ntation and Fidelity
Although we did not ask JJCC interviewees specifi- cally about the final best practice because the lit- erature review was underway when interviews were being conducted, implementation fidelity and adher- ence came up regularly i


c and best practices; lack of clear definitions of scores to ensure inter-rater reliability.
Lack of clarity about how much flexibility there is to change allocations for programs that traditionally receive funding annually.
Limited information for J


hat the funding announcements are distributed to a distribu- tion list of more than 700 people, interviewees noted
that there might be opportunities to reach a wider pool of agencies and organizations.
Planning and Allocations
We learned in the inter


he new Governance Ad-Hoc Subcommittee that is being established.
Adoption
Interviewees also shared details about the process of adopting the plan and program allocations. Specifi- cally, the full JJCC weighs in only after all CMJJP Ad-Hoc Subcommitte


-funded programs support best practices. In an effort to help close this gap, we identified several areas where best practices could be incorporated into the process of making funding determinations. Our recommenda- tions are organized according to t


s of the evaluations by performing process and outcome evaluations on a subset of programs. However, several programs have not been the focus of in-depth evaluation
in years, and there remain key limitations
to existing evaluations—in particular, the


re reflected
Several programs have not been the focus
of in-depth evaluation
in years, and there remain key limitations to existing evaluations—
in particular, there has been little standardized data collection across programs for the past several ye


erature from articles published between 1990 and 2021 to identify any missing and more recently published work. We primarily used Google Scholar’s search engine and the following search terms: juvenile justice, best practices, youth development appro


own to be a period of development that involves exploration, experimenta- tion, and engagement with risky behaviors (Waid and Uhrich, 2020). A positive youth development/posi- tive youth justice approach stresses the importance
of promoting legal soc


. Family is critical to children’s development and one of the primary sources of children’s emotional and social development and, consequently, strong ties between children and their families can support the establishment of social bonds and support


aumatic events include physical or
 24
sexual abuse, community violence, neglect, maltreat- ment, or witnessing violence (Adams, 2010). Many children who come into contact with the juvenile justice system have experienced trauma. Preva-
lence estimat


ing that family members are included in court hearings or providing legal information in dif- ferent languages.
Use Evidence-Based Practices and Programs
When possible, juvenile justice systems should
use programs and policies supported by rigorous e


eographic regions of Los Angeles County, as designated by the Department of Public Health and used to identify and provide services relevant to each area (County of Los Angeles Public Health, undated).
 26
References
Abram, Karen M., Linda A. Teplin,


10.
BSCC—See California Board of State and Community Corrections.
Bungay, Hilary, and Trish Vella-Burrows, “The Effects of Participating in Creative Activities on the Health and Well- Being of Children and Young People: A Rapid Review of the Literatu


robation/1081684_FY2021- 22CMJJPSubcommitteeReport-JJCC12-3-20.pdf
County of Los Angeles, Comprehensive Multi-Agency Juvenile Justice Plan: A Youth Development Mission, Continuum, and Funding Strategy, Fiscal 2020-2021, February 7, 2020. As of Novemb


: A Case Study from Skid Row, Los Angeles,” Health Promotion Practice, Vol. 15,
No. 1, January 2014, pp. 18–27.
Gendreau, Paul, “The Principles of Effective Intervention with Offenders,” in Alan T. Harland, ed., Choosing Correctional Options That Wor


No. 4, 2019, pp. 481–501.
Lipsey, Mark W., “What Do We Learn from 400 Research Studies on the Effectiveness of Treatment with Juvenile Delinquents?” in J. McGuire, ed., What Works: Reducing Reoffending: Guidelines from Research and Practice, Hoboken,


County Probation Department, April 30, 2018.
Sexton, Thomas L., and James F. Alexander, “Functional Family Therapy,” Juvenile Justice Bulletin, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, Decem


 No. 3, 2006, pp. 598–602.
Wilson, Holly A., and Robert D. Hoge, “The Effect of Youth Diversion Programs on Recidivism: A Meta-Analytic Review,” Criminal Justice and Behavior, Vol. 40, No. 5, 2013, pp. 497–518.
Wilson, John J., and James C. Howell, C


 topics as access to justice, policing, cor- rections, drug policy, and court system reform, as well as other policy concerns pertaining to public safety and criminal and civil justice. For more information, email justicepolicy@rand.org.
The RAND Cor


 Societal Impact of
Research Funding for
Women’s Health
IN RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS
Matthew D. Baird Melanie A. Zaber Annie Chen Andrew W. Dick Chloe E. Bird Molly Waymouth Grace Gahlon Denise D. Quigley Hamad Al-Ibrahim Lori Frank
     CORPORATION
 A ME


ore about using these data and citing this report.
 WHAM’s LEAD PARTNERS
WHAM’s sponsorship of this research project was enabled through the generous financial support from the following partners.
American Heart Association
The Association is a relen


under, AccessCircles, Founder and Former CEO of CAROLEE
Meryl Comer, Vice Chair and Global Chair Co-Founder, UsAgainstAlzheimers/ WomenAgainstAlzheimers
Chair, Global Alliance on Women’s Brain Health
Anula Jayasuriya, Vice Chair and Chief Scientific


e Professor of Psychiatry in the Field of Women’s Health, Brigham and Women’s Hospital
Dr. Wendy Klein, MD, MACP, Former Medical Director, Health Brigade
Dr. JoAnn Manson, DrPH, MD, Michael and
Lee Bell Professor of Women’s Health, Medicine, Harvard


E) Institute, School of Pharmacy, University of Washington
Hadine Joffe, MD
Vice Chair for Research, Department of Psychiatry, Executive Director, Mary Horrigan Connors Center for Women’s Health and Gender Biology, Paula A. Johnson Professor of Psych


qual impact of research on women and men results in lower returns.
Large returns result from very small health improvements.
Assuming 0.1 percent or less total health improvement from reduced age incidence of RA and reduced disease severity has the f


ies to overcome these and systemic factors, such as implicit and explicit bias against women in health research.
• Raise awareness among the business community of the poten- tial ROI for women’s health research. The viability of women’s health resear


ARCH FUNDING FOR WOMEN’S HEALTH IN RHEUMATOID ARTHRITIS
Why Focus on Rheumatoid Arthritis?
RA is an autoimmune disease with higher prevalence in women than men (National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, 2019). Prevalence


s of funding from the NIH as the base case, with comparisons to doubling the level of research funding invested in women-focused research. Within the portfolio of extramural fund- ing for RA research from the NIH over the past five fiscal years, fund


A, given the ways in which the disease affects individuals and the long duration of disease
2 For a detailed technical appendix describing the specifics of the microsimulation model, please visit www.rand.org/t/RRA708-3.
 METHODS 9
  for many patient


ing age and gender distributions for individuals ages
25 to 65 and using existing disease rates by age and gender. For the models, the representative cohort of around 1 million lives is moved through a 30-year time horizon, with impact of investment


cent ROI for a given health improvement. Results are pre- sented for the doubling investment scenario.
Baseline Investment
The benchmark for the baseline percentage of research on women’s health was funding levels for RA research within the funded po


e about 9,000 fewer life
–4,514
34,446
 223,074
   –61,611
 –8,953
–3,869
–732
     years with RA. The impact on women’s years with RA is more than six times that of men’s.
Increased Quality of Life
Delayed disease onset reduces the years of RA burde


oss these three categories is about $940 million. If these investments bring about the 0.1 percent improvement in health, the cost savings from decreased health care
     expenditures and increased labor productivity of $940 million easily cover the


nt for health research are about 13 to 25 years (Cruz Rivera
et al., 2017; Hansen et al., 2013; Scott et al., 2014). Future research may accelerate that timeline. The speed with which treatments and vaccines are being developed to address the coronav


omen’s health research. The viability of women’s health research agendas and funding depends on an understanding of the value on the part of the market for such research. Within the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industry, decisions made by leaders


ng is a division of the RAND Corporation that seeks to actively improve the health and social and economic well-being of populations and communities throughout
the world. This research was conducted in the Social and Behavioral Policy Program within


itis#tab-risk
National Institutes of Health, “Estimates of Funding for Various Research, Condition, and Disease Categories (RCDC),” webpage, February 24, 2020a. As of November 6, 2020: https://report.nih.gov/categorical_spending.aspx
———, “Notice of


authors present the results of microsimulation models used to explore the potential for enhanced investment in women’s health research, in terms of the economic well-being of women and for the U.S. population.
 © 2022 Women’s Health Access Matters.
T


Earnings Losses and Benefit Adequacy in California’s Workers’ Compensation System
Estimates for 2005–2017 Injury Dates MICHAEL DWORSKY, STEPHANIE RENNANE, NICHOLAS BROTEN
 Prepared for California Department of Industrial Relations
 CORPORATION
For mo


ge Loss Monitoring for Injured Workers in California’s Workers’ Compensation System: 2014-2015 Injury Year Findings (Second Interim Report), RR-2807-DIR, 2018
• Stephanie Rennane, Nicholas Broten, and Michael Dworsky, Wage Loss Monitoring for Injured


ystem reform, as well as other policy concerns pertaining to public safety and criminal and civil justice. For more information, email justicepolicy@rand.org.
Acknowledgments
We thank Roald Euller at RAND for outstanding programming work to collect t


en 2013 and 2017 (Dworsky, Rennane, and Broten, 2018a; Dworsky, Rennane, and Broten, 2018b; Rennane, Broten, and Dworsky, 2020), including comparisons with labor market outcomes for workers injured in earlier years (2005– 2012). Previous research had


s over the four years centered on the injury date. The close match between injured and control worker earnings before the injury is the result of our matching algorithm: Our key assumption is that injured and control workers’ earnings would have cont


ts paid to a worker over a given period after injury as a proportion of the worker’s after-tax earnings losses over the same period; our key measure of benefit adequacy
Medical settlements: settlements intended to provide for medical care associated


$34,089 $33,341
$44,466 $42,200
–$10,378 –$8,859
83% 84%
78%
72% 199,129
Post–SB 863
     Outcome and Period Relative to Injury
Earnings relative to counterfactual
First post-injury year
Second post-injury year
Post-injury earnings (2019 dollars)
Fir


professional employer organizations, and agriculture; a smaller proportion came from the manufacturing and construction field. Similar trends were also observed among the subset of workers with indemnity injuries whose injuries resulted in PD. Some o


nt Maturity Sample)
 SOURCE: WCIS-EDD.
NOTES: 2005–2017 data. N = 568,929.
For injuries resulting in PD, Figure S.3 shows some larger differences between the unadjusted and adjusted trends in relative earnings for workers with PD injuries. The gap be


therwise have earned) that were over 10 percentage points greater than losses for workers with CT injuries in the rest of the state. This regional difference, which widened during the Great Recession, raised the question of whether poor outcomes for


r case mix and market conditions
Adjusted for case mix, market conditions, and legal and claim status
Number of injured workers (N)
70% 57% 56% 67% 58% 57% 66% 60% 60%
62% 58% 59%
11,386 11,786 9,644
76% 72% 70% 76% 72% 70% 76% 72% 70%
74% 72% 72%


 Southern California is a bright spot in the workers’ compensation policy landscape.
Adequacy of Indemnity Benefits
Providing disabled workers with adequate compensation for earnings losses is a central goal of workers’ compensation. Benefit adequacy


es increased (albeit more gradually) after 2010, and the average earnings loss over five years for workers with PD who were injured in 2014 was $57,000. Indemnity benefit payments also increased over time, but at a much slower rate. Total indemnity b


tion in 2015, provides a one-time $5,000 payment to workers who cannot return to work following a permanently disabling workplace injury. The SIBTF pays for compensation for severe disability from a past injury or preexisting condition. Payments from


nsation policy. As our results showed, the major factor driving changes in wage replacement rates in California has been the decline in post-injury earnings following the Great Recession—which we show to be explained by many factors outside the worke


ession has dramatically changed labor markets. To date, the recovery has been unequally distributed across occupations and industries. It is unclear how earnings losses for injured workers—both those whose injuries involve COVID and those suffering f


gure 4.1. Trends in Relative Earnings, Adjusted for Local Labor Market Conditions and
Case Mix: Indemnity Injuries................................................................................................54
Figure 4.2. Trends in Relative Earnin


...........................................29 Table 4.1a. Characteristics of Injured Workers by Year of Injury: Indemnity Injuries ................48
Table 4.1b. Industry and Job Characteristics of Injured Workers by Year of Injury:
Indemnity Injurie


minal Benefits at Two Years Post-Injury
by Injury Date, All Indemnity Injuries ..................................................................................87
Table 6.3. Average Present Discounted Value of Nominal Benefits at Five Years Post–Inj


financial well-being of workers.1 Each year, 600,000 to 700,000 workers in California who are injured on the job file workers’ compensation claims. In California and other states, the workers’ compensation system bears primary responsibility for pro


llect the data needed to monitor overall trends in earnings losses and other economic outcomes. As we discuss in Chapter 2, this work was made possible by a data-sharing agreement between the Division of Workers’ Compensation (DWC) in DIR and the sta


sation system, accordingly experience the worst labor market outcomes and receive a large share of overall benefit dollars paid by the workers’ compensation system (both for indemnity and medical benefits). Whether the indemnity compensation provided


or CT injuries in Chapter 5; and estimate benefit adequacy in Chapter 6. We close with our conclusions in Chapter 7.
Workers’ Compensation Policy in California
To evaluate the adequacy of benefits paid to workers with lost-time injuries, we calculate


of disability in exchange for criteria based on more readily documented findings about the degree of physical impairment. California has continued to use the fifth edition of the AMA Guides for disability evaluation since 2005: Further details on th


he calculation of PDs, such as replacing the FEC adjustments with a fixed multiplier of 1.4, an increase in the maximum weekly benefit, and changes in the timing of PD advances. The bill also established what eventually became the Return-to-Work Supp


y stayed. Finally, the new prescription drug formulary went into effect in January 2018. See Rennane, Broten, and Dworsky, 2020, for a detailed discussion of policy activities in 2016 and 2017.
The reforms enacted in AB 1124, AB 1244, and SB 1160 hav


(such as CT related to ergonomics) may emerge. The longest expansion in U.S. economic history ended in the sharpest recession, and it is not hyperbole to say that the U.S. economy and labor market are in uncharted territory. As in many other states,


rcent in 2012 following the fallout from the Great Recession.
This overall trend masks differences between workers with medical-only injuries, who experienced the lowest earnings losses and maintained relative earnings at or above 95 percent in all y


with estimates of trends in earnings losses across workers injured at different points in time, and to explore the policy and economic factors that could contribute to these trends. We build on methods developed and refined in numerous previous RAND


re derived from First Reports of Injury (FROI), which are reports that claims administrators must submit to the WCIS after a new claim is filed. Information from the FROI used in our analysis are key dates in the claim history (date of injury, date r


n our previous interim
10
report, right-censoring of indemnity claims is not as much of a concern as it was in our interim monitoring reports.3
Additionally, we are able to update the data for injuries occurring in 2014, 2015, and 2016 now that more


rs. As a result, we also required data on local labor market conditions within California.
Our preferred measure of local labor market conditions is the county-level employment-to- population ratio. To construct this measure, we used data from Quarte


axes, we used annual earnings as reported in the CPS to calculate employee liability for payroll taxes, including earnings from the Old Age, Survivors, and Disability Insurance (OASDI) program (Medicare and Social Security) and the State Disability I


ation benefits paid to a worker over a given period after injury as a proportion of the worker’s after-tax earnings losses over the same period; our key measure of benefit adequacy
Medical settlements: settlements intended to provide for medical care


local labor market conditions. These types of comparisons could be carried out using either pretax or after-tax measures of earnings losses as long as the analysis is consistent in using only pretax or only after-tax measures. When possible (i.e., i


ot draw this conclusion without making a very specific assumption that the worker’s earnings would have remained constant over time.
Although the assumption of constant earnings over time has the virtue of simplicity, it is clearly unrealistic. On th


f earnings growth or employment risk should be expected given the experience of other workers at the same employer. We discuss our matching approach briefly here: Full details and match diagnostics are presented in the appendix, and our first interim


or All Urban Consumers. We acknowledge that the relatively limited losses in the quarter of injury might be surprising to some readers, but this pattern can be explained by two features of our data. First, injury dates are distributed throughout the


me, income of other family members, or mortgage interest payments) is not observed in workers’ compensation claims.
In light of these challenges, we take the following steps to estimate paid benefits in terms that are comparable with our after-tax ea


as changes in the composition of the injured population, changes in local labor market conditions, and changes in the workers’ compensation system, by presenting adjusted trends. In this section, we briefly describe this adjustment process. First, w


y injuries and about 570,000 PD injuries. Because many of the estimates reported in this study are sample averages or other descriptive statistics (e.g., average earnings losses, average benefit payments, distributions of industry shares among injure


between 2005 and 2017 for all injured workers. We then describe the composition, or case mix, of injured workers in California between 2005 and 2017; we list demographics, job characteristics, receipt of indemnity benefits, and selected injury chara


le 3.1. Average Earnings Losses and Labor Market Outcomes by Year of Injury Recovery,
     Pre-Recession
2005–2007 Injuries
95% 96%
$42,608
$40,479
Recession
2008–2009 Injuries
92% 92%
$42,376 $39,340
$45,829 $42,636
–$3,453 –$3,296
96% 96%
90%
85% 1


d Empire. Including San Diego, more than half of the sample resided in Southern California. Of the remaining regions, the Bay Area is the largest, representing nearly 20 percent of injured workers.
Although the geographic distribution of workers has


ll year at
           Number of injured workers (N)
732,544
1,183,611 1,023,542 709,986 1,083,375
NOTES: 2005–2017 data. Sample contains all injury claims in analysis sample, including medical-only and
SOURCE: WCIS.
indemnity claims. N = 4,733,058.
2


ave been able to find employment opportunities after separating from the at-injury employer at a relatively high rate, their earnings in those jobs have not recovered to pre–Great Recession levels.
Table 3.4. Average Earnings Losses and Labor Market


loyment has grown slightly more rapidly for this cohort, from a low of 75 percent to 78 percent in 2016–2017. In contrast, the relative rate at which workers with PD injuries are working at the at-injury employer two years after injury has declined s


njury employer
• size of at-injury employer
• pre-injury earnings
• job tenure at time of injury
• nature of injury
• body part of injury
• geographic region.
Earnings Loss Trends by Employer Characteristics
Figure 3.1a shows, separately by industry,


ibly reflecting the greater severity of injuries that are permanently disabling in those jobs relative to the average injury in the industry.
Figure 3.1a. Earnings Loss by Industry for Workers with Indemnity Benefits, 2005–2017 Injuries
 SOURCE: WCIS


ar after injury stratified by the quartile of annual earnings in the pre-injury year. Relative earnings for workers in the second quartile are consistently lower than for the other three quartiles in the indemnity sample, ranging from slightly less t


ed two years after injury) for permanently disabled workers with at least one year of job tenure ranged from slightly more than 70 percent to more than 75 percent of counterfactual earnings from 2009 to the end of 2015, declining slightly in 2016. Re


le contains all indemnity workers in the analysis sample.
 39
Figure 3.5b. Earnings Loss by Nature of Injury for Workers with PD Benefits (Constant Maturity), 2005–2016 Injuries
 SOURCE: WCIS-EDD.
NOTES: 2005–2016 data. Relative earnings is defined a


in San Diego had significantly higher earnings relative to the average worker over most of the time frame. When focusing on workers with PDs, we observe large declines in earnings losses during the Great Recession in the Inland Empire, Los Angeles, t


arket conditions.
This chapter seeks to address the following question: What explains earnings loss trends and the slow recovery after the Great Recession? We answer this overarching question by answering three specific research questions:
1. Did cha


different mechanisms to the observed trends, we modeled post-injury labor market outcomes for injured and matched control workers using linear regression. (See Chapter 2 and the appendix for technical details.) These models capture the relationship


ily from a high of 50 percent during the Great Recession to a low of 44 percent in the 2016–2017 indemnity injury cohorts.
Other characteristics have remained more stable. The share of female injured workers with indemnity benefits increased from 39


hasta Sacramento Valley San Diego
Nature of injury
Specific injuries Fracture
Sprain or strain Cumulative
Body part Back
Lower extremity Upper extremity Multiple body parts
Number of injured workers (N)
Year of Injury
2005–2007 2008–2009 2010–2012 20


rends reported in Table 3.1) with estimates of what earnings losses would have been if observable factors were held constant at the averages observed among 2016–2017 injuries. The rows of the table successively add three sets of factors: case mix (de


very long and were omitted from the report to save space but are available upon request from the authors.
 52
Table 4.3. Case-Mix Adjusted Trends in Relative Earnings: Indemnity Injuries and PD Injuries
      Trend
Indemnity injuries
Relative earning


s, Adjusted for Local Labor Market Conditions and Case Mix: Indemnity Injuries
 SOURCE: WCIS-EDD. NOTE: 2005–2017 data.
Figure 4.2 shows some larger differences between the unadjusted and adjusted trends in relative earnings for workers with PD injur


lysis sample (2016– 2017). That is, we consider the change in earnings loss observed between workers injured in 2005–2007 and those injured in 2016–2017 and ask how much of the difference can be explained by different groups of observable factors.
We


 N = 188,306.
56
As shown at the top of Table 4.4, average earnings losses for PD injuries in the second year after injury were nearly $3,600 larger for 2016–2017 injuries than they were for the 2005–2007 injury cohorts (in real 2019 dollars). The ne


lts for indemnity injuries look somewhat different from the results for all PD injuries. Some observable factors (demographics and job characteristics) explained a larger share of the change in earnings losses. Local labor market conditions were slig


nditions had not changed over time. Although the case-mix adjustments did not make a significant difference in relative earnings, these figures show that compositional differences in injuries and local labor market conditions make a larger difference


more likely to be in public administration and education, and they were more likely to work at larger firms, all of which could be associated with higher wages. And of course, broader local labor market conditions shifted significantly throughout the


to the extent that these changes affected return to work, the “return to work” term. These terms, of course, may capture a wide variety of other factors as well, such as overall declines in employment rates in the working-age population, a longer-ter


t, suggesting that such policy interventions as these could offer significant gain to workers, employers, and the workers’ compensation system.
It is also important to remember that these analyses stop with the cohort of workers injured in 2017, prio


ocal economic performance through the Great Recession explain the different trends in outcomes for CT injuries across regions?
Background
CT injuries are caused gradually by repetitive stress rather than a single traumatic event. There are, however,


est of the state (Brooks, 2015). Compared with other regions of the state, the workers’ compensation system in Southern California is distinguished by higher rates of legal representation for workers, a greater likelihood that indemnity claims will r


outhern California looks very different from that of the rest of the state and that CT claim volumes grew rapidly among lower-wage workers in the manufacturing and hospitality industries while volumes elsewhere in the state remained flat or declined.


T injuries are significantly lower in Southern California than in other regions of the state. For example, relative earnings in the Inland Empire and in Los Angeles drop well below 60 percent during the period just following the Great Recession. Howe


f 6 percentage points among claims in other regions of the state. CT claims in Southern California are also more likely to have an attorney: Since 2013, 61– 63 percent of CT claims in Southern California have had an attorney present, compared with 46


iple body parts. All of these characteristics suggest potential vulnerabilities in the CT claim population in Southern California that are consistent with the higher earnings losses that prior interim monitoring reports have documented for this popul


 of which may also make these workers relatively more vulnerable to changes in local labor market conditions.
75
                               Table 5.4. Industry, Firm Size, and Job Tenure by Year of Injury for CT Injuries in Southern California, b


for each CT injury cohort and relative earnings with each subsequent case-mix adjustment, separately for injuries in Southern California and other regions of the state. The unadjusted relative earnings again show the significant decline in relative


earnings losses in both Southern California and other regions of the state, and, as discussed, the share of claims with these characteristics has been increasing over time. Although our analyses do not fully explain why these characteristics are asso


nd gender interactions, county of injury, firm size indicators, firm industry classification, worker job tenure, and nature and body part of injury indicators. Claim status variables are presence of lien on claim, legal representation, and whether a


08. The highly cyclical industries of accommodations and food services were hit exceptionally hard by the COVID-19 recession, and the WCIRB has predicted that the COVID-19 recession will drive CT claim volumes higher. The findings from this chapter h


is attributed to the substantial increase in earnings losses during and following the Great Recession. The authors then simulated what benefits would have looked like for the 2005–2012 cohorts if SB 863 provisions had been in effect. This simulation


may opt for a larger up-front payment and to forgo all or part of future benefits that they may otherwise be eligible to receive. Thus, settlements change both the timing and amount of benefits, and relying on statutory benefits in replacement rate c


 used?
Statutory Wage Replacement Rates
Statutory benefits derived from final disability ratings
DEU ratings
Statutory PD benefits only
No Lifetime
5 years post-injury
2.3 percent
Yes
Effective Wage Replacement Rates
Paid benefit amounts and settleme


and five-year earnings losses for workers who do not have permanently disabling injuries, we can report five-year wage replacement rates only for workers with PD.
However, two-year wage replacement rates have several important conceptual and practica


it amount for all indemnity injuries in the first two years after injury (Table 6.2) and over the first five years after injury (Table 6.3). Table 6.2 shows totals for TTD and PPD benefits, several types of settlements (TTD, PPD, death benefits, medi


12 $16.49 $10.69 $13.57
          SOURCE: WCIS.
NOTES: 2005–2017 data. Estimates use a discount
rate
TD PD
of 2.3 percent. N = 1,296,429.
Table 6.3. Average Present Discounted Value of Nominal Benefits at Five Years Post–Injury by Injury Date, All In


o similar estimates of paid benefits for workers with PD.
Paid Benefits for Workers with PD
Tables 6.4 and 6.5 report paid nominal benefits for workers who received paid or settled PD within three years of the injury date. To make valid comparisons o


ry increased by 5.4 percent from 2011–2012 levels for workers injured in 2013, and by 13.2 percent increase from 2011–2012 levels for workers injured in 2014, when the SB 863 benefit increases were fully phased in.
Although Table 6.4 does indicate th


 adjusting for inflation.
The results in Tables 6.4 and 6.5 were somewhat unexpected, but some of these patterns can be explained by changes in TD duration and the timing of settlements. First, TD duration fell
90
slightly from 24.4 and 23.7 weeks in


the replacement rate (benefits) increased by less than the denominator (earnings losses), the five-year replacement rate falls. Settling earlier and increasing benefits in the near term may come at the cost of lower benefits received in subsequent y


ements are excluded: Two-year wage replacement rates rise slightly from 95 percent for 2011–2012 injuries to 96 percent for 2014 and 2015 injuries, but they fall to 93 percent for 2016 injuries. We believe that the shift to earlier settlements is the


for federal and California income taxes, FICA payroll taxes (Medicare, OASDI, and UI), and SDI contributions. All dollar amounts (earnings and benefits) are reported in real 2019 dollars, inflated using the CPI-U. N = 568,929.
Figure 6.1 shows trends


earnings in the 2004–2019 CPS ASEC with NBER’s TAXSIM program. Tax rates account for federal and California income taxes, FICA payroll taxes (Medicare, OASDI, and UI), and SDI contributions. All dollar amounts (earnings and benefits) are reported in


ercent, the average weekly benefit increased about one dollar, to $225. In 2014, when the maximum weekly benefit increased for all workers, the average benefit jumped to $269. The WCIRB has also confirmed that weekly PD benefit rates increased sharpl


that PD benefit payments have ended or been suspended without being restarted. Among workers who received paid or settled PD beginning within three years post-injury, we observe
9 It is not clear whether PD ratings reported to the WCIS represent AMA


te of 27 percent for workers injured in 2014. The increase in PD settlements emerged before SB 863, as the percentage of PD claims with settled PD started to increase by several percentage points a year as early as 2011. In our constant-maturity coho


attorneys have much flexibility to promote the use of apportionment by evaluating physicians. We also emphasize that we do not know how often apportionment is applied, what impact it has on final ratings and benefits, or whether apportionment behavio


ency or impact of apportionment in this study.
Although we did not access SIBTF data for linkage to the WCIS within the scope of this study, we can provide a very rough assessment of how SIBTF payments might have affected our benefit adequacy estimat


claims, CT claims, and claims with multiple injuries— replacement rates are unfortunately below the two-thirds target despite substantial changes in policy under SB 863 designed to bolster adequacy particularly for these groups. The varied replaceme


e scope of our study, but a comparison of medical care cost trends and medical settlements could help determine whether changes in settlements are driven by anticipated cost growth, changes in settlement timing, or changes in the relative bargaining


uacy is not affected by workers’ lack of awareness of benefits for which they are entitled.
102
7. Conclusion Key Findings
This report concludes the wage loss monitoring project. In addition to tracking the outcomes of workers injured between 2005 an


 SB 863 took effect, wage replacement rates have not improved as much as expected given these statutory increases in
 103
benefit generosity. Although benefits did increase over time, the majority of the increase did not come from increases in PD ben


nds administered by DIR into analysis of individual-level claims and benefits, but such integration is necessary to provide complete answers about the adequacy of disability compensation for workers with PD. Indemnity benefit payments are tracked in


extreme restrictions on access to data present significant limitations for research and analysis.
Policy Implications
Despite some limitations in our data, our findings lead to several important policy implications. Workers’ compensation represents a


nin-Browder and Yang, 2020). How workers use these medical settlements and how they play into the settlement negotiation in general remain open questions, as do the issues of whether these payments result in increased cash available to workers and wh


h was developed and is managed by DIR, was legislated in 1993 and
 implemented starting in 2001. Claims administrators provide information on individual claims to
 DIR for the WCIS using a transaction-based Electronic Data Interchange format. Claims


in our study. One complication with applying these rates to our analysis sample is that we observe earnings in time relative to injury, not necessarily in annualized terms. For example, for workers injured in the fourth quarter of 2017, the relevant


this analysis, we employ a nearest-neighbor matching approach to identify control workers whose employment histories prior to the injury quarter are “close” to their matched injured worker. In this context, closeness is based on a combination of scr


ize
1–10 employees
11–50 employees
51–100 employees 101–500 employees 501–1,000 employees 1,001–5,000 employees More than 5,000 employees
% Matched
    22
    53
    69
    84
    93
    96
    98
    The key difference between our matching method in


ance are provided for completeness and for comparison with previous RAND studies. Across the four periods examined here, the average imbalance is around 1 percent of earnings or less. This analysis indicates that injured workers had earnings that wer


define weights for each category as the inverse proportion of workers in our matched sample to the sample of all workers with complete FROI records, good claims administrators, and a wage history. The average match weight in our analysis sample is 1


lay trends in earnings loss between 2005 and 2017 for several subsamples of injured workers. As described in Chapter 3, we used linear regression to estimate seasonally adjusted changes in the level of relative earnings among five periods: 2005–2007,


, and environmental factors remained constant, only allowing time fixed effects to vary. Specifically, we run the following models:
and
I0 = / + / + J2& K L*"M$,"N + J 2 O + D / 1!$%! /+++/
I3 = / + / + J2& K L*"M$,"N + J 2 O + D / 1!$%! /+++/
In the


on we had to make in this analysis was whether to control for labor market conditions in the quarter of injury or two years after injury (i.e., at the time we observe post- injury earnings and employment). On the one hand, labor market conditions in


ngs losses at period 7 as the inverse of the difference between counterfactual and injured worker earnings in that period:
)V = (I3−I0) !!!
Next, we consider the observed difference in earnings losses between period 0 (defined in our case as 2005–200


ay terminal diseases 76 0.2 AIDS 75 0.1 Hepatitis C 79 0.1
We apply the same methods that we described for case-mix adjustment to examine the role of compositional changes in trends and regional differences in earnings losses of workers with CT injur


tions performed at the DEU (Dworsky et al., 2016). We use the ratio of average earnings losses in years three, four, and five to second-year losses in this study. Specifically, we measure first- and second-year losses directly and estimate third- thr


he second post-injury (5–8 quarters post-injury) by 4.95, following estimates of long-term earnings losses for workers with 2005–2008 injury dates reported in RAND’s 2016 wage loss study (Dworsky et al., 2016). Benefit payments reflect all benefit an


ttling Within Five Years of Injury, by Year of Injury
   Indemnity Injuries
% of Settled Claims with Settlement by . . . Years After Injury
PD Injuries
% of Settled Claims with Settlement by . . . Years After Injury
  Injury
Year 1234512345


orkers’ Compensation Claim Costs, Oakland, Calif.: Workers’ Compensation Insurance Rating Bureau of California, 2015.
California Assembly Bill 1124, Workers’ Compensation, 2015.
California Assembly Bill 1244, Workers’ Compensation, 2016.
California C


ds Through the Great Recession and Impacts of Recent Reforms, Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, RR-1299-CHSWC, 2016. As of June 5, 2018: https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR1299.html
Flood, Sarah, Miriam King, Renae Rodgers, Steven Rug


S. Barth, Compensating Permanent Workplace Injuries: A Study of the California System, Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation, MR-920-ICJ, 1998. As of May 19, 2018: https://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR920.html
Rennane, Stephanie, Nicholas B


//www.wcirb.com/document/15001
Workers’ Compensation Insurance Rating Bureau of California, The World of Cumulative Trauma Claims, Oakland, Calif., 2018. As of September 28, 2021: https://www.wcirb.com/sites/default/files/documents/the_world_of_cumul


  CORPORATION
TOM LATOURRETTE
Defining Recognized and Generally Accepted Good Engineering Practices for Process Safety Management
In response to several high-profile hazardous material releases in the 1980s, including the Union Carbide disaster in Bh


matter experts and resources.
■ Approaches to documentation of process equipment compliance were mixed, and interview participants noted such challenges as unclear connections among manufacturers’ specifications, installation docu- mentation, or both


tion, not all of which applies to the California PSM regulation. We also reviewed the materials documenting the development of the federal and California PSM regu- lations, consisting of draft regulation text and public comments and responses. These


gulation directly. Only California and Washington have promulgated their own PSM regulations, and those are both generally very similar and nearly identical to the federal OSHA PSM regulation with regard to RAGAGEP. Califor- nia’s special PSM regulat


described in the preamble to the PSM regulation (OSHA, 1992). One section of the original text required that “the employer document that the process equipment being used complies with appli- cable consensus codes and standards, where they exist; or b


 to appli- cable VCSs, engineering society technical reports, manufacturers’ recommendations, and employers’ internal standards. The final PSM regulation was issued in 1992 (29 CFR 1910.119).
The concept of RAGAGEP has seen limited adoption beyond th


hanges to agency rules, including interpretive changes, must go through
the Administrative Procedure Act public notice
and comment process (Conn, 2016). Because of this ruling, OSHA was able to issue its new interpretation
 5
without soliciting publi


ndards Board, 2016). The American Petroleum Institute (API), for example, argued that RAGAGEP are broader than “established codes, standards, published techni-
cal reports or recommended practices” (California Occupational Safety and Health Standards


ndustries.
Distribution of RAGAGEP Knowledge
Do you keep a comprehensive list of all the RAGAGEP that you use to comply with the PSM standard? Responses to this question were con- sistently that they do not. Refinery representatives stated that there


at
they weren’t sure that they did it very well. Others pointed to equipment manufacturers’ specifications and installation documentation. However, as one par- ticipant pointed out, the link between manufacturers’ specifications, installation documen


ng to demonstrate that an alternative approach is more protective than RAGAGEP.
 8
Interpretation of Should in RAGAGEP
How do you interpret portions of RAGAGEP that are preceded by the terms should or should not? The protest and rapid rescindment of


st contentious aspect associated with RAGAGEP. Four of the six refinery representatives felt strongly that excluding internal standards was ill-advised and problematic. Participants emphasized that industry is innovative and that there are instances


AGEP and provided several suggestions for changes. We have summarized these concerns and suggestions here.
The internal standards issue emerged as the one of most concern. Four different refinery industry representatives emphasized that excluding int


s. In both cases, participants claimed that standards development committees are unbalanced, though in different ways. Two participants claimed that API committees are dominated by production industry representatives (technology users), while the oth


researchers, labor representatives, and other stakeholders). To facilitate community-wide consistency and quality and to ensure the safety of workers and neighboring popula- tions, these communities work together to develop standards, codes, and oth


of RAGAGEP directly by including a definition in the proposed regulation that explicitly excluded internal standards, although it allowed facilities to use more-protective internal standards instead of RAGAGEP. Industry once again protested, but Cal/


inate the Word Should from RAGAGEP
Our analysis shows that the fact that some RAGAGEP indicate that certain actions should or should not be followed has created controversy about what is required for compliance. Although should nominally indicates th


dard is more protective than RAGAGEP might be challenging. This challenge is compounded by the fact that many refineries in California have changed ownership multiple times. Internal standards thus reflect multiple owners’ requirements at different


 have about the defini- tion or interpretation of RAGAGEP and its application in California’s process safety man- agement standards and what would you sug- gest to resolve these concerns?
 14
Notes
1
2 For example, RAGAGEP violations were central to


he Supreme Court,” OSHA Defense Report blog, June 9, 2016. As of January 27, 2022: https://oshadefensereport.com/2016/06/09/ osha-engages-in-backdoor-rulemaking-courtesy-of-the- supreme-court/
Contra Costa Health Services, “Industrial Safety Ordinanc


of the term recognized and generally accepted good engineering prac- tices (RAGAGEP), a key element in PSM regulations. The findings are intended to help better align industry and government interpretations and expectations associated with RAGAGEP.


inciples.
RAND’s publications do not necessarily reflect the opinions of its research clients and sponsors. is a registered trademark.
Limited Print and Electronic Distribution Rights
This publication and trademark(s) contained herein are protected b


  CORPORATION
JASON M. WARD, RICK GARVEY, SARAH B. HUNTER
Recent Trends Among the Unsheltered in Three Los Angeles Neighborhoods
An Interim Report on the Los Angeles Longitudinal Enumeration and Demographic Survey (LA LEADS) Project
The overwhelming


and one-third indicated that they were currently on a housing waitlist.
■ Around 80 percent of respondents said that they would accept a private room in a shelter or hotel, a per- manent stay in a motel- or hotel-like setting, or permanent supportive


 and is accompanied by a demographic
 2
survey, conducted between December and February each year, that is designed to help estimate specific characteristics of the population experiencing home- lessness, including age, gender, race, ethnicity, sexua


ilable from the 2020 LAHSA PIT count and demographic survey. After selecting these primary study sites, we settled on a specific geography for each area through a combination of input from ser- vice providers and site assessments by our field work- e


 the total tabulations in this report but left site-specific enumeration results and survey tabulations to the appendixes.
Enumeration Study Methodology
We conducted counts roughly every two weeks in Skid Row and monthly in Hollywood and Venice.4 We


enumeration shift. We do not use any weighting to convert structures and vehicles into larger numbers of individuals, as is done in the LAHSA estimates (Henwood et al., 2020). A quick approximation of
our count data using the 2020 LAHSA weighting for


s of periods of past and current homeless-
ness and residential status among survey partici- pants. We found that the vast majority of respon- dents, 78 percent, have been continuously homeless for a year or more, and 52 percent have been continu- ou


ousing since they became home-
62 12 23
61 15 22
2
66 9 18 2
59 12 28
0
  7
TABLE 3
Housing Needs and Preferences of Survey Participants (percentages)
 Need or Preference
Interested in housing
Currently on a waitlist
Offered housing since homeless in


ets. We find corroboration for this general preference in the relatively low levels of respondent interest in group shelters and Bridge housing (i.e., congregate shelters with onsite case management and other services run by the City of Los Angeles).


se
to be surveyed or are passed over by the surveyors because of, for example, concern about safety, have multiple interviewer-perceived observable charac- teristics recorded. These data are then used to con- struct nonresponse weights that are appli


re provisional and subject to change as the number of enumerations and the number of survey respon- dents increase. We are continuing both of these efforts and plan to publish an update later in 2022. As noted previously, our enumeration and survey a


suggesting that increasing funding for congregate shelters, as has been espoused by some policymakers, might have a limited ability to effectively address street homeless- ness (Galperin, 2020; “LA Councilman Buscaino Seeks Ballot Measure to Prohibi


ographic area assessed in the PIT count (see Figure A.1).
Hollywood Geography
For Hollywood, we began by assessing the geography used in the recent count conducted by Hollywood 4WRD. We then conducted a site assessment of this area in late September


aightforward to identify because of its highly compact geography—a short stretch of San Vicente Boulevard (which runs into Bringham Avenue heading northwest) that bounds the West Los Angeles VA campus to the southwest. Specifically, we enumerated and


ugh the more eastern portion of the neighborhood.
As mentioned earlier, we alternated our enumer- ation shifts between early morning (approximately
6 to 9 a.m.) and nighttime (approximately 9 p.m. to 12 a.m.). These both tend to be periods during whi


survey shift began at approximately 8 a.m. and comprised two teams of three people who approached individuals on foot. During each visit, staff systematically approached individuals who appeared to be unsheltered and offered them an opportunity to pa


cific differences. We intend to revisit these differences through a statisti- cal lens in a later report that will have a substantially larger sample of survey respondents.
TABLE E.1
Full Demographic Characteristics of Survey Participants (percentage


r longer
Duration at current locationa Less than 3 months
14
25
33
 of the response options. For clarity here, we group categories into broader periods and assume zero “edge cases” (e.g., 12 months exactly).
TABLE E.3
Housing Needs and Preferences of


                                                 33
                                                                                33
NOTES: LGBTQ+ = lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, or questioning; n = number (sample


undant “other” issuea Lifestyle (including drug use)
Lack of income or employment
Lack of support or assistance
9 23
(n = 23) 33
8)
6)
29 21 8 4 Discrimination 4 Incarceration history 0
Need for special housing (e.g., LGBTQ+) Lack of housing or ineli


of HIV/AIDS-related illness, a physi- cal disability, a traumatic brain injury, a developmental disabil- ity, or a physical illness. The tabulated results do not provide data on answers to questions also included in the survey instrument about physi


eles, Calif.: Los Angeles Controller’s Office, City of Los Angeles, September 9, 2020.
Hart Research Associates, “LA County Homelessness Survey,” Study 14123a, Washington, D.C., October/November 2021.
Henwood, Benjamin F., Layan Kaileh, Nicole Wilson


meless Shelter,” Los Angeles Times, December 13, 2019.
———, “L.A. Officials Want Answers About Police Rollout at Echo Park Lake,” Los Angeles Times, March 31, 2021.
Sheeley, Kirsten Moore, Alisa Belinkoff Katz, Andrew Klein, Jessica Richards, Fernand


resh program, the People Concern, and the St. Joseph Center, also assisted in our efforts. Clementina Verjan at LAHSA allowed us to borrow flashlights for our night enumerations and connected us with helpful individuals at LAHSA and a number of Skid


 about veterans was funded by the RAND Epstein Family Veterans Policy Research Institute, which was established from a gift by the Daniel J. Epstein Family Foundation to RAND.
The RAND Corporation is a research organization that develops solutions to


  CORPORATION
LIAM REGAN, MICHAEL T. WILSON
Developing a Community- Led Certification Process for Facility Power Outage Resilience
Findings from a Massachusetts Pilot
Study
On October 27, 2021, a pow- erful extratropical bomb cyclone struck the Mas-


erim Clean Energy and Climate Plan for 2030 (State of Massachusetts, 2016) to outline actions for achieving its greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction targets and develop a state road map for adapting to climate change risks (Executive Office of Env


ers to some of the findings from Scope 1, which are published under separate cover on MassCEC’s website.1
With an influx of funding and greater atten- tion from U.S. federal, state, and local govern-
ments to increase community-scale power outage res


icy goals for resiliency certifications?
• Who are power outage resilience decision- makers and stakeholders? How do they inter- act and share information?
• Which qualitative and quantitative resilience metrics best reflect the needs of community, u


based cli- mate resilience policies and practices, the review was not intended to be systemic or exhaustive but rather targeted academic literature to identify the structural components of high-quality methods and key metrics at the narrow intersecti


 rules and guidelines for safeguarding utility workers and the public during the installation, operation, and maintenance of electric supply, communication lines, and associated equipment.
NFPA 1660 is the standard on community risk assessment, prein


interviews conducted via Microsoft Teams. We conducted a total of 12 focus groups represent- ing 13 organizations between August 20, 2020, and March 12, 2021 (see Table 2).
TABLE 2
Focus Group Participants
Organization Type
CLEAR community CLEAR comm


pass the entirety of the disas- ter life cycle events. We then used a full life cycle model of a value chain to design the certification to maximize inclusivity of projects in different stages of development (Linkov et al., 2020) and measure facility


2022 and initiated the process with a group kickoff meeting in which we presented an overview of the certification forms and a summary
of the results from the literature review and focus groups. MassCEC actively encouraged participation but offered n


goals for com- munity power outage resilience, in part a function
of wide variation in definitions of power outage resilience. In addition, determining the conceptual models behind these goals was challenging due to the mixture of qualitative and qua


t of Power Outage Resilience
Our literature and existing certification review found no singular metric for determining a facility’s power outage resilience. These metrics, traditionally quanti- tative, allow for the performance of weak and strong are


etter warn- ings, reduced vulnerability, and greater prevention of disaster for subsequent disasters (FEMA, undated).
Community Power Outage Resilience Goals Should Address Multiple Dimensions
Literature review and stakeholder focus groups identified


thout the requisite back- ground and might not be necessary depending on the goals of the facility owner or operator. In con- trast, if a user does not have an asset they are trying to assess and are rather examining a facility holisti- cally, they c


al., 2019). Focus group participants and MassCEC confirmed our analysis that the greatest proponent equities would lie in the facility owner or operator’s ability to define critical loads and specify islanding capability. In addition, because of the


erein the “quality of local leadership is . . . often as important as understanding community-wide adaptation processes”—in this case, that of power outage resilience (Wilson, 2013).
 12
Utilities and Customers Have Low Tactical Visibility into Each


d another par- ticipant said that it is “up to [the] customer to take [on] strategies that will not lose power.”
There Are Novel Resilience Considerations for Emergency Response Planning to Address Inequities Arising from Generation-to-Outage Path Op


response framework (see Figure 4). For
example, within the mitigation stage, the facility’s deterministic (Panteli and Mancarella, 2015) or expected (Ji, Wei, and Poor, 2017) recovery dura- tion via the Critical Load Summary is a requested input to t


life and not only during a power outage event. The other interviewee discussed how the certification had triggered a network of additional conversations among the facility’s staff and the stakeholders to encourage broader opera- tional preparedness


rag-
ing the data created through the process, but one
of the interviewees mentioned that the certification would have been less burdensome if the pilot had been issued and executed in parallel with the Scope 1 assessments to gain the efficiencies fr


o fund this study to assess, develop, and pilot a power outage resilience certification. As our findings illus- trate, at present, there are substantial limitations to this approach, many of which stem from governance considerations raised by the foc


to identify climate hazards, assess vulnerabilities, and develop action plans to improve resilience to climate change. Although MVP has demonstrated the statewide planning latitude necessary to administer and govern a power outage resilience certific


ry regulatory policy can produce greater program participation and improve- ment than a voluntary program (Lyon and Maxwell, 2007). In this pilot phase, the CLEAR program issued the power outage resilience certification as
a voluntary program with in


ow much resilience the project’s certifica- tion process would have given the community. How- ever, the “n-of-one plus some” method allowed us to explore significant gaps and incongruencies in the resourcing, planning, and understanding of power outa


ch could incentive underresourced communities to participate in the planning process. The administrative organization would need an equitable mechanism to decide which communities, outside of an application-based pro- cess, might a priori benefit fro


d communities, represented by an effective, efficient, and equitable power outage resilience initiative.
 19
FIGURE 5
Justice40 Initiative Census Tracts for Disadvantaged Clean Energy, Energy Efficiency, and Climate Change Communities
SOURCE: Climate


nfrastructure Systems Model, OAT = Opportunity Assessment Tool, PCVA = Participatory Capacity and Vulnerability Analysis, PREP = Partnership for Resilience and Preparedness, QRE = Quick Risk Estimation, RAPTA = Resilience, Adaptation Pathways and Tra


cation?
3. Have there been efforts prior to the CLEAR program to develop a resilience certification (or other certifications)?
4. Were you aware of any public or private offerings for resilience certifications prior to issuing the RFP?
5. Are there a


iliency and reliability?
 24
Appendix C. Massachusetts Clean Energy Center Power Outage Resilience Certification Pilot Program
This appendix contains reproductions of the pilot power outage resilience certification forms, beginning on the following p


rk Phase Documentation
X1 X2
A1
A2
A3
A4
A5
A6
A7 A8 A9
B1
B2 B3
C1 C2
D1 D2
                              Mitigation
Recovery Response Preparation
Power Asset Identification and Description
Utility Interconnection Agreement Critical Load Summary
Cri


ration asset supporting the critical load? ☐ Yes ☐ No
i. Is the generation asset interconnected with the power grid? ☐ Yes ☐ No
ii. If Yes, name the interconnected utility:
   b) Has a critical load evaluation been performed on this facility? ☐ Yes ☐


me (First, Last):
Form Completion Date (MM/DD/YYYY):
  Applicant Official Title: CRITICAL LOAD EVALUATOR
   2.
Date of Critical Load Evaluation Completion (MM/DD/YYYY):
     Critical Load Evaluator Name: Organization Name: Critical Load Address - Str


e any special power outage needs to maintain operations? ☐ Yes ☐ No i. If Yes, describe:
  Applicant Notes:
      You have completed Form A4. Continue to Form A5.
  32
 SYSTEM ONE LINE DIAGRAM
FORM A5
Instructions: Applicants must complete this form


  City:
   State:
   Zip Code:
  Operations and Maintenance Agreement Execution Date (MM/DD/YYYY):
 4. OPERATIONS AND MAINTENANCE POINT OF CONTACT Instructions: Designate a facility point of contact responsible for the power asset’s operations and
m


there are multiple
methods of fuel procurement, duplicate this form to provide information on the other procurement methods.
  b) Does this facility receive fuel in a method other than utility interconnection? ☐ Yes ☐ No i. If Yes, by which method is


.If Yes, attach supplementary fuel storage documentation to this form and proceed to
Section 3.
ii.If No, proceed to Form B1.
  3. FUEL STORAGE OVERVIEW
  Fuel Storage Name:
 Storage Manager Name:
   Storage Manager Position:
   Phone Number:
   Emai


he facility require heating, cooling, or lighting to properly operate? ☐ Yes ☐ No
h. Are there security systems that rely on power to operate? ☐ Yes ☐ No
i. Does the facility have handicap or disability systems that rely on power to
operate? ☐ Yes ☐


ent Title:
  Roles and Responsibilities Development Date:
 Facility Outage Manager Name:
   Manager Position:
   Phone Number:
   Email Address:
  Facility Outage Manager Responsibilities:
    Power Asset Manager Name:
   Manager Position:
   Phone N


he Emergency Response Plan Checklist incorporates procedures for the following action
types:
i.☐ Emergency Notifications or Communication Plans
ii.☐ Power Asset or Generator Management iii.☐ Fuel Management
iv.☐ Facility Power Consumption Management


lated to power outages? ☐ Yes ☐ No
i.If Yes, attach the after action report to this form for application submission, complete
Section 3, and proceed to Form D2.
ii.If No, either develop an after action report aligned with best management practices an


ation Plan Description:
   You have completed Form D1. Continue to Form D2.
   48
 DAMAGE REPORT
FORM D2
Instructions: Applicants must review this form with all relevant damage report information and provide supplemental documentation. This form is t


the damage prior to filling out this report? ☐ Yes ☐ No If Yes, has the utility developed a plan for responding to and repairing the damage? ☐ Yes ☐ No
 Damage Description:
    Applicant Notes:
    You have completed Form D2. Review all forms prior t


criteria that stakeholders considered important to a power outage resiliency certification. In recognition of this list’s deficiencies, we bolstered the list with exhaustive records of energy and power outage resiliency metrics from the literature (W


dris, “Power System Resilience: Current Practices, Challenges, and Future Directions,” IEEE Access, Vol. 8, 2020, pp. 18064–18086.
Bie, Zhaohong, Yanling Lin, Gengfeng Li, and Furong Li, “Battling the Extreme: A Study on the Power System Resilience,”


 England Becoming More Extreme? Statistical Analysis of Extreme Rainfall in Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine and Updated Estimates of the 100-Year Storm,” Journal of Hydrologic Engineering, Vol. 16, No. 3, 2011, pp. 203– 217.
Douglas, Ellen M.


, and Aseem Prakash, “Incentivizing Self‐Regulation: Federal vs. State‐Level Voluntary Programs in US Climate Change Policies,” Regulation & Governance, Vol. 6, No. 4, 2012, pp. 445–473.
Hussain, Akhtar, Van-Hai Bui, and Hak-Man Kim, “Microgrids as a


pment as a Strategy for Community-Driven Development,” Development in Practice, Vol. 13, No. 5, 2010, pp. 474–486.
Mukhija, Vinit, “N of One Plus Some: An Alternative Strategy for Conducting Single Case Research,” Journal of Planning Education and Re


atellite-Based Assessment of Electricity Restoration Efforts in Puerto Rico After Hurricane Maria,” PLOS ONE, Vol. 14, No. 6, 2019, article e0218883.
Rusco, Frank, Electricity Grid Resilience: Climate Change Is Expected to Have Far-Reaching Effects a


h National Climate Assessment, Vol. I, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Global Change Research Program, 2017.
XDI, “AdaptInfrastructure,” webpage, undated. As of March 8, 2022:
https://xdi.systems/xdi-platform/adaptinfrastructure/
Zamuda, Craig D., Thomas Wall


tly community power outage resil- ience is and identify methods to assess effectiveness and certify whether plan- ning actions and project implementations have made communities resilient. For example, existing research on power outage resilience is p


ehavior. To help ensure our research and analysis are rigorous, objective, and nonpartisan, we subject our research publications to a robust and exacting quality-assurance process; avoid both the appearance and reality of financial and other conflict


  Los Angeles County’s Preparedness for California’s
Edible Food Recovery Mandate (SB 1383): An Examination of Food Recovery Logistics and Other Challenges
Alina I. Palimaru, Joslyn Fleming, Jay Balagna, Marcy Agmon Marc Robbins, Sarah B. Hunter
  CO


80 / Motion Array; P. 17: Pelagija / Motion Array;
P. 18: Claudio Divizia / Motion Array; P. 19: Anastasiya / Motion Array; Food Recovery logo, illustrations, and original layout: courtesy of Glory Film Co. Philanthropy.
 Two Separate Problems, One P


for human consumption by 2025.”10
The law is being implemented through a progressive schedule by local jurisdictions, such
as cities or counties.12 Jurisdictions are ultimately responsible for implementing edible food recovery
programs and ensuring c


stores, and 90,000 restaurants,13 though not all meet the size criteria for edible food recovery requirements.12 There are also at least 800 FROs.13 Within each jurisdiction, some organizations must comply beginning on January 1, 2022 (Tier 1), whil


charts logistical considerations from the moment donated food leaves EFGs to the point of delivery to recipients: i.e., HSAs and individual consumers). Organizational flexibility to collect, receive, store, sort, process, and distribute different fo


ding streams
4. Interorganizational relationships: disincentives to collaborate and lack of coordination
Practice: Consider funding that is better suited to food recovery.
Practice: Explore how funding models can incentivize interorganizational colla


ainties of other donated food: for example, cooked food or seasonal variations in perishables. For these organizations, an increase in small
donations would be disruptive to the scale of existing workflows. Smaller organizations, on the other hand, a


is needed to acquire capital assets and human resources; per statute, SB 1383 gives jurisdictions the authority to charge and collect fees to recover the local jurisdiction’s costs incurred in complying with the regulations.10 Several jurisdiction-l


r
food recovery program, including exploring opportunities to support FROs and FRSs and match EFGs with FRSs and FROs. Others were considering contracting with nonprofit agencies to run their food recovery program. Each jurisdiction will have its own


, individual FROs working
on their own with multiple EFGs, or (in some
cases) both. The second issue was the reporting requirement at the jurisdiction level, since many FROs, FRSs, and EFGs operate across jurisdictions and, in some cases, across mult


emit (most often, waste management). Some of the aspects of
SB 1383, such as food recovery, were seen to be outside their traditional competence, requiring jurisdictional agencies to learn and understand the motivations of FROs and EFGs.
8 | System C


and geographic scope of this review may preclude a more robust set of recommendations, the data suggest the following potentially actionable observations at this
time that all stakeholders should consider (see Figure 5):
17
  • Consider funding model


eemptive waste avoidance at the food retail level.
Although we interviewed only Tier 1 participants, many of them will also be involved with Tier 2 implementation, including FRSs, FROs, HSAs, and jurisdictions. Some of their suggestions point to the


d Management, Vol. 25, No. 4, Fall 2006, pp. 921–942.
10. Short-Lived Climate Pollutants: Methane Emissions: Dairy and Livestock: Organic Waste: Landfills, California Senate Bill 1383, 2016. As of May 31, 2022: https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/face


20-08/business-case-for-reducing-food-loss-and-waste.pdf
25. Let’s Get Healthy California, “Waste Not OC Coalition: Ending Hunger in Orange County,” webpage, undated. As of April 23, 2022: https://letsgethealthy.ca.gov/innovation-challenge/how-to-mak


 Intimate Partner Abuse Solution
Programs
Identifying High-Priority Needs Within the Criminal Justice System for Programs Focused on Intimate Partner Violence Prevention
Lynn Langton, Madison Fann, Duren Banks, Michael G. Planty, Dulani Woods, Michae


er with multiple sectors across the community should be developed and implemented.
Program implementation
• Rigorous research should be conducted that includes out- comes that are not just recidivism, are informed by survivor voices, and are most rel


ms are implemented and whether best practices vary across different types of partici- pants; (3) ensure that programs are not operating in isolation from community and advocacy groups; and (4) employ research strategies that shed light on best practi


scope of measures that should be used to assess success creates addi- tional challenges for researchers attempting to determine whether IPAS programs are effective at addressing IPV.
• Findings from IPAS program research are not often trans- lated fo


ogram models that are most com- monly used: the Duluth Model and cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) interventions. These programs are described next, but many IPAS programs combine elements from each of the different models, and it is rare for any pr


g the workshop— because it is consistent with the nature and focus of these programs. Accordingly, we use IPAS participants to refer to the perpetrators who engage in the programs. However, it should be noted that there was not consensus on officiall


iolent recidivism and “promising” for reducing victimiza- tion and the CBT model as having “no effects” on recidivism or victimization (NIJ, 2013b). However, specific CBT pro- grams—such as Evolve, which operates in Connecticut, and Strength at Home


olent offenders? If so, how?
• What evaluation designs, data collection approaches, and other methods can provide the most-rigorous and action- able findings related to IPAS programs? What are the barri- ers to implementing those methods?
METHODOLOGY


interviews, RTI staff drafted a list of about 30 specific needs. In the context of the PCJNI, a need refers to the pairing of a potential solution to a problem or an opportunity for advancing promising innovations.
During the second stage of the work


d on the same problem or opportunity could be ranked or categorized differently through their perceived impact and likelihood of success, meaning that not all needs associated with a certain problem or opportunity were ranked in the same tier.
 Table


t innovative approaches to engage and actively partner with multiple sectors across the community, including victim advocacy services, public health, medical service providers, faith communities, and university research partners.
Direct more programm


mandate clients to participate and the clients are required to pay for the program.
Programs are limited by a lack of information from survivors about ongoing interactions with the participant.
Potential Solution
Conduct rigorous research that includ


 are tough to implement in some contexts.
RCTs are tough to implement in some contexts.
Research findings are not always framed for practitioners and are therefore either not used or misinterpreted.
Research findings are not always framed for practit


r context from the workshop discus- sion on the high-priority needs for advancing our understand- ing of the effectiveness of and how best to implement IPAS programs. Statements in this section are derived from assertions made by workshop panelists a


s avail- able research and information about both risk and protective factors and trauma-informed care practices that could form the foundation of IPAS programming. However, because such information is not widely available to practitioners, there is


should be conducted to assess outcomes in addition to recidivism, such as measures related to survivors’ satisfaction and safety.
The next key challenge discussed was that most IPAS programs do not provide any aftercare or follow-up with participants


Finally, panelists shared that when desired outcomes are not achieved in IPAS programs, it is difficult to determine whether that is a result of a problem with the program model, the model implementation, or another factor that could be completely ex


nism. Similarly, participants also noted the challenge that IPAS programs often operate in isolation from other community and criminal justice responses. Participants discussed that IPAS programs are often too dependent on the courts for referrals, a


IPAS programs. For starters, research findings may not be generalizable because of the many conceptual and logistical variations in IPAS programs. Panel- ists noted that some programs may claim to be using a certain model but are only implementing s


hers, practitioners, and other stakeholders to identify and implement approaches to measure success that go beyond binary measures of program completion or recidivism. Potential measures of success raised in the discussion were impacts on survivors,


presented in the main report. The descriptions here are drawn and adapted from previous PCJNI publications and reflect the adjustments to the needs identification and prioriti- zation process implemented at this workshop.
Workshop Scope and Panel Sel


unities to improve performance by adopting or adapting a new approach or prac- tice (e.g., applying a new technology or tool in the sector that had not been used before). After identifying and refining the needs, we used a voting process based on the


ential solutions that they had previously identified. The panelists’ combined lists for each topic were displayed one by one on the screenshare portion of Zoom using Microsoft PowerPoint slides that were edited in real time to incorporate participant


we multiplied the final (second-round) ratings for importance and probability of success to produce an expected value. We then calculated the median of that product across all of the respon- dents and used that as the group’s collective expected val


ne the point value of a single vote,
we divided the full range of expected values by the number of participants voting.
To prevent the (somewhat rare) situation in which small numbers of votes have an unintended outsized impact—for example, when some


not physical violence, does not necessarily occur between intimate partners, and should be inclusive of interventions, treatment, or both that are trauma-informed and comprehensive enough to enable funding or other resources from multiple sources.
Is


ht) the round 3 votes were applied. In many cases, the round 3 votes increased the calculated score of needs (their expected value) enough to move them into a higher-priority tier.
 Tier 1 Tier 2 Tier 3
Round 2
    Round 3
    15
 20 40 60 8020 40 60


cing conditions, such as structural inequality), and develop innovative and sustainable solutions for addressing these different contexts and different motivations.
Develop and implement innovative approaches to engage and actively partner with multi


ure that it is implemented as designed and there is a fully funded RCT evaluation to assess its effectiveness.
Conduct rigorous research that includes outcomes that are not just recidivism, are informed by survivor voices, and measure the outcomes th


programs, research findings may not be generalizable.
RCTs are tough to implement in some contexts.
Potential Solution Tier
Develop guidance and training on program implementation that follows a specific, evidence-informed theory of change and mainta


 are using different theoretical models (and are already being used).
Translate research and evaluation findings into digestible documents written for and disseminated to practitioners.
Require that funded research develop and follow a plan for resea


 factors affect participation (e.g., opportunities related to approaches that only became realistic when the pandemic occurred).
When desired outcomes are not achieved, it is difficult to know whether that is a result of a problem with the program’s


ecause of the many conceptual and logistical variations in IPAS programs, research findings may not be generalizable.
RCTs are tough to implement in some contexts.
Programs are typically designed around or required to follow a prescribed approach.
Sy


.
Look to other disciplines, practitioners, and IPAS program participants to identify and adapt sustainable funding models, including allowing for insurance funding of these programs.
Develop technology to support engagement and offer a variety of op


pproaches.
Implement fatherhood programs more widely as a source of referrals.
Provide programs with funding for conducting community outreach; establishing earlier contact with people who commit IPV; and maintaining contact with perpetrators, family


e Review and Recommendations for Next Steps, Pittsburgh, Pa.: University of Pittsburgh, March 2011.
Cotti, Chad, Joshua Foster, M. Ryan Haley, and Shannon L. Rawski, “Duluth Versus Cognitive Behavioral Therapy: A Natural Field Experiment on Intimate


020: https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RR820.html
Mills, Linda G., Briana Barocos, and Barak Ariel, “The Next Generation of Court-Mandated Domestic Violence Treatment: A Comparison Study of Batterer Intervention and Restorative Justice Progr


men, who assisted with the development of the workshop and identification of panelists. Finally, the authors acknowl- edge the valuable contributions of the peer reviewers of the report, Coreen Farris of RAND and Julia C. Babcock of the University of


Maryland. He holds an M.S. in agricultural economics (applied economics).
Michael J. D. Vermeer is a physical scientist at RAND. His expertise covers topics related to science and technology policy, criminal justice, national security, cybersecurity


J. D. Vermeer, Duren Banks, Dulani Woods, and Brian A. Jackson, Counter- ing Technology-Facilitated Abuse: Criminal Justice Strategies for Combating Nonconsensual Pornography, Sextortion, Doxing, and Swatting, Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND Corporation,


Just in Reach Pay for Success
Impact Evaluation and Cost Analysis of a Permanent Supportive Housing Program
SARAH B. HUNTER, ADAM SCHERLING, MATTHEW CEFALU, RYAN K. MCBAIN
 Sponsored by Corporation for Supportive Housing
 CORPORATION
For more informa


uded individuals diverted by the Office of Diversion and Reentry and placed into housing over the course of two years, from October 2017 to September 2019. In this report, we provide information about program implementation, including housing placeme


Costello and others at the Corporation of Supportive Housing were instrumental to our project. We also thank the members of the Just in Reach Pay for Success Executive Steering Committee who reviewed drafts of this report. This report would not have


to provide an overall picture of the intervention’s benefits and costs to Los Angeles County.
While sample sizes are too small to meaningfully analyze causal program effects by race/ethnicity, we do examine housing stability over time across racial/e


lso examined whether the results were different among the JIR PFS participants who were housed for at least 12 months (82 percent of the sample) and found that the results were relatively similar, except that the reductions in jail days increased to


side of the scope of the JIR PFS initiative. This transitional period includes interim housing and related supports, which we describe in this report in order to provide a more holistic view of the broader ODR housing program in which the JIR PFS pro


rvice costs are likely accounted for in our analyses, policymakers may consider the significant savings associated with PSH, primarily to the Los Angeles County jail and secondarily to the inpatient and emergency health care systems. The study result


..........................51 Table D.7. Estimated Service Use in the Post-Housing Year 1 Period by Treatment Group .......52 Table D.8. Estimated Service Costs in the Post-Housing Year 1 Period by Treatment Group.....53
 x
Table D.9. Estimated Averag


 Institute, 2020). Recidivism rates throughout California over the past decade have remained close to 50 percent (California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation, 2019).
Recidivism and Housing
A broad body of research shows that lack of stabl


ing physical and mental health conditions are likely to suffer even worse health outcomes as a result of housing insecurity. Compared with the general U.S. population, individuals experiencing homelessness are more likely to suffer from unmanaged chr


ically, PSH program costs range from $10,000 to $30,000 per person annually (Hunter et al., 2017), with programs in California on the higher end of this spectrum because of housing costs.
Homelessness is also associated with social service and justic


ate- sector entities invest funds for a project, and these funds have the potential to be paid back—with interest—by the government once specific milestones are achieved, such as improved client outcomes. This framework has the potential to create a


matched comparison group to examine differences in service use and associated costs prior to jail release and after JIR PFS PSH entry. We also examined the program effects for the subgroup of participants who remained stably housed in PSH for at lea


he organization’s institutional review board.
As an initial step, we summarized demographic characteristics among program enrollees and examined enrollees’ progression through key program milestones, including jail release and JIR PFS program entry.


individual to be placed into PSH. Over the course of the two-year period, 349 individuals were placed into the JIR PFS program. Thirteen of these individuals were excluded from this analysis for one of the following two reasons, leaving a treatment g


 use data were provided from these agencies to the CIO and then (in turn) provided to us.
Specifically, we received data on health service use and costs provided by DHS, mental health service use by DMH, substance use treatment services by the LA Cou


ousing support and intensive case management services. Regarding housing, clients were provided with a housing rental subsidy through LA County’s Flexible Housing Subsidy Pool (Los Angeles County Department of Health Services, undated), a locally fun


 outcomes for the treatment group (i.e., what the treatment group outcomes would have been, if program participants had not been enrolled in JIR PFS), which avoids potential confounding caused by the balanced covariates.
Prior to performing the prope


y), and other selected variables. This allowed us to determine whether program enrollment led to more (or less) service use and costs relative to the matched comparison group. We also modeled binary outcome variables indicating the use of homeless se


days in an interim housing setting (range: 44–1,068 days), where they received medication management and onsite clinical supervision prior to placement in PSH. As noted earlier, all JIR PFS participants were enrolled within a two-year period, between


ng temporary forms, such as emergency shelter, hotel/motel voucher, rapid re-housing or transitional housing, as well as more permanent forms, such as receipt of a housing subsidy/voucher) was fewer than ten for both groups and was not statistically


ic
Justice LASD
Probation Homeless services
Housing DHS
Inpatient Emergency Outpatient
DMH Inpatient
Crisis stabilization
Outpatient Total cost
Treatment Mean (SD)
$108,881 ($51,810) $444 ($685)
$513 ($2,074)
$1,805 ($10,552) $1,012 ($2,479) $312 ($1


average total costs for JIR PFS participants in the one-year post-housing period remained relatively stable to the transition period costs ($55,377 for the post-housing period and $56,254 for the transition period; see Appendix D). However, the JIR


avings of $1,643 per participant.
We also found a significant increase among JIR PFS participants related to the PSH costs. Specifically, in the first year of the program, there was an average increase of 336 days of PSH among the treatment group, re


up, the net total cost per participant in JIR PFS was $13,773 in the first year (see Appendix D; Table D.9) and $11,535 in the second year, with the former statistically significant at the 0.05 level and the latter not statistically significant.
22


ree years after PSH placement. We note that the Hispanic and other race/ethnicity groups begin losing individuals from PSH immediately after PSH placement, and this pattern is not observed among Black or White participants. The difference in the prop


for jail costs and overall costs; in both models, this interaction term was negative, large (nearly $30,000 per year), and not statistically significant. In essence, since only a small portion of the outcome period overlapped with COVID-19, there is


 first year post-housing placement were offset by cost decreases in other areas.
 27
We also performed a sub-analysis examining only participants who maintained housing for the full 12-month post-PSH placement period to determine whether there were a


rtant to put these findings into context with other recent PFS and supportive housing initiatives, including those in Santa Clara County, California (Raven, Niedzwiecki, and Kushel, 2020), and Denver, Colorado (Cunningham et al., 2021; Gillespie et a


l participants assigned to the treatment were housed and not all participants assigned to the control group were unhoused during the follow-up period, the results from this study suggest that PSH interventions for older, medically fragile individuals


ostly health care services were not observed, but there were reductions in emergency shelter and emergency psychiatric care. The Denver initiative focused on a younger, criminal justice– involved population receiving significant amounts of homeless s


rogram should not be the only driver of policy decisions regarding the program’s value. It is inappropriate to apply a standard that PSH should result in cost savings when other social and health interventions do not adhere to the same standard. Nota


same time period. Other studies have ignored this in the construction of the comparison group (e.g., see Hollander et al., 2021). By design, this also makes it more challenging to identify a treatment effect because we must account for the drop in us


8 per day
• ER, medical: $1,784 per encounter
• Outpatient, medical: $1,356 per encounter
• Inpatient, psychiatric: $2,804 per day
• ER, psychiatric: $4,506 per encounter
• Outpatient, psychiatric: $1,202 per encounter
• Inpatient: $802 per day; Resi


 from jail into ODR custody, and the PSH move-in and move-out dates. The analytic periods were then defined as follows:
• The pre-program period was defined as the 12-month period preceding the release from jail into ODR custody.
• The transition per


le to the data available on the comparison group members.
Race/Ethnicity
The demographics data provided to us by CIO often included several different race/ethnicity data points per individual, originating from different county agencies or even the sa


ent services, a uniform per-diem rate was applied to each event based on the length of time between admission and discharge. If the inpatient discharge date was the same day as the admission date, half the per-diem rate was applied. Inpatient events


ate.
LA Homeless Services Authority
The CIO provided us with enrollment data from the LA County HMIS (administered by the LAHSA) representing a variety of housing and non-housing services. The data contained project name, project type, entry date, mo


 were applied to the probation data by applying a per-diem rate, as described in Appendix A.
40
Appendix C. Substance Abuse Prevention and Control Data
Next, we provide summaries of substance use disorder treatment service use by analytic period (i.e


s appendix, we present detailed information about the distributions across the service use and cost variables by treatment group and time periods.
Table D.1 presents the mean, standard deviations, minimum value, median value, and maximum values on a


rison (n = 672)
        Service Use Characteristic
Justice
LASD (days)
Probation (days) Homeless services
Shelter/temporary housing (days)
DHS
Inpatient (days)
Emergency (days)
Outpatient (events) DMH
Inpatient (days)
Crisis stabilization (events) Ou


ot having received any subsidized permanent housing in the post- period. Treatment effects from a set of linear models analogous to those presented in Table 3.4 were also very similar to the main analysis, and are presented in Table E.1.
Figure E.1.


–340.
Aidala, Angela A., William McAllister, Maiko Yomogida, and Virginia Shubert, Frequest Users Service Enhancement ‘FUSE’ Initiative. New York City FUSE II Evaluation Report, New York: Columbia University, Mailman School of Public Health, 2014.
Au


, Just in Reach Pay for Success, Annual Report 2020, 2021. As of December 3, 2021: https://www.csh.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/JIR-PFS-2020-Annual-Report- compressed-1.pdf
Couloute, Lucius, “Nowhere to Go: Homelessness Among Formerly Incarcerated


tal Health Commission of Canada, 2014. As of November 2, 2020:
http://www.mentalhealthcommission.ca
Hamai, Sachi A., Interim Chief Executive Officer, County of Los Angeles, “Pay for Success Initiative: Recommended Project and Next Steps,” memorandum


C. Barnes, Jordan M. Hyatt, and Brook W. Kearley, “The Impact of Residential Change and Housing Stability on Recidivism: Pilot Results from the Maryland Opportunities Through Vouchers Experiment (MOVE),” Journal of Experimental Criminology, Vol. 14,


les Homeless Services Authority, “Emergency Housing Vouchers (EHVS) Through CES,” June 25, 2021. As of August 25, 2021: https://www.lahsa.org/news?article=837-emergency-housing-vouchers-ehvs-through-ces
Mazzella, Danielle M., and Lindsay Rosenfeld, L


ncy Medicine, Vol. 24, No. 1, 2017, pp. 63–74.
Ridgeway, Greg, Daniel F. McCaffrey, Andrew R. Morral, Lane F. Burgette, and Beth Ann Griffin, Toolkit for Weighting and Analysis of Nonequivalent Groups: A Tutorial for the R TWANG Package, Santa Monica


n Patterns and Expenditures in Los Angeles County over One Fiscal Year, Los Angeles, Calif.: Los Angeles County Chief Executive Office, Service Integration Branch, Research and Evaluation Services Unit, 2016. As of March 17, 2022: https://dpss.lacoun


  Research Report
BOB HARRISON, JAMES DIMAROGONAS, JARRETT CATLIN, RICHARD H. DONOHUE, THOMAS GOUGHNOUR, JOHN S. HOLLYWOOD, JASON MASTBAUM,
KRISTIN VAN ABEL, JAY BALAGNA
Broadband Communications Prioritization and Interoperability Guidance for Law En


to identify state and local agencies leading in the deployment of these technologies, to study existing and conceptual network architectures, to evaluate operational deployments, and to synthesize the results into a guidance document. The RAND Corpo


old, Inc., a pioneer in mobile broadband, who generously gave his time to discuss FirstNet. This report would not be possible without input from many stakeholders across multiple law enforcement and emergency responder agencies, service provid- ers a


ces to law enforcement customers, such as a private core for enhanced security and service management, preemption and prioritization for public safety in times of emergency, and interoperability across broadband platforms. All 50 states and five U.S.


enance and to oversee software and network administration). The type of network provider selected—a single network provider, a dual-provider option, or a single provider with an integrated LTE (Long-Term Evolution)/LMR device—is a decision that invol


which to ensure desired outcomes for public safety, they are on differing broadcast bands and use different equip- ment while offering similar capabilities. Law enforcement agencies must ask for clear, specific details before contracting for service


n the authority to execute the mandate with grants or contracts with “individuals, private compa- nies, and Federal, State, regional, and local agencies” (Pub. L. 112-96, 2012, Section 6206(b)(4)(A)). In March 2017, FirstNet awarded a 25-year contrac


transition, and what services and capabilities are necessary to perform agency- specific duties requires a good understanding of the technical differences between available broadband options. Some agencies do not possess this capability in house and


ion
 • prioritizing law enforcement and public safety broadband devices on selected bandwidth to ensure continuity of communications during emergencies through over-the-top PTT (OTTPTT) or “mission- critical” PTT (MCCPTT)
• enabling interoperability


 be enacted and sustained?
3
Broadband Communications Prioritization and Interoperability Guidance for Law Enforcement
 • Does the service provider have a road map that provides gateway solutions to incorporate LMR/LTE solutions into existing LMR/PSA


Literature Review
We conducted an extensive literature review on the topics of broadband communications and related tech- nologies, their application to law enforcement and emergency responders, and the acquisition and manage- ment of such networks.


rstNet handset were both assessed at 778 MHz. The FirstNet hand- set was shown to have a significant advantage in signal quality; however, if the “usable” range is consid-
ered equally good enough to achieve the mission, the two handsets are roughly


allowed us to more fully observe the impacts of the pandemic on law enforcement communications. We were also able to assess the outcomes of police communications issues that arose with protests, riots, and similar activity in cities across the United


ntended to highlight key features and uses of each technology.
Mobile Data Platforms
Police departments have been experimenting with the use of mobile data terminals (MDTs) since 1988, when a police agency introduced notebook computers into its patro


eral generations that demarcate increasing complexity and utility.
It can be useful to briefly review the generations of mobile broadband to better understand how each plat- form built upon its predecessors and informed the broadband generations to f


net protocol (IP) traffic. In 2005, 3GPP began work to develop LTE and Systems Architecture Evolu-
10
Understanding Core Communications Technologies
 tion standards. This created standards for a fourth generation of mobile communications (Hill, Chand


the United States” in a “reliable, secure broadband network dedicated to public safety” (First- Net.gov, undated). Although the original intent of FirstNet’s mission was to create a nationwide cellular system for first responders alone, the cost of s


agencies do not equip their officers with phones (Jackman, 2017). FirstNet will provide SIM cards to enable existing smartphones to access its net- work, but those phones will need specific apps to optimize the reception and security of photos, vide


s) to enable a 14-hour delivery window to an emergency request for support. AT&T’s capabilities include three “Flying COWs” (for “Cells on Wings”) and “FirstNet One,” a deployable blimp (Sambar, 2019). FirstNet’s COWs also can deploy an all-weather “


on a local or regional basis that are attractive to a chief or sheriff as they work to limit costs for this capability.
Verizon is the most prominent broadband provider to challenge AT&T’s build-out of FirstNet, matching many of AT&T’s service and te


h comments that it submitted to the U.S. Department of Commerce on November 9, 2012 (Verizon, 2012). At that time, Verizon recommended a “diverse nationwide network” for FirstNet as a public-private partnership instead of a standalone public safety b


nched Band 14 coverage in 700 markets and reached 80 percent of the nationwide coverage by the end of fiscal year 2020 (Hill, 2021).
AT&T has a persuasive advantage in bandwidth allocation, since Band 14 is dedicated solely to public safety needs. Ve


not been modernized as public communication systems have migrated to digi- tal platforms. According to APCO, in existing 911 networks, the public can make primarily voice and tele- type calls, with only data that includes automatic number identificat


thout the need for fixed cellular infrastructure. Artificial satellites are also unaffected by natural or manmade distracters that might disable existing cellular infrastructure and thus provides a backup communications pathway. We previously mention


roduce their own interoperability problems if they work with one vendor’s LMR networks but not another’s.
Gateway
A gateway is a dedicated device to which an LMR handset from one talk group is connected on one side and an LTE broadband device from a


g., warning signs of a potential heart attack), alerting if the officer has just been involved in a high-impact event, or alerting if the officer has pulled their weapon
• location trackers for police vehicles and on-person trackers
• networks of sho


 (future) P25 SATCOM SATCOM or LTE LMR (varies)
     Fielded devices (For mobile: phones, tablets, in-car modems, etc. For LMR: handheld, in-car)
 Wi-Fi (short range in buildings, shops, etc.)*
FirstNet (AT&T/ Band 14)
Other 5G (future) LMR- LMR- SAT


AFECOM and National Council of State- wide Interoperability Coordinators, 2018, p. iv)
While understanding the variety of available technologies is one key step in building a broadband commu- nications capability, first responder networks also requir


nance that establishes clear lines of authority, establishes priorities for investment, and ensures functional operation when necessary. As one of our interview subjects reported, governance is “one of the keys for transitioning to broadband” given t


eration between governance bodies. At the state and federal levels, this has included CISA’s 2010 establishment of the National Council of Statewide Interoperability Coordinators (NCSWIC) for the coordinators “from the 56 states and territories” (CIS


tegration.
Any regional governance must account for the specific needs, resources, and inherited legacy systems of agencies participating in that governance process. Determining the appropriate governance system and how to operate it depends on the t


the
member represents.
• Provide multiple means to participate in meetings (e.g., in person, videoconference, webinar, teleconference) while advancing information-sharing and transparency.
• Identify sustainable funding for existing and future public


overnance and Operational Requirements
 Daily Operations for Patrol Officers
This case, shown in Figure 4.1, reflects the day-to-day operations of officers in the field—supporting officers on patrol, responding to routine calls, conducting stops, and


hown in amber are those that have been identified as being useful during routine operations but are less central. For the mobile user, these tend to be reference materials, such as agency files on past incidents, public building floor plans, and admi