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173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | THE MODERN AND HISTORICAL ROOTS OF INEQUALITY
LUKAS ALTHOFF
A DISSERTATION
PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY
OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY
IN CANDIDACY FOR THE DEGREE
OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
RECOMMENDED FOR ACCEPTANCE BY
THE DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS
ADVISERS: LEAH BOUSTAN, ELLORA DERENONCOURT, STEPHEN REDDING
MAY 2023
© Cop... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | In addition, women’s intergenerational mobility tended to be higher than men’s. I provide suggestive evidence that intergenerational mobility was especially high when and where marriages across different socioeconomic backgrounds were more common.
In Chapter III, I analyze the evolution of Black-white income gaps amon... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Their dedication, hard work, and attention to detail have made a significant contribution to this dissertation.
Finally, I am thankful for the support and resources provided by the Program for Research on Inequality, the Industrial Relations Section, and the Prize Fellowship in the Social Sciences that have allowed me... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | <page_number>iv</page_number>
To the four exceptional women who have been my pillars of strength throughout this journey: To my mother, whose unwavering love and encouragement have instilled in me a relentless passion for lifelong learning and intellectual exploration; to my sister and grandmother, who have provided a... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | 3.3 Linked Data .......................................................................................................................................................... 14
3.4 Sample .................................................................................................................................... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | | Chapter | Title | Page |
|---|---|---|
| 6 | The Jim Crow Effect | 29 |
| 6.4 | Location of Freedom and the Question of Exogeneity | 31 |
| 7 | The Jim Crow Effect | 31 |
| 7.1 | State Institutions and Black Economic Progress After Slavery | 31 |
| 7.2 | Border Discontinuity Design | 31 |
| 7.3 | Validation of the Bo... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | 5 Decomposition of Income Gaps .................................. 83
5.1 Unmasking Regional Heterogeneity ......................... 83
5.2 Accounting for Positional and Distributional Forces .. 84
5.3 Accounting for Partners’ Income .......................... 86
5.4 Accounting for Observable Characteristics .............. |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Although racial disparities have narrowed considerably over the past two centuries, the progress has been slow.
One possible explanation for the lower socioeconomic status of Black Americans is the US’s particular history of institutionalized racial oppression. Throughout the country’s early history, slavery was legal... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | After slavery ended, those states implemented the most severe forms of Jim Crow institutions. Our results suggest that the economic progress of families enslaved until the Civil War would have been substantially faster between 1865 and today if it had not been for their high exposure to Jim Crow. We highlight the denia... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Therefore, we argue that we can identify families freed before the Civil War as those having ancestors recorded in the 1850 or 1860 census; others are classified as enslaved until the Civil War.<sup>3</sup> We validate this method by developing a new surname-based approach to determine how likely a family was to have b... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | First, we divide our sample into two groups and document socioeconomic gaps between them: Black families
---
<sup>2</sup>Using their name, year and place of birth, and race, we follow individuals across full-count census records from 1850 to 1940. We use the census’s information on interrelationships among individual... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | <sup>7</sup>The composite index is based on a state’s enslaved population share in 1860; its share of sharecroppers who were Black in 1930; its number of disfranchisement devices; and its share of congressional delegates that signed the Southern Manifesto (Baker, 2022).
<page_number>3</page_number>
who had higher exp... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | By 1940, those large Free-Enslaved gaps vanished conditional on the state in which their ancestors lived during slavery. Second, families enslaved until the Civil War were concentrated in the states where Black Americans fared worse after slavery. The difference in the two groups’ geographic distribution fully explains... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | In contrast, if the Free-Enslaved gap were driven by differential exposure to the state-specific factors, we would expect the gap to largely reflect across-state differences between families, irrespective of when they were free.
\(^{10}\)We find that social upward mobility is far lower for Black than white Americans, ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Enslaved people had no freedom of movement before the Civil War, leaving no room for self-selection into location. Selection could only have occurred through forced migration, to which slaveholder migration and the domestic slave trade equally contributed (Steckel and Ziebarth, 2013). Slaveholders were generally non-se... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | 14Contrary to the most plausible scenario for positive selection, we find that families freed in the Louisiana sugar areas achieved lower socioeconomic status by 1940 than families freed in other areas.
15Because our RDD estimates fully capture the differences in the causal state effects, any relevant selection would ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | We find that the supply of schools had persistent positive effects on the economic progress of Black families, especially in the most oppressive states.¹⁷ Gaining access to a Rosenwald school closed 80 percent of the education gap caused by exposure to an intense Jim Crow regime. We find that the schools not only incre... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Sacerdote (2005) uses Southern place of birth as a proxy for being enslaved until the Civil War and shows that Black descendants of this group continued to have lower socioeconomic status than those freed earlier. By combining newly available linked records,
---
¹⁷A Black child with access to a Rosenwald school attai... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | In addition, we develop a novel empirical strategy to assess a place’s effect on upward mobility based on the geographic *immobility* of a specific population rather than their mobility. We find that a state’s capacity to generate upward mobility is highly persistent: our estimates (1865–1940) have a strong correlation... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | <page_number>7</page_number>
and Mazumder, 2011).
## 2 Historical Context
This section provides some historical context for the evolution of racially oppressive institutions in the US—from slavery to Jim Crow and beyond.
### 2.1 Free Black Americans before 1865
In 1860, just before the Civil War (1861–1865) that l... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | New Jersey was the last Northern state to do so in 1804.
In the South, the path to freedom was narrow, especially in the Lower South. All Southern states except North Carolina allowed masters to free (“manumit”) their enslaved people by 1790, but the practice was employed to different degrees across regions. In the Up... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | With the limited freedom they enjoyed, some free Black families could accumulate modest wealth and social status. Most of them, however, lived in poverty “under conditions barely distinguishable from those of the mass of slaves” (Berlin, 1974). Their economic status varied considerably across the country and, perhaps s... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | In 1877, the Union troops left the South, abandoning the project of Reconstruction. The disenfranchise-
---
²⁰Fifty years is an estimate derived from aggregate counts of the Black population starting in 1790 and assuming that free Black families’ population growth equaled that of white families.
<page_number>9</page_n... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Many free Black Americans lost their higher social status and left the South (Woodson, 1918).
Black Americans who remained in the South after Reconstruction faced increasing oppression through the rise of Jim Crow (1877–1964). Jim Crow laws governed almost every aspect of Black life. Schools, workplaces, public transp... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Progress in narrowing racial gaps in socioeconomic status has largely stalled since the 1960s (Bayer and Charles, 2018; Althoff, 2021; Derenoncourt et al., 2022).
### 3 Data and a New Method to Measure a Family’s Exposure to Slavery and Jim Crow
A major empirical challenge we overcome in this paper is to measure a Bl... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | 21These are the only pre-1865 census decades with individual-level data.
22We refer to Black families free before 1865 as “the Free” even though they or their ancestors may have been enslaved in previous decades. We refer to those enslaved until 1865 as “the (formerly) Enslaved.” We choose this terminology to avoid con... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | While the Free-Enslaved gap accurately captures differences based on the enslavement status of a family’s male ancestry line, we show that it is also a lower bound for differences that would arise if the entire family tree had the same enslavement status. Because women tended to change their last names upon marriage, a... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | \textsuperscript{26}In Appendix 1.2, we derive this result theoretically and empirically approximate the difference between the two measures. Inter-marriage was likely rare before 1940 due to the differences in the two groups’ geographic concentration. We estimate that for the first generation born after 1865, the soci... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | ### 3.2 Measuring the Exposure to State-Led Oppression During Jim Crow
Black families’ exposure to slavery and Jim Crow is highly correlated. Families enslaved until 1865 were also geographically concentrated in states that would become the epicenter of Jim Crow. In contrast, families freed earlier were concentrated i... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Our second measure is a composite index of state-level racial oppression—the Historical Racial Regime (HRR) index. This index is a data-driven proxy of a state’s intensity of racial oppression from slavery to Jim Crow (Baker, 2022). The measure is a factor extracted from four components: a state’s population share ensl... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | ### 3.3 Linked Data
We use full-count census data for all available decades between 1850 and 1940 (Ruggles et al., 2020) and link observations across adjacent and non-adjacent decades using the automated linking methodology provided by Abramitzky et al. (2020). A person is linked from one census to another if their na... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Nine-digit ZIP codes are highly granular indicators of location, which refer to a “segment or one side of a street” (USPS, 2021), allowing us to obtain rich information on the socioeconomic characteristics of a person’s neighborhood.29 We use National Historical Geographic Information System (NHGIS) data on the distrib... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Our results are
---
29We map nine-digit ZIP codes into statistical areas, such as census blocks, which are small and designed to have socioeconomically homogeneous populations (Census Bureau, 2017). In Appendix 1.3, we describe the procedure for linking nine-digit ZIP codes to statistical areas.
30We describe this d... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | **FIGURE 2: Average Outcomes in 1940**
<img>A line graph showing average outcomes in 1940 by the earliest year to which we can link them back to one of their ancestors. The dark blue line (left y-axis) shows the years of education; the light blue line (right y-axis) shows the total predicted income. The lines suggest ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | The evidence suggests that the group differences estimated here are not affected by such a mechanical bias. To err on the side of caution, we limit our sample to individuals who can be linked back to 1880 or earlier throughout this paper.
4 A Simple Model of
Black Economic Progress After Slavery
We propose a simple ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | We model $y_{i,0}$ (the
<page_number>17</page_number>
starting condition) as
$$y_{i,0} = \alpha_{i,0} + \gamma_{\ell(i,0)}^0 - \delta s_i + \varepsilon_{i,0}, \tag{2}$$
where $s_i$ is an indicator for whether the family was enslaved until 1865. That is, in 1865, the outcomes depend on ability, location, and whether... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | where $\alpha_{i,1} = \lambda \alpha_{i,0}$ allows for transmission of ability over multiple generations. Thus, outcomes are determined by the ability of the initial generation through direct inheritance of ability ($\lambda$) and through intergenerational advantage derived from ability in previous generations ($\rho$)... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | We restrict the sample to observations linked to ancestors in 1850, 1860, 1870, or 1880. We control for a quadratic function in age and include 95 percent confidence bands clustered at the family level. See Data Appendix 1.3 for details on the sample and data.
\(^{34}\)We define a family as a group of individuals with... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | | **Ancestor Enslaved** | **-1.59*** | **-145.92*** | **-7.24*** | **-694.69*** |
| | (0.05) | (6.13) | (0.62) | (65.85) |
| **Controls (age, age²)** | Y | Y | Y | Y |
| **Adjusted R²** | 0.04 | 0.05 | 0.01 | 0.01 |
| **Observations** | 163,549 | 154,463 | 164,357 | 46,971 |
| **Ancestor Free** | 9,078 | 8,551 | 9,070... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | The homeownership gap for the two groups of white Americans was similar to the respective Free-Enslaved gap in 1870 but closed by 1900—while the Free-Enslaved changed very little until then. Consistent with the comparatively slow narrowing of the Free-Enslaved gap, we show that intergenerational upward mobility is not ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | **5.2 The Free-Enslaved Gap in the 21st Century**
We extend our results beyond 1940 by linking Black families from the 1940 census to administrative death records around 2000. Those records include the nine-digit ZIP code of a person’s residence at the time of death, from which we derive neighborhood-level information... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | A neighborhood is a census tract. Each person is assigned the value of the census tract in which they last lived according to administrative death records. Sample means are computed for the combined sample of the Free and the Enslaved. See Data Appendix 1.3 for details on the sample and data. Standard errors are cluste... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Next, we turn to the drivers of this persistence.
<sup>44</sup>Clark (2014) uses the last names of “underclass” Black Americans to study their representation among licensed physicians and attorneys, two “elite” occupations.
<sup>45</sup>See Appendix Table 12.
<sup>46</sup>While we show that the distribution of deaths ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | We find that differential exposure to state-specific factors accounts for virtually all of the Free-Enslaved gap after 1940.
6.1 States’ Effect on Black Economic Progress After Slavery
We estimate each state’s causal effect on the long-run economic progress of Black families freed there in 1865. Our empirical strateg... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | One can interpret $\eta_{\ell}$ as an intent-to-treat (ITT) effect of living in location $l$ from before the Civil War to 1940, where the initial location is plausibly randomly assigned, but the post-1865 location is a result of endogenous (and potentially selective) migration decisions.
**FIGURE 4: Effect of Ancestor... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | We estimate those more granular effects based on the county in which a formerly enslaved family’s ancestors lived in 1870—five years after the end of slavery. We find that the county-level effects are highly clustered in the shape of states, yielding very similar spatial patterns to our state-level effects.⁴⁹ We also c... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | $$\eta_\ell = \sum_{\ell' \in \mathcal{L}} p_{\ell, \ell'} \cdot \gamma^1_{\ell'}.$$
---
⁴⁷See Appendix Figure 46.
⁴⁸See Appendix Figure 47.
⁴⁹See Appendix Figure 48.
⁵⁰See Appendix Figure 49.
⁵¹See Appendix 1.2.
⁵²See Appendix Figure 49.
⁵³See Appendix Figure 50.
⁵⁴We formalize this decomposition in Appendix 1.2.
W... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | <img>A line graph showing the cumulative number of laws pertaining to the geographic mobility or employment of Black Americans by type. The x-axis represents years from 1860 to 1920. The y-axis represents the cumulative number of laws, ranging from 0 to 40. The line is divided into four categories: "Contract enforcemen... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | 55See Appendix 1.2.
56See Appendix Figures 85 and 86. Southern white families were almost 30% more likely to migrate.
to the North limited the potential for social networks that would lower the cost of migration (Carrington et al., 1996). Even for Black families who did migrate to the North, opportunities were elusive... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Both panels control for age and include 95 percent confidence bands clustered at the family level. See Data Appendix 1.3 for details on the sample and data.
We find that in contrast to the unconditional Free-Enslaved gap, the conditional gap was large in 1870 but shrunk to virtually zero after 1940 (see Figure 6). The... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Even for this subsample, we find large Free-Enslaved gaps in 1940.⁶⁰ This result provides additional evidence against the importance of selection into freedom for the Free-Enslaved gap’s persistence.
Lastly, to assess the importance of differential discrimination based on skin tones, we estimate the Free-Enslaved gap ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | where $\theta$ is the **geographic endowment effect** and $\kappa$ is the **location choice effect**.<sup>62</sup>
We argue that the geographic disadvantage that the Enslaved population faced relative to the Free *within the South* provides a lower bound (in absolute terms) for the **geographic endowment effect**. In ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | ### 6.4 Location of Freedom and the Question of Exogeneity
In any study that aims to estimate the effect of places on outcomes, the key assumption for causal interpretation is for one’s location to be orthogonal to one’s potential outcomes. Past research typically relies on “mover designs” (e.g., Chetty et al., 2016).... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Slaveholder migration and the domestic slave trade equally contributed to the forced migration before 1865 (Fogel and Engerman, 1974; Tadman, 1979; Pritchett, 2001; Steckel and Ziebarth, 2013). Slaveholders were generally non-selective in moving all their enslaved people with them (Fogel and Engerman, 1974; Pritchett, ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | 65Traded enslaved people were found to be disproportionately likely to be young adults (e.g., Pritchett, 2019) and more likely to be male (Fogel and Engerman, 1974), but some of this evidence is nuanced by Tadman (1977, 1979). Moreover, Pritchett (2001) finds that traded enslaved people were marginally taller than the ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | $$\gamma_{\ell}^{t} = \gamma_{\epsilon(\ell)}^{t} + \gamma_{s(\ell)}^{t},$$
(11)
where $\gamma_{\epsilon(\ell)}^{t}$ captures factors that vary continuously across state borders and $\gamma_{s(\ell)}^{t}$ captures factors that vary discontinuously across state borders. We can think of $\epsilon(\ell)$ as the geograph... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | \(^{67}\)See Appendix Figure 64.
<page_number>31</page_number>
separately for each border $b \in B^{South}$, where $y_{i,b}^{1940}$ is the years of education of Black person $i$ in 1940 whose ancestors were freed close to state-border $b$, $High_{i,b}^{1870}$ indicates whether $i$’s 1870 ancestors lived on the side o... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Consistent with our results for human capital, we find that living under more oppressive Jim Crow regimes reduced Black families’ incomes and increased their likelihood of being a farmer in 1940.\(^{70}\) No differences emerge for families freed across borders between states with similar institutions. Adding a large se... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | The x-axis represents the difference in HRR score, and the y-axis represents the years of education in 1940. The lines show the best linear fit between RD estimates and the differences in Jim Crow intensity, weighted by the inverse of the estimates' standard error. Shaded areas represent robust 95 percent confidence ba... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | See Data Appendix 1.3 for details on the sample and data.
<page_number>33</page_number>
In principle, Jim Crow may have not only harmed Black Americans, but it could also have affected white Americans. First, some Jim Crow laws likely directly affect some poor white Americans negatively. For example, poll taxes aimed... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | To assess to which degree Jim Crow institutions shaped the geography of Black economic progress, we compare the differences in progress that arise sharply at the border with the overall differences between states’ effects (as documented in Figure 4). We find that the border discontinuity estimates are almost identical ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | The y-axis is labeled "Difference in State Effects" and ranges from -3 to 2. The line of best fit is a blue dashed line. There are several data points represented by circles, some of which are larger than others, indicating different sample sizes or weights. The gray dashed 45-degree line is also present, indicating th... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Each dot is the average across a decile of the border population. Lines show the best linear fit. Shaded areas represent 95 percent confidence bands clustered at the 1870 county level. See Data Appendix 1.3 for details on the sample and data.</watermark>
Consistent with our main estimates, sharp educational difference... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | **(E) 1920**
Discontinuity: -6.87*** (1.09)
More oppressive $\leftarrow$ $\rightarrow$ Less oppressive
**(F) 1930**
Discontinuity: -4.59*** (0.95)
More oppressive $\leftarrow$ $\rightarrow$ Less oppressive
**Notes:** This figures shows the RD estimate in literacy for Black families freed across state borders with... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | **(D) Farm Value**
Discontinuity: -0.66 (0.77)
More oppressive $\leftarrow$ $\rightarrow$ Less oppressive
**Notes:** This figures shows the RD estimate in counties’ characteristics in 1860 across state borders with different Jim Crow intensity in 1865. The sample is restricted to policy borders. The left half of eac... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Specifically, we find that the differences in the causal effects of states sharply and fully arise at state borders. Therefore, the only potential threat of selection bias remains the selection of enslaved people into states sharply around borders. However, any plausible selection into the destination of forced migrati... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | The aggregate importance of institutions is almost certainly larger.
\textsuperscript{78}See Appendix Figure 55.
\textsuperscript{79}See Appendix Figure 65.
\textsuperscript{80}See Appendix Figure 61.
<page_number>39</page_number>
8 The Mechanism of Limited Access to Education
This section assesses restrictions to ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | <sup>81</sup>A category’s number of Jim Crow laws is not a conclusive measure of its importance; suffrage laws are a prime example. Suffrage laws are low in number, but their effects are massive (see e.g., Naidu, 2012). Laws in other categories are likely a downstream outcome of Black voter disenfranchisement (Engerman... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | The graph is divided into two panels, each showing a different measure of Jim Crow laws and Black school quality. The left panel shows the number of Jim Crow laws, while the right panel shows the quality of Black schools. The lines show the best linear fit, weighted by the inverse of each estimate’s standard error. Sha... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | On the other hand, oppressive institutions may limit school access despite existing demand among the oppressed, potentially making school provision an effective policy to increase economic progress.
We leverage quasi-experimental variation from the Rosenwald school program to identify the lack of resources to accumula... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Our primary outcome is years of education, but we
83See Appendix Figure 82 for a map of where those schools were built.
84We thereby also broaden the sample to all men, rather than men who served in WWII—Aaronson and Mazumder (2011) link the census to enlistment records which contain enlistees’ county of birth.
85Our ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | | :--------------------------------------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------- | :-------------------------------------------------... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | **Notes:** This table shows the effect of Rosenwald school exposure (0 to 1) on a person’s years of education in 1940. Regressions control for ancestor-county FEs, and year-of-birth×ancestor-state FEs. The sample is limited to families who lived in rural areas in 1870. Columns 2 and 3 compare individuals who remained i... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | While the educational benefits of Rosenwald school access accrued to the treated generation directly,
---
86 An increase of the cohort×county-specific Rosenwald exposure from 0 to 1 yields an increase in the cohort×county-specific share of Black children in school by 0.65 ($F$-statistic: 1,736.2).
87 The difference ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | We find that the children of Black men who had access to a Rosenwald school today are 40 percent more likely to have a college degree. Consistent with the long-run gains in human capital, those descendants also earn higher incomes and own more valuable homes. Thus, the Rosenwald program’s massive positive effects have ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | The line of best fit has a correlation coefficient of 0.679 and a p-value of 0.000. The points on the plot are small circles. The text "Correlation = 0.679" is placed near the line of best fit. The text "p=0.000" is placed near the top right corner of the plot.</img>
**Notes:** This figure is a binned scatter plot rel... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | These factors likely continue to limit Black economic progress
---
to a disproportionate contribution of Black families to their estimates, which are specific to children with parents at the 25th percentile of the income distribution. We find that the correlation shrinks substantially ($\rho = 0.20$) when considering... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Systemic discrimination—the higher exposure to ongoing discrimination *because of past discrimination* (Bohren et al., 2022)—is at the core of slavery’s persisting legacy.
Our findings have important implications for policies that aim to reduce the disadvantage faced by descendants of the Enslaved. First, our results ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Our empirical evidence suggests that Black families today are impacted drastically by when and where their ancestors were freed. For that matter, we must stress again that we only quantify the *additional* disadvantage faced by those whose ancestors were enslaved until 1865 and concentrated in the Lower South compared ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | <page_number>48</page_number>
**INTERGENERATIONAL MOBILITY AND ASSORTATIVE MATING**
LUKAS ALTHOFF (PRINCETON) & HARRIET BROOKES GRAY (PRINCETON) & HUGO REICHARDT (LSE)
**1 Introduction**
Throughout history, the US has been considered the land of opportunity. Intergenerational mobility—a person’s propensity to attai... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | SSN applications cover the near universe of applicants who died between 1980 and 2007 and include information on applicants’ names and their maiden names. Importantly, they also contain the maiden names of applicants’ parents, massively expanding the sample, extending the coverage back in time, and increasing represent... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | While father-child comparisons are the literature’s standard measure of intergenerational mobility, they offer an incomplete picture of how interrelated a child’s socioeconomic status is with that of their parents. In particular, unless mothers do not separately contribute to the future socioeconomic status of their ch... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Consistent with the importance of marriage markets, we document that intergenerational mobility and assortative mating levels are highly correlated over time and across space. In states with highly assortative marriages—i.e., where wives come from a very similar socioeconomic background as their husbands—intergeneratio... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Black women’s changing economic status was a critical driver of increasing mobility over this period. Craig et al. (2019) found that women’s mobility was higher than men’s in the late 1800s but this gap disappeared by 1900. Our sample is unprecedented in scope and representativeness in the historical context, providing... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | In contrast to human capital, occu-
pation and income seem to be more influenced by fathers: a person’s earnings are better predicted by their paternal than their maternal grandfather’s earnings.
This paper also contributes to a nascent effort to link women’s historical census records. Abramitzky et al. (2019, 2020) ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | 2.1 Data on the Maiden Names of Women
The key challenge to follow women’s historical records is to identify them during childhood and adulthood despite name changes upon marriage. In modern administrative data, unique identifiers such as social security numbers or taxpayer identification numbers allow researchers to t... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | <td>(BUSINESS ADDRESS OF PRESENT EMPLOYER)</td>
<td></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>89<br>(AGE AT LAST BIRTHDAY)</td>
<td>4 20 1898<br>(DATE OF BIRTH: MONTH DAY YEAR)</td>
<td>Houston, Texas<br>(PLACE OF BIRTH)</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td>(FATHER'S FULL NAME)</td>
<td><signature>Sarah Cottrell</signatu... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | 92We obtained the applications from the Social Security Numerical Identification (Numident) file through the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA).
93For absolute numbers of links by census year and sex, see Appendix Figure 87.
**FIGURE 16: Fraction of US Population Linked in Our New Panel**
<img>Bar c... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | The size of this sample is unprecedented and uniquely equips us to study the intergenerational mobility of women in US history. Our sample coverage peaks for women born from the 1890s to the 1920s, where our sample contains between 1.5 and 3 million women per birth decade.
Our panel is representative along several dim... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | (2019) to leverage the additional information available in the administrative data to link individuals. To link women who may have changed their last names after marriage, we attempt to link a married woman’s Social Security application to the census using both her married and maiden name (her father’s last name). A li... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | For those estimates, we measure the socioeconomic status of a person or their parents at the household level. Our estimates suggest that while overall historical levels of intergenerational mobility were similar to today’s, women tended to be more mobile than men. Second, we estimate intergenerational mobility disaggre... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | The legend indicates that the diamond symbol represents "All" (Chetty et al. '14), the circle represents "All" (Jacome et al. '21), the triangle represents "All" (Ward '21), the red diamond represents "Women", the blue diamond represents "Men", and the red cross represents "Men" (Ward '21). The graph shows that the ran... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | Our estimates of the intergenerational mobility among men closely follow existing estimates (Ward, 2021). Overall, our findings suggest that society as a whole was somewhat, but not drastically, more mobile than estimates based on men suggest.
In Figure 19, we document that Black Americans were substantially more mobi... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | The y-axis represents the rank-rank coefficient, ranging from 0 to 0.5. The legend indicates that the gray line represents "All," the red line represents "Women," and the blue line represents "Men." The graph shows that the rank-rank coefficient for white Americans generally decreases from 1850 to 1860, then increases ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | The x-axis represents birth cohorts from 1870 to 1900. The y-axis represents the rank-rank coefficient, ranging from 0 to 0.7. The legend indicates that the gray line represents "All," the black line represents "Married," and the pink line represents "Unmarried." The graph shows that the rank-rank coefficient for marri... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | However, we find evidence that women do deviate from the socioeconomic status of their fathers, requiring further exploration into the mechanism of assortative mating.
### 3.2 Additional Estimates: Mobility in Literacy
Literacy is a key outcome to study the intergenerational mobility of women for three reasons. First... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | <page_number>59</page_number>
**FIGURE 21: Intergenerational Mobility in Literacy**
**(A) Population and White Men**
<img>A line graph showing literacy rates by birth cohort and literacy status of parents. The x-axis represents birth cohorts from 1850 to 1900. The y-axis represents literacy rates as a percentage. Th... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | However, focusing on white men understates the degree to which intergenerational mobility has increased.
For people born in the 1850s who had two literate parents, literacy rates were 17 percentage points higher than those of individuals with no literate parent. For the 1900s cohort, this gap had shrunk to 9 percentag... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | **FIGURE 22: Intergenerational Mobility in Literacy by Race**
(A) Black and White Americans
(B) Black Men and Black Women
<img>A line graph showing literacy rates by birth cohort for Black and White Americans. The x-axis represents birth cohorts from 1850 to 1900. The y-axis represents literacy rates in percentage. ... |
173,107 | 88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | BoustanRedding, LeahStephen | Althoff, Lukas | Economics Department | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023-07-06T20:24:49Z | 2023 | http://arks.princeton.edu/ark:/88435/dsp01zs25xc72s | This dissertation studies inequality in the access to opportunity in America over the past 150 years, including the impact of pivotal policies and institutions.
In Chapter I, I study the long-run effects of anti-Black institutions—from slavery to Jim Crow—on Black Americans’ economic outcomes. I trace each family... | en | Princeton, NJ : Princeton University | null | Race | Economics | The Modern and Historical Roots of Inequality | Academic dissertations (Ph.D.) | null | 95 | The graph also shows that the literacy rates for White individuals with one literate parent are higher than those for White individuals with no literate parents, but lower than those for Black individuals with one literate parent. The graph also shows that the literacy rates for White individuals with no literate paren... |
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