply disappear in competition with Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Indian, and even Russian and American producers. The European competition will not be able to stand fair competition. Ukraine is the most recent victim of the German-French capital. The German capital has not been able to fully digest it, but the destruction of the Ukrainian national economy is only a matter of time, and the capital will need to expand further. Turkey appears to be next on the line. It is important to understand here that capital is not malevolent or insidious. It destroys the <P> to the DPR and joined the militia groups. On 15 April 2014, acting President Olexander Turchynov announced the start of a military counteroffensive to confront the pro-Russian militants, and on 17 April, tensions de-escalated as Russia, the US, and the EU agreed on a roadmap to eventually end the crisis. However, officials of the People's Republic ignored the agreement and vowed to continue their occupations until a referendum is accepted or the government in Kiev resigns. Following the agreement, the Security Service of Ukraine continued to detain Russians entering the country with large amounts of money and military gear. Peace proposals <P> with a promise to return Ukraine (whole thing!) in the sphere of influence of Moscow, embedding it into the Customs Union and the Eurasian system of values. This is the maximum program. She obviously failed. It is the turn of the program-at least — to take under the wing of at least the Eastern Ukraine along with Crimea Today... ambitions declined: we hear passionate speeches about "our" Kharkiv and Donbas; less about Odessa. Kiev for 10 years slowly migrated to the West, the natural consequence of the greater attraction of the European system of values in comparison with Patriotic tales <P> its imports of (and payments for) natural gas from Russia. Donetsk People's Republic is setting up its own mobile network operator called Feniks, to be fully operational at the end of the summer of 2015. According to Kyivstar Feniks illegally uses equipment that they officially gave up in territory controlled by pro-Russian separatists on 5 February 2015. Prime Minister Zakharchenko on 18 April 2015 issued a decree stating that all equipment that Kyivstar gave up falls under the control of the separatists in order to "meet the needs of the population in the communication services". The Sim cards of Feniks display <P> since the Russian takeover of the off shore gas platforms near the village. However, border guards are instructed to not allow people whose Russian passport have been issued in Crimea to pass, as well as inspect vehicles for possible Russian contraband. The small force deployed to the village is also designated to slow a possible advance of Russian troops into Kherson, while the large contingent of Ukrainian forces is stationed at Novooleksiivka and Henichesk, about 20 miles north along the Arabat Spit. On 9 December 2014 Ukraine's border guards reported that Russian troops began withdrawing from southern Kherson Oblast, <P> government to disrupt the signing of association agreement with the EU. The newspaper describes the events as opening of the first front of "economic war" against Ukraine. This is indicated in the investigation that Russia wants to maintain its influence over Ukraine. Effects According to the Federation of Employers of Ukraine in the beginning of the embargo the loss for Ukraine from the Russia's actions can reach $2–2,5 billion in the second half of 2013. According to Ukrainian experts as for 22 August 2013 the 10-days embargo on the Russian border can hit some manufacturers, but the scale of losses in	question: what is the best way this ukraine/russia hullabaloo can end? what is the worst? what is most likely at this point? context: <P> and secure Ukraine. <P> penalties or who have links to the criminal underworld will be fired. For those officers surviving the reduction, salaries will be increased by 30%. Centralisation As a result of the reform, the Russian police will be made a federal-level institution, with funding accomplished fully from the federal budget. Under the old system, police units responsible for public order and petty crimes were under the jurisdiction of regional and city authorities, financed from regional budget and responsible more to the regional governors than to the federal center. Changes to police and detainee rights According to the new law, the detainee will <P> war with Russia. However, according to experts, Russia will enhance the information and economic impact on Ukraine. Senior Advisor to the Russian Embassy in Ukraine Igor Sevastiyanov indirectly confirmed this statement, saying this embargo is "training". Also, according to Radio "Liberty" with reference to the heads of the companies in the end of August 2013 it was reported that some Ukrainian companies through the trade confrontation between Ukraine and Russia are shifting to other markets. Some companies do not feel any problems with exports. Representatives of EU said they are ready to introduce additional steps to support Ukraine - from simplification of <P> allowing it to exploit a significant but undetermined portion of an estimated 100 billion cubic meters of deposits and 15 million tonnes of petrol under the seabed. However, according to UN International Court Ukrainian commissioner Volodymyr Vasylenko, nearly all the oil and gas reserves are concentrated in the seabed that went to Ukraine. Ukrainian President Viktor Yuschenko considered the ruling "just and final" and hoped that it would open "new opportunities for further fruitful cooperation in all sectors of the bilateral cooperation between Ukraine and Romania". <P> 2015 Ukraine budget Overview Ukraine's parliament approves austerity laws needed for the draft budget on the early morning of 29 December 2014. "This budget, like other budgets adopted in this hall, is far from perfect," Yatsenyuk said before the vote. "That’s why the budget must be reviewed no later than February 2015". The Rada was under pressure to approve a budget as soon as possible before the new financial year. Ukraine was seeking to unlock the next tranche of a $17 billion bailout loan from the IMF. Total revenues and spending These tables are in billions of hryvnias. The draft budget <P> passed 19 million USD in cash to fund the DPR administration as well as 35,000 blank Russian passports. Since late February 2015, the DPR-controlled territory received its natural gas directly from Russia, which is opposed by Ukraine. According to Russia, Ukraine should pay for these deliveries while Ukraine claims it does not receive payments for the supplies from the DPR-controlled territory. On 2 July 2015, Ukrainian Energy Minister Volodymyr Demchyshyn announced that he "did not expect" that Ukraine would supply natural gas to territory controlled by separatist troops in the 2015–2016 heating season. Since 25 November 2015 Ukraine has halted all <P> to Tolyatti in 2010. Ukraine On 16 May 2015, Armed Forces of Ukraine reported that troops of the 92nd Mechanized Brigade captured two Russians soldiers of the 3rd Guards Spetsnaz Brigade during a fight near Shchastya town (Luhansk oblast, eastern Ukraine). Captured soldiers said they were spetsnaz from Tolyatti, specifically Military Unit 21208. On May 18, 2015, police broke up a brief protest of approximately 12 people at a checkpoint near the Tolyatti base, with some protesters expressing concern about the Russians captured in Ukraine. While the representative of pro-Russian militants Eduard Basurin out of the eastern Ukraine said <P> Security and Cooperation in Europe; he doubts the sacrifices borne by the Ukrainian people in the times of the Soviet totalitarianism". 5,000 people hold a rally in Lviv in support of Tabachnyk's dismissal on March 17, 2010. Vyacheslav Kyrylenko, leader of For Ukraine!, stated during the rally that his party would work tirelessly to oust Tabachnyk from his post. Kyrylenko has introduced a resolution asking the Ukrainian parliament to dismiss Tabachnyk; the vote could take place as early as March 30, 2010. The initiative is being supported by other opposition groups, including Bloc Yulia Tymoshenko. Faced with these protests Tabachnyk stated <P> on the topic at such a senior level. In response, Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin claimed that such a deployment could lead to a new arms race and could enhance the likelihood of mutual destruction. He also suggested that his country would freeze its compliance with the 1990 Treaty on Conventional Armed Forces in Europe (CFE)—which limits military deployments across the continent—until all NATO countries had ratified the adapted CFE treaty. Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer claimed the system would not affect strategic balance or threaten Russia, as the plan is to base only ten interceptor missiles in Poland <P> banned. On 9 April, the Rada has passed a declaration, stating: Via his entourage and the political circles he relies on, the President of Ukraine interferes with the activities of legislators, brings pressure on judges of Constitutional Court and other courts, since in the legal dimension he does not have any chance to defend his unconstitutional decree. — 2007 Rada declaration Furthermore, the Rada called upon the heads of European states, governments, and parliaments to send its representatives to mediate the political crisis. Ukraine's parliament on 9 April, raising the stakes in the country's ongoing political confrontation, stated that it would only support early parliamentary <P> renewed Ukraine." On 18 January 2017 Plotnitsky (on his official website) declared "we will never return to Ukraine!" and that the LPR was "returning to its home – Russia, the Russian world". On 22 November 2017 Russian media citing unofficial sources stated that he had been overthrown by the former interior minister on 21 November 2017 and had fled to Russia while other Russian media reported that he had not left Luhansk. On 24 November 2017 a separatist website stated that Plotnitsky had retired from the presidency citing poor health - "For health reasons. Multiple war wounds, the effects of blast injuries <P> whole Ukraine is only 500 million hryvnias. Experts also believe that the unpredictable behaviour of Russia will force Ukrainian businessmen to seek new markets for their products, as well as make supporters of joining the "Customs Union" change their mind. On 24 August 2013 on Radio "Liberty" MP of European Parliament Pawel Kowal published an article in which he suggested that the situation of tension in relations between Ukraine and Russia is just the beginning of the pressure that will continue and increase. Sociologist, Director of "Democratic initiatives" Irina Bekeshkina said that Ukraine at the end of August 2013 is winning information <P> flagrant violation of Ukrainian sovereignty and domestic law, of the UN Charter and the UN General Assembly resolution "Territorial integrity of Ukraine" adopted on March 27, 2014, that may have deeply negative effect on further development of Ukrainian - Eritrean relations. <P> 150 Danish companies are operating in Ukraine. Cooperation On 1 June 1994, Denmark and Ukraine signed an environmental protection agreement. Denmark assisted Ukraine with 18,5 million DKK, for the concernings about the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. Operation "Northern Falcon" In March 2009, in Thule Air Base, American, Danish and Ukrainian air forces transported about 140,000 gallons of fuel and 17 tons of supplies from Thule Air Base to Station Nord, which is 1,000 kilometres (600 mi) away. Ukraine assisted with an Ilyushin Il-76. Expatriates About 200 Danes live in Ukraine, most of them work for Maersk. The Danish community in Lviv <P> and conquering new markets. Otherwise, the EU will simply disappear in competition with Chinese, Korean, Japanese, Indian, and even Russian and American producers. The European competition will not be able to stand fair competition. Ukraine is the most recent victim of the German-French capital. The German capital has not been able to fully digest it, but the destruction of the Ukrainian national economy is only a matter of time, and the capital will need to expand further. Turkey appears to be next on the line. It is important to understand here that capital is not malevolent or insidious. It destroys the <P> to the DPR and joined the militia groups. On 15 April 2014, acting President Olexander Turchynov announced the start of a military counteroffensive to confront the pro-Russian militants, and on 17 April, tensions de-escalated as Russia, the US, and the EU agreed on a roadmap to eventually end the crisis. However, officials of the People's Republic ignored the agreement and vowed to continue their occupations until a referendum is accepted or the government in Kiev resigns. Following the agreement, the Security Service of Ukraine continued to detain Russians entering the country with large amounts of money and military gear. Peace proposals <P> with a promise to return Ukraine (whole thing!) in the sphere of influence of Moscow, embedding it into the Customs Union and the Eurasian system of values. This is the maximum program. She obviously failed. It is the turn of the program-at least — to take under the wing of at least the Eastern Ukraine along with Crimea Today... ambitions declined: we hear passionate speeches about "our" Kharkiv and Donbas; less about Odessa. Kiev for 10 years slowly migrated to the West, the natural consequence of the greater attraction of the European system of values in comparison with Patriotic tales <P> its imports of (and payments for) natural gas from Russia. Donetsk People's Republic is setting up its own mobile network operator called Feniks, to be fully operational at the end of the summer of 2015. According to Kyivstar Feniks illegally uses equipment that they officially gave up in territory controlled by pro-Russian separatists on 5 February 2015. Prime Minister Zakharchenko on 18 April 2015 issued a decree stating that all equipment that Kyivstar gave up falls under the control of the separatists in order to "meet the needs of the population in the communication services". The Sim cards of Feniks display <P> since the Russian takeover of the off shore gas platforms near the village. However, border guards are instructed to not allow people whose Russian passport have been issued in Crimea to pass, as well as inspect vehicles for possible Russian contraband. The small force deployed to the village is also designated to slow a possible advance of Russian troops into Kherson, while the large contingent of Ukrainian forces is stationed at Novooleksiivka and Henichesk, about 20 miles north along the Arabat Spit. On 9 December 2014 Ukraine's border guards reported that Russian troops began withdrawing from southern Kherson Oblast, <P> government to disrupt the signing of association agreement with the EU. The newspaper describes the events as opening of the first front of "economic war" against Ukraine. This is indicated in the investigation that Russia wants to maintain its influence over Ukraine. Effects According to the Federation of Employers of Ukraine in the beginning of the embargo the loss for Ukraine from the Russia's actions can reach $2–2,5 billion in the second half of 2013. According to Ukrainian experts as for 22 August 2013 the 10-days embargo on the Russian border can hit some manufacturers, but the scale of losses in	answer: Putin will get what he wants in exchange for some token concessions and everybody will relax. Soon after that, he'll do it again with another area. Same thing will follow. Then he'll get over confident and really step in it and a real conflict will erupt.
42,482	6l9q5n	How do huge structures get buried?	Of course, the natural processes mentioned by others are a major contributor to city and structure burial. This [Atlantic Article](_URL_0_) quickly sums up a more human element (with regards to buried Roman ruins within Rome). > Ancient Rome slipped from sight gradually, in a 2,500-year process of natural silting and intentional burial that was already well advanced in classical times. Roman architects frequently tore the roofs from old buildings and filled their interiors with dirt, to make solid foundations for new structures. They embedded earlier buildings in tremendous landfills that raised the ground level of the entire site by several yards. Sometimes they entombed whole neighborhoods in this way.I'd make a quick parallel to the modern day: the massive landfills that naturally emerge outside the borders of any modern city/town/settlement. Simply put, trash has to go somewhere, and sometimes it buries buildings, too. Couple that with buildings that are already crumbling due to disrepair, and you've got a reason for people to bury structures. Lastly, look at New York City. Layers on layers of functional infrastructure within a modern city that would not be all that surprising to collectively forget about over thousands of years. Some of those layers were dug while others once saw the light of day	[ "In reference to the pyramids, the Sahara is encroaching (the sand dunes are are moving/spreading) to the east. Other structures can be buried under sediment by river flood deposits or redistributed by erosion. Basically windblown or waterborne sediments get deposited on top of stuff over time. Sometimes it's fas...	3	[ "I know I know I know this one!!! \n\nWeather moving dust/sand around and stuff is definitely a component like other people have mentioned, however, my ecology teacher who specialized in architectural archeology explained how or was EARTH WORMS*! Some species dig up to 6 feet straight down... And carry the soil up....	2	<P> Dissolution Dissolution of framework silicate grains and previously formed carbonate cement may occur during deep burial. Conditions that encourage this are essentially opposite of those required for cementation. Rock fragments and silicate minerals of low stability, such as plagioclase feldspar, pyroxenes, and amphiboles, may dissolve as a result of increasing burial temperatures and the presence of organic acids in pore waters. The dissolution of frame work grains and cements increases porosity particularly in sandstones. Mineral replacement This refers to the process whereby one mineral is dissolved and a new mineral fills the space via precipitation. Replacement can be partial or <P> bargain not only the structures above earth have been demolished and sold as construction material but even the grave slabs and most of the fundaments have been dug out to be sold alike. The more than 370 slabs of sandstone have mostly been built in hydraulic structures along the many waterways in Hamburg, broken stones and rubble were used for dikes in Ochsenwerder and Spadenland. So archeological excavations in recent years could not even uncover the exact groundplan. The rescue of some furnishings we owe to Philipp Otto Runge, prevailing in the merchant republic of Hamburg with the argument, <P> major landslide events in 1810 and 1818. An 1811 account by Thomas Webster described the scene: I was surprised at the scene of devastation, which seemed to have been occasioned by some convulsion of nature. A considerable portion of the cliff had fallen down, strewing the whole of the ground between it and the sea with its ruins ; huge masses of solid rock started up amidst heaps of smaller fragments, whilst immense quantities of loose marl, mixed with stones, and even the soil above with the wheat still growing on it, filled up the spaces between, and formed hills of rubbish <P> have been completely leveled. Much of the resulting debris has been pushed together in heaps along the northern edge of the site." The only structure remaining was the partially collapsed church. <P> complete. Complete replacement destroys the identity of the original minerals or rock fragments giving a biased view of the original mineralogy of the rock/ Porosity can also be affected by this process. For example, clay minerals tend to fill up pore space and thereby reducing porosity. Telogenesis In the process of burial, it is possible that siliciclastic deposits may subsequently be uplifted as a result of a mountain building event or erosion. When uplift occurs, it exposes buried deposits to a radically new environment. Because the process brings material to or closer to the surface, sediments that undergo <P> regularly hosts World Cup in skiflying. On 18 March 2017 Stefan Kraft set a world record in the ground with 253.5 m, while Dmitri Vassiliev flew to 254 m, but crashed. Vike kirkeruin The ruins of Vike Church (Vike kirkeruin) are located east of Vikersund. It was referred to as the parish church in 1456, but is believed to have dated from the 1200s. The church was presumably abandoned around the Protestant Reformation. The walls stood until late 1700s, but later they are used as a quarry. The foundations were uncovered and excavated in 1969-70 under the direction of Luce Hinsch. <P> Outcrop Features Outcrops do not cover the majority of the Earth's land surface because in most places the bedrock or superficial deposits are covered by a mantle of soil and vegetation and cannot be seen or examined closely. However, in places where the overlying cover is removed through erosion or tectonic uplift, the rock may be exposed, or crop out. Such exposure will happen most frequently in areas where erosion is rapid and exceeds the weathering rate such as on steep hillsides, mountain ridges and tops, river banks, and tectonically active areas. In Finland, glacial erosion during the last glacial <P> later the retaining wall of the new house was exactly parallel to the house from 2,000 years ago. The wall was built in sections over eight years, and the Siebenbergs were gradually able to excavate behind each section as it went up. Sometimes as many as 30 workers were hired. For two years they burrowed, taking the earth out in bucketfuls, carrying it off on donkeys' backs and sifting for signs of the past. They discovered nothing but dirt. Finally, one day in 1972 they hit an archeological mother lode. First, a bronze key ring, probably used by a woman to <P> terraceways the width is about 3.8 metres (12 ft). Where outer ditches are visible on Ashdown Forest they are 19 metres (62 ft) apart. Thickness of metalling also varies greatly, as does the size of agger. In some places a thick mass of iron slag was laid on the land surface, as at the excavated section at Holtye where the slag metalling was 30 centimetres (12 in) in the centre reducing to 7.5 centimetres (3.0 in) at the edges, laid directly on the clay subsoil and rusted into a concrete-like mass. Elsewhere an earth agger was protected by a much thinner stone layer, as on <P> of a highway during the 18th century that effectively cut the site in two. The central area is completely clear of modern buildings and always has been largely so, since the Middle Ages. Although much stone has been stripped from the site, large numbers of buildings remain detectable by their footings or the lower parts of their walls, and the main roads remain paved. A low-built heroon or shrine memorial to an unknown local hero survived intact; the contents are in the museum. Numerous tombs have been excavated outside the walls. Other archaeological features In the central part of the <P> which is underground. <P> together with now-vanished stones, may have formed an ancient circle. In the early 19th century a local farmer, fed up with romantic tourists, had the largest stone buried. It was exhumed in 1900. Bronze age After a scholarly review, the Institute of Archaeology and Antiquity noted, "there are a concentration of Beaker burials on the fringes of the central chalklands around Brighton, and a later cluster of Early and Middle Bronze Age 'rich graves' in the same area." Iron age An important pre-Roman site is Hollingbury Castle. Commanding panoramic views over the city, this Celtic Iron Age encampment is circumscribed <P> survives to show whether the building was erected to house the burial, or whether the "hero" or local chieftain in the grave was cremated and then buried in his grand house; whichever is true, the house was soon demolished and the debris used to form a roughly circular mound over the wall stumps. Within the next few years and down to about 820 BC, rich members of the community were cremated and buried close to the eastern end of the building, in much the same way as Christians might seek to be buried close to a saint's grave; the presence of imported <P> form a typical vadose solutional cave with fissure passage 2–3 feet wide and tall ceilings. <P> a steep scarp overlooking the A39 Falmouth Road. Into this embankment is set the site's original entrance, formed from an arched gateway with cut granite steps. At the top of these steps are the remains of a badly vandalised mortuary building. The site's eastern boundary comprises a damaged but well-constructed rubble wall with chamfered granite copings. The southern and western boundaries are formed from hedge banks. Within the cemetery are the remains of 91 monuments of considerable diversity and several unmarked burial mounds. From the top of the entrance steps, a path (with traces of edging in-situ) extends through the <P> that during the bombing of Romania in World War II, one of the tunnels was blocked by debris, burying alive those people who had taken refuge in there. The stone bench At the foot of Tâmpa, along the southeast side of the old fortress walls, there is a tree-lined path—a favorite strolling spot for the inhabitants. Among the wooden benches lining the path, there lies a small bench carved from a rock. It is said that the rock fell from the mountain, burying two lovers that were embracing on that place. A document from 1817 mentions the story, <P> also buried here. <P> Subcrop (geology) Subcrop is a term in geology. It is a contrast to the term outcrop, if not a perfect antonym. If rocks exposed at the present-day erosion surface are referred to as outcrops, then now-buried rocks that were exposed at ancient erosion surfaces are referred to as subcrops. So, a subcrop is buried. If part of a geological formation is close to the surface, it is a subcrop. A subcrop is not outcropping, and is usually under the soil profile or alluvial sediments. <P> Post in ground Post in ground construction, also called earthfast or hole-set posts, is a type of construction in which vertical, roof-bearing timbers, called posts, are in direct contact with the ground. They may be placed into excavated post holes, driven into the ground, or on sills which are set on the ground without a foundation. Earthfast construction is common from the Neolithic period to the present and is used worldwide. Post-in-the-ground construction is sometimes called an "impermanent" form such as for houses which are expected to last a decade or two before a better quality structure can be built. Post <P> e.g. for the construction of 13th- and 14th-century churches, medieval and early modern stone walls, 18th-century manor houses, as well as for 19th-century dikes, roads, bridges and milestones. Others were destroyed in the course of clearing farmland, which occurred from the 18th through 20th centuries. On 13 April 1804, Frederick Francis I, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg issued a decree protecting "heathen grave sites" and called on his officials to compile lists of the megaliths in their districts. This was the earliest such decree in Germany. In the following centuries, this decree was renewed and amended by Friedrich Franz's successors. In	question: How do huge structures get buried? context: <P> Dissolution Dissolution of framework silicate grains and previously formed carbonate cement may occur during deep burial. Conditions that encourage this are essentially opposite of those required for cementation. Rock fragments and silicate minerals of low stability, such as plagioclase feldspar, pyroxenes, and amphiboles, may dissolve as a result of increasing burial temperatures and the presence of organic acids in pore waters. The dissolution of frame work grains and cements increases porosity particularly in sandstones. Mineral replacement This refers to the process whereby one mineral is dissolved and a new mineral fills the space via precipitation. Replacement can be partial or <P> bargain not only the structures above earth have been demolished and sold as construction material but even the grave slabs and most of the fundaments have been dug out to be sold alike. The more than 370 slabs of sandstone have mostly been built in hydraulic structures along the many waterways in Hamburg, broken stones and rubble were used for dikes in Ochsenwerder and Spadenland. So archeological excavations in recent years could not even uncover the exact groundplan. The rescue of some furnishings we owe to Philipp Otto Runge, prevailing in the merchant republic of Hamburg with the argument, <P> major landslide events in 1810 and 1818. An 1811 account by Thomas Webster described the scene: I was surprised at the scene of devastation, which seemed to have been occasioned by some convulsion of nature. A considerable portion of the cliff had fallen down, strewing the whole of the ground between it and the sea with its ruins ; huge masses of solid rock started up amidst heaps of smaller fragments, whilst immense quantities of loose marl, mixed with stones, and even the soil above with the wheat still growing on it, filled up the spaces between, and formed hills of rubbish <P> have been completely leveled. Much of the resulting debris has been pushed together in heaps along the northern edge of the site." The only structure remaining was the partially collapsed church. <P> complete. Complete replacement destroys the identity of the original minerals or rock fragments giving a biased view of the original mineralogy of the rock/ Porosity can also be affected by this process. For example, clay minerals tend to fill up pore space and thereby reducing porosity. Telogenesis In the process of burial, it is possible that siliciclastic deposits may subsequently be uplifted as a result of a mountain building event or erosion. When uplift occurs, it exposes buried deposits to a radically new environment. Because the process brings material to or closer to the surface, sediments that undergo <P> regularly hosts World Cup in skiflying. On 18 March 2017 Stefan Kraft set a world record in the ground with 253.5 m, while Dmitri Vassiliev flew to 254 m, but crashed. Vike kirkeruin The ruins of Vike Church (Vike kirkeruin) are located east of Vikersund. It was referred to as the parish church in 1456, but is believed to have dated from the 1200s. The church was presumably abandoned around the Protestant Reformation. The walls stood until late 1700s, but later they are used as a quarry. The foundations were uncovered and excavated in 1969-70 under the direction of Luce Hinsch. <P> Outcrop Features Outcrops do not cover the majority of the Earth's land surface because in most places the bedrock or superficial deposits are covered by a mantle of soil and vegetation and cannot be seen or examined closely. However, in places where the overlying cover is removed through erosion or tectonic uplift, the rock may be exposed, or crop out. Such exposure will happen most frequently in areas where erosion is rapid and exceeds the weathering rate such as on steep hillsides, mountain ridges and tops, river banks, and tectonically active areas. In Finland, glacial erosion during the last glacial <P> later the retaining wall of the new house was exactly parallel to the house from 2,000 years ago. The wall was built in sections over eight years, and the Siebenbergs were gradually able to excavate behind each section as it went up. Sometimes as many as 30 workers were hired. For two years they burrowed, taking the earth out in bucketfuls, carrying it off on donkeys' backs and sifting for signs of the past. They discovered nothing but dirt. Finally, one day in 1972 they hit an archeological mother lode. First, a bronze key ring, probably used by a woman to <P> terraceways the width is about 3.8 metres (12 ft). Where outer ditches are visible on Ashdown Forest they are 19 metres (62 ft) apart. Thickness of metalling also varies greatly, as does the size of agger. In some places a thick mass of iron slag was laid on the land surface, as at the excavated section at Holtye where the slag metalling was 30 centimetres (12 in) in the centre reducing to 7.5 centimetres (3.0 in) at the edges, laid directly on the clay subsoil and rusted into a concrete-like mass. Elsewhere an earth agger was protected by a much thinner stone layer, as on <P> of a highway during the 18th century that effectively cut the site in two. The central area is completely clear of modern buildings and always has been largely so, since the Middle Ages. Although much stone has been stripped from the site, large numbers of buildings remain detectable by their footings or the lower parts of their walls, and the main roads remain paved. A low-built heroon or shrine memorial to an unknown local hero survived intact; the contents are in the museum. Numerous tombs have been excavated outside the walls. Other archaeological features In the central part of the <P> which is underground. <P> together with now-vanished stones, may have formed an ancient circle. In the early 19th century a local farmer, fed up with romantic tourists, had the largest stone buried. It was exhumed in 1900. Bronze age After a scholarly review, the Institute of Archaeology and Antiquity noted, "there are a concentration of Beaker burials on the fringes of the central chalklands around Brighton, and a later cluster of Early and Middle Bronze Age 'rich graves' in the same area." Iron age An important pre-Roman site is Hollingbury Castle. Commanding panoramic views over the city, this Celtic Iron Age encampment is circumscribed <P> survives to show whether the building was erected to house the burial, or whether the "hero" or local chieftain in the grave was cremated and then buried in his grand house; whichever is true, the house was soon demolished and the debris used to form a roughly circular mound over the wall stumps. Within the next few years and down to about 820 BC, rich members of the community were cremated and buried close to the eastern end of the building, in much the same way as Christians might seek to be buried close to a saint's grave; the presence of imported <P> form a typical vadose solutional cave with fissure passage 2–3 feet wide and tall ceilings. <P> a steep scarp overlooking the A39 Falmouth Road. Into this embankment is set the site's original entrance, formed from an arched gateway with cut granite steps. At the top of these steps are the remains of a badly vandalised mortuary building. The site's eastern boundary comprises a damaged but well-constructed rubble wall with chamfered granite copings. The southern and western boundaries are formed from hedge banks. Within the cemetery are the remains of 91 monuments of considerable diversity and several unmarked burial mounds. From the top of the entrance steps, a path (with traces of edging in-situ) extends through the <P> that during the bombing of Romania in World War II, one of the tunnels was blocked by debris, burying alive those people who had taken refuge in there. The stone bench At the foot of Tâmpa, along the southeast side of the old fortress walls, there is a tree-lined path—a favorite strolling spot for the inhabitants. Among the wooden benches lining the path, there lies a small bench carved from a rock. It is said that the rock fell from the mountain, burying two lovers that were embracing on that place. A document from 1817 mentions the story, <P> also buried here. <P> Subcrop (geology) Subcrop is a term in geology. It is a contrast to the term outcrop, if not a perfect antonym. If rocks exposed at the present-day erosion surface are referred to as outcrops, then now-buried rocks that were exposed at ancient erosion surfaces are referred to as subcrops. So, a subcrop is buried. If part of a geological formation is close to the surface, it is a subcrop. A subcrop is not outcropping, and is usually under the soil profile or alluvial sediments. <P> Post in ground Post in ground construction, also called earthfast or hole-set posts, is a type of construction in which vertical, roof-bearing timbers, called posts, are in direct contact with the ground. They may be placed into excavated post holes, driven into the ground, or on sills which are set on the ground without a foundation. Earthfast construction is common from the Neolithic period to the present and is used worldwide. Post-in-the-ground construction is sometimes called an "impermanent" form such as for houses which are expected to last a decade or two before a better quality structure can be built. Post <P> e.g. for the construction of 13th- and 14th-century churches, medieval and early modern stone walls, 18th-century manor houses, as well as for 19th-century dikes, roads, bridges and milestones. Others were destroyed in the course of clearing farmland, which occurred from the 18th through 20th centuries. On 13 April 1804, Frederick Francis I, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg issued a decree protecting "heathen grave sites" and called on his officials to compile lists of the megaliths in their districts. This was the earliest such decree in Germany. In the following centuries, this decree was renewed and amended by Friedrich Franz's successors. In	answer: Of course, the natural processes mentioned by others are a major contributor to city and structure burial. This [Atlantic Article](_URL_0_) quickly sums up a more human element (with regards to buried Roman ruins within Rome). > Ancient Rome slipped from sight gradually, in a 2,500-year process of natural silting and intentional burial that was already well advanced in classical times. Roman architects frequently tore the roofs from old buildings and filled their interiors with dirt, to make solid foundations for new structures. They embedded earlier buildings in tremendous landfills that raised the ground level of the entire site by several yards. Sometimes they entombed whole neighborhoods in this way.I'd make a quick parallel to the modern day: the massive landfills that naturally emerge outside the borders of any modern city/town/settlement. Simply put, trash has to go somewhere, and sometimes it buries buildings, too. Couple that with buildings that are already crumbling due to disrepair, and you've got a reason for people to bury structures. Lastly, look at New York City. Layers on layers of functional infrastructure within a modern city that would not be all that surprising to collectively forget about over thousands of years. Some of those layers were dug while others once saw the light of day
213,670	2szrwj	What is the difference between a hole current and "normal" current with electrons moving?	Current actually involves very few free-flowing electrons. Changes in the electric field propagate at relativistic speeds through carrier media, but electrons themselves don't actually flow at high speeds - [this page](_URL_0_) has some decent explanation for this and even some calculators you can use. A cable with diameter of 4 centimeters has an electron drift velocity of about 1 cm/day.The effect of the hole current is to provide the illusion of a positive current via [superposition](_URL_1_) - no current in a small area of otherwise uniform (electron) current is the same as a positive current in that small area with a completely uniform (electron) current.If that didn't answer your question someone with more knowledge can hopefully save you/correct me if needed.	[ "Current actually involves very few free-flowing electrons. Changes in the electric field propagate at relativistic speeds through carrier media, but electrons themselves don't actually flow at high speeds - [this page](_URL_0_) has some decent explanation for this and even some calculators you can use. A cable w...	1	[]	0	<P> Diode bridge Current flow According to the conventional model of current flow (originally established by Benjamin Franklin and still followed by most engineers today), current flows through electrical conductors from the positive to the negative pole (defined as "positive flow"). In actuality, free electrons in a conductor nearly always flow from the negative to the positive pole. In the vast majority of applications, however, the actual direction of current flow is irrelevant. Therefore, in the discussion below the conventional model is retained. The fundamental characteristic of a diode is that current can flow only one way through it, which is defined <P> so that the resultant voltage drop is measurable, but low enough not to disrupt the circuit. The voltage across the shunt is proportional to the current flowing through it, and so the measured voltage can be scaled to directly display the current value. Shunts are rated by maximum current, and voltage drop at that current. For example, a 500 A, 75 mV shunt would have a resistance of 150 microohm, a maximum allowable current of 500 amps and at that current the voltage drop would be 75 millivolts. By convention, most shunts are designed to drop 50 mV, 75 mV or 100 mV when operating at their <P> momentum, −e is the charge of the electron and τ is the average time between the collisions. Since both the momentum and the current density are proportional to the drift velocity, the current density becomes proportional to the applied electric field; this leads to Ohm's law. Hydraulic analogy A hydraulic analogy is sometimes used to describe Ohm's law. Water pressure, measured by pascals (or PSI), is the analog of voltage because establishing a water pressure difference between two points along a (horizontal) pipe causes water to flow. Water flow rate, as in liters per second, is <P> electrostatic potential, is the unit charge of electron, is the permittivity in vacuum, and is the dielectric constant of solution; , and are the diffusivity, the number density of ions, and the valence of ion species . The solution in steady-state satisfies the continuity equation. To describe fluid velocity field in the channel, using Navier–Stokes equations: where , , , and are pressure, velocity vector, viscosity, and density of fluid, respectively. The equations above are usually solved with numerical algorithm to determine the velocity, pressure, electric potential, and ionic concentration in the fluid, as well as <P> course of motion. In addition to the dielectric breakdown, DEAs are susceptible to another failure mode, referred to as the electromechanical instability, which arises due to nonlinear interaction between the electrostatic and the mechanical restoring forces. In several cases, the electromechanical instability precedes the dielectric breakdown. The instability parameters (critical voltage and the corresponding maximum stretch) are dependent on several factors, such as the level of prestretch, temperature, and the deformation dependent permittivity. Additionally, they also depend on the voltage waveform used to drive the actuator. <P> this context to distinguish the shunt components connected between the signal and return lines from the components connected in series along the signal line. More generally, the term shunt can be used for a component connected in parallel with another. For instance, shunt m-derived half section is a common filter section from the image impedance method of filter design. Diodes as shunts Where devices are vulnerable to reverse polarity of a signal or power supply, a diode may be used to protect the circuit. If connected in series with the circuit it simply prevents reversed current, but if connected <P> velocity of the River Thames. Faraday applied a method in which a flow (the river flow) is exposed to a magnetic field (earth magnetic field) and the induced voltage is measured using two electrodes across the same flow. This method is the basis of the one of the most successful commercial applications in flow metering known as the inductive flowmeter. The theory of such devices has been developed and comprehensively summarized by Prof. J. A. Shercliff in early 1950s. While inductive flowmeters are widely used for flow measurement in fluids at room temperatures such as beverages, chemicals and waste water, <P> compensated or even exceeded by a positive charge on the surface due to secondary electron emission into the vacuum. The presence of a thin conducting layer above or below the resist is generally of limited use for high energy (50 keV or more) electron beams, since most electrons pass through the layer into the substrate. The charge dissipation layer is generally useful only around or below 10 keV, since the resist is thinner and most of the electrons either stop in the resist or close to the conducting layer. However, they are of limited use due to their high sheet resistance, which <P> the analog of current, as in coulombs per second. Finally, flow restrictors—such as apertures placed in pipes between points where the water pressure is measured—are the analog of resistors. We say that the rate of water flow through an aperture restrictor is proportional to the difference in water pressure across the restrictor. Similarly, the rate of flow of electrical charge, that is, the electric current, through an electrical resistor is proportional to the difference in voltage measured across the resistor. Flow and pressure variables can be calculated in fluid flow network with the use of the hydraulic ohm analogy. The <P> Ionic current characterization In voltage-gated ion channels, the channel conductance gᵢ is a function of both time and voltage (gₙ(t, V) in the figure), while in leak channels gᵢ is a constant (gL in the figure). The current generated by ion pumps is dependent on the ionic species specific to that pump. The following sections will describe these formulations in more detail. Leak channels Leak channels account for the natural permeability of the membrane to ions and take the form of the equation for voltage-gated channels, where the conductance is a constant. Pumps and exchangers The membrane potential <P> is presented as follows: where t describes the transfer integral or the kinetic energy of the electron and and are the creation and annihilation operator, respectively, for an electron with the spin at the th or th site. denotes the density operator. For non-dimerized systems, can be set to zero Normally, the on-site Coulomb repulsion U stays unchanged only t and V can vary with pressure. Organic conductors Organic conductors consist of donor and acceptor molecules building separated planar sheets or columns. The energy difference in the ionization energy acceptor and the electron affinity <P> Electrocapillarity Electrocapillarity or electrocapillary phenomena are the phenomena related to changes in the surface energy (or interfacial tension) of the dropping mercury electrode (DME) as the electrode potential changes or the electrolytic solution composition and concentration change. The term "electro-capillary" is used to describe the change in mercury (Hg) electrode potential as a function of the change in the surface or interfacial tension of the Hg determined by the capillary rise method. The phenomena are the historic main contributions for understanding and validating the models of the structure of the electrical double layer. The phenomena are related to the <P> energy. Given sufficient voltage, the electron can be accelerated sufficiently fast to exhibit measurable relativistic effects. According to wave particle duality, electrons can also be considered as matter waves with properties such as wavelength, phase and amplitude. Electric fields In the case of an applied electrostatic field, an electron will deflect towards the positive gradient of the field. Notably, this crossing of electrostatic field lines means that electrons, as they move through electrostatic fields change the magnitude of their velocity, whereas in magnetic fields, only the velocity direction is modified. As electrons can exhibit non-particle (wave-like) effects such as diffraction, a <P> the discharge channel does not leave a permanent conductive trace in the fluid. The electrical properties tend to be strongly influenced by dissolved gases (e.g. oxygen or carbon dioxide, dust, fibers, and especially ionic impurities and moisture. Electrical discharge may cause production of impurities degrading the dielectric's performance. Some examples of dielectric liquids are transformer oil, perfluoroalkanes, and purified water. <P> Benjamin Franklin proposed that electricity was not from different types of electrical fluid, but a single electrical fluid showing an excess (+) or deficit (-). He gave them the modern charge nomenclature of positive and negative respectively. Franklin thought of the charge carrier as being positive, but he did not correctly identify which situation was a surplus of the charge carrier, and which situation was a deficit. Between 1838 and 1851, British natural philosopher Richard Laming developed the idea that an atom is composed of a core of matter surrounded by subatomic particles that had unit electric charges. Beginning in 1846, <P> non-neutral electrical potential within the orifice. The electrical potential then modifies the concentration of ion species, resulting in an asymmetric current-voltage characteristic for the current through the pipet. Transport of ions in the electrolyte can be adjusted by tuning the pH value in a dilute ionic solution, or by introducing an external electrical potential to change the surface charge density of the wall. As an analogy to semiconductor devices, the mechanism to control charge carrier transport in electronic devices was established in the area of nanofluidics. In nanofluidics, the active control of ion transport is realized using nano-scale channels or pores. Research <P> Resonances in scattering from potentials The Physical Picture: Standing de Broglie Waves and the Fabry-Pérot Etalon From the above expression, resonance occurs when the distance covered by the particle in traversing the well and back () is an integral multiple of the De Broglie wavelength of particle inside the potential (). For , reflections at potential discontinuities are not accompanied by any phase change. Therefore, resonances correspond to formation of standing waves within the potential barrier/well. At resonance, the waves incident on the potential at and the waves reflecting between the walls of the potential are in phase, and <P> device having resistance R, V/I = ΔV/ΔI = R for any applied voltage or current or for the difference between any set of applied voltages or currents. There are, however, components of electrical circuits which do not obey Ohm's law; that is, their relationship between current and voltage (their I–V curve) is nonlinear (or non-ohmic). An example is the p-n junction diode (curve at right). As seen in the figure, the current does not increase linearly with applied voltage for a diode. One can determine a value of current (I) for a given value of applied voltage (V) <P> instance, the flow of fuel oil in a pipeline could be considered as an energy current, although this would not be a convenient way of visualising the fullness of the storage tanks. The units of energy current are those of power (W). This is closely related to energy flux, which is the energy transferred per unit area per unit time (measured in W/m²). Energy current in electromagnetism A specific use of the concept of energy current was promulgated by Oliver Heaviside in the last quarter of the 19th century. Against heavy resistance from the engineering community, Heaviside worked out the physics <P> present in the continuum. This autoionizing state usually has a longer lifetime. Then in the fourth step, this trapped electron recombines radiatively with the parent ion (ground state) emitting resonantly enhanced high harmonic.	question: What is the difference between a hole current and "normal" current with electrons moving? context: <P> Diode bridge Current flow According to the conventional model of current flow (originally established by Benjamin Franklin and still followed by most engineers today), current flows through electrical conductors from the positive to the negative pole (defined as "positive flow"). In actuality, free electrons in a conductor nearly always flow from the negative to the positive pole. In the vast majority of applications, however, the actual direction of current flow is irrelevant. Therefore, in the discussion below the conventional model is retained. The fundamental characteristic of a diode is that current can flow only one way through it, which is defined <P> so that the resultant voltage drop is measurable, but low enough not to disrupt the circuit. The voltage across the shunt is proportional to the current flowing through it, and so the measured voltage can be scaled to directly display the current value. Shunts are rated by maximum current, and voltage drop at that current. For example, a 500 A, 75 mV shunt would have a resistance of 150 microohm, a maximum allowable current of 500 amps and at that current the voltage drop would be 75 millivolts. By convention, most shunts are designed to drop 50 mV, 75 mV or 100 mV when operating at their <P> momentum, −e is the charge of the electron and τ is the average time between the collisions. Since both the momentum and the current density are proportional to the drift velocity, the current density becomes proportional to the applied electric field; this leads to Ohm's law. Hydraulic analogy A hydraulic analogy is sometimes used to describe Ohm's law. Water pressure, measured by pascals (or PSI), is the analog of voltage because establishing a water pressure difference between two points along a (horizontal) pipe causes water to flow. Water flow rate, as in liters per second, is <P> electrostatic potential, is the unit charge of electron, is the permittivity in vacuum, and is the dielectric constant of solution; , and are the diffusivity, the number density of ions, and the valence of ion species . The solution in steady-state satisfies the continuity equation. To describe fluid velocity field in the channel, using Navier–Stokes equations: where , , , and are pressure, velocity vector, viscosity, and density of fluid, respectively. The equations above are usually solved with numerical algorithm to determine the velocity, pressure, electric potential, and ionic concentration in the fluid, as well as <P> course of motion. In addition to the dielectric breakdown, DEAs are susceptible to another failure mode, referred to as the electromechanical instability, which arises due to nonlinear interaction between the electrostatic and the mechanical restoring forces. In several cases, the electromechanical instability precedes the dielectric breakdown. The instability parameters (critical voltage and the corresponding maximum stretch) are dependent on several factors, such as the level of prestretch, temperature, and the deformation dependent permittivity. Additionally, they also depend on the voltage waveform used to drive the actuator. <P> this context to distinguish the shunt components connected between the signal and return lines from the components connected in series along the signal line. More generally, the term shunt can be used for a component connected in parallel with another. For instance, shunt m-derived half section is a common filter section from the image impedance method of filter design. Diodes as shunts Where devices are vulnerable to reverse polarity of a signal or power supply, a diode may be used to protect the circuit. If connected in series with the circuit it simply prevents reversed current, but if connected <P> velocity of the River Thames. Faraday applied a method in which a flow (the river flow) is exposed to a magnetic field (earth magnetic field) and the induced voltage is measured using two electrodes across the same flow. This method is the basis of the one of the most successful commercial applications in flow metering known as the inductive flowmeter. The theory of such devices has been developed and comprehensively summarized by Prof. J. A. Shercliff in early 1950s. While inductive flowmeters are widely used for flow measurement in fluids at room temperatures such as beverages, chemicals and waste water, <P> compensated or even exceeded by a positive charge on the surface due to secondary electron emission into the vacuum. The presence of a thin conducting layer above or below the resist is generally of limited use for high energy (50 keV or more) electron beams, since most electrons pass through the layer into the substrate. The charge dissipation layer is generally useful only around or below 10 keV, since the resist is thinner and most of the electrons either stop in the resist or close to the conducting layer. However, they are of limited use due to their high sheet resistance, which <P> the analog of current, as in coulombs per second. Finally, flow restrictors—such as apertures placed in pipes between points where the water pressure is measured—are the analog of resistors. We say that the rate of water flow through an aperture restrictor is proportional to the difference in water pressure across the restrictor. Similarly, the rate of flow of electrical charge, that is, the electric current, through an electrical resistor is proportional to the difference in voltage measured across the resistor. Flow and pressure variables can be calculated in fluid flow network with the use of the hydraulic ohm analogy. The <P> Ionic current characterization In voltage-gated ion channels, the channel conductance gᵢ is a function of both time and voltage (gₙ(t, V) in the figure), while in leak channels gᵢ is a constant (gL in the figure). The current generated by ion pumps is dependent on the ionic species specific to that pump. The following sections will describe these formulations in more detail. Leak channels Leak channels account for the natural permeability of the membrane to ions and take the form of the equation for voltage-gated channels, where the conductance is a constant. Pumps and exchangers The membrane potential <P> is presented as follows: where t describes the transfer integral or the kinetic energy of the electron and and are the creation and annihilation operator, respectively, for an electron with the spin at the th or th site. denotes the density operator. For non-dimerized systems, can be set to zero Normally, the on-site Coulomb repulsion U stays unchanged only t and V can vary with pressure. Organic conductors Organic conductors consist of donor and acceptor molecules building separated planar sheets or columns. The energy difference in the ionization energy acceptor and the electron affinity <P> Electrocapillarity Electrocapillarity or electrocapillary phenomena are the phenomena related to changes in the surface energy (or interfacial tension) of the dropping mercury electrode (DME) as the electrode potential changes or the electrolytic solution composition and concentration change. The term "electro-capillary" is used to describe the change in mercury (Hg) electrode potential as a function of the change in the surface or interfacial tension of the Hg determined by the capillary rise method. The phenomena are the historic main contributions for understanding and validating the models of the structure of the electrical double layer. The phenomena are related to the <P> energy. Given sufficient voltage, the electron can be accelerated sufficiently fast to exhibit measurable relativistic effects. According to wave particle duality, electrons can also be considered as matter waves with properties such as wavelength, phase and amplitude. Electric fields In the case of an applied electrostatic field, an electron will deflect towards the positive gradient of the field. Notably, this crossing of electrostatic field lines means that electrons, as they move through electrostatic fields change the magnitude of their velocity, whereas in magnetic fields, only the velocity direction is modified. As electrons can exhibit non-particle (wave-like) effects such as diffraction, a <P> the discharge channel does not leave a permanent conductive trace in the fluid. The electrical properties tend to be strongly influenced by dissolved gases (e.g. oxygen or carbon dioxide, dust, fibers, and especially ionic impurities and moisture. Electrical discharge may cause production of impurities degrading the dielectric's performance. Some examples of dielectric liquids are transformer oil, perfluoroalkanes, and purified water. <P> Benjamin Franklin proposed that electricity was not from different types of electrical fluid, but a single electrical fluid showing an excess (+) or deficit (-). He gave them the modern charge nomenclature of positive and negative respectively. Franklin thought of the charge carrier as being positive, but he did not correctly identify which situation was a surplus of the charge carrier, and which situation was a deficit. Between 1838 and 1851, British natural philosopher Richard Laming developed the idea that an atom is composed of a core of matter surrounded by subatomic particles that had unit electric charges. Beginning in 1846, <P> non-neutral electrical potential within the orifice. The electrical potential then modifies the concentration of ion species, resulting in an asymmetric current-voltage characteristic for the current through the pipet. Transport of ions in the electrolyte can be adjusted by tuning the pH value in a dilute ionic solution, or by introducing an external electrical potential to change the surface charge density of the wall. As an analogy to semiconductor devices, the mechanism to control charge carrier transport in electronic devices was established in the area of nanofluidics. In nanofluidics, the active control of ion transport is realized using nano-scale channels or pores. Research <P> Resonances in scattering from potentials The Physical Picture: Standing de Broglie Waves and the Fabry-Pérot Etalon From the above expression, resonance occurs when the distance covered by the particle in traversing the well and back () is an integral multiple of the De Broglie wavelength of particle inside the potential (). For , reflections at potential discontinuities are not accompanied by any phase change. Therefore, resonances correspond to formation of standing waves within the potential barrier/well. At resonance, the waves incident on the potential at and the waves reflecting between the walls of the potential are in phase, and <P> device having resistance R, V/I = ΔV/ΔI = R for any applied voltage or current or for the difference between any set of applied voltages or currents. There are, however, components of electrical circuits which do not obey Ohm's law; that is, their relationship between current and voltage (their I–V curve) is nonlinear (or non-ohmic). An example is the p-n junction diode (curve at right). As seen in the figure, the current does not increase linearly with applied voltage for a diode. One can determine a value of current (I) for a given value of applied voltage (V) <P> instance, the flow of fuel oil in a pipeline could be considered as an energy current, although this would not be a convenient way of visualising the fullness of the storage tanks. The units of energy current are those of power (W). This is closely related to energy flux, which is the energy transferred per unit area per unit time (measured in W/m²). Energy current in electromagnetism A specific use of the concept of energy current was promulgated by Oliver Heaviside in the last quarter of the 19th century. Against heavy resistance from the engineering community, Heaviside worked out the physics <P> present in the continuum. This autoionizing state usually has a longer lifetime. Then in the fourth step, this trapped electron recombines radiatively with the parent ion (ground state) emitting resonantly enhanced high harmonic.	answer: Current actually involves very few free-flowing electrons. Changes in the electric field propagate at relativistic speeds through carrier media, but electrons themselves don't actually flow at high speeds - [this page](_URL_0_) has some decent explanation for this and even some calculators you can use. A cable with diameter of 4 centimeters has an electron drift velocity of about 1 cm/day.The effect of the hole current is to provide the illusion of a positive current via [superposition](_URL_1_) - no current in a small area of otherwise uniform (electron) current is the same as a positive current in that small area with a completely uniform (electron) current.If that didn't answer your question someone with more knowledge can hopefully save you/correct me if needed.
183,664	dzyd65	how are films distributed to cinemas all over the world? i’m pretty sure they don’t use film reels anymore, so what do they use?	The theater I work at gets sata hard drives from the distribution company that all the studios work with. There is only two companies in the US that we get flims from that I know of. Those hard drives can have multiple versions of the movie on them ranging from your standard 2D to 3D and also 5.1 sound and 7.1 sound. I've seen one hard drive for a kids movie contain 10 versions the movie. I've seen some movies take 200 GBs of hard drive space. Just a little bit of info from my experience working at a theater.	[ "Most of the Cinemas get their movies Digitally over the internet but in some cases a Modern storage device is used to distribute the movie but in case of IMAX special releases they actually ship the film reels to the location.", "TLDR VERY large digital files \n\n\nA Digital Cinema Package (DCP) is...	8	[ "Most of the Cinemas get their movies Digitally over the internet but in some cases a Modern storage device is used to distribute the movie but in case of IMAX special releases they actually ship the film reels to the location.", "TLDR VERY large digital files \n\n\nA Digital Cinema Package (DCP) is...	7	<P> Movie theaters and handpainted movie posters History In the 1980s, thanks to the invention of video recorders, the first small cinemas came up in the Greater Accra Region in Ghana. In those years the cinemas were often mobile. Their operators used to travel in the whole region with a selection of movie cassettes, a TV set, a VCR and a generator, going from one village to the next to show their films. To draw attention to their performances, they announced them with colourful hand painted movie posters. These were provided by the local film distributors who collaborated with artists and <P> Image Entertainment released the film on VHS and laser disc in 1992. It was released on DVD in 2011 by Troma Entertainment. <P> the film elements still later by archivist David Shepard. History of Blackhawk Films The company was founded in 1927 as Eastin Pictures by Kent D. Eastin, who made movie ads for merchants, filmed local news events for theater newsreels and sold independent 35 mm theatrical film prints for home projectors of the day. Eastin worked from his parents’ home in Galesburg, Illinois. With the advent of 16mm sound film in 1932, Eastin moved his company to Davenport, Iowa, operating a rental library until 1957 when business slowed due to television. Davenport was also home to the Victor Animatograph Corporation, a pioneer <P> movies." A cinema usually shows a mass-marketed movie using a front-projection screen process with either a film projector or, more recently, with a digital projector. But, cinemas may also show theatrical movies from their home video transfers that include Blu-ray Disc, DVD, and videocassette when they possess sufficient projection quality or based upon need, such as movies that exist only in their transferred state, which may be due to the loss or deterioration of the film master and prints from which the movie originally existed. Due to the advent of digital film production and distribution, physical film might be absent <P> imagine." "Hardly worth the trouble" said The Washington Post. Home media Mayerling has recently been remastered and released to DVD in Region 1 for the first time ever. The primitive archival film copy has been digitally mastered from the original kinescope negative and released on "Mr. FAT-W Video" silver and blue label by Films Around the World. This hugely-expensive live television production was broadcast just once, on NBC, on February 24, 1957. The program was archivally preserved on kinescope which is a B&W 16mm film taken from a studio monitor of the broadcast. Although the program cost more than $500,000 — <P> periodical collections, including CinemaScope, Film Comment, Sight & Sound, Cahiers du cinéma, Reel West and Variety; and more than 7,500 film stills, sorted by director and film. In addition, the library collections include film-related encyclopedias, dictionaries, almanacs, and catalogues. International film festival brochures, as well as the archive of all the program guides of The Cinematheque since 1973, are also part of the library holdings. In 2012, an online archive was compiled for The Cinematheque's 40th anniversary and includes highlights from historical programming and special guests. The Cinematheque's West Coast Film Archive has an extensive selection of 16mm and 35mm prints. <P> George Eastman House Motion Picture Collection The George Eastman Museum Motion Picture Collection in Rochester, New York comprises about 28,000 titles, including features, shorts, documentaries, newsreels, and experimental moving images. The collection is renowned for its holdings of silent films. The George Eastman Museum owns the Louis B. Mayer Conservation Center, where its holdings of nitrate films are stored. In 1996, the Eastman Museum founded the L. Jeffrey Selznick School of Film Preservation. <P> that a stuffed toy kitten was used for the tossing shots). In 2014, 88 Films had put out an the first ever anamorphic widescreen DVD in the UK, utilizing a digitally processed and noise reduced version of the 1997 Laserdisc master used for the Anchor Bay and Hens Tooth DVD releases. 88 Films then followed up with a UK premiere on Blu-ray on July 9, 2018. This release utilizes a 2k restoration of a 35mm print being the 1981 "Holy Terror" reissue and bearing said title card. In May 2019, Arrow Films, in conjunction with Warner Home Video and director <P> Cinematograph Act 1909 The Cinematograph Act 1909 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (9 Edw. VII c. 30). It was the first primary legislation in the UK which specifically regulated the film industry. It is notable for having unintentionally provided the legal basis for film censorship, leading to the establishment of the British Board of Film Censors in 1912. Origins During the 1890s and 1900s, most film exhibition took place in temporary venues such as fairgrounds, music halls and hastily converted shops (so-called 'penny gaffs'). The film then in use was made from the <P> Varieties. It became a cinema in 1910, and the Players' Theatre in 1946. <P> made available on 16 mm to schools, libraries and other interested parties. The film was also made available to film libraries operated by university and provincial authorities. <P> British car industry from the turn of the 20th century to the present day. Adjacent to the site is the headquarters of Aston Martin. Film archive A disused military base near Gaydon is also home to special vaults housing the highly inflammable nitrate film elements of the British Film Institute's BFI National Archive, the world's largest archive of film and television. <P> Innovia Films History In 1926, Société Industrielle de la Cellophane (SIDAC) was founded with a factory in Ghent, Belgium. Six years later SIDAC formed a company in the UK to distribute its Ghent-produced film. This later became British Sidac Ltd, which opened its first production plant at St Helens in 1934. Also in 1934, British New Wrap Co Ltd was formed in Wigton, and production of cellulose film began at the site which had previously been set up to produce Rayon. In 1935, Courtaulds and La Cellophane SA joined forces to produce and sell Cellophane in the UK. This <P> Congress, Museum of Modern Art film archive, and the George Eastman House Motion Picture Collection. The film has also been released on DVD. <P> Minilab Film processor 35 mm films are pulled, this means the end of the film is extracted from cassette. This can be done manually or by using a small machine that essentially uses tape to pull the film leader out of the cassette. In cases when the end of the film cannot be removed or if the film is damaged, the film can be removed using a dark bag or a dark box. A twin check number (a pair of stickers with a unique number) is put onto the film and the matching number onto the film processing envelope, so <P> and DOC NYC. Special celebratory screenings were also held in Los Angeles, Seattle and Chicago. The Criterion Collection announced that on March 31, 2015, the newly restored Hoop Dreams would be released on Blu-ray for the first time. <P> 1915, through Essanay Studios. <P> from studios in Waterloo in 1954. <P> in Japan as a VHS tape by Pioneer LDC (パイオニアLDC) in July 1998 and subsequently as a DVD in February 2008 by Geneon Entertainment (ジェネオンエンタテインメント). <P> that after processing this film can be easily identified to the customers envelope. Films are spliced on the leader cards one or two at a time, to do this the end of the film is cut square, special chemical-resistant tape is used to attach the film to the leader card. The leader card(s) is/are then inserted into the film processor and are fed through the machine using sprockets in the card. The film goes through a developer, bleach, fix and stabilizer, then through a dryer. After the film is processed it is cut from the leader card and reunited with	question: how are films distributed to cinemas all over the world? i’m pretty sure they don’t use film reels anymore, so what do they use? context: <P> Movie theaters and handpainted movie posters History In the 1980s, thanks to the invention of video recorders, the first small cinemas came up in the Greater Accra Region in Ghana. In those years the cinemas were often mobile. Their operators used to travel in the whole region with a selection of movie cassettes, a TV set, a VCR and a generator, going from one village to the next to show their films. To draw attention to their performances, they announced them with colourful hand painted movie posters. These were provided by the local film distributors who collaborated with artists and <P> Image Entertainment released the film on VHS and laser disc in 1992. It was released on DVD in 2011 by Troma Entertainment. <P> the film elements still later by archivist David Shepard. History of Blackhawk Films The company was founded in 1927 as Eastin Pictures by Kent D. Eastin, who made movie ads for merchants, filmed local news events for theater newsreels and sold independent 35 mm theatrical film prints for home projectors of the day. Eastin worked from his parents’ home in Galesburg, Illinois. With the advent of 16mm sound film in 1932, Eastin moved his company to Davenport, Iowa, operating a rental library until 1957 when business slowed due to television. Davenport was also home to the Victor Animatograph Corporation, a pioneer <P> movies." A cinema usually shows a mass-marketed movie using a front-projection screen process with either a film projector or, more recently, with a digital projector. But, cinemas may also show theatrical movies from their home video transfers that include Blu-ray Disc, DVD, and videocassette when they possess sufficient projection quality or based upon need, such as movies that exist only in their transferred state, which may be due to the loss or deterioration of the film master and prints from which the movie originally existed. Due to the advent of digital film production and distribution, physical film might be absent <P> imagine." "Hardly worth the trouble" said The Washington Post. Home media Mayerling has recently been remastered and released to DVD in Region 1 for the first time ever. The primitive archival film copy has been digitally mastered from the original kinescope negative and released on "Mr. FAT-W Video" silver and blue label by Films Around the World. This hugely-expensive live television production was broadcast just once, on NBC, on February 24, 1957. The program was archivally preserved on kinescope which is a B&W 16mm film taken from a studio monitor of the broadcast. Although the program cost more than $500,000 — <P> periodical collections, including CinemaScope, Film Comment, Sight & Sound, Cahiers du cinéma, Reel West and Variety; and more than 7,500 film stills, sorted by director and film. In addition, the library collections include film-related encyclopedias, dictionaries, almanacs, and catalogues. International film festival brochures, as well as the archive of all the program guides of The Cinematheque since 1973, are also part of the library holdings. In 2012, an online archive was compiled for The Cinematheque's 40th anniversary and includes highlights from historical programming and special guests. The Cinematheque's West Coast Film Archive has an extensive selection of 16mm and 35mm prints. <P> George Eastman House Motion Picture Collection The George Eastman Museum Motion Picture Collection in Rochester, New York comprises about 28,000 titles, including features, shorts, documentaries, newsreels, and experimental moving images. The collection is renowned for its holdings of silent films. The George Eastman Museum owns the Louis B. Mayer Conservation Center, where its holdings of nitrate films are stored. In 1996, the Eastman Museum founded the L. Jeffrey Selznick School of Film Preservation. <P> that a stuffed toy kitten was used for the tossing shots). In 2014, 88 Films had put out an the first ever anamorphic widescreen DVD in the UK, utilizing a digitally processed and noise reduced version of the 1997 Laserdisc master used for the Anchor Bay and Hens Tooth DVD releases. 88 Films then followed up with a UK premiere on Blu-ray on July 9, 2018. This release utilizes a 2k restoration of a 35mm print being the 1981 "Holy Terror" reissue and bearing said title card. In May 2019, Arrow Films, in conjunction with Warner Home Video and director <P> Cinematograph Act 1909 The Cinematograph Act 1909 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (9 Edw. VII c. 30). It was the first primary legislation in the UK which specifically regulated the film industry. It is notable for having unintentionally provided the legal basis for film censorship, leading to the establishment of the British Board of Film Censors in 1912. Origins During the 1890s and 1900s, most film exhibition took place in temporary venues such as fairgrounds, music halls and hastily converted shops (so-called 'penny gaffs'). The film then in use was made from the <P> Varieties. It became a cinema in 1910, and the Players' Theatre in 1946. <P> made available on 16 mm to schools, libraries and other interested parties. The film was also made available to film libraries operated by university and provincial authorities. <P> British car industry from the turn of the 20th century to the present day. Adjacent to the site is the headquarters of Aston Martin. Film archive A disused military base near Gaydon is also home to special vaults housing the highly inflammable nitrate film elements of the British Film Institute's BFI National Archive, the world's largest archive of film and television. <P> Innovia Films History In 1926, Société Industrielle de la Cellophane (SIDAC) was founded with a factory in Ghent, Belgium. Six years later SIDAC formed a company in the UK to distribute its Ghent-produced film. This later became British Sidac Ltd, which opened its first production plant at St Helens in 1934. Also in 1934, British New Wrap Co Ltd was formed in Wigton, and production of cellulose film began at the site which had previously been set up to produce Rayon. In 1935, Courtaulds and La Cellophane SA joined forces to produce and sell Cellophane in the UK. This <P> Congress, Museum of Modern Art film archive, and the George Eastman House Motion Picture Collection. The film has also been released on DVD. <P> Minilab Film processor 35 mm films are pulled, this means the end of the film is extracted from cassette. This can be done manually or by using a small machine that essentially uses tape to pull the film leader out of the cassette. In cases when the end of the film cannot be removed or if the film is damaged, the film can be removed using a dark bag or a dark box. A twin check number (a pair of stickers with a unique number) is put onto the film and the matching number onto the film processing envelope, so <P> and DOC NYC. Special celebratory screenings were also held in Los Angeles, Seattle and Chicago. The Criterion Collection announced that on March 31, 2015, the newly restored Hoop Dreams would be released on Blu-ray for the first time. <P> 1915, through Essanay Studios. <P> from studios in Waterloo in 1954. <P> in Japan as a VHS tape by Pioneer LDC (パイオニアLDC) in July 1998 and subsequently as a DVD in February 2008 by Geneon Entertainment (ジェネオンエンタテインメント). <P> that after processing this film can be easily identified to the customers envelope. Films are spliced on the leader cards one or two at a time, to do this the end of the film is cut square, special chemical-resistant tape is used to attach the film to the leader card. The leader card(s) is/are then inserted into the film processor and are fed through the machine using sprockets in the card. The film goes through a developer, bleach, fix and stabilizer, then through a dryer. After the film is processed it is cut from the leader card and reunited with	answer: The theater I work at gets sata hard drives from the distribution company that all the studios work with. There is only two companies in the US that we get flims from that I know of. Those hard drives can have multiple versions of the movie on them ranging from your standard 2D to 3D and also 5.1 sound and 7.1 sound. I've seen one hard drive for a kids movie contain 10 versions the movie. I've seen some movies take 200 GBs of hard drive space. Just a little bit of info from my experience working at a theater.
27,964	3b5hfk	why is it called 'redhead' when the hair colour is actually orange?	The word "orange" was not originally used to describe colour, but instead the fruit. Anything that was what we call "orange" was described as a shade of red. The term just stuck.	[ "I don't know if this is reason but there is actually a series of how \"basic\" the colors are linguistically. \n\nSome languages only have words for white and black (light and dark might be better translations). If a language has only three color words the third one added is always red. Red is linguistically a ...	4	[ "I don't know if this is reason but there is actually a series of how \"basic\" the colors are linguistically. \n\nSome languages only have words for white and black (light and dark might be better translations). If a language has only three color words the third one added is always red. Red is linguistically a ...	3	<P> Cornalin d'Aoste Synonyms Cornalin d'Aoste is also known under the synonyms Broblanc Humagne Rouge, Cornalin, Cornalin Aosta, Corniola, Humagne Rouge, and Petit Rouge. <P> Coprinus comatus Taxonomy The shaggy ink cap was first described by Danish naturalist Otto Friedrich Müller in 1780 as Agaricus comatus, before being given its current binomial name in 1797 by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon. Its specific name derives from coma, or "hair", hence comatus, "hairy" or "shaggy". Other common names include lawyer's wig, and shaggy mane. Coprinus comatus is the type species for the genus Coprinus. This genus was formerly considered to be a large one with well over 100 species. However, molecular analysis of DNA sequences showed that the former species belonged in two families, the Agaricaceae and the <P> Olive baboon Physical characteristics The olive baboon is named for its coat, which, at a distance, is a shade of green-grey. Its alternative name comes from the Egyptian god Anubis, who was often represented by a dog head resembling the dog-like muzzle of the baboon. At closer range, its coat is multicoloured, due to rings of yellow-brown and black on the hairs. The hair on the baboon's face is coarser and ranges from dark grey to black. This coloration is shared by both sexes, although males have a mane of longer hair that tapers down to ordinary length along the <P> country now called the Carnasium, but which then received the name Oechalia, derived, as they say, from the wife of Melaneus. <P> derived from the adjective *balh 'whitish, pale'. <P> also a diminutive particle, suggesting "Little Erc" (Erc Becc). <P> in Beersheba and Hebron, it was originally thought to be a white form of I. histrioides. On 21 December 1912, it was described in 'The Garden' magazine of the Royal Horticultural Society, now as a white form of I. vartanii. Then in 1913, it gained Award of Merit by the RHS. It is sometimes referred to as Iris vartanii var. alba. <P> franksae, named by John Medley Wood. <P> Aroga websteri Etymology The species is named for Dr. R. L. Webster, former head of the Department of Zoology, Washington State College. <P> (feminine of melas, black). <P> as uralite. History and etymology The name amphibole (Ancient Greek ἀμφίβολος - amphíbolos literally meaning 'double entendre', implying ambiguousness) was used by René Just Haüy to include tremolite, actinolite and hornblende. The group was so named by Haüy in allusion to the protean variety, in composition and appearance, assumed by its minerals. This term has since been applied to the whole group. Numerous sub-species and varieties are distinguished, the more important of which are tabulated below in two series. The formulae of each will be seen to be built on the general double-chain silicate formula RSi₄O₁₁. Four of the amphibole minerals <P> Dyspessa defreinai Etymology The species is named for Mr. Josef de Freina. <P> for further specificity. Alternatively, it appears that the distinction between valkea and musta was in fact "clean, shining" vs. "dirty, murky". The original meaning of sini was possibly either "black/dark" or "green". Mauno Koski's theory is that dark colors of high saturation—both blue and green—would be sini, while shades of color with low saturation, such as dark brown or black, would be musta. Although it is theorized that originally vihreä was not a true color name and was used to describe plants only, the occurrence of vihreä or viha as a name of a color in several related languages shows <P> should be considered a synonym of Palaeospheniscus bergi. <P> Eugnosta brownana Etymology The species is named for John W. Brown. <P> of the first book may potentially refer to Canidia, though she is not specifically named. Origin of the gens The nomen Canidius may be derived from the Latin adjective canus or kanus, meaning "white" or "grey", which could refer to the color of a person's hair. This was certainly the association that Horace intended; Gratidia conveyed the idea of what was pleasing and agreeable, while Canidia was associated with grey hairs and old age. <P> 5-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid Nomenclature 5-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid is more properly termed 5(S)-hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid or 5(S)-HETE) to signify the (S) configuration of its 5-hydroxy residue as opposed to its 5(R)-hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid (i.e., 5(R)-HETE) stereoisomer. Since 5(R)-HETE was rarely considered in the early literature, 5(S)-HETE was frequently termed 5-HETE. This practice occasionally continues. 5(S)-HETE's IUPAC name, (5S,6E,8Z,11Z,14Z)-5-hydroxyicosa-6,8,11,14-tetraenoic acid, defines 5(S)-HETE's structure unambiguously by notating not only its S-hydroxyl chirality but also the cis–trans isomerism geometry for each of its 4 double bonds; E signifies trans and Z signifies cis double bond geometry. The literature commonly uses an alternate but still unambiguous name for 5(S)-HETE <P> Germaney' is another hybrid between Iris histrioides and Iris winogradowii. It is similar to 'Katherine Hodgkin', with a paler blue tone and less yellow colouring. Iris 'Frank Elder' is a white form hybrid. <P> of her well-established family on the father's side. On the mother's side; her grandparent Nadir Bayer was grown under the auspices of Sultana Naime the daughter of Sultan Abdulhamid II in Ottoman palace. By Nadir Bayer's Swiss wife Hedwige Bayer, her cousin is an actor, David Bennent the Oscar winner leading actor of The Tin Drum, Anne Bennent, their mother; famous dancer Diane Mansart, her husband is a famous actor Heinz Bennent are the members of well-known European family. Her dominant origin came from the Caucasian race. She is a mother of three children named Engin Deniz, Mina Deniz and Poyraz Deniz. <P> he had red hair and blue eyes.	question: why is it called 'redhead' when the hair colour is actually orange? context: <P> Cornalin d'Aoste Synonyms Cornalin d'Aoste is also known under the synonyms Broblanc Humagne Rouge, Cornalin, Cornalin Aosta, Corniola, Humagne Rouge, and Petit Rouge. <P> Coprinus comatus Taxonomy The shaggy ink cap was first described by Danish naturalist Otto Friedrich Müller in 1780 as Agaricus comatus, before being given its current binomial name in 1797 by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon. Its specific name derives from coma, or "hair", hence comatus, "hairy" or "shaggy". Other common names include lawyer's wig, and shaggy mane. Coprinus comatus is the type species for the genus Coprinus. This genus was formerly considered to be a large one with well over 100 species. However, molecular analysis of DNA sequences showed that the former species belonged in two families, the Agaricaceae and the <P> Olive baboon Physical characteristics The olive baboon is named for its coat, which, at a distance, is a shade of green-grey. Its alternative name comes from the Egyptian god Anubis, who was often represented by a dog head resembling the dog-like muzzle of the baboon. At closer range, its coat is multicoloured, due to rings of yellow-brown and black on the hairs. The hair on the baboon's face is coarser and ranges from dark grey to black. This coloration is shared by both sexes, although males have a mane of longer hair that tapers down to ordinary length along the <P> country now called the Carnasium, but which then received the name Oechalia, derived, as they say, from the wife of Melaneus. <P> derived from the adjective *balh 'whitish, pale'. <P> also a diminutive particle, suggesting "Little Erc" (Erc Becc). <P> in Beersheba and Hebron, it was originally thought to be a white form of I. histrioides. On 21 December 1912, it was described in 'The Garden' magazine of the Royal Horticultural Society, now as a white form of I. vartanii. Then in 1913, it gained Award of Merit by the RHS. It is sometimes referred to as Iris vartanii var. alba. <P> franksae, named by John Medley Wood. <P> Aroga websteri Etymology The species is named for Dr. R. L. Webster, former head of the Department of Zoology, Washington State College. <P> (feminine of melas, black). <P> as uralite. History and etymology The name amphibole (Ancient Greek ἀμφίβολος - amphíbolos literally meaning 'double entendre', implying ambiguousness) was used by René Just Haüy to include tremolite, actinolite and hornblende. The group was so named by Haüy in allusion to the protean variety, in composition and appearance, assumed by its minerals. This term has since been applied to the whole group. Numerous sub-species and varieties are distinguished, the more important of which are tabulated below in two series. The formulae of each will be seen to be built on the general double-chain silicate formula RSi₄O₁₁. Four of the amphibole minerals <P> Dyspessa defreinai Etymology The species is named for Mr. Josef de Freina. <P> for further specificity. Alternatively, it appears that the distinction between valkea and musta was in fact "clean, shining" vs. "dirty, murky". The original meaning of sini was possibly either "black/dark" or "green". Mauno Koski's theory is that dark colors of high saturation—both blue and green—would be sini, while shades of color with low saturation, such as dark brown or black, would be musta. Although it is theorized that originally vihreä was not a true color name and was used to describe plants only, the occurrence of vihreä or viha as a name of a color in several related languages shows <P> should be considered a synonym of Palaeospheniscus bergi. <P> Eugnosta brownana Etymology The species is named for John W. Brown. <P> of the first book may potentially refer to Canidia, though she is not specifically named. Origin of the gens The nomen Canidius may be derived from the Latin adjective canus or kanus, meaning "white" or "grey", which could refer to the color of a person's hair. This was certainly the association that Horace intended; Gratidia conveyed the idea of what was pleasing and agreeable, while Canidia was associated with grey hairs and old age. <P> 5-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid Nomenclature 5-Hydroxyeicosatetraenoic acid is more properly termed 5(S)-hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid or 5(S)-HETE) to signify the (S) configuration of its 5-hydroxy residue as opposed to its 5(R)-hydroxyicosatetraenoic acid (i.e., 5(R)-HETE) stereoisomer. Since 5(R)-HETE was rarely considered in the early literature, 5(S)-HETE was frequently termed 5-HETE. This practice occasionally continues. 5(S)-HETE's IUPAC name, (5S,6E,8Z,11Z,14Z)-5-hydroxyicosa-6,8,11,14-tetraenoic acid, defines 5(S)-HETE's structure unambiguously by notating not only its S-hydroxyl chirality but also the cis–trans isomerism geometry for each of its 4 double bonds; E signifies trans and Z signifies cis double bond geometry. The literature commonly uses an alternate but still unambiguous name for 5(S)-HETE <P> Germaney' is another hybrid between Iris histrioides and Iris winogradowii. It is similar to 'Katherine Hodgkin', with a paler blue tone and less yellow colouring. Iris 'Frank Elder' is a white form hybrid. <P> of her well-established family on the father's side. On the mother's side; her grandparent Nadir Bayer was grown under the auspices of Sultana Naime the daughter of Sultan Abdulhamid II in Ottoman palace. By Nadir Bayer's Swiss wife Hedwige Bayer, her cousin is an actor, David Bennent the Oscar winner leading actor of The Tin Drum, Anne Bennent, their mother; famous dancer Diane Mansart, her husband is a famous actor Heinz Bennent are the members of well-known European family. Her dominant origin came from the Caucasian race. She is a mother of three children named Engin Deniz, Mina Deniz and Poyraz Deniz. <P> he had red hair and blue eyes.	answer: The word "orange" was not originally used to describe colour, but instead the fruit. Anything that was what we call "orange" was described as a shade of red. The term just stuck.

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