Question:
Packaging is vital to a product's commercial success. For example, the maker of a popular drink introduced a "new, improved" version which succeeded in blind taste tests. However, customers did not buy the product when marketed, mainly because the can, almost identical to that used for the earlier version of the beverage, made consumers expect that the new product would share certain features of the old, an expectation not satisfied by the new product.
Question: Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above?
 A. Proper product packaging is more important than the quality of the product.
 B. Products generally succeed in the market if they are packaged in a manner that accurately reflects their nature.
 C. Changing the packaging of a product will not improve the product's sales unless the product is also changed.
 D. To succeed in the market, a new product should not be packaged in a way that creates expectations that it does not meet.
 E. An improved version of an existing product will sell better than the earlier version unless the improved version is packaged like the earlier one.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Packaging is vital to a product's commercial success. For example, the maker of a popular drink introduced a "new, improved" version which succeeded in blind taste tests. However, customers did not buy the product when marketed, mainly because the can, almost identical to that used for the earlier version of the beverage, made consumers expect that the new product would share certain features of the old, an expectation not satisfied by the new product.
Question: Which one of the following is most strongly supported by the information above?
 A. Proper product packaging is more important than the quality of the product.
 B. Products generally succeed in the market if they are packaged in a manner that accurately reflects their nature.
 C. Changing the packaging of a product will not improve the product's sales unless the product is also changed.
 D. To succeed in the market, a new product should not be packaged in a way that creates expectations that it does not meet.
 E. An improved version of an existing product will sell better than the earlier version unless the improved version is packaged like the earlier one.
Answer: D


Question:
In most industrial waste products that contain the toxic chemical XTX, the concentration of this chemical is approximately 1,000 parts per million. A federal law intended to reduce the harm that can result from the introduction of XTX into the environment permits a company to dispose of these waste products in a dump for hazardous waste, but only if the concentration of XTX is below 500 parts per million. Waste products with concentrations above that level must be destroyed by incineration. The law further specifies that manufacturers may not dilute XTX-containing waste products to bring their concentration of XTX down to a permissible level for dumping.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, argues most strongly for the inclusion of the antidilution provision of the law?
 A. If improperly incinerated, waste products containing undiluted concentrations of XTX can release into the environment a gaseous form of the chemical that is more than twice as toxic as XTX is in its usual liquid state.
 B. If present in the environment in sufficient quantities, the diluted XTX is as harmful as the more concentrated XTX.
 C. When XTX is exposed to sunlight and oxygen, it eventually breaks down into a number of components that individually and collectively carry no risk of environmental harm.
 D. Most owners of dumps for hazardous waste are willing to accept XTX for disposal in their facilities only in concentrations below 800 parts per million.
 E. To manufacturers, the cost of diluting and disposing of waste products containing XTX is approximately the same as the cost of destroying these products by incineration.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

In most industrial waste products that contain the toxic chemical XTX, the concentration of this chemical is approximately 1,000 parts per million. A federal law intended to reduce the harm that can result from the introduction of XTX into the environment permits a company to dispose of these waste products in a dump for hazardous waste, but only if the concentration of XTX is below 500 parts per million. Waste products with concentrations above that level must be destroyed by incineration. The law further specifies that manufacturers may not dilute XTX-containing waste products to bring their concentration of XTX down to a permissible level for dumping.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, argues most strongly for the inclusion of the antidilution provision of the law?
 A. If improperly incinerated, waste products containing undiluted concentrations of XTX can release into the environment a gaseous form of the chemical that is more than twice as toxic as XTX is in its usual liquid state.
 B. If present in the environment in sufficient quantities, the diluted XTX is as harmful as the more concentrated XTX.
 C. When XTX is exposed to sunlight and oxygen, it eventually breaks down into a number of components that individually and collectively carry no risk of environmental harm.
 D. Most owners of dumps for hazardous waste are willing to accept XTX for disposal in their facilities only in concentrations below 800 parts per million.
 E. To manufacturers, the cost of diluting and disposing of waste products containing XTX is approximately the same as the cost of destroying these products by incineration.
Answer: B


Question:
Essayist: Common sense, which is always progressing, is nothing but a collection of theories that have been tested over time and found useful. When alternative theories that prove even more useful are developed, they gradually take the place of theories already embodied in common sense. This causes common sense to progress, but, because it absorbs new theories slowly, it always contains some obsolete theories.
Question: If all of the essayist's statements are true, then which one of the following must be true?
 A. At least some new theories that have not yet been found to be more useful than any theory currently part of common sense will never be absorbed into the body of common sense.
 B. Of the useful theories within the body of common sense, the older ones are generally less useful than the newer ones.
 C. The frequency with which new theories are generated prevents their rapid absorption into the body of common sense.
 D. Each theory within the body of common sense is eventually replaced with a new theory that is more useful.
 E. At least some theories that have been tested over time and found useful are less useful than some other theories that have not been fully absorbed into the body of common sense.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Essayist: Common sense, which is always progressing, is nothing but a collection of theories that have been tested over time and found useful. When alternative theories that prove even more useful are developed, they gradually take the place of theories already embodied in common sense. This causes common sense to progress, but, because it absorbs new theories slowly, it always contains some obsolete theories.
Question: If all of the essayist's statements are true, then which one of the following must be true?
 A. At least some new theories that have not yet been found to be more useful than any theory currently part of common sense will never be absorbed into the body of common sense.
 B. Of the useful theories within the body of common sense, the older ones are generally less useful than the newer ones.
 C. The frequency with which new theories are generated prevents their rapid absorption into the body of common sense.
 D. Each theory within the body of common sense is eventually replaced with a new theory that is more useful.
 E. At least some theories that have been tested over time and found useful are less useful than some other theories that have not been fully absorbed into the body of common sense.
Answer: E


Question:
Kennel club members who frequently discipline their dogs report a higher incidence of misbehavior than do members who rarely or never discipline their dogs. We can conclude from this that discipline does not improve dogs' behavior; on the contrary, it encourages misbehavior.
Question: The argument is flawed in that it fails to consider the possibility that
 A. dogs' misbehavior is the cause of, rather than the result of, frequent discipline
 B. dogs learn from past experience how their owners are likely to react to misbehavior
 C. discipline does not cause misbehavior on the part of animals other than dogs
 D. kennel club members tend to be more skilled at raising dogs than are other dog owners
 E. kennel club members are more likely to use discipline than are other dog owners
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Kennel club members who frequently discipline their dogs report a higher incidence of misbehavior than do members who rarely or never discipline their dogs. We can conclude from this that discipline does not improve dogs' behavior; on the contrary, it encourages misbehavior.
Question: The argument is flawed in that it fails to consider the possibility that
 A. dogs' misbehavior is the cause of, rather than the result of, frequent discipline
 B. dogs learn from past experience how their owners are likely to react to misbehavior
 C. discipline does not cause misbehavior on the part of animals other than dogs
 D. kennel club members tend to be more skilled at raising dogs than are other dog owners
 E. kennel club members are more likely to use discipline than are other dog owners
Answer: A


Question:
Sherrie: Scientists now agree that nicotine in tobacco is addictive inasmuch as smokers who try to stop smoking suffer withdrawal symptoms. For this reason alone, tobacco should be treated the same way as other dangerous drugs. Governments worldwide have a duty to restrict the manufacture and sale of tobacco. Fran: By your own admission, "addictive" is broad enough to include other commonly consumed products, such as coffee and soft drinks containing caffeine. But of course the manufacture and sale of these products should not be restricted.
Question: The dialogue above lends the most support to the claim that Sherrie and Fran disagree with each other about which one of the following statements?
 A. The manufacture and sale of all drugs should be regulated by governments.
 B. Coffee and soft drinks that contain caffeine should not be regulated by governments.
 C. Agreement by scientists that a substance is addictive justifies government restrictions on products containing that substance.
 D. Scientists are not proper authorities with respect to the question of whether a given substance is addictive.
 E. Scientists and governments have a duty to cooperate in regulating drugs to protect the public health.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Sherrie: Scientists now agree that nicotine in tobacco is addictive inasmuch as smokers who try to stop smoking suffer withdrawal symptoms. For this reason alone, tobacco should be treated the same way as other dangerous drugs. Governments worldwide have a duty to restrict the manufacture and sale of tobacco. Fran: By your own admission, "addictive" is broad enough to include other commonly consumed products, such as coffee and soft drinks containing caffeine. But of course the manufacture and sale of these products should not be restricted.
Question: The dialogue above lends the most support to the claim that Sherrie and Fran disagree with each other about which one of the following statements?
 A. The manufacture and sale of all drugs should be regulated by governments.
 B. Coffee and soft drinks that contain caffeine should not be regulated by governments.
 C. Agreement by scientists that a substance is addictive justifies government restrictions on products containing that substance.
 D. Scientists are not proper authorities with respect to the question of whether a given substance is addictive.
 E. Scientists and governments have a duty to cooperate in regulating drugs to protect the public health.
Answer: C


Question:
Ethicist: Marital vows often contain the promise to love "until death do us part." If "love" here refers to a feeling, then this promise makes no sense, for feelings are not within one's control, and a promise to do something not within one's control makes no sense. Thus, no one—including those making marital vows—should take "love" in this context to be referring to feelings.
Question: The ethicist's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?
 A. None of our feelings are within our control.
 B. People should not make promises to do something that is not within their control.
 C. "Love" can legitimately be taken to refer to something other than feelings.
 D. Promises should not be interpreted in such a way that they make no sense.
 E. Promises that cannot be kept do not make any sense.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Ethicist: Marital vows often contain the promise to love "until death do us part." If "love" here refers to a feeling, then this promise makes no sense, for feelings are not within one's control, and a promise to do something not within one's control makes no sense. Thus, no one—including those making marital vows—should take "love" in this context to be referring to feelings.
Question: The ethicist's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?
 A. None of our feelings are within our control.
 B. People should not make promises to do something that is not within their control.
 C. "Love" can legitimately be taken to refer to something other than feelings.
 D. Promises should not be interpreted in such a way that they make no sense.
 E. Promises that cannot be kept do not make any sense.
Answer: D


Question:
Critic: Fillmore, an influential television executive, argues that watching television regularly is not detrimental to very young children. Fillmore bases this on the claim, which I grant, that children can learn much that is beneficial from television. But we should reject Fillmore's argument, because clearly it is to Fillmore's benefit to convince parents that television is not harmful to their children.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the critic's reasoning?
 A. It takes a necessary condition for something's being harmful to be a sufficient condition for being harmful.
 B. It concludes that something is true merely on the grounds that there is no evidence to the contrary.
 C. It rejects an argument solely on the grounds that the argument could serve the interests of the person making that argument.
 D. It is based on an appeal to the views of someone with questionable authority on the subject matter.
 E. It bases its conclusion on claims that are inconsistent with one another.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Critic: Fillmore, an influential television executive, argues that watching television regularly is not detrimental to very young children. Fillmore bases this on the claim, which I grant, that children can learn much that is beneficial from television. But we should reject Fillmore's argument, because clearly it is to Fillmore's benefit to convince parents that television is not harmful to their children.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the critic's reasoning?
 A. It takes a necessary condition for something's being harmful to be a sufficient condition for being harmful.
 B. It concludes that something is true merely on the grounds that there is no evidence to the contrary.
 C. It rejects an argument solely on the grounds that the argument could serve the interests of the person making that argument.
 D. It is based on an appeal to the views of someone with questionable authority on the subject matter.
 E. It bases its conclusion on claims that are inconsistent with one another.
Answer: C


Question:
Detective: Because the embezzler must have had specialized knowledge and access to internal financial records, we can presume that the embezzler worked for XYZ Corporation as either an accountant or an actuary. But an accountant would probably not make the kind of mistakes in ledger entries that led to the discovery of the embezzlement. Thus it is likely that the embezzler is one of the actuaries.
Question: Each of the following weakens the detective's argument EXCEPT:
 A. The actuaries' activities while working for XYZ Corporation were more closely scrutinized by supervisors than were the activities of the accountants.
 B. There is evidence of breaches in computer security at the time of the embezzlement that could have given persons outside XYZ Corporation access to internal financial records.
 C. XYZ Corporation employs eight accountants, whereas it has only two actuaries on its staff.
 D. An independent report released before the crime took place concluded that XYZ Corporation was vulnerable to embezzlement.
 E. Certain security measures at XYZ Corporation made it more difficult for the actuaries to have access to internal financial records than for the accountants.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Detective: Because the embezzler must have had specialized knowledge and access to internal financial records, we can presume that the embezzler worked for XYZ Corporation as either an accountant or an actuary. But an accountant would probably not make the kind of mistakes in ledger entries that led to the discovery of the embezzlement. Thus it is likely that the embezzler is one of the actuaries.
Question: Each of the following weakens the detective's argument EXCEPT:
 A. The actuaries' activities while working for XYZ Corporation were more closely scrutinized by supervisors than were the activities of the accountants.
 B. There is evidence of breaches in computer security at the time of the embezzlement that could have given persons outside XYZ Corporation access to internal financial records.
 C. XYZ Corporation employs eight accountants, whereas it has only two actuaries on its staff.
 D. An independent report released before the crime took place concluded that XYZ Corporation was vulnerable to embezzlement.
 E. Certain security measures at XYZ Corporation made it more difficult for the actuaries to have access to internal financial records than for the accountants.
Answer: D


Question:
In some countries, national planners have attempted to address the problems resulting from increasing urbanization by reducing migration from rural areas. But some economists have suggested an alternative approach. These economists assert that planners could solve these problems effectively by trading goods or services produced by a predominantly urban population in order to obtain the agricultural products that were previously produced domestically.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, would provide the most support for the economists' assertion?
 A. Government subsidies to urban manufacturers can ease the problems caused by the migration of people from rural to urban areas.
 B. All problems that have economic causes must have economic solutions.
 C. A scarcity of agricultural products is a central element of many problems created by urbanization.
 D. Problems associated with migration to cities from rural areas are primarily due to trade imbalances between countries.
 E. Free trade policies can exacerbate the problems caused by increasing urbanization.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

In some countries, national planners have attempted to address the problems resulting from increasing urbanization by reducing migration from rural areas. But some economists have suggested an alternative approach. These economists assert that planners could solve these problems effectively by trading goods or services produced by a predominantly urban population in order to obtain the agricultural products that were previously produced domestically.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, would provide the most support for the economists' assertion?
 A. Government subsidies to urban manufacturers can ease the problems caused by the migration of people from rural to urban areas.
 B. All problems that have economic causes must have economic solutions.
 C. A scarcity of agricultural products is a central element of many problems created by urbanization.
 D. Problems associated with migration to cities from rural areas are primarily due to trade imbalances between countries.
 E. Free trade policies can exacerbate the problems caused by increasing urbanization.
Answer: C


Question:
Researchers working in Western Australia have discovered the oldest fragments of the Earth's early crust that have yet been identified: microdiamonds. These microscopic crystals measure only 50 microns across and were formed 4.2 billion years ago. This discovery sheds light on how long it took for the Earth's crust to form, since this date is only 300 million years after the formation of the Earth itself.
Question: If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?
 A. The Earth's crust took no longer than 300 million years to start to form.
 B. The Earth's crust first formed in the area that is now Western Australia.
 C. The Earth's crust took billions of years to form.
 D. Microdiamonds were the first components of the Earth's crust to form.
 E. All naturally occurring microdiamonds were formed at the time the Earth's crust was being formed.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Researchers working in Western Australia have discovered the oldest fragments of the Earth's early crust that have yet been identified: microdiamonds. These microscopic crystals measure only 50 microns across and were formed 4.2 billion years ago. This discovery sheds light on how long it took for the Earth's crust to form, since this date is only 300 million years after the formation of the Earth itself.
Question: If the statements above are true, which one of the following must also be true?
 A. The Earth's crust took no longer than 300 million years to start to form.
 B. The Earth's crust first formed in the area that is now Western Australia.
 C. The Earth's crust took billions of years to form.
 D. Microdiamonds were the first components of the Earth's crust to form.
 E. All naturally occurring microdiamonds were formed at the time the Earth's crust was being formed.
Answer: A


Question:
People who have specialized knowledge about a scientific or technical issue are systematically excluded from juries for trials where that issue is relevant. Thus, trial by jury is not a fair means of settling disputes involving such issues.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?
 A. The more complicated the issue being litigated, the less likely it is that a juror without specialized knowledge of the field involved will be able to comprehend the testimony being given.
 B. The more a juror knows about a particular scientific or technical issue involved in a trial, the more likely it is that the juror will be prejudiced in favor of one of the litigating parties before the trial begins.
 C. Appointing an impartial arbitrator is not a fair means of settling disputes involving scientific or technical issues, because arbitrators tend to favor settlements in which both parties compromise on the issues.
 D. Experts who give testimony on scientific or technical issues tend to hedge their conclusions by discussing the possibility of error.
 E. Expert witnesses in specialized fields often command fees that are so high that many people involved in litigation cannot afford their services.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

People who have specialized knowledge about a scientific or technical issue are systematically excluded from juries for trials where that issue is relevant. Thus, trial by jury is not a fair means of settling disputes involving such issues.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the argument?
 A. The more complicated the issue being litigated, the less likely it is that a juror without specialized knowledge of the field involved will be able to comprehend the testimony being given.
 B. The more a juror knows about a particular scientific or technical issue involved in a trial, the more likely it is that the juror will be prejudiced in favor of one of the litigating parties before the trial begins.
 C. Appointing an impartial arbitrator is not a fair means of settling disputes involving scientific or technical issues, because arbitrators tend to favor settlements in which both parties compromise on the issues.
 D. Experts who give testimony on scientific or technical issues tend to hedge their conclusions by discussing the possibility of error.
 E. Expert witnesses in specialized fields often command fees that are so high that many people involved in litigation cannot afford their services.
Answer: B


Question:
Humorous television advertisements are the only effective ones. For if something is humorous it will not only attract people's attention, it will hold their attention long enough for a message to be conveyed. And, obviously, for an advertisement to be effective it must convey its message.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument?
 A. It takes for granted that nothing but humor can attract a person's attention and hold it long enough for a message to be conveyed.
 B. It confuses attracting a person's attention with holding a person's attention long enough for a message to be conveyed.
 C. It treats a necessary condition for an advertisement's being effective as if it were a sufficient condition.
 D. It uses two senses of the term "effective" without differentiating them.
 E. It takes for granted that an advertisement's only purpose is to convey its message.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Humorous television advertisements are the only effective ones. For if something is humorous it will not only attract people's attention, it will hold their attention long enough for a message to be conveyed. And, obviously, for an advertisement to be effective it must convey its message.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes a flaw in the argument?
 A. It takes for granted that nothing but humor can attract a person's attention and hold it long enough for a message to be conveyed.
 B. It confuses attracting a person's attention with holding a person's attention long enough for a message to be conveyed.
 C. It treats a necessary condition for an advertisement's being effective as if it were a sufficient condition.
 D. It uses two senses of the term "effective" without differentiating them.
 E. It takes for granted that an advertisement's only purpose is to convey its message.
Answer: A


Question:
Art critic: The Woerner Journalism Award for criticism was given to Nan Paulsen for her reviews of automobiles. This is inappropriate. The criticism award should be given for criticism, which Paulsen's reviews clearly were not. After alL cars are utilitarian things, not works of art. And objects that are not works of art do not reveal important truths about the culture that produced them.
Question: Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justiJY the reasoning in the art critic's argument?
 A. The Woemer Journalism Award for criticism should not be given to a writer who portrays utilitarian objects as works of art.
 B. Reviews of objects cannot appropriately be considered to be criticism unless the objects reveal important truths about the culture that produced them.
 C. Unless a review is written for the purpose of revealing important truths about the writer's culture, that review should not be considered to be criticism.
 D. The Woerner JournalismAward for criticism should not be given to writers who do not consider themselves to be critics.
 E. All writing that reveals important truths about a culture should be considered to be criticism.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Art critic: The Woerner Journalism Award for criticism was given to Nan Paulsen for her reviews of automobiles. This is inappropriate. The criticism award should be given for criticism, which Paulsen's reviews clearly were not. After alL cars are utilitarian things, not works of art. And objects that are not works of art do not reveal important truths about the culture that produced them.
Question: Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justiJY the reasoning in the art critic's argument?
 A. The Woemer Journalism Award for criticism should not be given to a writer who portrays utilitarian objects as works of art.
 B. Reviews of objects cannot appropriately be considered to be criticism unless the objects reveal important truths about the culture that produced them.
 C. Unless a review is written for the purpose of revealing important truths about the writer's culture, that review should not be considered to be criticism.
 D. The Woerner JournalismAward for criticism should not be given to writers who do not consider themselves to be critics.
 E. All writing that reveals important truths about a culture should be considered to be criticism.
Answer: B


Question:
Dana: It is wrong to think that the same educational methods should be used with all children. Many children have been raised in more communal environments than others and would therefore learn better through group, rather than individual, activities. A child's accustomed style of learning should always dictate what method is used. Pat: No, not always. The flexibility of being able to work either on one's own or in a group is invaluable in a world where both skills are in demand.
Question: The conversation lends the most support to the claim that Dana and Pat disagree on which one of the following?
 A. All children can learn valuable skills from individual activities.
 B. All children should learn to adapt to various educational methods.
 C. Many children would learn better through group, rather than individual, activities.
 D. The main purpose of education is to prepare children to meet the demands of the job market as adults.
 E. It is sometimes desirable to tailor educational methods to the way a child learns best.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Dana: It is wrong to think that the same educational methods should be used with all children. Many children have been raised in more communal environments than others and would therefore learn better through group, rather than individual, activities. A child's accustomed style of learning should always dictate what method is used. Pat: No, not always. The flexibility of being able to work either on one's own or in a group is invaluable in a world where both skills are in demand.
Question: The conversation lends the most support to the claim that Dana and Pat disagree on which one of the following?
 A. All children can learn valuable skills from individual activities.
 B. All children should learn to adapt to various educational methods.
 C. Many children would learn better through group, rather than individual, activities.
 D. The main purpose of education is to prepare children to meet the demands of the job market as adults.
 E. It is sometimes desirable to tailor educational methods to the way a child learns best.
Answer: B


Question:
Editor: Most of the books of fiction we have published were submitted by literary agents for writers they represented; the rest were received directly from fiction writers from whom we requested submissions. No nonfiction manuscript has been given serious attention, let alone been published, unless it was from a renowned figure or we had requested the manuscript after careful review of the writer's book proposal.
Question: Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the editor's statements?
 A. Most unrequested manuscripts that the publishing house receives are not given serious attention.
 B. Most of the books that the publishing house publishes that are not by renowned authors are books of fiction.
 C. If a manuscript has received careful attention at the publishing house, then it is either a work of fiction or the work of a renowned figure.
 D. The publishing house is less likely to give careful consideration to a manuscript that was submitted directly by a writer than one that was submitted by a writer's literary agent.
 E. Any unrequested manuscripts not submitted by literary agents that the publishing house has published were written by renowned figures.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Editor: Most of the books of fiction we have published were submitted by literary agents for writers they represented; the rest were received directly from fiction writers from whom we requested submissions. No nonfiction manuscript has been given serious attention, let alone been published, unless it was from a renowned figure or we had requested the manuscript after careful review of the writer's book proposal.
Question: Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the editor's statements?
 A. Most unrequested manuscripts that the publishing house receives are not given serious attention.
 B. Most of the books that the publishing house publishes that are not by renowned authors are books of fiction.
 C. If a manuscript has received careful attention at the publishing house, then it is either a work of fiction or the work of a renowned figure.
 D. The publishing house is less likely to give careful consideration to a manuscript that was submitted directly by a writer than one that was submitted by a writer's literary agent.
 E. Any unrequested manuscripts not submitted by literary agents that the publishing house has published were written by renowned figures.
Answer: E


Question:
For a species of large abalone shellfish to develop from a species of smaller ones, they must spend less energy on finding food and avoiding predators, and more on competition in mating. So it is surprising that the fossil record shows that a species of large abalones developed from a smaller one only after otters' which prey on abalones, began to dominate the waters in which the abalones lived.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above?
 A. Otters and abalones also compete for the same types of food and so are drawn to the same waters.
 B. The fossils that were studied showed the development of only one of the two species of large abalones known to exist.
 C. Otters also prey on the abalones* competitors for food and so indirectly make it easier for abalones to get food.
 D. Small abalone species tend to reproduce more rapidly than larger abalone species.
 E. Otters have a preference for large abalones over small ones and so prefer waters in which large abalones are found.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

For a species of large abalone shellfish to develop from a species of smaller ones, they must spend less energy on finding food and avoiding predators, and more on competition in mating. So it is surprising that the fossil record shows that a species of large abalones developed from a smaller one only after otters' which prey on abalones, began to dominate the waters in which the abalones lived.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, most helps to resolve the apparent discrepancy in the information above?
 A. Otters and abalones also compete for the same types of food and so are drawn to the same waters.
 B. The fossils that were studied showed the development of only one of the two species of large abalones known to exist.
 C. Otters also prey on the abalones* competitors for food and so indirectly make it easier for abalones to get food.
 D. Small abalone species tend to reproduce more rapidly than larger abalone species.
 E. Otters have a preference for large abalones over small ones and so prefer waters in which large abalones are found.
Answer: C


Question:
A manager cannot extract the best performance from employees by threatening them with termination or offering financial rewards for high productivity. Rather, employees must come to want to do a good job for its own sake. One of the best ways for a manager to achieve this is to delegate responsibility to them, especially for decisions that previously had to be made by the manager.
Question: Which one of the following propositions is best illustrated by the situation described in the passage?
 A. Increased responsibility can improve a person's sense of how power should be used.
 B. It is often the case that the desire for prestige is more powerful than the desire for job security.
 C. In some cases one's effectiveness in a particular role can be enhanced by a partial relinquishing of control.
 D. People who carry out decisions are in the best position to determine what those decisions should be.
 E. Business works best by harnessing the self-interest of individuals to benefit the company as a whole.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

A manager cannot extract the best performance from employees by threatening them with termination or offering financial rewards for high productivity. Rather, employees must come to want to do a good job for its own sake. One of the best ways for a manager to achieve this is to delegate responsibility to them, especially for decisions that previously had to be made by the manager.
Question: Which one of the following propositions is best illustrated by the situation described in the passage?
 A. Increased responsibility can improve a person's sense of how power should be used.
 B. It is often the case that the desire for prestige is more powerful than the desire for job security.
 C. In some cases one's effectiveness in a particular role can be enhanced by a partial relinquishing of control.
 D. People who carry out decisions are in the best position to determine what those decisions should be.
 E. Business works best by harnessing the self-interest of individuals to benefit the company as a whole.
Answer: C


Question:
Editorial: Cell-phone usage on buses and trains is annoying to other passengers. This suggests that recent proposals to allow use of cell phones on airplanes are ill-advised. Cell-phone use would be far more upsetting on airplanes than it is on buses and trains. Airline passengers are usually packed in tightly. And if airline passengers are offended by the cell-phone excesses of their seatmates, they often cannot move to another seat.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the editorial's argument by the statement that cell-phone use would be far more upsetting on airplanes than it is on buses and trains?
 A. It is the main conclusion of the argument.
 B. It is a claim that the argument tries to rebut.
 C. It is a premise that indirectly supports the main conclusion of the argument by supporting a premise for that conclusion.
 D. It is a conclusion for which support is provided and that itself is used in turn to directly support the argument's main conclusion.
 E. It provides background information that plays no role in the reasoning in the argument.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Editorial: Cell-phone usage on buses and trains is annoying to other passengers. This suggests that recent proposals to allow use of cell phones on airplanes are ill-advised. Cell-phone use would be far more upsetting on airplanes than it is on buses and trains. Airline passengers are usually packed in tightly. And if airline passengers are offended by the cell-phone excesses of their seatmates, they often cannot move to another seat.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately describes the role played in the editorial's argument by the statement that cell-phone use would be far more upsetting on airplanes than it is on buses and trains?
 A. It is the main conclusion of the argument.
 B. It is a claim that the argument tries to rebut.
 C. It is a premise that indirectly supports the main conclusion of the argument by supporting a premise for that conclusion.
 D. It is a conclusion for which support is provided and that itself is used in turn to directly support the argument's main conclusion.
 E. It provides background information that plays no role in the reasoning in the argument.
Answer: D


Question:
Ethicist: Only when we know a lot about the events that led to an action are we justified in praising or blaming a person for that action—as we sometimes are. We must therefore reject Tolstoy's rash claim that if we knew a lot about the events leading up to any action, we would cease to regard that action as freely performed.
Question: Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the conclusion of the ethicist's argument to be properly drawn?
 A. People should not be regarded as subject to praise or blame for actions that were caused by conditions beyond their control.
 B. Whether an act is one for which the person doing it is genuinely responsible is not determined by how much information others possess about that act.
 C. We can be justified in praising or blaming a person for an action only when we regard that action as freely performed.
 D. The responsibility a person bears for an action is not a matter of degree; however, our inclination to blame or praise whoever performed the action varies with the amount of information available.
 E. If we do not know much about the events leading up to any given action, we will regard that action as freely performed.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Ethicist: Only when we know a lot about the events that led to an action are we justified in praising or blaming a person for that action—as we sometimes are. We must therefore reject Tolstoy's rash claim that if we knew a lot about the events leading up to any action, we would cease to regard that action as freely performed.
Question: Which one of the following, if assumed, enables the conclusion of the ethicist's argument to be properly drawn?
 A. People should not be regarded as subject to praise or blame for actions that were caused by conditions beyond their control.
 B. Whether an act is one for which the person doing it is genuinely responsible is not determined by how much information others possess about that act.
 C. We can be justified in praising or blaming a person for an action only when we regard that action as freely performed.
 D. The responsibility a person bears for an action is not a matter of degree; however, our inclination to blame or praise whoever performed the action varies with the amount of information available.
 E. If we do not know much about the events leading up to any given action, we will regard that action as freely performed.
Answer: C


Question:
In a recent field study of prairie plants, the more plant species a prairie plot had, the more vigorously the plants grew and the better the soil retained nutrients. Thus, having more plant species improves a prairie's ability to support plant life.
Question: The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it
 A. infers of two correlated.phenomena, X and Y, that X causes Y without considering whether Y causes X
 B. fails to describe the mechanism by which productivity is supposedly increased
 C. takes for granted that the characteristics of one prairie plot could reveal something about the characteristics of other prairie plots
 D. bases a general conclusion on data that is likely to be unrepresentative
 E. takes an increase in number to indicate an increase in proportion
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

In a recent field study of prairie plants, the more plant species a prairie plot had, the more vigorously the plants grew and the better the soil retained nutrients. Thus, having more plant species improves a prairie's ability to support plant life.
Question: The argument is most vulnerable to criticism on the grounds that it
 A. infers of two correlated.phenomena, X and Y, that X causes Y without considering whether Y causes X
 B. fails to describe the mechanism by which productivity is supposedly increased
 C. takes for granted that the characteristics of one prairie plot could reveal something about the characteristics of other prairie plots
 D. bases a general conclusion on data that is likely to be unrepresentative
 E. takes an increase in number to indicate an increase in proportion
Answer: A


Question:
Some heartburn-medication advertisements imply that unrelieved heartburn is likely to cause esophageal cancer. This is simply false. The fact is that only about 5 percent of people with severe heartburn have a condition called Barrett's esophagus, in which cells similar to those in the stomach's lining develop in the lower esophagus. Only these people have an increased risk of developing cancer because of heartburn.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the overall conclusion drawn in the argument?
 A. Only those people with Barrett's esophagus can suffer an increased risk of developing cancer from heartburn.
 B. An increase in the risk of esophageal cancer arises from cells similar to those in the stomach's lining developing in the lower esophagus.
 C. Unrelieved heartburn is not likely to cause esophageal cancer.
 D. Some heartburn-medication advertisements imply that unrelieved heartburn is likely to cause esophageal cancer.
 E. The dangers touted by heartburn-medication advertisements will affect relatively few of the people who see those advertisements.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Some heartburn-medication advertisements imply that unrelieved heartburn is likely to cause esophageal cancer. This is simply false. The fact is that only about 5 percent of people with severe heartburn have a condition called Barrett's esophagus, in which cells similar to those in the stomach's lining develop in the lower esophagus. Only these people have an increased risk of developing cancer because of heartburn.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the overall conclusion drawn in the argument?
 A. Only those people with Barrett's esophagus can suffer an increased risk of developing cancer from heartburn.
 B. An increase in the risk of esophageal cancer arises from cells similar to those in the stomach's lining developing in the lower esophagus.
 C. Unrelieved heartburn is not likely to cause esophageal cancer.
 D. Some heartburn-medication advertisements imply that unrelieved heartburn is likely to cause esophageal cancer.
 E. The dangers touted by heartburn-medication advertisements will affect relatively few of the people who see those advertisements.
Answer: C


Question:
Some scientists have expressed reservations about quantum theory because of its counterintuitive consequences. But despite rigorous attempts to show that quantum theory's predictions were inaccurate, they were shown to be accurate within the generally accepted statistical margin of error. These results, which have not been equaled by quantum theory's competitors, warrant acceptance of quantum theory.
Question: Which one of the following principles most helps to justify the reasoning above?
 A. A scientific theory should be accepted if it has fewer counterintuitive consequences than do its competitors.
 B. A scientific theory should be accepted if it has been subjected to serious attempts to disprove it and has withstood all of them.
 C. The consequences of a scientific theory should not be considered counterintuitive if the theory's predictions have been found to be accurate.
 D. A theory should not be rejected until it has been subjected to serious attempts to disprove it.
 E. A theory should be accepted only if its predictions have not been disproved by experiment.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Some scientists have expressed reservations about quantum theory because of its counterintuitive consequences. But despite rigorous attempts to show that quantum theory's predictions were inaccurate, they were shown to be accurate within the generally accepted statistical margin of error. These results, which have not been equaled by quantum theory's competitors, warrant acceptance of quantum theory.
Question: Which one of the following principles most helps to justify the reasoning above?
 A. A scientific theory should be accepted if it has fewer counterintuitive consequences than do its competitors.
 B. A scientific theory should be accepted if it has been subjected to serious attempts to disprove it and has withstood all of them.
 C. The consequences of a scientific theory should not be considered counterintuitive if the theory's predictions have been found to be accurate.
 D. A theory should not be rejected until it has been subjected to serious attempts to disprove it.
 E. A theory should be accepted only if its predictions have not been disproved by experiment.
Answer: B


Question:
Ethicist: The general principle-if one ought to do something then one can do it-does not always hold true. This may be seen by considering an example. Suppose, someone promises to meet a friend at a certain time, but-because of an unforeseen traffic jam-it is impossible to do so.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the ethicist's argument?
 A. If a person failed to do something she or he ought to have done, then that person failed to do something that.she or he promised to do.
 B. Only an event like an unforeseen.traffic jam could excuse a person from the obligation to keep a promise.
 C. If there is something that a.person ought not do, then it is something that that person is capable of not doing.
 D. The obligation created by a promise is not relieved by the fact that the promise cannot be kept.
 E. If an event like an unforeseen traffic jam interferes with someone's keeping a promise, then that person should not have made the promise to begin with.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Ethicist: The general principle-if one ought to do something then one can do it-does not always hold true. This may be seen by considering an example. Suppose, someone promises to meet a friend at a certain time, but-because of an unforeseen traffic jam-it is impossible to do so.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the ethicist's argument?
 A. If a person failed to do something she or he ought to have done, then that person failed to do something that.she or he promised to do.
 B. Only an event like an unforeseen.traffic jam could excuse a person from the obligation to keep a promise.
 C. If there is something that a.person ought not do, then it is something that that person is capable of not doing.
 D. The obligation created by a promise is not relieved by the fact that the promise cannot be kept.
 E. If an event like an unforeseen traffic jam interferes with someone's keeping a promise, then that person should not have made the promise to begin with.
Answer: D


Question:
City leader: If our city adopts the new tourism plan, the amount of money that tourists spend here annually will increase by at least $2 billion, creating as many jobs as a new automobile manufacturing plant would. It would be reasonable for the city to spend the amount of money necessary to convince an automobile manufacturer to build a plant here, but adopting the tourism plan would cost less.
Question: The city leader's statements, if true, provide the most support for which one of the following
 A. The city should implement the least expensive job creation measures available.
 B. In general, it is reasonable for the city to spend money to try to convince manufacturing companies to build plants in the city.
 C. The city cannot afford both to spend money to convince an automobile manufacturer to build a plant in the city and to adopt the new tourism plan.
 D. It would be reasonable for the city to adopt the new tourism plan.
 E. The only way the city can create jobs is by increasing tourism.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

City leader: If our city adopts the new tourism plan, the amount of money that tourists spend here annually will increase by at least $2 billion, creating as many jobs as a new automobile manufacturing plant would. It would be reasonable for the city to spend the amount of money necessary to convince an automobile manufacturer to build a plant here, but adopting the tourism plan would cost less.
Question: The city leader's statements, if true, provide the most support for which one of the following
 A. The city should implement the least expensive job creation measures available.
 B. In general, it is reasonable for the city to spend money to try to convince manufacturing companies to build plants in the city.
 C. The city cannot afford both to spend money to convince an automobile manufacturer to build a plant in the city and to adopt the new tourism plan.
 D. It would be reasonable for the city to adopt the new tourism plan.
 E. The only way the city can create jobs is by increasing tourism.
Answer: D


Question:
Brooks: I'm unhappy in my job, but I don't know whether I can accept the risks involved in quitting my job. Morgenstern: The only risk in quitting is that of not finding another job. If you don't find one, you're going to be pretty unhappy. But you're already unhappy, so you might as well just quit.
Question: Morgenstern's argument is flawed in that it
 A. fails to take into account that unhappiness can vary in intensity or significance
 B. relies on an assumption that is tantamount to assuming that the conclusion is true
 C. mischaracterize what Brooks says
 D. conllates two different types of risk
 E. reaches a generalization on the basis of a single case
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Brooks: I'm unhappy in my job, but I don't know whether I can accept the risks involved in quitting my job. Morgenstern: The only risk in quitting is that of not finding another job. If you don't find one, you're going to be pretty unhappy. But you're already unhappy, so you might as well just quit.
Question: Morgenstern's argument is flawed in that it
 A. fails to take into account that unhappiness can vary in intensity or significance
 B. relies on an assumption that is tantamount to assuming that the conclusion is true
 C. mischaracterize what Brooks says
 D. conllates two different types of risk
 E. reaches a generalization on the basis of a single case
Answer: A


Question:
Employee: The company I work for has installed website filtering software that blocks access to non-work-related websites. It claims that being able to visit such sites distracts us, keeping us from doing our best work. But offices that have windows or are nicely decorated can be highly distracting too, and no one claims that people do their best work in an undecorated, windowless room.
Question: Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the employee's argument?
 A. Some people advocate moderation in all things. But different people react differently to certain substances, so what counts as a moderate amount of, say, caffeine for you might be too much for me. So to talk about moderation is to fail to take into account people's basic biological differences.
 B. Activists are calling for an electronic device to be banned, for research has shown that prolonged exposure to the device while it is in use causes cancer in laboratory animals. But most chemicals probably cause cancer when administered in very high doses, yet no one would argue that we should ban all these chemicals for that reason.
 C. Acme expects that approximately 1,000 of its employees will retire over the next year. No one would claim that Acme does not need a work force as large as its present one. So Acme will need to hire approximately 1,000 people over the next year.
 D. In many creative writing classes, aspiring writers are told that if the characters they create are not engaging, their novels and stories will not sell. But this does not mean that engaging characters guarantee a sale-publishers and agents often reject manuscripts that emphasize character to the exclusion of other elements.
 E. In the movie industry, a film's success is judged in terms of its profit relative to its cost. This is misguided, because under this criterion an expensive movie that sells just as many tickets as a lower-budget movie would be less successful than the lower-budget movie, which is clearly counter intuitive.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Employee: The company I work for has installed website filtering software that blocks access to non-work-related websites. It claims that being able to visit such sites distracts us, keeping us from doing our best work. But offices that have windows or are nicely decorated can be highly distracting too, and no one claims that people do their best work in an undecorated, windowless room.
Question: Which one of the following arguments is most similar in its reasoning to the employee's argument?
 A. Some people advocate moderation in all things. But different people react differently to certain substances, so what counts as a moderate amount of, say, caffeine for you might be too much for me. So to talk about moderation is to fail to take into account people's basic biological differences.
 B. Activists are calling for an electronic device to be banned, for research has shown that prolonged exposure to the device while it is in use causes cancer in laboratory animals. But most chemicals probably cause cancer when administered in very high doses, yet no one would argue that we should ban all these chemicals for that reason.
 C. Acme expects that approximately 1,000 of its employees will retire over the next year. No one would claim that Acme does not need a work force as large as its present one. So Acme will need to hire approximately 1,000 people over the next year.
 D. In many creative writing classes, aspiring writers are told that if the characters they create are not engaging, their novels and stories will not sell. But this does not mean that engaging characters guarantee a sale-publishers and agents often reject manuscripts that emphasize character to the exclusion of other elements.
 E. In the movie industry, a film's success is judged in terms of its profit relative to its cost. This is misguided, because under this criterion an expensive movie that sells just as many tickets as a lower-budget movie would be less successful than the lower-budget movie, which is clearly counter intuitive.
Answer: B


Question:
If squirrels eat from a bird feeder, it will not attract many birds. However, squirrels eat from a bird feeder only if it lacks a protective cover. So a bird feeder will not attract many birds if it does not have a protective cover.
Question: The flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following arguments?
 A. If a tire's pressure is too low, the tire will wear out prematurely, and if a tire wears out prematurely, a likely cause is that the pressure was too low. So if a car owner checks the tire pressure regularly, the tires will not wear out prematurely.
 B. If a tire's pressure is too low, the tire will wear out prematurely. But tire pressure will become too low only if the car owner neglects to check the pressure regularly. So a tire will wear out prematurely if the car owner neglects to check the pressure regularly.
 C. Tires wear out prematurely if car owners neglect to check the tire pressure regularly. Unless car owners are unaware of this fact, they check the tire pressure regularly. So car owners need to be made aware of the consequences of neglecting to check the tire pressure.
 D. If a tire's pressure is too low, the tire will wear out prematurely. But tire pressure will become too low if the car owner neglects to check the pressure regularly. Therefore, if the car owner neglects to check the pressure regularly, a tire will wear out prematurely.
 E. If a tire's pressure is too low, the tire will wear out prematurely. But it will also wear out prematurely if it is often driven on gravel roads. Therefore, if a tire is often driven on gravel roads, keeping its pressure from becoming too low will not help it to last longer.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

If squirrels eat from a bird feeder, it will not attract many birds. However, squirrels eat from a bird feeder only if it lacks a protective cover. So a bird feeder will not attract many birds if it does not have a protective cover.
Question: The flawed pattern of reasoning in the argument above is most similar to that in which one of the following arguments?
 A. If a tire's pressure is too low, the tire will wear out prematurely, and if a tire wears out prematurely, a likely cause is that the pressure was too low. So if a car owner checks the tire pressure regularly, the tires will not wear out prematurely.
 B. If a tire's pressure is too low, the tire will wear out prematurely. But tire pressure will become too low only if the car owner neglects to check the pressure regularly. So a tire will wear out prematurely if the car owner neglects to check the pressure regularly.
 C. Tires wear out prematurely if car owners neglect to check the tire pressure regularly. Unless car owners are unaware of this fact, they check the tire pressure regularly. So car owners need to be made aware of the consequences of neglecting to check the tire pressure.
 D. If a tire's pressure is too low, the tire will wear out prematurely. But tire pressure will become too low if the car owner neglects to check the pressure regularly. Therefore, if the car owner neglects to check the pressure regularly, a tire will wear out prematurely.
 E. If a tire's pressure is too low, the tire will wear out prematurely. But it will also wear out prematurely if it is often driven on gravel roads. Therefore, if a tire is often driven on gravel roads, keeping its pressure from becoming too low will not help it to last longer.
Answer: B


Question:
Field studies, which have long been a staple of anthropological research, involve the researcher living within the community being studied. However, the usefulness of field studies tends to be overrated by anthropologists. Although most anthropologists do realize that living within the community one is studying affects that community, they generally underestimate the extent of such effects.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the argument?
 A. Anthropologists tend to overestimate the value of field studies.
 B. In a field study, the researcher lives within the community being studied.
 C. Field studies have been a central feature of anthropological research for a long time.
 D. Most anthropologists know that when they live within a community being studied, the community is affected at least somewhat.
 E. Most anthropologists underestimate how much of an effect the researcher's presence has on a community being studied.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Field studies, which have long been a staple of anthropological research, involve the researcher living within the community being studied. However, the usefulness of field studies tends to be overrated by anthropologists. Although most anthropologists do realize that living within the community one is studying affects that community, they generally underestimate the extent of such effects.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the conclusion drawn in the argument?
 A. Anthropologists tend to overestimate the value of field studies.
 B. In a field study, the researcher lives within the community being studied.
 C. Field studies have been a central feature of anthropological research for a long time.
 D. Most anthropologists know that when they live within a community being studied, the community is affected at least somewhat.
 E. Most anthropologists underestimate how much of an effect the researcher's presence has on a community being studied.
Answer: A


Question:
In 1893, an excavation led by Wilhelm Dorpfeld uncovered an ancient city he believed to be Troy, the site of the war described in Homer's epic poem the Iliad. But that belief cannot be correct. In the Iliad, the Trojan War lasted ten years, but a city as small as the one uncovered by Dorpfeld's team could not have withstood a siege lasting ten years.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?
 A. In 1 893, scholars knew of no other ancient city that could have been Troy.
 B. The Iliad does not provide any clues about the specific location of Troy.
 C. Dorpfeld's team found no evidence in the city they excavated that a siege had occurred there.
 D. The city excavated by Dorpfeld's team had many features that scholars of the time believed Troy had.
 E. The Iliad accurately represents the duration of the Trojan War
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

In 1893, an excavation led by Wilhelm Dorpfeld uncovered an ancient city he believed to be Troy, the site of the war described in Homer's epic poem the Iliad. But that belief cannot be correct. In the Iliad, the Trojan War lasted ten years, but a city as small as the one uncovered by Dorpfeld's team could not have withstood a siege lasting ten years.
Question: Which one of the following is an assumption required by the argument?
 A. In 1 893, scholars knew of no other ancient city that could have been Troy.
 B. The Iliad does not provide any clues about the specific location of Troy.
 C. Dorpfeld's team found no evidence in the city they excavated that a siege had occurred there.
 D. The city excavated by Dorpfeld's team had many features that scholars of the time believed Troy had.
 E. The Iliad accurately represents the duration of the Trojan War
Answer: E


Question:
Grecia: The survey that we are conducting needs to track employment status by age, so respondents should be asked to indicate their age. Hidalgo: We don't need results that provide employment status figures for every single age. So we should instead ask respondents merely to identify the age range that they fall into.
Question: Which one of the following principles, if valid, most justifies Hidalgo's stance?
 A. Surveys gathering information for a specific purpose should not collect more detailed personal information than is necessary to achieve the purpose.
 B. Survey respondents should not be asked a particular question if they are unlikely to answer accurately.
 C. Sensitive personal information should be gathered only if a secure means of storing that information is available.
 D. Surveys should be allowed to gather any information that might be needed to meet their purposes.
 E. Surveys should gather detailed personal information only if survey respondents are first told about how that information will be used.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Grecia: The survey that we are conducting needs to track employment status by age, so respondents should be asked to indicate their age. Hidalgo: We don't need results that provide employment status figures for every single age. So we should instead ask respondents merely to identify the age range that they fall into.
Question: Which one of the following principles, if valid, most justifies Hidalgo's stance?
 A. Surveys gathering information for a specific purpose should not collect more detailed personal information than is necessary to achieve the purpose.
 B. Survey respondents should not be asked a particular question if they are unlikely to answer accurately.
 C. Sensitive personal information should be gathered only if a secure means of storing that information is available.
 D. Surveys should be allowed to gather any information that might be needed to meet their purposes.
 E. Surveys should gather detailed personal information only if survey respondents are first told about how that information will be used.
Answer: A


Question:
Over the last few decades, public outcries against pollution have brought about stricter regulations of emissions. The cities that had the most polluted air 30 years ago now have greatly improved air quality. This would not have happened without these stricter regulations.
Question: Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above?
 A. In the city with the worst air pollution today, the air quality is better than it was 30 years ago.
 B. No city has worse air pollution today than it did 30 years ago.
 C. Most of the public outcries against pollution came from people in the cities that had the most polluted air.
 D. The most polluted cities today are not the cities that were the most polluted 30 years ago.
 E. Public criticism led to an improvement in the air quality of the cities that had the most polluted air 30 years ago.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Over the last few decades, public outcries against pollution have brought about stricter regulations of emissions. The cities that had the most polluted air 30 years ago now have greatly improved air quality. This would not have happened without these stricter regulations.
Question: Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the statements above?
 A. In the city with the worst air pollution today, the air quality is better than it was 30 years ago.
 B. No city has worse air pollution today than it did 30 years ago.
 C. Most of the public outcries against pollution came from people in the cities that had the most polluted air.
 D. The most polluted cities today are not the cities that were the most polluted 30 years ago.
 E. Public criticism led to an improvement in the air quality of the cities that had the most polluted air 30 years ago.
Answer: E


Question:
Technician: Laboratory mice that are used for research aimed at improving human health are usually kept in small cages. Such an environment is neither normal nor healthy for mice. Moreover, the reliability of research using animals is diminished if those animals are not in an environment that is normal for them.
Question: Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the technician's statements?
 A. The conditions under which laboratory mice are kept are not likely to change in the near future.
 B. If laboratory mice were kept under better conditions, it would be appropriate to use them for research aimed at improving human health.
 C. Research using laboratory mice that is aimed at improving human health is compromised by the conditions under which the mice are kept.
 D. Those who conduct research aimed at improving human health will develop new research techniques.
 E. Laboratory mice that are used for research that is not directly related to human health are not usually kept in small cages.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Technician: Laboratory mice that are used for research aimed at improving human health are usually kept in small cages. Such an environment is neither normal nor healthy for mice. Moreover, the reliability of research using animals is diminished if those animals are not in an environment that is normal for them.
Question: Which one of the following can be properly inferred from the technician's statements?
 A. The conditions under which laboratory mice are kept are not likely to change in the near future.
 B. If laboratory mice were kept under better conditions, it would be appropriate to use them for research aimed at improving human health.
 C. Research using laboratory mice that is aimed at improving human health is compromised by the conditions under which the mice are kept.
 D. Those who conduct research aimed at improving human health will develop new research techniques.
 E. Laboratory mice that are used for research that is not directly related to human health are not usually kept in small cages.
Answer: C


Question:
The constitution of Country F requires that whenever the government sells a state-owned entity, it must sell that entity for the highest price it can command on the open market. The constitution also requires that whenever the government sells a state-owned entity, it must ensure that citizens of Country F will have majority ownership of the resulting company for at least one year after the sale.
Question: The government of Country F must violate at least one of the constitutional requirements described above if it is faced with which one of the following situations?
 A. The government will sell StateAir, a state-owned airline. The highest bid received was from a corporation that was owned entirely by citizens of Country F when the bid was received. Shortly after the bid was received, however, noncitizens purchased a minority share in the corporation.
 B. The government has agreed to sell National Silver, a state-owned mine, to a corporation. Although citizens of Country F have majority ownership of the corporation, most of the corporation's operations and sales take place in other countries.
 C. The government will sell PetroNat, a state-owned oil company. World Oil Company has made one of the highest offers for PetroNat, but World Oil's ownership structure is so complex that the government cannot determine whether citizens of Country F have majority ownership.
 D. The government will sell National Telephone, a state-owned utility. The highest bid received was from a company in which citizens of Country F have majority ownership but noncitizens own a minority share. However, the second-highest bid, from a consortium of investors all of whom are citizens of Country F, was almost as high as the highest bid.
 E. The government will sell StateRail, a state-owned railway. The government must place significant restrictions on who can purchase StateRail to ensure that citizens of Country F will gain majority ownership. However, any such restrictions will reduce the price the government receives for StateRail.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

The constitution of Country F requires that whenever the government sells a state-owned entity, it must sell that entity for the highest price it can command on the open market. The constitution also requires that whenever the government sells a state-owned entity, it must ensure that citizens of Country F will have majority ownership of the resulting company for at least one year after the sale.
Question: The government of Country F must violate at least one of the constitutional requirements described above if it is faced with which one of the following situations?
 A. The government will sell StateAir, a state-owned airline. The highest bid received was from a corporation that was owned entirely by citizens of Country F when the bid was received. Shortly after the bid was received, however, noncitizens purchased a minority share in the corporation.
 B. The government has agreed to sell National Silver, a state-owned mine, to a corporation. Although citizens of Country F have majority ownership of the corporation, most of the corporation's operations and sales take place in other countries.
 C. The government will sell PetroNat, a state-owned oil company. World Oil Company has made one of the highest offers for PetroNat, but World Oil's ownership structure is so complex that the government cannot determine whether citizens of Country F have majority ownership.
 D. The government will sell National Telephone, a state-owned utility. The highest bid received was from a company in which citizens of Country F have majority ownership but noncitizens own a minority share. However, the second-highest bid, from a consortium of investors all of whom are citizens of Country F, was almost as high as the highest bid.
 E. The government will sell StateRail, a state-owned railway. The government must place significant restrictions on who can purchase StateRail to ensure that citizens of Country F will gain majority ownership. However, any such restrictions will reduce the price the government receives for StateRail.
Answer: E


Question:
Harrold Foods is attempting to dominate the soft-drink market by promoting "Hero," its most popular carbonated drink product, with a costly new advertising campaign. But survey results show that, in the opinion of 72 percent of all consumers, "Hero" already dominates the market. Since any product with more than 50 percent of the sales in a market is, by definition, dominant in that market, Harrold Foods dominates the market now and need only maintain its current market share in order to continue to do so.
Question: The argument commits which one of the following errors in reasoning?
 A. failing to exclude the possibility that what appears to be the result of a given market condition may in fact be the cause of that condition
 B. mistaking a condition required if a certain result is to obtain for a condition that by itself is sufficient to guarantee that result
 C. treating the failure to establish that a certain claim is false as equivalent to a demonstration that that claim is true
 D. taking evidence that a claim is believed to be true to constitute evidence that the claim is in fact true
 E. describing survey results that were obtained in the past as if they are bound to obtain in the future as well
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Harrold Foods is attempting to dominate the soft-drink market by promoting "Hero," its most popular carbonated drink product, with a costly new advertising campaign. But survey results show that, in the opinion of 72 percent of all consumers, "Hero" already dominates the market. Since any product with more than 50 percent of the sales in a market is, by definition, dominant in that market, Harrold Foods dominates the market now and need only maintain its current market share in order to continue to do so.
Question: The argument commits which one of the following errors in reasoning?
 A. failing to exclude the possibility that what appears to be the result of a given market condition may in fact be the cause of that condition
 B. mistaking a condition required if a certain result is to obtain for a condition that by itself is sufficient to guarantee that result
 C. treating the failure to establish that a certain claim is false as equivalent to a demonstration that that claim is true
 D. taking evidence that a claim is believed to be true to constitute evidence that the claim is in fact true
 E. describing survey results that were obtained in the past as if they are bound to obtain in the future as well
Answer: D


Question:
Scholar: Recently, some religions have updated the language of their traditional texts and replaced traditional rituals with more contemporary ones. These changes have been followed by increases in attendance at places of worship affiliated with these religions. This shows that any such modernization will result in increased numbers of worshipers.
Question: The scholar's reasoning is flawed because the scholar presumes without giving sufficient justification that
 A. not every religion can update its texts and replace its traditional rituals
 B. modernization of religious texts and rituals will not involve an alteration of their messages
 C. the modernization of the texts and rituals of some religions was the cause of their increases in attendance
 D. making texts and rituals more modern is the only way in which a religion could bring about an increase in attendance at places of worship
 E. the growth in attendance at places of worship affiliated with religions that made their texts and rituals more modern is irreversible
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Scholar: Recently, some religions have updated the language of their traditional texts and replaced traditional rituals with more contemporary ones. These changes have been followed by increases in attendance at places of worship affiliated with these religions. This shows that any such modernization will result in increased numbers of worshipers.
Question: The scholar's reasoning is flawed because the scholar presumes without giving sufficient justification that
 A. not every religion can update its texts and replace its traditional rituals
 B. modernization of religious texts and rituals will not involve an alteration of their messages
 C. the modernization of the texts and rituals of some religions was the cause of their increases in attendance
 D. making texts and rituals more modern is the only way in which a religion could bring about an increase in attendance at places of worship
 E. the growth in attendance at places of worship affiliated with religions that made their texts and rituals more modern is irreversible
Answer: C


Question:
Aisha: Vadim is going to be laid off. Vadim's work as a programmer has been exemplary since joining the firm. But management has already made the decision to lay off a programmer. And this firm strictly follows a policy of laying off the most recently hired programmer in such cases.
Question: Aisha's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?
 A. The firm values experience in its programmers more highly than any other quality.
 B. When Vadim was hired, the policy of laying off the most recently hired programmer was clearly explained.
 C. Vadim is the most recently hired programmer at the firm.
 D. Every other programmer at the firm has done better work than Vadim.
 E. It is bad policy that the firm always lays off the most recently hired programmer.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Aisha: Vadim is going to be laid off. Vadim's work as a programmer has been exemplary since joining the firm. But management has already made the decision to lay off a programmer. And this firm strictly follows a policy of laying off the most recently hired programmer in such cases.
Question: Aisha's conclusion follows logically if which one of the following is assumed?
 A. The firm values experience in its programmers more highly than any other quality.
 B. When Vadim was hired, the policy of laying off the most recently hired programmer was clearly explained.
 C. Vadim is the most recently hired programmer at the firm.
 D. Every other programmer at the firm has done better work than Vadim.
 E. It is bad policy that the firm always lays off the most recently hired programmer.
Answer: C


Question:
CEO: We have been falsely criticized for not being an environmentally responsible corporation. Environmentally responsible corporations are corporations that do all they can to pollute less. Our current production methods pollute significantly less than our old methods did, and there currently are no methods that do not produce any pollution.
Question: The reasoning in the CEO's argument is flawed in that it
 A. takes for granted that production methods that do not produce pollution cannot be developed
 B. fails to take into account the possibility that different causes can have similar effects
 C. generalizes too hastily from the inapplicability of a specific criticism to the inapplicability of a class of criticisms
 D. takes for granted that because the company has attempted to reduce the amount of pollution produced, they must have succeeded
 E. ignores the possibility that there are currently production methods that would allow the corporation to produce less pollution than it does now
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

CEO: We have been falsely criticized for not being an environmentally responsible corporation. Environmentally responsible corporations are corporations that do all they can to pollute less. Our current production methods pollute significantly less than our old methods did, and there currently are no methods that do not produce any pollution.
Question: The reasoning in the CEO's argument is flawed in that it
 A. takes for granted that production methods that do not produce pollution cannot be developed
 B. fails to take into account the possibility that different causes can have similar effects
 C. generalizes too hastily from the inapplicability of a specific criticism to the inapplicability of a class of criticisms
 D. takes for granted that because the company has attempted to reduce the amount of pollution produced, they must have succeeded
 E. ignores the possibility that there are currently production methods that would allow the corporation to produce less pollution than it does now
Answer: E


Question:
Brianna: It would have been better to buy a tree last summer rather than this summer. The one we bought this summer is struggling to survive this summer's drought. If we had bought one last summer, it would have been able to survive this summer's drought, because last summer's normal rainfall would have enabled it to develop established roots. Trees with established roots can better withstand droughts.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the overall conclusion drawn in Brianna's argument?
 A. It would have been better to buy a tree last summer rather than this summer.
 B. The tree purchased this summer is struggling to survive this summer's drought.
 C. If a tree had been purchased last summer, it would be better able to survive this summer's drought.
 D. A tree purchased last summer would have established roots.
 E. Trees with established roots can better withstand droughts.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Brianna: It would have been better to buy a tree last summer rather than this summer. The one we bought this summer is struggling to survive this summer's drought. If we had bought one last summer, it would have been able to survive this summer's drought, because last summer's normal rainfall would have enabled it to develop established roots. Trees with established roots can better withstand droughts.
Question: Which one of the following most accurately expresses the overall conclusion drawn in Brianna's argument?
 A. It would have been better to buy a tree last summer rather than this summer.
 B. The tree purchased this summer is struggling to survive this summer's drought.
 C. If a tree had been purchased last summer, it would be better able to survive this summer's drought.
 D. A tree purchased last summer would have established roots.
 E. Trees with established roots can better withstand droughts.
Answer: A


Question:
Government official: Although the determination of local residents to rebuild hiking trails recently devastated by a landslide indicates that they are strongly committed to their community, the government should not assist them in rebuilding. The reason is clear: there is a strong likelihood of future landslides in that location that could cause serious injury or worse.
Question: Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the government official's argument?
 A. Residents should not be allowed to rebuild trails unless the government assists them in rebuilding.
 B. The determination of residents to rebuild hiking trails devastated by landslides should be what determines government support for the project.
 C. Government agencies should not assist people with projects unless those people are strongly committed to their community.
 D. The government should not assist in projects that are very likely to result in circumstances that could lead to serious injury.
 E. Residents should be discouraged from rebuilding in any area that has had an extensive history of landslides.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Government official: Although the determination of local residents to rebuild hiking trails recently devastated by a landslide indicates that they are strongly committed to their community, the government should not assist them in rebuilding. The reason is clear: there is a strong likelihood of future landslides in that location that could cause serious injury or worse.
Question: Which one of the following principles, if valid, most helps to justify the reasoning in the government official's argument?
 A. Residents should not be allowed to rebuild trails unless the government assists them in rebuilding.
 B. The determination of residents to rebuild hiking trails devastated by landslides should be what determines government support for the project.
 C. Government agencies should not assist people with projects unless those people are strongly committed to their community.
 D. The government should not assist in projects that are very likely to result in circumstances that could lead to serious injury.
 E. Residents should be discouraged from rebuilding in any area that has had an extensive history of landslides.
Answer: D


Question:
A good manager must understand people and be able to defuse tense situations. But anyone who is able to defuse tense situations must understand people. Since Ishiko is able to defuse tense situations, she must be a good manager.
Question: The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that it
 A. confuses a quality that shows an understanding of people with a quality that is necessary for understanding people
 B. confuses a' quality that usually correlates with being a good manager with a quality that results from being a good manager
 C. confuses qualities necessary for being a good manager with qualities that guarantee being a good manager
 D. overlooks the possibility that different managers defuse tense situations in different ways
 E. takes for granted that because all good managers have a certain quality, Ishiko must have that quality
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

A good manager must understand people and be able to defuse tense situations. But anyone who is able to defuse tense situations must understand people. Since Ishiko is able to defuse tense situations, she must be a good manager.
Question: The reasoning in the argument is flawed in that it
 A. confuses a quality that shows an understanding of people with a quality that is necessary for understanding people
 B. confuses a' quality that usually correlates with being a good manager with a quality that results from being a good manager
 C. confuses qualities necessary for being a good manager with qualities that guarantee being a good manager
 D. overlooks the possibility that different managers defuse tense situations in different ways
 E. takes for granted that because all good managers have a certain quality, Ishiko must have that quality
Answer: C


Question:
Lucinda will soon be attending National University as an engineering major. At National University, most residents of Western Hall are engineering majors. Therefore, Lucinda will probably live in Western Hall.
Question: Which one of the following arguments exhibits a flawed pattern of reasoning most similar to that exhibited by the argument above?
 A. A major shopping mall is now being constructed in our city. Most cities with major shopping malls are regional economic hubs. Therefore, our city will probably become a regional economic hub.
 B. Cities that are regional economic hubs generally experience tremendous economic growth at some point. Our city is a regional economic hub that has never experienced tremendous economic growth. Thus it will probably experience tremendous economic growth in the future.
 C. Cities that are regional economic hubs always have excellent transportation systems. It is widely agreed that our city's transportation system is inadequate. Therefore, our city will probably never become a regional economic hub.
 D. A major shopping mall was built in our city ten years ago, and our city has experienced tremendous economic growth since then. Therefore, most cities in which major shopping malls are built will experience tremendous economic growth shortly afterward.
 E. Most cities that are regional economic hub scontain major shopping malls. A major shopping mall is now being constructed in our city. Therefore, our city will probably become a regional economic hub.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Lucinda will soon be attending National University as an engineering major. At National University, most residents of Western Hall are engineering majors. Therefore, Lucinda will probably live in Western Hall.
Question: Which one of the following arguments exhibits a flawed pattern of reasoning most similar to that exhibited by the argument above?
 A. A major shopping mall is now being constructed in our city. Most cities with major shopping malls are regional economic hubs. Therefore, our city will probably become a regional economic hub.
 B. Cities that are regional economic hubs generally experience tremendous economic growth at some point. Our city is a regional economic hub that has never experienced tremendous economic growth. Thus it will probably experience tremendous economic growth in the future.
 C. Cities that are regional economic hubs always have excellent transportation systems. It is widely agreed that our city's transportation system is inadequate. Therefore, our city will probably never become a regional economic hub.
 D. A major shopping mall was built in our city ten years ago, and our city has experienced tremendous economic growth since then. Therefore, most cities in which major shopping malls are built will experience tremendous economic growth shortly afterward.
 E. Most cities that are regional economic hub scontain major shopping malls. A major shopping mall is now being constructed in our city. Therefore, our city will probably become a regional economic hub.
Answer: E


Question:
If one is to participate in the regional band, one must practice very hard or be very talented. Therefore, Lily, who is first trombonist in the regional band and is very talented, does not practice hard.
Question: The flawed reasoning in which one of the following arguments most closely resembles the flawed reasoning in the argument above?
 A. In order to have a chance to meet its objectives, the army needs good weather as a precondition for retaining its mobility. The weather is good today, so the army will meet its objectives.
 B. If Lois were on vacation, she would be visiting her brother in Chicago or seeing friends in Toronto. Since she is not on vacation, she is in neither Chicago nor Toronto.
 C. If Johnson is to win the local election, then neither Horan nor Jacobs can enter the race. Since neither of them plans to run, Johnson will win the race.
 D. To stay informed about current events, one must read a major newspaper or watch national TV news every day. So Julie, who is informed about current events and reads a major newspaper every day, does not watch TV news.
 E. If Wayne is to get a ride home from the library, either Yvette or Marty must be there. Yvette is not at the library, so Marty must be there.
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

If one is to participate in the regional band, one must practice very hard or be very talented. Therefore, Lily, who is first trombonist in the regional band and is very talented, does not practice hard.
Question: The flawed reasoning in which one of the following arguments most closely resembles the flawed reasoning in the argument above?
 A. In order to have a chance to meet its objectives, the army needs good weather as a precondition for retaining its mobility. The weather is good today, so the army will meet its objectives.
 B. If Lois were on vacation, she would be visiting her brother in Chicago or seeing friends in Toronto. Since she is not on vacation, she is in neither Chicago nor Toronto.
 C. If Johnson is to win the local election, then neither Horan nor Jacobs can enter the race. Since neither of them plans to run, Johnson will win the race.
 D. To stay informed about current events, one must read a major newspaper or watch national TV news every day. So Julie, who is informed about current events and reads a major newspaper every day, does not watch TV news.
 E. If Wayne is to get a ride home from the library, either Yvette or Marty must be there. Yvette is not at the library, so Marty must be there.
Answer: D


Question:
Ditalgame Corporation's computer video games are subject to widespread illegal copying. To combat this piracy, Ditalgame will begin using a new copy protection feature on its games. Ditalgame's president predicts a substantial increase in sales of the company's games once the new copy protection feature is implemented.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the president's prediction?
 A. Ditalgame has spent millions of dollars developing the new copy protection feature , and the company can recoup these costs only if its sales increase substantially.
 B. Over the last several years, the market for computer games has grown steadily, but Ditalgame's share of that market has shrunk considerably.
 C. The copy protection feature causes a copied game to be playable just long enough for most people to come to enjoy it so much that they decide they have to have it.
 D. Game Review Monthly, the most commonly read magazine among people who frequently copy computer games, generally gives favorable reviews to Ditalgame games.
 E. Computer games produced by Ditalgame are copied more frequently than computer games
Answer:

Choices:
- A
- B
- C
- D
- E

Ditalgame Corporation's computer video games are subject to widespread illegal copying. To combat this piracy, Ditalgame will begin using a new copy protection feature on its games. Ditalgame's president predicts a substantial increase in sales of the company's games once the new copy protection feature is implemented.
Question: Which one of the following, if true, provides the most support for the president's prediction?
 A. Ditalgame has spent millions of dollars developing the new copy protection feature , and the company can recoup these costs only if its sales increase substantially.
 B. Over the last several years, the market for computer games has grown steadily, but Ditalgame's share of that market has shrunk considerably.
 C. The copy protection feature causes a copied game to be playable just long enough for most people to come to enjoy it so much that they decide they have to have it.
 D. Game Review Monthly, the most commonly read magazine among people who frequently copy computer games, generally gives favorable reviews to Ditalgame games.
 E. Computer games produced by Ditalgame are copied more frequently than computer games
Answer: C