Question:
Community organizer: Before last year's community cleanup, only 77 of the local residents signed up to participate, but then well over 100 actually participated. This year, 85 residents have signed up to participate. Since our community cleanup will be a success if we have at least 100 participants, we can be confident that this year's cleanup will be a success.
Question: The reasoning in the community organizer's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument
 A. generalizes about the outcome of an event based on a single observation of a similar situation
 B. takes for granted that people who participated in last year's cleanup will participate this year
 C. confuses a condition that is required for an outcome with one that is sufficient for that outcome
 D. overlooks the possibility that the cleanup will attract participants who are not residents in the community
 E. defines a term in such a way as to ensure that whatever the outcome, it will be considered a positive outcome
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Community organizer: Before last year's community cleanup, only 77 of the local residents signed up to participate, but then well over 100 actually participated. This year, 85 residents have signed up to participate. Since our community cleanup will be a success if we have at least 100 participants, we can be confident that this year's cleanup will be a success.
Question: The reasoning in the community organizer's argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that the argument
 A. generalizes about the outcome of an event based on a single observation of a similar situation
 B. takes for granted that people who participated in last year's cleanup will participate this year
 C. confuses a condition that is required for an outcome with one that is sufficient for that outcome
 D. overlooks the possibility that the cleanup will attract participants who are not residents in the community
 E. defines a term in such a way as to ensure that whatever the outcome, it will be considered a positive outcome
Answer: A


Question:
Consumer advocate: A recent study concluded that top-loading washing machines are superior overall to front-loaders. But front-loaders have the controls and access in front. This is more convenient for wheelchair users, some of whom find it highly inconvenient to remove laundry from top-loaders. So for some consumers front-loaders are superior.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption upon which the consumer advocate's argument depends?
 A. For some consumers the convenience of front-loaders outweighs the advantages of top-loaders in assessing which is superior.
 B. Washing machines of a given type should be compared only with washing machines of that type.
 C. Convenience is the only important factor in determining which type of washing machine is superior.
 D. Retrieving clothes from a top-loader is convenient for people who do not use wheelchairs.
 E. Retrieving clothes from front-loaders is inconvenient for people who are not wheelchair users.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Consumer advocate: A recent study concluded that top-loading washing machines are superior overall to front-loaders. But front-loaders have the controls and access in front. This is more convenient for wheelchair users, some of whom find it highly inconvenient to remove laundry from top-loaders. So for some consumers front-loaders are superior.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption upon which the consumer advocate's argument depends?
 A. For some consumers the convenience of front-loaders outweighs the advantages of top-loaders in assessing which is superior.
 B. Washing machines of a given type should be compared only with washing machines of that type.
 C. Convenience is the only important factor in determining which type of washing machine is superior.
 D. Retrieving clothes from a top-loader is convenient for people who do not use wheelchairs.
 E. Retrieving clothes from front-loaders is inconvenient for people who are not wheelchair users.
Answer: A


Question:
Evidently, watching too much television can lead people to overestimate the risks that the world poses to them. A recent study found that people are more likely to think that they will be victims of a natural disaster if they watch an above-average amount of television than if they do not.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the reasoning above?
 A. Many people overestimate the dangers that the world poses to them, regardless of the amount of television they watch.
 B. A person is less likely to live in an area that is prone to natural disasters if that person watches an above-average amount of television than if that person watches a below-average amount of television.
 C. People who watch a below-average amount of television tend to have a fairly accurate idea of the likelihood that they will be victims of a natural disaster.
 D. People who are well informed about the risks posed by natural disasters tend to have become well informed in some way other than by watching television.
 E. A person is more likely to watch an above-average amount of television if that person lives in an area that is prone to natural disasters than if that person lives in an area that is not.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Evidently, watching too much television can lead people to overestimate the risks that the world poses to them. A recent study found that people are more likely to think that they will be victims of a natural disaster if they watch an above-average amount of television than if they do not.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most weakens the reasoning above?
 A. Many people overestimate the dangers that the world poses to them, regardless of the amount of television they watch.
 B. A person is less likely to live in an area that is prone to natural disasters if that person watches an above-average amount of television than if that person watches a below-average amount of television.
 C. People who watch a below-average amount of television tend to have a fairly accurate idea of the likelihood that they will be victims of a natural disaster.
 D. People who are well informed about the risks posed by natural disasters tend to have become well informed in some way other than by watching television.
 E. A person is more likely to watch an above-average amount of television if that person lives in an area that is prone to natural disasters than if that person lives in an area that is not.
Answer: E


Question:
Editorial: The structure of the present school calendar was established to satisfy the requirements of early-twentieth-century agricultural life. In those days, farmers needed their children to have long breaks during which they could remain at home and help with the harvest. The contemporary school year is thus made up of periods of study interspersed with long breaks. But agricultural life no longer occupies most of our citizens, so we can now make changes that serve the interests of children. Therefore, long breaks should be removed from the school calendar.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption on which the editorial's argument depends?
 A. During long breaks children have a tendency to forget what they have learned.
 B. Children of farmers need to continue observing a school calendar made up of periods of study interspersed with long breaks.
 C. Long breaks in the school calendar should be replaced with breaks that are no longer than workers' average vacations.
 D. A change in the present school calendar that shortened breaks would serve the interests of agricultural life.
 E. A school calendar made up of periods of study without long breaks would serve the interests of children more than a school calendar with long breaks.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Editorial: The structure of the present school calendar was established to satisfy the requirements of early-twentieth-century agricultural life. In those days, farmers needed their children to have long breaks during which they could remain at home and help with the harvest. The contemporary school year is thus made up of periods of study interspersed with long breaks. But agricultural life no longer occupies most of our citizens, so we can now make changes that serve the interests of children. Therefore, long breaks should be removed from the school calendar.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption on which the editorial's argument depends?
 A. During long breaks children have a tendency to forget what they have learned.
 B. Children of farmers need to continue observing a school calendar made up of periods of study interspersed with long breaks.
 C. Long breaks in the school calendar should be replaced with breaks that are no longer than workers' average vacations.
 D. A change in the present school calendar that shortened breaks would serve the interests of agricultural life.
 E. A school calendar made up of periods of study without long breaks would serve the interests of children more than a school calendar with long breaks.
Answer: E


Question:
Proponents of nuclear power point out that new nuclear plants are so technologically sophisticated that the chances of a meltdown are extremely small. This is true, but it would still be unwise to build nuclear power plants, since the consequences of a meltdown are absolutely catastrophic.
Question: The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above?
 A. Many mountain climbers claim that their sport is safe because mishaps, though often fatal, are rare. However, mountain climbing is very risky: although the number of mishaps is small, so is the number of mountain climbers. Hence, the chance of a fatal mishap during mountain climbing is not as slim as it may seem.
 B. Eating a serving of vegetables just once will not improve your health. It is nonetheless prudent to do so, for eating vegetables every day will make you much healthier over time.
 C. Skydivers always use two parachutes: a main chute and an auxiliary one in case the main chute malfunctions. Thus, the risk of a fatal mishap is low. Nonetheless, it is foolish to skydive, for though the risk is small, the rewards from skydiving are also small.
 D. The risk of serious injury when bungee jumping is quite low. Nonetheless, it is reckless to engage in that activity, for the injuries that would result in the case of an accident are so extreme that it is not worth the risk.
 E. People complain about having to wear seat belts because they believe the chances of traffic accidents are slim. This is true; on any given trip it is unlikely that a collision will occur. However, it is till unwise to ride in a car without a seat belt, for the effort it takes to put one on is minimal.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Proponents of nuclear power point out that new nuclear plants are so technologically sophisticated that the chances of a meltdown are extremely small. This is true, but it would still be unwise to build nuclear power plants, since the consequences of a meltdown are absolutely catastrophic.
Question: The pattern of reasoning in which one of the following is most similar to that in the argument above?
 A. Many mountain climbers claim that their sport is safe because mishaps, though often fatal, are rare. However, mountain climbing is very risky: although the number of mishaps is small, so is the number of mountain climbers. Hence, the chance of a fatal mishap during mountain climbing is not as slim as it may seem.
 B. Eating a serving of vegetables just once will not improve your health. It is nonetheless prudent to do so, for eating vegetables every day will make you much healthier over time.
 C. Skydivers always use two parachutes: a main chute and an auxiliary one in case the main chute malfunctions. Thus, the risk of a fatal mishap is low. Nonetheless, it is foolish to skydive, for though the risk is small, the rewards from skydiving are also small.
 D. The risk of serious injury when bungee jumping is quite low. Nonetheless, it is reckless to engage in that activity, for the injuries that would result in the case of an accident are so extreme that it is not worth the risk.
 E. People complain about having to wear seat belts because they believe the chances of traffic accidents are slim. This is true; on any given trip it is unlikely that a collision will occur. However, it is till unwise to ride in a car without a seat belt, for the effort it takes to put one on is minimal.
Answer: D


Question:
Global wanning has contributed to a rise in global sea level not only because it causes glaciers and ice sheets to melt, but also simply because when water is heated its volume increases. But this rise in global sea level is less than it otherwise would be, since over the years artificial reservoirs have been built all around the world that collectively contain a great deal of water that would otherwise reach the sea.
Question: Which one of the following can most reasonably be concluded on the basis of the information above?
 A. The exact magnitude of the rise in global sea level is in dispute.
 B. Rises in global sea level that occurred before the world's reservoirs were built are difficult to explain.
 C. Little is known about the contribution of global warming to the rise in global sea level.
 D. The amount of water in the world's reservoirs is about equal to the amount of water that results from the melting of glaciers and ice sheets.
 E. The amount of water that results from the melting of glaciers and ice sheets cannot be determined by looking at the rise in global sea level alone.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Global wanning has contributed to a rise in global sea level not only because it causes glaciers and ice sheets to melt, but also simply because when water is heated its volume increases. But this rise in global sea level is less than it otherwise would be, since over the years artificial reservoirs have been built all around the world that collectively contain a great deal of water that would otherwise reach the sea.
Question: Which one of the following can most reasonably be concluded on the basis of the information above?
 A. The exact magnitude of the rise in global sea level is in dispute.
 B. Rises in global sea level that occurred before the world's reservoirs were built are difficult to explain.
 C. Little is known about the contribution of global warming to the rise in global sea level.
 D. The amount of water in the world's reservoirs is about equal to the amount of water that results from the melting of glaciers and ice sheets.
 E. The amount of water that results from the melting of glaciers and ice sheets cannot be determined by looking at the rise in global sea level alone.
Answer: E


Question:
Carpal tunnel syndrome, a nerve disorder that affects the hands and wrists, is often caused by repetitive motions such as typing on a keyboard. A recent study of office workers found that, among those who do similar amounts of typing, workers reporting the least control over their own work had almost three times the risk of developing carpal tunnel syndrome as did those who reported the most control.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the study's findiogs?
 A. Office workers who have the most control over their own work tend to do significantly less typing than do those who have the least control over their own work.
 B. Feeling a lack of control over one's own work teods to put one under emotional stress that makes one more susceptible to nerve disorders.
 C. The keyboards on which office workers type teod to put typists' arms and hands in positions that promote the development of carpal tunnel syndrome.
 D. Among office workers who rarely use keyboards, the rate of carpal tunnel syndrome is much higher for those who feel that they lack control over their own work.
 E. Office workers who have the most control over their own work tend to perform repetitive motions other than typing more often than do office workers with the least control over their own work.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Carpal tunnel syndrome, a nerve disorder that affects the hands and wrists, is often caused by repetitive motions such as typing on a keyboard. A recent study of office workers found that, among those who do similar amounts of typing, workers reporting the least control over their own work had almost three times the risk of developing carpal tunnel syndrome as did those who reported the most control.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain the study's findiogs?
 A. Office workers who have the most control over their own work tend to do significantly less typing than do those who have the least control over their own work.
 B. Feeling a lack of control over one's own work teods to put one under emotional stress that makes one more susceptible to nerve disorders.
 C. The keyboards on which office workers type teod to put typists' arms and hands in positions that promote the development of carpal tunnel syndrome.
 D. Among office workers who rarely use keyboards, the rate of carpal tunnel syndrome is much higher for those who feel that they lack control over their own work.
 E. Office workers who have the most control over their own work tend to perform repetitive motions other than typing more often than do office workers with the least control over their own work.
Answer: B


Question:
Though Earth's human population is increasing, it currently uses only a relatively small fraction of the supply of fresh water. Thus, claims that water shortages will plague humankind in the near future unless population growth trends change are simply mistaken.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument above?
 A. Population growth trends are notoriously hard to predict with reasonable accuracy.
 B. The amount of fresh water available to meet the needs of Earth's population varies significantly from region to region.
 C. Not all of Earth's population will adopt water conservation methods in the near future.
 D. If Earth's population continues to increase, it will eventually outstrip all available resources.
 E. The percentage of fresh water used for agriculture is likely to grow more quickly than is the percentage used for industry.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Though Earth's human population is increasing, it currently uses only a relatively small fraction of the supply of fresh water. Thus, claims that water shortages will plague humankind in the near future unless population growth trends change are simply mistaken.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument above?
 A. Population growth trends are notoriously hard to predict with reasonable accuracy.
 B. The amount of fresh water available to meet the needs of Earth's population varies significantly from region to region.
 C. Not all of Earth's population will adopt water conservation methods in the near future.
 D. If Earth's population continues to increase, it will eventually outstrip all available resources.
 E. The percentage of fresh water used for agriculture is likely to grow more quickly than is the percentage used for industry.
Answer: B


Question:
Archaeologist: The mosaics that were removed from Zeugma, the ancient city now flooded by the runoff from Turkey's Birecik Dam, should have been left there. We had all the information about them that we needed to draw archaeological conclusions, and future archaeologists studying the site, who may not have access to our records, might be misled by their absence.
Question: Which one of the following, if assumed, most helps to justify the reasoning in the archaeologist's argument?
 A. The only considerations that bear upon the question of whether the mosaics should have been removed are archaeological.
 B. Archaeologists studying a site can tell whether or not that site had been flooded at some time.
 C. The materials used in the construction of a mosaic are readily apparent when the mosaic is examined in its original location.
 D. Archaeological sites from which artifacts have been removed rarely mislead archaeologists who later study the site.
 E. The removal of artifacts from archaeological sites rarely has any environmental impact.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Archaeologist: The mosaics that were removed from Zeugma, the ancient city now flooded by the runoff from Turkey's Birecik Dam, should have been left there. We had all the information about them that we needed to draw archaeological conclusions, and future archaeologists studying the site, who may not have access to our records, might be misled by their absence.
Question: Which one of the following, if assumed, most helps to justify the reasoning in the archaeologist's argument?
 A. The only considerations that bear upon the question of whether the mosaics should have been removed are archaeological.
 B. Archaeologists studying a site can tell whether or not that site had been flooded at some time.
 C. The materials used in the construction of a mosaic are readily apparent when the mosaic is examined in its original location.
 D. Archaeological sites from which artifacts have been removed rarely mislead archaeologists who later study the site.
 E. The removal of artifacts from archaeological sites rarely has any environmental impact.
Answer: A


Question:
High blood cholesterol levels are bad for the heart. Like meat, eggs, and poultry, shellfish contains cholesterol. But shellfish is not necessarily bad for the heart; it is very low in saturated fat, which affects blood cholesterol levels much more than dietary cholesterol does.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?
 A. Meat and eggs are high in saturated fat.
 B. Small quantities of foods high in saturated fat are not bad for the heart
 C. Shellfish has less cholesterol per gram than meat, eggs, and poultry do.
 D. Foods low in saturated fat promote low blood cholesterol.
 E. A serving of meat or poultry is typically larger than a serving of shellfish.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

High blood cholesterol levels are bad for the heart. Like meat, eggs, and poultry, shellfish contains cholesterol. But shellfish is not necessarily bad for the heart; it is very low in saturated fat, which affects blood cholesterol levels much more than dietary cholesterol does.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most strengthens the argument?
 A. Meat and eggs are high in saturated fat.
 B. Small quantities of foods high in saturated fat are not bad for the heart
 C. Shellfish has less cholesterol per gram than meat, eggs, and poultry do.
 D. Foods low in saturated fat promote low blood cholesterol.
 E. A serving of meat or poultry is typically larger than a serving of shellfish.
Answer: D


Question:
A high-calorie diet providing adequate fats was a crucial requirement for the evolution of the anatomically modem human brain, a process that began among our early human ancestors. Food resources that could support such a diet were most abundant and reliable in the shore environments that were available to early humans. Nevertheless, the human brain's evolution took place almost exclusively in savanna and woodland areas.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, would most help to resolve the apparent conflict presented above?
 A. Early humans had a significantly lower metabolic rate than anatomically modem humans,allowing them to expend their fat reserves more efficiently.
 B. The brains of the earliest known humans were 30 percent smaller than the anatomically modem human brain.
 C. Prehistoric savanna and woodland areas offered more reliable and abundant resources than they do today.
 D. The techniques used to explore the archaeology of prehistoric shore sites have only recently been developed.
 E. Gathering food in shore enviromnents required a significantly greater expenditure of calories by early humans than did gathering food in other environments.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

A high-calorie diet providing adequate fats was a crucial requirement for the evolution of the anatomically modem human brain, a process that began among our early human ancestors. Food resources that could support such a diet were most abundant and reliable in the shore environments that were available to early humans. Nevertheless, the human brain's evolution took place almost exclusively in savanna and woodland areas.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, would most help to resolve the apparent conflict presented above?
 A. Early humans had a significantly lower metabolic rate than anatomically modem humans,allowing them to expend their fat reserves more efficiently.
 B. The brains of the earliest known humans were 30 percent smaller than the anatomically modem human brain.
 C. Prehistoric savanna and woodland areas offered more reliable and abundant resources than they do today.
 D. The techniques used to explore the archaeology of prehistoric shore sites have only recently been developed.
 E. Gathering food in shore enviromnents required a significantly greater expenditure of calories by early humans than did gathering food in other environments.
Answer: D


Question:
"Dumping" is defined as selling a product in another country for less than production cost. Shrimp producers from Country F are selling shrimp in Country G below the cost of producing shrimp in Country G. So Country F's producers are dumping shrimp.
Question: In order to evaluate the argument above, it is necessary to determine whether
 A. "production cost" in the definition of dumping refers to the cost of producing the product in the country where it originates or in the country where it is sold
 B. there is agreement among experts about whether dumping is harmful to the economy of the country in which products are sold for less than production cost
 C. shrimp producers from Country F charge more for shrimp that they sell within their own country than for shrimp that they sell in Country G
 D. shrimp producers from Country F will eventually go out of business if they continue to sell shrimp in Country G for less than production cost
 E. shrimp producers from Country F are selling shrimp in Country G for considerably less than production cost or just slightly less
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

"Dumping" is defined as selling a product in another country for less than production cost. Shrimp producers from Country F are selling shrimp in Country G below the cost of producing shrimp in Country G. So Country F's producers are dumping shrimp.
Question: In order to evaluate the argument above, it is necessary to determine whether
 A. "production cost" in the definition of dumping refers to the cost of producing the product in the country where it originates or in the country where it is sold
 B. there is agreement among experts about whether dumping is harmful to the economy of the country in which products are sold for less than production cost
 C. shrimp producers from Country F charge more for shrimp that they sell within their own country than for shrimp that they sell in Country G
 D. shrimp producers from Country F will eventually go out of business if they continue to sell shrimp in Country G for less than production cost
 E. shrimp producers from Country F are selling shrimp in Country G for considerably less than production cost or just slightly less
Answer: A


Question:
Carl is clearly an incompetent detective. He has solved a smaller percentage of the cases assigned to him in the last 3 years—only 1 out of 25—than any other detective on the police force.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument above?
 A. Because the police chief regards Carl as the most capable detective, she assigns him only the most difficult cases, ones that others have failed to solve.
 B. Before he became a detective, Carl was a neighborhood police officer and was highly respected by the residents of the neighborhood he patrolled.
 C. Detectives on the police force on which Carl serves are provided with extensive resources, including the use of a large computer database, to help them solve crimes.
 D. Carl was previously a detective in a police department in another city, and in the 4 years he spent there, he solved only 1 out of 30 crimes.
 E. Many of the officers in the police department in which Carl serves were hired or promoted within the last 5 years.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Carl is clearly an incompetent detective. He has solved a smaller percentage of the cases assigned to him in the last 3 years—only 1 out of 25—than any other detective on the police force.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument above?
 A. Because the police chief regards Carl as the most capable detective, she assigns him only the most difficult cases, ones that others have failed to solve.
 B. Before he became a detective, Carl was a neighborhood police officer and was highly respected by the residents of the neighborhood he patrolled.
 C. Detectives on the police force on which Carl serves are provided with extensive resources, including the use of a large computer database, to help them solve crimes.
 D. Carl was previously a detective in a police department in another city, and in the 4 years he spent there, he solved only 1 out of 30 crimes.
 E. Many of the officers in the police department in which Carl serves were hired or promoted within the last 5 years.
Answer: A


Question:
Editorial: This political party has repeatedly expressed the view that increasing spending on education is a worthy goal. On other occasions, however, the same party has claimed that the government should not increase spending on education. So this party's policy is clearly inconsistent.
Question: The argument in the editorial depends on assuming which one of the following?
 A. It is inconsistent for a legislator both to claim that increasing spending on education is a worthy goal and to vote against increasing spending on education.
 B. A consistent course of action in educational policy is usually the course of action that will reduce spending on education in the long run.
 C. Even if a goal is a morally good one, one should not necessarily try to achieve it.
 D. A consistent political policy does not hold that an action that comprises a worthy goal should not be performed.
 E. Members of one political party never have inconsistent views on how to best approach a political issue.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Editorial: This political party has repeatedly expressed the view that increasing spending on education is a worthy goal. On other occasions, however, the same party has claimed that the government should not increase spending on education. So this party's policy is clearly inconsistent.
Question: The argument in the editorial depends on assuming which one of the following?
 A. It is inconsistent for a legislator both to claim that increasing spending on education is a worthy goal and to vote against increasing spending on education.
 B. A consistent course of action in educational policy is usually the course of action that will reduce spending on education in the long run.
 C. Even if a goal is a morally good one, one should not necessarily try to achieve it.
 D. A consistent political policy does not hold that an action that comprises a worthy goal should not be performed.
 E. Members of one political party never have inconsistent views on how to best approach a political issue.
Answer: D


Question:
Inez: The book we are reading, The Nature of Matter, is mistitled. A title should summarize the content of the whole book, but nearly half of this book is devoted to discussing a different, albeit closely related subject: energy. Antonio: I do not think that the author erred; according to modern physics, matter and energy are two facets of the same phenomenon.
Question: Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the conversation above?
 A. Inez believes that the book should be called The Nature of Energy.
 B. Antonio believes that there are no differences between matter and energy.
 C. Inez and Antonio disagree on whether matter and energy are related.
 D. Inez and Antonio disagree about the overall value of the book.
 E. Inez believes that the book's title should not mention matter without mentioning energy.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Inez: The book we are reading, The Nature of Matter, is mistitled. A title should summarize the content of the whole book, but nearly half of this book is devoted to discussing a different, albeit closely related subject: energy. Antonio: I do not think that the author erred; according to modern physics, matter and energy are two facets of the same phenomenon.
Question: Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the conversation above?
 A. Inez believes that the book should be called The Nature of Energy.
 B. Antonio believes that there are no differences between matter and energy.
 C. Inez and Antonio disagree on whether matter and energy are related.
 D. Inez and Antonio disagree about the overall value of the book.
 E. Inez believes that the book's title should not mention matter without mentioning energy.
Answer: E


Question:
Richard: Because it fails to meet the fundamental requirement of art—that it represent—abstract art will eventually be seen as an aberration. Jung-Su: Although artists, like musicians, may reject literal representation, makers of abstract art choose to represent the purely formal features of objects, which are discovered only when everyday perspectives are rejected. Thus, whatever others might come to say, abstract art is part of the artistic mainstream.
Question: Richard and Jung-Su disagree over whether
 A. makers of abstract art reject literal representation
 B. the fundamental requirement of art is that it represent
 C. musicians may reject literal representation
 D. abstract art will be seen as an aberration
 E. abstract art is representational
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Richard: Because it fails to meet the fundamental requirement of art—that it represent—abstract art will eventually be seen as an aberration. Jung-Su: Although artists, like musicians, may reject literal representation, makers of abstract art choose to represent the purely formal features of objects, which are discovered only when everyday perspectives are rejected. Thus, whatever others might come to say, abstract art is part of the artistic mainstream.
Question: Richard and Jung-Su disagree over whether
 A. makers of abstract art reject literal representation
 B. the fundamental requirement of art is that it represent
 C. musicians may reject literal representation
 D. abstract art will be seen as an aberration
 E. abstract art is representational
Answer: E


Question:
Recently, a report commissioned by a confectioners trade association noted that chocolate, formerly considered a health scourge, is an effective antioxidant and so has health benefits. Another earlier claim was that oily foods clog arteries, leading to heart disease, yet reports now state that olive oil has a positive influence on the circulatory system. From these examples, it is clear that if you wait long enough, almost any food will be reported to be healthful.
Question: The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument
 A. relies on the truth of a claim by a source that is likely to be biased
 B. applies a general rule to specific cases to which it does not pertain
 C. bases an overly broad generalization on just a few instances
 D. takes for granted that all results of nutritional research are eventually reported
 E. fails to consider that there are many foods that are reported to be unhealthful
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Recently, a report commissioned by a confectioners trade association noted that chocolate, formerly considered a health scourge, is an effective antioxidant and so has health benefits. Another earlier claim was that oily foods clog arteries, leading to heart disease, yet reports now state that olive oil has a positive influence on the circulatory system. From these examples, it is clear that if you wait long enough, almost any food will be reported to be healthful.
Question: The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument
 A. relies on the truth of a claim by a source that is likely to be biased
 B. applies a general rule to specific cases to which it does not pertain
 C. bases an overly broad generalization on just a few instances
 D. takes for granted that all results of nutritional research are eventually reported
 E. fails to consider that there are many foods that are reported to be unhealthful
Answer: C


Question:
Last year, a software company held a contest to generate ideas for their new logo. According to the rules, everyone who entered the contest would receive several prizes' including a T-shirt with the company's new logo. Juan has a T-shirt with the company?s new logo, so he must have entered the contest.
Question: The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument
 A. infers a causal relationship when the evidence only supports a correlation
 B. takes a condition that is sufficient for a particular outcome as one that is necessary for that outcome
 C. infers that every member of a group has a feature in common on the grounds that the group as a whole has that feature
 D. has a premise that presupposes the truth of the conclusion
 E. constructs a generalization on the basis of a single instance
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Last year, a software company held a contest to generate ideas for their new logo. According to the rules, everyone who entered the contest would receive several prizes' including a T-shirt with the company's new logo. Juan has a T-shirt with the company?s new logo, so he must have entered the contest.
Question: The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument
 A. infers a causal relationship when the evidence only supports a correlation
 B. takes a condition that is sufficient for a particular outcome as one that is necessary for that outcome
 C. infers that every member of a group has a feature in common on the grounds that the group as a whole has that feature
 D. has a premise that presupposes the truth of the conclusion
 E. constructs a generalization on the basis of a single instance
Answer: B


Question:
Pundit: It is good to have national leaders voted out of office after a few years. The reason is that reforms are generally undertaken early in a new government. If leaders do not act quickly to solve a problem and it becomes an issue later, then they must either deny that there is a problem or deny that anything could have been done about it; otherwise, they will have to admit responsibility for the persistence of the problem.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the pund it's argument?
 A. If national leaders who fail to solve problems are voted out of office after a few years, new leaders will be more motivated to solve problems.
 B. National leaders who stay in power too long tend to deny responsibility for problems that they could have dealt with earlier.
 C. National leaders are most likely to undertake reforms early in a new government.
 D. National leaders who immediately respond to problems upon taking office should be given enough time to succeed at solving them.
 E. National leaders should be removed from office every few years by the voting in of new leaders.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Pundit: It is good to have national leaders voted out of office after a few years. The reason is that reforms are generally undertaken early in a new government. If leaders do not act quickly to solve a problem and it becomes an issue later, then they must either deny that there is a problem or deny that anything could have been done about it; otherwise, they will have to admit responsibility for the persistence of the problem.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the pund it's argument?
 A. If national leaders who fail to solve problems are voted out of office after a few years, new leaders will be more motivated to solve problems.
 B. National leaders who stay in power too long tend to deny responsibility for problems that they could have dealt with earlier.
 C. National leaders are most likely to undertake reforms early in a new government.
 D. National leaders who immediately respond to problems upon taking office should be given enough time to succeed at solving them.
 E. National leaders should be removed from office every few years by the voting in of new leaders.
Answer: E


Question:
Several companies that make herbal teas containing ginseng assert in their marketing that ginseng counteracts the effects of stress. As a result, many people buy these products hoping to improve their health. Yet no definitive scientific study links ginseng with the relief of stress. Thus, these marketing campaigns make false claims.
Question: The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument
 A. rejects an argument because of its source without evaluating the argument's logical strength
 B. concludes that a claim is false merely on the grounds that it has not been shown to be true
 C. draws an inference on the basis of a sample that is likely to be unrepresentative
 D. fails to address the possibility that many people buy herbal teas containing ginseng because they enjoy drinking the tea
 E. fails to address the possibility that some ingredients other than ginseng in the herbal teas containing ginseng counteract the effects of stress
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Several companies that make herbal teas containing ginseng assert in their marketing that ginseng counteracts the effects of stress. As a result, many people buy these products hoping to improve their health. Yet no definitive scientific study links ginseng with the relief of stress. Thus, these marketing campaigns make false claims.
Question: The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that the argument
 A. rejects an argument because of its source without evaluating the argument's logical strength
 B. concludes that a claim is false merely on the grounds that it has not been shown to be true
 C. draws an inference on the basis of a sample that is likely to be unrepresentative
 D. fails to address the possibility that many people buy herbal teas containing ginseng because they enjoy drinking the tea
 E. fails to address the possibility that some ingredients other than ginseng in the herbal teas containing ginseng counteract the effects of stress
Answer: B


Question:
Yuriko: Our city's campaign to persuade parents to have their children vaccinated ought to be imitated by your city. In the 16 months since the enactment of legislation authorizing the campaign, vaccinations in our city have increased by 30 percent. Susan: But the major part of that increase occurred in the first 6 months after that legislation was enacted, right after your city's free neighborhood health clinics opened, and before the vaccination campaign really got going.
Question: In responding to Yuriko, Susan does which one of the following?
 A. She denies Yuriko's assumption that Susan's city wants to increase the vaccination rate for children.
 B. She cites facts that tend to weaken the force of the evidence with which Yuriko supports her recommendation.
 C. She introduces evidence to show that the campaign Yuriko advocates is only effective for a short period to time.
 D. She advances the claim that a campaign such as Yuriko recommends is not necessary because most parents already choose to have their children vaccinated.
 E. She presents evidence to suggest that vaccination campaigns are usually ineffective.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Yuriko: Our city's campaign to persuade parents to have their children vaccinated ought to be imitated by your city. In the 16 months since the enactment of legislation authorizing the campaign, vaccinations in our city have increased by 30 percent. Susan: But the major part of that increase occurred in the first 6 months after that legislation was enacted, right after your city's free neighborhood health clinics opened, and before the vaccination campaign really got going.
Question: In responding to Yuriko, Susan does which one of the following?
 A. She denies Yuriko's assumption that Susan's city wants to increase the vaccination rate for children.
 B. She cites facts that tend to weaken the force of the evidence with which Yuriko supports her recommendation.
 C. She introduces evidence to show that the campaign Yuriko advocates is only effective for a short period to time.
 D. She advances the claim that a campaign such as Yuriko recommends is not necessary because most parents already choose to have their children vaccinated.
 E. She presents evidence to suggest that vaccination campaigns are usually ineffective.
Answer: B


Question:
Editorial: Our political discussions tend to focus largely on the flaws of our nation's leaders, but we need to remind ourselves that these leaders were chosen democratically. The real question that needs answering is how our nation's institutions and procedures enable such people to attain positions of power. Thus, to focus our attention on the flaws of our leaders is to indulge in a pointless distraction.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption that the argument requires?
 A. Examining an individual leader's personal flaws does not reveal anything about how the nation's institutions and procedures influence the selection of leaders.
 B. Political discussions that focus on the flaws of the nation's leaders will become even more common if the nation's institutions and procedures are not examined.
 C. The workings of the nation's current institutions and procedures ensure that only flawed individuals will attain positions of power.
 D. As yet, no one in the nation has made the effort to critically examine the details of the nation's institutions and procedures.
 E. Concentrating on the flaws of the nation's leaders creates greater dissatisfaction with those leaders.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Editorial: Our political discussions tend to focus largely on the flaws of our nation's leaders, but we need to remind ourselves that these leaders were chosen democratically. The real question that needs answering is how our nation's institutions and procedures enable such people to attain positions of power. Thus, to focus our attention on the flaws of our leaders is to indulge in a pointless distraction.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption that the argument requires?
 A. Examining an individual leader's personal flaws does not reveal anything about how the nation's institutions and procedures influence the selection of leaders.
 B. Political discussions that focus on the flaws of the nation's leaders will become even more common if the nation's institutions and procedures are not examined.
 C. The workings of the nation's current institutions and procedures ensure that only flawed individuals will attain positions of power.
 D. As yet, no one in the nation has made the effort to critically examine the details of the nation's institutions and procedures.
 E. Concentrating on the flaws of the nation's leaders creates greater dissatisfaction with those leaders.
Answer: A


Question:
Seemingly inconsequential changes in sea temperature due to global warming eventually result in declines in fish and seabird populations. A rise of just two degrees prevents the vertical mixing of seawater from different strata. This restricts the availability of upwelling nutrients to phytoplankton. Since zooplankton, which feed upon phytoplankton, feed the rest of the food chain, the declines are inevitable.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the statement that zooplankton feed upon phytoplankton?
 A. It is a hypothesis supported by the fact that phytoplankton feed on upwelling nutrients.
 B. It is intended to provide an example of the ways in which the vertical mixing of seawater affects feeding habits.
 C. It helps show how global temperature changes affect larger sea animals indirectly.
 D. It is offered as one reason that global warming must be curtailed.
 E. It is offered in support of the idea that global warming poses a threat to all organisms.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Seemingly inconsequential changes in sea temperature due to global warming eventually result in declines in fish and seabird populations. A rise of just two degrees prevents the vertical mixing of seawater from different strata. This restricts the availability of upwelling nutrients to phytoplankton. Since zooplankton, which feed upon phytoplankton, feed the rest of the food chain, the declines are inevitable.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the argument by the statement that zooplankton feed upon phytoplankton?
 A. It is a hypothesis supported by the fact that phytoplankton feed on upwelling nutrients.
 B. It is intended to provide an example of the ways in which the vertical mixing of seawater affects feeding habits.
 C. It helps show how global temperature changes affect larger sea animals indirectly.
 D. It is offered as one reason that global warming must be curtailed.
 E. It is offered in support of the idea that global warming poses a threat to all organisms.
Answer: C


Question:
Physician: Stories of people developing serious health problems shortly after receiving vaccinations have given rise to the question of whether vaccination is safe. But even if these stories are true, they need not be cause for concern. With millions of people being vaccinated every year, it is to be expected that some will develop health problems purely by coincidence shortly after receiving vaccinations.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the physician's argument?
 A. For the most part, stories of people developing serious health problems shortly after receiving vaccinations involve vaccines that were recently introduced.
 B. Some of the illnesses that vaccines are designed to prevent have become so rare that even if people are not vaccinated, they are unlikely to contract those illnesses.
 C. People are no more likely, on average, to develop serious health problems shortly after receiving vaccinations than shortly before receiving vaccinations.
 D. The health problems that some people have developed shortly after receiving vaccinations have been more serious than the health problems that the vaccines were intended to prevent.
 E. In a few cases in which people developed serious health problems shortly after taking other medications, these problems were initially attributed to coincidence but were later determined to be due to the medications.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Physician: Stories of people developing serious health problems shortly after receiving vaccinations have given rise to the question of whether vaccination is safe. But even if these stories are true, they need not be cause for concern. With millions of people being vaccinated every year, it is to be expected that some will develop health problems purely by coincidence shortly after receiving vaccinations.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, would most strengthen the physician's argument?
 A. For the most part, stories of people developing serious health problems shortly after receiving vaccinations involve vaccines that were recently introduced.
 B. Some of the illnesses that vaccines are designed to prevent have become so rare that even if people are not vaccinated, they are unlikely to contract those illnesses.
 C. People are no more likely, on average, to develop serious health problems shortly after receiving vaccinations than shortly before receiving vaccinations.
 D. The health problems that some people have developed shortly after receiving vaccinations have been more serious than the health problems that the vaccines were intended to prevent.
 E. In a few cases in which people developed serious health problems shortly after taking other medications, these problems were initially attributed to coincidence but were later determined to be due to the medications.
Answer: C


Question:
Critic: The recent biography of Shakespeare does not explain what is of most interest about him. It is by an expert on the history of Elizabethan England, and so does a good job of showing what life would have been like for Shakespeare as a man of that time. But it does not explain what made Shakespeare different from his contemporaries.
Question: The conclusion of the argument can be properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed?
 A. There is no way to know what made Shakespeare different from his contemporaries.
 B. The life of the average man in Elizabethan England is uninteresting.
 C. Shakespeare was very different from the other men of his time.
 D. A biography should always focus on what makes its subject distinctive.
 E. What is most interesting about Shakespeare is what made him different from his contemporaries.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Critic: The recent biography of Shakespeare does not explain what is of most interest about him. It is by an expert on the history of Elizabethan England, and so does a good job of showing what life would have been like for Shakespeare as a man of that time. But it does not explain what made Shakespeare different from his contemporaries.
Question: The conclusion of the argument can be properly drawn if which one of the following is assumed?
 A. There is no way to know what made Shakespeare different from his contemporaries.
 B. The life of the average man in Elizabethan England is uninteresting.
 C. Shakespeare was very different from the other men of his time.
 D. A biography should always focus on what makes its subject distinctive.
 E. What is most interesting about Shakespeare is what made him different from his contemporaries.
Answer: E


Question:
Every moral theory developed in the Western tradition purports to tell us what a good life is. However, most people would judge someone who perfectly embodied the ideals of any one of these theories not to be living a good life—the kind of life they would want for themselves and their children.
Question: The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following?
 A. Most people desire a life for themselves and their children that is better than a merely good life.
 B. A person who fits the ideals of one moral theory in the Western tradition would not necessarily fit the ideals of another.
 C. Most people have a conception of a good life that does not match that of any moral theory in the Western tradition.
 D. A good life as described by moral theories in the Western tradition cannot be realized.
 E. It is impossible to develop a theory that accurately describes what a good life is.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Every moral theory developed in the Western tradition purports to tell us what a good life is. However, most people would judge someone who perfectly embodied the ideals of any one of these theories not to be living a good life—the kind of life they would want for themselves and their children.
Question: The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following?
 A. Most people desire a life for themselves and their children that is better than a merely good life.
 B. A person who fits the ideals of one moral theory in the Western tradition would not necessarily fit the ideals of another.
 C. Most people have a conception of a good life that does not match that of any moral theory in the Western tradition.
 D. A good life as described by moral theories in the Western tradition cannot be realized.
 E. It is impossible to develop a theory that accurately describes what a good life is.
Answer: C


Question:
Economist: If the economy grows stronger, employment will increase, and hence more parents will need to find day care for their young children. Unfortunately, in a stronger economy many day-care workers will quit to take better-paying jobs in other fields. Therefore, a stronger economy is likely to make it much more difficult to find day care.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption the economist's argument requires?
 A. If the economy grows stronger, most of the new jobs that are created will be in fields that pay well.
 B. If the economy grows stronger, the number of new day-care workers will not be significantly greater than the number of day-care workers who move to better-paying jobs in other fields.
 C. If the economy grows stronger, the number of workers employed by day-care centers is likely to decrease.
 D. The shortage of day care for children is unlikely to worsen unless employment increases and many day-care center employees quit to take better-paying jobs in other fields.
 E. The total number of young children in day-care centers will decrease if the cost of day care increases significantly.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Economist: If the economy grows stronger, employment will increase, and hence more parents will need to find day care for their young children. Unfortunately, in a stronger economy many day-care workers will quit to take better-paying jobs in other fields. Therefore, a stronger economy is likely to make it much more difficult to find day care.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption the economist's argument requires?
 A. If the economy grows stronger, most of the new jobs that are created will be in fields that pay well.
 B. If the economy grows stronger, the number of new day-care workers will not be significantly greater than the number of day-care workers who move to better-paying jobs in other fields.
 C. If the economy grows stronger, the number of workers employed by day-care centers is likely to decrease.
 D. The shortage of day care for children is unlikely to worsen unless employment increases and many day-care center employees quit to take better-paying jobs in other fields.
 E. The total number of young children in day-care centers will decrease if the cost of day care increases significantly.
Answer: B


Question:
Whether or not one can rightfully call a person's faithfulness a virtue depends in part on the object of that personas faithfulness. Virtues are by definition praiseworthy, which is why no one considers resentment virtuous, even though it is in fact a kind of faithfulness-faithfulness to hatreds or animosities.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the overall conclusion drawn in the argument?
 A. The object of a person's faithfulness partially determines whether or not that faithfulness is virtuous.
 B. Virtuous behavior is praiseworthy by definition.
 C. Behavior that emerges from hatred or animosity cannot be called virtuous.
 D. Faithfulness and resentment are obviously different, despite some similarities.
 E. Resentment should not be considered a virtuous emotion.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Whether or not one can rightfully call a person's faithfulness a virtue depends in part on the object of that personas faithfulness. Virtues are by definition praiseworthy, which is why no one considers resentment virtuous, even though it is in fact a kind of faithfulness-faithfulness to hatreds or animosities.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the overall conclusion drawn in the argument?
 A. The object of a person's faithfulness partially determines whether or not that faithfulness is virtuous.
 B. Virtuous behavior is praiseworthy by definition.
 C. Behavior that emerges from hatred or animosity cannot be called virtuous.
 D. Faithfulness and resentment are obviously different, despite some similarities.
 E. Resentment should not be considered a virtuous emotion.
Answer: A


Question:
Provinces and states with stringent car safety requirements, including required use of seat belts and annual safety inspections, have on average higher rates of accidents per kilometer driven than do provinces and states with less stringent requirements. Nevertheless, most highway safety experts agree that more stringent requirements do reduce accident rates.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the safety experts' belief with the apparently contrary evidence described above?
 A. Annual safety inspections ensure that car tires are replaced before they grow old.
 B. Drivers often become overconfident after their cars have passed a thorough safety inspection.
 C. The roads in provinces and states with stringent car safety requirements are far more congested and therefore dangerous than in other provinces and states.
 D. Psychological studies show that drivers who regularly wear seat belts often come to think of themselves as serious drivers, which for a few people discourages reckless driving.
 E. Provinces and states with stringent car safety requirements have, on average, many more kilometers of roads than do other provinces and states.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Provinces and states with stringent car safety requirements, including required use of seat belts and annual safety inspections, have on average higher rates of accidents per kilometer driven than do provinces and states with less stringent requirements. Nevertheless, most highway safety experts agree that more stringent requirements do reduce accident rates.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to reconcile the safety experts' belief with the apparently contrary evidence described above?
 A. Annual safety inspections ensure that car tires are replaced before they grow old.
 B. Drivers often become overconfident after their cars have passed a thorough safety inspection.
 C. The roads in provinces and states with stringent car safety requirements are far more congested and therefore dangerous than in other provinces and states.
 D. Psychological studies show that drivers who regularly wear seat belts often come to think of themselves as serious drivers, which for a few people discourages reckless driving.
 E. Provinces and states with stringent car safety requirements have, on average, many more kilometers of roads than do other provinces and states.
Answer: C


Question:
Researcher: Research has shown that inhaling the scent of lavender has measurable physiological effects tending to reduce stress. It is known that intense stress can impair the immune system, making one more susceptible to illness. Therefore, it is likely that the incidence of illness among those who regularly inhale the scent of lavender is reduced by this practice.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption that the researcher's argument requires?
 A. Many, if not all, of the scents that have a tendency to reduce susceptibility to illness do so, at least in part, by reducing stress.
 B. Some people who regularly inhale the scent of lavender would otherwise be under enough stress to impair their immune systems.
 C. At least some people who use the scent of lavender to induce relaxation and reduce stress are no more susceptible to illness than average.
 D. In anyone for whom the scent of lavender reduces susceptibility to illness, it does so primarily by reducing stress.
 E. Reduced stress diminishes susceptibility to illness only for people who are under enough stress to impair their immune systems to at least some degree.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Researcher: Research has shown that inhaling the scent of lavender has measurable physiological effects tending to reduce stress. It is known that intense stress can impair the immune system, making one more susceptible to illness. Therefore, it is likely that the incidence of illness among those who regularly inhale the scent of lavender is reduced by this practice.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption that the researcher's argument requires?
 A. Many, if not all, of the scents that have a tendency to reduce susceptibility to illness do so, at least in part, by reducing stress.
 B. Some people who regularly inhale the scent of lavender would otherwise be under enough stress to impair their immune systems.
 C. At least some people who use the scent of lavender to induce relaxation and reduce stress are no more susceptible to illness than average.
 D. In anyone for whom the scent of lavender reduces susceptibility to illness, it does so primarily by reducing stress.
 E. Reduced stress diminishes susceptibility to illness only for people who are under enough stress to impair their immune systems to at least some degree.
Answer: B


Question:
Scientist: Isaac Newton's Principia, the seventeenth-century work that served as the cornerstone of physics for over two centuries, could at first be understood by only a handful of people, but a basic understanding of Newton's ideas eventually spread throughout the world. This shows that the barriers to communication between scientists and the public are not impermeable. Thus recent scientific research, most of which also can be described only in language that seems esoteric to most contemporary readers, may also become part of everyone's intellectual heritage.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the scientist's argument by the claim that recent scientific research can often be described only in language that seems esoteric to most contemporary readers?
 A. It is raised as a potential objection to the argument's main conclusion, but its truth is called into doubt by the preceding statements.
 B. It is a premise that supports the argument's main conclusion by suggesting that the results of recent scientific research are only superficially different from claims made in Newton's Principia.
 C. It is cited as further evidence for the conclusion that the barriers to communication between scientists and the public are not impermeable.
 D. It is a claim that serves mainly to help establish the relevance of the preceding statements to the argument's final conclusion.
 E. It serves to cast doubt on an alleged similarity between Newton's Principia and recent scientific research.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Scientist: Isaac Newton's Principia, the seventeenth-century work that served as the cornerstone of physics for over two centuries, could at first be understood by only a handful of people, but a basic understanding of Newton's ideas eventually spread throughout the world. This shows that the barriers to communication between scientists and the public are not impermeable. Thus recent scientific research, most of which also can be described only in language that seems esoteric to most contemporary readers, may also become part of everyone's intellectual heritage.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the scientist's argument by the claim that recent scientific research can often be described only in language that seems esoteric to most contemporary readers?
 A. It is raised as a potential objection to the argument's main conclusion, but its truth is called into doubt by the preceding statements.
 B. It is a premise that supports the argument's main conclusion by suggesting that the results of recent scientific research are only superficially different from claims made in Newton's Principia.
 C. It is cited as further evidence for the conclusion that the barriers to communication between scientists and the public are not impermeable.
 D. It is a claim that serves mainly to help establish the relevance of the preceding statements to the argument's final conclusion.
 E. It serves to cast doubt on an alleged similarity between Newton's Principia and recent scientific research.
Answer: D


Question:
City council member: Despite the city's desperate need to exploit any available source of revenue, the mayor has repeatedly blocked council members' attempts to pass legislation imposing real estate development fees. It is clear that in doing so the mayor is sacrificing the city's interests to personal interests. The mayor cites figures to show that, in the current market, fees of the size proposed would significantly reduce the number of building starts and thus, on balance, result in a revenue loss to the city. But the important point is that the mayor's family is heavily involved in real estate development and thus has a strong financial interest in the matter.
Question: The reasoning in the city council member's argument is flawed because
 A. the issue of the mayor's personal interest in the proposed legislation is irrelevant to any assessment of the mayor's action with respect to that legislation
 B. the mayor's course of action being personally advantageous is not inconsistent with the mayor's action being advantageous for the city
 C. the council member's own absence of personal interest in the proposed legislation has not been established
 D. that a person or a municipality has a need for something does not, in itself, establish that that person or that municipality has a right to that thing
 E. the possibility remains open that the mayor's need to avoid loss of family revenue is as desperate as the city's need to increase municipal revenue
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

City council member: Despite the city's desperate need to exploit any available source of revenue, the mayor has repeatedly blocked council members' attempts to pass legislation imposing real estate development fees. It is clear that in doing so the mayor is sacrificing the city's interests to personal interests. The mayor cites figures to show that, in the current market, fees of the size proposed would significantly reduce the number of building starts and thus, on balance, result in a revenue loss to the city. But the important point is that the mayor's family is heavily involved in real estate development and thus has a strong financial interest in the matter.
Question: The reasoning in the city council member's argument is flawed because
 A. the issue of the mayor's personal interest in the proposed legislation is irrelevant to any assessment of the mayor's action with respect to that legislation
 B. the mayor's course of action being personally advantageous is not inconsistent with the mayor's action being advantageous for the city
 C. the council member's own absence of personal interest in the proposed legislation has not been established
 D. that a person or a municipality has a need for something does not, in itself, establish that that person or that municipality has a right to that thing
 E. the possibility remains open that the mayor's need to avoid loss of family revenue is as desperate as the city's need to increase municipal revenue
Answer: B


Question:
Lawyer: In addition to any other penalties, convicted criminals must now pay a "victim surcharge" of S30. The surcharge is used to fund services for victims of violent crimes, but this penalty is unfair to nonviolent criminals since the surcharge applies to all crimes, even nonviolent ones like petty theft.
Question: Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify the reasoning in the lawyer's argument?
 A. The penalties for a crime should be severe enough to deter most people who would commit the crime if there were no penalties.
 B. The overall penalty for a violent crime should be more severe than the overall penalty for any nonviolent crime.
 C. A surcharge intended to provide services to victims is justified only if all proceeds of the surcharge are used to provide services.
 D. A criminal should not be required to pay for services provided to victims of crimes that are more serious than the type of crime the criminal has been convicted of.
 E. Convicted thieves should be fined an amount at least as great as the value of the property stolen.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Lawyer: In addition to any other penalties, convicted criminals must now pay a "victim surcharge" of S30. The surcharge is used to fund services for victims of violent crimes, but this penalty is unfair to nonviolent criminals since the surcharge applies to all crimes, even nonviolent ones like petty theft.
Question: Which one of the following principles, if valid, would most help to justify the reasoning in the lawyer's argument?
 A. The penalties for a crime should be severe enough to deter most people who would commit the crime if there were no penalties.
 B. The overall penalty for a violent crime should be more severe than the overall penalty for any nonviolent crime.
 C. A surcharge intended to provide services to victims is justified only if all proceeds of the surcharge are used to provide services.
 D. A criminal should not be required to pay for services provided to victims of crimes that are more serious than the type of crime the criminal has been convicted of.
 E. Convicted thieves should be fined an amount at least as great as the value of the property stolen.
Answer: D


Question:
The French novelist Colette (1873–1954) has been widely praised for the vividness of her language. But many critics complain that her novels are indifferent to important moral questions. This charge is unfair. Each of her novels is a poetic condensation of a major emotional crisis in the life of an ordinary person of her time. Such emotional crises almost invariably raise important moral questions.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
 A. Critics who suggest that Colette's novels are indifferent to great moral questions of her time greatly underestimate her literary achievements.
 B. A novel that poetically condenses a major emotional crisis does not have to be indifferent to the important moral questions raised by that crisis.
 C. To deserve the level of praise that Colette has received, a novelist's work must concern itself with important moral questions.
 D. The vividness of Colette's language was not itself the result of poetic condensation.
 E. Colette's purpose in poetically condensing emotional crises in the lives of characters in her novels was to explore some of the important moral questions of her time.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

The French novelist Colette (1873–1954) has been widely praised for the vividness of her language. But many critics complain that her novels are indifferent to important moral questions. This charge is unfair. Each of her novels is a poetic condensation of a major emotional crisis in the life of an ordinary person of her time. Such emotional crises almost invariably raise important moral questions.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption on which the argument depends?
 A. Critics who suggest that Colette's novels are indifferent to great moral questions of her time greatly underestimate her literary achievements.
 B. A novel that poetically condenses a major emotional crisis does not have to be indifferent to the important moral questions raised by that crisis.
 C. To deserve the level of praise that Colette has received, a novelist's work must concern itself with important moral questions.
 D. The vividness of Colette's language was not itself the result of poetic condensation.
 E. Colette's purpose in poetically condensing emotional crises in the lives of characters in her novels was to explore some of the important moral questions of her time.
Answer: B


Question:
The public square was an important tool of democracy in days past because it provided a forum for disparate citizens to discuss the important issues of the day. Today, a person with Internet access can discuss important issues with millions of people across the nation, allowing the Internet to play the role once played by the public square. Hence, we should ensure that Internet users have at least as much freedom of expression as did people speaking in the public square.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?
 A. People speaking in the public square of days past had complete freedom of expression.
 B. All citizens have the same level of access to the Internet.
 C. A public forum can lose effectiveness as a tool of democracy if participants cannot discuss issues freely.
 D. The Internet is more often used to discuss important issues than to discuss frivolous issues.
 E. Other than the Internet, no other public forum today is an important tool of democracy.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

The public square was an important tool of democracy in days past because it provided a forum for disparate citizens to discuss the important issues of the day. Today, a person with Internet access can discuss important issues with millions of people across the nation, allowing the Internet to play the role once played by the public square. Hence, we should ensure that Internet users have at least as much freedom of expression as did people speaking in the public square.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?
 A. People speaking in the public square of days past had complete freedom of expression.
 B. All citizens have the same level of access to the Internet.
 C. A public forum can lose effectiveness as a tool of democracy if participants cannot discuss issues freely.
 D. The Internet is more often used to discuss important issues than to discuss frivolous issues.
 E. Other than the Internet, no other public forum today is an important tool of democracy.
Answer: C


Question:
For several centuries there have been hairless dogs in western Mexico and in coastal Peru. It is very unlikely that a trait as rare as hairlessness emerged on two separate occasions. Since the dogs have never existed in the wild, and the vast mountainous jungle separating these two regions would have made overland travel between them extremely difficult centuries ago, the dogs must have been transported from one of these regions to the other by boat, probably during trading expeditions.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption that the argument requires?
 A. Hairless dogs have never been found anywhere except in the regions of western Mexico and coastal Peru.
 B. Most of the trade goods that came into western Mexico centuries ago were transported by boat.
 C. Centuries ago, no one would have traveled between western Mexico and coastal Peru by boat except for the purposes of carrying out a trading expedition.
 D. If hairless dogs were at one time transported between western Mexico and coastal Peru by boat, they were traded in exchange for other goods.
 E. Centuries ago, it was easier to travel by boat between western Mexico and coastal Peru than to travel by an overland route.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

For several centuries there have been hairless dogs in western Mexico and in coastal Peru. It is very unlikely that a trait as rare as hairlessness emerged on two separate occasions. Since the dogs have never existed in the wild, and the vast mountainous jungle separating these two regions would have made overland travel between them extremely difficult centuries ago, the dogs must have been transported from one of these regions to the other by boat, probably during trading expeditions.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption that the argument requires?
 A. Hairless dogs have never been found anywhere except in the regions of western Mexico and coastal Peru.
 B. Most of the trade goods that came into western Mexico centuries ago were transported by boat.
 C. Centuries ago, no one would have traveled between western Mexico and coastal Peru by boat except for the purposes of carrying out a trading expedition.
 D. If hairless dogs were at one time transported between western Mexico and coastal Peru by boat, they were traded in exchange for other goods.
 E. Centuries ago, it was easier to travel by boat between western Mexico and coastal Peru than to travel by an overland route.
Answer: E


Question:
A study of 20,000 20- to 64-year-olds found that people's satisfaction with their incomes is not strongly correlated with the amount they make. People tend to live in neighborhoods of people from their same economic class, and the study shows that people's satisfaction with their incomes depends largely on how favorably their incomes compare with those of their neighbors.
Question: The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following hypotheses?
 A. People with high incomes are consistently more satisfied with their incomes than are people in the middle class.
 B. Older people are generally more satisfied with their incomes than are younger people.
 C. Satisfaction with income is strongly correlated with neighborhood.
 D. In general, people's income levels have little effect on their level of satisfaction with life as a whole.
 E. An increase in everyone's incomes is not likely to greatly increase people's levels of satisfaction with their own incomes.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

A study of 20,000 20- to 64-year-olds found that people's satisfaction with their incomes is not strongly correlated with the amount they make. People tend to live in neighborhoods of people from their same economic class, and the study shows that people's satisfaction with their incomes depends largely on how favorably their incomes compare with those of their neighbors.
Question: The statements above, if true, most strongly support which one of the following hypotheses?
 A. People with high incomes are consistently more satisfied with their incomes than are people in the middle class.
 B. Older people are generally more satisfied with their incomes than are younger people.
 C. Satisfaction with income is strongly correlated with neighborhood.
 D. In general, people's income levels have little effect on their level of satisfaction with life as a whole.
 E. An increase in everyone's incomes is not likely to greatly increase people's levels of satisfaction with their own incomes.
Answer: E


Question:
Anthropologist: many people think that if human language evolved, then something like it must be present in those species most closely related to humans, such as chimpanzees. They reason that since new traits evolve gradually, something like human language, albeit cruder, must exist in some species from which humans evolved. This general line of argument may be reasonable, but it simply does not follow that chimpanzees have anything like human language, because humans did not evolve from chimpanzees. While chimpanzees are indeed closely related to humans, this is because both evolved from a common ancestor. The evolution of human language might easily have begun after the extinction of that common ancestor.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the anthropologist's argument?
 A. Humans did not evolve from chimpanzees, but rather from some extinct species.
 B. The assumption that something like human language must exist in some species from which humans evolved has no clearcut linguistic implications for chimpanzees.
 C. The communicative systems of chimpanzees are cruder than human language.
 D. Human language is a by-product of human intelligence, which chimpanzees lack.
 E. The evolution of human language began after the disappearance of an extinct species from which both humans aod chimpanzees evolved.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Anthropologist: many people think that if human language evolved, then something like it must be present in those species most closely related to humans, such as chimpanzees. They reason that since new traits evolve gradually, something like human language, albeit cruder, must exist in some species from which humans evolved. This general line of argument may be reasonable, but it simply does not follow that chimpanzees have anything like human language, because humans did not evolve from chimpanzees. While chimpanzees are indeed closely related to humans, this is because both evolved from a common ancestor. The evolution of human language might easily have begun after the extinction of that common ancestor.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the main conclusion of the anthropologist's argument?
 A. Humans did not evolve from chimpanzees, but rather from some extinct species.
 B. The assumption that something like human language must exist in some species from which humans evolved has no clearcut linguistic implications for chimpanzees.
 C. The communicative systems of chimpanzees are cruder than human language.
 D. Human language is a by-product of human intelligence, which chimpanzees lack.
 E. The evolution of human language began after the disappearance of an extinct species from which both humans aod chimpanzees evolved.
Answer: B


Question:
Medical columnist: Some doctors recommend taking vitamin C to help maintain overall health because vitamin C is an antioxidant, a substance that protects the body from certain types of oxygen particles that can trigger disease. People suffering from various ailments are encouraged to take vitamin C to guard against developing other health problems. However, doctors are now discouraging some cancer patients from taking vitamin C, even when they are undergoing therapies with side effects that are detrimental to their overall health.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why the doctors' recommendation to some cancer patients differs from the general recommendation regarding vitamin C?
 A. Some kinds of cancer cells absorb large amounts of vitamin C, which interferes with the oxidation mechanism by which many cancer therapies kill cancer cells.
 B. Vitamin C has not been shown to reduce people's risk of developing cancer, even at the very high dosage levels recommended by some doctors.
 C. Cancer cells that are susceptible to certain types of cancer therapies are not likely to be affected by the presence of vitamin C.
 D. The better the overall health of cancer patients while undergoing therapy, the more likely they are to experience a full recovery.
 E. Certain side effects of cancer therapies that are detrimental to patients' overall health are not affected by vitamin C.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Medical columnist: Some doctors recommend taking vitamin C to help maintain overall health because vitamin C is an antioxidant, a substance that protects the body from certain types of oxygen particles that can trigger disease. People suffering from various ailments are encouraged to take vitamin C to guard against developing other health problems. However, doctors are now discouraging some cancer patients from taking vitamin C, even when they are undergoing therapies with side effects that are detrimental to their overall health.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why the doctors' recommendation to some cancer patients differs from the general recommendation regarding vitamin C?
 A. Some kinds of cancer cells absorb large amounts of vitamin C, which interferes with the oxidation mechanism by which many cancer therapies kill cancer cells.
 B. Vitamin C has not been shown to reduce people's risk of developing cancer, even at the very high dosage levels recommended by some doctors.
 C. Cancer cells that are susceptible to certain types of cancer therapies are not likely to be affected by the presence of vitamin C.
 D. The better the overall health of cancer patients while undergoing therapy, the more likely they are to experience a full recovery.
 E. Certain side effects of cancer therapies that are detrimental to patients' overall health are not affected by vitamin C.
Answer: A


Question:
Company spokesperson: Household Products magazine claims that our Filterator X water filter does not remove chemical contaminants in significant amounts. This attack on the quality of our product is undermined by the experience of the millions of Filterator X owners who are satisfied with the product's performance.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the company spokesperson's argument?
 A. Household Products did not evaluate whether the Filterator X water filter significantly improved the taste of drinking water.
 B. Most Filterator X owners have no way to determine how effectively the product removes chemical contaminants from water.
 C. People whose household water contsins chemical contsminants are more likely than other people to buy a Filterator X water filter.
 D. Very few people who own a Filterator X read Household Products on a consistent basis.
 E. Household Products' evaluations of Filterator X water ::tilters have been consistently negative
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Company spokesperson: Household Products magazine claims that our Filterator X water filter does not remove chemical contaminants in significant amounts. This attack on the quality of our product is undermined by the experience of the millions of Filterator X owners who are satisfied with the product's performance.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously undermines the company spokesperson's argument?
 A. Household Products did not evaluate whether the Filterator X water filter significantly improved the taste of drinking water.
 B. Most Filterator X owners have no way to determine how effectively the product removes chemical contaminants from water.
 C. People whose household water contsins chemical contsminants are more likely than other people to buy a Filterator X water filter.
 D. Very few people who own a Filterator X read Household Products on a consistent basis.
 E. Household Products' evaluations of Filterator X water ::tilters have been consistently negative
Answer: B


Question:
In a study of tropical forests it was found that while the species of trees that is most common in a particular forest also reproduces the most, trees of the species that is rarest there tend to survive longer. This pattern holds regardless of which species of trees is the most common and which is the rarest.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why trees of the rarest species tend to survive longer than trees of the most common species?
 A. The species of trees that is most common in a forest thrives there because it is best suited to the local climate.
 B. Older trees tend to reproduce the least.
 C. The study tracked preexisting tree species but did not introduce any new species to the tropical forests.
 D. The survival of the trees of the rarer species enables tropical forests to recover more easily from moderate destruction.
 E. The trees of the common species have more competition for the resources they need than do the trees of the rare species.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

In a study of tropical forests it was found that while the species of trees that is most common in a particular forest also reproduces the most, trees of the species that is rarest there tend to survive longer. This pattern holds regardless of which species of trees is the most common and which is the rarest.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to explain why trees of the rarest species tend to survive longer than trees of the most common species?
 A. The species of trees that is most common in a forest thrives there because it is best suited to the local climate.
 B. Older trees tend to reproduce the least.
 C. The study tracked preexisting tree species but did not introduce any new species to the tropical forests.
 D. The survival of the trees of the rarer species enables tropical forests to recover more easily from moderate destruction.
 E. The trees of the common species have more competition for the resources they need than do the trees of the rare species.
Answer: E


Question:
Retailers that excel in neither convenience nor variety of merchandise tend not to be very successful. Yet many successful retailers excel in just one of the areas and meet competitors' standards for the other. Hence, a retailer's success need not depend on excellence in both areas.
Question: The structure of the reasoning in the argument above is most parallel to that in which one of the following?
 A. Runners who have only average speed and endurance are unlikely to win long-distance races. Some long-distance champions, however, win by being above average in speed or endurance only; therefore, being above average in both speed and endurance is not necessary.
 B. Bicyclists who have only average speed are unlikely to win short races, but in a long-distance race such bicyclists can win if they have better-built bicycles than average and better endurance than average. Therefore, most bicycle races are not won by bicyclists with above-average speed.
 C. Excellence in a particular swimming stroke is not always necessary in order for a swimmer to win a race that requires each swimmer to use several different strokes in sequence, and many swimmers win these races without being the best at any of the strokes. Therefore, anyone who does excel at all the strokes is almost certain to win.
 D. Apples that are neither especially firm nor especially flavorful are unsuitable for baking; yet while flavor is essential for both baking and eating, many flavorful apples that are soft are suitable for eating. Hence, the apples that are best for eating need not be both firm and flavorful.
 E. Most plants that are neither ornamental nor edible are useless and are thus classified as weeds; yet many such plants are useful for purposes other than food or ornamentation, and are thus not classified as weeds. Hence, not all inedible and non-ornamental plants are weeds.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Retailers that excel in neither convenience nor variety of merchandise tend not to be very successful. Yet many successful retailers excel in just one of the areas and meet competitors' standards for the other. Hence, a retailer's success need not depend on excellence in both areas.
Question: The structure of the reasoning in the argument above is most parallel to that in which one of the following?
 A. Runners who have only average speed and endurance are unlikely to win long-distance races. Some long-distance champions, however, win by being above average in speed or endurance only; therefore, being above average in both speed and endurance is not necessary.
 B. Bicyclists who have only average speed are unlikely to win short races, but in a long-distance race such bicyclists can win if they have better-built bicycles than average and better endurance than average. Therefore, most bicycle races are not won by bicyclists with above-average speed.
 C. Excellence in a particular swimming stroke is not always necessary in order for a swimmer to win a race that requires each swimmer to use several different strokes in sequence, and many swimmers win these races without being the best at any of the strokes. Therefore, anyone who does excel at all the strokes is almost certain to win.
 D. Apples that are neither especially firm nor especially flavorful are unsuitable for baking; yet while flavor is essential for both baking and eating, many flavorful apples that are soft are suitable for eating. Hence, the apples that are best for eating need not be both firm and flavorful.
 E. Most plants that are neither ornamental nor edible are useless and are thus classified as weeds; yet many such plants are useful for purposes other than food or ornamentation, and are thus not classified as weeds. Hence, not all inedible and non-ornamental plants are weeds.
Answer: A


Question:
At one time, many astronomers assumed that Earth remains motionless while the stars revolve around it. They concluded from this that the stars were not more than a few million miles from Earth. They reasoned that if the stars were farther away, they would have to move at tremendously great speeds in order to circle Earth during the day and reappear in roughly the same positions each night.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the reasoning described above?
 A. If the stars do not revolve around Earth, it is possible for at least some stars to be more than a few million miles from Earth.
 B. All stars move at exactly the same speed when they are revolving around Earth.
 C. Earth does not remain motionless while the stars revolve around it.
 D. Stars do not move at tremendously great speeds.
 E. A star that is more than a million miles from Earth could reappear in roughly the same position each night.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

At one time, many astronomers assumed that Earth remains motionless while the stars revolve around it. They concluded from this that the stars were not more than a few million miles from Earth. They reasoned that if the stars were farther away, they would have to move at tremendously great speeds in order to circle Earth during the day and reappear in roughly the same positions each night.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the reasoning described above?
 A. If the stars do not revolve around Earth, it is possible for at least some stars to be more than a few million miles from Earth.
 B. All stars move at exactly the same speed when they are revolving around Earth.
 C. Earth does not remain motionless while the stars revolve around it.
 D. Stars do not move at tremendously great speeds.
 E. A star that is more than a million miles from Earth could reappear in roughly the same position each night.
Answer: D