Question: What is the power of the Supreme Court to appoint ad hoc Judges?

Answer: The Supreme Court has the power to appoint ad hoc Judges if there is no quorum of Judges available to hold or continue any session of the Court. The National Judicial Appointments Commission, upon a reference made by the Chief Justice of India and with the consent of the President, may request a Judge of a High Court duly qualified for appointment as a Judge of the Supreme Court to attend the sittings as an ad hoc Judge for the necessary period. The ad hoc Judge will have all the jurisdiction, powers, and privileges of a Supreme Court Judge while attending the sittings.


Question: Can retired Judges attend sittings of the Supreme Court?

Answer: Yes, retired Judges can attend sittings of the Supreme Court. The National Judicial Appointments Commission, with the consent of the President, may request any person who has held the office of a Judge of the Supreme Court, the Federal Court, or a High Court to sit and act as a Judge of the Supreme Court. The person so requested will be entitled to allowances as determined by the President and will have all the jurisdiction, powers, and privileges of a Supreme Court Judge while sitting and acting in this capacity.


Question: What is the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court?

Answer: The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in disputes involving the Government of India and one or more States, disputes between the Government of India and any State or States on one side and one or more other States on the other, and disputes between two or more States, if the dispute involves any question of law or fact on which the existence or extent of a legal right depends. However, this jurisdiction does not extend to disputes arising out of treaties, agreements, or other instruments that were executed before the commencement of the Constitution or that provide for the exclusion of the Supreme Court's jurisdiction.


Question: What is the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in civil matters?

Answer: An appeal can be made to the Supreme Court from any judgment, decree, or final order in a civil proceeding of a High Court, if the High Court certifies that the case involves a substantial question of law of general importance and, in the opinion of the High Court, the question needs to be decided by the Supreme Court. A party appealing to the Supreme Court can also argue that a substantial question of law as to the interpretation of the Constitution has been wrongly decided.


Question: What is the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court in criminal matters?

Answer: An appeal can be made to the Supreme Court from any judgment, final order, or sentence in a criminal proceeding of a High Court if the High Court has reversed an order of acquittal and sentenced the accused to death, withdrawn a case from a subordinate court and convicted the accused in a trial, or certified that the case is a fit one for appeal to the Supreme Court. Parliament may also confer further powers on the Supreme Court to entertain and hear appeals from criminal proceedings of High Courts, subject to conditions and limitations specified in the law.


Question: What is the procedure for obtaining a certificate for appeal to the Supreme Court?

Answer: A High Court, after passing or making a judgment, decree, final order, or sentence in a case, may, on its own motion or upon an oral application by or on behalf of the aggrieved party, determine whether a certificate for appeal to the Supreme Court can be given in respect of that case. The High Court should make this determination as soon as possible after passing or making the judgment, decree, final order, or sentence.


Question: What is the special leave to appeal by the Supreme Court?

Answer: The Supreme Court has the discretion to grant special leave to appeal from any judgment, decree, determination, sentence, or order in any cause or matter passed or made by any court or tribunal in the territory of India, notwithstanding anything in the Constitution. However, this does not apply to any judgment, determination, sentence, or order passed or made by any court or tribunal constituted by or under any law relating to the Armed Forces.


Question: What is the power of the Supreme Court to review its judgments or orders?

Answer: Subject to the provisions of any law made by Parliament or any rules made under Article 145, the Supreme Court has the power to review any judgment pronounced or order made by it.


Question: Can the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court be enlarged?

Answer: Yes, the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court can be enlarged. Parliament may, by law, confer further jurisdiction and powers on the Supreme Court with respect to any matter in the Union List. Additionally, the Supreme Court may be granted further jurisdiction and powers with respect to any matter if the Government of India and any State Government enter into a special agreement, provided that Parliament passes a law enabling the Supreme Court to exercise such jurisdiction and powers.


Question: What is the law declared by the Supreme Court?

Answer: The law declared by the Supreme Court is binding on all courts within the territory of India. This ensures that the legal interpretations and decisions made by the highest court in the country are upheld and followed by all other courts, ensuring consistency and uniformity in the application of the law.


Question: How are the decrees and orders of the Supreme Court enforced?

Answer: Decrees and orders of the Supreme Court are enforceable throughout the territory of India in the manner prescribed by or under any law made by Parliament. Until such a provision is made, they can be enforced in the manner as prescribed by the President through an order.


Question: Can the President consult the Supreme Court?

Answer: Yes, the President can consult the Supreme Court if a question of law or fact arises or is likely to arise, which is of such a nature and of such public importance that it is expedient to obtain the opinion of the Supreme Court upon it. The President may refer the question to the Supreme Court for consideration, and the Court may, after a hearing, report its opinion to the President on the matter.


Question: Are civil and judicial authorities required to act in aid of the Supreme Court?

Answer: Yes, all civil and judicial authorities in the territory of India are required to act in aid of the Supreme Court. This ensures the effective implementation and enforcement of the Supreme Court's decisions across the country and helps maintain the rule of law.


Question: Can Parliament confer on the Supreme Court the power to issue certain writs?

Answer: Yes, Parliament may, by law, confer on the Supreme Court the power to issue directions, orders, or writs, including writs in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto, and certiorari, or any of them, for any purposes other than those mentioned in clause (2) of Article 32.


Question: What is the transfer of certain cases to the Supreme Court?

Answer: When cases involving the same or substantially the same questions of law are pending before the Supreme Court and one or more High Courts, or before two or more High Courts, and the Supreme Court is satisfied that such questions are substantial questions of general importance, it may withdraw the case or cases pending before the High Court or the High Courts and dispose of all the cases itself. After determining the questions of law, the Supreme Court may return any withdrawn case along with a copy of its judgment to the High Court, which will then proceed to dispose of the case in conformity with the judgment.


Question: What is the short title of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: The short title of the Indian Constitution is 'The Constitution of India' as mentioned in Article 393.


Question: When did the remaining provisions of the Indian Constitution come into force?

Answer: The remaining provisions of the Indian Constitution came into force on the twenty-sixth day of January, 1950, which is referred to as the commencement of the Constitution in Article 394.


Question: What is the purpose of Article 394A in the Indian Constitution?

Answer: Article 394A in the Indian Constitution deals with the authoritative text in the Hindi language. It directs the President to publish translations of the Constitution and its amendments in Hindi, which are deemed to be the authoritative text in Hindi for all purposes.


Question: What are the roles of the President in publishing the Constitution and its amendments in Hindi?

Answer: The President's roles in publishing the Constitution and its amendments in Hindi, as per Article 394A, include: (a) causing the translation of the Constitution in Hindi with necessary modifications and incorporating all amendments, (b) causing the translation of every amendment in Hindi, and (c) revising the translation suitably if any difficulty arises in construing any part of it.


Question: Which articles of the Indian Constitution came into force at once?

Answer: The following articles of the Indian Constitution came into force at once: 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 60, 324, 366, 367, 379, 380, 388, 391, 392, and 393, as mentioned in Article 394.


Question: What does Article 395 of the Indian Constitution state?

Answer: Article 395 of the Indian Constitution states the repeals of the Indian Independence Act, 1947, and the Government of India Act, 1935, along with all enactments amending or supplementing the latter Act, except the Abolition of Privy Council Jurisdiction Act, 1949.


Question: When is the commencement of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: The commencement of the Indian Constitution is on the twenty-sixth day of January, 1950, as mentioned in Article 394.


Question: What is the significance of the translations of the Constitution and its amendments in Hindi?

Answer: The significance of the translations of the Constitution and its amendments in Hindi, as per Article 394A, is to make the Constitution accessible to the Hindi-speaking population and to provide an authoritative text in Hindi for all purposes, ensuring uniform interpretation and understanding.


Question: What is the Abolition of Privy Council Jurisdiction Act, 1949?

Answer: The Abolition of Privy Council Jurisdiction Act, 1949 is an act that terminated the appellate jurisdiction of the British Privy Council over Indian courts. It is not repealed by the Indian Constitution as mentioned in Article 395.


Question: What does the term 'commencement of this Constitution' refer to?

Answer: The term 'commencement of this Constitution' refers to the day when the remaining provisions of the Indian Constitution came into force, which is the twenty-sixth day of January, 1950, as mentioned in Article 394.


Question: What does the President do if any difficulty arises in construing any part of the Hindi translation of the Constitution?

Answer: If any difficulty arises in construing any part of the Hindi translation of the Constitution, the President, as per Article 394A(2), shall cause the translation to be revised suitably to resolve the difficulty.


Question: Which day is referred to as the commencement of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: The commencement of the Indian Constitution is referred to as the twenty-sixth day of January, 1950, as mentioned in Article 394.


Question: What are the two major acts repealed by the Indian Constitution?

Answer: The two major acts repealed by the Indian Constitution, as stated in Article 395, are the Indian Independence Act, 1947, and the Government of India Act, 1935.


Question: What is the purpose of repealing the Indian Independence Act, 1947, and the Government of India Act, 1935?

Answer: The purpose of repealing the Indian Independence Act, 1947, and the Government of India Act, 1935, as mentioned in Article 395, is to replace the previous legal framework governing India with the newly established Indian Constitution, thereby asserting India's sovereignty and the supremacy of its Constitution.


Question: What were the main objectives of the Indian Independence Act, 1947?

Answer: The main objectives of the Indian Independence Act, 1947 were to provide for the partition of British India into two new Dominions of India and Pakistan, to establish their respective governments, and to end British rule over the Indian subcontinent.


Question: What was the main purpose of the Government of India Act, 1935?

Answer: The main purpose of the Government of India Act, 1935 was to provide a new legal framework for the governance of British India, introducing provincial autonomy, a federal structure, and a bicameral central legislature.


Question: Which article of the Indian Constitution deals with its commencement?

Answer: Article 394 of the Indian Constitution deals with its commencement, stating that the remaining provisions of the Constitution shall come into force on the twenty-sixth day of January, 1950.


Question: What is the significance of the commencement of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: The significance of the commencement of the Indian Constitution is that it marks the establishment of a new legal framework for governing India, asserting its sovereignty, and replacing the previous British colonial laws and regulations.


Question: What is the role of the President in ensuring the accuracy and conformity of the Hindi translation of the Constitution?

Answer: The role of the President in ensuring the accuracy and conformity of the Hindi translation of the Constitution, as per Article 394A, is to cause the translation to be published with necessary modifications, and to revise the translation suitably if any difficulty arises in construing any part of it.


Question: Which article of the Indian Constitution focuses on the authoritative text in the Hindi language?

Answer: Article 394A of the Indian Constitution focuses on the authoritative text in the Hindi language, directing the President to publish translations of the Constitution and its amendments in Hindi.


Question: What does Part VI of the Constitution of India cover?

Answer: Part VI of the Constitution of India covers the provisions related to the States. It is divided into several chapters, discussing the general definition, the executive, the legislature, and other aspects of the State governments.


Question: How is the executive power of a State exercised according to Article 154?

Answer: According to Article 154 of the Constitution of India, the executive power of a State is vested in the Governor and is exercised by him either directly or through officers subordinate to him, in accordance with the Constitution.


Question: How is the Governor of a State appointed?

Answer: As per Article 155, the Governor of a State is appointed by the President of India by warrant under his hand and seal.


Question: What is the term of office for a Governor?

Answer: According to Article 156, a Governor holds office for a term of five years from the date on which he enters upon his office. However, the Governor serves at the pleasure of the President and may resign by writing under his hand addressed to the President. A Governor may continue to hold office until his successor enters upon the office, notwithstanding the expiration of his term.


Question: What are the qualifications for appointment as a Governor?

Answer: As per Article 157, a person must be a citizen of India and should have completed the age of thirty-five years to be eligible for appointment as a Governor.


Question: What are the conditions of a Governor's office?

Answer: Article 158 states that a Governor cannot be a member of either House of Parliament or of a House of the Legislature of any State. The Governor cannot hold any other office of profit and is entitled to emoluments, allowances, and privileges as determined by Parliament by law or as specified in the Second Schedule.


Question: What is the power of a Governor to grant pardons according to Article 161?

Answer: Article 161 states that the Governor of a State has the power to grant pardons, reprieves, respites, or remissions of punishment, or to suspend, remit, or commute the sentence of any person convicted of any offence against any law relating to a matter to which the executive power of the State extends.


Question: What is the role of the Council of Ministers in aiding and advising the Governor?

Answer: According to Article 163, the Council of Ministers, with the Chief Minister at the head, aids and advises the Governor in the exercise of his functions, except in cases where the Governor is required to exercise his functions or any of them in his discretion by or under the Constitution.


Question: How are the Chief Minister and other Ministers appointed?

Answer: As per Article 164, the Chief Minister is appointed by the Governor, and the other Ministers are appointed by the Governor on the advice of the Chief Minister. The Ministers hold office during the pleasure of the Governor.


Question: What is the composition of the Legislative Assembly of a State?

Answer: Article 170 states that the Legislative Assembly of each State consists of not more than 500 and not less than 60 members, chosen by direct election from territorial constituencies in the State, subject to the provisions of Article 333.


Question: What is the process of readjustment of seats in the Legislative Assembly after each census?

Answer: According to Article 170(3), upon the completion of each census, the total number of seats in the Legislative Assembly of each State and the division of each State into territorial constituencies are to be readjusted by an authority and in a manner as determined by Parliament by law. The readjustment doesn't affect representation in the Legislative Assembly until the dissolution of the existing Assembly.


Question: How is the composition of the Legislative Council determined?

Answer: Article 171 states that the total number of members in the Legislative Council of a State shall not exceed one-third of the total number of members in the Legislative Assembly of that State, with a minimum of 40 members. The composition of the Council includes members elected by various electorates, members elected by the Legislative Assembly, and members nominated by the Governor.


Question: What are the qualifications for a person to be appointed as an Advocate-General for a State?

Answer: According to Article 165, a person appointed as an Advocate-General for a State should be qualified to be appointed as a Judge of a High Court.


Question: What is the role of the Advocate-General for a State?

Answer: As per Article 165, the Advocate-General's duties include giving advice to the State Government on legal matters, performing other duties of a legal character as assigned by the Governor, and discharging the functions conferred on him by the Constitution or any other law for the time being in force.


Question: How is the executive action of the Government of a State expressed?

Answer: Article 166(1) states that all executive actions of the Government of a State shall be expressed to be taken in the name of the Governor.


Question: What are the duties of the Chief Minister as respects the furnishing of information to the Governor?

Answer: According to Article 167, the Chief Minister's duties include communicating all decisions of the Council of Ministers relating to the administration of the State and proposals for legislation to the Governor, furnishing information relating to the administration of the State and proposals for legislation as the Governor may call for, and submitting any matter for the consideration of the Council of Ministers on the Governor's request.


Question: What is the composition of the Legislature in the States of India?

Answer: Article 168 states that the Legislature of each State consists of the Governor and, in the case of the States of Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Uttar Pradesh, two Houses (Legislative Council and Legislative Assembly); in other States, there is only one House (Legislative Assembly).


Question: Can the Legislative Council of a State be abolished or created?

Answer: Article 169 allows Parliament to provide for the abolition of the Legislative Council of a State having such a Council or for the creation of such a Council in a State having no such Council, if the Legislative Assembly of the State passes a resolution to that effect by a majority of the total membership of the Assembly and by a majority of not less than two-thirds of the members of the Assembly present and voting.


Question: What is the role of the Governor in the nomination of members to the Legislative Council?

Answer: As per Article 171(3)(e), the Governor nominates the remaining members of the Legislative Council, who are persons having special knowledge or practical experience in literature, science, art, co-operative movement, and social service.


Question: What is the Legislative Assembly of a State responsible for?

Answer: The Legislative Assembly of a State is responsible for the making of laws, discussing and approving budgets, and holding the Council of Ministers accountable for their actions and decisions. The Council of Ministers, headed by the Chief Minister, is collectively responsible to the Legislative Assembly of the State, as stated in Article 164(2).


Question: What is the duration of State Legislatures in India?

Answer: The duration of State Legislatures in India is mentioned in Article 172 of the Constitution. Every Legislative Assembly of every State, unless sooner dissolved, shall continue for five years from the date appointed for its first meeting. However, this period may be extended by Parliament by law for a period not exceeding one year at a time while a Proclamation of Emergency is in operation, and not extending beyond a period of six months after the Proclamation has ceased to operate.


Question: What are the qualifications required for membership of the State Legislature in India?

Answer: The qualifications for membership of the State Legislature in India are mentioned in Article 173 of the Constitution. A person must be a citizen of India, make and subscribe an oath or affirmation according to the form set out in the Third Schedule, be at least twenty-five years of age for a seat in the Legislative Assembly and at least thirty years of age for a seat in the Legislative Council, and possess any other qualifications as prescribed by or under any law made by Parliament.


Question: What are the duties of the Governor with respect to the State Legislature?

Answer: The Governor's duties with respect to the State Legislature include summoning, proroguing, and dissolving the House or each House of the Legislature (Article 174), addressing and sending messages to the House or Houses (Article 175), and delivering a special address at the commencement of the first session after each general election and at the commencement of the first session of each year (Article 176). The Governor also plays a role in the decision on questions as to disqualifications of members (Article 192).


Question: What are the roles of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly?

Answer: The roles of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly are mentioned in Articles 178 and 179 of the Constitution. They are responsible for presiding over the meetings of the Assembly, maintaining decorum and order, and ensuring the smooth functioning of the House. They can also vacate their office, resign, or be removed from their office by a resolution of the Assembly passed by a majority of all the then members of the Assembly.


Question: What are the roles of the Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council?

Answer: The roles of the Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council are mentioned in Articles 182 and 183 of the Constitution. They are responsible for presiding over the meetings of the Council, maintaining decorum and order, and ensuring the smooth functioning of the House. They can also vacate their office, resign, or be removed from their office by a resolution of the Council passed by a majority of all the then members of the Council.


Question: What is the process of taking an oath or affirmation by members of the State Legislature?

Answer: The process of taking an oath or affirmation by members of the State Legislature is mentioned in Article 188 of the Constitution. Every member of the Legislative Assembly or Legislative Council of a State shall, before taking their seat, make and subscribe before the Governor, or some person appointed in that behalf by the Governor, an oath or affirmation according to the form set out for the purpose in the Third Schedule.


Question: How are vacancies and disqualifications for membership of the State Legislature addressed?

Answer: Vacancies and disqualifications for membership of the State Legislature are addressed in Articles 190 and 191 of the Constitution. A person is disqualified for being chosen as, and for being, a member of the State Legislature if they hold an office of profit, are of unsound mind, are an undischarged insolvent, are not a citizen of India or have allegiance to a foreign State, or are disqualified under any law made by Parliament. If a question arises as to whether a member has become subject to any disqualification, the question shall be referred to the Governor, whose decision shall be final, after obtaining the opinion of the Election Commission.


Question: How is the voting process in the Houses of the State Legislature?

Answer: The voting process in the Houses of the State Legislature is mentioned in Article 189 of the Constitution. All questions at any sitting of a House of the State Legislature shall be determined by a majority of votes of the members present and voting, other than the Speaker or Chairman, or person acting as such. The Speaker or Chairman, or person acting as such, shall not vote in the first instance but shall have and exercise a casting vote in the case of an equality of votes.


Question: What is the quorum for a meeting of a House of the State Legislature?

Answer: The quorum for a meeting of a House of the State Legislature is mentioned in Article 189(3) of the Constitution. Until the State Legislature by law otherwise provides, the quorum to constitute a meeting of a House of the State Legislature shall be ten members or one-tenth of the total number of members of the House, whichever is greater.


Question: What are the provisions for the Secretariat of State Legislature?

Answer: The provisions for the Secretariat of State Legislature are mentioned in Article 187 of the Constitution. The House or each House of the State Legislature shall have a separate secretarial staff, with the possibility of creating posts common to both Houses in case of a State having a Legislative Council. The State Legislature may regulate the recruitment and conditions of service of persons appointed to the secretarial staff by law. Until such provision is made, the Governor may make rules regulating the recruitment and conditions of service after consultation with the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly or the Chairman of the Legislative Council, as the case may be.


Question: What are the salaries and allowances of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker and the Chairman and Deputy Chairman?

Answer: The salaries and allowances of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly and the Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council are mentioned in Article 186 of the Constitution. These shall be paid as fixed by the Legislature of the State by law, and until such provision is made, the salaries and allowances shall be as specified in the Second Schedule.


Question: Can a person be a member of both Houses of the Legislature of a State?

Answer: A person cannot be a member of both Houses of the Legislature of a State, as stated in Article 190(1) of the Constitution. The State Legislature shall make provisions by law for the vacation of a person who is chosen as a member of both Houses in either the Legislative Assembly or the Legislative Council.


Question: Can a person be a member of the Legislatures of two or more States?

Answer: A person cannot be a member of the Legislatures of two or more States specified in the First Schedule, as mentioned in Article 190(2) of the Constitution. If a person is chosen as a member of the Legislatures of two or more States, their seat in the Legislatures of all such States shall become vacant at the expiration of a specified period, unless they have previously resigned their seat in the Legislatures of all but one of the States.


Question: Under what circumstances can a member's seat in the State Legislature become vacant?

Answer: A member's seat in a State Legislature can become vacant under the following circumstances, as mentioned in Article 190(3) of the Constitution: if the member becomes subject to any disqualifications mentioned in Article 191, if the member resigns their seat by writing under their hand addressed to the Speaker or Chairman and their resignation is accepted, or if the member is absent from all meetings of the House for a period of sixty days without permission of the House.


Question: What happens if there is no quorum during a meeting of the Legislative Assembly or Legislative Council?

Answer: If there is no quorum during a meeting of the Legislative Assembly or Legislative Council, Article 189(4) of the Constitution states that it is the duty of the Speaker or Chairman, or person acting as such, either to adjourn the House or to suspend the meeting until there is a quorum.


Question: What action can be taken if a member of a State Legislature is found to have sat, voted, or participated in proceedings without being entitled to do so?

Answer: If a member of a State Legislature is found to have participated in proceedings without being entitled to do so, Article 189(2) of the Constitution states that any proceedings in the Legislature shall still be valid, notwithstanding the discovery of this fact.


Question: What are the rights of Ministers and Advocate-General with respect to the Houses of the State Legislature?

Answer: The rights of Ministers and Advocate-General with respect to the Houses of the State Legislature are mentioned in Article 177 of the Constitution. They have the right to speak in, and otherwise take part in the proceedings of, the Legislative Assembly or, in the case of a State having a Legislative Council, both Houses, and to speak in, and otherwise take part in the proceedings of, any committee of the Legislature of which they may be named a member. However, they shall not be entitled to vote by virtue of this article.


Question: What is the role of the Election Commission in the decision on questions related to disqualifications of members?

Answer: The role of the Election Commission in the decision on questions related to disqualifications of members is mentioned in Article 192(2) of the Constitution. Before giving any decision on any such question, the Governor shall obtain the opinion of the Election Commission and shall act according to such opinion.


Question: What are the provisions for the conduct of business in the State Legislature?

Answer: The provisions for the conduct of business in the State Legislature are found in Articles 174 to 189 of the Constitution, which cover topics such as the summoning, prorogation, and dissolution of the Houses; the roles and responsibilities of the Speaker, Deputy Speaker, Chairman, and Deputy Chairman; the process of taking an oath or affirmation by members; voting procedures; quorum; vacancies and disqualifications of members; and the rights of Ministers and Advocate-General.


Question: What is the administration of Union territories according to the Constitution of India?

Answer: According to Article 239 of the Constitution of India, every Union territory is administered by the President, who acts to the extent he thinks fit through an administrator appointed by him with a specific designation. The President can also appoint the Governor of a State as the administrator of an adjoining Union territory. In such cases, the Governor exercises his functions as an administrator independently of his Council of Ministers.


Question: What provisions does the Constitution of India make for the creation of local Legislatures or Council of Ministers for certain Union territories?

Answer: Article 239A of the Constitution of India states that Parliament may create a local Legislature or Council of Ministers, or both, for certain Union territories such as Puducherry. These bodies can be either elected, partly nominated, or partly elected, with their constitution, powers, and functions specified in the law. Such a law does not require an amendment to the Constitution and does not fall under the provisions of Article 368.


Question: What are the special provisions with respect to Delhi according to the Constitution of India?

Answer: Article 239AA of the Constitution of India provides special provisions for Delhi, now called the National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi. It establishes a Legislative Assembly for the NCT, with members chosen through direct elections from territorial constituencies. The Legislative Assembly has the power to make laws for the NCT on matters enumerated in the State List or Concurrent List, with some exceptions. There is also a Council of Ministers, headed by the Chief Minister, to aid and advise the Lieutenant Governor in the exercise of his functions in matters where the Legislative Assembly has the power to make laws.


Question: What is the role of the President in case of failure of constitutional machinery in the National Capital Territory of Delhi?

Answer: According to Article 239AB of the Constitution of India, if the President is satisfied, based on a report from the Lieutenant Governor or otherwise, that the administration of the National Capital Territory of Delhi cannot be carried out according to the provisions of Article 239AA or any related law, or that it is necessary for proper administration, the President may suspend the operation of any provision of Article 239AA or any related law for a specified period and subject to specified conditions. The President can also make incidental and consequential provisions as deemed necessary for administering the National Capital Territory in accordance with the provisions of Article 239 and Article 239AA.


Question: What is the power of the administrator to promulgate Ordinances during the recess of Legislature in Union territories?

Answer: Article 239B of the Constitution of India states that if the administrator of a Union territory, such as Puducherry, is satisfied that immediate action is necessary in situations when the Legislature is not in session, he may promulgate Ordinances as required. However, this can only be done after obtaining instructions from the President. Additionally, the administrator cannot promulgate any Ordinance during the period when the Legislature is dissolved or suspended. Ordinances promulgated under this article are deemed to be Acts of the Legislature of the Union territory.


Question: What is the power of the President to make regulations for certain Union territories?

Answer: According to Article 240 of the Constitution of India, the President has the power to make regulations for the peace, progress, and good government of certain Union territories such as the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu, and Puducherry. These regulations can repeal or amend any Act made by Parliament or any other law applicable to the Union territory and have the same force and effect as an Act of Parliament that applies to the territory.


Question: What are the provisions in the Constitution of India for High Courts in Union territories?

Answer: Article 241 of the Constitution of India states that Parliament may constitute a High Court for a Union territory or declare any court in the territory to be a High Court for all or any purposes of the Constitution. The provisions of Chapter V of Part VI apply to these High Courts with some modifications or exceptions as provided by Parliament. Additionally, Parliament has the power to extend or exclude the jurisdiction of a High Court for a State to or from any Union territory or part thereof.


Question: What is the status of laws made by the Legislative Assembly of a Union territory in case of repugnancy with laws made by Parliament?

Answer: According to Article 239AA (3)(c) of the Constitution of India, if any provision of a law made by the Legislative Assembly of a Union territory is repugnant to any provision of a law made by Parliament, the law made by Parliament shall prevail, and the law made by the Legislative Assembly shall be void to the extent of the repugnancy. However, if the law made by the Legislative Assembly has been reserved for the consideration of the President and has received his assent, it shall prevail in the Union territory. Parliament can still enact a law with respect to the same matter, including amending or repealing the law made by the Legislative Assembly.


Question: What are the limitations on the Legislative Assembly of the National Capital Territory of Delhi?

Answer: Article 239AA (3)(a) of the Constitution of India limits the Legislative Assembly of the National Capital Territory of Delhi to making laws on matters enumerated in the State List or Concurrent List, except for matters related to Entries 1, 2, and 18 of the State List, and Entries 64, 65, and 66 of the Concurrent List as they relate to Entries 1, 2, and 18. This restriction does not affect the powers of Parliament to make laws for the Union territory or any part thereof.


Question: What is the role of the Council of Ministers in the National Capital Territory of Delhi?

Answer: According to Article 239AA (4) of the Constitution of India, the National Capital Territory of Delhi has a Council of Ministers consisting of not more than ten percent of the total number of members in the Legislative Assembly, headed by the Chief Minister. The Council of Ministers aids and advises the Lieutenant Governor in the exercise of his functions in relation to matters where the Legislative Assembly has the power to make laws, except in cases where the Lieutenant Governor is required to act in his discretion by or under any law. In case of differences of opinion between the Lieutenant Governor and the Council of Ministers, the matter shall be referred to the President for decision.


Question: What is the process of appointment of additional and acting Judges of the High Court under Article 224?

Answer: Under Article 224, when there is a temporary increase in the workload or backlog in a High Court, the President can appoint additional Judges for a period not exceeding two years. If any Judge, other than the Chief Justice, is unable to perform their duties due to absence or any other reason, the President can appoint a duly qualified person to act as a Judge of that Court in consultation with the National Judicial Appointments Commission. However, no person appointed as an additional or acting Judge shall hold office after attaining the age of sixty-two years.


Question: What does Article 224A state about the appointment of retired Judges at sittings of High Courts?

Answer: Article 224A allows the National Judicial Appointments Commission, on a reference made by the Chief Justice of a High Court, to request any person who has held the office of a Judge of that Court or any other High Court to sit and act as a Judge of the High Court for that State, with the previous consent of the President. Such person shall be entitled to allowances determined by the President and have all the jurisdiction, powers, and privileges of a Judge of the High Court, but shall not be deemed a Judge of that Court unless they consent to do so.


Question: What is the jurisdiction of existing High Courts as per Article 225?

Answer: According to Article 225, subject to the provisions of the Constitution and any law made by the appropriate Legislature, the jurisdiction of existing High Courts and the powers of their Judges in relation to the administration of justice, including any power to make rules of Court and regulate the sittings of the Court and of members thereof, shall be the same as immediately before the commencement of the Constitution. However, any restrictions on the exercise of original jurisdiction concerning revenue matters or acts ordered or done in revenue collection shall no longer apply.


Question: What powers do High Courts have under Article 226 to issue writs?

Answer: Under Article 226, every High Court has the power to issue directions, orders or writs, including writs in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto, and certiorari, to any person or authority within its territorial jurisdiction for the enforcement of any rights conferred by Part III of the Constitution and for any other purpose. This power can also be exercised by any High Court in relation to territories where the cause of action, wholly or in part, arises for the exercise of such power, even if the seat of the Government, authority, or residence of the person is not within those territories.


Question: What is the power of superintendence of High Courts over all courts and tribunals as per Article 227?

Answer: Article 227 states that every High Court shall have superintendence over all courts and tribunals within its territorial jurisdiction. The High Court may call for returns from such courts, make and issue general rules and prescribe forms for regulating their practice and proceedings, and prescribe forms for keeping books, entries, and accounts by the officers of such courts. The High Court may also settle tables of fees for the sheriff, clerks, officers, attorneys, advocates, and pleaders practicing in such courts. However, this power of superintendence does not extend to any court or tribunal constituted by or under any law relating to the Armed Forces.


Question: What is the process of transferring certain cases to the High Court under Article 228?

Answer: Under Article 228, if the High Court is satisfied that a case pending in a subordinate court involves a substantial question of law concerning the interpretation of the Constitution and its determination is necessary for the disposal of the case, the High Court can withdraw the case and either dispose of it itself or determine the question of law, return the case to the subordinate court along with a copy of its judgment on the question, and direct the subordinate court to dispose of the case in conformity with the judgment.


Question: How are officers and servants of High Courts appointed and what are their conditions of service according to Article 229?

Answer: As per Article 229, appointments of officers and servants of a High Court are made by the Chief Justice of the Court or another Judge or officer of the Court as directed. The conditions of service of officers and servants are prescribed by rules made by the Chief Justice or another authorized Judge or officer. These rules require the approval of the Governor of the State, especially in matters related to salaries, allowances, leave, or pensions. The administrative expenses of a High Court, including salaries, allowances, and pensions, are charged upon the Consolidated Fund of the State, and any fees or other moneys taken by the Court form part of that Fund.


Question: What is the procedure for extending the jurisdiction of High Courts to Union territories as per Article 230?

Answer: Under Article 230, Parliament may extend the jurisdiction of a High Court to, or exclude the jurisdiction of a High Court from, any Union territory by law. When a High Court of a State exercises jurisdiction in relation to a Union territory, the Legislature of the State cannot increase, restrict, or abolish that jurisdiction, and any reference in Article 227 to the Governor, concerning rules, forms, or tables for subordinate courts in that territory, shall be construed as a reference to the President.


Question: What provisions does Article 231 make for the establishment of a common High Court for two or more States?

Answer: Article 231 allows Parliament to establish a common High Court for two or more States or for two or more States and a Union territory by law. In relation to such a common High Court, the references in Articles 219 and 229 to the State shall be construed as references to the State where the High Court has its principal seat. If the principal seat is in a Union territory, the references in Articles 219 and 229 to the Governor, Public Service Commission, Legislature, and Consolidated Fund of the State shall be construed as references to the President, Union Public Service Commission, Parliament, and Consolidated Fund of India, respectively.


Question: How are district judges appointed, posted, and promoted according to Article 233?

Answer: Article 233 states that appointments, postings, and promotions of district judges in any State are made by the Governor of the State in consultation with the High Court exercising jurisdiction in that State. A person not already in the service of the Union or the State is eligible for appointment as a district judge if they have been an advocate or pleader for at least seven years and are recommended by the High Court for appointment.


Question: What does Article 233A say about the validation of appointments and judgments delivered by certain district judges?

Answer: Article 233A states that notwithstanding any judgment, decree, or order of any court, the appointment, posting, promotion, or transfer of any person as a district judge made before the commencement of the Constitution (Twentieth Amendment) Act, 1966, shall not be deemed illegal or void solely because it was not made in accordance with the provisions of Article 233 or Article 235. Similarly, any jurisdiction exercised, judgment passed, or act or proceeding done or taken by such person as a district judge shall not be deemed illegal or invalid solely because their appointment, posting, promotion, or transfer was not made in accordance with the said provisions.


Question: How are persons other than district judges recruited to the judicial service as per Article 234?

Answer: According to Article 234, appointments of persons other than district judges to the judicial service of a State are made by the Governor of the State in accordance with the rules made by him after consultation with the State Public Service Commission and the High Court exercising jurisdiction in relation to that State.


Question: What control does the High Court have over subordinate courts as per Article 235?

Answer: Article 235 states that the High Court has control over district courts and courts subordinate to them, including the posting, promotion, and grant of leave to persons belonging to the judicial service of a State and holding any post inferior to the post of district judge. However, this article does not take away any right of appeal from such person under the law regulating the conditions of their service or authorize the High Court to deal with them otherwise than in accordance with the conditions of their service prescribed under such law.


Question: What is the interpretation of 'district judge' and 'judicial service' as per Article 236?

Answer: According to Article 236, the expression 'district judge' includes judge of a city civil court, additional district judge, joint district judge, assistant district judge, chief judge of a small cause court, chief presidency magistrate, additional chief presidency magistrate, sessions judge, additional sessions judge, and assistant sessions judge. The expression 'judicial service' means a service consisting exclusively of persons intended to fill the post of district judge and other civil judicial posts inferior to the post of district judge.


Question: What provisions can be applied to certain classes of magistrates as per Article 237?

Answer: Article 237 allows the Governor to direct, by public notification, that the provisions of Chapter VI of the Constitution and any rules made thereunder shall apply to any class or classes of magistrates in the State as they apply in relation to persons appointed to the judicial service of the State, subject to any exceptions and modifications specified in the notification, with effect from a date fixed by the Governor.


Question: What is the penalty for sitting and voting before making an oath or affirmation under article 188 of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: According to the Indian Constitution, if a person sits or votes as a member of the Legislative Assembly or the Legislative Council of a State before complying with the requirements of article 188, or when they know they are not qualified or disqualified for membership, they shall be liable to a penalty of five hundred rupees for each day on which they so sit or vote. This amount is to be recovered as a debt due to the State.


Question: What are the powers, privileges, and immunities of State Legislatures and their members according to the Indian Constitution?

Answer: The powers, privileges, and immunities of a House of the Legislature of a State, and of its members and committees, are defined by the Legislature by law, as per the Indian Constitution. Until they are defined, the existing powers, privileges, and immunities of the House and its members and committees, as stated before the coming into force of section 26 of the Constitution (Forty-fourth Amendment) Act, 1978, shall apply. The Constitution also provides freedom of speech in the Legislature of every State and protects members from being liable to any proceedings in any court for anything said or any vote given in the Legislature or its committees.


Question: What are the salaries and allowances of members of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council of a State?

Answer: The salaries and allowances of members of the Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council of a State are determined by the Legislature of the State by law. Until such provisions are made, the salaries and allowances applicable to members of the Legislative Assembly of the corresponding Province immediately before the commencement of the Indian Constitution shall apply.


Question: What is the legislative procedure regarding the introduction and passing of Bills in State Legislatures with a Legislative Council?

Answer: In the Indian Constitution, a Bill may originate in either House of the Legislature of a State with a Legislative Council, subject to the provisions of articles 198 and 207 regarding Money Bills and financial Bills. A Bill must be agreed upon by both Houses, either without amendment or with agreed-upon amendments, to be considered passed. Bills pending in the Legislature do not lapse due to prorogation of the House or Houses. However, a pending Bill in the Legislative Assembly, or one passed by the Assembly but pending in the Council, lapses on the dissolution of the Assembly.


Question: What is the restriction on the powers of the Legislative Council concerning Bills other than Money Bills?

Answer: According to the Indian Constitution, if a Bill is passed by the Legislative Assembly of a State with a Legislative Council and transmitted to the Council, and is then rejected, not passed within three months, or passed with amendments that the Assembly does not agree to, the Assembly may pass the Bill again in the same or subsequent session with or without the Council's amendments. If, after being passed for the second time, the Bill is rejected, not passed within a month, or passed with amendments that the Assembly does not agree to, the Bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses in the form it was passed by the Assembly for the second time, including any amendments made or suggested by the Council and agreed to by the Assembly. This process does not apply to Money Bills.


Question: What is the special procedure in respect of Money Bills in State Legislatures?

Answer: The special procedure for Money Bills in State Legislatures, according to the Indian Constitution, is as follows: (1) A Money Bill cannot be introduced in a Legislative Council; (2) After being passed by the Legislative Assembly, the Money Bill is transmitted to the Legislative Council for its recommendations, which must be returned within 14 days; (3) If the Assembly accepts any recommendations, the Money Bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses with the recommended amendments; (4) If the Assembly does not accept any recommendations, the Money Bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses in the form it was passed by the Assembly; (5) If the Money Bill is not returned within 14 days, it is deemed to have been passed by both Houses in the form it was passed by the Assembly.


Question: What is the definition of 'Money Bills' in the Indian Constitution?

Answer: As per the Indian Constitution, a Bill is deemed to be a Money Bill if it contains only provisions dealing with one or more of the following matters: (a) imposition, abolition, remission, alteration, or regulation of any tax; (b) regulation of borrowing money or giving guarantees by the State, or amendment of the law concerning financial obligations undertaken or to be undertaken by the State; (c) custody of the Consolidated Fund or the Contingency Fund of the State, payment of moneys into or withdrawal of moneys from such funds; (d) appropriation of moneys out of the Consolidated Fund of the State; (e) declaration of any expenditure to be charged on the Consolidated Fund of the State or increasing the amount of such expenditure; (f) receipt of money on account of the Consolidated Fund of the State or the public account of the State, or custody or issue of such money; (g) any matter incidental to the matters specified in subclauses (a) to (f). However, a Bill is not considered a Money Bill solely because it provides for the imposition of fines or other pecuniary penalties, fees for licenses or services, or regulation of any tax by a local authority or body for local purposes.


Question: Who has the final decision on whether a Bill introduced in the State Legislature with a Legislative Council is a Money Bill or not?

Answer: In case of any question arising whether a Bill introduced in the Legislature of a State with a Legislative Council is a Money Bill or not, the decision of the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly of that State shall be final.


Question: What is the procedure for the Governor's assent to Bills passed by the State Legislature?

Answer: When a Bill has been passed by the Legislative Assembly of a State or, in case of a State with a Legislative Council, has been passed by both Houses of the Legislature, it is presented to the Governor. The Governor may declare that they assent to the Bill, withhold assent, or reserve the Bill for the consideration of the President. The Governor may also return a non-Money Bill to the House or Houses for reconsideration, with a message requesting the introduction of any amendments they may recommend. If the Bill is passed again with or without amendment and presented to the Governor for assent, the Governor shall not withhold assent. The Governor shall reserve for the President's consideration any Bill that, in their opinion, would derogate from the powers of the High Court and endanger the position it is designed to fill by the Constitution.


Question: What is the process when a Bill is reserved by a Governor for the consideration of the President?

Answer: When a Bill is reserved by a Governor for the consideration of the President, the President shall declare either that they assent to the Bill or that they withhold assent. In case of a non-Money Bill, the President may direct the Governor to return the Bill to the House or Houses of the Legislature of the State with a message requesting reconsideration within six months from the date of receipt of the message. If the Bill is passed again by the House or Houses with or without amendment, it is presented again to the President for their consideration.


Question: What is the annual financial statement as per the Indian Constitution?

Answer: The annual financial statement, as per the Indian Constitution, is a statement of the estimated receipts and expenditure of a State for a particular financial year, which the Governor is required to lay before the House or Houses of the Legislature of the State.


Question: What are the categories of expenditure shown separately in the annual financial statement?

Answer: In the annual financial statement, the estimates of expenditure are shown separately for (a) the sums required to meet expenditure charged upon the Consolidated Fund of the State, and (b) the sums required to meet other expenditure proposed to be made from the Consolidated Fund of the State. The expenditure is also distinguished between revenue account expenditure and other expenditure.


Question: What are the types of expenditure charged on the Consolidated Fund of each State?

Answer: The types of expenditure charged on the Consolidated Fund of each State are: (a) emoluments and allowances of the Governor and other expenditure relating to their office; (b) salaries and allowances of the Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly, and, in case of a State with a Legislative Council, the Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Legislative Council; (c) debt charges for which the State is liable, including interest, sinking fund charges, redemption charges, and other expenditure related to the raising of loans and the service and redemption of debt; (d) expenditure in respect of the salaries and allowances of Judges of any High Court; (e) any sums required to satisfy any judgment, decree, or award of any court or arbitral tribunal; and (f) any other expenditure declared by the Constitution or by the Legislature of the State by law to be so charged.


Question: What is the procedure in the Legislature regarding estimates of expenditure?

Answer: As per the Indian Constitution, the estimates of expenditure charged upon the Consolidated Fund of a State are not submitted to the vote of the Legislative Assembly but can be discussed in the Legislature. The estimates relating to other expenditure are submitted as demands for grants to the Legislative Assembly, which has the power to assent, refuse to assent, or assent subject to a reduction of the amount specified in any demand. No demand for a grant can be made except on the recommendation of the Governor.


Question: What is an Appropriation Bill?

Answer: An Appropriation Bill is a Bill introduced in the State Legislature after the grants under article 203 have been made by the Assembly. The Bill provides for the appropriation out of the Consolidated Fund of the State of all moneys required to meet the grants made by the Assembly and the expenditure charged on the Consolidated Fund of the State. No amendment can be proposed to the Bill which would vary the amount or alter the destination of any grant made or vary the amount of any expenditure charged on the Consolidated Fund of the State. The decision of the person presiding on the admissibility of an amendment is final.


Question: What is the provision for supplementary, additional, or excess grants in the Indian Constitution?

Answer: The Governor must lay before the House or Houses of the Legislature another statement showing the estimated amount of supplementary or additional expenditure upon some new service not contemplated in the annual financial statement, or a demand for excess expenditure if the amount authorized for a particular service for the current financial year is found to be insufficient or if any money has been spent in excess of the amount granted for that service and year. The provisions of articles 202, 203, and 204 apply to such statements, expenditures, and demands, as well as to any law authorizing the appropriation of moneys out of the Consolidated Fund of the State to meet such expenditure or grant.


Question: What is the purpose of administrative tribunals under Article 323A of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: The purpose of administrative tribunals under Article 323A of the Indian Constitution is to adjudicate or try disputes and complaints related to recruitment and conditions of service of persons appointed to public services and posts in connection with the affairs of the Union, any State, any local or other authority within the territory of India, or under the control of the Government of India or any corporation owned or controlled by the Government.


Question: What provisions can a law made under Article 323A(1) of the Indian Constitution include?

Answer: A law made under Article 323A(1) of the Indian Constitution can include provisions for the establishment of an administrative tribunal for the Union and separate tribunals for each State or for two or more States; specify the jurisdiction, powers, and authority of the tribunals; provide for the procedure to be followed by the tribunals; exclude the jurisdiction of all courts, except the Supreme Court under article 136, with respect to the disputes or complaints; provide for the transfer of cases pending before any court or other authority to the administrative tribunal; repeal or amend any order made by the President under clause (3) of article 371D; and contain supplemental, incidental, and consequential provisions for the effective functioning, speedy disposal of cases, and enforcement of the orders of the tribunals.


Question: Does Article 323A of the Indian Constitution override other provisions of the Constitution or any other law?

Answer: Yes, Article 323A of the Indian Constitution has effect notwithstanding anything in any other provision of the Constitution or in any other law for the time being in force.


Question: What matters can tribunals under Article 323B of the Indian Constitution adjudicate or try?

Answer: Tribunals under Article 323B of the Indian Constitution can adjudicate or try disputes, complaints, or offences related to matters such as levy, assessment, collection, and enforcement of taxes; foreign exchange, import, and export across customs frontiers; industrial and labor disputes; land reforms; ceiling on urban property; elections to either House of Parliament or the House or either House of the Legislature of a State, excluding matters referred to in articles 329 and 329A; production, procurement, supply, and distribution of foodstuffs and essential goods; rent, its regulation and control, and tenancy issues; offences against laws with respect to any of the specified matters, and fees in respect of those matters; and any matter incidental to any of the specified matters.


Question: Under Article 323B of the Indian Constitution, which Legislature can provide for the adjudication or trial by tribunals of any disputes, complaints, or offences with respect to matters specified in clause (2)?

Answer: Under Article 323B of the Indian Constitution, the appropriate Legislature, which can be either Parliament or a State Legislature competent to make laws with respect to such matters in accordance with the provisions of Part XI, can provide for the adjudication or trial by tribunals of any disputes, complaints, or offences with respect to matters specified in clause (2).


Question: What provisions can a law made under Article 323B(1) of the Indian Constitution include?

Answer: A law made under Article 323B(1) of the Indian Constitution can include provisions for the establishment of a hierarchy of tribunals; specify the jurisdiction, powers, and authority of the tribunals; provide for the procedure to be followed by the tribunals; exclude the jurisdiction of all courts, except the Supreme Court under article 136, with respect to all or any of the matters falling within the jurisdiction of the tribunals; provide for the transfer of cases pending before any court or any other authority to the tribunals; and contain supplemental, incidental, and consequential provisions for the effective functioning, speedy disposal of cases, and enforcement of the orders of the tribunals.


Question: Does Article 323B of the Indian Constitution override other provisions of the Constitution or any other law?

Answer: Yes, Article 323B of the Indian Constitution has effect notwithstanding anything in any other provision of the Constitution or in any other law for the time being in force.


Question: What is the meaning of 'appropriate Legislature' in the context of Article 323B of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: In the context of Article 323B of the Indian Constitution, 'appropriate Legislature' refers to Parliament or a State Legislature that is competent to make laws with respect to a particular matter in accordance with the provisions of Part XI of the Constitution.


Question: Can administrative tribunals under Article 323A of the Indian Constitution handle matters related to land reforms?

Answer: No, administrative tribunals under Article 323A of the Indian Constitution are specifically aimed at handling disputes and complaints related to recruitment and conditions of service of persons appointed to public services and posts. Matters related to land reforms fall under the jurisdiction of tribunals established under Article 323B of the Constitution.


Question: What is the difference between administrative tribunals under Article 323A and tribunals for other matters under Article 323B of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: The main difference between administrative tribunals under Article 323A and tribunals for other matters under Article 323B of the Indian Constitution is the scope of their jurisdiction. Administrative tribunals under Article 323A deal with disputes and complaints related to recruitment and conditions of service of persons appointed to public services and posts. On the other hand, tribunals under Article 323B handle a wider range of matters, including taxation, foreign exchange, industrial and labor disputes, land reforms, urban property ceiling, elections, foodstuffs and essential goods, rent regulation and tenancy issues, offences against laws related to these matters, and any incidental matters.


Question: Do tribunals under Article 323B of the Indian Constitution have the power to punish for contempt?

Answer: Yes, tribunals under Article 323B of the Indian Constitution can be granted the power to punish for contempt. A law made under Article 323B(1) can specify the jurisdiction, powers (including the power to punish for contempt), and authority of the tribunals.


Question: Can the jurisdiction of all courts be excluded with respect to the disputes or complaints under Article 323A of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: Yes, a law made under Article 323A(1) can exclude the jurisdiction of all courts, except the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court under article 136, with respect to the disputes or complaints referred to in clause (1) of Article 323A.


Question: Can the jurisdiction of all courts be excluded with respect to the matters falling within the jurisdiction of tribunals under Article 323B of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: Yes, a law made under Article 323B(1) can exclude the jurisdiction of all courts, except the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court under article 136, with respect to all or any of the matters falling within the jurisdiction of the tribunals under Article 323B.


Question: Can cases pending before any court or other authority be transferred to administrative tribunals under Article 323A of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: Yes, a law made under Article 323A(1) can provide for the transfer of cases pending before any court or other authority immediately before the establishment of the administrative tribunal, as if the causes of action on which such suits or proceedings are based had arisen after the establishment of the tribunal.


Question: Can cases pending before any court or any other authority be transferred to tribunals under Article 323B of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: Yes, a law made under Article 323B(1) can provide for the transfer of cases pending before any court or any other authority immediately before the establishment of the tribunal, as if the causes of action on which such suits or proceedings are based had arisen after the establishment of the tribunal.


Question: What is the scope of the term 'public services and posts' under Article 323A of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: The term 'public services and posts' under Article 323A of the Indian Constitution refers to positions and employment in connection with the affairs of the Union, any State, any local or other authority within the territory of India, or under the control of the Government of India, or any corporation owned or controlled by the Government.


Question: What is the role of Parliament in establishing administrative tribunals under Article 323A of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: Under Article 323A of the Indian Constitution, the role of Parliament is to make laws for providing the adjudication or trial by administrative tribunals of disputes and complaints related to recruitment and conditions of service of persons appointed to public services and posts. Parliament can enact laws that include provisions for the establishment, jurisdiction, powers, and authority of the tribunals, the procedure to be followed by the tribunals, the exclusion of other courts' jurisdiction, the transfer of pending cases to the tribunals, and any supplemental, incidental, and consequential provisions necessary for the effective functioning, speedy disposal of cases, and enforcement of the orders of the tribunals.


Question: What is the role of State Legislatures in establishing tribunals under Article 323B of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: Under Article 323B of the Indian Constitution, the role of State Legislatures is to make laws for providing the adjudication or trial by tribunals of any disputes, complaints, or offences with respect to matters such as land reforms, ceiling on urban property, rent regulation and tenancy issues, etc., for which they are competent to make laws in accordance with the provisions of Part XI of the Constitution. State Legislatures can enact laws that include provisions for the establishment, jurisdiction, powers, and authority of the tribunals, the procedure to be followed by the tribunals, the exclusion of other courts' jurisdiction, the transfer of pending cases to the tribunals, and any supplemental, incidental, and consequential provisions necessary for the effective functioning, speedy disposal of cases, and enforcement of the orders of the tribunals.


Question: Are tribunals under Article 323A and Article 323B of the Indian Constitution subject to the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court?

Answer: Yes, tribunals under Article 323A and Article 323B of the Indian Constitution are subject to the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court under article 136. Laws made under both articles can exclude the jurisdiction of all other courts, but they cannot exclude the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court under article 136.


Question: What is the role of the Election Commission according to Part XV of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: According to Part XV of the Indian Constitution, the Election Commission is responsible for the superintendence, direction, and control of the preparation of electoral rolls and the conduct of elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, and the offices of President and Vice-President.


Question: How is the Election Commission constituted?

Answer: The Election Commission consists of the Chief Election Commissioner and other Election Commissioners, if any, as the President may fix from time to time. Their appointment is made by the President, subject to any law made by Parliament.


Question: What is the role of the Chief Election Commissioner?

Answer: The Chief Election Commissioner acts as the Chairman of the Election Commission and has the authority to recommend removal of any other Election Commissioner or Regional Commissioner from office.


Question: What are the conditions for the removal of the Chief Election Commissioner from office?

Answer: The Chief Election Commissioner can only be removed from office in the same manner and on the same grounds as a Judge of the Supreme Court. The conditions of service for the Chief Election Commissioner cannot be varied to their disadvantage after their appointment.


Question: What is the role of Regional Commissioners?

Answer: Regional Commissioners are appointed by the President after consultation with the Election Commission to assist the Election Commission in performing its functions, particularly during general elections to the House of the People and State Legislative Assemblies.


Question: What is the provision regarding electoral rolls in the Indian Constitution?

Answer: According to the Indian Constitution, there shall be one general electoral roll for every territorial constituency for elections to either House of Parliament or the House or either House of the State Legislature. No person shall be ineligible for inclusion in any such roll or claim to be included in a special electoral roll on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or any of them.


Question: What is the basis of elections to the House of the People and Legislative Assemblies of States?

Answer: Elections to the House of the People and the Legislative Assembly of every State are based on adult suffrage, meaning every Indian citizen who is not less than eighteen years of age and not disqualified on certain grounds can be registered as a voter at such elections.


Question: What powers does Parliament have in regard to elections?

Answer: Subject to the provisions of the Constitution, Parliament can make laws related to all matters concerning elections to either House of Parliament or the House or either House of the State Legislature, including electoral rolls, delimitation of constituencies, and other matters necessary for securing the due constitution of such Houses.


Question: What powers does a State Legislature have in regard to elections?

Answer: Subject to the provisions of the Constitution and any law made by Parliament, the Legislature of a State can make laws related to all matters concerning elections to the House or either House of the State Legislature, including electoral rolls and other matters necessary for securing the due constitution of such Houses.


Question: What is the bar to interference by courts in electoral matters?

Answer: According to the Constitution, the validity of any law related to delimitation of constituencies or the allotment of seats to such constituencies cannot be questioned in court. Additionally, no election to either House of Parliament or the House or either House of the State Legislature can be called into question except by an election petition presented to an authority and in a manner as provided by law made by the appropriate Legislature.


Question: What is the age requirement to be a voter in India?

Answer: In India, a person must be at least 18 years of age to be registered as a voter in elections.


Question: Can someone be ineligible for inclusion in the electoral roll based on their religion, race, caste, or sex?

Answer: No, a person cannot be ineligible for inclusion in the electoral roll or claim to be included in a special electoral roll based on their religion, race, caste, or sex.


Question: What are the grounds for disqualification to be registered as a voter?

Answer: A person can be disqualified to be registered as a voter under the Indian Constitution or any law made by the appropriate Legislature on the grounds of non-residence, unsoundness of mind, crime, or corrupt or illegal practice.


Question: Who can appoint Regional Commissioners?

Answer: The President of India can appoint Regional Commissioners after consultation with the Election Commission.


Question: What is the role of the President and Governors in providing staff to the Election Commission?

Answer: When requested by the Election Commission, the President or the Governor of a State must make available to the Election Commission or a Regional Commissioner such staff as necessary for the discharge of the functions conferred on the Election Commission by the Constitution.


Question: What is the tenure of office of Election Commissioners and Regional Commissioners?

Answer: The conditions of service and tenure of office of the Election Commissioners and Regional Commissioners are determined by the President of India, subject to the provisions of any law made by Parliament.


Question: Can the Chief Election Commissioner be removed on the recommendation of another Election Commissioner?

Answer: No, the Chief Election Commissioner can only be removed in the same manner and on the same grounds as a Judge of the Supreme Court, and not on the recommendation of another Election Commissioner.


Question: What is the purpose of having one general electoral roll for every territorial constituency?

Answer: Having one general electoral roll for every territorial constituency ensures uniformity in the electoral process and prevents discrimination or special treatment based on factors like religion, race, caste, or sex.


Question: Can a person be disqualified from being a voter based on their residence?

Answer: Yes, a person can be disqualified from being a voter based on non-residence, as per the Indian Constitution or any law made by the appropriate Legislature.


Question: Who is responsible for making provisions related to the preparation of electoral rolls and delimitation of constituencies?

Answer: Parliament is responsible for making provisions related to the preparation of electoral rolls and delimitation of constituencies for elections to either House of Parliament or the House or either House of the State Legislature, subject to the provisions of the Constitution.


Question: What is the power of the Legislative Assembly of a State according to Article 206 of the Indian Constitution?

Answer: According to Article 206 of the Indian Constitution, the Legislative Assembly of a State has the power to make any grant in advance in respect of the estimated expenditure for a part of any financial year, to make a grant for meeting an unexpected demand upon the resources of the State, and to make an exceptional grant which forms no part of the current service of any financial year. The Legislature of the State also has the power to authorize by law the withdrawal of moneys from the Consolidated Fund of the State for the purposes for which the said grants are made.


Question: What are the restrictions on introducing or moving a Bill or amendment in the Legislature of a State according to Article 207?

Answer: According to Article 207 of the Indian Constitution, a Bill or amendment making provision for any of the matters specified in sub-clauses (a) to (f) of clause (1) of article 199 shall not be introduced or moved except on the recommendation of the Governor. A Bill making such provision shall not be introduced in a Legislative Council. However, no recommendation shall be required for the moving of an amendment making provision for the reduction or abolition of any tax.


Question: What is the procedure for regulating the conduct of business in a House of the Legislature of a State as per Article 208?

Answer: As per Article 208, a House of the Legislature of a State may make rules for regulating, subject to the provisions of the Indian Constitution, its procedure and the conduct of its business. Until rules are made under clause (1), the rules of procedure and standing orders in force immediately before the commencement of the Constitution with respect to the Legislature for the corresponding Province shall have effect in relation to the Legislature of the State, subject to modifications and adaptations made by the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly or the Chairman of the Legislative Council.


Question: What does Article 209 of the Indian Constitution allow the Legislature of a State to do in relation to financial business?

Answer: Article 209 of the Indian Constitution allows the Legislature of a State to regulate by law the procedure of, and the conduct of business in, the House or Houses of the Legislature in relation to any financial matter or to any Bill for the appropriation of moneys out of the Consolidated Fund of the State, for the purpose of the timely completion of financial business. If any provision of any law made under this article is inconsistent with any rule made by the House or either House of the Legislature of the State, such provision shall prevail.


Question: What are the language provisions for conducting business in the Legislature of a State according to Article 210?

Answer: Article 210 states that, notwithstanding anything in Part XVII but subject to the provisions of Article 348, business in the Legislature of a State shall be transacted in the official language or languages of the State or in Hindi or in English. However, the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly or Chairman of the Legislative Council may permit any member who cannot adequately express himself in any of the languages aforesaid to address the House in his mother-tongue.


Question: What restrictions does Article 211 impose on discussions in the Legislature of a State?

Answer: Article 211 of the Indian Constitution imposes a restriction that no discussion shall take place in the Legislature of a State with respect to the conduct of any Judge of the Supreme Court or of a High Court in the discharge of his duties.


Question: What does Article 212 state about courts inquiring into proceedings of the Legislature?

Answer: Article 212 states that the validity of any proceedings in the Legislature of a State shall not be called in question on the ground of any alleged irregularity of procedure. No officer or member of the Legislature of a State in whom powers are vested by or under the Constitution for regulating procedure or the conduct of business, or for maintaining order, in the Legislature shall be subject to the jurisdiction of any court in respect of the exercise by him of those powers.


Question: What is the power of the Governor to promulgate Ordinances during the recess of Legislature as per Article 213?

Answer: According to Article 213, if at any time, except when the Legislative Assembly of a State is in session or when both Houses of the Legislature are in session, the Governor is satisfied that circumstances exist which render it necessary for him to take immediate action, he may promulgate such Ordinances as the circumstances appear to require. However, the Governor shall not promulgate any such Ordinance without instructions from the President if certain conditions specified in the Constitution are met.


Question: What is the role of a High Court in a State according to Article 214?

Answer: Article 214 of the Indian Constitution states that there shall be a High Court for each State.


Question: What powers does a High Court have as a court of record as per Article 215?

Answer: As per Article 215, every High Court shall be a court of record and shall have all the powers of such a court, including the power to punish for contempt of itself.


Question: What is the process of appointment and conditions of the office of a Judge of a High Court as per Article 217?

Answer: As per Article 217, every Judge of a High Court shall be appointed by the President by warrant under his hand and seal on the recommendation of the National Judicial Appointments Commission referred to in article 124A, and shall hold office until he attains the age of sixty-two years. A Judge may resign by writing under his hand addressed to the President, may be removed from office by the President in the manner provided in clause (4) of article 124, and the office of a Judge shall be vacated by his being appointed by the President to be a Judge of the Supreme Court or by his being transferred by the President to any other High Court within the territory of India.


Question: What are the qualifications for appointment as a Judge of a High Court according to Article 217(2)?

Answer: According to Article 217(2), a person shall not be qualified for appointment as a Judge of a High Court unless he is a citizen of India and has for at least ten years held a judicial office in the territory of India or has for at least ten years been an advocate of a High Court or of two or more such Courts in succession.


Question: What is the procedure for appointing an acting Chief Justice of a High Court as per Article 223?

Answer: As per Article 223, when the office of Chief Justice of a High Court is vacant or when any such Chief Justice is, by reason of absence or otherwise, unable to perform the duties of his office, the duties of the office shall be performed by such one of the other Judges of the Court as the President may appoint for the purpose.


Question: What restrictions are placed on a permanent Judge of a High Court after holding office as per Article 220?

Answer: As per Article 220 of the Indian Constitution, no person who, after the commencement of the Constitution, has held office as a permanent Judge of a High Court shall plead or act in any court or before any authority in India except the Supreme Court and the other High Courts.


Question: What are the provisions for salaries, allowances, and pension of Judges of High Courts as per Article 221?

Answer: As per Article 221, Judges of each High Court shall be paid such salaries as may be determined by Parliament by law and shall be entitled to such allowances and rights in respect of leave of absence and pension as may from time to time be determined by or under law made by Parliament. The allowances of a Judge or his rights in respect of leave of absence or pension shall not be varied to his disadvantage after his appointment.


Question: What is the procedure for transferring a Judge from one High Court to another as per Article 222?

Answer: As per Article 222, the President may, on the recommendation of the National Judicial Appointments Commission referred to in article 124A, transfer a Judge from one High Court to any other High Court. When a Judge has been transferred, he shall be entitled to receive, in addition to his salary, such compensatory allowance as may be determined by Parliament by law or fixed by the President's order.


Question: What is the process for Judges of High Courts to take an oath or affirmation according to Article 219?

Answer: As per Article 219, every person appointed to be a Judge of a High Court shall, before he enters upon his office, make and subscribe before the Governor of the State, or some person appointed in that behalf by him, an oath or affirmation according to the form set out for the purpose in the Third Schedule.


Question: What are the powers of a High Court in relation to the Supreme Court as per Article 218?

Answer: As per Article 218, the provisions of clauses (4) and (5) of article 124 shall apply in relation to a High Court as they apply in relation to the Supreme Court with the substitution of references to the High Court for references to the Supreme Court.


Question: What is the role of a High Court in a State according to Article 214?

Answer: Article 214 of the Indian Constitution states that there shall be a High Court for each State.