Input:
NAVIGATING HEALTH AND WELL-BEING CHALLENGES FOR REFUGEES FROM UKRAINE For the regional analysis, population weights were applied based on the most up-to-date refugee population figures for each country, ensuring the findings accurately represented the broader regional refugee population. To maintain comparability, the figures for 2023 presented in this report were also re-estimated using survey weights.

This report utilises the criteria of the Washington Group on Disability Statistics Short Set on Functioning (WG-SS) [7] . The assessment included a comprehensive set of questions covering mobility, vision, hearing, cognition, self-care, and communication. For the purpose of this report, disability is defined as level 3 and above, indicating significant limitations in functioning (‘a lot of difficulty’ or ‘cannot do at all’). For indicators related to chronic illness and vaccination, respondents self-reported whether they or any household members had a chronic illness and whether children in the household had received measles vaccine.


Input:
- 65% in early 2023 with a further 10%
already having completed a course. 87% also took part in inclusion courses that were offered. Per the report, since the beginning of the full-scale war,, around one million people have fled to Germany, while Eurostat data on beneficiaries of temporary protection show that there were around 1.17 million Ukrainians under such schemes in Germany [30] .

Among working refugees there is a significant number of entrepreneurs.
The high employment rate of refugees in Poland covers not only employees, but also the self-employed. The available data also shows that refugees from Ukraine in Poland are likely to start their own businesses. ZUS (social security) statistics on insured refugees indicate that around 5% of them have set up a business or are freelancers. Similar results can be gleaned from the MSNA Poland 2023 survey results, which show that slightly more than 5% of respondent households receive income from self-employment or similar activities.
This percentage appears to be slightly higher for men, at over 6%, than women.

---
[30] Eurostat data, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/migr_asytpsm/default/table?lang=en

MSNA Poland 2023 survey results

ZUS (social security) statistics

Eurostat data on beneficiaries of temporary protection

Eurostat data


Input:
NAVIGATING HEALTH AND WELL-BEING CHALLENGES FOR REFUGEES FROM UKRAINE health needs were regionally reported higher among those with disabilities (23%) and higher compared to 2023 (14%). Notably, respondents with a disability in Latvia, Czechia, Bulgaria, Lithuania and Slovakia reported a similar level of access to health care as those without a disability.

Unmet health needs are higher among recent arrivals. Of those who arrived in 2024, 28% reported difficulties in accessing care, compared to 19% of those who arrived in 2023 and 16% of those who arrived in 2022.

**% OF INDIVIDUALS WITH CHRONIC ILLNESS THAT ARE**

**ABLE TO ACCESS TO HEALTH CARE**

With chronic illness Without chronic illness

**% OF INDIVIDUALS WITH A DISABILITY THAT ARE ABLE TO**

**ACCESS TO HEALTH CARE**

With disability Without disability Regional Czechia Latvia Moldova Estonia Poland Bulgaria Hungary Lithuania Slovakia Romania (N=6,052)

**12**

Regional Latvia Czechia Estonia Moldova Bulgaria Poland Lithuania Hungary Slovakia Romania (N=5,695)


Input:
In practice, access to these financial services is still hindered by the type of identification documents issued by
CNARR and UNHCR to refugees. The refugee identity cards, not issued by the national competent authority,
ANATS, is often considered an unofficial document in most cases. Efforts to expand the legally recognized
documentation through the provision of biometric identification and a national identification number by
ANATS for refugees would be the solution to these recurring challenges. Other practical challenges persist
for refugees in accessing credit, stemming from their inability to meet the financial guarantees and the
perception that they pose a high risk profile as borrowers. Some refugees, mainly living in the South of
Chad continue to ably access bank accounts, mainly saving accounts, based on the prior recognition of their
identity cards by certain financial institutions.


Input:
1. Compared to the [2023 MSNA data](https://data.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/108068)
2. For the purposes of this analysis defined as 50% of the host country median equivalized disposable incomed. This approach is equivalent to Eurostat’s at-risk-of-poverty (AROP) methodology 3. Defined as the share of the population with an income below the poverty line 4. The poverty rate for the host communities was defined to be equal to Eurostat’s at-risk-of-poverty (AROP) rate calculated for the 50%-of-median-equivalized-income threshold 5. Equivalent to living being at risk of poverty (as per Eurostat) when setting the at-risk-of-poverty threshold at 50% of the national median disposable income after social transfers 6. MHPSS stands for mental health and psychological support

**3**

2023 MSNA data


Input:
- Co-‐existence
 activities
 in
 areas
 of
 return,
 including
 through
 working
 with
 CBOs
for
 the
 identification
 of
 key
 points
 of
 current/potential
 tensions,
 designing
 of
joint
 reintegration
 projects,
 and
 conducting
 cultural
 activities
 that
 foster
traditional
 values
 of
 consideration
 and
 peace.

- Constructing/rehabilitating
 basic
 facilities,
 such
 as
 health,
 safe
 drinking
 water
systems
 and
 sanitation
 as
 well
 as
 improving/expanding
 services.

14


Input:
Note: Data are based on average social security contributions bases in employee-cells, each cell for a specific poviat, sex, age group, and main occupational group. All data are for the 01XX ZUS insurance code (employees). Data for Q2 2022 encompass 6945 employee-cells of Ukrainian refugees joined with likewise cells for Polish citizens, while for Q2 2024 13477 such cells. Ukrainian refugees have been identified by PESEL UKR and Ukrainian citizenship, Poles by Polish citizenship.

Source: Deloitte own elaboration based on ZUS data.

refugees move to better-paid occupations becomes clearer. Between June 30, 2022, and June 30, 2024, Ukrainian refugees gained an estimated 7% in earnings having shifted towards better paid occupations, pre-war Ukrainians 5%, non-Ukrainian foreigners 4%, and Polish citizens 1%.

**Ukrainian refugees have been slowly**

**closing their wage gap to Polish**

**citizens across all wage levels.** Once
ZUS administrative data on Ukrainian refugees with employment contracts is divided into employee cells based on 380 poviats, 2 sexes, 7 age groups, and 10 main occupational groups (including

ZUS data

ZUS administrative data


Input:
Mental health is a significant concern, with particularly high needs in populations fleeing conflict. WHO estimates that one in five people affected by conflict (22.1%) have a mental health condition, including 13.0% with mild, 4.0% with moderate, and 5.1% with severe conditions [4] .
Refugees may have experienced conflict-related violence and other adversities prior to displacement and likely face current stressors associated with adapting to new environments, languages, and cultures, economic and housing instability, limited social support networks and uncertainties about their future and those left behind in Ukraine. These factors may contribute to mental health and psychosocial problems that can persist for many years if left unaddressed.


Input:
**decreases it.** Some evidence shows that
when refugees from Ukraine have access to education, healthcare, and social services, they may be more likely to consider returning home, precisely because they feel more stable and have the resources to make plans. Sohst et al. (2024) found that short-term return intentions were higher in countries offering strong public services and with healthier economies (lower poverty and higher GDP). In short, when people aren’t just surviving but have some breathing room, they’re better positioned to think about going back.
On the other hand, host country labour market integration decreases the chances that refugees will be returning to their country of origin. Personal circumstances clearly play a major role. Refugees who are formally employed in their host countries are 12 percentage points less likely to plan a return in the near future than those who aren’t (Sohst et al., 2024). Furthermore, Lewandowski et al. (2025) find that refugees who underwent greater task degradation were more likely to plan to return to Ukraine by 2023, particularly those who initially, in 2022, did not plan to return. So, while public services seem to increase the likelihood of return, employment has the opposite effect, it gives people a reason to stay. Families with children or elderly dependents are also more hesitant, which makes sense given the ongoing uncertainty in Ukraine and school continuity in host country. Refugees with disabilities are even less likely to return, often because of healthcare needs or limited support options. Return is often less about ‘desire’ and more about 'capacity', what in development terms includes social capital, human capital (like education and skills), and even psychological readiness. That capacity is shaped by a combination of public policies and personal circumstance. [6]

---
[6] Crucial will also be the ‘pull’ factors in Ukraine, which will be determined by the conditions of future peace. The longer the full-scale war continues, the smaller will


Input:
**•** Aleksynska and Tritah (2015) look for economic impacts of immigration in a

sample of 20 developed OECD countries at 5-year intervals during the 19602005 period. They find that a higher rate of immigration by 1 percentage point increases GDP per capita growth rate by 0.3 percentage point. They try to disaggregate this effect in further regressions, finding positive effects for the growth of income per capita, output per worker, and total factor productivity for higher rate of immigration among prime-age workers (25-54 years old), but negative or statistically insignificant for the young (15-24 years old).
These estimates are causal, as authors similarly to Jaumotte at al. (2016) quoted above instrument the immigrant shares by estimating them beforehand based on a separate model, which is orthogonal to subsequent GDP growth.

**•** Peri (2012) in a seminal paper models the impact of immigration on total factor


Input:
3. Economic Opportunities

which aims at preventing conflict, enabling resolution and improving the understanding of law and justice.

In practice, the availability of judicial services, including Court, remains scarce or too distant from refugee
hosting areas, including camps. The nascent state legal aid services remain constrained in scale and scope,
further exacerbated by the lack of implementation. In addressing the legal and justice needs of refugees
and asylum-seekers, despite the support provided by UNHCR and its partners for legal aid services, the
predominant option remains traditional arrangements made under the auspices of local and traditional
authorities.

### **3. Economic Opportunities**

**3.1** **Freedom of movement**


Input:
Additionally, insights were drawn from the Kenya COVID-19 Rapid Response Phone Surveys (RRPS), [[9]] conducted

between 2020 and 2022, which included the Shona as a distinct stratum. The RRPS monitored the impact of the

pandemic on vulnerable groups, capturing critical data on employment disruptions, income losses, and food

insecurity during the crisis.

**The Shona community in Kenya has faced significant socioeconomic challenges, exacerbated by their stateless**

**status and the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic.** Before acquiring citizenship, Shona households faced a 24

percent higher likelihood of living in poverty compared to the urban Kenyan population and were more likely to

reside in larger, overcrowded households. Although primary school enrollment rates were similar to those of their

Kenyan counterparts, many Shona children struggled to transition to secondary education. Limited access to formal

employment, driven by a lack of legal documentation, has forced many Shona individuals into self-employment or

informal work. Even with high employment rates within the community, this does not translate into reduced

poverty, as most of the employment is low-income and lacks stability. [[8] ]

**[www.unhcr.org](http://www.unhcr.org/)** 3

Kenya COVID-19 Rapid Response Phone Surveys


Input:
Analysis of the impact of refugees from Ukraine on the economy of Poland

**Chart 15. Ukrainian refugees wages median net wage by age group**

Monthly net wage (PLN) Percengate of all workers total economy average Analysis of the impact of refugees from Ukraine on the economy of Poland

**Chart 16. Median net wages of Ukrainian refugees median net wage by sector**

in PLN Percentage of total economy average 126% 15 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 15 to 24 25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64 Ukrainian refugees All workers Source: Deloitte own elaboration based on SEIS UNHCR survey and GUS data.

**The Ukrainian refugee groups to earn**

**the highest wages compared to the**

**wages in the economy as a whole are**

SEIS UNHCR survey

GUS data


Input:
The
 ongoing
 presence
 of
 armed
 actors
 in
 places
 of
 displacement
 and
 potential
 return
remains
 a
 key
 concern.
 Communities
 have
 been
 subject
 to
 protection
 risks
 associated
with
 the
 presence
 of
 military
 units
 including
 forced
 labour,
 forced
 recruitment
 and
 the
payment
 of
 “taxes.”
 In
 addition,
 Myanmar
 is
 believed
 to
 have
 a
 large
 number
 of
 children
in
 armed
 conflict,
 including
 child
 soldiers,
 with
 both
 the
 Government
 and
 various
 non-‐
state
 armed
 actors
 having
 been
 responsible
 for
 the
 recruitment
 of
 minors.
 On
 27 [th] June
2012,
 the
 United
 Nations
 Country
 Task
 Force
 on
 Monitoring
 and
 Reporting
 (CTFMR)
and
 the
 Government
 signed
 a
 Plan
 of
 Action
 with
 regards
 to
 underage
 recruitment
 in
 the
Myanmar
 Army.
 Procedures
 are
 underway
 for
 the
 systematic
 identification
 and
discharge
 of
 verified
 minors
 from
 the
 national
 forces.
 However,
 plans
 of
 action
 with
non-‐state
 armed
 groups
 in
 the
 South-‐East
 have
 not
 yet
 been
 agreed
 and
 it
 remains
 to
 be
seen
 whether
 the
 Plan
 of
 Action
 with
 the
 Government
 will
 be
 comprehensively
implemented.


Input:
While
 all
 the
 conditions
 and
 safeguards
 for
 an
 organized
 voluntary
 return
 to
 South-‐East
Myanmar
 are
 not
 yet
 in
 place,
 positive
 political
 and
 economic
 reforms
 and
 security
developments
 have
 increased
 momentum
 for
 preparing
 for
 a
 possible
 voluntary
 return
of
 refugees
 from
 Thailand
 and
 durable
 solutions
 for
 people
 internally
 displaced
 as
 a
result
 of
 protracted
 conflict.
 A
 small
 number
 of
 refugees
 are
 reported
 to
 have
 returned

2 ‘Temporary
 shelters’
 is
 the
 Royal
 Thai
 Government
 term
 used
 to
 identify
 the
 refugee
 camps
 along
 the
border.

2


Input:
**Access to services**

**Since 2020, the Shona community has made significant strides in the enjoyment of rights and access to essential**

**services and social, economic, and financial opportunities.** The acquisition of citizenship has enabled the

community to access critical documentation, with 86 percent of individuals now holding a national ID, citizenship,

or birth certificate. This remarkable progress has facilitated their inclusion in various social and economic

opportunities.

**Access to financial services has also improved significantly.** The proportion of community members with bank

accounts increased from 9 percent in 2019 to 35 percent in 2024, while mobile wallet usage saw a surge from 52

percent to an impressive 97 percent. This suggests that the community has leveraged citizenship to integrate more

fully into the formal financial system, enhancing their economic participation.

**Health insurance coverage has nearly tripled over the past five years.** The percentage of Shona individuals with

health insurance rose from 4 percent in 2019 to 11 percent in 2024, compared to 24 percent nationally _._ [[10]] Although

the current coverage rate remains low, this growth indicates an increasing awareness and ability to access

healthcare services, possibly due to better employment prospects and social benefits associated with citizenship.


Input:
2. Regulatory Environment and Governance

### **2. Regulatory Environment and Governance**

**2.1** **Normative framework**

[Chad, already a state party to the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of Refugees and its 1967 Protocol,](https://www.unhcr.org/fr/media/convention-et-protocole-relatifs-au-statut-des-refugies)
and the [1969 OAU Convention Governing the Specifc Aspects of Refugee Problems in Africa, enacted](https://au.int/sites/default/files/treaties/36400-treaty-0005_-_oau_convention_governing_the_specific_aspects_of_refugee_problems_in_africa_e.pdf)
[a new asylum Law on 31 December 2020 (Loi No. 027/PR/2020 Portant Asile en République du Tchad).](https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/606334e04.pdf)


Input:
Consistent with the recent legislation consolidating past practices, CNARR, through its Eligibility Sub
Commission, remains the primary authority for asylum at first instance. Over the past three years, CNARR
has employed prima facie refugee recognition during the registration phase for asylum-seekers from Central
African Republican hosted in the South of Chad, those from Nigeria hosted in the Western Chad, and equally
for those fleeing Sudan, including for non-Chadian persons forcibly displaced since the outbreak of 15 April
2023. Other asylum-seekers have undergone an individualized RSD procedure handled by CNARR. While
there have been some enhancements in asylum legislation, notably with the recent promulgation of the
2023 Decree aiming to improve the efficiency of individualized RSD procedures, implementation challenges
persist. Issues include permanent rotation of CNARR staff, inadequate training for CNARR eligibility officers
in interview techniques, legal assessments and the use of country-of-origin information. Non-compliance
with first-instance asylum processing delays stipulated in the asylum legislation is also observed. Despite


Input:
mine). Women are more likely to earn cash and less likely to work in agriculture after mine

openings. We find similar results when we analyze the effects at the district level and when we

use production levels instead of openings and closings of mines. We interpret this as there being

additional effects of being very close to a mine (within 20 km), beyond the effects from being

in a mining district. No spillovers into neighboring districts are detected.

The results are in accordance with the results in Kotsadam and Tolonen (2016), who find similar

effects on occupation in mining communities across the whole of Sub-Saharan Africa, and with

Aragón and Rud (2013), who find that agricultural productivity in Ghana is reduced by mining

production nearby. We find no statistically significant results on wealth and inequality, although

the results point toward increases in both. The effects on infrastructure are ambiguous; we

cannot detect any better access to flush toilets and radios, and the effects on electricity access

are negative. Further decomposing these effects, we learn that migrant households are less

likely to have access to electricity (compared with the change among migrant households living


Input:
**Net primary school enrolment shows a slight decline but is attributed to changes in the education system rather**

**than reduced access.** The enrolment rate decreased from 81 percent in 2019 to 75 percent in 2024. However, this

is likely due to the adjustment in the age bracket for primary school in Kenya under national education reforms

launched in in 2022, which has led to a temporary underestimation of the enrollment rate. Despite this, the Shona

community's access to primary education remains strong and stable.

_Figure 2: Access to essential services, pre- and post-citizenship_

_Source: 2019 Shona socioeconomic survey_ [[8]] _and the authors’ calculation of 2024 survey data._

**[www.unhcr.org](http://www.unhcr.org/)** 5

2019 Shona socioeconomic survey


Input:
**Immigrants could possess complementary skills that**

**make native workers more productive as they specialise.**
These skills do not even need to be advanced to be complementary. Natives are likely to deal better with communications-intensive tasks and have better networking, all of which may be better paid and not easily transferable between countries. OECD (2016) gives an example of a native carpenter, who employs an immigrant to do his previous manual tasks and himself focuses on marketing and business development.
Such occupational upgrading has been first shown in a seminal paper by Peri and Sparber (2009) in the USA data, but has been quickly extended to other countries. From this perspective Foged and Peri (2016) look at refugees in Denmark in the 19912008 period. They find that inflow of low-skill refugees caused less educated native workers to pursue less manual-intensive tasks - improving their wages, employment, and occupational mobility. These effects are causal, as the authors exploit the refugee dispersal system, which is orthogonal to economic opportunities.

**Immigrants could enter childcare, elderly care, and**

**housekeeping services, allowing highly educated and**

USA data


Input:
Despite the possible gains in wages for wage earners, we note a decrease in the regionally

deflated total household expenditure (column 5), and a decrease in per capita expenditure on

food and nonfood items (column 4). The increase in wages but decrease in total expenditure

can possibly be explained by rising prices and wages in mining communities, where everyone

has to pay the higher prices but only some (those who earn wages), benefit from a rise in wage

rate.

Columns 6 through 9 of table 12 look at nondeflated expenditure measures for food, housing,

health and education, and household energy. [17] We confirm that total household expenditure on

food decreases (compared with the per capita deflated measure in column (4)), but find that

households spend more money on housing, transport, and communication, and household

energy, such as electricity and gas. The electricity and gas expenditure is only for those who

have any positive expenditure on these, and we saw earlier that electricity access changes with

the mine. This confirms that, among those who spend anything on electricity, they spend more

on it in mining communities.

**Table 12 Using GLSS: Household income and expenditure**

---
[17] Additional results for recreation and transport and communication are available upon request. The expenditure


Input:
_UNHCR
 Discussion
 Paper
 –15
 June
 2013_

lack
 of
 skilled
 personnel,
 facilities,
 basic
 equipment
 and
 supplies,
 including
 in
 terms
 of
potentially
 life-‐saving
 reproductive
 health,
 malaria
 prevention
 and
 control
 and
 HIV
services.

The
 education
 sector
 is
 also
 substantially
 underserved
 and
 not
 of
 adequate
 standards,
with
 a
 shortage
 of
 teachers
 and
 an
 inadequate
 number
 of
 primary
 schools
 within
reasonable
 distance
 of
 many
 communities.
 Regular
 school
 attendance
 is
 hampered
 by
education
 costs,
 distances,
 illness,
 work
 requirements,
 insecurity
 in
 conflict-‐affected
areas
 and,
 for
 ethnic
 minority
 children,
 “language
 barrier”.
 Most
 children
 have
 limited
opportunity
 to
 continue
 their
 education
 beyond
 primary
 school.

Access
 to
 safe
 drinking
 water,
 particularly
 in
 rural
 areas
 and
 during
 the
 dry
 season
 is
uneven
 and
 in
 many
 locations
 insufficient,
 with
 those
 water
 sources
 available
 during
 the
dry
 season
 located
 far
 away
 from
 human
 dwellings.
 Standards
 of
 sanitation
 are
 very
 low,
with
 open
 defecation
 common
 and
 household
 latrines
 less
 than
 international
 standards.


Input:
Sample distribution by geographical strata, Poland 5,645 13,420 Jul-Aug UNHCR, IOM followed by random selection of districts, and convenience sampling for household selection.

CSCM, IOM, Romania 1,222 3,485 Jul-Sep UNHCR UNHCR, IOM, Slovakia 819 1,853 Jul-Aug WHO, UNICEF, SHC

**Total** **11,530** **27,302** **Jun-Sep**

Sample distribution by geographical strata, and simple random selection of households from cash enrolment lists.

Two strata (collective sites vs. private accommodation); random selection of districts and convenience sampling for household selection.

### **Limitations**

The statistical significance of the MSNA results is limited by the non-probabilistic selection of respondents. Moreover, the use of convenience sampling likely led to a larger share of data being collected from more vulnerable households.

There was also a notably high non-response rate regarding questions related to income and expenditure, which likely resulted in non-response bias. The income module of the MSNA was also materially different from the one employed by EU SILC, which may limit comparability of this data to that of host populations.


Input:
dropping from 33 percent to 21 percent.  The literacy rate has remained constant at 93 percent, reflecting sustained

access to education. Overall, the Shona community's demographic profile suggests stability and gradual socio
economic integration following their acquisition of citizenship.

_Table 1: Demographic characteristics of Shona community in Kenya._

_Source: 2019 Shona socioeconomic survey_ [[8]] _and the authors’ calculation of 2024 survey data._

**[www.unhcr.org](http://www.unhcr.org/)** 4

2019 Shona socioeconomic survey


Input:
Many
 people
 do
 not
 possess
 a
 Citizenship
 Scrutiny
 Card
 (or
 “CSC”)
 either
 because
 they
live
 or
 used
 to
 live
 in
 conflict
 areas
 controlled
 by
 ethnic
 armed
 groups
 with
 no
Government
 representation,
 or
 simply
 because
 they
 do
 not
 have
 access
 to
 the
administrative
 mechanisms
 that
 issue
 these
 documents.
 Furthermore,
 the
 Government
in
 the
 past
 limited
 distribution
 of
 CSCs
 in
 border
 areas
 to
 contain
 movement
 of
 people
linked
 to
 ethnic
 armed
 groups.
 Very
 few
 IDPs
 held
 CSCs
 before
 their
 displacement,
 and
 it
may
 be
 extremely
 difficult
 for
 people
 who
 have
 been
 displaced
 as
 refugees
 or
 IDPs,
particularly
 from
 areas
 controlled
 by
 ethnic
 armed
 groups,
 to
 provide
 the
 necessary
documentation
 to
 obtain
 CSCs.
 Additionally,
 persons
 not
 belonging
 to
 one
 of
 the
officially
 recognized
 “ethnic
 groups”
 face
 difficulty
 in
 acquiring
 CSCs,
 despite
 the
 fact
that
 there
 are
 relevant
 provisions
 available
 for
 them
 under
 the
 Myanmar
 Citizenship
Law.
 In
 July
 2011,
 the
 Immigration
 and
 National
 Registration
 Department
 of
 the
Ministry
 of
 Immigration
 and
 Population
 initiated
 the
 Moe
 Pwint
 Operation,
 which
 is
 an
accelerated
 procedure
 to
 issue
 CSCs,
 especially
 in
 areas
 that
 were
 remote
 and/or
difficult
 to
 access
 in
 the
 past
 because
 of
 the
 presence
 of
 non-‐state
 armed
 groups.


Input:
Indonesia’s National Refugee Task Force, established in 2019, remains an important Government entity
in the management of refugee affairs. Deputy V in POLHUKAM is the head of the National Refugee
Task Force and members include the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and a wide range of security-focused
actors. Several local refugee task forces operate in provinces hosting refugees and remain active and
important counterparts. UNHCR also works with a range of partners in Indonesia, particularly IOM,
YCWS, and YKMI in several areas of protection and assistance. In addition, UNHCR works with nongovernmental, civil society and refugee-led organizations, as well as other UN agencies working with
and advocating for the rights of the refugee population in Indonesia.

**Locations of Persons Registered with UNHCR**


Input:
can promote reconciliation and a sense of national unity and identity. [[11]]

**Acquiring Kenyan citizenship has significantly improved the socioeconomic conditions of the Shona community,**

**enabling them to access essential services, economic opportunities, and social benefits.** Before gaining citizenship

in 2020, the Shona faced numerous barriers due to their stateless status, which excluded them from formal

employment, financial services, and government programs. Following the acquisition of nationality, the Shona now

enjoy access to legal identity documents, increased livelihood opportunities, better health insurance access, and

financial inclusion. These positive changes align with findings in the academic literature, which highlight the

importance of citizenship in reducing poverty and enhancing human capital by allowing individuals to leverage

government services, engage in formal employment, and contribute more productively to society.

**Citizenship has also enhanced the Shona community’s labor market potential, though employment rates are still**

**recovering from the adverse impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic.** Legal identity has granted many Shona

individuals the ability to seek formal employment and broaden their economic activities beyond informal self
employment. This has enabled the community to slowly rebuild their livelihoods post-pandemic. Nevertheless,

employment levels remain below pre-pandemic rates, especially for women, reflecting challenges in labor market


Input:
Moreover, Chad developed a national strategic plan for the progressive implementation of universal health
coverage from 2017 to 2019, starting with vulnerable populations. Eventually, it should cover all individuals
residing in Chad, including refugees. However, the implementation of this plan was disrupted by the
COVID-19 pandemic. As of June 2023, its implementation was not yet effective.

**4.3** **Social protection**

State social protection programmes are guaranteed to refugees and asylum-seekers under Article 21 of the
[2020 Asylum Law. Article 33 of the Law specifies that refugees and asylum-seekers are entitled to the same](https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2091861/645b938a4.pdf)
[treatment as nationals regarding assistance and public relief. Article 77 of the 2023 Decree reiterates the](https://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2091861/645b938a4.pdf)
same.

The 2016-2020 National Social Protection Strategy (SNPS) faced implementation challenges. Subsequently,
a new SNPS for 2022-2026, developed with support from UNICEF, the World Bank, UNFPA, WFP and FAO,
is now awaiting validation and government approval. This strategy, distinct from its predecessor, prioritizes
addressing financial and livelihood security for the most vulnerable, managing risks, reducing vulnerability
and ensuring access to basic social services for all residents in Chad, including refugees. Notably, it aligns
with the Global Compact on Refugees (GCR). The forthcoming strategy will be accompanied by a priority
action plan.


Input:
In terms of economic violence, only 21% of Venezuelan women of working age access the formal
job market, compared with 42% of men, and the situation is even worst for young women aged
18 to 26 who are single head of household (13%). [28] Moreover, women in the formal job market
earn an average salary that is 7% lower than men, a gap that widens up to 32% at higher and post
graduate levels. [29]

As far as physical and sexual violence is concerned, 18% of Venezuelan women and girls do not
feel safe in their communities, a proportion that is three times higher in Roraima and Amazonas
states, compared with the rest of the country. [30] Among the places that are perceived as most
insecure, respondent mentioned: the way to school (44%), community and religious spaces (44%),
shelters (35%) and their own homes (28%). [31] A recent study also found that in the state of Roraima,
9% of key informants witnessed some form of sexual violence against children. [32]

_26_ ACNUR (2023), cit. p. 14

_27_ Idem, p.17

_28_ R4V (2024), cit.


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The top 5 protection incidents reported in the region are homicide (30 per cent), assault and battery (29 percent),
extortion of property (16 per cent), destruction of properties (13 per cent), and looting (12 per cent). Also, those
protection incidents affected 99.88 percent of Internally displaced persons (IDPs), 0.11 percent of refugees, and 0.01
per cent of asylum-seekers. The protection incidents affected more males (53 per cent) than females (47 per cent),
and the protection incidents affected the age group (0 to 17), children, who represent 44 percent of all victims
reported in September 2022. In addition, the perpetrators of those protection incidents are armed groups (46 per
cent), host communities (26 per cent), others (23 per cent), and unknown (5 per cent). It is worth mentioning that 1.3
percent of the regional population, compared to September 2022 regional data, was affected by the protection
incidents reported in September 2022.

September 2022 regional data


Input:
have a stronger focus on all households’ members, rather than focusing only on women and

young children. In addition, they provide more detailed information on labor market

participation, such as exact profession (where, for example, being a miner is a possible

outcome), hours worked, and a wage indicator. The data estimate household expenditure and

household income. Wages, income, and expenditure can, however, be difficult to measure in

economies where nonmonetary compensation for labor and subsistence farming are common

practices.

**4 Empirical Strategies**

**4.1 Individual-level difference-in-differences**

Time-varying data on production and repeated survey data allow us to use a difference-in

differences approach. [7] However, due to the spatial nature of our data and the fact that some

mines are spatially clustered, we use a strategy developed by Benshaul-Tolonen (2018). The

difference-in-difference model compares the treatment group (close to mines) before and after

the mine opening, while removing the change that happens in the control group (far away from

mines) over time under the assumption that such changes reflect underlying temporal variation

common to both treatment and control areas.

We limit the data to include households within 100 km of a mine location and estimate the

following:

---
[7] We have not done a synthetic control approach because of limited ability to explore pretreatment trends.

repeated survey data


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Analysis of the impact of refugees from Ukraine on the economy of Poland

#### **Model calibration**

We introduce a positive productivity shock into the Deloitte D.Climate model, reflecting empirical findings that refugee inflows coincided with stronger labour-market outcomes, to offset any potential adverse effects. Although higher employment rates among Ukrainian refugees correlate with improved job and wage outcomes for Polish citizens, we take a deliberately conservative approach in our general equilibrium simulations. While descriptive statistics and econometric estimates point in a positive direction, the available data remain too sparse for firm

**Chart 31. Labour market activity rates**

Women in 15-64 age group conclusions. [31] On the other hand, a default Deloitte D.Climate model estimation is in line with the previously mentioned canonical model. This yields a 1.35% decrease in wages and a 0.4 percentage point increase in the unemployment rate, which is implausible. Therefore, a positive marginal productivity of labour shock has been added to the model and calibrated to eliminate the impact on the unemployment rate throughout the simulation years of 2022, 2023, and 2024. While it is possible that the unemployment rate could fall despite the influx of Ukrainian refugees due


Input:
health care access, as has been observed in Tanzania (Rhee et al., 2018).

The analysis shows that mining has created structural shifts in labor markets, and that it has

reduced infant mortality rates. However, along with increased wage rates, we find that

household level expenditure on housing and energy increases. In addition, the migrant

population may have lower living standards with less electricity and a higher disease burden

among children. We have no information where the migrant population moved from, and we

cannot tell whether they have migrated to the area to benefit from the industry, or whether they

were part of a relocation program due to the mining. One caveat is that these observed

differences among migrant households in mining communities and non-mining communities

could stem from untestable selection, as we do not observe the migrant households before the

migration. Regardless of the motivation behind the migration decision, the policy

recommendation is to ensure policies are in place to ensure sustainable living conditions in this

group.

These district level findings should be placed in the context of seminal work by Caselli and

Michaels (2010) who found weak increases in living standards in Brazilian municipalities after


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The Indonesian Ministry of Education, Culture, Research and Technology issued a Circular Note in
2019, with amendments in 2022, allowing refugees and asylum seekers to access primary and
secondary formal and informal education in the national education system. Enrollment in local schools
requires a valid UNHCR document and competency in Indonesian language. UNHCR and our partners
provide preparation classes, covering Indonesian language and basic skills (reading, writing, and
math), as well as additional support (tuition fees, transport allowance and school supplies) to assist
children to access local schools. IOM similarly supports refugee children living in IOM
accommodations. Challenges to increase enrolment rates among refugee children include limited
interest on the part of refugee children to learn Indonesian, financial barriers, resettlement
expectations, the inability to obtain official documentation certifying completion of school (due to the
lack of an Indonesian identification number), and inadequate physical space within classrooms to
accommodate non-Indonesian children. As a result of these and other challenges, as of September
2024, only 769 refugee children (of approximately 3,000 school age children) are enrolled in
accredited national schools.

### **Health**


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HIGH EMPLOYMENT RATES, BUT LOW WAGES: A POVERTY ASSESSMENT OF UKRAINIAN REFUGEES IN NEIGHBORING COUNTRIES

**TOP 5 REFUGEE EMPLOYMENT SECTORS SPLIT BY**

**EMPLOYEE BACKGROUND (2024)**

**TOP EMPLOYMENT BARRIERS FOR EMPLOYED REFUGEES**

**(2024)**

Employed in the same sector in Ukraine Manufacturing Hospitality Construction Wholesale IT Lack of local language knowledge Cannot find a job with decent pay Few jobs for my skills or experience Lack of jobs with a suitable schedule Degree or skills recognition issues Source: Survey data 17% 15% 35% 5% 2% 4% Employed in a different sector in Ukraine 16% 9% 5% 24% 6% 4% 1% Note: Percentages are based on the distribution of relevant responses in the survey Source: Survey data Moreover, in the latest survey round, nearly 35% of employed refugees identified inadequate pay, a lack of positions that match their skill set, and challenges in having their qualifications recognized as barriers to employment. All of these answers also suggest a mismatch between qualifications and job placement.
Consistent with the findings on having to shift to jobs outside of previous employment backgrounds, working women reported the above employment barriers more frequently than men, supporting the hypothesis that they may be facing underemployment more often.

# **Methodology**

Survey data


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NAVIGATING HEALTH AND WELL-BEING CHALLENGES FOR REFUGEES FROM UKRAINE The survey methodology relied on a single household member (the respondent) answering health and MHPSS questions on behalf of all household members, which may have limited the ability to fully capture the unique needs and experiences of each individual. Furthermore, the questionnaire itself was constrained to a limited range of questions, which may have restricted the depth of data collected on complex and multifaceted topics, such as mental health and psychosocial well-being. Additionally, sensitive topics such as mental health and sexual and reproductive health may have been underreported, depending on the respondent’s comfort level and the presence of others during the interview.

**8**

# Sample demographics

The sample comprises 8,720 households, encompassing 19,803 individual household members. The population pyramid for this sample indicates that the majority of individuals are women aged 35–59 (25%), followed by women aged 18–34 (14%). To minimize potential biases due to gender imbalances, indicators were disaggregated by gender and age, allowing comparisons within consistent age groups. No significant gender disparity is observed in the sample in children; consequently, indicators related to child health were not impacted. The sample included 194 pregnant women and 247 breastfeeding women.


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Power BI Desktop Solutions Pathways Action Plan Protection and Conflict Sensitivity
-
Baardheere: A high occurence of violence and sexual and gender-based violence (SGBV) perpretrated by non-state actors as well as private individuals, highlighting a complicated conflict landscape. There is a need for strengthened protection services and provision of basic services.
-
Baydhaba: Findings suggest high rates of sexual and gender based violence (SGBV) took place, and were mostly perpretrated by non-state actors and private individuals. There is a need for enhanced protection from violence, and provision of basic services such as food and shelter.
-
Berdaale: Notably high incidents of violence and SGBV were recorded, mostly by non-state actors and private individuals, highlighting localized conflict dynamics. There is a need for strengthened protection for vulnerable groups.
-
Doolow: Escalating conflict was highlighted, with a high occurrence of violence and SGBV perpetrated by non-state actors, alongside private individuals.
There is a need for strengthened security services.
-
Kismayo: A high level of violence and killings were reported, perpetrated by private actors, which suggests the prevalence of opportunistic violence with unaffiliated private groups exploiting insecurity. There is a need for strengthened law enforcement capacity, and community-based protection mechanisms.
-
Banadir (including Daynile and Kahda): Very high displacements were recorded due to violence, SGBV, and killings with a combination of actors involved - predominantly unaffiliated private individuals and non-state actors.
There is a need for strengthened law enforcement capacity and a prioritization of basic services as well as livelihoods support to meet the needs of displaced communities.
-
Xudur: High rates of SGBV, exploitation and child protection violences were recorded, with penetrators identified as unaffiliated private actors, suggesting a limited state presence. There is a need to strengthen community mechanisms which are commonly relied upon by affected populations. There is also a need to improve access to food and shelter, and address exploitation through targeted protection measures.
In 2024, UNHCR conducted several assessment and analysis activities focused on protection and conflict sensitivity analysis. Key findings from these activities in the eight locations referred to in this report are detailed below. Note that analysis from the whole year is summarised.


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**situation over the past year.** In
the 15-59/64 age group, employment rate of Polish citizens stood at 75% in Q2 2024 according to Eurostat, slightly more than the 69% for Ukrainian refugees in the SEIS 2024 survey and 73% when adjusted for a different sex and age structure. In the 15-64 age group, the employment rate of Ukrainian male refugees was 67% while that of Polish citizens in Q2 2024 was 77%. For women, the rates for Ukrainian refugees and Polish citizens are closer in the 15-59 age group (female retirement age in Poland is 60) with 70% for refugees and 72% for Poles. Visible

SEIS 2024 survey


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### TABLE OF CONTENTS September/ October 2023 report Venezuela

**Operational highlights**

4 Humanitarian Program Cycle 2024: Humanitarian Needs Overview (HNO) Process

4 Coordination with other platforms, subnational Clusters, ICCG, and Partners

5 Accountability for Affected Populations (AAP) WG

5 GPC Townhall

5 La Carnada Play

6 Annual TiP Bulletin 2022-2023

6 Food Security and Livelihoods (FSL) and Trafficking in Persons (TiP)

6 Monthly Meetings of the WGTiP

6 Protection Mainstreaming Training

8 Training on Mixed Migration and Durable Solutions

8 Reporting Transition to 345W

8 Focal Group Discussions with LGBTIQ+ Organizations for

Thematic Protection Analysis Update (PAU)

10 Mental Health and Psychosocial Support (MHPSS)

Coaching and Training of Trainers (ToT)

10 Impact Stories of Series: September and October

11 Protection Service Mapping Revisions and Edits

11 Participation in the Gender ToT for Government Officials

11     September’s Monthly Meeting with Partners

12 Second Allocation for Venezuela Humanitarian Fund (VHF)

12 Protection Monitoring Tool (PMT)

**14** **Protection response: performance and funding**

Humanitarian Response

**3**


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2. Regulatory Environment and Governance

related to refugees. CNARR continues to be responsible for coordinating the protection of refugees. Its tasks
include safeguarding the well-being of refugees and asylum-seekers, managing issues related to them (such as
identification and registration, document issuance and camp administration), and maintaining communication
with relevant ministries. These ministries encompass Foreign Affairs, Security, Defence, Justice, Finance, Social
Affairs, Human Rights, Economy, Education, Health and Water. CNARR also provides advice to the MSPARGL
on sustainable solutions. Challenges faced by CNARR in coordinating efforts among various stakeholders and
donors persist, mainly due to a shortage of stable, qualified human resources and limited financial capacity. In
these circumstances and as specified by Article 55 of the [2023 Decree, UNHCR continues to support CNARR](http://2023 Decreehttps://www.ecoi.net/en/file/local/2091861/645b938a4.pdf)
for the refugee response coordination using the established refugee coordination model. Coordination
meetings with external partners are jointly chaired by the government counterpart (CNARR or prefect) and
UNHCR. CNARR maintains a presence in all refugee camps and most refugee hosting areas.


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Power BI Desktop Climate Change & Resilience Enhancing the climate adaption and resilience of IDPs and host communities is a priority.
Strengthening their ability to cope with and recover from current and future shocks, such as conflicts or climate change disasters, is essential for sustainable development and reducing the risk of further displacement.
Pathway #5:


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UNHCR conducts case management for survivors of gender-based violence and refers them to support
services with their consent. Assistance may include medical care, psychosocial support, temporary
safe accommodation, assistance to report to police and in any legal process, and interventions to
protect impacted children, if required. UNHCR and YCWS run a GBV hotline that can be accessed by
survivors of GBV 24 hours/day.  Since July 2023, UNHCR has conducted a GBV prevention program
that seeks to increase awareness of the root causes of GBV and to build the capacity of the community
to prevent and respond to GBV by Engaging Men in Accountable Practices (EMAP).

### **Legal Support**

UNHCR provides support to refugees and asylum seekers experiencing legal protection concerns,
including individuals seeking international protection at air and sea borders who are unable to access

UNHCR / 1 November 2024 4


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_Note:_ This figure shows the mine locations and the district in which the mines are located.

The baseline specification is shown in the following equation:

𝑌���         - 𝛽�𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒_𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡��         - ∝�� 𝑔� �𝜆𝑋�� �𝜀���      �3�

The outcome for individual _i_ in district _d_ in time period _t_ is regressed on district and year fixed

effects, an indicator for whether the individual lived in an active mine district at the time of the

interview, and time varying individual-level factors. Even though the treatment is defined at the

district level, we use individual-level data to be able to control for individual- level factors and

explore heterogeneity at the individual level. The standard errors are, however, clustered at the

district level to take into account the interdependence induced by the higher-level treatment.

Since the treatment variable is at the same level as our district fixed effects, the _β1_ coefficients

are directly interpretable as difference-in-differences estimates. That is, they capture the

difference between mining districts and nonmining districts before and after mining starts.

In estimating the district-level effects of mine openings on birth outcomes, we control for birth

year fixed effects instead of survey-year fixed effects, as we are interested in the effect of

individual-level data


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Children from households with members living below the poverty line were also found to significantly less frequently attend school. The enrollment rate in local schools for 5–17-year-olds in this group amounted to 72% as opposed to 84% for households with a higher income. Moreover, close to 20% of these children did not participate in online learning either, thus being completely disengaged from formal education.

Finally, one in five refugee households in the poverty group reported having to reduce the number of meals eaten per day over the last week to cope with a lack of food or money to buy it. Roughly the same proportion had to borrow money or rely on friends and relatives at least once over the same period for sustenance. Almost one in three households resorted to reducing food intake for adults, so that small children could eat. When asked to assess their income level qualitatively, 26% of respondents living in poverty indicated that this amount is insufficient to cover their food needs as opposed to just 3% in the higher income group.

**7**


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reintegration. The employment rate for women dropped from 72 percent in 2019 to 61 percent in 2024, suggesting

a slower recovery in sectors traditionally dominated by women. Overall, the Shona community’s gradual

employment recovery indicates the value of citizenship in building economic resilience and highlights the need for

continued support to ensure inclusive recovery for all members of the community.

**The Shona experience provides valuable lessons for addressing statelessness and promoting inclusive**

**development for other stateless communities globally.** Gaining citizenship has been transformative for the Shona,

granting them access to a range of socioeconomic benefits and reducing their vulnerability to poverty and exclusion.

This case underscores the importance of grant of nationality to stateless populations and its potential to unlock

economic and social opportunities that drive sustainable development. As more countries around the world seek

to address statelessness through legislative changes and the expansion of citizenship rights, the Kenyan experience

with the Shona can serve as a model. By providing legal identity and addressing structural barriers, policymakers

can empower stateless communities to participate more fully in their economies and societies, leading to improved

livelihoods, social cohesion, and economic growth. These findings have broader implications for the many stateless


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The paper contributes to the growing literature on the local effects of mining. Much of the

academic interest in natural resources is focused on country-wide effects, and this research

discusses whether the discovery of natural resources is a blessing or a curse to the national

economy. Natural resource dependence at the national level has been linked to worsening

economic and political outcomes, such as weaker institutions, and more corruption and conflict

(see Frankel 2012 and van der Ploeg 2011 for an overview). While all these effects can have

household-level implications, fewer analyses have, thus far, analyzed the geographic dispersion

of such impacts. A recent literature on the local and subnational effects of natural resources

contributes to the understanding of such effects (for example Aragón and Rud 2013, 2015;

Axbard et al., 2016; Benshaul-Tolonen 2018, 2019; Caselli and Michaels 2013; Corno and de

Walque 2012; Fafchamps et al. 2016; Kotsadam and Tolonen 2016; Loyaza et al 2013;

Michaels 2011; von der Goltz and Barnwal 2019; Wilson 2012). A growing number of papers

explore the mining industry, in particular, see Aragón, Chuhan-Pole, and Land (2015) for an

overview. We contribute to this literature by showing the importance of analyzing local level


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to credit, which is critical for expanding small businesses or starting new ventures. These changes underscore the

transformative role of citizenship in enabling the Shona community to overcome previous barriers to economic

participation and build sustainable livelihoods.

**Moreover, citizenship has also led to increased access to training and educational opportunities, while reducing**

**discrimination in the workplace.** Over a third of the Shona noted that they have had more opportunities for training

or education since becoming citizens, helping them to build skills and enhance their employability. Another 30

percent reported experiencing less discrimination at work, which has contributed to more positive employment

outcomes and a more inclusive work environment. Overall, these improvements indicate that legal recognition has

been pivotal in unlocking the economic potential of the Shona community, setting the stage for greater

socioeconomic mobility and long-term development.

- **Box 2: Findings from focus group discussions**

Many of the survey results are consistent with findings from qualitative focus group discussions, including

challenges associated with securing economic opportunities. The Shona community faces challenges predominantly

stemming from low education levels and the absence of formal qualifications to which the lack of nationality and


Input:
of intent to employ foreign workers. The results are similar to the OLS estimation; however, when the second instrument is used without the first one, it gives a higher result. Instrumental variables regressions show that in 2023, a 1 percentage point higher employment share of Ukrainian refugees caused a PLN 70 higher wage growth (0.7 pp.) when instrumented by school pupils' share, PLN 132 (1.4 pp.) when instrumented by 2019 Ukrainian workers distribution, and PLN 75 (0.8 pp.) when both instruments were used. That said, the results should be treated with caution, as the instruments used may not be sufficiently exogenous to allow for fully credible causal inference.

The early analysis by Gromadzki and Lewandowski (2023), mentioned previously also found a statistically significant effect of Ukrainian refugees on earnings. In their estimation, the share of the Ukrainian refugee population had a small positive and statistically significant relationship with the earnings of Polish women at a 0.1 level.
Their results for foreign women were also positive, albeit smaller and lacking statistical significance.

2019 Ukrainian workers distribution


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English for Speakers of Other Languages programme in Massachusetts. The policy targeted all immigrants, including those who had lived in Massachusetts for several years, with data for 2008–2016 and 4,700 individual lottery applicants. Authors found a causal effect, with annual earnings increasing by USD 2,400. These earnings gains generated additional tax revenue that produced a 6% return for taxpayers.
Schmid (2023) studied African refugees who applied for asylum in Switzerland between 2008 and 2017. He exploited the random assignment of refugees to French, German, and Italian cantons, as well as their prior language knowledge (e.g. French speakers placed in French or German speaking cantons). The results showed that language proficiency more than doubled the employment level in the first five years after arrival.

**The econometric model estimated**

**in the SEIS UNHCR survey shows**

**substantial wage gains from Polish**

**language proficiency for Ukrainian**

**refugees.** Deloitte has estimated an
econometric model incorporating individual income determinants of Ukrainian refugees. Our study has

SEIS UNHCR survey


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REGIONAL BUREAU FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

**2022 VOLUNTARY REPATRIATION IN SOUTHERN AFRICA REGION**

As of 30 September 2022

MAP OF VOLUNTARY REPATRIATION WHERE THE FLOW INVOLVE 5 POCs OR MORE

KEY FIGURES

15,042

Total Individuals
repatrieted since

January 2022

Individuals repatrieted

**within Southern Africa**

**Region** since January

2022

6,786 8,256

Individuals repatrieted

**from Southern Africa**

**Region** to other countries
outside of the region since

January 2022

VOLREP* WHERE THE FLOW INVOLVE 5 POCs OR MORE

TRENDS

MONTHLY REPATRIATION SINCE JANUARY

**3,874**

ANNUAL REPATRIATION SINCE 2019

*VolRep = Voluntary Repatriation  PoCs = Persons of Concern Source : UNHCR PRIMES   Author : DIMA/RBSA    Data sources: UNHCR PRIMES.  For more information or to contribute, please contact UNHCR RBSA DIMA (rsarbdima@unhcr.org)

UNHCR PRIMES


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Ultimately, refugees provide the Polish economy an additional boost both in total product and demand. That allowed for an increase in real GDP. This situation was especially beneficial for public finance.
Although the influx of refugees was costly at the start, the additional revenue they provided was more than enough to compensate for this [48] . The cost for local labour force due to increased competition was in most part mitigated due to a tight labour market.

As such, the increase in unemployment was much lower than increase in employment.
To maximise the positive impact of refugees on economy, policies helping their integration into the labour market that both allow their maximal employment as well minimise market mismatch between demand for specific skills and their abilities are crucial. The second part of this recommendation, achieved either through improvements in utilisation of skills of refugees or trainings giving them abilities demanded by the labour market, is integral as it should lower costs for the local labour force.

---
[48] Model treats general government sector as a whole, as such cost and income internal structure may differ creating institutions with financial loses while


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The 2024 SEIS equivalized [8] disposable income data indicates that just over one in five refugees (23%) residing in the region are living in poverty [9] . This figure is almost double that of host country nationals (12%), implying a large gap in economic vulnerability. Compared to 2023, poverty rates have decreased substantially (from 36% [10] ), suggesting an overall improvement in the economic well-being of Ukrainian refugees over time.

**REFUGEE VERSUS HOST POVERTY RATES BY COUNTRY**

Ukrainian refugees (2024) Host country nationals (2023) Bulgaria Czechia Hungary Moldova Poland Romania Slovakia Estonia Latvia Lithuania Region Note: Poverty rates for all countries apart from the Republic of Moldova are based on a calculation that follows Eurostat’s at-risk-of-poverty (AROP) methodology with the at-risk-of-poverty threshold set at 50% of the national median disposable income after social transfers. Refugee disposable income has been computed based on survey data. For the Republic of Moldova, the poverty threshold was taken to be the 4Q23 absolute poverty line reported by the National Bureau of Statistics of Moldova.

Source: Survey data, [Eurostat,](https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat) [National Bureau of Statistics of Moldova, SAG estimates](https://statistica.gov.md/en)

2024 SEIS equivalized disposable income data

survey data


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NAVIGATING HEALTH AND WELL-BEING CHALLENGES FOR REFUGEES FROM UKRAINE Respondents who faced constrains in accessing care were more likely to identify seeking health care as reason for visiting Ukraine in all countries, with the exception of Latvia.

**REASONS SEEKING HEALTHCARE FOR VISIT TO UKRAINE**

**BY OBTAINED CARE STATUS**

Unable to access health care Able to access health care Hungary Poland Czechia Bulgaria Romania Estonia Slovakia Lithuania Moldova Latvia (N=3,596) Respondents with a chronic illness were more likely to cite accessing health care as reason for visiting compared to those without (33% vs 23%). Among households with a member who has a disability, healthcare access was the primary reason for visiting (38%), compared to 26% for households without a member with disability. There were no immediate gender differences concerning the prevalence of healthcare as a reason for women and men to visit Ukraine.

**16**

### **Access to sexual** **and reproductive** **health services**


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Poland is studied in an early paper by Gromadzki and Lewandowski (2023), who find no effect on earnings, employment, and unemployment rate of native or other immigrants, except an actual slight positive impact on the wages of native women.
Even in a conservative scenario that assumes negative effects of labour market competition in the form of higher unemployment and slower real wage growth, an increase in the labour force translates into larger personal incomes and higher private consumption, which results in a larger tax revenue. These effects were strengthened by an influx of capital from abroad.

###### In total, the general government revenue increased by 0.8-1.1% in 2022 and 1.05-1.45% in 2023. In monetary terms, this amounts to 10.1-13.7 billion PLN in 2022 and 14.7-19.9 billion PLN in 2023.

If estimates quoted by a government offical of public expenses on refugees of around 15 billion PLN in 2022 and 5 billion in 2023 [13] are accurate, we can conclude that they were more than offset by the additional tax revenue. In the long-term, refugees should increase yearly government revenue by around 0.85-1.3%.


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Analysis of the impact of refugees from Ukraine on the economy of Poland

## **1.** Ukrainian refugees in Poland

##### The large influx of refugees since February 2022, added to a hefty and growing Ukrainian migrant population in Poland (1.1). Refugees have changed the demographics of the local Ukrainian residents, with most of them being women and children and many households led by women alone (1.2). In the past year, refugee household income sources have become more Poland-based (1.3).

#### **1.1 Influx since February 2022**

Analysis of the impact of refugees from Ukraine on the economy of Poland

**Chart 1. Poland-Ukraine border movement balance and registered/active PESEL data**

**Prior to the 2022 conflict in Ukraine,**

**the population of Ukrainians in**

**Poland was already significant and**

**on the rise, but the exact number of**

registered/active PESEL data


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**GDP.** This is the amount that would be
lost, should refugees “disappear” from the Polish economy. It is mainly driven by a higher number of workers in the economy, but also accounts for increased productivity brought about by more specialization. Considering all aspects, the overall impact of the refugees has been predominantly positive, and it moved the Polish economy to a higher growth path.
Refugees contribute to the economy slightly more than their employment share – they increase the labour supply as both workers and entrepreneurs and expand demand as consumers. The rise in productivity due to more specialization across the labour force further boosts the economy. The impact of refugees is lowered by a temporary decrease in the capital-to-labour ratio (companies need time to invest in equipment and machines to match the rise in the number of workers), as well as an increase in competition on the labour market.

**The figures are higher than those in**

**the previous Deloitte (2024) report,**

**which – due to scant data available**

**at the time – did not account for the**


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**the most in the last two years.** The
data as of June 30, 2024 shows that 38% of Ukrainian refugees worked in elementary occupations, much more than pre-war Ukrainians (25%), non-Ukrainian foreigners (18%), and Polish citizens (10%).

MSNA Jul-Aug 2023 SEIS May-Jun 2024 MSNA Jul-Aug 2023 SEIS May-Jun 2024 Source: Deloitte own elaboration based on MSNA and SEIS UNHCR surveys conducted in July-August 2023 and May-June 2024.

While the share seems least favourable among Ukrainian refugees, their situation improved the most in the two years since June 30, 2022 (by 10 pp. compared with 9 pp. for the pre-war Ukrainians, 2 pp. for non-Ukrainian foreigners and 1 pp. for Polish citizens). On the other hand, in Q2 2024, managers and specialists, the two highest paid occupational groups, comprised 8% of both Ukrainian refugees and pre-war Ukrainians, 22% of nonUkrainian foreigners (who include many

MSNA and SEIS UNHCR surveys

MSNA


Input: The standard of living of refugees from Ukraine may be significantly lower than natives, even at similar incomes due to their lack of housing capital. 87% of the population in Poland resided in owneroccupied housing in 2021 and 2022, according to Eurostat. As most refugees from Ukraine do not possess housing of their own in Poland, they need to rent in a relatively tight market, especially when they reside in large metropolitan areas that offer the most opportunities. Initially, in the first month after the outbreak of the full-scale war in Ukraine, the number of renting offers in the OLX and Otodom portals dropped by approximately 60%, though it later returned to previous levels.


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widespread among Shona households, and access to external support was minimal. Although employment levels

began to recover a year later, they remained below pre-pandemic levels, underscoring the prolonged adverse

impact of the pandemic on this already vulnerable community. [[9]]

_Figure 1: Labor force status after the COVID-19 outbreak (18-64 years)_

_Source: Kenya COVID-19 Rapid Response Phone Surveys (RRPS)_ _[[9]]_

**Two rounds of household surveys taking place over five years before and after the transition of the Shona in**

**Kenya from statelessness to citizenship help us to understand this community – and present one of the first**

**socioeconomic pictures of the impact of citizenship on the welfare of stateless persons.** Between 2019 and 2024,

the median age of Shona household members remained unchanged at 18 years, underscoring a predominantly

youth demographic profile. Gender distribution is even, showing only a marginal change, with the female population

increasing slightly from 49 percent to 50 percent. Average household size has risen modestly from 4.9 to 5.4

members, which may reflect greater household consolidation or socio-economic stability following their

naturalization. The most notable shift is the significant reduction in the proportion of female-headed households,

Kenya COVID-19 Rapid Response Phone Surveys

household surveys


Input:
For productivity two options were tested.
Firstly, neutral impact: no shock to productivity. Secondly, lower productivity of workers from Ukraine negatively impacting total labour productivity. These shocks were calibrated to match the difference in data between refugees income from labour in UNHCR survey and average wage in Poland from Statistics Poland weighted by refugees share in total workforce.

As one period in the model is set to one year and refugees started coming to Poland by the end of February 2022 it was assumed that their impact on economy started being felt starting from II quarter of the year.
As such shocks were set so that 3⁄4 of shocks were calibrated to data from 2022 and 1⁄4 to data for 2023 [56] .

51 Computational General Equilibrium.
52 Global Trade Analysis Project, [GTAP Models: Current GTAP Model (purdue.edu).](https://www.gtap.agecon.purdue.edu/models/current.asp) 53 Region combined from: Russia, Belarus, Ukraine, Moldova, Czechia, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria.
54 All shocks are percent deviations.
55 [Oversight of fnancial market infrastructures (bank.gov.ua)](https://bank.gov.ua/en/payments/oversite)

---
[56] E.g. for total increase in number of workers of 350 thousand around 262.5 thou. was set to have happened in 2022 while rest in 2023.

UNHCR survey

Statistics Poland


Input:
**macroeconomic benefits.** To illustrate
the macroeconomic impact of public intervention, we have assumed that half of the current language gap is addressed, so that the share of working refugees not speaking Polish fluently falls from 82% to 41%. Assuming that the productivity Analysis of the impact of refugees from Ukraine on the economy of Poland

#### **4.5 Recommendations**

##### Language courses

**Ukrainian refugees in Poland earn higher wages when they**

**have higher language skills.** There is substantial scientific evidence
that language courses improve labour market outcomes of refugees and other migrants. Financing language courses for refugees would generate positive impacts for them and the economy. Courses should be available not just at beginner to intermediate levels, but also for advanced speakers who want to become proficient and gain access to high-skill jobs.

##### Occupational licensing deregulation

**While some occupational licensing rules with regard to**

**Ukrainian citizens were relaxed, further and permanent easing**

**would benefit both the Polish economy and the inclusion of**

**refugees.** The low-hanging-fruit are the restrictions referring to
citizenship only – rather than actual expertise or language skills – which could be scrapped altogether.

##### Active Labour Market Policies

**Active Labour Market Policies (ALMPs) should focus on**


Input:
_UNHCR
 Discussion
 Paper
 –15
 June
 2013_

- Assistance
 is
 co-‐ordinated
 and
 complies
 with
 principles
 of
 neutrality
 and
impartiality
 as
 well
 as
 humanitarian
 standards.

 Donor
 support
 also
 converges
with
 co-‐ordination
 efforts.

- A
 valid
 Letter
 of
 Understanding
 (LOU)
 between
 UNHCR
 and
 appropriate
 line
ministries
 will
 remain
 in
 effect
 for
 the
 duration
 of
 UNHCR’s
 activities
 and
 could
be
 amended
 as
 necessary
 should
 an
 organized
 voluntary
 repatriation
 operation
be
 launched.

**10.
 PROPOSED
 ACTIVITIES**

Recognizing
 and
 emphasizing
 the
 need
 for
 all
 durable
 solutions
 decisions
 to
 be
 designed
and
 implemented
 with
 affected
 communities,
 and
 in
 consultation
 with
 relevant
authorities
 and
 non-‐state
 actors,
 UNHCR
 will
 ensure
 that
 displaced
 populations
 as
 well
as
 communities
 of
 origin
 and
 return
 are
 equipped
 to
 participate
 fully
 in
 the
 assessment,
design
 and
 implementation
 of
 all
 interventions
 in
 support
 of
 durable
 solutions,
 using
 an
age,
 gender
 and
 diversity
 mainstreaming
 approach.


Input:
instance, report significantly more instances of racism compared to other South American refugees
and migrants. [12] This exacerbates barriers to accessing a broad range of rights and services [13] and
leads to greater vulnerability to both low skilled and temporary jobs, particularly when compared
to Venezuelans who arrived in Brazil under similar circumstances. [14]

##### Protection Risk II

**Access to dignified housing.** In Brazil, a significant proportion of refugees and other forcibly
displaced people can only afford precarious and overcrowded dwellings, located in impoverished
and marginalized communities, often controlled by organized crime. [15] According to UNHCR´s
data, only 15% of refugees have secured tenure right to housing and\or land, 27% live in physically
safe and secure settlements with access to basic facilities, and 54% feel safe walking alone in their
neighborhood after dark. [16] In comparison, 65% of the Brazilian population owns the house in
which they live - although 14% lacks the documentation to prove tenure rights [17] - 72% lives in
physically safe and secure settlements, [18] and 52% feels safe walking alone in their neighborhood
after dark. [19]


Input:
Two per cent of surveyed Venezuelan households reported that at least one member had been
deceived, manipulated, coerced into debt, or received false promises intended to force them to
travel or migrate. [34] Additionally, one per cent of households reported at least one of its members
being held against his\her will by someone other than the country´s authorities, which may
suggest the possibility of human trafficking. [35]

Women and girls are particularly vulnerable to exploitation for various purposes of human
trafficking, including sexual exploitation, domestic forced labor, illegal adoption, and organs
removal. [36] Refugee women and girls in Brazil sometimes have to resort to survival sex, or cash-inhand domestic labor to make a living in Brazil, which increases their exposure to human trafficking
networks. [37] In addition to these risks, domestic workers face numerous safety and health hazards
related to their tasks and the environment they work in. These include chemical and ergonomical
hazards, but also psychosocial risks, including violence and harassment, which are pervasive in the
sector. The impact of these risks is amplified when domestic workers provide their services in the
informal economy, which is the case for most refugees and other forcibly displaced populations in
Brazil. [38]


Input:
The refugee inflow had a different demographic composition than the pre2022 economic migration. It primarily included working age women (41%) and children (40%). [5] Refugees from Ukraine did not plan to move, and many had special needs. In October 2023, nearly half of all refugee households included a person with a chronic illness, and some 10% included one with a Washington Group level 3 disability. Over a third included a single parent and a fifth an elderly person. [6] Despite these difficulties, refugees began entering the labour market surprisingly quickly – attaining an employment rate of 28% in May 2022 and 65% in November 2022 among working age persons (NBP, 2023) –

##### **753 thousand** Ukrainian workers, including 225 thousand refugees, had registered for social security by September 30, 2023.

**Situation of Ukrainian refugees on the**

**labour market in Poland**
Ukrainian refugees, despite war trauma and other difficulties, have quickly become a part of society as **consumers,**

**employees, entrepreneurs, and**


Input:
**Table 10 Summary statistics for bottom 40% of women**

(1)          (2) (3)        (4)

far from a mine close to a mine
before        during before       during

not working 0.188 0.183 0.200 0.162
service & sales 0.340 0.203 0.179 0.222
professional 0.018 0.005 0.014 0.006
agriculture 0.362 0.530 0.490 0.539
manual labor 0.091 0.079 0.117 0.072
earning cash 0.876 0.855 0.879 0.901
work all year 0.852 0.859 0.879 0.838

_Note:_ Column (1) is bottom 40% of sample at 20 to 100 km from a nonactive mine.
Column (2) is bottom 40% of sample at 20 to 100 km from an active mine.
Column (3) is bottom 40% of sample within 20 km of a nonactive mine.
Column (4) is bottom 40% of sample within 20 km of an active mine.

Regression results comparing these four groups are presented in panel B (urban) of Annex table

3. The results suggest that women in the bottom 40 percent are more likely agricultural workers

in mining communities than elsewhere, but also more often service sector workers. They are

less likely to work in manual labor, less likely to work all year, but more likely to earn cash for


Input:
panel B shows the effects of increased production in the survey year. There is no evidence of

spillovers in the sense that there is a similar effect in neighboring districts. In fact, most

coefficients point in the opposite direction for mining and neighboring districts indicating, if

anything, a shift in employment from neighboring districts to the producing ones.

**8 Conclusions**

Ghana has a long history of gold production and has recently been experiencing its third gold

rush, during which annual gold production skyrocketed. It was the first gold rush the country

has experienced as an independent nation, and it brings hope of improving the lives of its

citizens. Natural resource extraction is often argued to have detrimental effects on countries,

however, and the so-called natural resource curse may imply that resource wealth is harmful to

social development and inclusive growth. We use rich geocoded data with information on

households and mining production over time to evaluate the gold boom at the local and district

levels in difference-in-differences analyses.

Men benefit from direct job creation within the mining sector, and women seem to benefit from

indirectly generated jobs in the service sector (statistically significant within 10 km from a

geocoded data


Input:
Altogether 42% of respondents have visited Ukraine at least once since February 2022. Regionally, the second most common reason for visiting was to access healthcare services (28%), following visits to relatives (57%). The proportion of those visiting for healthcare varied significantly by country, with respondents in Hungary (40%), Slovakia (37%), and Romania (36%) showing the highest rates, while it was lower in Lithuania (19%), Latvia (13%), and Moldova (10%). These findings align with previously reported higher unmet healthcare needs in Hungary (22%), Slovakia (21%), and Romania (28%), suggesting that seeking healthcare in Ukraine serves as a coping strategy to address these unmet needs.

**% OF HOUSEHOLDS WHO CITED SEEKING HEALTH CARE AS**

**REASON TO VISIT UKRAINE**

Spent savings Reduced essential health expenditure Reduced essential education expenditure Purchased food on credit Migrated / became displaced Sold household assets Engage in high risk job Sold productive assets Sold house or land School-aged children labour Withdraw children from school (N=8,720) 37% 13% 7% 6% 5% 4% 4% 3% 2% 2% 1% Hungary Romania Slovakia Bulgaria Poland Estonia Czechia Lithuania Latvia Moldova (N=3,596) 18% 11% 11% 41% 37% 35% 33% 29% 29% 27%

**15**


Input:
advantage of capturing the intensity of mining production. Since it is somewhat unclear when

mining production spills over to other types of employment, we use two measures of mining

production. Panel A of table 13 shows the results of mining production in the period before the

survey, including the survey year, on female employment, and we see that mining production

leads to less agricultural employment but more employment in services and sales, as well as in

professional work. Panel B shows that the effects are larger but not as precisely estimated for

the yearly measure. That they are larger is not surprising, since a 10-ton increase one year is

much more than a 10-ton increase over a longer time period. The precision is also probably

lower since it is unclear what year the production spills over to other activities. In any case, we

see that the effects are similar across these two specifications. [18]

---
[18] The effects for infant health and infant mortality are also stronger when we add production levels (results


Input:
Power BI Desktop Legal Documentation, Housing, Land, & Property (HLP), and Access to Justice Providing necessary documentation and ensuring access to justice, housing, land, and property rights are essential for IDPs. Legal documentation is often necessary to access basic and financial services and secure employment, whilst tenure security and housing and land rights are critical for achieving permanent housing solutions to displacement.
Pathway #4:


Input:
It is also important to highlight that there were slight differences in the questionnaire across countries.
Not all questions were consistently included in all country-level surveys, and some answer options were individually adjusted. To mitigate the impact of these differences, the regional analysis focused on data that could be matched. Certain indicators that may have been available by country have thus been excluded from this assessment.

Lastly, the survey was conducted during the summer months, coinciding with both host country and Ukraine school holidays. This period often sees many households temporarily visiting Ukraine, which impacted the accessibility of households and posed challenges in meeting targets, particularly in certain countries and geographic locations.

**11**


Input:
The most common reported barrier to accessing MHPSS services was not believing that one needed support (36% in women, 34% in men), followed by not knowing where to go (31% in women; 29% in men). One in six (16%) of respondents reported adopting a “wait-and-see” approach. Other barriers included language barriers (14%), lack of time (10%), inability to afford services (7%), lack of service availability (5%), stigma (4%), long waiting time (4%),

**24**

Did not believe need support Did not know where to go Wait and see Language barrier Lack of time (N=1,682)


Input:
The findings on disability, chronic illness, and vaccination are based on self-reports and were not verified against medical records, which may impact their accuracy.

A high non-response rate was observed for sensitive questions related to mental health, psychosocial well-being, protection, income and expenditure which could affect the completeness of the data. Additionally, the survey results for certain indicators, such as infant and young child feeding and SRH barriers, should be interpreted with caution due to the small sample size or low response rates. As a result, some indicators could not be further analyzed to assess how factors such as gender, age, disability, or place of residence impact access to health and MHPSS services.

It is also important to note that there were slight differences in the questionnaire across countries and years, such as adjustments to answer options.
Therefore, the regional trend analysis was limited to questions that were consistently used across all participating countries and years to ensure comparability. Furthermore, certain indicators were excluded from the regional analysis due to insufficient sample size or the unavailability of data across all countries.

7. [https://www.washingtongroup-disability.com/question-sets/wg-short-set-on-functioning-wg-ss/](https://www.washingtongroup-disability.com/question-sets/wg-short-set-on-functioning-wg-ss/)

**7**


Input:
Despite the improved legal framework and the free issuance of birth certificates within the stipulated period,
challenges in physically accessing civil registration centres, along with a persistent lack of awareness
regarding legal obligations surrounding births, contribute to the overall low rates of birth registration in
Chad.

It is worth noting that there has been an increase in the birth registration rate from 15 per cent in 2020 to
26 per cent in 2023. The strategic partnership between UNHCR and government agencies responsible for
issuing birth certificates, specifically the Directorate of Political Affairs and Civil Status (APEC until 2020) and
ANATS since 2021, has facilitated the issuance of birth certificates to over 150,000 refugee children and
children from host communities in refugee hosting areas.

**2.5** **Justice and security**


Input:
Source: Deloitte own elaboration based on GUS and ZUS data. All continuous variables have been regressed in first differences to account for non-stationarity Polish citizens employment rates and registered unemployment rates. For details see the Online Technical Appendix.

39 2021-Q2 2022-Q2 2023-Q2 2024-Q2 2021-Q2 2022-Q2 2023-Q2 2024-Q2 Males Males Source: Deloitte own elaboration based Source: Deloitte own elaboration based of Eurostat data (Labour Force Survey). of Eurostat data (Labour Force Survey).

Females of Eurostat data (Labour Force Survey). Females 38

Eurostat data (Labour Force Survey)

Labour Force Survey

ZUS data

Eurostat data


Input:
A steady inflow of migrants could be observed in the last decade since 2014, when armed conflict erupted in Eastern Ukraine. As the Ukrainian economy suffered and its currency lost value, many Ukrainians came to Poland looking for work. Most of them came on a guest worker basis, enabled by a law from 2011, that allowed Ukrainians and five other nations to work in Poland for 6 months during a year without a work permit, based on employers' declaration. This was a circular migration, in which they returned to Ukraine once the 6 month period expired.
In effect most stayed in Poland for less than twelve months and therefore were not included in the resident population or other national population estimates.
A National Bank of Poland research paper estimates that between 2014 and 2018, between one and two million Ukrainian workers arrived in the country (Strzelecki, Growiec and Wyszyński, 2022).
Hard data on the number of Ukrainian workers in Poland before 2022 are limited 12


Input:
**XVI. Participation in the Gender**

**ToT for Government Officials**

**As part of the efforts of the Gender**

**Technical Working Group of Miranda**

**(“Mesa** **de** **Genero”)** **to** **support**

**strengthening of local government,**

**the Protection Cluster through the**

Protection Assistant, supported the

delivery of a ToT on Gender Equality

_b.Fundación Proyecto Maniapure (FPM)_

_(October):_ FPM, a PC partner, imple
ments integrated protection, and WASH

strategies in Amazonas and Bolivar. The

PC, in coordination with FPM staff, vis
ited the state of Amazonas to showcase

FPM's impactful work in the monthly

impact stories series.

The main axis of the organization

revolves around a community model that

centers the mental and physical health

as a human right. Their work has been

distinctive and their projects of great

impact to the most vulnerable groups,

such as the indigenous communities of

the Venezuelan Amazonia.

The PA visited the community of Valle

Lindo in the municipality of Atures in the

state of Amazonas, where he was able to

interview several persons of interest who

participate in the foundation's programs,

and in particular those people who were

participating in community sensitizations

and trainings on the prevention of TiP


Input:
5. Cross Sectors

**c.** **Land:** Access to land for sustainable agricultural activities, which is crucial for fostering refugee’s self
reliance remains challenging.

14 R E F U G E E P O L I C Y R E V I E W F R A M E W O R K > **R E P U B L I C O F C H A D**


Input:
migrant households in mining communities with migrant households elsewhere, and the null

hypothesis would be similar trajectory over time. If we reject the null, we cannot distinguish

between selective migration to mining communities and the impact of the mining. The

nonmigrant analysis can plausibly reflect similar households over time, with the limitation of

selective outward migration. We believe inward migration to mining areas to be more common

than outward migration (in line with Fafchamps et al., 2016).

Diarrhea is a major concern in many developing countries. Diarrheal diseases are, in part, a

matter of infrastructure, where access to clean water and proper sanitation are important

determinants. To further understand the effects on diarrhea, we look at the difference between

migrants and nonmigrants and the effects by distance (Figure 5). There are, in fact, large

differences between the migrant and the nonmigrant populations. Among nonmigrants, a mine

opening is associated with large decreases in incidence, whereas for migrants, the opposite is

true. Considering all children between 0 km and 20 km of an active mine, children born to


Input:
Alongside the large-scale, capital-intensive mining industry in Ghana, there is an artisanal and

small-scale mining sector (ASM). ASM activities were legalized in 1984, when the state

loosened its monopoly on gold mining. In Ghana, as in many other African countries, the sector

is an important employer (ILO 1999). It is estimated that around 1 million people in Ghana

support themselves with revenues from ASM activities.

The sector is associated with several hazardous labor conditions, however. This includes child

labor, mercury exposure, and risk of mine collapse (Hilson 2009). The ASM and the large-scale

mining sector sometimes thrive side by side, but sometimes competing interests lead to conflict

between the two sectors, such as around Prestea, where domestic _galamsey_ miners (informal

small-scale miners) have been in conflict with the multinational concession owner (Hilson and

Yakoleva 2007).

In this analysis, we focus solely on large-scale mining. We understand, however, that small

and large-scale operations may be geographically correlated. Assuming that the start of a large

scale mine does not affect the likelihood or viability of artisanal and small-scale mining, it is

not a threat to our identifying assumptions. However, should ASM respond to large-scale


Input:
1. [Ukraine Refugee Situation ( accessed 12 Dec 2024)](https://data.unhcr.org/en/situations/ukraine)
2. [Ukraine Situation: Regional Refugee Response Plan 2025](https://www.unhcr.org/europe/publications/regional-refugee-response-plan-2025-2026) 3. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2024/06/25/ukrainian-refugees-council-extends-temporaryprotection-until-march-2026/ 4. Charlson, F., van Ommeren, M., Flaxman, A., Cornett, J., Whiteford, H. and Saxena, S., 2019. New WHO prevalence estimates of mental disorders in conflict settings: a systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet, 394: 240-248.
5. Eurofound (2024), Social impact of migration: Addressing the challenges of receiving and integrating Ukrainian refugees, Publications Office of the European Union, Luxembourg

**5**


Input:
age migrant married cohabiting divorced fertility woman partner
active*mine 0.263 0.028 0.025 0.018 -0.003 0.030 -0.036 -0.003
(0.510) (0.042) (0.027) (0.029) (0.017) (0.115) (0.031) (0.030)

_Note:_ Robust standard errors clustered at the DHS cluster level in parentheses. All regressions control for year and
district fixed effects, urban dummy, age (not column 1), and years of education (not columns 6 and 7). Active is
active status of mine in the survey year. *** p<0.01, **p<0.05, *p<0.1.

**5.1 Employment outcomes**

Using the difference-in-differences approach (equation 1), we estimate results on occupation,

child health, and inequality. First, panel A of table 4 indicates that women in active mining

communities ( _active*mine_ ) are insignificantly more likely to work in service and sales and less

in agriculture, and 1.7 percentage points less likely to work as professionals (statistically

significant). There is no change in the likelihood that she is not working. These 5 categories

stem from the same occupational variable in the DHS data, and are mutually exclusive. The

surveyed individual is told to report their main occupation. The coefficients can therefore be

interpreted as relative increases of each specific sector. Women are more likely to earn cash for

DHS data


Input:
of establishing a theater group with an

experimental line of work.

La Carnada, an immersive and

documentary-style theatre production,

aims to raise awareness about victims

of Trafficking in Persons (TiP), focusing

on sexual and labour exploitation. It

sheds a light on contexts where digital

media, domestic violence, and deceptive

opportunities pose significant risks,

particularly for women and girls. As

part of the French-Venezuelan Festival

**5**


Input:
In 2022, 15,402 persons have been repatriated voluntarily thus far, with 2,805 persons repatriated in September.
The largest group of returns was from Zambia to the DRC, with 2,159 persons repatriated in September. Further,
there has been notable movements from Angola to the DRC in September, where, 47 families of 143 persons were
repatriated to destinations in the DRC such as Kassai Province, Kinshassa, Kwilu Province and Goma.

From January to September 2022, 4,497 individuals of 1,063 cases were submitted for resettlement consideration.
Among these cases, half were male and the other half were female with 57 per cent being children under age 18.

In the same period, 2,067 individuals departed for resettlement. A half of the departed cases were male and another
half were female, similarly to submitted cases. Most persons have been considered for resettlement to the United
States (3,417). The highest number of those departed also headed to the United States (1,285). In terms of country of
asylums, the highest number of submitted applications were from Malawi (1,438) and Zambia (1,367). Congolese
(DRC) is the nationality with the highest number of submissions (3,618) and departures (1,729).


Input:
antenatal at least 1 doctor midwife has health died
PANEL A. # visits antenatal attended attended card 12 months

active
0.759*** 0.026 0.055 0.125*** 0.039 -0.085***
district
(0.244) (0.022) (0.115) (0.033) (0.059) (0.031)

N 9,245 9,245 9,462 9,462 11,047 9,270

R-square 0.242 0.121 0.160 0.154 0.161 0.138

small

at birth, the child was
average
large height weight weight

PANELB. size size size for age for age for height

active
0.066 0.078 -0.148 -6.333 -23.676** -20.080
district
(0.057) (0.085) (0.090) (18.753) (9.364) (13.428)

N 11,837 11,007 11,007 9,646 9,646 9,851

R-square 0.041 0.061 0.060 0.199 0.163 0.073

in the last 2 weeks, had
PANEL C. fever cough diarrhea

active
0.016 0.010 0.058
district
(0.057) (0.035) (0.036)

N 10,849 10,883 10,887

R-square 0.052 0.046 0.055

_Note:_ Robust standard errors clustered at the district level in parentheses. All regressions control for year and
district fixed effects, urban dummy, age, and years of education. Active is active status of mine in the survey year.
Panel b, columns 1, 2, and 3 show size at birth. Panel B, columns 4, 5, and 6 show anthropometrics (new WHO)
in standard deviations. *** p<0.01, **p<0.05, *p<0.1.


Input:
migrant mothers are 6.9 percentage points more likely to have suffered from diarrheal diseases

in the two weeks prior to the start of the survey.

To further understand these effects, we decompose them by distance bins in a spatial lag model

(bottom two graphs in figure 5). It becomes evident that, from a high-level incidence (dashed

line) among the original local population (panel A of figure 5), the mine has brought substantial

reductions in diarrheal incidence (as shown by the blue line). In the migrant population, the

incidence is actually higher after mine opening than before, and the likelihood increases by 6.9

percentage points. The spatial lag model in panel B of figure 5 reveals that much of the effect

is driven by a spike in incidence 10 to 20 km away from the mine center point. If more migrants

move to the area because of the mine, they will be less settled, and health outcomes can

deteriorate, on average, within that population. Nevertheless, we should be careful in

interpreting the effects this way. The mine-induced migration, which we partly capture here,

could be different from the migration happening further away. The deteriorating status of


Input:
The data also shows that poverty [5] has a very tangible effect on living conditions and protection risks. This group feel less safe, less secure in term of accommodation tenure, more frequently misses out on needed healthcare, more often has children out of school, and is much more frequently forced to resort to skipping meals because of lack of funds. In addition, vulnerable populations, such as older adults and individuals with disabilities or MHPSS [6] needs exhibit significantly higher poverty rates when compared to the refugees overall.
These connections are important to bear in mind when designing government, development, and humanitarian support programs.


Input:
We suggest interpreting the local effects as being additional to the district-level effects; that is,

the mine affects the mining district predominantly through the fiscal channel, and local mining

communities mainly through employment generation, and other localized factors. Overall, the

results are more robustly estimated at the district level than at the individual level, and we find

no indications of positive spillover effects across districts. This is in line with a public spending

hypothesis, where mining districts benefit more than adjacent non-mining districts through the

fiscal revenue channel, since 10 percent of mining royalties are redistributed to mining districts.

**2 Gold mining in Ghana**

Ghana has a long tradition of gold mining and has produced a substantial portion of the world’s

gold for over 1,000 years (see Hilson [2002] for an extensive overview of gold production in

Ghana). During colonial British rule, the country was named the Gold Coast Colony, and gold

production was booming. The first gold rush occurred between 1892 and 1901, and the second

after World War I. Gold production decreased at the dawn of independence in 1957, and

remained low until the 1980s. Over the last 20 years, Ghana has been experiencing its third gold


Input:
employer sponsorship (immigrants come following a job offer – popular in Poland), family reunions (immigrants have family ties to a citizen abroad – like often in the USA) or point systems (immigrants fulfil certain characteristics judged by the state as valuable – like in Australia), refugees as involuntary migrants may not possess any such characteristics. Additionally, they may suffer from war trauma and be subject to policies that impede their labour market integration (like temporary labour bans or dispersals described in the previous chapter). This translates into lower employment and wages of refugees, which are key characteristics in terms of economic impacts. Moreover, their spending needs due to a sudden shift in living situation may be disproportionally higher, while their propensity to save lower as their future situation is more uncertain, resulting in the need to finance their consumption using capital generated outside the country e.g.
savings from their home countries.