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سي-5 جلاكسي
طائرات عسكرية
سي-5 جلاكسي C-5 Galaxy: طائرة نقل كبيرة عسكرية، صممت من قبل لوكهيد. تم تصميمها على توفير النقل الجوي الثقيل الاستراتيجي عبر مسافات بين القارات. سي-5 جلاكسي دخلت الخدمه لدى القوات الجوية الأمريكية، منذ عام 1969، وهي واحدة من أكبر الطائرات العسكرية في العالم.
يبلغ طول كل جناح 30 مترا ويبلغ طول كل من المحركات التي توجد على كل جناد 9 امتار ما يقارب حجم شاحنة
وان سي-5 جالاكسي تحمل الاوزان الثقيلة بمعدل 12 سيارة نوع همر عسكرية وطائرة اباتشي وتسير عبر القارات
وهي طائرة صممت للنقل من قبل شركة لوكهيد مارتن وفي عام 1968 كان أول طيران لها ،هي طائرة ثقيلة يبلغ طولها 75 متراً وصممت لنقل الدبابات والعربات وحتى المروحيات، تستطيع استيعاب دبابتين من نوع أبرامز تستطيع استيعاب من أكبر المروحيات مثل الشينوك والسوبر ستاليون ،طلبت صنعها الإدارة الأمريكية لنقل أكبر عدد ممكن من العتاد والأسلحة إلى أي رقعة على سطح الأرض تقريباً ،فمداها الأقصى يفوق 10,000 كلم ،وباستطاعتها التزود بالوقود جواً،تستطيع حمل حتى 118,000 كلغ من العتاد، تفتح مقدمتها إلى الأعلى لإدخال العتاد وهناك باب خلفي ،ويوجد 75 مقعداً في الطابق العلوي من الطائرة ،كانت تستخدم في عمليات الإنزال المظلي الكبيرة وكانت تستطيع إنزال الدبابة شريدان مظلياً،ولكن هذا الدور أخذتها أختها الجديدة السي-17 ،شاركت في عدة حروب منها حرب فيتنام وحرب لبنان وتحرير الكويت وحرب العراق الأخيرة، تستطيع تمييزها عن غيرها من الطائرات سماعاً حيث إن صوت محركاتها مميزة وذات هدير قوي وعالي ،كانت في وقتها تعد أكبر طائرة في العالم ولكنها خسرت اللقب أمام الطائرات الروسية العملاقة، الآن تخضع لعمليات تطوير المعدات الإلكترونية والطيران وتخضع لإسبدال المحركات يوجد منها النموذج A والذي يوجد منه 80 قطعة ونموذج B ويوجد منه 50 قطعة وأعداد قليلة من النموذج C، يعتقد أنها ستخدم في سلاح الجو الأمريكي حتى سنة 2040 ،وهي حقاً طائرة رائعة، تعرضت لبضع حوادث ،وكان هناك إحداها إضرت إلى الهبوط بدون عجلاتها الامامية لوجود خلل في فتح أبوابها وهبطت بسلام. وإلى الآن تعد من أكبر وأضخم الطائرات في العالم
بذرة طائرة: C-5 Galaxy:
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Lockheed C-5 Galaxy
Gulf War aircraft | Lockheed aircraft | United States military transport aircraft 1960–1969 | Military aircraft of the Vietnam War | 1970 introductions | Quadjets
The Lockheed C-5 Galaxy is a large military transport aircraft built by Lockheed. It provides the United States Air Force (USAF) with a heavy intercontinental-range strategic airlift capability, one that can carry outsize and oversize cargos, including all air-certifiable cargo. The Galaxy has many similarities to its smaller C-141 Starlifter predecessor, and the later C-17 Globemaster. The C-5 is among the largest military aircraft in the world.
The C-5 Galaxy had a complicated development, significant cost overruns were experienced and Lockheed suffered significant financial difficulties. Shortly after entering service, fractures in the wings of many aircraft were discovered and the C-5 fleet were restricted in capability until corrective work was conducted. The C-5M Super Galaxy is an upgraded version with new engines and modernized avionics designed to extend its service life beyond 2040.
The C-5 Galaxy has been operated by USAF since 1969. In that time, it has been used to support US military operations in all major contingencies including Vietnam, Iraq, Yugoslavia and Afghanistan; as well as in support of allies, such as Israel during the Yom Kippur War and NATO operations in the Gulf War. The C-5 has also been used to distribute humanitarian aid and disaster relief, and in support of the US Space Shuttle program run by NASA.
Development: CX-X and Heavy Logistics System: In 1961, several aircraft companies began studying heavy jet transport designs that would replace the Douglas C-133 Cargomaster and complement Lockheed C-141 Starlifters. In addition to higher overall performance, the United States Army wanted a transport with a larger cargo bay than the C-141, whose interior was too small to carry a variety of their outsized equipment. These studies led to the "CX-4" design concept, but in 1962 the proposed six-engine design was rejected, because it was not viewed as a significant advance over the C-141. By late 1963, the next conceptual design was named CX-X. It was equipped with four engines, instead of six engines in the earlier CX-4 concept. The CX-X had a gross weight of , a maximum payload of and a speed of Mach 0.75 . The cargo compartment was wide by high and long with front and rear access doors. To provide required power and range with only four engines required a new engine with dramatically improved fuel efficiency.
The criteria were finalized and an official request for proposal was issued in April 1964 for the "Heavy Logistics System" (CX-HLS) (previously CX-X). In May 1964, proposals for aircraft were received from Boeing, Douglas, General Dynamics, Lockheed, and Martin Marietta. General Electric, Curtiss-Wright, and Pratt & Whitney submitted proposals for the engines. After a downselect, Boeing, Douglas and Lockheed were given one-year study contracts for the airframe, along with General Electric and Pratt & Whitney for the engines. All three of the designs shared a number of features; all three placed the cockpit well above the cargo area to allow for cargo loading through a nose door. The Boeing and Douglas designs used a pod on the top of the fuselage containing the cockpit, while the Lockheed design extended the cockpit profile down the length of the fuselage, giving it an egg-shaped cross section. All of the designs had swept wings, as well as front and rear cargo doors allowing simultaneous loading and unloading. Lockheed's design featured a T-tail, while the designs by Boeing and Douglas had conventional tails.
The Air Force considered Boeing's design better than that of Lockheed, although Lockheed's proposal was the lowest total cost bid. Lockheed was selected the winner in September 1965, then awarded a contract in December 1965. General Electric's TF-39 engine was selected in August 1965 to power the new transport plane. At the time GE's engine concept was revolutionary, as all engines beforehand had a bypass ratio of less than two-to-one, while the TF-39 promised and would achieve a ratio of eight-to-one, which had the benefits of increased engine thrust and lower fuel consumption.
Into production: The first C-5A Galaxy (serial number 66-8303) was rolled out of the manufacturing plant in Marietta, Georgia, on 2 March 1968. On 30 June 1968, flight testing of the C-5A began with the first flight, flown by Leo Sullivan, with the call sign "eight-three-oh-three heavy". Flight tests revealed that the aircraft exhibited a higher drag divergence Mach number than predicted by wind tunnel data. The maximum lift coefficient measured in flight with the flaps deflected 40 degree was higher than predicted (2.60 vs. 2.38), but was lower than predicted with the flaps deflected 25 degrees (2.38 vs. 2.31) and with the flaps retracted (1.45 vs. 1.52).
Aircraft weight was a serious issue during design and development. At the time of the first flight, the weight was below the guaranteed weight, but by the time of the delivery of the 9th aircraft, had exceeded guarantees. In July 1969, during a fuselage upbending test, the wing failed at 128% of limit load, which is below the requirement that it sustain 150% of limit load. Changes were made to the wing, but in a later test, in July 1970, it failed at 125% of limit load. A passive load reduction system, involving uprigged ailerons was incorporated, but the maximum allowable payload was reduced from 220,000 lbs to 190,000 lbs. At the time, it was predicted that there was a 90% probability that no more than 10% of the fleet of 79 airframes would reach their fatigue life of 19,000 hours without cracking of the wing.
Cost overruns and technical problems of the C-5A were the subject of a congressional investigation in 1968 and 1969. The C-5 program has the dubious distinction of being the first development program with a one billion dollar overrun. Due to the C-5's troubled development, the Department of Defense abandoned Total Package Procurement. In 1969 Henry Durham raised concerns about the C-5 production process with Lockheed, his employer; subsequently Durham was transferred and subjected to abuse until he resigned. The Government Accountability Office (GAO) substantiated some of his charges against Lockheed; later the American Ethical Union honored Durham with the Elliott-Black Award.
Upon completion of testing in December 1969, the first C-5A was transferred to the Transitional Training Unit at Altus Air Force Base, Oklahoma. Lockheed delivered the first operational Galaxy to the 437th Airlift Wing, Charleston Air Force Base, SC, in June 1970. Due to higher than expected development costs, in 1970 there were public calls for the government to split the substantial losses that Lockheed were experiencing. Production was nearly brought to a halt in 1971 due to Lockheed going through financial difficulties, partly down to the C-5 Galaxy's development but also a civilian jet liner, the Lockheed L-1011. The U.S. government gave loans to Lockheed to keep the company operational.
In the early 1970s, NASA considered the C-5 for the Shuttle Carrier Aircraft role, to transport the Space Shuttle to Kennedy Space Center. However, they rejected it in favor of the Boeing 747, in part due to the 747's low-wing design. In contrast, the Soviet Union chose to transport its shuttles using the high-winged An-225, which derives from the An-124, which is similar in design and function to the C-5.
During static and fatigue testing cracks were noticed in the wings of several aircraft, and as a consequence the C-5A fleet was restricted to 80% of maximum design loads. To reduce wing loading, load alleviation systems were added to the aircraft. By 1980, payloads were restricted to as low as for general cargo during peacetime operations. A $1.5 billion program, known as H-Mod, to re-wing the 76 completed C-5As to restore full payload capability and service life began in 1976. After design and testing of the new wing design, the C-5As received their new wings from 1980 to 1987. During 1976, numerous cracks were also found in the fuselage along the upper fuselage on the centerline, aft of the refueling port, extending back to the wing. The cracks required a redesign to the hydraulic system for the visor, the front cargo entry point.dateJanuary 2010: : Continued production and development
In 1974, Iran, then holding good relations with the United States, offered $160 million to restart C-5 production to enable Iran to purchase aircraft for their own air force; in a similar climate as to their acquisition of F-14 Tomcat fighters. However no C-5 aircraft were ever ordered by Iran, as the prospect was firmly halted by the Iranian Revolution in 1979.
As part of President Ronald Reagan's military policy, funding was made available for expansion of the USAF's airlift capability; however as the C-17 program was still some years from completion a new version of the C-5, the C-5B, was approved by Congress in July 1982 for purchase instead. The first C-5B was delivered to Altus Air Force Base in January 1986. In April 1989, the last of 50 C-5B aircraft was added to the 77 C-5As in the Air Force's airlift force structure. The C-5B includes all C-5A improvements and numerous additional system modifications to improve reliability and maintainability.
In 1998, the Avionics Modernization Program (AMP) began upgrading the C-5's avionics to include a glass cockpit, navigation equipment, and a new autopilot system. Another part of the C-5 modernization effort is the Reliability Enhancement and Re-engining Program (RERP). The program will mainly replace the engines with newer, more powerful ones. Three C-5s underwent RERP as a test with full production in May 2008.
A total of 52 C-5s are contracted to be modernized, consisting of 49 B-, two C- and one A-model aircraft through the Reliability Enhancement and Re-Engining Program (RERP). Over 70 changes and upgrades are incorporated in the program, including the newer General Electric engines. Five C-5M Super Galaxies have been produced. The RERP upgrade program is to be completed in 2016.
Design: Overview: The C-5 is a large high-wing cargo aircraft. It has a distinctive high T-tail, 25 degree wing sweep, and four TF39 turbofan engines mounted on pylons beneath the wings. The C-5 is similar in layout to its smaller predecessor, the C-141 Starlifter. The C-5 has 12 internal wing tanks and is equipped for aerial refueling. It has both nose and aft doors for "drive-through" loading and unloading of cargo. The C-5 is also known as FRED (fucking, sometimes written as "fantastic", ridiculous, economic/environmental disaster) by its crews due to its maintenance/reliability issues and large consumption of fuel.
It has an upper deck seating area for 73 passengers and 2 loadmasters. The passengers face the rear of the aircraft, rather than forward. Its takeoff and landing distances, at maximum gross weight, are and respectively. Its high flotation main landing gear has 28 wheels to share the weight. The rear main landing gear is steerable for a smaller turning radius and it rotates 90 degrees horizontally before it is retracted after takeoff. The "kneeling" landing gear system permits lowering of the parked aircraft so the cargo floor is at truck-bed height to facilitate vehicle loading and unloading.
The C-5 has a Malfunction Detection Analysis and Recording (MADAR) system to identify errors throughout the aircraft. Some Galaxies have a Low Pressure Pneumatic System (LPPS) that utilizes a turbo compressor driven by bleed air to provide up to 150 psi pressure for inflating the aircraft's tires.dateJune 2010: One of the unique features of the aircraft is the crosswind landing system that allows the landing gear to be offset up to 20 degrees either side of centerline; when the main landing gear was down (MLG) all the other 28 wheels would be slaved to the MLG and driven by hydraulic actuators to the same offset.date: March 2011: The C-5 features a cargo compartment long, high, and wide, or just over . The compartment can accommodate up to 36 463L master pallets or a mix of palletized cargo and vehicles. The cargo hold of the C-5 is a foot longer than the entire length of the first powered flight by the Wright Brothers at Kitty Hawk. The nose and aft doors open the full width and height of the cargo compartment to permit faster and easier loading. Ramps are full width at each end for loading double rows of vehicles.
The Galaxy is capable of carrying nearly every type of the Army's combat equipment, including bulky items such as the armored vehicle launched bridge (AVLB), from the United States to any location on the globe. A C-5 is capable of transporting up to six AH-64 Apache or five Bradley Fighting Vehicles. * Operational history
The first C-5A was delivered to the USAF on 17 December 1969. Wings were built up in the early 1970s at Altus AFB, Oklahoma, Charleston AFB, Dover AFB, Delaware, and Travis AFB, California. The C-5's first mission was on 9 July 1970, in Southeast Asia during the Vietnam War. Through the rest of the war, C-5s were used to transport equipment and troops, including Army tanks and various smaller aircraft. C-5s have also been used to deliver support and reinforce various U.S. allies over the years. During the Yom Kippur war in 1973, multiple C-5s and C-141 Starlifters delivered critical supplies of ammunition, replacement weaponry and other forms of aid to Israel, the US effort was named as Operation Nickel Grass. The C-5 Galaxy's performance in Israel was such that the Pentagon began to consider further purchases. The C-5 was regularly made available to support American allies, such as the British-led peacekeeper initiative in Zimbabwe in 1979.
On 24 October 1974, the Space and Missile Systems Organization successfully conducted a Air Mobile Feasibility Test where a C-5A Galaxy aircraft air dropped a 86,000 lb Minuteman ICBM from 20,000 ft over the Pacific Ocean. The missile descended to 8,000 ft before its rocket engine fired. The 10-second engine burn carried the missile to 20,000 ft again before it dropped into the ocean. The test proved the feasibility of launching an intercontinental ballistic missile from the air. Operational deployment was discarded due to engineering and security difficulties, though the capability was used as a negotiating point in the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks.
The C-5 has been used for several unusual functions; during the development of the secretive stealth fighter, the Lockheed F-117 Nighthawk, Galaxies were often used to carry partly disassembled aircraft, leaving no exterior signs as to their cargo. It remains the largest aircraft to ever operate in the Antarctic; Williams Field near McMurdo Station is capable of handling C-5 aircraft, the first of which landed there in 1989. The C-5 Galaxy was a major supply asset in the 1991 international coalition operations against Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, known as the First Gulf War. C-5s have routinely deliver relief aid and humanitarian supplies to areas afflicted with natural disasters or crisis, multiple flights were made over Rwanda in 1994.
The wings on the C-5As were replaced during the 1980s to restore full design capability. The U.S. Air Force took delivery of the first C-5B on 28 December 1985 and the final one in April 1989. The reliability of the C-5 fleet has been a continued issue throughout its lifetime, however the C-5M upgrade program seeks in part to address this issue. Their strategic airlift capacity has been a key logistical component of U.S. military operations in Afghanistan and Iraq; following an incident during Operation Iraqi Freedom where one C-5 was damaged by a projectile, the installation of defensive systems has become a stated priority.
In response to Air Force motions towards the retirement of the C-5 Galaxy, Congress implemented legislation that placed set limits upon retirement plans for C-5A models in 2003. By 2005, 14 C-5As were retired. One was sent to the Warner Robins Air Logistics Center (WR-ALC) for tear down and inspection to evaluate structural integrity and estimate the remaining life for the fleet. Thirteen C-5As were sent to the Air Force's Aerospace Maintenance and Regeneration Group (AMARG) for inspection of levels of corrosion and fatigue.
The U.S. Air Force began to receive refitted C-5M aircraft in December 2008; full production of C-5Ms began in the summer of 2009. In 2009, the Congressional ban on the retirement of C-5s was overturned. The Air Force seeks to retire one C-5A for each 10 new C-17s ordered. In October 2011, the 445th Airlift Wing based at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base retired or reassigned all of its remaining C-5s, they have since reequipped with C-17s.
On 13 September 2009, a C-5M set 41 new records; flight data was submitted to the National Aeronautic Association for formal recognition. The C-5M had carried a payload of to over in 23 minutes, 59 seconds. Additionally, 33 time to climb records at various payload classes were set, and the world record for greatest payload to was broken. The aircraft was in the category of with a takeoff weight of including payload, fuel, and other equipment.
Variants: C-5A: The C-5A is the original version of the C-5. From 1969 to 1973, 81 C-5As were delivered to U.S. Air Forces bases. Due to cracks found in the wings in the mid-1970s, the cargo weight was restricted. To restore the C-5's full capability, the wing structure was redesigned. A program to install new strengthened wings on 77 C-5As was conducted from 1981 to 1987. The redesigned wing made use of a new aluminum alloy that did not exist during the original production. Thirteen aircraft have now been retired from service due to maintenance problems associated with their age, a further 22 airframes currently assigned to Wright-Patterson AFB, OH and Stewart ANGB, NY are scheduled to be retired and replaced by the C-17 in the near future.
C-5B: The C-5B is an improved version of the C-5A. It incorporated all modifications and improvements made to the C-5A with improved wings, simplified landing gear, upgraded TF-39-GE-1C turbofan engines and updated avionics. From 1986 to 1989, 50 of the new variant were delivered to the U.S. Air Force.
C-5C: The C-5C is a specially modified variant for transporting large cargo. Two C-5s (68-0213 and 68-0216) were modified to have a larger internal cargo capacity to accommodate large payloads, such as satellites for use by NASA. The major modifications were the removal of the rear passenger compartment floor, splitting the rear cargo door in the middle, and installing a new movable aft bulkhead further to the rear. The official C-5 technical manual refers to the version as C-5A(SCM) Space Cargo Modification. Modifications also included adding a second inlet for ground power, which can feed any power-dependent equipment that may form part of the cargo. The two C-5Cs are operated by U.S. Air Force crews on the behalf of NASA, and are stationed at Travis AFB, California. 68-0216 completed the Avionics Modernization Program in January 2007. * C-5M Super Galaxy
Following a study showing 80% of the C-5 airframe service life remaining, AMC began an aggressive program to modernize all remaining C-5Bs and C-5Cs and many of the C-5As. The C-5 Avionics Modernization Program (AMP) began in 1998 and includes upgrading avionics to Global Air Traffic Management compliance, improving communications, new flat panel displays, improving navigation and safety equipment, and installing a new autopilot system. The first flight of a C-5 with AMP (85-0004) occurred on 21 December 2002.
Another component is the Reliability Enhancement and Re-engining Program (RERP), which includes new General Electric F138-GE-100 (CF6-80C2) engines, pylons and auxiliary power units, upgrades to aircraft skin and frame, landing gear, cockpit and pressurization systems. The CF6 engine produces 22% more thrust (for ) from each engine, providing a 30% shorter takeoff, a 38% higher climb rate to initial altitude, an increased cargo load and a longer range. Upgraded C-5s are designated C-5M Super Galaxy.
The C-5 AMP and RERP modernization programs plan to raise mission-capable rate to a minimum goal of 75%. Over the next 40 years, the U.S. Air Force estimates the C-5M will save over $20 billion. The first C-5M conversion was completed on 16 May 2006; C-5Ms began test flights at Dobbins Air Reserve Base in June 2006. The USAF decided to convert remaining C-5Bs and C-5Cs into C-5Ms with avionics upgrades and re-engining in February 2008. The C-5As will receive only the avionics upgrades. * L-500
Lockheed also planned a civilian version of the C-5 Galaxy, the L-500, the company designation also used for the C-5 itself. Both passenger and cargo versions of the L-500 were designed. The all-passenger version would have been able to carry up to 1,000 travelers, while the all-cargo version was predicted to be able to carry typical C-5 volume for as little as 2 cents per ton-mile (in 1967 dollars). Although some interest was expressed by carriers, no orders were placed for either L-500 version, due to operational costs caused by low fuel efficiency, a significant concern for a profit-making carrier, even before the oil crisis of the 1970s, keen competition from Boeing's 747, and high costs incurred by Lockheed in developing the C-5 and later, the L-1011 which led to the governmental rescue of the company. * Operators
Unlike its Soviet (Ukrainian) counterpart, the civilian and military-operated Antonov An-124 Ruslan or An-225 Mriya, use of the C-5 is confined entirely to the military and government. * 60th Air Mobility Wing, Travis Air Force Base, California ** 22nd Airlift Squadron * 97th Air Mobility Wing, (AETC) Altus Air Force Base, Oklahoma ** 56th Airlift Squadron * 105th Airlift Wing, (ANG), Stewart ANGB, New York ** 137th Airlift Squadron * 164th Airlift Wing, (ANG), Memphis International Airport, Tennessee ** 155th Airlift Squadron * 167th Airlift Wing, (ANG), Martinsburg, West Virginia ** 167th Airlift Squadron * 349th Air Mobility Wing, Travis Air Force Base, California ** 312th Airlift Squadron * 433rd Airlift Wing, (AFRC) Lackland Air Force Base, Texas ** 68th Airlift Squadron ** 356th Airlift Squadron * 436th Airlift Wing, Dover Air Force Base, Delaware ** 9th Airlift Squadron * 439th Airlift Wing, (AFRC) Westover Air Reserve Base, Massachusetts ** 337th Airlift Squadron * 512th Airlift Wing, (AFRC) Dover Air Force Base, Delaware ** 709th Airlift Squadron * USAF operates 2 C-5Cs for NASA. * Incidents and accidents
There have been five C-5 Galaxy aircraft lost in crashes along with two class-A losses resulting from ground fire and one loss resulting from damage sustained on the ground, with a total of 169 fatalities. There have been at least two other C-5 crashes that resulted in major airframe damage, but the aircraft were repaired and returned to service. * Notable accidents * On 27 May 1970, C-5A serial number 67-0172 was destroyed during a ground fire at Palmdale, California after an Air Turbine Motor (ATM) started backwards and quickly overheated, setting the hydraulic system on fire and quickly consuming the aircraft. The engines were not running at the time of the fire. Five crew escaped, but seven firefighters suffered minor injuries fighting the blaze. * On 17 October 1970, C-5A S/N 66-8303 was destroyed during a ground fire at Marietta, Georgia. The fire started during maintenance in one of the aircraft's 12 fuel cells. One worker was killed and another injured. This was the first C-5 aircraft produced. * On 27 September 1974, C-5A 68-0227 crashed after over-running the runway at Clinton, Oklahoma Municipal Airport during an emergency landing following a serious landing gear fire. The crew mistakenly aligned the aircraft for the visual approach into the wrong airport, landing at Clinton Municipal Airport, which has a runway—instead of Clinton-Sherman airfield, which has a runway. This was the first operational loss of a C-5 Galaxy. * On 4 April 1975, C-5A 68-0218 crashed while carrying orphans out of Vietnam (Operation Baby Lift). This crash, known as the Tan Son Nhut C-5 accident, is one of the most well known C-5 accidents to date. The crash occurred while trying to make an emergency landing at Tan Son Nhut Air Base Saigon, following a door lock failure in flight. 144 adults and children (including 76 babies) were killed out of the 305 aboard (243 children, 44 escorts, 16 crewmen and two flight nurses). Use of the C-5 was heavily restricted for several months due to this high profile incident. * On 31 July 1983, C-5A 70-0446 crashed on landing at Shemya, Alaska. The C-5 approached below the glide slope, hit an embankment short of the runway and bounced back into the air before coming to rest on the runway. Structural damage was extensive and the two aft main landing gear bogies were sheared from the aircraft. There were no fatalities. A joint USAF/Lockheed team made repairs enabling a one-time ferry flight from Shemya to the Lockheed plant in Marietta, Georgia. There, the aircraft was quickly christened Phoenix II and permanent repair efforts got underway. In addition to the structural repairs, Phoenix II also received an improved landing gear system (common to the then-new C-5B), wing modification, and a color weather radar upgrade. The aircraft was returned to service, and was transferred to the Texas Air National Guard. * In July 1985, C-5A 68-0216 landed wheels (gear) up at Travis Air Force Base, California. There were no injuries. The accident occurred while the crew was performing touch-and-go landings, and did not lower the landing gear during the final approach of the day. The aircraft received significant damage to the lower fuselage and main landing gear pods. The C-5A was later flown to Marietta for repairs. While there, the aircraft was selected to be the first C-5A converted to the C-5C configuration. * On 29 August 1990, C-5A 68-0228 crashed following an engine failure shortly after take-off. The aircraft took off from Ramstein Air Base in Germany in support of Operation Desert Shield. It was flown by a nine-member reserve crew from the 68th Airlift Squadron, 433rd Airlift Wing based at Kelly AFB, Texas. As the aircraft started to climb off the runway, one of the thrust reversers suddenly deployed. This resulted in loss of control of the aircraft and the subsequent crash. Of the 17 people on board, only four survived the crash. All four were in the rear troop compartment. The sole crew member to survive, Staff Sgt. Lorenzo Galvan, Jr., was awarded the Airman's Medal for his actions in evacuating the survivors from the wreckage. * On 3 April 2006, C-5B 84-0059 crashed following a cockpit indication that a thrust reverser was not locked. The C-5B assigned to the 436th Airlift Wing and flown by a reserve crew from the 709th Airlift Squadron, 512th Airlift Wing crashed about short of the runway while attempting a heavyweight emergency landing at Dover Air Force Base, Delaware. The aircraft had taken off from Dover 21 minutes earlier and reported an in-flight emergency 10 minutes into the flight. All 17 people aboard survived, but two received serious injures. The Air Force's accident investigation board report concluded the cause to be human error, most notably the crew had been manipulating the throttle of the (dead) number two engine as if it was still running but left the (live) number three engine at idle. The situation was further worsened by the crew's decision to use a high flap setting that increased drag beyond normal two engine capabilities. The airframe was scrapped, but the forward fuselage became a C-5 AMP avionics test bed. Around 2008 changes were made to the C-5 AMP engine displays to make it more obvious to the pilot when an engine was out. The new engine display reoriented the dials so that in the normal operating condition the pointer on the dial is up, a grey shaded arc was added to give the N1 dial more visual weight when throttles are advanced, and a red box encloses all data relevant to a single engine when the engine is shut down.
Specifications (C-5B): payload
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Lockheed C-5 Galaxy
Avion militaire américain | Avion de transport militaire | Avion militaire de la Guerre froide
C-5:
Le Lockheed C-5 Galaxy est un avion de transport lourd de l'USAF conçu par le constructeur aéronautique américain Lockheed.
Développement : Conception : Pour remplacer les anciens Douglas C-133 Cargomaster, l'US Air Force lança en 1963 le programme CX-LHS (pour Cargo Experimental-Heavy Logistics System). Le cahier des charges du futur appareil était en partie basé sur les caractéristiques du Lockheed C-141 Starlifter : ailes hautes, dérive en T, quadrimoteurs mais avec la capacité d'atterrir sur des pistes similaires (2438 m au décollage et 1219 m à l'atterrissage). La charge maximale était portée à 100 tonnes maximum et 51 tonnes en moyenne pour une autonomie respective de km et km.
Deux constructeurs répondirent à l'offre : d'un côté Boeing présenta son projet qui allait devenir le Boeing 747 et de l'autre Lockheed qui proposa le projet Galaxy. Le 22 décembre 1964, le président Johnson approuva le développement du projet de Lockheed qui devint le C-5A. Le premier vol du C-5A eut lieu le , le C-5A Galaxy était alors le plus gros avion du monde.
Puis, même si l'appareil coûtait cher à l'armée , celle-ci demanda une version modernisée à Lockheed, principalement au niveau de l'avionique mais aussi au niveau des ailes. Le C-5B fut construit à 50 exemplaires et livré entre et .
En , il reste 125 appareils en service sur les 131 assemblés. Le 25 février 2008, l'US Air Force a entériné la modernisation de sa flotte de C-5B Galaxy.
Évolutions : ;C-5A
Le , le premier C-5A est livré à l'USAF. 81 exemplaires furent construits dont le dernier fut livré en . Il s'agit de la première version opérationnelle du C-5. Au milieu des années 1970, des critiques concernant la structure et plus particulièrement au niveau des ailes amenèrent l'USAF à changer ces dernières entre 1981 et 1986 soit 77 appareils (quatre ayant été retirés consécutivement à des accidents dont deux furent transformés pour la NASA).
;C-5B
Version modernisée au niveau de l'avionique (radar, moteur…), 50 appareils assemblés
;C-5C
Suite à leur accident, deux exemplaires de C-5A (68-0213 & 68-0216) ont été modifiés pour permettre l'emport de satellites et d'équipement spatiaux pour la NASA.
;C-5M
Projet de modernisation de C-5A avec une nouvelle avionique et de nouveaux moteurs General Electric CF6-80C2 . Il est appelé « Super Galaxy ». Le premier C-5M de série a effectué son premier vol le et a été livré à l'US Air Force sur la base aérienne de Dover le 30 septembre . Le C-5M est censé rester en service jusqu'en 2040.
Engagements : L'appareil a été utilisé au Viêt Nam, pendant la guerre du Kippour (1973), pendant l'opération française Bonite sur Kolwézi en 1978, mais aussi durant la guerre du Koweït (1990-1991) et la guerre en Irak en (2003-2007).
Pendant les opérations Bouclier du désert et Tempête du désert, les C-5 transportèrent 18,6% du matériel et 42% des troupes, ils totalisèrent missions avec passagers. C'est cette très grande capacité d'emport qui fait du C-5 encore aujourd'hui l'un des piliers de l'armée américaine. Sur les 131 appareils, seul un a été détruit pendant un conflit militaire (guerre du Viêt Nam - cf. accident du 4 avril 1975).
Autres caractéristiques : La soute du C-5 représente un volume total de ; elle est organisée en deux ponts. Le pont supérieur comprend un espace aménagé pour 15 passagers, incluant un double équipage. Celui-ci comprend le pilote, le copilote, deux mécaniciens de vol et trois responsables des charges. La section arrière du pont supérieur peut aussi être adaptée pour accueillir 73 passagers supplémentaires. Le pont inférieur peut être aménagé pour 270 passagers mais dans des conditions de conforts bien différentes de celles du pont supérieur.
On accède à la soute par deux rampes d'accès : la première se situe à l'avant, une fois le nez de l'appareil relevé. Elle permet le chargement de charges volumineuses et lourdes. La seconde se trouve à l'arrière et permet le chargement des palettes et des véhicules légers. Elle est aussi utilisée pour le parachutage d'hommes et de matériel. La capacité de charge du C-5 permet de transporter kg sur une distance de 5526 km, soit au choix : * deux chars d'assaut M1A1, * un char et deux VCI Bradley, * quatre chars légers M551 Sheridan et un Hummer, * dix blindés légers LAV-25, * six hélicoptères UH-60 Black Hawk, * six hélicoptères AH-64 Apache, * un hélicoptère lourd CH-47 Chinook, * seize camions de 4 tonnes, * 36 palettes standards.
Sa capacité d'aérolargage est donné à 27 tonnes.
Le C-5, comme l'An-124 soviétique, possède un nombre très élevé de trains d'atterrissage : pas moins de 13, soit 28 pneus (en effet, les trains d'atterrissage centraux possèdent deux pneus mais le train avant en possède 4). Il lui faut une longueur de 2 000 à 2 500 m pour décoller alors qu'il atterrit sur une longueur de 700 m. Il peut emporter 363 passagers (73 sur le pont arrière supérieur, 290 dans le compartiment principal).
Une étude du Center for Defense Information sur le coût de l’heure de vol des avions de l'USAF déclare les chiffres suivant pour le C-5 :
Ces avions ont un coût de l'heure de vol très nettement supérieur à celui de l'autre transport stratégique de l'USAF, le C-17, dont les chiffres varient de $ à $ durant la décennie 2000. * Pays utilisateur * États-Unis:
Les États-Unis sont le seul pays à avoir acquis des C-5 pour le compte de l'US Air Force (USAF). 125 appareils sont encore en service, ils sont répartis au sein de plusieurs squadrons quand: :
;97th Air Mobility Wing - Altus AFB (Oklahoma) * 56th Airlift Squadron
; 436th Airlift Wing - Dover AFB (Delaware) * 3rd Airlift Squadron * 9th Airlift Squadron * 326th Airlift Squadron * 709th Airlift Squadron
; 164th Airlift Wing - Memphis IAP (Tennessee) * 155th Airlift Squadron
; 105th Airlift Wing - Stewart ANGB/IAP (New York) * 137th Airlift Squadron
; 60th Air Mobility Wing - Travis AFB (California) * 21st Airlift Squadron * 22nd Airlift Squadron * 301st Airlift Squadron * 312th Airlift Squadron
; 439th Airlift Wing - Westover ARB (Massachusetts) * 337th Airlift Squadron * Accidents
Malgré des débuts très chaotiques dans les années 1970, le C-5 Galaxy se caractérise par un faible taux d'attrition en plus de 40 ans d'activité : seuls huit accidents ont été répertoriés dont un seul pendant un conflit militaire. * Le 25 mai 1970, le C-5A (67-0172) est détruit par le feu suite à une défaillance du générateur d'énergie (moteur à l'arrêt) sur la base de l'US Air Force de Palmade Californie. Il n'y eut aucune victime. * Le 17 octobre 1970, le C-5A (66-8303) est détruit par le feu sur le tarmac de la base US Air Force Dobbins à Marietta (Géorgie). L'incendie s'est produit lors d'une opération de maintenance sur les réservoirs de carburant, provoquant la mort d'un des ouvriers et en blessant un autre. * Le 27 septembre 1974, le C-5A (68-0227) effectue une sortie de piste sur l'aéroport de Clinton suite à une confusion de l'équipage entre les deux pistes d'atterrissage. La piste empruntée étant trop courte, l'équipage actionne le freinage d'urgence ce qui déclenche un incendie du train d'atterrissage puis l'écrasement de l'appareil. Il n'y eut aucune victime. * Le 4 avril 1975, le C-5A (68-0218) évacue des orphelins de Saïgon lors de l'Opération Babylift . Au cours du vol, au-dessus de la mer de Chine méridionale, les portes arrières s'ouvrent aspirant plusieurs passagers à l'extérieur. Le pilote décida de faire demi-tour pour se poser en urgence à Saïgon mais il fut incapable de réduire la vitesse et s'écrasa dans une rizière. La catastrophe causa la perte de 5 des 17 membres d'équipages et de 150 passagers sur les 311 enfants et adultes à bord . Il s'agit du seul accident de C5 en période de conflit. * Le 31 juillet 1983, le C-5A (70-0446) s'écrase lors de son atterrissage sur la base de Shemya (Alaska) après avoir heurté un talus. Il n'eut aucune perte et l'appareil put être ramené chez Lockheed Marietta. Sa remise en état a permis d'y inclure des améliorations du C-5B. * En juillet 1985, le C-5A (68-0216) s'écrasa sur la piste de l'aérodrome de Travis au cours d'un entrainement. L'équipage avait oublié de sortir le train d'atterrissage. Il n'y eut aucune victime et l'appareil fut retourné chez Lockheed, où on le transforma en C-5C. * Le 29 août 1990, le C-5A (68-0228) s'écrase à côté de la base aérienne de Ramstein (Allemagne) causant la perte de 13 des 17 membres d'équipage. L'inverseur de poussée d'un des réacteurs s'était brutalement mis en marche au cours de la phase de décollage. * Le 6 avril 2006, le C-5B (84-0059) s'écrase sur la base de l'US Air Force de Dover (Delaware) suite à une erreur humaine. Il n'y eut que deux blessés. Le crash a provoqué le détachement de la partie avant de l'appareil, qui fut récupérée pour les bancs d'essais à l'avionique de la version C-5 AMP tandis que le reste de l'appareil a été envoyé à la ferraille.
Notes et références : Références:
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الخطوط الجوية السريلانكية
شركات طيران سريلانكية
الخطوط الجوية السريلانكية (بالتاميلية:சிறீலங்கன் எயர்லைன்ஸ்) هي شركة الطيران الوطنية في سريلانكا، يقع مقرها الرئيسي في العاصمة كولومبو، وتتخذ من مطار باندارانيكا الدولي مركزاً لعملياتها، تقدم الخطوط الجوية السريلانكية خدماتها لأكثر من 30 وجهة في آسيا، أوروبا، أفريقيا، تمتلك شركة طيران الإمارات نسبة 43.6% من رأس مال الشركة.
وجهاتها إلى :
أبوظبي ، البحرين ، بنجالور ، بانكوك ، بكين ، تشيناي ، كولومبو ، الدمام ، نيودلهي ، الدوحة ، دبي ، فرانكفورت ، هونغ كونغ ، جدة ، كراتشي ، الكويت ، كوالالمبور، لندن ، جزر المالديف ، مومباي ، مسقط ، باريس ، روما ، الرياض ، سنغافورة ، شنغهاي ، تيروتشيرابالي ، طوكيو ، تيرفاندروم .
بوابة طيران:
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SriLankan Airlines
Airlines of Sri Lanka | IATA members | Airlines established in 1979 | Government-owned airlines | SriLankan Airlines
dateDecember 2011:
SriLankan Airlines Limited (Sinhala:ශ්රී ලන්කන් ගුවන් සේවය) (previously known as Air Lanka) is the flag carrier airline of Sri Lanka. It operates to destinations in Asia and Europe from its base and hub at Bandaranaike International Airport (Colombo). The airline's trademark phrase is 'You're Our World', and the company's logo features a stylized peacock. The airline's head office is in the Airline Centre, on the grounds of Bandaranaike International Airport in Katunayake, Sri Lanka.
History: Air Lanka was set up by the Government of Sri Lanka in July 1979 following the closure of Air Ceylon in 1978. Initially, the new air carrier operated two Boeing 707 jets on lease from Singapore Airlines but Air Lanka never returned the Boeing 707s, which were purchased in 1979, while a Boeing 737 was acquired for shorter routes. During the 1980s, the airline increased the number of destinations served and made additions to its fleet. By 1990, Air Lanka served 26 destinations. In December 1992, the airline purchased its first Airbus A320.
Air Lanka, which was state owned, was part-privatized to the Dubai based Emirates Group in 1998 when Emirates and the Sri Lankan Government signed an agreement for a ten-year strategic partnership. This agreement included exclusive rights for all aircraft ground handling and airline catering at Colombo-Bandaranaike airport for a ten-year period. Emirates bought a 40% stake worth US$70 million (which it later increased to 43.6%) in Air Lanka, and sought to refurbish the airline's image and fleet. The Government retained a majority stake in the airline but gave full control to Emirates for investment and management decisions. In 1998, the Air Lanka brand was abandoned and SriLankan Airlines was born.date: January 2010: In the early 1990s the airline had its headquarters in Colombo.
SriLankan acquired six Airbus A330-200s to complement its fleet of Airbus A340-300 and A320-200 aircraft. The A330-200 aircraft joined the airline between October 1999 and July 2000. The company’s fourth A340-300 arrived at Colombo painted in the airline’s new corporate livery. SriLankan upgraded its existing A340 fleet into a two-class configuration (business and economy class) whilst overhauling the interior to reflect the new corporate image.
SriLankan Airlines has been affected by environmental problems and acts of terrorism. This has included the SARS outbreak, the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, the Civil War within Sri Lanka and a terrorist attack on Colombo-Bandaranaike airport, which destroyed four aircraft and damaged two, writing off half of the airline's fleet. SriLankan took the decision to position Colombo as a hub for flights to Asia. An example of this is its expansion into regional markets, notably in India and the Middle East.
Whilst continuing expansion in the region, SriLankan commenced flying to Jeddah, its third destination in Saudi Arabia, after Riyadh and Dammam. Jeddah was the airline's 51st destination in 28 countries, thus increasing the number of destinations in the Middle East to nine.
It flies nonstop routes from Malé (the Maldives) to London, Tokyo and Zurich.
On 19 December 2007, then CEO Peter Hill had his work permit cancelled by the Sri Lankan Government for refusing to remove 35 passengers in a fully booked flight to give space for the President, Mahinda Rajapaksa and his entourage.
In 2008 Emirates notified the Sri Lankan Government that it will not renew its management contract, which then expired on 31 March 2008. It claimed that the Sri Lankan Government was seeking greater control over the day-to-day business of the airline, "which was not acceptable to us".
The flight attendant's uniform remained unchanged from the days of Air Lanka until February 2010, when a new uniform was introduced. The first destination announced for their expansion plans is Shanghai, China which began on 1 July 2010. The airline has commenced flights to Guangzhou, China on 28 January 2011. The airline also plans to start flying to Copenhagen, Ho Chi Minh City, Toronto and Melbourne by 2012.
Emirates sold its 43.63% stake in the airline to the Government of Sri Lanka in a deal that was finalized in 2010, thus ending any affiliations the two airlines had with each other. SriLankan is not a part of any airline alliance.
SriLankan Airlines is a holder of the Imperial Mark, which is valid until May 2014.
The airline is also keen to join an alliance with Oneworld or Star Alliance as preferred "as soon as practicable".
Destinations: SriLankan Airlines destinations: SriLankan Airlines serves 61 destinations in 35 countries as of December 2011.
As of December, 2011 SriLankan remains the largest foreign carrier into the Maldives with at least 32 weekly flights between Male and Colombo. * Codeshare agreements
SriLankan has codeshare agreements with the following airlines, as of December 2011:
It also has a codeshare agreement with SNCF.
Fleet: SriLankan leased a fifth Airbus A330-200 which arrived in July 2010. SriLankan also took delivery of two additional Airbus A320 aircraft which arrived on 14 November 2010 and 15 December 2010, respectively. * Aircraft acquisition plan for 2011–2015
SriLankan Airlines aims to boost its fleet to 28 aircraft over the next four years and is currently in talks with Airbus and Boeing, in regards to a deal which may consist of up to six long haul aircraft. It has also leased four additional Airbus A320 aircraft, witch arrived in April, May, October and November 2011, respectively. Kapila Chandrasena said the carrier wants to add "roughly six widebodies" the Airbus A330-300 and the Boeing 777 to its fleet to replace its Airbus A340-300s, with deliveries beginning in 2013– 2014. Five more aircraft will be purchased for the Sri Lankan Airlines by the middle of next year. All the old aircraft of the airline will be renovated to suit to the needs of the modern times * Current fleet
As of November 25, 2011, the SriLankan Airlines fleet consists of the following aircraft with an average age of 9.3 years:
* Retired
* Cabin
The Business Class seats are in cream on some aircraft and dark blue on others. The Economy seats are in light blue color. SriLankan provides an individual video player with 18 movies and 22 radio channels (Economy Class) and over 30 movie titles in different languages (Business Class). Both classes are given the option of a "Satcom" satellite phone. Satcom allows calling anyone in another seat free of charge. SriLankan prepares meals for those with dietary requirements and Business Class passengers can pre-order any of the special meals available. On some flights, like Singapore to Colombo, Sri Lankan Airlines does prepare hot meals, such as chicken and rice or seafood with vegetables, for economy class, as the flight is long. From 2011, full flatbed seats will be offered in Business Class, on selected Airbus A330 and A340 aircraft. * Entertainment
New movies from Hollywood, old classics and some films from India are available. There are also comedies, dramas, arts, sports and children's TV.
CTV is SriLankan's channel for children with programmes such as comedies and cartoons. SriLankan has 22 radio channels to provide music from around the world. SriLankan's radio channels cover the European charts, Golden Era, classical and jazz and popular music selections from Sri Lanka, Arabia, India and Japan. New games have been added, including puzzles, playing cards and classic board games. In 2011, SriLankan will install AVOD systems provided by IMS of the United States, on selected Airbus A330 and A340 aircraft. * SriLankan catering
SriLankan Catering, although a 100% owned subsidiary of SriLankan Airlines, is a standalone operation responsible for its own economic infrastructure, management and profitability. Under the guidance of its chief executive officer, the company’s prime responsibility is the preparation of in-flight meals for SriLankan Airlines. It also caters for foreign airlines, among which are Qatar Airways, Cathay Pacific, Singapore Airlines and Emirates. SriLankan Catering recently opened a laundry facility and took over the management of the Serenediva Transit Hotel, at Colombo's Bandaranaike International Airport.date: April 2011: Frequent flyer programme: SriLankan's first frequent-flyer programme was called Serendib Miles and was abandoned in early 2000. It then became a partner of Emirates' Skywards frequent-flyer program. However this agreement ceased to exist when the partnership between the two airlines concluded on 31 March 2008. SriLankan subsequently launched FlySmiLes, which has since added a variety of new reward partners to its program.
Awards and achievements: dateNovember 2011: Sri Lankan airlines has been given a 3-star rating by Skytrax * Airline of the Year 2008 and 2009 – Sri Lanka Presidential Travel & Tourism Awards * Airline of the Year 2010 for the third year * Best Airline in South Asia (three consecutive times) from Travel Trade Gazette * Best Airline in Central Asia (four consecutive times) – Skytrax * Best Overall In-flight Entertainment (small fleet), twice – World Airline Entertainment Association * Best Airline Turnaround of the Year 2004 – Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation * Best Print Media Presentation in Travel & Tourism * Destination Loyal Partner / Tour Operator Award for SriLankan Holidays * First Runner-up for World’s Best Cabin Staff – Skytrax * Foreign Carrier of the Year (South Asia sector) – Kuala Lumpur International Airport Awards * Galileo Indian Express Award for Best Eastbound International Airline * Hall of Fame' award for winning Airline of the year for three consecutive years * Imperial Mark in recognition of exceptional levels of service, luxury and quality * PATA Gold Award 2007 for Best Airline Marketing Campaign * Runner-up for Best Asian Airline in survey by UK's Daily Telegraph * World’s Best Airline in a survey of Economy Class passengers * World’s Friendliest Cabin Staff – Skytrax * World’s Most Reliable Operator of Airbus A330s (small fleet) – Airbus Industrie * World’s Most Reliable Operator of Airbus A340s (small fleet) – Airbus Industrie * World class standard for SriLankan Airlines' IT systems * Incidents and accidents
Air Lanka Flight UL512: On 3 May 1986, a bomb planted by the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam exploded on board Flight UL512 prior to take-off at Colombo's International Airport. The bomb, which had been timed to explode in-flight, went off while the aircraft, a Lockheed L-1011 'Tristar' was on the ground killing 14 of 128 passengers. Officials believe the bomb may have been concealed in crates of meat and vegetables being freighted to the Republic of Maldives. Other reports believe that the bomb was hidden in the aircraft's 'Fly Away Kit'.
Bandaranaike Airport attack: On 24 July 2001, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam launched a suicide attack at Colombo-Bandaranaike airport that damaged or destroyed 26 aircraft. Four aircraft were written off, including an Airbus A340-300 (4R-ADD) destroyed by an explosive charge and an Airbus A330-200 (4R-ALE or 4R-ALF) destroyed by a rocket fired from the control tower. In addition, an Airbus A320-200 (4R-ABA) and an Airbus A330-200 (4R-ALE or 4R-ALF) were damaged (and written-off) in the assault. In total, six Sri Lanka Air Force personnel, one commando and eight members of the LTTE were killed.
Subsidiaries: * SriLankan Cargo * SriLankan Catering * SriLankan Engineering * SriLankan Ground Handling * SriLankan Holidays * SriLankan IT Systems
References: 2: * Birch, Doug. "SriLankan Airlines". Air International, February 2003, Vol 64 No 2. pp. 26–30.
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SriLankan Airlines
Compagnie aérienne srilankaise
compagnie aérienne: SriLankan Airlines est une compagnie aérienne du Sri Lanka qui a son hub à l'aéroport international Bandaranaike de Colombo. Son code IATA est UL, son code OACI est ALK.
Actionnaires : Le capital de l'entreprise est détenue par : * le gouvernement du Sri Lanka avec 51.05% * Emirates Airlines avec 43.63% * les Employés avec 5.32%.
Flotte actuelle : En 2011, la flotte de Srilankan Airlines est composé de nombreux Airbus d'une moyenne d'age d'environ 10.1 ans:
* Notes et références ==
Références:
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قراشاي
آسيا | عرقيات تركية | قائمة أعراق وقوميات العالم
تاريخ أبريل 2009:
قرة جاي (قراتشاي / قرة چاي): القراشاي (Karachays ،Къарачайлыла, Qaraçaylıla) شعب تركي من القوقاز، يتركز معظمهم في جمهورية قراتشاي - تشيركيسيا. يشيرون إلى أنفسهم باسم "الآن" Alans (аланла, alanla). * منشأ القراشاي ـ بلقار ==
يعتبر القراشاي ـ ملقار أهم قسم من العناصر التركية بين شعوب القفقاس. وهم يقطنون منذ مئات السنين عند منبع نهر "كوبان" والأودية العميقة الواقعة في الأراضي الجبلية المرتفعة شرقي وغربي قمة جبال القفقاس "البروز". تُظهر البحوث التاريخية والمختصة بعلوم الإنسان والأثرية والاجتماعية ـ اللغوية أن القراشاي ـ ملقار هم أحفاد الأقوام التركية القديمة المتعددة التي حكمت هذه المنطقة لفترة طويلة. وكانت النتيجة الطبيعية لعيشهم المشترك على مر مئات السنين أن انضمت بعض العناصر العرقية من القبائل القفقاسية المجاورة لشعب القراشاي ـ ملقار. هذا وإن القراشاي ملقار ليسا شعبين منفصلين ينطق كل منهما لغة مختلفة أو ذوا ثقافة أو تاريخ منفصل، بل هم على العكس من ذلك قبيلة تركية ينطقون اللغة نفسها ويتقاسمون ثقافة وتاريخا مشتركا. أما اسما القراشاي والملقار فهما اسما المنطقتين الجغرافيتين اللتان سكنتهما تلك القبيلة. لهذا السبب لا يمكن القول أن هذين الاسمين القراشاي والملقار -أو البلقار- يحملان معنا عرقيا. وبالأحرى فإن القراشاي والملقار -البلقار- هما مجرد اسمان أو شكل من أشكال التعريف
يلقب القراشاي ـ ملقار أنفسهم باسم تاولو أدم -الخطوة الجبلية- ولغتهم بتاو تيل -لغة الجبل- أو تاوتشا -جبلي-. وتوجد عدة وجهات نظر فيما يخص منشأ اسمي القراشاي والملقار. وحسب روايات عدة فإن اسم القراشاي الحالي يعود إلى أحد الأسياد الذي كان يدعى قارتشا ومع مرور الزمن تحرف الاسم ليصبح قراشاي. هاجر السكان الأوائل من الذين كانوا يقطنون الأقسام العليا لوادي "باسخان" -باكسان- شرقي جبل "البروز" إلى الأودية العليا الواقعة في منطقة منابع نهر كوبان على القسم الغربي لجبل "البروز". كما أنهم قاموا بإنشاء عدة قرى هناك مثل "خورزوق" و"أوتشكولان" و"كارت جورت" وأطلقوا على هذه المنطقة اسم قراشاي الكبرى. مع مرور الوقت أصبح الجبليون القاطنون في أودية أنهار "تيبردي"، "جوغيتي"، "إنتشيك" -زيلنتشوق-،"مارا" يطلق عليهم اسم قراشاي كاسم قبيلة. أما فيما يخص الجبليين الذين بقوا شرقي جبل "البروز" فقد استوطنوا أودية "باسخان"، "تشيغيم"، "تشيرك". وأطلق الجبليون على الوادي الواقع عند نهر "التشيرك" اسم وادي الملقار حيث أطلق نفس الاسم على ساكني تلك المنطقة. كما أن قاطني أدوية "باسخان" و"تشيغيم" وغيرها قد حملوا هم أيضا أسماء الأودية التي يقطنونها إذ أصبح يطلق عليهم أسماء مثل الباسخيين والتشيغيمنيين والخولاميين. وقد أطلق القبردي الشراكسة على شعب القراشاي البلقار اسم "قوشحة" الذي يعني باللغة الشركسية -جبلي-. دوَّن الرحَّآلة الأوربي "ج. كلابروث"، الذي قام بجولة في القفقاس في بدايات القرن التاسع عشر، أن الشراكسة القبردي كانوا يطلقون على القراشاي اسم "قراشاي ـ قوشحة" وعلى الملقار اسم "بلقار ـ قوشحة"، وعلى التشيغيميين اسم "التشيغمن ـ قوشحة". وحتى الثورة عام 1917 كان اسم ملقار أو بلقار يُطلق على الجبليين سكان وادي "تشيرك" فقط. أما سكان الأودية الأخرى فكان يُطلق عليهم أسماء أخرى مثل الباسخانيين والتشيغيمينيين والخولاميين. هذا وتطلق عليهم جميعا الشعوب الأجنبية اليوم اسم البلقار أما هم فيستعملون فيما بينهم كلمة ملقار
و حتى القرن الخامس عشر لم يرد في التاريخ ذكر أي اسم عرقي لشعب القراشاي ـ ملقار في القفقاس. في عام 1404 أطلق الكاردينال "جوهانز دي غالونيفونتيبوس" الذي كان في ذلك الحين في القفقاس اسم "الشراكسة السود" على شعب القراشاي. واستخدم المبشرون والباحثون الأوربيون الذين كانوا يزورون القفقاس في العصور التالية الاسم نفسه. ولقد دوَّن المبشر الإيطالي "أ. لامبرتين"، الذي كان في القفقاس بين الأعوام 1635 ـ 1653، اسمي القراشاي -كاراكيولي- والقراتشيركس معا في دفتر ملاحظاته وبهذا تأكد أن شعب القراشاي هو نفس الشعب الذي أطلق عليه الباحثون في العصور السابقة اسم قراتشيركس. إن اسم القراشاي الذي ورد ذكره في المصادر الأوربية لأول مرة في بدايات القرن السابع عشر قد سبق وأن ورد في المصادر العثمانية، للمرة الأولى أيضا، في القرن السادس عشر. في الحكم رقم 222 الوارد في فرمان صادر بتارخ 6 كانون الأول 1582 والموجود في المجلد الرابع والأربعون لدفاتر المهمات في أرشيف قصر "توب كابي" ورد ذكر الهدايا التي أُرسلت إلى "ميرزابيك ابن كازية" زعيم القراشاي لقاء الخدمات التي قام بها والمتمثلة بتوصيل الخزينة العثمانية إلى شيرفان عبر طريق "آزاق" و"دمير كابي"
كما ورد اسم البلقار -الملقار- للمرة الأولى في التاريخ أيضا في دفتر المهمات في الوثيقة ذات الحكم رقم 456 الصادرة بتاريخ 10 أيار 1578، المجلد 32. أما في المصادر الروسية فقد كان أول من ذكر اسم الملقار هو "ي. أ. داشكوف" عام 1629. وفي وثيقة قدمها "ليفان" الملك الثاني لإمارة جورجيا إلى القيصر الروسي عام 1636 والمتعلقة بالحدود ورد فيها ذكر وجود شراكسة جبليين يقطنون الحدود الشمالية. كان هؤلاء الشراكسة هم القراشاي ـ ملقار
أما في المصادر الروسية فقد ورد اسم القراشاي للمرة الأولى عام 1650. وقد ورد هذا الاسم بشكل قراتشاي في نوتة كان قد كتبها "فيدوت" السفير الروسي عام 1649 لدى ذهابه إلى منطقة مينغرل في جورجيا. تظهر البحوث التاريخية أن تلقيب شعب القراشاي ـ بلقار بأسماء مثل القراشاي والملقار والتشيغيمنليين لم يرد في التاريخ إلا ما بعد القرن الخامس عشر. كما أن الوثائق المتعلقة بالعناصر العرقية المشكِّلة لشعب القراشاي ـ ملقار حتى هذا التاريخ ليست واضحة بما فيه الكفاية. رغم هذا فإن ما يقدمه لنا علم اللغة الذي يلقي الضوء على البحوث التاريخية إلى جانب نتائج بحوث علمي الآثار وعلم دراسة الأعراق البشرية قد كانوا فعّالين للغاية في الإجابة على الكثير من الأسئلة المتعلقة بمنشأ شعب القبردي ـ ملقار
فيما يخص وجهات النظر المتعلقة بمنشأ شعب القراشاي ـ ملقار فإن عدة علماء يجمعون على كونهم أحفاد الأقوام التركية المتعددة التي فرضت سيطرتها على الشعوب القفقاسية لعصور خلت. أما علماء آخرون فيقولون أن القراشاي ـ ملقار هم من الشعوب المحلية للقفقاس وبأن لغتهم قد تأثرت مع الزمن باللغة التركية. تظهر نتائج البحوث الأثرية وبحوث علم اللغة بأن العنصر الغالب في التكوين العرقي لشعب القراشاي ـ ملقار يتألف من الأقوام التركية السابقة التي حكمت القفقاس لمئات السنين، إلى جانب بعض المجموعات العرقية من الشعوب القفقاسية المحلية التي اختلطت بهم
تحتل أقواما مثل "خون ـ كارا" و"البلغار" و"الآلان" و"الخزريين" و"الكبتشاك" مكان الصدارة من بين الأقوام القديمة المكِّونة للبنية العرقية لشعب القراشاي ـ ملقار. كما يمكن القول بأن "الآفار" و"البيتشينيك" قد كان لهم بعض الأثر أيضا
عدد من الأمثال الشعبية الموجودة عند الأتراك القره شاي (القرشاي) وكتبت الترجمة إلى التركية في تركيا بين قوسين وتحتهما الترجمة إلى العربية
Adamnı kılıgı işde belgili boladı.
(Adamın kişiliği işte belli olur)
تتضح شخصية الرجل في عمله
Agaç çirise o'zeginden çiriydi.
(Ağaç çürüse o'zünden çürür)
إذا ماتت الشجرة فإنها تموت من صميمها
Akıllı sagış etginçi teli işin bitdirir.
(Akıllı düşününceye kadar deli işini bitirir)
إلى أن يفكر الحكيم بالحل يكون المجنون قد أنهى عمله
Alma tereginden keng ketmez.
(Elma ağacından uzağa gitmez)
التفاحة لا تبتعد عن شجرتها
Anasına karab kızın al.
(Anasına bakıp kızını al)
انظر إلى الأم. ثم خذ الفتاة
At iyesin tanır.
(At sahibini tanır)
الفرس يعرف صاحبه
At urmaz deme, it kabmaz deme.
(At vurmaz deme, it kapmaz deme)
لا تقل أن الحصان لا يضرب والكلب لا يعض
Ayıbsız teng izlegen tengsiz kalır.
(Ayıpsız arkadaş arayan arkadaşsız kalır)
الذي يبحث عن صديق بلا عيوب سيبقى بلا أصدقاء
Aznı almagan ko'bden kuru kalır.
(Azı almayan çoktan mahrum kalır)
من لا يقنع بالقليل لن يحصل على الكثير
Bal-bal degen bla avuzga tatuv kelmez.
(Bal-bal demekle ağza tat gelmez)
أن يقول الإنسان - عسل - لن يحضر الحلاوة إلى فمه
Bal tuthan barmagın calar.
(Bal tutan parmağını yalar)
من يحصل على العسل لا بد له أن يلحس اصبعه
Buday cetse orak bagalı bolur.
(Buğday yetişince orak kıymetli olur)
عندما تنبت سنابل القمح يصبح المنجل ثميناً
عرقيات تركية:
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Karachays
Turkic peoples | Ethnic groups in Russia | Ethnic groups in Turkey | Ethnic groups in Kazakhstan | Karachay-Cherkessia | Peoples of the Caucasus | Muslim communities of Russia | Muslim communities
dateFebruary 2011:
The Karachays are Turkic speaking people of the North Caucasus, mostly situated in the Russian Karachay-Cherkess Republic. * History
The Karachays (Къарачайлыла, Qaraçaylıla) are a Turkic speaking people descending from the Kipchaks and probably the Cumans, with some admixture of the medieval Alans and native Caucasians; their Turkic language is the same as the Kumyks from Daghestan. The Kipchaks and Cumans came to the area of the Caucasus in 11th century A.D, the state of Alania established in the Middle Ages had its capital in Maghas, which some authors locate in Arkhyz, the mountains currently inhabited by the Karachay (others place it in modern Ingushetia or North Ossetia). In the 14th century, Alania was destroyed by Timur and the decimated population dispersed in the mountains. Timur's intervention to the North Caucasus introduced the local nations to Islam; the name "Karachay" means "Black River".
Various points of view exist in contemporary scholarship regarding the origin of the Karachays. Somedate: May 2011: think that the primary role was played by the Kipchaks or Polovtsians—groups which, under pressure from the Mongols in the thirteenth century, went into the mountains of the central Caucasus, where the Iranian-speaking Alans were living. Groups of Alans, assimilated by the Turkic Polovtsians, constituted the nucleus of the Karachay people. In the opinion of other scholars it was earlier Turkic-language groups that took part in the formation of the Karachay ethnic group: Huns, Bulgars, and Khazars, who were living in the northern Caucasus in the ninth to twelfth centuries.
Living for centuries in the Caucasus with the natives, made the Karachays and with their close nation the Balkars as Caucasians in folklore and traditions, they adopted the Caucasian way of life and customs, but they kept their Turkic language.
In 1828 the Russian army invaded the area of the Karachay. October 20, 1828 occurred Hasaukinskoe bloodiest battle in which the king's troops (were under the personal command of General Emanuel), equipped with artillery, managed to win. Troops Emanuel lost and injured 163 people, which exceeded the loss of the Russians in the battle with the 30 thousandth shell-Batal Pasha. Karachaevskij elders have taken steps to prevent the massacres of their villages. The day after the battle, when troops are already Emanuel approached to-Dzhurtu, they went to meet the delegation of elders. As a result of negotiations, agreement was reached on the inclusion of Karachi in the Russian Empire. After the annexation has been left intact all the internal self-government Karachi: officials and courts. Proceedings of the neighboring Muslim peoples continued to take place on folk customs and the Sharia. In Karachay even assigned arms, but were taken from Karachai Amanat pledge their loyalty oath.
In 1831–1860, Karachays joined the bloody anti-Russian struggles carried out by Caucasian peoples. In 1861–1880, to escape repression by the Russian army, large numbers of Karachays migrated to Turkey.
Accession (in many ways more formal) Karachi to the empire was considered very important achievement of the king's generals.
In 1942 the Germans permitted the establishment of a Karachai National Committee to administer the "autonomous region" and the Karachais were allowed to form their owon police force and recruit soldiers for a brigade that was to fight with the Wehrmacht. The rather warm welcome of the Germans resulted in November 1943, in the Karachais, being charged with collaboration with Nazi Germany. Most of a total population of about 80 thousand people were forcibly deported and resettled in Central Asia, namely in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan. In just the first two years of deportation, disease and famine caused the death of 35% of the population. Of the 28 thousand children, 22 thousand (about 78%) perished.dateFebruary 2011: Elders of the Karachai,date: May 2011: who were eyewitnesses to these events, described the times as: "Our exile to Central Asia was terrible. The war, the expulsion, the violence and the hunger but, the Karachai were proud and preferred to die rather than to beg, and thus disgrace themselves and their clan".dateMay 2011: At the same time, many of the Karachai fought in the front lines of World War II against the fascist invaders. * Geography
The Karachay nation, as well as its brother nation, the Balkars, took the valleys and foothills of the Central Caucasus in the water gaps of the Kuban, Big Zelenchuk River, Malka, Baksan, Cherek and others.
The Karachays and Balkars are very proud of the symbol of the nations, Mount Elbrus, the highest double-headed mountain in Europe with an altitude 5,642 meters. * Language and religion
The Karachay dialect of Karachay-Balkar language is of the Northwestern branch of Turkic languages, the Kumyk languages is also the same language, Kumyks live in northeast Dagestan.
Most Karachay people follow Islam. * Diaspora
Czarist Russian annexation of the Karachay nation led to mass migration to Turkey in the early 20th century. Karachays were also displaced en masse to the then Soviet-controlled Central Asian states of Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan after Joseph Stalin's relocation campaign in 1944. Since the Nikita Khrushchev era in the Soviet Union, many Karachays have been repatriated to their homeland from Central Asia. Karachays residing in Turkey have also migrated to numerous Western countries in search of economic opportunity. Today, there are sizable Karachay communities in Turkey (centered around Afyonkarahisar), Uzbekistan, United States of America, and Germany. * Character of the nation
The isolated lifestyle among the Caucasus Mountains was one of the reasons of the establishment of the Karachay's unique character. Karachay people live in communities that are divided into clans and families: Uidegi – Ataul - Tukum – Tiire.
Prominent tukums include: Aci, Batcha (Batca), Baychora, Bayrimuk (Bayramuk), Bostan, Catto, Cosar (Çese), Duda, Hubey (Hubi), Karabash, Laypan, Lepshoq, Ozden, Silpagar, Teke, Toturkul, and many others. There are roughly 32 Karachay tukums. A tukum is basically a family's clan-based lineage.
Karachay people are very independent in their behavior and adherence to their freedom. They have strong historically developed traditions and customs which regulate their lives: the wedding, the funeral, the pronouncement of family decisions, etc. They are fiercely loyal to their immediate family, as well, as their "tukum" or clan. They will never offend a guest. Cowardice is the most serious shame for the male. * Quotations==
"The Karachay is a neutral nation, which lives at the root of Elbrus, and excelling by its loyalty, goodliness and bravery." - Leo Tolstoy, Russian novelist and philosopher, Omnibus Edition (anniversary edition), Moscow, Volume 46, page 184.
"The people of the right flank, knowing militancy Karachai and tempered nature, are afraid to touch them and live peacefully with them." - I. Zabudsky, Military Statistical Review of Russian Empire, Stavropol Province. P-Pb, 1851, t.16, ch.1, s.132
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Karatchaïs
Groupe ethnique de Russie | Tatars
Les Karatchaïs (en karatchaï-balkar : Къарачайлыла, Qaraçaylıla) sont un peuple turc du Caucase du nord ou Ciscaucasie, habitant principalement la république russe de Karatchaïévo-Tcherkessie.
Les Karatchaïs descendent des populations Kiptchaks, avec un certain apport des Alains du Moyen Âge. Le royaume d' Alanie constitué au Moyen Âge avait sa capitale à Maghas, que certains auteurs situent à Arkhyz, dans les montagnes habitées actuellement par les Karatchaïs. Au XIVe: siècle, l'Alanie fut détruite par Tamerlan, et sa population décimée se dispersa dans les montagnes. Le raid de Tamerlan introduisit simultanément l'Islam parmi les peuples locaux.
En 1828, l'armée russe annexa formellement les territoires Karatchaïs après la guerre russo-circassienne. Dans la période 1831 - 1860, les Karatchaïs se joignirent aux insurrections sanglantes anti-russes menées par les peuples caucasiens. En 1861 - 1880, de nombreux Karatchaïs émigrèrent dans l'Empire ottoman, afin d'échapper à la répression exercée par l'armée russe.
En 1942, l'armée nazie occupa la région occupée par les Karatchaïs.
En novembre 1943, le peuple karatchaï fut transféré de force dans les steppes désertiques du
Kazakhstan et de Kirghizie. Après un exil de 14 ans, en 1957 durant la période
khrouchtchevienne, ils purent réintégrer leur patrie historique.
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شيح
نجمية | نباتات عطرية
الشيح نبات عشبي بري معمر، من الفصيلة النجمية.
أنواع الشيح : من أشهر أنواعه: * الشيح البلدي: ينتشر في شمال إفريقية وسورية وإيران وتركيا ويحتوي على 3% زيت طيار. وينتشر أيضاً في المناطق الوسطى والشمالية والشرقية من المملكة العربية السعودية، وهو يستعمل طبياً لاحتوائه على مادة «السانتونين» الطاردة للديدان المعوية. ويستخدم في الطب الشعبي علي الشيح «المصري»: هيئة منقوع يشرب لمدة ثلاثة أيام متتالية قبل النوم لطرد الديدان. * ينتشر في شبه جزيرة سيناء ويحتوي على 6ر1% زيت طيار، وهو أقل فعالية من الشيح البلدي.
شيح المناطق البحرية: ينتشر في غرب أوروبا وأواسط آسيا. ويستخلص منه مادة «السانتونين» الفعالة بالإضافة إلى احتوائه على مادة « آرتميزين» والتي ليس لها مفعول طبي. * الشيبة (شجرة مريم): يسمى أيضا «دقن الشيح» وهو من الأنواع الطبية التي تحتوى على مادة «السانتونين». وينمو برياً ولا يزرع. * الترجون: ويسمي أيضا الطرَّاقون وينتشر في أوروبا الآسيوية. ويزرع في فرنسا لزيته. ولا يحتوى على مادة «السانتونين» ويعتبر من مجموعة نباتات التوابل حيث تستخدم أوراقه المسحوقة لتحسين نكهة الطعام، خاصة الأسماك المطبوخة. * العناب عويذران، عاذر: وينتشر في المنطقتين الوسطى والشرقية من المملكة. حيث يستخدم عصيره الطازج لتسكين آلام الأذن كما يستخدم منقوع النبات كمسهل قوي. * بعيثران، شيح، شيح بلدى، شيحان: وينتشر هذا النوع أيضا في شمال الحجاز وجنوبه والمنطقتين الوسطى والشرقية، وكذلك في شبه جزيرة سيناء، وجبل علبة في جمهورية مصر العربية. ويستعمل منقوع أوراقه وقممه الزهرية طارداً للغازات ومدراً للطمث. * عاذر، غبيرة، عادر: ينتشر في المنطقة الوسطى الشرقية من صحراء النفود في المملكة. ويستخدم مسحوق النبات الجاف معلقا في الماء الدافئ مع ملعقة عسل عند النوم ضد الإمساك. كما يستعمل نفس الخليط مرتين في اليوم قبل الوجبات ضد الروماتيزم. كما يستعمل مغلي النبات لعلاج البرد.
استعمالات الشيح : لأوراقه رائحة عطرية قوية وطيبة، يستعمل في الطب، ترعاه الماشية, ويصنف كحار يابس.
يستعمل النبات كاملاً عدا جذوره والمواد الفعالة في الشيح زيته ومادة السانتونين المتوفرة فيه والفعالة في طرد الديدان من المعدة، كما أنه يقطع البلغم ويعالج المغص ويستعمل مغليه لعلاج الحميات ومنقوعه في تخفيف البول السكري. كما يستخدم الشيح كبخور حيث يحرق في المنازل لتطهيرها من الروائح الكريهة ولطرد الهوام.
يجب مراعاة عدم استخدامه بكثرة بسبب مادة السانتونين ذات الآثار السمية إذا استخدمت بكثرة أو بصورة مستمرة.
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Artemisia (plant)
Artemisia | Medicinal plants | Asteraceae genera
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Artemisia is a large, diverse genus of plants with between 200 to 400 species belonging to the daisy family Asteraceae. It comprises hardy herbs and shrubs known for their volatile oils. They grow in temperate climates of the Northern Hemisphere and Southern Hemisphere, usually in dry or semi-dry habitats. The fern-like leaves of many species are covered with white hairs. Some botanists split the genus into several genera, but DNA analysis does not support the maintenance of the genera Crossostephium, Filifolium, Neopallasia, Seriphidium, and Sphaeromeria; three other segregate genera Stilnolepis, Elachanthemum, and Kaschgaria are maintained by this evidence.
Common names used for several species include mugwort, sagebrush, sagewort, and wormwood, while a few species have unique names, notably Tarragon (A. dracunculus) and Southernwood (A. abrotanum). Occasionally some of the species are called sages, causing confusion with the Salvia sages in the family Lamiaceae.
Most species have strong aromas and bitter tastes from terpenoids and sesquiterpene lactones, which exists as an adaptation to discourage herbivory. The small flowers are wind-pollinated.
Artemisia species are used as food plants by the larvae of a number of Lepidoptera species. See List of Lepidoptera that feed on Artemisia. * Cultivation and uses
The aromatic leaves of many species of Artemisia are medicinal, and some are used for flavouring. Most species have an extremely bitter taste. A. dracunculus (Tarragon) is widely used as a herb, particularly important in French cuisine.
Artemisia absinthium (Absinth Wormwood) was used to repel fleas and moths, and in brewing (wormwood beer, wormwood wine). The aperitif vermouth (derived from the German word Wermut, "wormwood") is a wine flavored with aromatic herbs, but originally with wormwood. The highly potent spirits absinthe and Malört also contain wormwood. Polish vodka Zoladkowa Gorzka is flavoured with wormwood. Wormwood has been used medicinally as a tonic, stomachic, febrifuge and anthelmintic.
Some have taken dried Wormwood, placed it inside a coffee filter to form a sort of "pod" and then placed them under furniture and such as a natural way of repelling fleas from their home.
Artemisia arborescens (Tree Wormwood, or Sheeba in Arabic) is a very bitter herb indigenous to the Middle East that is used in tea, usually with Mentha also known as mint. In small quantities (in tea) its believed to have medicinal properties, pacifying various kinds of digestion turmoils. In larger doses it may have some hallucinogenic properties. In Israel Artemisia is sometimes referred to by the name "Shiva", the Queen of Sheba.
Within Wicca, both Wormwood and Mugwort are believed to have effects on psychic abilitiesdate: August 2011: . Because of the power believed to be inherent in certain herbs of the genus Artemisia, many believers cultivate the plants in a "moon garden".
The beliefs surrounding this genus are founded upon the strong association between the herbs of the genus Artemisia and the moon goddess Artemis, who is believed to hold these powers.
It is also said that the genus Artemisia (which includes over 400 plants) may be named after an ancient botanist. Artemisia was the wife and sister of the Greek/Persian King Mausolus from the name of whose tomb we get the word mausoleum. Artemisia, who ruled for three years after the king's death, was a botanist and medical researcher, and died in 350 B.C.
The bitterness of the plant led to its use by wet-nurses for weaning infants from the breast, as in this speech by Shakespeare from Romeo and Juliet Act I, Scene 3: * Nurse: ... * :And she [Juliet] was wean'd,–I never shall forget it, – * :Of all the days of the year, upon that day: * :For I had then laid wormwood to my dug, * :...
Shakespeare also refers to the herb as "Dian's bud" (Diana being the Roman incarnation of Artemis) in Midsummer Night's Dream, as the antidote to the love potion concocted from the flower "Love in Idleness" (the pansy) that Oberon and Puck use to enchant the lovers: * Oberon: ... * :Be as thou wast wont to be: * :See as thou wast wont to see: * :Dian's bud o'er Cupid's flower * :Hath such force and blessed power. * ::MND 4.1.70-73
...
A few species are grown as ornamental plants, the fine-textured ones used for clipped bordering. All grow best in free-draining sandy soil, unfertilized, and in full sun.
Artemisinin (from Sweet wormwood, Artemisia annua) is the active ingredient in the anti-malarial combination therapy Coartem produced by Novartis and the World Health Organization.
Artemesia stelleriana is known as 'Dusty Miller', but several other species bear that name, including Senecio cineraria, Lychnis coronaria, and Centaurea cineraria.
Medicinal: Artemisia oils had inhibitory effects on the growth of bacteria (Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Staphylococcus epidermidis); yeasts (Candida albicans, Cryptococcus neoformans);and dermatophytes (Trichophyton rubrum, Microsporum canis, and Microsporum gypseum), Fonsecaea pedrosoi and Aspergillus niger.
Artemisinin and its derivatives are a group of drugs that possess the most rapid action of all current drugs against malaria. Treatments containing an artemisinin derivative (artemisinin-combination therapies, ACTs) are now standard treatment worldwide for P. falciparum malaria. The starting compound artemisinin is isolated from the plant Artemisia annua.
Artemisia in popular culture : Artemisia has been mentioned and used in popular culture for centuries. A few examples are listed below. * Wormwood (Apsinthos in the Greek text) is the "name of the star" in the Book of Revelation (8:11) (kai to onoma tou asteros legetai ho Apsinthos) that John the Evangelist envisions as cast by the angel and falling into the waters, making them undrinkably bitter. Further references in the Bible show that wormwood was a common herb and that its awful taste was known. (Deuteronomy 29:18, Book of Proverbs 5:4, Jeremiah 9:15, 25:15, Lamentations 3:15,19 Amos 5:7) * In the Roald Dahl novel Matilda and its 1996 movie adaptation, Matilda's last name is Wormwood. * In Shakespeare's Hamlet, the titular character says "Wormwood, wormwood" to comment on the figurative bitterness of what someone has just said. * Wormwood is a junior devil in The Screwtape Letters, a novel by C. S. Lewis on human temptation. * Miss Wormwood is the name of Calvin's teacher in Calvin and Hobbes, a former daily comic strip by Bill Watterson. This character is named after the Screwtape Letters character. * In Russian culture, the fact that Artemisia species are commonly used in medicine, and their bitter taste is associated with medicinal effects, has caused wormwood to be seen as a symbol for a "bitter truth" that must be accepted by a deluded (often self-deluded) person. This symbol has acquired a particular poignancy in modern Russian poetry, which often deals with the loss of illusory beliefs in various ideologies.dateAugust 2011: * Fort Collins, Colorado based New Belgium brewery produced a Spring Ale called "Springboard" containing Wormwood, Lycium. and Schisandra. * In A Series of Unfortunate Events, there is a saying that "tea should be as bitter as wormwood and sharp as a two-edged sword". * In Harry Potter, the Draught of Living Death, an extremely powerful sleeping potion, is made from powdered root of asphodel added to an infusion of wormwood. * In the video game Far Cry 2, although the player character is sick with malaria, he is forced to destroy artemisia plants by a local paramilitary faction. * Selected species
colwidth: 350px: Artemisia abrotanum L.–Southernwood, Southern Wormwood, Abrotanum, Lemon Plant
Artemisia absinthium L.–Grand Wormwood
Artemisia adamsii Besser
Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd.–African Wormwood, African Sagebrush
Artemisia alaskana Rydb.–Alaska Wormwood
Artemisia alcockii Pamp.
Artemisia aleutica Hultén–Aleutian Wormwood
Artemisia amoena Poljakov
Artemisia annua L.–Annual Wormwood, Sweet Sagewort, Sweet Annie
Artemisia araxina Takht.
Artemisia arborescens–Tree Wormwood
Artemisia arbuscula Nutt.–Little Sagebrush, Low Sagebrush, Black Sage
Artemisia arctica Less.–Boreal Sagebrush
Artemisia arctisibirica Korobkov
Artemisia arenaria DC.
Artemisia arenicola Krasch. ex Poljakov
Artemisia argentata Klokov
Artemisia argentea L'Hér.–Madeira wormwood
Artemisia argyi H.Lév. & Vaniot
Artemisia argyrophylla Ledeb.
Artemisia armeniaca Lam.
Artemisia aschurbajewii C.G.Aro
Artemisia australis Less.–okina: Āhinahina, Ookina: ahu Wormwood
Artemisia austriaca Jacq.
Artemisia avarica Minat.
Artemisia badhysi Krasch. & Lincz. ex Poljakov
Artemisia balchanorum Krasch.
Artemisia baldshuanica Krasch. & Zaprjag.
Artemisia bargusinensis Spreng.
Artemisia bejdemaniae Leonova
Artemisia biennis Willd.–Biennial Sagewort, Biennial Wormwood
Artemisia bigelovii A.Gray–Bigelow Sage, Bigelow Sagebrush
Artemisia borealis Pall.
Artemisia borotalensis Poljakov
Artemisia bottnica Lundstr. ex Kindb.
Artemisia caespitosa Ledeb.
Artemisia californica Less.–Coastal Sagebrush, California Sagebrush
Artemisia camelorum Krasch.
Artemisia campestris L.–Field Wormwood
Artemisia camphorata Vill.
Artemisia cana Pursh–Silver Sagebrush
Artemisia canadensis Michx.–Canada Wormwood
Artemisia capillaris Thunb.–Capillary Wormwood
Artemisia carruthii Wood ex Carruth.–Carruth Sagewort, Carruth's Sagebrush
Artemisia caucasica Willd.
Artemisia chamaemelifolia Vill.
Artemisia cina O.Berg & C.F.Schmidt–Santonica, Levant Wormseed
Artemisia ciniformis Krasch. & Popov ex Poljakov
Artemisia commutata Besser
Artemisia compacta Fisch. ex DC.
Artemisia cuspidata Krasch.
Artemisia czukavinae Filatova
Artemisia daghestanica Krasch. & Poretzky
Artemisia demissa Krasch.
Artemisia depauperata Krasch.
Artemisia deserti Krasch.
Artemisia desertorum Spreng.
Artemisia diffusa Krasch. ex Poljakov
Artemisia dimoana Popov
Artemisia dolosa Krasch.
Artemisia douglasiana Bess.–Douglas' Mugwort, Douglas' Sagewort
Artemisia dracunculus L.–Tarragon
Artemisia dubia Wall.
Artemisia dubjanskyana Krasch. ex Poljakov
Artemisia dumosa Poljakov
Artemisia elongata Filatova & Ladygina
Artemisia eremophila Krasch. & Butkov ex Poljakov
Artemisia eriantha Ten.
Artemisia feddei H.Lév. & Vaniot
Artemisia fedtschenkoana Krasch.
Artemisia ferganensis Krasch. ex Poljakov
Artemisia filifolia Torr.–Sand Sagebrush, Sand Sagebush, Silvery Wormwood
Artemisia flava Jurtzev
Artemisia franserioides Greene–Ragweed Sagebrush
Artemisia freyniana (Pamp.) Krasch.
Artemisia frigida Willd.–Fringed Sagebrush, Fringed Sagewort, Prairie Sagewort
Artemisia fulvella Filatova & Ladygina
Artemisia furcata Bieb.–Forked Wormwood
Artemisia galinae Ikonn.
Artemisia genipi Weber ex Stechm.
Artemisia glabella Kar. & Kir.
Artemisia glacialis L.–Glacier Wormwood, Alpine Mugwort
Artemisia glanduligera Krasch. ex Poljakov
Artemisia glauca Pall. ex Willd.
Artemisia glaucina Krasch. ex Poljakov
Artemisia globosa Krasch.
Artemisia globularia Cham. ex Bess.–Purple Wormwood
Artemisia glomerata Ledeb.–Cudweed Sagewort, Pacific Alpine Wormwood
Artemisia gmelinii Webb ex Stechmann–Gmelin's Wormwood
Artemisia gnaphalodes Nutt.
Artemisia gorjaevii Poljakov
Artemisia gracilescens Krasch. & Iljin
Artemisia granatensis Boiss. ex DC.
Artemisia gurganica (Krasch.) Filatova
Artemisia gypsacea Krasch., Popov & Lincz. ex Poljakov
Artemisia halodendron Turcz. ex Besser
Artemisia halophila Krasch.
Artemisia heptapotamica Poljakov
Artemisia herba-alba Asso–White Wormwood
Artemisia hippolyti Butkov
Artemisia hololeuca M.Bieb. ex Besser
Artemisia hulteniana Vorosch.
Artemisia incana (L.) Druce
Artemisia indica Willd.–Yomogi
Artemisia insulana Krasch.
Artemisia insularis Kitam.
Artemisia integrifolia L.
Artemisia issykkulensis Poljakov
Artemisia jacutica Drobow
Artemisia japonica Thunb.–Otoko Yomogi
Artemisia juncea Kar. & Kir.
Artemisia karatavica Krasch. & Abolin ex Poljakov
Artemisia karavajevii Leonova
Artemisia kaschgarica Krasch.
Artemisia kauaiensis (Skottsberg) Skottsberg–okina: Āhinahina, Kauaokina: i Wormwood
Artemisia keiskeana Miq.
Artemisia kelleri Krasch.
Artemisia kemrudica Krasch.
Artemisia knorringiana Krasch.
Artemisia kochiiformis Krasch. & Lincz. ex Poljakov
Artemisia koidzumii Nakai
Artemisia kopetdaghensis Krasch. ex Poljakov
Artemisia korovinii Poljakov
Artemisia korshinskyi Krasch. ex Poljakov
Artemisia krushiana Bess.–Krush's Wormwood
Artemisia kulbadica Boiss. & Buhse
Artemisia kuschakewiczii C.G.A.Winkl.
Artemisia laciniata Willd.–Siberian Wormwood
Artemisia laciniatiformis Kom.
Artemisia lagocephala (Besser) DC.
Artemisia lagopus Fisch. ex Besser
Artemisia lanata Willd.
Artemisia latifolia Ledeb.
Artemisia ledebouriana Besser
Artemisia lehmanniana Bunge
Artemisia leontopodioides Fisch. ex Besser
Artemisia lessingiana Besser
Artemisia leucodes Schrenk
Artemisia leucophylla (Turcz. ex Besser) Pamp.
Artemisia leucotricha Krasch. ex Ladygina
Artemisia lindleyana Bess.–Columbia River Wormwood
Artemisia lipskyi Poljakov
Artemisia littoricola Kitam.
Artemisia longifolia Nutt.–Longleaf Sagebrush, Longleaf Wormwood
Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt.–Gray Sagewort, Prairie Sage, White Sagebrush
Artemisia macilenta (Maxim.) Krasch.
Artemisia macrantha Ledeb.
Artemisia macrobotrys Ledeb.–Yukon Wormwood
Artemisia macrocephala Jacq. ex Besser
Artemisia macrorhiza Turcz.
Artemisia maracandica Bunge
Artemisia maritima L.–Sea Wormwood
Artemisia marschalliana Spreng.
Artemisia martjanovii Krasch. ex Poljakov
Artemisia mauiensis (A.Gray) Skottsberg–okina: Āhinahina, Maui Wormwood
Artemisia maximovicziana Krasch. ex Poljakov
Artemisia medioxima Krasch. ex Poljakov
Artemisia messerschmidtiana Besser
Artemisia michauxiana Bess.–Michaux Sagebrush, Michaux's Wormwood
Artemisia minor Jacq. ex Besser
Artemisia mogoltavica Poljakov
Artemisia mongolica (Besser) Fisch. ex Nakai
Artemisia mongolorum Krasch.
Artemisia montana (Nakai) Pamp.
Artemisia mucronulata Poljakov
Artemisia multisecta Leonova
Artemisia mutellina Vill.
Artemisia nachitschevanica Rzazade
Artemisia nakaii Pamp.
Artemisia namanganica Poljakov
Artemisia nana Gaudin
Artemisia negrei Ouyahya
Artemisia nesiotica Raven–Island Sagebrush
Artemisia nigricans Filatova & Ladygina
Artemisia niitakayamensis Hayata
Artemisia nilagirica (C.B.Clarke) Pamp.
Artemisia nitida Bertol.
Artemisia nortonii Pamp.
Artemisia norvegica Fr.–Norwegian Mugwort
Artemisia nova A.Nels.–Black Sagebrush
Artemisia nuristanica Kitam.
Artemisia obscura Pamp.
Artemisia obtusa Rydb.
Artemisia obtusiloba Ledeb.
Artemisia occidentalisichuanensis Y.R.Ling & S.Y.Zhao
Artemisia occidentalisinensis Y.R.Ling
Artemisia oelandica (Besser) Krasch.
Artemisia olchonensis Leonova
Artemisia oliveriana J.Gay ex Besser
Artemisia ordosica Krasch.
Artemisia orientalixizangensis Y.R.Ling & Humphries
Artemisia orientaliyunnanensis Y.R.Ling
Artemisia orthobotrys Kitag.
Artemisia packardiae J.Grimes & Ertter–Packard's Wormwood, Succor Creek Sagebrush
Artemisia pallasiana Fisch. ex Besser
Artemisia palmeri A.Gray–San Diego Sagewort
Artemisia palustris L.
Artemisia pannosa Krasch.
Artemisia papposa S.F.Blake & Cronq.–Owyhee Sage, Owyhee Sagebrush
Artemisia parryi A.Gray–Parry's Wormwood
Artemisia pattersonii A.Gray–Patterson's Wormwood
Artemisia pectinata Pall.
Artemisia pedatifida Nutt.–Birdfoot Sagebrush
Artemisia pedemontana Balb.
Artemisia persica Boiss.
Artemisia pewzowii C.G.A.Winkl.
Artemisia phaeolepis Krasch.
Artemisia polysticha Poljakov
Artemisia pontica L.–Roman Wormwood
Artemisia porrecta Krasch. ex Poljakov
Artemisia porteri Cronq.–Porter's Wormwood
Artemisia prasina Krasch. ex Poljak.
Artemisia princeps Pamp.–Japanese Mugwort, Yomogi
Artemisia proceriformis Krasch.
Artemisia prolixa Krasch. ex Poljak.
Artemisia punctigera Krasch. ex Poljakov
Artemisia purshiana Besser
Artemisia pycnocephala (Less.) DC.–Beach Wormwood
Artemisia pycnorhiza Ledeb.
Artemisia pygmaea A.Gray–Pygmy Sagebrush
Artemisia quinqueloba Trautv.
Artemisia remotiloba Krasch. ex Poljakov
Artemisia rhodantha Rupr.
Artemisia rigida (Nutt.) A.Gray–Scabland Sagebrush
Artemisia rothrockii A.Gray–Timberline Sagebrush
Artemisia roxburghiana Wall. ex Besser
Artemisia rubripes Nakai
Artemisia rupestris L.–Rock Wormwood
Artemisia rutifolia Stephan ex Spreng.
Artemisia sacrorum Ledeb. ex Hook.f.
Artemisia saissanica (Krasch.) Filatova
Artemisia saitoana Kitam.
Artemisia salsoloides Willd.
Artemisia samoiedorum Pamp.
Artemisia santolina Schrenk
Artemisia santolinifolia Turcz. ex Besser
Artemisia santonica L.
Artemisia saposhnikovii Krasch. ex Poljak.
Artemisia schischkinii Krasch.
Artemisia schrenkiana Ledeb.
Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit.–Redstem Wormwood
Artemisia scopiformis Ledeb.
Artemisia scopulorum A.Gray–Alpine Sagebrush, Dwarf Sagebrush
Artemisia scotina Nevski
Artemisia senjavinensis Bess.–Arctic Wormwood
Artemisia semiarida (Krasch. & Lavrenko) Filatova
Artemisia senjavinensis Besser
Artemisia sericea Weber ex Stechm.
Artemisia serotina Bunge
Artemisia serrata Nutt.–Sawtooth Wormwood
Artemisia sieversiana Willd.
Artemisia skorniakowii C.G.A.Winkl.
Artemisia sogdiana Bunge
Artemisia songarica Schrenk
Artemisia spicigera K.Koch
Artemisia spinescens D.C.Eaton–Budsage [ Picrothamnus desertorum ]
Artemisia splendens Willd.
Artemisia stelleriana Bess.–Hoary Mugwort or Dusty Miller (one of several plants with this name)
Artemisia stenocephala Krasch. ex Poljak.
Artemisia stenophylla Kitam.
Artemisia stolonifera (Maxim.) Kom.
Artemisia subarctica Krasch.
Artemisia subchrysolepis Filatova
Artemisia sublessingiana Krasch. ex Poljakov
Artemisia subsalsa Filatova
Artemisia subviscosa Turcz. ex Besser
Artemisia succulenta Ledeb.
Artemisia suksdorfii Piper–Coastal Wormwood
Artemisia sylvatica Maxim.
Artemisia szowitziana (Besser) Grossh.
Artemisia tanacetifolia L.
Artemisia taurica Willd.
Artemisia tenuisecta Nevski
Artemisia terrae-albae Krasch.
Artemisia tianschanica Krasch. ex Poljak.
Artemisia tilesii Ledeb.–Tilesius' Wormwood
Artemisia tomentella Trautv.
Artemisia tournefortiana Rchb.
Artemisia transbaicalensis Leonova
Artemisia transiliensis Poljakov
Artemisia trautvetteriana Besser
Artemisia tridentata Nutt.–Big Sagebrush, Blue Sage, Black Sage, Basin Sagebrush
Artemisia triniana Besser
Artemisia tripartita Rydb.–Threetip Sagebrush
Artemisia turanica Krasch.
Artemisia turcomanica Gand.
Artemisia umbelliformis Lam.–Alps Wormwood
Artemisia unalaskensis Rydb.
Artemisia underwoodii Rydb.
Artemisia uralensis Spreng. ex Besser
Artemisia uraorum Hultén
Artemisia uzbekistanica Poljakov
Artemisia vachanica Krasch. ex Poljak.
Artemisia valida Krasch. ex Poljak.
Artemisia verlotiorum Lamotte–Chinese Wormwood
Artemisia viridis Willd.
Artemisia vulgaris L.–Mugwort
Artemisia wallichiana Besser
Artemisia waltonii J.R.Drumm. ex Pamp.
Artemisia wudanica Liou & W.Wang
Artemisia wulingshanensis Bar. & Skv. ex Liou
Artemisia wurzellii C.M.James & Stace
Artemisia xerophila Magnier
Artemisia xerophytica Krasch.
Artemisia xylorhiza Krasch. ex Filatova
Artemisia yadongensis Ling & Y.R.Ling
Artemisia yongii Y.R.Ling
Artemisia younghusbandii J.R.Drumm. ex Pamp.
Artemisia zayuensis Y.R.Ling
Artemisia zhaodongensis G.Y.Chang & M.Y.Liou
Artemisia zhongdianensis Y.R.Ling
Artemisia zollingeriana Sch.Bip.
div col end: Formerly placed here: 2: * Centipeda minima (L.) A.Braun & Asch. (as A. minima L.) * Eupatorium capillifolium (Lam.) Small (as A. capillifolia Lam.) * Filifolium sibiricum (L.) Kitam. (as A. sibirica (L.) Maxim.) * Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. (as A. maderaspatana L.) * Matricaria discoidea DC. (as A. matricarioides auct.)
Refend: : Classification
Classification of Artemisia is difficult. Pre-2000 divisions of Artemisia into subgenera or sections have not been backed up by molecular data, but much of the molecular data, as of 2006, is not especially strong. The following identified groups do not include all the species in the genus.
Section Tridentatae: Section Tridentatae consists of nine to eleven species of shrubs, which are very prominent parts of the flora in western North America. In some classifications they are part of the genus or subgenus Seriphidium, although they do not seem to be closely related to the Asian Seriphidium species. To be monophyletic, section Tridentatae should exclude Artemisia bigelovii and Artemisia palmeri.
2: * Artemisia tridentata * Artemisia cana * Artemisia nova * Artemisia rigida * Artemisia arbuscula * Artemisia longiloba * Artemisia tripartita * Artemisia pygmaea * Artemisia rothrockii
Refend: Section Tridentatae includes above species with exception of Artemisia longiloba, which is treated as a subspecies of Artemisia arbuscula.
Section Nebulae includes Artemisia californica, Artemisia nesiotica, and Artemisia filifolia. * Old World Seriphidium
The Old World species which different classifications put into the genus or subgenus Seriphidium consist of about 125 species native to Europe and temperate Asia, with the largest number of species in Central Asia. Some classifications, such as that of the Flora of North America, exclude any New World plants from Seriphidium. They are herbaceous plants or small shrubs.
Subgenus Dracunculus: One group which is well-supported by molecular data is subgenus Dracunculus. It consists of 80 species found in both North America and Eurasia, of which the best-known is perhaps Artemisia dracunculus, the spice tarragon. * Notes
Artemisia: Artemisia: date: August 2011: 2: References: *
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Armoise
Flore (nom vernaculaire) | Asteraceae
composée:
Artemisia: Taxobox fin: Le genre Artemisia (les armoises) regroupe des herbacées, des arbrisseaux et des arbustes, généralement s, densément , s ou s, de la famille des Astéracées. Leur feuilles sont es (rarement es).
Principales espèces : * Artemisia abaensis * Artemisia abrotanum L. — aurone * Artemisia absinthium L. — grande absinthe * Artemisia adamsii * Artemisia alba Turra * Artemisia annua L. — armoise annuelle * Artemisia arborescens L. * Artemisia atrata Lam. * Artemisia biennis Willd. * Artemisia caerulescens L. * Artemisia campestris L. * Artemisia capillaris Thunb. * Artemisia chamaemelifolia Vill. * Artemisia cina O. Berg & C. F. Schmidt — « semen contra » * Artemisia dracunculus L. — estragon * Artemisia eriantha Ten. * Artemisia genipi Weber * Artemisia glacialis L. * Artemisia herba-alba Asso — armoise herbe blanche * Artemisia insipida Vill. * Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. * Artemisia maritima L. * Artemisia molinieri Quézel, M.Barbero & R.J.Loisel * Artemisia pontica L. — armoise romaine, ou petite absinthe * Artemisia tridentata * Artemisia umbelliformis Lam. — génépi blanc * Artemisia vallesiaca All. * Artemisia verlotiorum Lamotte * Artemisia vulgaris L. — armoise commune
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تريبولي
مدن اليونان
تريبولي: (باليونانية: Τρίπολη)، Tripoli: ، مدينة يونانية تقع في جنوب البلاد، وهي عاصمة منطقة البيلوبونيز الإدارية، وأيضاً مركز مقاطعة أركاديا ضمن هذه المنطقة الإدارية.
الموقع، السكان والتسمية : تقع المدينة تقريباً في وسط شبه جزيرة المورة ضمن سهل له نفس اسم المدينة على ارتفاع 655 متر عن مستوى سطح البحر، إلى الشمال من تريبولي تبدأ كتلة جبل مينالو الذي يكوّن مركز شبه جزيرة المورة ويصل ارتفاع قمته إلى 1980 م.
تبعد المدينة عن أثينا مسافة 152 كيلومتر وذلك على طريق أثينا – كالاماتا السريع، حيث جعلها موقعها المتوسط مركزاً للمواصلات للأقسام الداخلية في شبه جزيرة المورة.
يبلغ عدد سكان المدينة حوالي 30 ألف نسمة، وبالتالي تكون المدينة الكبيرة الوحيدة في أركاديا.
يعني اسم المدينة باللغة اليونانية (المدن الثلاث).
التاريخ : تعتبر تريبولي من المدن حديثة العهد في اليونان على الرغم من وجودها في وسط منطقة ناريخية، فقد تم بناؤها في القرن الرابع عشر تحت اسم (هيدروبوليتزا) (Hydropolitza) والذي كان يعني (مدينة الماء) لتأخذ مكانة مانتينيا، تيغيا وبالانتيون المدن الثلاث التاريخية في أركاديا.
في عام 1770 م. أصبحت العاصمة المحصنة لباشا المورة العثماني واكتسبت وقتها اسمها الجديد (تريبوليتسا) أو (تارابولوسا) (Tarabolussa) باللغة التركية. كانت تعيش في المدينة في تلك الفترة جالية مسلمة ويهودية كبيرة، وكانت تعتبر مركزاً للاحتلال التركي في شبه جزيرة المورة.
أصبحت تريبولي أول مدينة يونانية كبيرة تسقط بيد الثوار اليونانيين أثناء انتفاضة استقلال اليونان وكان ذلك في 17 تشرين الأول/أكتوبر عام 1821 م. على يد ثيوذوروس كولوكوترونيس، حيث تم أثناء هذا إبادة كل سكان المدينة المسلمين الذين يقدر عددهم ب 30 ألفاً من الأتراك والألبان. احتلها إبراهيم باشا في 22 حزيران/يونيو عام 1825 م. الذي أباد بالمقابل كل سكان المدينة المسيحيين وأحرقها بالكامل.
استعادت اليونان المدينة عام 1829، التي أصبحت تدريجياً من المدن الأساسية في الدولة حديثة النشأة.
المعالم الأساسية : لا يوجد في المدينة مباني مميزة قديمة لأنها كانت قد احترقت أثناء انتفاضة استقلال اليونان، يوجد فقط مبنيان باقيان من فترة ما قبل الحريق هما - المكتبة البلدية، - المدرسة التركية. بالإضافة إلى ثلاثة مبانٍ تعود لأواخر القرن التاسع عشر هي * المسرح البلدي : وهو مبني على الطراز المعماري النيوكلاسيكي. * السوق البلدي : وهي مبنية على نفس الطراز المعماري السابق. * المتحف الأركيولوجي: وهو في مبنى مستشفى باناركاذيكو السابق الذي صممه الألماني إرنست تسيللر، يحتوي على مجموعة أثرية مؤلفة من 7000 قطعة، العديد منها في حالة ممتازة.
متفرقات : * يوجد في المدينة جامعة تدعى جامعة البيلوبونيز. * تعتبر تريبولي مدينة صناعية هامة على الرغم من صغر حجمها، حيث توجد حولها العديد من المنشآت الصناعية والمعامل. * أهم نادي كرة قدم في المدينة هو أستيراس تريبوليس. * يوجد فيها أكبر معسكرين حربيين في اليونان، الأول للقوات الجوية الهيلينية، والثاني للجيش اليوناني.
بذرة جغرافيا اليونان: مراكز (عواصم) مقاطعات اليونان: مقاطعة أركاديا:
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Tripoli, Greece
Tripoli, Greece | Municipalities of Peloponnese (region) | Populated places in Arcadia | Greek prefectural capitals | Greek regional capitals | Military installations of Greece
Tripoli (disambiguation):
Tripoli (Τρίπολη: , Trípoli, formerly Τρίπολις, Trípolis; traditionally Τριπολιτσά Tripolitsa) is a city of about 25,000 inhabitants in the central part of the Peloponnese, in Greece. It is the capital of the prefecture of Arcadia and the centre of the municipality of Tripolis, pop. 48,000.
History: In the Middle Ages, the place was known as Drobolitsa, Droboltsá, or Dorboglitza, either from the Greek Hydropolitsa, 'Water City' or perhaps from the South Slavic for 'Plain of Oaks'.
Modern Tripolis was created in 1770 near the ruins of the ancient cities of Pallantion, Tegea, and Mantinea, hence its name Τρίπολις τρεις πόλεις 'three cities'. Before the Greek War of Independence, it served as one of the Ottoman administrative centers in the Peloponnese and had large Muslim and Jewish populations. Tripolis was one of the main targets of the Greek insurgents in the Greek War of Independence, who stormed it on October 17, 1821, following the bloody Siege of Tripolitsa, and proceeded to exterminate the Muslim and Jewish populations in revenge.
Ibrahim Pasha retook the city on June 22, 1825, after it had been abandoned by the Greeks. Before his evacuation of Peloponnese early 1828, he destroyed the city and tore down its walls.
Tripolis became a major center of newly independent Greek state. * Geography and climate
Tripolis is located in the center of the Peloponnese, in a broad montane basin at approximately 650m in altitude. Tripolis is surrounded by thickly wooded mountains on all sides, the tallest and closest of which is Mount Mainalon to the northwest. The southwest of the Tripolis basin formerly consisted of wetlands which have now been drained and converted to farmland. Because of its inland location and high altitude, Tripolis has a transitional mediterranean/continental climate with hot dry summers and cold winters. Summer temperatures can exceed 40C/104F (Record max. 44C/112F) and in winter temperatures below −10C/14F have been observed (Record min. -18C/0F). Snow can occur several times between late October and early April.
Its main plazas are aligned with the main street and with a highway linking to Pyrgos and Patras. One of them is named Kennedy, the other is named Georgiou B' (George II). The southern part has its main street named Washington. The main section of the city is enclosed around the castle walls that were built during the Ottoman occupation of Greece. An industrial park has been built in the southwest.
(taken from www.hnms.gr – Greek National Meteorological Service)
Municipality: The municipality Tripoli was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 8 former municipalities, that became municipal units: * Falanthos * Korythio * Levidi * Mantineia * Skyritida * Tegea * Tripoli * Valtetsi * Subdivisions
The municipal unit of Tripoli is subdivided into the following communities: * Agios Vasileios * Agios Konstantinos * Evandro * Makri * Merkovouni * Pallantio * Pelagos * Perthori * Skopi * Thanas * Tripoli * Education
Tripoli is the seat of the recently founded University of the Peloponnese with two departments of the Sciences and Technology School and one department of the Economics and Administration School. * Transportation
Because of its location at the centre of the Peloponnese, Tripolis is a transportation hub. Corinth is 75 km NE, Pyrgos 145 km E, Patras 144 km NW, Kalamata 60 km SW, and Sparti 60 km S.
Tripoli is mainly accessed from Athens and the rest of Greece through the Corinth-Tripoli-Kalamata motorway, known as the Moreas Motorway (A7). An alternative route is the GR-7 which used to be the main highway to Tripoli before the construction of the motorway. The city is also accessed by GR-74 and GR-76 from Pyrgos and by GR-39 from Sparta.
Tripoli is served by the metre gauge railway line from Corinth to Kalamata of the Hellenic Railways Organisation (OSE). The line has been recently renovated and passenger services to Argos and Corinth, which were suspended for a few years, were reinstated in 2009. * Military
Tripoli is home to the two largest Armed Forces bootcamp centers of Greece, one for the Hellenic Army and one for the Hellenic Air Force * 251 Army Training Battalion (Greek) * 124 Basic Training Wing (Greek) * Sports
Asteras Tripolis is the city's association football club. * Tripoli in popular culture
The Siege of Tripolitsa was made famous in the folk (Δημοτικό) song "40 παλικάρια από την Ληβαδειά" (Forty lads from Livadhia) * Historical population
Famous people: * Moralı Enişte Hasan Pasha (1658–1713) Ottoman vezier and general * Alexandros Papanastasiou (1876–1936) politician and sociologist, Prime Minister of Greece * Konstantinos Georgakopoulos (1890–1978) lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of Greece * Kostas Karyotakis (1896–1928) poet * Stavros Tsiolis (1937) film director * Yiannis Kouros (1956) ultramarathon runner * Konstantinos Manetas (1879–1960) general and politician * Theodoros Manetas (1881–1947) general and politician * George Peponis medical practitioner, sports administrator and former captain of the Australian Rugby League team was born in the town in 1953. * Petros Tatoulis (1953) politician
International relations: List of twin towns and sister cities in Greece: Twin towns — sister cities: Tripoli, Greece is twinned with: * Lebanon: Byblos, Lebanon
Photo gallery: Statue of General Theodoros The Court House, designed by Ernst Close-up view of a statue in front of the Court House.
References: Reflist:
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Tripoli (Grèce)
Ville de Grèce | Arcadie | Dème de Grèce | Ville du Péloponnèse (périphérie)
Tripoli: ville de Grèce:
Tripoli (grec: Τρίπολη: , Tripoli ou Τρίπολις: , Tripolis, parfois Tripolitsa, Tripolitza, Tripolizza ou Tropolitza) est le chef-lieu du nome d'Arcadie dans le centre de la péninsule du Péloponnèse, au pied du mont Apano-Khrépa (anciennement Ménale), au milieu d'une plaine fertile. Au Moyen Âge, la ville portait le nom de Drobolitsa.
De nos jours, Tripoli est la capitale de la périphérie (région administrative) du Péloponnèse, ainsi que le siège de la récente Université du Péloponnèse.
Histoire: La ville fut fondée vers le XIVe siècle: pour remplacer les trois villes dépeuplées de Mantinée, Tégée et Pallantion. Au XVIIe siècle: , elle s'appelait Tripolizza en grec et Taraboloussa en turc . Selon d'autres sources, elle aurait été fondée vers 1450 par des peuples d'origine slave et baptisée « Dabrolitza » qui en slave du sud signifierait « la ville ou le lieu avec des chênes ».
En 1770, elle devint capitale du Péloponnèse. Lors de la guerre d'indépendance grecque, Theódoros Kolokotrónis la prit le et y massacra la population turque lors du Siège de Tripolizza. Ibrahim Pacha la reprit en juin 1825. Il la détruisit en 1828. Elle fut aussitôt reconstruite par la Grèce indépendante et baptisée Tripolis .
Démographie:
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أغيا باراسكيفي
مدن اليونان
أغيا باراسكيفي: (باليونانية:Αγία Παρασκευή)، (بالإنجليزية: Agia Paraskevi)، مدينة يونانية ومركز لبلدية تقع في جنوب وسط البلاد وهي تقع ضمن مقاطعة أثينا التي تتبع إدارياً لإقليم آتيكا الإداري.
الموقع، السكان والتسمية : تعتبر المدينة إحدى ضواحي أثينا من جهة الشمال الشرقي، إذ تبعد مسافة 10 كيلومتر عن مركز العاصمة، وتقع على السفوح الشمالية لـجبل هيميتوس. تحدها من الشمال بلديتي خالاندري وَ فريليسيا، من الشرق غيراكاس وَ غليكا نيرا، من الغرب خولارغوس وَ خالاندري، ومن الجنوب جبل هيميتوس.
بلغ عدد سكان المدينة حوالي (57) ألف نسمة (إحصائيات 2001).
تعود تسمية المدينة إلى الـقديسة باراسكيفي (Agia Paraskevi) أحد قديسات الكنيسة الأرثوذكسية والتي يعتقد أنها عاشت واستشهدت في روما في القرن الثاني للميلاد.
التاريخ : كانت الأراضي التي تقع عليها المدينة الحالية تابعة لبلدة فليه (Flya) الكلاسيكية، والتي كان يقع مركزها في ضاحية خالاندري الحالية. أصبحت هذه الأراضي بعد ذلك تشكل جزءاً من الغابات التي تغطي جبل هيميتوس، لم يقطنها إلا القليل من الرعاة والمزارعين الموسميين.
بدأ العمران في أغيا باراسكيفي في ستينيات القرن العشرين، بعدما حدثت فورة اقتصادية في اليونان الأمر الذي أدى إلى هجرة مكثفة من الريف إلى المدن الرئيسية، استمر العمران في المدينة حتى التسعينيات، عندما أصبحت مكتظة بالسكان.
متفرقات : * ما زالت المدينة تحتفظ بجزء من الغابات التي كانت تغطيها سابقاً، وتعتير من إحدى ضواحي أثينا الخضراء. * يوجد في المدينة مركز الأبحاث النووية اليوناني، وأيضاً مباني وزارة الزراعة. * من أكثر المناطق جذباً في المدينة هو دير القديس يوحنا الصياد (أغيوس يوانيس تو كينيغو) والموجود ضمن غابة من الصنوبر على قمة رابية في جبل هيميتوس، يصل إليه درب للمشاة يخترق الغابة، ويمكن منه رؤية منظر بانورامي لكل أثينا وضواحيها.
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Agia Paraskevi
Municipalities of Attica | Populated places in North Athens
other uses:
Agia Paraskevi (Αγία Παρασκευή: , named after Saint Paraskevi of Rome), is a suburb of Athens, Greece, in the northeast of Athens, about nine kilometers away from the city centre. It is linked to Athens by Mesogeion Avenue, a major road in the greater Athens area. It is a municipality within Attica region.
History: Until the 1950s, the suburb was sparsely inhabited, with most of its inhabitants practising agriculture. In the 1960s, the rapid economic development that the country was experiencing drove an influx of immigrants to the big cities, and a burst of construction activity. Thus the population of suburban Athens (and Agia Paraskevi) dramatically increased; a process that went on into the 1980s and 1990s (see table below). Today, Agia Paraskevi, like the majority of Athens' suburbs, is densely populated.
Agia Paraskevi consists of 7 districts: Kontopefko (Greek Κοντόπευκο for short pine tree, Ancient/Katharevousa Kontopefkon), Nea Zoi (Νέα Ζωή Greek for new life), Tsakos (Τσακός), Stavros, Agios Ioannis (Άγιος Ιωάννης the Greek equivalent of Saint John), Pefkakia and Paradisos (Heaven). In the downtown area lies the central Agia Paraskevi Square with a cathedral dedicated to the Orthodox Saint Agia Paraskevi, after whom the suburb is named.
Agia Paraskevi operates the nuclear research center Demokritos, which hosts the sole nuclear reactor in Greece. It is also home of the Greek Ministry of Agriculture.
The football team of the city is Agia Paraskevi F.C., but is known as "Santa", attracting devoted fans. During the Olympic games in 2004, a part of the historical Marathon passed through Agia Paraskevi in Mesogeion avenue, and this was deemed a great moment for the municipality.
1993 riot: In 1993, there was considerable opposition from inhabitants of the suburb to the construction of the Hymettus ring road. The ring road was to form a major highway on the mountainside linked directly to the Attiki Odos, and the construction of both the ring and Attiki Odos were to commence immediately. The realization that this plan would demand the felling of a considerable numbers of trees, as well as spurring an increase in noise pollution, predictably aroused the opposition of the local population, who requested a different solution: a covered road. However, the government would not reverse the decision and, in fact, sent bulldozers to the mountainside. This led to a riot in April, 1993. Thousands of people travelled up the mountainside and faced the bulldozers, forcing the drivers to leave. At length police arrived and managed to force the demonstrators off the site; eventually the construction of the two highways began, and was completed in 2001. The road was covered only at a small section, that running over the Deree College.
Geography: Built at the foot of mount Hymettus, Agia Paraskevi is one of the few suburbs of Athens to retain plenty of trees, and offers good opportunities for leisure activities, such as trekking, jogging and picnics. A beautiful route on the mountainside leads through the pine trees, to the small monastery of Saint John, known as "the hunter" in the area. There are spectacular views at the summit, to all Athens as far as Piraeus.
Climate: The climatic conditions in Agia Paraskevi are typically Mediterranean: summers are hot and dry, and winters are mild. Snowfalls are not uncommon, but they don't occur every winter, while heatwaves also occur every summer, with temperatures reaching 40 or even 42 Celsius degrees. Due to these conditions, people suffering from serious illnesses were once brought here as part of their recovery process, before the great wave of urban development.
Transportation: Although there is a very satisfactory highway connection, Agia Paraskevi is still poorly linked to other areas of Attica via public transport; a major reason for this is the town's geographical position. There are few bus lines leading to the center of Athens and one going to Agioi Anargyroi. Also there are two Metro stations that are serving the city, called Nomismatokopio and Agia Paraskevi.
Historical population: * References
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Aghia Paraskevi (Athènes)
Nomarchie d'Athènes | Dème de Grèce | Ville de Grèce | Ville de l'Attique
ville de Grèce:
Aghia Paraskevi (Αγία Παρασκευή en grec), est une ville grecque de la banlieue nord-est d'Athènes à 10 km de la capitale grecque.
Toponymie : Le nom de la ville est un hommage à une sainte martyre très vénérée en Grèce, sainte Parascève de Rome . Ce nom signifie "Préparation" et il sert en grec à désigner le sixième jour de la semaine, le vendredi. Ce jour est consacré, dans la tradition juive, à la préparation du sabbat (samedi) qui est un jour saint et chômé parce que c'est le dernier jour de la semaine juive. Dans la tradition chrétienne, le grand sabbat (samedi saint) est le jour où Jésus-Christ s'est "reposé" dans le tombeau après sa passion. Pour toutes ces raisons, le martyre de sainte Parascève est associé à la passion du Christ.
La grande église située sur la place principale de la ville est dédiée à sainte Parascève qui est fêtée le 26 juillet.
Administration : Aghia Paraskevi comporte 6 districts : * Kontopefko ( Κοντόπευκο) * Nea Zoi (Νέα Ζωή) * Aghios Ioannis (Άγιος Ιωάννης) * Tsakos (Τσακός) * Pefkakia * Paradisos
Économie : * Ville administrative avec des lycées internationaux (français et américain), de nombreux commerces, de l'artisanat. * La ville abrite sur son territoire la Radio Télévision Grecque. * Centre de recherche nucléaire Demokritos * Ministère de l'Agriculture
Jumelages : *
Grèce:
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خالاندري
مدن اليونان
خالاندري: (باليونانية: Χαλάνδρι)، (بالإنجليزية:Chalandri)، مدينة يونانية تقع في وسط جنوب البلاد ضمن منطقة أتيكا الإدارية، تتبع مقاطعة أثينا ضمن هذه المنطقة الإدارية.
الموقع، السكان والتسمية : تقع المدينة شمال غرب أثينا حيث تبعد مسافة 8 كيلومتر عن مركز العاصمة، وتعتبر إحدى ضواحيها من الجهة الشمالية الشرقية. يبلغ عدد سكانها حوالي 72 ألف نسمة، تحدها من الشمال ماروسي، من الجنوب نيو بسيخيكو، من الغرب فيلوثي ومن الشرق أغيا باراسكيفي.
كانت تدعى قديماً باسم خالاندريون (Chalandrion)، وقبل ذلك في الفترة الإغريقية كانت تعرف باسم فليّة (Flya).
متفرقات : * كانت المدينة تعتبر إحدى القرى الإغريقية العشرة المحيطة بأثينا وكانت وقتها تعرف باسم فليّة (Flya). * تعتبر المدينة مكان ولادة المسرحي الإغريقي يوريبيديس. * كانت عبارة عن قرية صغيرة حتى ستينيات وسبعينيات القرن العشرين عندما بدأ فيها الإعمار الحديث. * نعنبر أولى ضواحي أثينا بنسبة المسطحات الخضراء إلى عدد القاطنين.
بذرة جغرافيا أوروبا:
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Chalandri
Municipalities of Attica | Populated places in North Athens
Chalandri (Greek, Modern: Χαλάνδρι, Ancient/Katharevousa: Χαλάνδριον, older form Chalandrion and in Ancient Greek Flya (Φλύα)) or Halandri is a northern suburb in Athens, Greece, and a municipality of the Attica region. It is the birthplace of Euripides.
Chalandri is a suburb in Northern Athens, around 12 km from the centre; its location corresponds with one of the 10 ancient Dimoi (boroughs) of Athens, known as Flya (Φλύα: ). Chalandri was a small village in Attica until the rapid expansion of Athens and of the village during the 1960s and 1970s made the two meet; the border with Athens is now indistinguishable. The area, nevertheless, remains relatively sparsely populated, and has one of the highest ratio of open green areas per citizen in Athens. Several embassies are based in Chalandri.
Quarters: * Aghia Barbara * Ano Chalandri * Ano Neo Chalandri * Neo Chalandri * Kato Chalandri * Patima * Metamorfosi * Polydroso * Toufa (or Fragoklisia) * Sidera * Synoikismos
Historical population: * Chalandri Metro Station
Next station:Nomismatokopeio
Athens Metro Blue Line (Line 3) - To Monastiraki
Previous station:Doukissis Plakentias
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Chalándri
Dème de Grèce | Nomarchie d'Athènes | Ville de Grèce | Ville de l'Attique
Chalándri (en grec : Χαλάνδρι: ) est une ville de Grèce situé en Attique dans le nord-est de l'agglomération d'Athènes. Après le recensement de 2001, la population de la ville atteint 71 684 habitants et 75 418 d'après l'estimation de 2007.
Quartiers: * Aghia Barbara * Ano Chalandri * Ano Neo Chalandri * Neo Chalandri * Kato Chalandri * Patima * Metamorfosi * Polydroso * Toufa (ou Fragoklisia) * Sidera * Synoikismos
Démographie:
Grèce:
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كيفيسيا
مدن اليونان
كيفيسيا: (باليونانية:Κηφισιά)، (بالإنجليزية:Kifisia)، مدينة يونانية تقع في جنوب وسط البلاد ضمن منطقة أتيكا الإدارية، تتبع مقاطعة أثينا ضمن هذه المنطقة الإدارية.
الموقع، السكان والتسمية : تعتبر كيفيسيا واحدة من الضواحي الشمالية لأثينا بحيث تبعد مسافة 14 كيلومتر عن العاصمة، بحيث تقع جغرافياً بين جبل بنديلي من الشرق ونهر كيفيسوس من الغرب. وتحدها بلدية ماروسي من الجنوب، أخارنيس وَكاماتيرو من الغرب.
يبلغ عدد سكان المدينة حوالي 45 ألف نسمة وتعتبر من الضواحي الراقية لأثينا.
تعود تسمية المدينة لنهر كيفيسوس الذي يمر غربها، حيث كانت المدينة في الفترة الإغريقية الكلاسيكية تدعى باسم إبيكيفيسيا (Epikephesia) بمعنى (فوق كيفيسيا).
التاريخ : يعود تاريخ المدينة للفترة الكلاسيكية حيث كانت إحدى البلدات المحيطة بأثينا القديمة، وهي مسقط رأس الكاتب المسرحي ميناندر.
أصبحت المدينة في الفترة الرومانية منتجعاً ومكان راحة للأغنياء والفلاسفة وأصبحت المدينة وقتها تعرف باسمها اللاتيني سيفيسيا (Cephissia)، وبنيت فيها المنازل الفخمة والفيلات للطبقة الأرستقراطية الأثينية.
يعرف القليل عن تاريخ المدينة في القرون الوسطى، ووجد فقط من تلك الفترة بقايا كنيسة (Panaghia Chelidonas) (عذراء السنونو) والتي ذكر ضمنها حدوث معركة بين سكان المدينة وغزاة غير معروفين.
ذكرها رحالة تركي عام 1667 على أنها بلدة ذات 300 منزل في وسط سهل خصب وأن نصف سكانها كانوا مسلمين، والنصف الآخر مسيحيون. ازدادت أهميتها بعد استقلال اليونان عام 1821 حيث أصبحت منتجعاً صيفياً لأغنياء أثينا، وقد قام أغنياء العاصمة ببناء منازلهم الصيفية في هذه المدينة، تسارع نمو المدينة بعد وصول الخط الحديدي إليها عام 1885 م. وما زالت لليوم تشكل إحدى ضواحي أثينا الراقية.
متفرقات : * تملك المدينة شعبية كبيرة بين سكان أثينا وخاصة الشباب منهم لأنها تملك العديد من المرافق الترفيهية والسياحية، وتعتبر حديقة كيفالاري (Kefalari) إحدى أهم مناطق اللقاء والترويح بين الشباب الأثيني. * توجد في المدينة آخر محطات مترو أثينا من ناحية الشمال (على الخط 1) كيفيسيا - بيرايوس. * من معالم المدينة حجرة باناغيا خيليذوناس (عذراء السنونو) وهي كنيسة تعود للقرون الوسطى، وأيضاً العديد من الفيلات التي تعود للقرن التاسع عشر وأهمها فيلا أتلانتا من تصميم المعماري الألماني تسيللر، بالإضافة إلى الحدائق المتعددة والمراكز الترفيهية. * ما زالت بعض أحياء المدينة تعتبر الأغلى في أثينا مثل كيفالاري (Kefalari) وبوليتيا (Politeia).
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Kifissia
Municipalities of Attica | Populated places in North Athens | Tourism in Greece | Shopping districts and streets
Kifissia (Greek: Κηφισιά, ; Ancient Greek: Κηφισία; Latin: Cephisia) or Kifisia is one of the most expensive northern suburbs of Athens, mainly accessed via Kifissias Avenue, running all the way from central Athens up to Theseos Avenue in the suburb of Nea Erythraia. It has traditionally been home to the major Greek political families. It is home to ISAP's terminal station, presently a part of the Athens Metro project. The Cephissus river runs to the west of Kifissia and has his name derived from Kifissia, and half of the municipality is taken up by part of the Penteli mountain; the rest is made up of elegant urban areas to the west, surrounded by popular and upmarket areas such as Kefallari and Politeia to the north, and Nea Kiffisia to the south-west. Kifissia is a famous recreational neighbourhood for people of all ages (but mostly teenagers) from all over Athens, because of its many available forms of entertainment; the Cinemax Cinemas, the Kifissia Bowling Center, numerous more fashionable shopping malls, as well as many smaller designer shops and upmarket restaurants, bars and nightclubs. It is also home to the Kefalari Park, the most popular place for younger groups to socialize.
Municipality: The municipality Kifissia was formed at the 2011 local government reform by the merger of the following 3 former municipalities, that became municipal units: * Ekali * Kifissia * Nea Erythraia * Quarters or Neighbourhoods * Adames * Ano Kifissia * Kato Kifissia * Kefalari * Nea Kifissia * Politia * History * Antiquity
Ancient Greece: Kifissia, as Cephissia, dates back to ancient times, along with the ancient municipality of Epicephesia. It was the home of the famous dramatist Menander (circa 342-291 BC).
Kifissia had become a famous retreat of philosophers during the reign of the Roman emperor Hadrian, when the wealthy Herodes Atticus of Marathon, Greece built the Villa Kifissia. In his Attic Nights, Aulius Gellius describes the unique ambiance of intellectual ferment and aristocratic leisure in an idyllic setting which he created there. It was also the practice of Herodes to provide free instruction in philosophy for selected youths from Athens.
The remains of the some of his family funeral monuments lie at the centre of the town in Platonas Square. He also beautified a sanctuary to the Nymphs in the ravine of Kokkinara, in the nearby district of Kefalari. * Medieval period
The history of Kifissia during the medieval period is obscure, but the remains of a monastery church dedicated to the Virgin of the Swallow (Panaghia Chelidonas)is associated with a story about a battle fought there between local people and unspecified "invaders". This chapel is a rare example of a monastery church originally provided with a fireplace, for the chimney remains. * Ottoman Era
Ottoman Greece: During Ottoman period, in 1667, Kifissia was visited by the Turkish traveler Evliya Tchelebi. He described a small country town set in a fertile plain of paradisaic beauty, with three hundred tile-roofed houses. Half the inhabitants of the town were Muslims and half were Christian. He records that there was a single mosque, without a minaret, and many small Christian chapels - some of which survive today. * Post Greek Independence
Greek War of Independence: The temperature in Kifissia tends to be significantly lower than that of the city, so following the independence of Greece, it quickly became a summer resort of the ruling class of the new state.
Its popularity faded somewhat during the middle of the Nineteenth Century when the danger of raids by brigands who infested the nearby mountains was very real. However, the suppression of brigandage, and the arrival of the railway in 1885, led to the dramatic development of the area.
It became the fashion for wealthy Athenian families to build summer houses in Kifissia, and keen social competition led to the creation of a unique architectural ambiance, as villas in ever more exotic styles proliferated. For those unable to afford a summer house, many hotels were built, where the slightly less affluent could spend the holiday months rubbing shoulders with their social betters.
The heyday of Kifissia was probably during the inter-war period, when the leaders of the two main rival political parties frequented different hotels in the town together with their most important supporters. * World War II and Civil War
Following the liberation of Greece from German occupation in 1944, the British Royal Air Force ill-advisedly made its headquarters in Kefalari, taking over several hotels. With the outbreak of the Greek Civil War, the RAF personnel were first besieged, then forced to surrender, and marched across the mountains into northern Greece; being released in Trikala only after a truce had been arranged. * Modern Kifissia
Today, Kifissia is an upmarket shopping centre, although many villas have been preserved.
In July 2007, residents panicked as Kifissia was struck by a bush fire the origins of which are said to be arson related. The fire destroyed much of the eastern, partially forested parts of the area. It several houses and buildings that had been built near the forest boundaries but did not cause as much damage as the fire in the Penteli region. The fire lasted several hours, finally being put out at about midnight. Firefighters made use of helicopters as well as airplanes to battle the blaze. * Economy
Aegean Airlines, Eurobank, Eltrak and Metaxa have their head office in Kifisia.
Historical population: * Persons * Menander (circa 342-291 BC), dramatist, born in Kifissia * Emmanuel Benakis, merchant and politician, died in Kifissia * Andreas Empeirikos (1901 in Romania - August 3, 1975), poet, born in Kifissia * Penelope Delta (1874 Alexandria – 27 April 1941) * Theodoros Pangalos, general, died in Kifissia * Themistoklis Sophoulis, politician, died in Kifissia * Evgenios Spatharis (1924–2009), shadow theatre artist, born in Kifissia * References==
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Kephissia
Dème de l'Attique | Dème de Grèce | Ville de l'Attique
Grèce antique: Dans l'Antiquité, Kephissia (en grec ancien Κηφισιά / Kêphisiá) est un dème de l'Attique appartenant à la tribu Érechtéide.
Selon Philochore, historien athénien du IVe siècle av. J.-C.: , Kephissia est à l'origine l'une des bourgades qui participe au synœcisme fondateur d'Athènes . Elle devient un dème à l'époque classique. Le poète comique Ménandre y naît à la fin du IVe: siècle av. J.-C. Au Ier siècle: apr. J.-C., Hérode Atticus y possède une villa que décrit Aulu-Gelle dans ses Nuits Attiques . C'est aujourd'hui le nom d'une municipalité de la mégapole d'Athènes.
Références:
Hellenopedia:
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يوسف شيكلوفسكي
فلكيون روس | مواليد 1916 | وفيات 1985
مواليد 1 تموز 1916 في أوكرانيا توفي في 3 أذار 1985 في موسكو و هو فلكي سوفيتي و هو معروف في نظرياته في الفيزياء الفلكية و أصبح عضو في الأكاديمية السوفيتية للعلوم سنة 1966.
تخصص في الفيزياء الفلكية النظرية وعلم الفلك الراديوي ، وكذلك اهتم بدراسة هالة الشمس و المستعرات العظيمة و الأشعة الكونية وأصولها. وأوضح ، في 1946 ، ان الاشعاع الراديوي القادم من الشمس ينبعث من الطبقات المتأينة من الهالة الشمسية ، كما طور طريقة رياضية للتمييز بين الرياضي موجات الراديو الحرارية والغير حرارية في درب التبانة. كما عرف من خلال اقتراحه أن الإشعاع القادم من سديم السرطان هو نتيجة للإشعاع السنكروتروني . اقترح أن الأشعة الكونية الناتجة من انفجارات المستعرات العظيمة على مسافة 300 سنة ضوئية من الشمس يمكن أن تكون مسؤولة عن انقراض الجماعي للحياة على الأرض.
درس سنة 1959 حركة المداريةللقمر المريخ فوبوس وخلص إلى أن مداره يضمحل و رأى أن هذا نتيجة الاحتكاك مع غلاف المريخ و خلص إلى نتيجة أنه أجوف من الداخل و ربما من أصل صناعي. إلا أن هذا التفسير تضحضه دراسات أخرى.
في 1967 و قبل اكتشاف النجوم النابضة ، بحث عن مصدر الأشعة السينية المنبعثة من برج العقرب العاشر - 1 ، وخلصت إلى أن الإشعاع يأتي من النجم النيوتروني.
سمي الجرم شيكلوفسكي 2849 في حزام الكويكبات الرئيسي على شرفه
بذرة شخصية:
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Iosif Shklovsky
1916 births | 1985 deaths | People from Hlukhiv | Moscow State University alumni | Moscow State University faculty | Soviet astronomers | 20th-century astronomers | Jewish scientists | Soviet scientists | SETI | Interstellar messages
Iosif Samuilovich Shklovsky (Ио́сиф Самуи́лович Шкло́вский; sometimes transliterated Josif, Josif, Shklovskii, Shklovskij) (Hlukhiv, Russian Empire, July 1, 1916 – Moscow, March 3, 1985) was a Soviet astronomer and astrophysicist. He is remembered for work in theoretical astrophysics and other topics, as well as for his 1962 book on extraterrestrial life, the revised and expanded version of which was co-authored by American astronomer Carl Sagan in 1966 as "Intelligent Life in the Universe."
He won the Lenin Prize in 1960 and the Bruce Medal in 1972. Asteroid 2849 Shklovskij and the crater Shklovsky (on the Martian moon Phobos) are named in his honor. He was a Corresponding Member of Soviet Academy of Sciences beginning in 1966.
Early life: Shklovsky was born in Hlukhiv, a city in the Ukrainian part of the Russian Empire, into a poor Ukrainian Jewish family. After graduating from the seven-year secondary school, he worked as a foreman on building Baikal Amur Mainline. In 1933 Shklovsky entered the Physico-Mathematical Faculty of the Moscow State University.
There he studied until 1938, when he took a Postgraduate Course at the Astrophysics Department of the Sternberg State Astronomical Institute and remained working in the Institute until the end of his life.
Research: He specialized in theoretical astrophysics and radio astronomy, as well as the Sun's corona, supernovae, and cosmic rays and their origins. He showed, in 1946, that the radio-wave radiation from the Sun emanates from the ionized layers of its corona, and he developed a mathematical method for discriminating between thermal and nonthermal radio waves in the Milky Way. He is noted especially for his suggestion that the radiation from the Crab Nebula is due to synchrotron radiation, in which unusually energetic electrons twist through magnetic fields at speeds close to that of light. Shklovsky proposed that cosmic rays from supernova explosions within 300 light years of the sun could have been responsible for some of the mass extinctions of life on earth.
In 1959 Shklovsky examined the orbital motion of Mars's inner satellite Phobos. He concluded that its orbit was decaying, and noted that if this decay was attributed to friction with the Martian atmosphere, then the satellite must have an exceptionally low density. In this context he voiced a suggestion that Phobos might be hollow, and possibly of artificial origin. This interpretation has since been refuted by more detailed study, but the apparent suggestion of extraterrestrial involvement caught the public imagination, though there is some disagreement as to how seriously Shklovsky intended the idea to be taken. However, Shklovsky and Carl Sagan argued for serious consideration of "paleocontact" with extraterrestrials in the early historical era, and for examination of myths and religious lore for evidence of such contact.
His 1962 book, Вселенная, жизнь, разум (“Universe, Life, Intelligence”), was expanded upon and reissued in 1966 with American astronomer Carl Sagan as co-author under the title “Intelligent Life in the Universe” (1966). This was the first comprehensive discussion of this field. Discussing the biological as well as astronomical issues of the subject, its unique format, alternating paragraphs written by Shklovsky and Sagan, demonstrated the deep mutual regard between the two and allowed them to express their views without compromise.
In 1967, before the discovery of pulsars, Shklovsky examined the X-ray and optical observations of Scorpius X-1 and correctly concluded that the radiation comes from an accreting neutron star.
Quotes: In the September 1965 issue of Soviet Life, he made the following statement regarding prospects for the future of humanity: * Profound crises lie in wait for a developing civilization and one of them may well prove fatal. We are already familiar with several such critical (situations): * :(a) Self-destruction as a result of a thermonuclear catastrophe or some other discovery which may have unpredictable and uncontrollable consequences. * :(b) Genetic danger. * :(c) Overproduction of information. * :(d) Restricted capacity of the individual's brain which can lead to excessive specialization, with consequent dangers of degeneration. * :(e) A crisis precipitated by the creation of artificial intelligent beings.
Personal life: His memoir, Five Billion Vodka Bottles to the Moon: Tales of a Soviet Scientist, was published posthumously in 1991 by W.W. Norton & Co.
In “Five Billion Vodka Bottles to the Moon,” Shklovsky recalled his visit to Philip Morrison, who in 1959 had co-authored with Cornell University colleague Giuseppe Cocconi the paper in Nature magazine which marks the beginning of the modern search for extraterrestrial life, and their discussion of such issues. Bitter over Soviet anti-semitism, of the five pioneer investigators of the field, Cocconi, Morrison, Cornell University's Frank Drake (of the 1961 Project Ozma and the Drake equation), Sagan, and Shklovsky, Shklovsky was quite aware of sharing his Jewish identity with both Morrison and Sagan. Indeed, Sagan's Jewish heritage was also Ukrainian Jewish.
He was known for his sharp wit and extreme likability. Colleagues in the astronomy department at the University of California, Berkeley, remember fondly his visit there in the 1970s. Well known for his "Intelligent Life in the Universe," he was asked by a graduate student if UFO sightings are as common in the Soviet Union as in the United States. "No," he replied. "In this area the Americans are far more advanced than us."
Bibliography : * I.S. Shklovsky: Cosmic Radio Waves, Cambridge, Harvard University Press, 1960 * I.S. Shklovsky: Вселенная, жизнь, разум (Universe, Life, Intelligence: ), Moscow, USSR Academy of Sciences Publisher, 1962 ** Revised and extended English translation of this book, coauthored with Carl Sagan, was first published in 1966, under the name Intelligent Life in the Universe, one of the latest reissues was published in 1998 by Emerson-Adams Press (ISBN 1-892803-02-X) * I.S. Shklovsky: Physics of the Solar Corona, Pergamon Press, Oxford, UK, 1965 * I.S. Shklovskii, Supernovae, New York: Wiley, 1968 * I.S. Shklovsky: Stars: Their Birth, Life, Death,San Francisco, 1978, ISBN 0-7167-0024-7 * I.S. Shklovsky: Five Billion Vodka Bottles to the Moon: Tales of a Soviet Scientist, W.W. Norton & Company, 1991.
References : reflist: Interstellar messages:
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Iossif Chklovski
Astronome russe | Scientifique soviétique | Naissance dans l'Empire russe | Naissance en 1916 | Décès en 1985 | Lauréat de la médaille Bruce
Chklovski:
Iossif Samouïlovitch Chklovski (1er juillet: 1916 – 3 mars 1985) est un radioastronome russe. Ses travaux s'articulent principalement autour des supernovae et des pulsars, ainsi que sur des problématiques liées à la vie extraterrestre.
Travaux dans le domaine de des supernovae et des pulsars : On lui doit notamment la mise en évidence d'un mécanisme secondaire de formation des pulsars dans les systèmes binaires à faible excentricité orbitale, déduit de l'observation de PSR B0820+02. L'existence de tels systèmes n'est pas prévue par les mécanismes de formation usuels des pulsars, basés sur l'explosion d'une supernova, qui éjecte le résidu compact (pulsar ou trou noir) à grande vitesse (de l'ordre de 1000 kilomètres par seconde) . Il est également découvreur de l'effet Shklovski, correspondant à la lente variation apparente de la période de rotation des pulsar du simple fait de leur déplacement . Il a également identifié la nature exacte de la source de rayons X Scorpius X-1 . C'est également lui qui a identifié la nature du rayonnement de la nébuleuse du Crabe, à savoir une émission synchrotron produite par des électrons ultrarelativistes se déplaçant le long des lignes du champ magnétique du pulsar central .
Il a travaillé à l'observatoire d'astrophysique de Crimée. Son confrère Nikolaï Tchernykh a nommé en son honneur l'astéroïde (2849) Shklovski, découvert le .
Collaboration avec N. Kardashev et vie extraterrestre : Collaborateur de Nikolaï Kardashev et de sa fameuse échelle, il a participé à lécoute de très larges portions de l'univers dans les années 1960 et 70.
Shklovski est aussi célèbre pour une prise de position à rapprocher du Paradoxe de Fermi. Selon l'échelle de Kardashev, une civilisation de Type III est une civilisation qui aurait à sa disposition et qui maîtriserait pour sa consommation d'énergie une puissance d'au moins 1036: W, soit la puissance totale disponible dans la galaxie de résidence de ladite civilisation. D'après Shklovski, si une telle civilisation existe, elle devrait rayonner tellement d'énergie, intentionnellement (message) ou non (fuite), que les Terriens (qui n'ont pas encore atteint le stade de civilisation de Type I, mais pour tout cela cf Échelle de Kardashev), avec la technologie dont ils disposent depuis les années 1960, devraient néanmoins être capables d'intercepter ces messages ou fuites. Devant l'échec de l'interception d'un signal d'origine extra-terrestre, Shklovski, quelque peu désabusé, a conclu au suicide obligé d'une super-civilisation de Type III.
Iosef Shklovski est aussi célèbre pour avoir co-écrit un livre avec Carl Sagan, Intelligent Life in the Universe (1966).
Publications : * Cosmic Radio Waves, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1960. * Physics of the Solar Corona, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1965. * Intelligent Life in the Universe, avec Carl Sagan, Holden Day, San Francisco, 1966, réédition 1998, 1-892803-02-X: * Supernovae, New York John Wiley & Sons, 1968. * Stars: Their Birth, Life, Death, W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, 1978, 0-7167-0024-7: . * Five Billion Vodka Bottles to the Moon: Tales of a Soviet Scientist, avec Mary Fleming Zirin & Harold Zirin W. W. Norton & Company, 1991.
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مايباخ
مصنعو سيارات | شركات ألمانيا | شركات تأسست سنة 1909
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شركة مايباخ ذ.م.م Maybach-Motorenbau GmbH: حيث أن GmbH هي الاختصار الألماني المرادف للاختصار العربي (ذ.م.م) أي شركة ذات مسؤولية محدودة وشركة مايباخ هي شركة ألمانية تصنع السيارات الفاخرة. تأسست الشركة عام 1909 على يد فيلهلم مايباخ وبإدارة إبنه كارل مايباخ. وكانت الشركة أولا فرع من شركة لوفتشيفباو تسيبيلين ش.ذ.م.م Luftschiffbau Zeppelin GmbH: , والتي تعني حرفيا شركة محركات المناطيد, حتى عام 1918.كانت منذ 70 سنة ملك لشركة بي ام دبليو وهي الآن ملك لشركة دايملر كرايسلر ومقرها شتوتغارت.
مصنعو السيارات: بذرة شركة: أسبوع الويكي: Maybach vehicles:
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Maybach
Daimler AG | Full-size vehicles | Maybach | Motor vehicle manufacturers of Germany | Aircraft engine manufacturers of Germany | Companies established in 1909 | Companies based in Stuttgart | German brands | Car manufacturers of Germany | Luxury brands
Maybach-Motorenbau GmbH (ˈmaɪbax: ) is a German luxury car manufacturer. It was founded in 1909 by Wilhelm Maybach and his son. The company was originally a subsidiary of Luftschiffbau Zeppelin GmbH and was itself known as Luftfahrzeug-Motorenbau GmbH until 1912.
Today, the ultra-luxury car brand is owned by Daimler AG and based in Stuttgart. Tognum AG based in Friedrichshafen manufactures the commercial Maybach diesel engines under the MTU brand through its subsidiary MTU Friedrichshafen GmbH.
Daimler announced in November 2011 that Maybach will cease to be a brand by 2013. * 1909–1940: Early history
Maybach has historic roots through the involvement of Wilhelm Maybach, who was the technical director of the Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft (DMG) until he left in 1907. On 23 March 1909 he founded the new company, Luftfahrzeug-Motorenbau GmbH (literally "Aircraft Engine Building Company"), with his son Karl Maybach as director.date: April 2011: In 1912 they renamed it to Maybach-Motorenbau GmbH ("Maybach Engine Construction Company"). The company originally developed and manufactured diesel and petrol engines for Zeppelins, and then rail cars. The Maybach Mb.IVa was used in aircraft and airships of World War I.
The company first built an experimental car in 1919, with the first production model introduced two years later at the Berlin Motor Show. Between 1921 and 1940, the company produced various classic opulent vehicles. The company also continued to build heavy duty diesel engines for marine and rail purposes. During the second world war, Maybach produced the engines for Nazi Germany's medium and heavy tanks.
After WW II the factory performed some repair work, but automotive production was never restarted, and some 20 years later, the company was renamed MTU Friedrichshafen. Daimler-Benz purchased the company in 1960.
clear: 1997–2013: revival: In 1997, Mercedes-Benz presented at the Tokyo Motorshow a luxury concept car under the name Mercedes-Benz Maybach (V12, 5987 cc, 550 hp). Mercedes-Benz decided to develop and market the car under the sole brand name of Maybach, as parent Daimler wanted an ultra-luxury marque to compete with Rolls-Royce and Bentley, which recently came under the ownership of Daimler's domestic rivals BMW and Volkswagen Group. Maybach was therefore revived as a brand in the early 2000s. The company offered various options for customers to personalise their vehicles, and provides various equipment combinations.
Production of the new model commenced in two sizes — the Maybach 57 and the Maybach 62. The numbers are equal to the lengths of the automobiles in decimetres. In 2005, the new 57S was added, sporting a 6.0L V12 bi-turbo engine, producing and of torque, and featuring various cosmetic touches.
To promote the new Maybach line, Mercedes-Benz has tapped public figures to act as brand ambassadors, including Maybach heir Ulrich Schmid-Maybach, golfer Nick Faldo and in 2006 rap music icon Jay-Z featured the limited edition Maybach Exelero (coupe) in his ground breaking music video entitled "Lost One". The video was first released on December 4, 2006, Jay-Z's 37th birthday and notably features the rare concept car Maybach Exelero owned by diamond mogul André Action Jackson.
The base price of a 2009 Maybach 57 was $344,000; the Maybach 57 S, $381,000; the Maybach 62, $394,000; the Maybach 62 S, $430,000, and the Maybach Landaulet semi convertible costs just over 1 million. The Maybach 57 Zeppelin is priced at €406,000 ($580,000) and the 62 Zeppelin at €473,200 ($677,000).
Initially, Daimler-Chrysler predicted annual sales of 2,000 global units with 50% coming from the United States; however, such lofty sales expectations never materialized. In 2007 Mercedes bought back 29 US dealers, reducing the total from 71 to 42. * Cessation
With less than stellar sales expectations and heavy impact of 2008 financial crises, Daimler AG undertook a review of the whole Maybach division. These included talks with Aston Martin to engineer and style the next generation of Maybach models along with the next generation of Lagonda models. According to Automotive News, only 44 Maybachs have been sold in the U.S. up to October 2011 year to date.
However, on 25 November 2011, Daimler announced that sales of all Maybach models and the brand would cease in 2013, even though sales of the brand grew 20% this year.
The line will be replaced by the next-generation of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class due for the 2013 model year, particularly the S-Class Pullman. An executive told a Frankfurt newspaper that: "(Daimler) came to the conclusion that the sales chances for the Mercedes brand were better than that of Maybach."
According to Fortune Magazine, after missing out on the chance to purchase Rolls-Royce and Bentley when they were up for sale in the 1990s, "Mercedes backpedaled and decided it needed to be in the ultra-luxury business too, but it went after it in a remarkably clumsy way". Fortunate stated that the first Maybach models had poor driving dynamics compared to its contemporaries from Rolls-Royce and Bentley, as "Mercedes took an aging S-class chassis and plopped an absurdly elongated body on it...rather than develop a new car from the wheels up, as BMW did with Rolls-Royce, or cleverly use the underpinnings of an existing model like the Audi A8 for a new Bentley". Furthermore, Maybachs were never advertised as owner-driven vehicles, as the company believed that the luxury amenities would be sufficient to sell and they even insisted that auto journalists (who usually test drive the vehicle) ride in the backseat.
Another suggestion for Maybach's struggles was that parent Daimler had failed to differentiate it from its Mercedes-Benz brand. While all three ultra-luxury marques share platforms and engines with other luxury brands from their parent auto company, Maybachs are built alongside the Mercedes-Benz S-Class flagship sedan, whereas Rolls-Royce and Bentley are assembled in England (separate from the rest of BMW and Volkswagen Group's production plants) and thus are regarded as being more "exclusive". Furthermore the Maybach's pedigree was virtually unknown outside of Germany unlike its British rivals which have long enjoyed renown worldwide; indeed the 2006 Rolls-Royce Phantom's interior evokes memories of a 1930s car while the Maybach 57S's inside makes no reference to its marque's history.
Models: Pre-war: * 1919 Maybach W1: Test car based on a BMW chassis * 1921 Maybach W3: First Maybach, shown at Berlin Motor Show. Featured a 5.7L inline six. * 1926 Maybach W5: 7L inline six, * 1929 Maybach 12: V12 precursor to DS7/8 * 1930 Maybach DSH: Doppel-Sechs-Halbe ("half a twelve cylinder") 1930-37 * 1930 Maybach DS7 Zeppelin: 7L V12, * 1931 Maybach W6: Same engine as W5, longer wheelbase. 1931-33 * 1931 Maybach DS8 Zeppelin: 8L V12, * 1934 Maybach W6 DSG: Featuring a twin overdrive transmission system. * 1935 Maybach SW35: 3.5L I6 * 1936 Maybach SW38: 3.8L I6 * 1939 Maybach SW42: 4.2L I6 * 1945 Maybach JW61: 3.8L I6
W2 were the 5.7L inline six engines built for and ordered by Spyker. Not all were purchased, and Karl had to build cars featuring the engines to offset costs.
Around 1800 Maybachs were built before WW II.
Engines: * Maybach HL120 * Maybach HL116 * Maybach HL210 * Maybach HL230
Post-revival: * 2002 Maybach 57 and 62 * 2005 Maybach Exelero (prototype shown at the IAA in Frankfurt) * 2005 Maybach 57S (the S standing for Special rather than Sport) * 2006 Maybach 62S * 2007 Maybach 62 Landaulet * 2009 Maybach 57 Zeppelin and Maybach 62 Zeppelin * 2011 Maybach Guard
In popular culture: Rapper Rick Ross has named his record label Maybach Music Group in reference to the car brand, the label's logo being a variation of the car brand's. Ross also released a single called Maybach Music 2, one version of a track which has appeared in different variations on three of his albums.
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Maybach
Constructeur automobile allemand | Daimler | Entreprise fondée en 1910
Maybach est un constructeur automobile, fondé par Wilhelm Maybach, spécialisé dans les voitures de luxe, telles que les Maybach-Zeppelin DS7 et DS8 produites entre 1928 et 1934.
Histoire : Les débuts : Wilhelm Maybach ( - ) travaillera longtemps avec Gottlieb Daimler et participera au développement de tous les premiers moteurs Daimler jusqu'au 70 ch de 1906. Après un différend avec Daimler, il s'associe en 1907 avec Ferdinand von Zeppelin pour développer des moteurs de dirigeables.
Tous les dirigeables Zeppelin (jusqu'au Graf von Zeppelin) seront équipés en exclusivité de moteurs Maybach.
Disponible en 1915, la série CX à 6 cylindres de de cylindrée développe 210 ch (à 1300 tr/min). Près de 2000 moteurs seront construits durant la Première Guerre mondiale. Ils étaient renommés pour leur endurance qui atteignait 40 heures, un record pour l'époque !
Le plus perfectionné, le MBIVa, fournit 260 ch et dispose d'un carburateur réglable suivant l'altitude, lui permettant de maintenir sa puissance jusqu'à 1 800 m.
Entre les deux guerres : Le traité de Versailles interdit à la République de Weimar, l'Allemagne d'après guerre, la fabrication de dirigeables. Maybach se tourne vers l'automobile, sous la dénomination de Maybach Motorenbau et présente son premier modèle W1 dès 1921. La W3 à moteur 6 cylindres suit rapidement (1922), toutes fabriquées à Friedrichshafen près du lac de Constance
Rapidement, la marque monte en gamme avec la W5 puis, en 1928, les premiers modèles de très grand luxe Zeppelin, avec moteur V12 sont lancés.
Son fils Karl qui le secondait depuis plusieurs années reprend le flambeau à sa mort en 1929. Il lance des modèles 6 cylindres de la série SW en 1936. La production se poursuit jusqu'en 1941 pour atteindre 1 800 exemplaires au total (dont près de 200 "Zeppelin").
La Seconde Guerre mondiale : Durant la Seconde Guerre mondiale Maybach était le principal fournisseur de moteur pour les chars Allemands. Ses moteurs, à essence, équipaient les Panzer III (Maybach HL120 TRM principalement), Panzer IV (Maybach HL120 TRM principalement), Elefant (Maybach HL120 TRM), Tigre I, Tigre II Königstiger, Jagdtiger, Panther, Jagdpanther... ces cinq derniers étant équipés du plus puissant moteur de char produit en série durant la guerre, le Maybach HL230 (V12 essence, 23,8 litres, 700 ch). Le Tiger I, dont Maybach fabriquait aussi la boîte de vitesse, reçu également le Maybach HL210 P45.
La capitulation en mai 1945 a interrompu la mise au point du Maybach HL234, évolution du HL230 qu'il devait remplacer sur les nouveaux chars, sa puissance devant atteindre 900 ch.
Près de 20 ans plus tard, l'entreprise a été rebaptisée MTU Friedrichshafen.
La marque ne se relèvera pas de la Seconde Guerre mondiale et tombera dans les marques oubliées du groupe Mercedes-Benz jusqu'en 2002.
La résurrection : Recréée sous le nom Maybach Manufaktur, elle est aujourd'hui la marque de très haut de gamme du groupe.
Depuis son rachat, Maybach a développé les modèles 57 et 62 (respectivement 5,7m et 6,2m de long), des berlines de grand luxe disponibles également en version sport avec la 57S et 62S depuis 2006. Elles sont basées sur une plateforme de Mercedes Classe S modifiée et allongée.
Maybach a aussi conçu une voiture d'exception nommée Exelero, une « sportive » de 5,89m et 2.7T avec 700 chevaux et un couple de 1020Nm. Elle passe de 0 à en seulement 4.4s.
Lors d’essais sur l’anneau de Nardo en Italie, elle a atteint ; un record du monde pour une limousine chaussée de pneus de série.
Avec Rolls Royce et Bentley, Maybach fait aujourd'hui partie de l'élite dans le domaine de véhicules de luxe, certains modèles avoisinant le million de dollars.
Il est intéressant de noter que cette renaissance est aussi due à l'engouement de certains rappeurs américains, au premier rang desquels on trouve Rick Ross "The Boss", connu pour avoir lancé son label Maybach Music, the hottest label in the game, et avoir enregistré un certain nombre de titres du même nom (notamment le fameux Maybach Music avec Jay-Z). Il peut d'ailleurs aujourd'hui être qualifié d'ambassadeur officieux de la marque, faisant de la Maybach un objet de reconnaissance sociale et de réussite dans le milieu du rap, à en juger par les paroles de la chanson My President is Black de Jay-Z dans laquelle il déclare : « My President is black/ My Maybach too... ».
Néanmoins, le groupe Daimler a annoncé en cette fin 2011 qu'il cessera la production des deux modèles existants dans le courant de l'année 2013.
Bien que gagnant de l'argent sur chaque voiture produite, le groupe avoue ainsi que la marque Maybach n'a pu s'imposer face à Bentley et Rolls-Royce, puisque la production annuelle ne dépassait pas 10% de l'objectif fixé par le constructeur.
En conséquence de quoi la décision a été prise de ne pas prolonger cette aventure.
Modèles : Avant guerre : * 1919 Maybach W1: prototype basé sur un châssis Mercedes * 1921 Maybach W3: première Maybach, présentée au Salon automobile de Berlin * 1926 Maybach W5 * 1929 Maybach 12 * 1930 Maybach DSH * 1930 Maybach DS7 Zeppelin * 1931 Maybach W6 * 1931 Maybach DS8 Zeppelin * 1934 Maybach W6 DSG * 1935 Maybach SW35 * 1936 Maybach SW38 * 1939 Maybach SW42 * 1945 Maybach JW61
Nouvelle génération : * 2002 Maybach 57 et 62 * 2005 Maybach Exelero (prototype présenté au Salon automobile de Francfort) * 2005 Maybach 57S (le S fait référence à Special et non à Sport) * 2006 Maybach 62S * 2007 Maybach 62 Landaulet * 2009 Maybach 57 Zeppelin et Maybach 62 Zeppelin
Lien externe : * en:
Palette Constructeurs automobiles: Daimler AG:
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مشروع
إدارة مشروعات | التعاونية
المشروع في مجال الأعمال والعلوم هو مؤسسة تعاونية، كثيرا ما ينطوي على بحث أو تصميم، وهو مخطط بعناية لتحقيق هدف معين.9] ^ Oxford English Dictionary
نبذة عامة : كلمة مشروع في الإنجليزية (Project) تأتي من كلمة لاتينية projectum من الفعل اللاتيني proicere "، يرمي شيء إلى الأمام" الذي بدوره يأتي من pro- الذي يدل على شيء يسبق العمل في الجزء التالي من الكلمة في الوقت (بالتوازي مع πρό اليونانية وiacere، "يرمي". وبالتالي كلمة "مشروع" تعني أصلا "الشيء الذي يأتي قبل حدوث كل شيء يحدث".
استخدامات محددة : المشروع الاقتصادي : يقصد بالمشروع من الناحية الاقتصادية أي تنظيم يعمل على الإنتاج والمبادلة أو يرمي إلى تداول الأموال والخدمات بهدف الحصول على ربح.
والمشروع هو وحدة أقتصادية تجتمع فيها العناصر البشرية والمادية، والمشروعات أما أن تكون خاصة أو تعاونية أو عامة، فالمشروعات الخاصة هي التي تعمل على أساس المصلحة الشخصية، وتحقيق الربح لصاحب المشروع. والمشروعات العامة تستهدف القيام بخدمة المجتمع، وهي تشمل المشاريع التي تتولاها الهيئات والمؤسسات الحكومية ذات النفع العام كالماء والكهرباء وصيانة الطرق، وغيرها. وقد لا تغطي المشروعات العامة تكاليف ونفقات أنتاجها. أما المشروعات التعاونية فيراد بها خدمة أعضائها الذين ساهموا في تكوين هذه الجمعيات التعاونية، فيما بينهم، والقصد منها ألغاء دور الوسيط سواء في الشراء أو التسويق. ويفترق المشروع عن المنشأة (Establishment)، في أن المشروع قد يكون مكونا من عدة منشآت.
فالمشروع هو الوحدة الاقتصادية التي تنظم عناصر الإنتاج والمنشأة جزء منه. ولقد عرف هيرسون1992 المشروع بأنه " أى سلسة من الانشطة أو المهام التي لها اهداف محددة وله بداية ونهاية محددتان وله تمويل محدد ويستعمل المصادر المختلفة من اموال ووقت ومعدات "
المدارس والجامعات : في المدارس والجامعات، المشروع هو عبارة عن بحث يعطى لطالب الذي عادة ما يحتاج إلى قدر أكبر من الجهد والمزيد من العمل المستقل مما يتطلبه المقال العادي. وهو يتطلب من الطلاب تولى تقصي وتحليل الحقائق، إما من البحث في المكتبة أو الإنترنت أو من جمع بيانات تجريبية. التقرير الخطي الذي يأتي من هذا المشروع هو عادة في شكل أطروحة، يحتوي على أقسام معينة عن بداية المشروع، وأساليب التحقيق والتحليل والنتائج والاستنتاجات.
المشروع الهندسي : المشروع الهندسي هو نوع معين من النظم التكنولوجية، المضمنة عامة في سياق النظم التكنولوجية المشاريع الهندسية، في كثير من البلدان، تحديدا التي حددتها التشريعات، الأمر الذي يتطلب أن هذه المشاريع يجب أن تنفذ بواسطة مهندسين اسجلين و/ أو الشركات الهندسية مسجلة. وهذه الشركات لديها ترخيص لمزاولة أعمال مثل تصميم وتشييد المباني ومحطات الكهرباء والمنشآت الصناعية، وتركيب وتشييد الشبكات الكهربائية، والبنية التحتية والنقل وما شابه ذلك.
ونطاق هذا المشروع محدد في العقد المبرم بين المالك وأطراف الهندسة والبناء. وكقاعدة عامة، أي مشروع هندسي يتم تقسيمه إلى مراحل التصميم والإنشاء. نواتج عملية التصميم هي الرسومات، وحسابات، وجميع وثائق التصميم الأخرى لازمة لتنفيذ المرحلة التالية.
إدارة المشاريع : في إدارة المشاريع يتكون المشروع من محاولة مؤقتة متخذة لخلق منتج، خدمة أو نتيجة متميزة. تعريف آخر هو إدارة البيئة التي يتم إنشاؤها لغرض توفير منتج تجاري أو أكثر وفقا لتحديد حالة قطاع الأعمال
يحدد موضوع المشروع حالة الهدف في نهاية المشروع، والتوصل إلى ما يعتبر ضروري من أجل تحقيق الفوائد الطلوبة. ويمكن أن تصاغ في كلمة S.M.A.R.T : محدد قابل للقياس (أو على الأقل للتقييم) وقابل الإنجاز، وقابل للتحقيق (في الآونة الأخيرة يستخدم مقبول)، واقعي (نظرا للحالة الراهنة للموارد التنظيمية) وتوقيت الإنهاء. ويحدث التقييم (القياس) غند إغلاق المشروع. ومع ذلك ينبغي الحفاظ على الحراسة المستمرة على سير العمل في المشروع بالرصد والتقييم. ومن الجدير بالذكر أيضا أن سمارت هو أفضل تطبيق على المشاريع الابتكارية date: October 2008: ولا ينطبق على المشاريع الجذرية كذلك. وتميل أهداف مثل هذه المشاريع إلى أن تكون واسعة ونوعية، ممتدة/ وغير واقعية ويحركها النجاح.
أمثلة على المشاريع البارزة : * مشروع الجينوم البشري الذي وضع خريطة للجينوم البشري * مشروع مانهاتن، الذي وضع أول قنبلة نووية * مشروع صاروخ بولاريس : وهو نظام مراقبة للقارات * مشروع أبولو، التي هبطت البشر على سطح القمر * مشروع القنبلة الذرية السوفياتي * المشارية السوفياتية لتأهيل سطح القمر
أنظر أيضاً: project: * مشروع العملاق * التحكم في المشروع * معهد إدارة المشاريع * برمجيات إدارة المشاريع * تخطيط المشاريع * مخروط عدم اليقين
المراجع: ثبت المراجع:
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Project
Projects | Project management | Collaboration
For Wikipedian Projects, see : A project in business and science is typically defined as a collaborative enterprise, frequently involving research or design, that is carefully planned to achieve a particular aim. Projects can be further defined as temporary rather than permanent social systems that are constituted by teams within or across organizations to accomplish particular tasks under time constraints.
Overview: The word project comes from the Latin word projectum from the Latin verb proicere, "to throw something forward" which in turn comes from pro-, which denotes something that precedes the action of the next part of the word in time (paralleling the Greek πρό) and iacere, "to throw". The word "project" thus actually originally meant "something that comes before anything else happens".
When the English language initially adopted the word, it referred to a plan of something, not to the act of actually carrying this plan out. Something performed in accordance with a project became known as an "object".
Specific uses: School and university: At school, educational institute and independent work than is involved in a normal essay assignment. It requires students to undertake their own fact-finding and analysis, either from library/internet research or from gathering data empirically. The written report that comes from the project is usually in the form of a dissertation, which will contain sections on the project's inception, methods of inquiry, analysis, findings and conclusions.
Engineering project: Engineering projects are, in many countries, specifically defined by legislation, which requires that such projects should be carried out by registered engineers and/or registered engineering companies. That is, companies with license to carry out such works as design and construction of buildings, power plants, industrial facilities, installation and erection of electrical grid networks, transportation infrastructure and the like.
The scope of the project is specified in a contract between the owner and the engineering and construction parties. As a rule, an engineering project is broken down into design and construction phases. The outputs of the design process are drawings, calculations, and all other design documentation necessary to carry out the next phase. The next phase would normally be sending the project plans to a developer who will then help construct the plans (builiding).
Project management: In project management a project consists of a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service or result. Another definition is a management environment that is created for the purpose of delivering one or more business products according to a specified business case.
Project objectives define target status at the end of the project, reaching of which is considered necessary for the achievement of planned benefits. They can be formulated as SMART criteria : Specific, Measurable (or at least evaluable) achievement, Achievable (recently Agreed-to or Acceptable are used regularly as well), realistic (given the current state of organizational resources) and Time terminated (bounded). The evaluation (measurement) occurs at the project closure. However a continuous guard on the project progress should be kept by monitoring and evaluating. It is also worth noting that SMART is best applied for incremental type innovation projects.dateOctober 2008: For radical type projects it does not apply as well. Goals for such projects tend to be broad, qualitative, stretch/unrealistic and success driven. * Examples of notable projects== * Human Genome Project which mapped the human genome * Manhattan Project, which developed the first nuclear weapon * Polaris missile project: an ICBM control-system * Project Apollo, which landed humans on the moon * Soviet atomic bomb project * Soviet manned lunar projects and programs * Project-706 * Great Pyramid of Giza
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Projet
Gestion de projet
Un projet est un engagement irréversible dont le résultat est incertain, il vise à répondre à un besoin exprimé ou à résoudre une problématique explicitée et nécessite le concours et l’intégration d’une grande diversité de contributions
Le fonctionnement en "mode projet" se distingue du fonctionnement en "mode processus" en ce sens qu'une activité conduite en mode projet n'est généralement pas destinée a priori à être répétée :
Son côté « inédit et unique » souligne la forte probabilité d'être confronté à un environnement hautement incertain .( du fait de l'absence plus ou moins grande d'expériences ou de pratiques antérieures ).
Étymologie : Le mot projet provient du mot latin projectus , participe passé dérivé de pro-jicere, « jeter quelque chose vers l'avant » dont le préfixe pro- signifie « qui précède dans le temps » et le radical jicere signifie « jeter ». Au XII° , "porjeter" signifie jeter au loin , en avant . Au XV° , apparait "projeter" dont l'usage s'étend avec le retour du préfixe "pro"
Initialement le projet désigne davantage la volonté d'obtenir un résultat plutôt que l'action d'exécution proprement dite . Le résultat visé étant qualifié d'« objet ».
Courant XX°, le mot « projet » évolue , surtout à partir des années 1950, quand plusieurs techniques de gestion de projet sont élaborées : le mot " Projet " dans son acception actuelle couvre à la fois l'intention visée et le dispositif prévu pour la réaliser .
Enjeux de la notion de projet : Comme engagement irréversible, le coût d'un projet est généralement important. Le fait que le résultat soit incertain a poussé à approfondir ce qui fait qu'un projet puisse aboutir à un succès par une analyse de gestion.
Mais il y aurait un risque à réduire le projet à la seule dimension de sa réalisation technique. Quelle signification revêt-il pour les hommes qui s'en emparent, le vivent, le subissent ou le font subir ? Dans l'analyse anthropologique qu'il a réalisée sur le sujet, Jean Pierre Boutinet a repéré quatre types de projets: * le projet sur l'autre selon le modèle de la commande sociale, * le projet pour l'autre selon le modèle paternaliste, * le projet avec l'autre selon le modèle participatif, * le projet de l'autre selon le modèle de l'autonomie.
Tenter l‘élaboration d’une anthropologie du projet, c’est chercher à comprendre comment fonctionne le projet dans différents ensembles culturels. Il y aurait quatre dimensions constitutives de la figure du projet relevant de quatre approches scientifiques distinctes : * la nécessité vitale (biologie), * l’enjeu existentiel (phénoménologie), * la perspective pragmatique (praxéologie), * l’opportunité culturelle (ethnologie).
Nos sociétés modernes sont devenues des « sociétés à projets ». Les projets concernent autant les institutions (projet scolaire, projet d'établissement hospitalier, projet de loi, projet politique, projet de société...) que les individus, à tous les stades de la vie (du projet éducatif au projet de retraite, en passant par les projets professionnels, familiaux, existentiels...). Cette omniprésence du mode projet dans tous les aspects de l'activité humaine renvoie à une vision idéalisée de ce mode d'action. Le projet semble alors devenu un instrument qui donne l'espoir à l'homme de ne plus seulement subir les évènements, mais de pouvoir maîtriser le cours de l'histoire et forger le futur à sa façon. De quoi parle-t-on exactement ? Que se cache-t-il réellement derrière ce mot magique, supposé constituer un remède miracle pour les hommes et les organisations de ce début de siècle ?.
Nature de la notion de projet : En principe un projet n'est pas une simple idée jetée en l'air, mais suppose d'être décrit et planifié, par exemple selon la méthode CQQCOQP * Quoi (les actions) * Qui (les gens concernés) * Où (les domaines touchés par le projet, voire les lieux) * Quand (programmation dans le temps) * Comment (moyens, méthodes...) * Combien (le budget) * Pourquoi (les motifs et les objectifs)
On doit répondre clairement à ces questions pour bien commencer le projet, et veiller à ce que les objectifs du projet soient clairement bien définis et bien compris par les parties prenantes.
Démarche d'analyse de la notion de projet : Il est possible de chercher à s'assurer qu'il sera donné toutes les armes pour réussir un projet. Il est possible de réaliser une gestion de projet.
Un projet peut être régulé par un plan de développement ou planifié, ce qui cloisonne sa progression par des contraintes, en le limitant à des objectifs et des paramètres déterminés. La planification, l'exécution et le contrôle de projets de grande envergure demandent parfois la mise en place d'une organisation temporaire, qui consiste en une équipe de projet et une ou plusieurs équipes de travail. Un projet nécessite le plus souvent des ressources humaines (ex: spécialiste aérodynamique), matérielles (ex: machine-outil), logicielles (ex: progiciel de modélisation géométrique) et financières.
Projet et processus : Pour bien saisir la différence de nature entre les activités de type projet, on les compare souvent aux activités dites de « processus »
L'apparition de la structure de projet : Pendant plusieurs décennies, les entreprises ont cherché à augmenter leur profit en diminuant leurs coûts (amélioration des processus, fusions pour économies d'échelle,...).
Mais aujourd'hui cette bataille est perdue d'avance pour les entreprises implantées dans les pays développés en raison de la concurrence irrésistible des pays en voie de développement aux coûts de main d'œuvre imbattables.
Une solution possible est donc de créer de la valeur en innovant constamment. La structure la mieux adaptée pour cet objectif d'innovation est celle du projet. En effet elle permet de gérer un environnement qui ne durera pas (à l'inverse de la production de série) et où les décisions seront donc irréversibles.
Plus tard, la structure de projet se révèlera aussi utile pour la résolution rapide de problèmes apparus après le démarrage de la production.
L'intérêt de l'organisation en mode projet : L'organisation professionnelle en « mode projet » est complémentaire à celle classiquement pratiquée par les entreprises depuis le début du XXe siècle, à savoir celle en « mode métier ». Le croisement des 2 concepts donne d'ailleurs naissance à l'organisation matricielle Métier/Projet pratiquée depuis les années 1980 dans les grandes organisations industrielles.
L'organisation métier était la plus appropriée lorsque la pression du temps sur les entreprises était bien moins grande qu'aujourd'hui, notamment du fait de marchés tirés par la demande. C'est une structuration adaptée à la capitalisation des savoirs et savoir-faire par les spécialistes métier. Malheureusement, cette structure « métier » n'est pas adaptée à la tenue des délais et des budgets.
Le principal avantage de l'organisation en « mode projet » est donc la tenue des délais dans la conception et la livraison des objets du projet et par conséquent des budgets (selon de vieil adage « Time is Money »).
Par ailleurs, l'organisation projet est également dotée d'instruments de mesure des coûts « à tous les étages » de telle sorte que chaque décideur peut toujours savoir, à tout instant, ce que coûte un projet et quelles sont les ressources financières déjà engagées. Cette caractéristique propre à l'organisation en « mode projet » permet alors d'appliquer des politiques de management relevant du « pilotage de projet » (ex: planification prévisionnelle, mesure des dérives, plan d'actions correctives, ...).
La place des projets dans l'entreprise : Les projets sont généralement réalisés par des entreprises. Le but du projet étant d’apporter de l’innovation pour augmenter la valeur du produit et donc avoir des produits compétitifs. Seulement, les projets n’ont pas tous la même ampleur et toutes les entreprises sont différentes. Ainsi, on voit apparaître différent type d’entreprise à projet :
L’entreprise qui réalise des projets en coopération est une entreprise qui n’a pas les capacités ou les ressources pour créer un projet par ses propres moyens. Elle fait donc appel à des entreprises extérieures pour réaliser certaines parties du projet. La sous-traitance peut concerner plusieurs parties du projet et non pas uniquement la production comme on le pense souvent. En effet, une entreprise peut faire appel à une autre entreprise pour la production, mais aussi la conception, l’aspect mercatique … L’industrie de l’automobile est un bon exemple des entreprises qui effectuent des projets en coopération.
Les projets qui sont réalisés par plusieurs entreprises sont des projets qui font appel à des domaines complètement différents et qui sont donc gérés par plusieurs entreprises à niveau d’investissement équivalent. L’organisation est centrée sur le projet et non sur les entreprises. Ainsi, ces types de projets ont la nécessité d’un coordinateur de projet pour gérer les différentes ressources humaines. Le domaine du BTP est régi par ce type d’organisation où chacune des entreprises apporte une compétence particulière (électricité, toiture, maçonnerie,…).
La dernière forme d’entreprises concerne celles qui ont la capacité d’effectuer des petits projets au sein même de l’entreprise et qui pour de plus grands projets font appel à d’autres entreprises pour une coentreprise. Ces entreprises ont une multitude de ressources, elles sont donc généralement de grandes tailles. Ainsi, elles effectuent dans l’entreprise une multitude de petits projets internes. Concernant les grands projets, pour des raisons de ressource ou de prise de risque, ces entreprises font appel à d’autres entreprises pour effectuer des projets en collaboration autrement appelés des JV. L’industrie des nouvelles technologies utilise ce type d’organisation pour avoir une meilleure compétitivité dans un marché difficile.
Les typologies de projet dans les entités structurelles : Les acteurs du projet :
Ces acteurs sont liés par :
Leurs différentes manières de s'organiser : structure fonctionnelle
Chaque spécialiste métier reste dans sa division et communiquera directement avec ses homologues pour faire les choix relatifs au projet.
Dans ce cas il n'y a pas de chef commun. L'implication dans le projet ne se fait que si les acteurs s'y attachent et que leur direction métier peut leur laisser suffisamment de temps.
structure de coordination de projet
Le coordinateur n'est qu'un gestionnaire du projet : il ne dirige pas tous les acteurs mais il est en relation étroite avec les chefs de projet métier. Les acteurs sont donc déchargés de la tâche de gestion de projet, qui est en plus effectuée de façon plus efficace puisque centralisée. Mais il n'y a toujours pas de direction du projet qui pourrait « concurrencer » les directions métier.
Structure de direction de projet :
Le directeur de projet gagne en pouvoir puisqu'il a un poids hiérarchique sur les autres participants au projet. Cela lui permettra d'y apporter encore plus de cohérence en donnant des priorités dans la réalisation des différentes tâches du projet plutôt que des conseils qui pouvaient être plus ou moins suivis. Cependant apparaît le problème du conflit de direction puisque les intervenants métiers ont maintenant deux chefs : un pour leur métier et un pour le projet. Leur comportement risque d'être encore plus imprévisible.
La structure de projet sorti :
Tous les acteurs du projet quittent la structure dans laquelle ils étaient (y compris physiquement : le travail sur le projet se fait souvent en plateau (open-space) pour une meilleure circulation de l'information).
La hiérarchie est maintenant claire et l'efficacité grandement améliorée (plusieurs années de développement gagnées pour le développement d'une voiture par exemple).
Le problème se pose cependant de la reconversion des différents acteurs à la fin du projet puisqu'ils auront perdu leur compétence métier en ayant passé plusieurs années sur des actions variées. De plus, si l'entreprise n'a pas de projet à proposer directement à la suite, ces acteurs risquent d'être débauchés par des concurrents qui lancent leur projet.
L’évolution des montages de projets : Les projets peuvent être organisés suivant des schémas complexes (provoquant coûts et délais) du fait qu'ils doivent s'insérer dans l'organisation pré existante de l'entreprise, elle même complexe. Pour améliorer leur rendement, les ingénieurs en management de projet au cours des années ont créé des types de montage visant à simplifier ces schémas.
Les projets sont passés d’un schéma traditionnel à celui de l'ingénierie intégrée.
Avant les années 1980, au début de l’apparition des projets, les projets étaient régis par le développement séquentiel traditionnel. Ce type de montage est le plus simple mais le moins efficace. Les tâches passent d’un service à l’autre selon le principe « over the wall ». Un service effectue une action complètement puis la passe au service suivant. Ce mode de tâches successive n’est pas efficace à cause du temps total du projet qui est la somme du temps de chaque tâche.
Dans les années 1980, les projets dont le développement se fait en ingénierie simultanée et AV font leur apparition. Contrairement au développement séquentiel traditionnel, les tâches sont effectuées le plus possible en même temps. La durée du projet est ainsi très largement réduite. Cependant ce type d’organisation de projet demande une organisation lourde pour gérer tous les services en même temps. Pour éviter ce problème, on fait appel à un coordinateur de projet qui permet de gérer l’ensemble du projet et notamment les relations inter-services. Ainsi, on obtient des projets rapides avec des coûts réduits.
Dans les années 1990, les projets sont complètement restructurés avec l’apparition de l’ingénierie intégrée. Tout le projet est centré géographiquement sur un plateau où tous les services sont représentés. On obtient ainsi une équipe pluridisciplinaire. L’absence de corps de métier et la centralisation géographique du projet permet d’améliorer nettement la communication au sein du projet. Ainsi, les projets sont encore plus rapides et moins coûteux. Par contre, des problèmes apparaissent à la fin du projet. Que faire des acteurs du projet ? En effet, l’entreprise peut les placer sur un autre projet mais tous les projets ne demandent pas les mêmes ressources humaines. Dans ce type d’organisation du projet, il faut faire appel à un service des ressources humaines efficace pour gérer ce problème.
Les projets n’ont donc pas d’organisation type même si en général, ils se rapprochent de certains modèles qui ont fait leurs preuves. Chacun des modèles a des avantages et des inconvénients et chaque entreprise souhaitant créer un projet doit examiner avec précision ces ressources et ses exigences pour choisir le type de projet le mieux adapté.
Notes et références : Références: wiktionary = projet:
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غرفة سحابية
كواشف جسيمات | فيزياء | معدات مخبرية
الغرفة السحابية أو غرفة ويلسون السحابية في فيزياء الجسيمات (بالإنجليزية: cloud chamber أو Wilson chamber)
هي جهاز لاكتشاف جسيمات الإشعاعت المؤية. وتتكون الغرفة السحابية من غرفة صغيرة زجاجية تحتوي على بخار الماء حيث يكون بخار الماء فيها في درجة التشبع. وعندما يتفاعل جسيم ألفا أو جسيم بيتا مع جزيئات الوسط، تتأين الجزيئات على طول مسار الجسيم. وتحفز الأيونات المتولدة على مسار الجسيم على تكثف الماء عليها، حيث تكون تلك الأيونات بمثابة الأنوية لتكثف بخار الماء عليها. وبذلك يصبح مسار الجسيم مرئيا.
وتختلف مسارات الجسيمات عن بعضها، فمثلا تكون مسارات جسيم ألفا عريضة ومستقيمة، بينما يكون مسار الإلكترون رفيعا.
قياس طاقة الجسيم : عند تسليط مجال مغناطيسي على الغرفة السحابية فإن الجسيمات الموجبة الشحنة والجسيمات السالبة الشحنة تنحرف في اتجاهين متضادين. ويبدو هذا الانحراف لمسار الجسيم المشحون على شكل قوس، طبقا لقانون لورينس الخاص بتأثير المجال المغناطيسي على شحنة متحركة.
بقياس نصف قطر تقوس المسار وطول المسار يمكن التعرف على كتلة الجسيم وسرعته. وبما أن طاقة الحركة لجسيم تتنايسب مع مربع سرعته، فيمكن حساب طاقة الحركة للجسيم. كذلك يمكن من مسار الجسيم معرفة مقدار شحنته، هل هو إلكترون مثلا ؟ فيكون مساره رفيعا أم جسيم ألفا وهو يحمل شحنتين (بروتونين)، فيكون مساره عريضا.
وتوجد للجسيمات ذات الطاقة العالية التي تنفذ بسهولة من الغرفة السحابية نوع آخر من الغرف لاكتشافها، وهي غرفة الفقاقيع وهي تعمل بنفس فكرة الغرفة السحابية إلا أن وسط الغرفة يكون الماء بدلا من الهواء، وفيها تظهر مسارات الجسيمات في هيئة فقاقيع غازية بدلا من تكثف بخار الماء عليها.
اقرأ أيضا : * مطياف ألفا المغناطيسي * غرفة فقاقيع * عداد جسيمات * تجربة أطلس * تجربة سوبر كاميوكاندي * مكشاف مصادم فيرميلاب * عداد جايجر * عداد شيرينكوف * عداد وميضي * عداد تناسبي * عداد شبه الموصلات * إشعاع مؤين
بذرة فيزياء الجسيمات:
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Cloud chamber
Particle detectors | Radioactivity | Scottish inventions
dateJanuary 2011: ]]
The cloud chamber, also known as the Wilson chamber, is a particle detector used for detecting ionizing radiation. In its most basic form, a cloud chamber is a sealed environment containing a supersaturated vapor of water or alcohol. When a charged particle (for example, an alpha or beta particle) interacts with the mixture, it ionizes it. The resulting ions act as condensation nuclei, around which a mist will form (because the mixture is on the point of condensation). The high energies of alpha and beta particles mean that a trail is left, due to many ions being produced along the path of the charged particle. These tracks have distinctive shapes (for example, an alpha particle's track is broad and shows more evidence of deflection by collisions, while an electron's is thinner and straight). When any uniform magnetic field is applied across the cloud chamber, positively and negatively charged particles will curve in opposite directions, according to the Lorentz force law with two particles of opposite charge.
Cloud chambers played a prominent role in the experimental particle physics from 1920s till 1950s, until the advent of the bubble chamber. In particular, the discoveries of the positron in 1932 (acknowledged by a Nobel Prize in Physics in 1936) and the kaon in 1953 were made using cloud chambers as detectors. * Invention
Charles Thomson Rees Wilson (1869–1959), a Scottish physicist, is credited with inventing the cloud chamber. Inspired by sightings of the Brocken spectre while working on the summit of Ben Nevis in 1894, he began to develop expansion chambers for studying cloud formation and optical phenomena in moist air. Very rapidly he discovered that ions could act as centers for water droplet formation in such chambers. He pursued the application of this discovery and perfected the first cloud chamber in 1911. In Wilson's original chamber the air inside the sealed device was saturated with water vapor, then a diaphragm is used to expand the air inside the chamber (adiabatic expansion). This cools the air and water vapor starts to condense. When an ionizing particle passes through the chamber, water vapor condenses on the resulting ions and the trail of the particle is visible in the vapor cloud. Wilson, along with Arthur Compton, received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1927 for his work on the cloud chamber. This kind of chamber is also called a Pulsed Chamber, because the conditions for operation are not continuously maintained.
Further developments were made by Patrick Blackett who utilised a stiff spring to expand and compress the chamber very rapidly, making the chamber sensitive to particles several times a second. A cine film was used to record the images. The cloud chamber was the first detector of radioactivity and nuclear transmutation. * Structure and operation
A simple cloud chamber consists of the sealed environment, radioactive source (optionally), dry ice or a cold plate and some kind of alcohol source (it has to allow easy evaporation).
Lightweight methyl alcohol vapour saturates the chamber. The alcohol falls as it cools down and the cold condenser provides a steep temperature gradient. The result is a supersaturated environment. The alcohol vapour condenses around ion trails left behind by the travelling ionizing particles. The result is cloud formation, seen in the cloud chamber by the presence of droplets falling down to the condenser. As particles pass through they leave ionization trails and because the alcohol vapour is supersaturated it condenses onto these trails. Since the tracks are emitted radially out from the source, their point of origin can easily be determined.
Just above the cold condenser plate there is an area of the chamber which is sensitive to radioactive tracks. At this height, most of the alcohol has not condensed. This means that the ion trail left by the radioactive particles provides an optimal trigger for condensation and cloud formation. This sensitive area is increased in height by employing a steep temperature gradient, little convection, and very stable conditions.
A strong electric field is often used to draw cloud tracks down to the sensitive region of the chamber and increase the sensitivity of the chamber. While tracks from sources can still be seen without a voltage supply, background tracks are very difficult to observe. In addition, the voltage can also serve to prevent large amounts of "rain" from obscuring the sensitive region of the chamber,caused by condensation forming above the sensitive area of the chamber. This means that ion trails left by radioactive particles are obscured by constant precipitation. The black background makes it easier to observe cloud tracks.
Before tracks can be visible, a tangential light source is needed. This illuminates the white droplets against the black background. Drops should be viewed from a horizontal position. If the chamber is working correctly, tiny droplets should be seen condensing. Often this condensation is not apparent until a shallow pool of alcohol is formed at the condenser plate. The tracks become much more obvious once temperatures and conditions have stabilized in the chamber. This requires the elimination of any significant drift currents (poor chamber sealing). * Other particle-detection chambers==
The diffusion cloud chamber was developed in 1939 by Alexander Langsdorf. This chamber differs from the expansion cloud chamber in that it is continuously sensitized to radiation, and in that the bottom must be cooled to a rather low temperature, generally as cold as or colder than dry ice. Alcohol vapor is also often used due to its different phase transition temperatures. Dry-ice-cooled cloud chambers are a common demonstration and hobbyist device; the most common fluid used in them is isopropyl alcohol, though methyl alcohol can be encountered as well. There are also water-cooled diffusion cloud chambers, using ethylene glycol.
The bubble chamber was invented by Donald A. Glaser of the United States in 1952, and for this, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1960. The bubble chamber
similarly reveals the tracks of subatomic particles, but as trails of bubbles in a superheated liquid, usually liquid hydrogen. Bubble chambers can be made physically larger than cloud chambers, and since they are filled with much-denser liquid material, they reveal the tracks of much more energetic particles. These factors rapidly made the bubble chamber the predominant particle detector for a number of decades, so that cloud chambers were effectively superseded in fundamental research by the start of the 1960s.
The newer spark chamber is an electrical device that uses a grid of uninsulated electric wires in a chamber, with voltages applied between the wires. Microscopic charged particles cause some ionization of the air along the path of the particle, and this ionization causes sparks to fly between the associated wires. The presence and location of these sparks is then registered electrically, and the information is stored for later analysis, such as by a digital computer.
Similar condensation effects can be observed as Wilson clouds, also called condensation clouds, at large explosions in humid air and other Prandtl–Glauert singularity effects.
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Chambre à brouillard
Détecteur de particules
physique des particules: Une chambre à brouillard ou chambre de Wilson (Wilson chamber en anglais) est une chambre fermée et contenant un gaz maintenu à une certaine pression et température, de manière à ce qu'il soit saturé en vapeur.
À chaque fois qu'une particule chargée traversera ce gaz, elle l'ionisera, ce qui provoquera sur son passage la formation d'une micro-trainée de gouttelettes de condensation.
Ces trainées matérialisent visuellement la trajectoire de la particule, ce qui permet de la détecter, de visualiser sa trajectoire (qui peut être photographiée ou filmée). Mais l'épaisseur et la longueur de la trainée donne aussi des informations sur la quantité d'énergie et la nature de la particule observée ; chaque type de particule (proton, électron et positron, par exemple) produit une trace caractéristique permettant de l'identifier.
Ceci fait de la chambre à brouillard le premier détecteur de particules autres que celles du spectre visible.
Histoire : * la première chambre a brouillard a été créée en 1912 par le physicien écossais Wilson. Fasciné par le spectacle des nuages quand il était jeune éleveur, il a voulu comprendre leur mécanisme de formation en cherchant à les reconstituer dans une chambre fermée, dans le laboratoire Cavendish (Université de Cambridge) . Jeune physicien, il pose l'hypothèse que des ions libres pourraient servir de germes (noyaux de nucléation ou catalyseurs) à la condensation de gouttelettes à partir de la vapeur d'eau présente dans l'air humide. Il montre dès 1896 que les rayons X, certains rayons cosmiques et surtout des matériaux radioactifs nucléent effectivement l'eau-vapeur en provoquant un brouillard optiquement visible. Plus tard, il montre que dans certaines conditions (milieu à la limite de la saturation en vapeur), les particules qui traversent la chambre sont matérialisées par une ligne permettant de les détecter. Il construit en 1912 une chambre conçue pour l'observation des trajets de particules énergétiques ou chargées, permettant aussi d'identifier certaines caractéristiques de ces particules. * D'autres scientifiques puis de nombreuses équipes de recherche vont alors s'intéresser à ce phénomène et utiliser ou améliorer la chambre de Wilson. * Ce type de chambre a couramment été utilisée jusque dans les années 1950, puis supplanté par la chambre à bulles, plus performante (laquelle fut elle-même supplantée par d'autres détecteurs à lecture électronique). * De telles chambres sont encore utilisées pour la pédagogie ou la vulgarisation scientifique. Elles permettent notamment l'observation directe et facile de rayonnements issus de la désintégration de produits radioactifs. * Une expérience actuelle de l'Organisation européenne pour la recherche nucléaire, CLOUD, utilise une chambre à brouillard pour des études sur le climat .
Principes : Les chambres à brouillard contemporaines se présentent généralement comme un réservoir plat et horizontal, refroidit et calorifugé, garni d'un couvercle transparent. Elles contiennent de l'alcool isopropylique chauffé par une résistance qui l'évapore. Ce gaz se recondense sur le fond de la chambre refroidi (à ). La sursaturation des vapeurs d'alcool crée alors un léger brouillard dans le quel vont se matérialiser les trajets de particules assez énergétiques pour le traverser ou traverser les parois de la chambre et du bâtiment qui l'entoure (rayonnement cosmique).
Utilisation : Les chambres à brouillards ont été utilisées pour parfaire : * l'étude des éléments radioactifs (alpha, beta, gamma, ce dernier étant plus difficile à observer, via les traces laissées par les électrons secondaires issus de l'effet photoélectrique que produisent ces quantas γ avec les molécules de l'air) * l'étude des produits de réactions nucléaires, * l'étude des interactions matière/rayonnement/gaz/vapeur, etc.
Notes et références :
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محمل (حوسبة)
Operating system kernels | مكتبات برمجية | علم الحاسوب
تاريخمايو_2011: مُحمِل (حاسوب)
من ويكيبيديا، الموسوعة الحرة
في الحوسبة، المُحمِل هو الجزء من نظام التشغيل المسؤول عن تحميل البرامج، أحد أهم المراحل الرئيسية في عملية بدء البرنامج، فالمُحمِل هو برنامج مسؤول عن وضع البرامج في الذاكرة وتحضيرها للتنفيذ. يتضمن تحميل البرنامج قراءة محتويات الملف القابل للتنفيذ، والملف الذي يحتوي على نص البرنامج، إلى الذاكرة، ثم القيام بعد ذلك بمهام تحضيرية مطلوبة لإعداد تشغيل البرنامج القابل للتنفيذ. وبمجرد اكتمال التحميل، يبدأ نظام التشغيل البرنامج عن طريق تمرير التحكم إلى رمز البرنامج الذي تم تحميله.
جميع أنظمة التشغيل التي تدعم تحميل البرامج لديها مُحمِلات، وبصرف النظر عن الأنظمة التي ينفذ الرمز مباشرة من ذاكرة القراءة فقط أو في حالة أنظمة الحاسوب التي لديها درجة عالية من التخصص والتي لديها مجموعة ثابتة من البرامج المتخصصة فقط.
وفي العديد من أنظمة التشغيل يقبع المُحمِل بشكل دائم في الذاكرة، وعلى الرغم من أن بعض أنظمة التشغيل التي تدعم الذاكرة الافتراضية قد تسمح بوجود المُحمِل في موقع بالذاكرة قابل للتقسيم كصفحات.
وفي حالة أنظمة التشغيل التي تدعم الذاكرة الافتراضية، قد لا ينسخ المُحمِل محتويات الملفات القابلة للتنفيذ في الذاكرة، بل يعلن ببساطة إلى النظام الفرعي للذاكرة الافتراضية أن هناك تعيين بين منطقة الذاكرة المخصصة لاحتواء رمز البرنامج المراد تشغيله ومحتويات الملف القابل للتنفيذ المرتبط به. (انظر ملف الذاكرة المعنونة). ثم يتم توعية النظام الفرعي للذاكرة الأفتراضية بأن الصفحات بتلك المنطقة من الذاكرة يلزم تعبأتها حسب الطلب متى يضرب تنفيذ البرنامج فعلا تلك المناطق الشاغرة من الذاكرة. وهذا قد يعني عدم نسخ أجزاء من رمز البرنامج في الذاكرة حتى يتم استخدامها بالفعل، والرمز الغير مستعمل قد لا يتم تحميله في الذاكرة مطلقا. * المسؤوليات
بالنسبة لـ يونيكس، فان المُحمِل هو المتولي لـ نظام الاتصال execve .
ومن مهام مُحمِل اليونيكس: * التحقق من صحة (الاذونات، ومتطلبات الذاكرة،...الخ)؛ * نسخ صورة البرنامج من القرص وإلى ألذاكرة الرئيسية؛ * نسخ واجهة سطر الأوامر على المكدس؛ * تهيئة السجلات (مثال مؤشر التكدس)؛ * الوصول إلى نقطة ادخال البرنامج (_start). * نقل المُحمِلات
بعض أجهزة الحاسوب تحتاج إلى اعادة نقل المُحمِل، والتي تعدل العنواين (المؤشرات) في الملف القابل للتنفيذ للتعويض عن تغيرات العنوان التي يبدأ بها التحميل. وتلك الحواسيب التي تحتاج إلى اعادة نقل المُحمِلات هي التي يكون فيها المؤشرات عناوين مطلقة بدلا من أن تكون فروع من العنوان الأساسي للبرنامج. واحد من أشهر الأمثلة هو وحدة المعالجة المركزية لنظام/360 IBM وسلالاته، التي تتضمن سلسلة نظام Z9. * الروابط الديناميكية
مُحمِلات الروابط الديناميكية هي نوع أخر من المُحمِلات والتي تحمل وتربط المكتبات البرمجية (مثل ملفات.dll) للبرامج السابق تحميلها وعملها. * انظر أيضًا * Library (computing) * Linker (computing) * Dynamic linker * Prebinding * مراجع==
ثبت المراجع:
software-type-stub:
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Loader (computing)
Operating system kernels | Computer libraries
dateJune 2008: In computing, a loader is the part of an operating system that is responsible for loading programs. It is one of the essential stages in the process of starting a program, as it places programs into memory and prepares them for execution. Loading a program involves reading the contents of executable file, the file containing the program text, into memory, and then carrying out other required preparatory tasks to prepare the executable for running. Once loading is complete, the operating system starts the program by passing control to the loaded program code.
All operating systems that support program loading have loaders, apart from systems where code executes directly from ROM or in the case of highly specialized computer systems that only have a fixed set of specialised programs.
In many operating systems the loader is permanently resident in memory, although some operating systems that support virtual memory may allow the loader to be located in a region of memory that is pageable.
In the case of operating systems that support virtual memory, the loader may not actually copy the contents of executable files into memory, but rather may simply declare to the virtual memory subsystem that there is a mapping between a region of memory allocated to contain the running program's code and the contents of the associated executable file. (See memory-mapped file.) The virtual memory subsystem is then made aware that pages with that region of memory need to be filled on demand if and when program execution actually hits those areas of unfilled memory. This may mean parts of a program's code are not actually copied into memory until they are actually used, and unused code may never be loaded into memory at all. * Responsibilities
In Unix, the loader is the handler for the system call execve. The Unix loader's tasks include: * validation (permissions, memory requirements etc.); * copying the program image from the disk into main memory; * copying the command-line arguments on the stack; * initializing registers (e.g., the stack pointer); * jumping to the program entry point (_start). * Relocating loaders
Some computers need relocating loaders, which adjust addresses (pointers) in the executable to compensate for variations in the address at which loading starts. The computers which need relocating loaders are those in which pointers are absolute addresses rather than offsets from the program's base address. One well-known example is IBM's System/360 mainframes and their descendants, including the System z9 series. * Dynamic linkers ===
Dynamic linking loaders are another type of loader that load and link shared libraries (like .dll files) to already loaded running programs.
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Chargeur (informatique)
Ordonnanceur
A l'intérieur du système d'exploitation, le chargeur est responsable du chargement en mémoire d'un programme à partir du fichier exécutable correspondant, puis de la préparation de son exécution, puis de son exécution proprement dite.
Le chargeur est habituellement une partie du Noyau de système d'exploitation et est en général lui-même chargé durant la phase d'amorçage ; le chargeur reste en mémoire jusqu'à ce que le système d'exploitation soit rebooté ou arrêté (électriquement ou logiciellement).
Unix : Sous Unix, le chargeur est un callback (fonction de rappel) pour l'appel système execve.
Microsoft : ...: Système embarqué : Dans le cas particulier de système embarqué, il n'y a pas ce type de chargeur car il est inutile : tous les éléments (programmes et bibliothèques logicielles) nécessaires sont chargés dans la phase d'amorçage du système.
IBM 360 et 370 et IBM System z9 :
Sur ces systèmes, les adresses en mémoire sont des adresses absolues (au lieu d'être une valeur de décalage par rapport à une adresse de base). Cela nécessite pour le chargeur de recalculer les adresses.
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فريدريك ليونغبرغ
لاعبو كرة قدم سويديون | مواليد 1977 | لاعبو كأس العالم لكرة القدم 2002 | لاعبو كأس العالم لكرة القدم 2006 | أشخاص على قيد الحياة
كارل فريدرك ليونبرغ، من مواليد 16 أبريل 1977 في فيتسيو في هاسلهوم في السويد، لاعب كرة قدم سويدي، ويلعب مع نادي ويستهام الإنجليزي ومنتخب السويد لكرة القدم.
بدأ ليونبرغ مسيرته الكروية مع نادي هالمشتاد السويدي في عام 1994، ولعب معهم لمدة 4 مواسم وشارك خلال تلك الفترة في 79 مباراة وسجل 10 أهداف، وفي عام 1998 انتقل إلى نادي آرسنال الإنجليزي، قبل أن ينتقل في 2007 إلى نادي ويستهام الإنكليزي.
و قد بدأ ليونبرغ مسيرته مع منتخب السويد لكرة القدم في عام 1998، وقد لعب معهم في كأس العالم لكرة القدم 2002 وكأس العالم لكرة القدم 2006.
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Fredrik Ljungberg
People from Hässleholm Municipality | Living people | 2002 FIFA World Cup players | 2006 FIFA World Cup players | Allsvenskan players | Arsenal F.C. players | Celtic F.C. players | Expatriate footballers in England | Expatriate footballers in Japan | Expatriate footballers in Scotland | Expatriate soccer players in the United States | Association football wingers | Chicago Fire Soccer Club players | Halmstads BK players | J. League Division 1 players | Major League Soccer players | Premier League players | Scottish Premier League players | Seattle Sounders FC players | Shimizu S-Pulse players | Sweden international footballers | Swedish expatriate footballers | Swedish expatriate sportspeople in the United Kingdom | Swedish expatriate sportspeople in the United States | Swedish footballers | Footballers from Skåne | Swedish male models | Swedish socialites | UEFA Euro 2000 players | UEFA Euro 2004 players | UEFA Euro 2008 players | West Ham United F.C. players | 1977 births
Karl Fredrik "Freddie" Ljungberg (ˈfreːdrɪk ˈjɵŋˌbærj: ) (born 16 April 1977 in Vittsjö, Sweden) is a Swedish footballer who currently plays as a right winger for Shimizu S-Pulse in Japan. Ljungberg was captain of the Swedish national team until he announced his international retirement after UEFA Euro 2008.
Ljungberg was a model for Calvin Klein underwear until 2007. He previously represented brands such as Nike, Procter & Gamble, L'Oreal and currently represents Puma, ESPN and Pepsi, as well as running his own blog since October 2009. * Early life
Ljungberg was born on 16 April 1977 in Vittsjö, Sweden to parents Roy Alve Erling Ljungberg, a civil engineer and owner of a construction and consultant business, and Elisabeth Bodil Ljungberg, a Swedish Labor Department worker. On 12 September 1984, the Ljungbergs had another son, Karl Oskar Filip. In 1982, the Ljungberg family left Vittsjö and moved to Halmstad. At first, the tenacious 5 year old would not have any part of moving. Fredrik argued with his parents that he did not want to live in Halmstad. His parents relented and took him to Halmstads BK where he played on the youth team under Olle Eriksson.
From the time he was 5–14, Ljungberg was coached by Eriksson. Eriksson’s impression of the youngster was that he was remarkably talented for his age and that he was considerate of other players noting that Ljungberg would pass the ball to his friends so that they would have a chance to score. Ljungberg credits Eriksson for having a profound effect on his career as well as Brazilian football player, Sócrates. Also in his youth, he enjoyed playing ice hockey and developed a talent for handball; he was eventually called up to the national handball team,date: March 2010: but decided to focus his attentions on football.
Ljungberg did well in academic subjects as well as sports. When he finished 9th grade his marks averaged 4.1 on the 5 point scale. At 18, Ljungberg decided to attend university to study information technology and economics but struggled to balance the hectic academic timetable with the physically demanding commitments of professional football. Eventually, he quit university to concentrate on his football career.
Club career: Halmstads BK: In 1989, at the age of 12, Ljungberg had convinced Halmstads BK to move him from p12 to p14 which was against Halmstad's policies at the time. At age 14, Ljungberg joined the junior team under coach Robert Nordström. His perseverance paid off because three years later he was moved up to the senior team.
Ljungberg made his senior debut on 23 October 1994 in the Allsvenskan against AIK. In 1995, Ljungberg played 31 games in which he scored his first goal as a professional player. That same year Halmstad won the Swedish Cup. In 1997, Halmstad won the Allsvenskan and Ljungberg scored goals that year despite being injured. During his time with Halmstad, he went on to make 139 appearances and score 16 goals for the club. He won both the Swedish Cup and League title with the club. After two years with Halmstad, Ljungberg’s star was on the rise with interest from Barcelona, Chelsea, Aston Villa, Parma and Arsenal. * Arsenal
Ljungberg was signed by Arsenal in 1998 for £3 million, which at the time was the highest transfer fee for a Swedish player. Arsenal scouts watched him for over a year and Arsenal's manager, Arsène Wenger, took the unusual step of authorising the signing after watching Ljungberg play for Sweden in their victory against England on television, without seeing him play live. Seeing Ljungberg’s performance against England only confirmed to Wenger that Ljungberg could cope against English opponents and was signed shortly after. Ljungberg proved himself without difficulty and scored on his debut on 20 September after coming on as a substitute against rival club Manchester United, the match ending 3–0.
Some of Ljungberg's best form came in the second half of the 2001–02 season, when Arsenal won their second Premier League and FA Cup double. Following a knee injury to Robert Pirès, Ljungberg scored in most of Arsenal's remaining games, including a stunning finish for Arsenal's second goal in the 2–0 FA Cup Final win over Chelsea. Ljungberg had scored many important and vital goals for Arsenal throughout the season. He scored an equaliser against Manchester United. Arsenal went on to win this game 3–1. He was instrumental in Arsenals 2–1 win against Liverpool at Anfield where he won a penalty in which Thierry Henry scored and then he slotted in a sweet finish from a Robert Pires cross. He scored an identical goal again Against Liverpool at Highbury 3 weeks later. The matched ended up being 1–1 draw. Ljungberg ended the 2001/2002 season scoring 17 goals in all competitions.
He endeared himself to Arsenal supporters by having a bright red stripe in his hair. (A popular chant spawned from this to the tune of "Can't Take My Eyes Off You" by Frankie Valli and the Four Seasons: "We love you Freddie, because you've got red hair, we love you Freddie because you're everywhere, we love you Freddie, you're Arsenal through and through" Later when he shaved his head this was updated to "We love you Freddie, because you've got no hair").
Ljungberg was the first player to score a goal at an FA Cup final outside England, when Arsenal lost against Liverpool in 2001 at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff. A year later, against Chelsea, he became the first player to score in consecutive FA Cup Finals. He also scored a penalty in the shootout in Arsenal's 2005 FA Cup Final victory over Manchester United.
He is most comfortable on either wing in midfield, though he can also play centrally in a 4–5–1 formation or as a second striker. Ljungberg became a regular in Arsenal's starting lineup following the departure of Emmanuel Petit and Marc Overmars in the summer of 2000. For several seasons he played a major role for the club including being a member of the unbeaten 49 game run for Arsenal. He had to fight with constant injury problems and occasionally severe bouts with migraines; in 2005 a persistent hip injury led to fears he may have contracted cancer, which were unfounded. It transpired that he was suffering from blood poisoning caused by his large tattoos.
Despite a persistent ankle injury, Ljungberg played for Arsenal in the 2–1 defeat by Barcelona in the Champions League Final in Paris on 17 May 2006.
It was speculated in January 2007 that Ljungberg was being forced to leave Arsenal, after bosses became tired of a run of injuries restricting his play. "Ljungberg still has a lot to offer to Arsenal," Arsené Wenger said, on 13 January 2007, at a Blackburn Rovers pre-match press conference, stressing the fact that Ljungberg will stay at Arsenal until the end of his contract in 2009.
Ljungberg came back after a long injury in an FA Cup match against Bolton Wanderers, scoring a goal thirteen minutes before the end of extra time, earning Arsenal a place in the fifth-round tie of the FA Cup against Blackburn Rovers.
In 2008, Ljungberg placed 11th in Arsenal.com's Gunners' Greatest 50 Players. * West Ham United
On 23 July 2007, after nine years at Arsenal, Ljungberg joined London rivals West Ham United on a four-year contract. Ljungberg made his West Ham United debut on the opening day of the 2007/08 Premier League season, in West Ham's 0–2 home defeat by Manchester City on 11 August, a game in which he was also captain. After seven months at the club, Ljungberg finally scored his first goal for West Ham in the home match against Birmingham City on 9 February 2008, putting West Ham up 1–0, with the game finishing 1–1. Ljungberg also scored away at Sunderland a month later in a 1–2 defeat, being his final goal for the club.
In his last game of the season, Newcastle United defender Steven Taylor accidentally landed on top of him while trying to jump over him, breaking his ribs. The injury sidelined Ljungberg for the rest of the season. In May, it was reported that Ljungberg was offered £3m to tear up his contract. This was quickly dismissed by both Ljungberg's agents, Claes Elefalk and Scott Duxbury, West Ham's chief executive.
In June 2008, Ljungberg retired from the Swedish National team stating, "The simple fact is the physical strain of playing on the national team and in club football for such a long time has finally taken its toll. And that is why I have decided to concentrate on playing for West Ham United and that is where my focus will be."
Following the start of training camp, Ljungberg was nowhere to be seen. Many speculated a transfer was in the works despite Elefalk's claims that Ljungberg was to return. Days later, Ljungberg agreed to terminate his contract only after one year into the four year deal for a sum of £6 million. Ljungberg stated afterward, "I gave my all at West Ham and enjoyed my time there but the decision is the best for the both of us. Now, I will take my time to consider my football future." * Football hiatus
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Career statistics: YYY:
Awards : * 1998 Swedish FA prizes for "Best Midfielder of the year" * 1998 Swedish FA prizes for "People's player of the year" * 1998 Nominated for the Sexiest Men in the World * 2000 Arsenal FC Player of the Month (January and February) * 2000 Arsenal FC Dreamcast Player of the Season competition came 2nd * 2000 AFCi Awards "Most Improved Arsenal Player" for the 1999–2000 season * 2000 2nd in AFCi Awards "Arsenal Player of the Season" * 2002 April BarclayCard Premier League Player of the Month * 2002 Winner of Guldbollen, the award for the best Swedish footballer of the year * 2002 MVP BarclayCard Premier League Player of the Year * 2003 Overseas Premier League All-Star Team of the Decade, by Premier League and fans * 2006 Winner of Guldbollen, the award for the best Swedish footballer of the year * 2007 Third Best Looking Male Athlete in the World voted by Sports Illustrated * 2007 17th Best Dressed Man in the World voted by US Esquire * 2007 Sexiest player in the Premier League voted by The Sun * 2008 Voted by Arsenal FC fans as the 11th best player in history in the club * 2008 In the Top 10 Celeb's Women Lust After. Glamour Magazine * 2008 E! (Entertainment Channel, USA) among Sexiest Men in the World * 2009 Voted most popular player to start the MLS All-Star Game 2009, by the fans * 2009 Captain of the MLS All-Star Game 2009, vs Everton FC, England * 2009 October Voted MLS Player of the Month * 2009 Nominated for Newcomer of the Year in MLS 2009 * 2009 Selected for the MLS Season All-Star Team, called Best XI * 2010 Howard Es Player of the year
Honours: Arsenal: * Premier League (2): 2001–02, 2003–04 * FA Cup (3): 2002, 2003, 2005 * FA Charity Shield (1): 1999
Halmstad: * Allsvenskan (1): 1997 * Svenska Cupen (1): 1995
Seattle Sounders FC: * Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup (1): 2009
Individual: * Overseas Team of the Decade – Premier League 10 Seasons Awards (1992/93 – 2001/02) * Swedish Player of the Year: 2002, 2006 * Swedish Midfielder of the Year: 1998, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005 * MLS Best XI: 2009 * Folkets Lirare (Player of the People): 1998
References: 2:
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Fredrik Ljungberg
Footballeur international suédois | Naissance en 1977 | Joueur du Halmstads BK | Joueur de l'Arsenal FC | Joueur du West Ham United FC | Joueur des Seattle Sounders | Joueur du Celtic Football Club
Fredrik Ljungberg est un joueur de football suédois né le 16 avril 1977 à Vittsjö (Suède). Il joue actuellement en faveur du club japonais de Shimizu S-Pulse et est à l'occasion mannequin pour les sous-vêtements de la marque Calvin Klein.
Il a également pratiqué le handball, le hockey sur glace et le golf. Bien qu'il joue au poste de milieu de terrain, c'est un joueur qui marque beaucoup de buts et qui est souvent décisif. Il a été élu en 2002 l'« homme le plus élégant de Suède ». * Carrière en club * Halmstad
Ljungberg rejoint Halmstads BK à l'âge de cinq ans. En 1994, il fait ses débuts dans l'équipe première. Il remporte la Coupe de Suède et le championnat avant de quitter la Suède pour Londres et Arsenal. * Arsenal
En 1998, Ljungberg signe en faveur d'Arsenal FC pour 3 millions de livres sterling. Arsène Wenger, le manager des Gunners, l'a recruté après l'avoir vu jouer à la télévision lors de la victoire suédoise contre l'Angleterre. Ljungberg qui porte sur son maillot le numéro 8 qui fut celui du légendaire attaquant Ian Wright fait ses débuts contre Manchester United.
En 2001, il est le premier joueur à avoir marqué en finale de la Coupe d'Angleterre hors du pays. En effet il marque contre Liverpool au Millennium Stadium de Cardiff puis un an plus tard contre Chelsea.
Freddie, comme les anglais le surnomment, réalise une de ses meilleures saisons en 2001-2002 lorsque le club remporte le championnat et la Coupe d'Angleterre.
Ailier il peut aussi jouer comme deuxième attaquant en 4-5-1. Depuis les départs d'Emmanuel Petit et Marc Overmars, Ljungberg était un titulaire régulier dans le onze d'Arsenal. Cependant de nombreuses blessures lui font manquer plusieurs matchs. Il est aussi souvent victime de migraines.
En janvier 2007 les tabloïds anglais rapportent que les dirigeants d'Arsenal auraient demandé à l'international suédois de quitter le club car ils étaient lassés de ses blessures à répétition. On l'annonce alors une première fois du côté de West Ham United avant que Wenger démente tout départ en déclarant après le match contre Blackburn Rovers que « Ljungberg a[vait] toujours beaucoup à offrir à Arsenal ». Le français ajouta même que Fredrik honorerait son contrat qui le liait au club jusqu'en 2009. * West Ham
Cependant le 23 juillet 2007, après 9 saisons à Arsenal, il signe en faveur de West Ham United un contrat de quatre ans pour 4.5 millions d'euros .
En août 2008, Fredrik Ljungberg trouve un accord avec West Ham United pour résilier son contrat . * Seattle Sounders
Sans club depuis la fin de la saison 2007-2008, Freddie Ljungberg signe le 28 octobre 2008 en faveur du club américain de Seattle Sounders FC . Le contrat de deux ans assure au suédois un salaire de 2,5 millions de dollars mais en vertu de la « clause Beckham », seuls 400 000 dollars sont pris en compte .
Celtic Glasgow : Le 31 décembre 2010, après un court passage à Chicago Fire, il signe jusqu'à la fin de la saison en faveur du Celtic Glasgow.
Shimizu S-Pulse : Le 27 août 2011, il signe pour une saison plus une supplémentaire au Shimizu S-Pulse.
Carrière en équipe nationale : Fredrik Lungberg a joué chez les espoirs suédois. Le 28 janvier 1998 il fait ses débuts avec l'équipe de Suède de football à Orlando contre l'équipe des États-Unis.
Il a participé à l'Euro 2000, à la Coupe du Monde 2002, à l'Euro 2004, la Coupe du Monde 2006 et l'Euro 2008, sa dernière compétition internationale.
Fredrik Ljungberg a été le capitaine de la sélection suédoise du 8 août 2006 au 18 juin 2008, date de l'élimination de la Suède à l'Euro et de sa retraite internationale. En effet le 27 juin, il annonce son retrait des terrains internationaux à seulement 31 ans mais souffrant de problèmes physiques récurrents: « Le fait est que la contrainte physique de doubler équipe nationale et club pendant si longtemps a fini par laisser des traces ».
Palmarès : * En club : ** Champion de Suède : 1997 avec Halmstads BK ** Champion d'Angleterre : 2002 et 2004 avec Arsenal FC ** Vainqueur de la Coupe de Suède : 1995 avec Halmstads BK ** Vainqueur de la Coupe d'Angleterre : 2002, 2003 et 2005 avec Arsenal ** Finaliste de la Ligue des Champions : 2006 avec Arsenal * Distinctions individuelles : ** Élu joueur suédois de l'année en 2002 par le journal Aftonbladet
Trivia : * Il est surnommé « Freddie » en Angleterre et « Ljungan » dans l'équipe suédoise. * Il réside actuellement à Hampstead à Londres et à Halmstad lorsqu'il retourne en Suède. * Il est fan de la musique punk anglaise, à l'école il était surnommé « Sid » en référence à Sid Vicious . * Il n'a aucun lien de parenté avec la joueuse Hanna Ljungberg qui joue pour l'équipe féminine suédoise. * Si sur le plan du jeu, Ljungberg est indiscuté en équipe de Suède, en revanche, sur un plan plus « social », il n'est pas apprécié par deux autres grandes stars de l'équipe: Olof Mellberg et Zlatan Ibrahimović.
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هوفينكا
مدن فنلندا
هوفينكا (بالفنلندية Hyvinkää، بالسويدية Hyvinge) مدينة فنلندية يقطنها 45.477 ساكن، تقع في إقليم أوسيما جنوب البلاد، تبعد حوالي 50 كيلومتراً إلى الشمال من هلسنكي.
جعلتها الطرق السريعة و الحديدية إحدى المراكز بهلسنكي الكبرى. أعطي بناء المرافق الترفيهية اهتماماً خاصاً في تخطيط المدينة، مع الأخذ في الاعتبار حقيقة أن المدينة بسبب حجم وقرب العاصمة لا يمكنها منافسة مراكز التسوق والمحلات التجارية في العاصمة.
من مباني هوفينكا الأكثر شهرة كنيسة (1961، آرنو روسوفووري)، وقصر كوتايا. وحتى متحف السكك الحديدية الفنلندي يقع في هوفينكا.
هوفينكا تعتبر موطنا لKonecranes ، والتي تتخصص في تصنيع وخدمة الرافعات والمصاعد كونيه ، شركة في العالم لمصعد ثالث أكبر الذي صنع وتركيب وخدمة المصاعد والسلالم الكهربائية.
ورشة عمل رووكانغاس غيتارس ، الفنلندية الرائدة في صناعة الغيتار الكهربائي ، تقع في فانها فيلاتيهداس ، هوفينكا.
ومن المعروف هوفينكا بين عشاق لعبة غولف الاسكندنافية بسبب Kytäjä الغولف ، التي تقع في ريف هوفينكا. وهو يقدم دورتين تصميم توم مكبروم . وكان جنوب شرق بالطبع افتتح في أغسطس 2003 ، وشمال غرب بالطبع في أغسطس 2004. مستشفى هوفينكا هو الثاني عشر بين أكبر مستشفيات فنلندا.
التاريخ : منذ عام 1500 كان هنالك خان في المنطقة المعروفة الآن باسم هوفينكانكولا، الواقعة على منتصف الطريق تقريباً بين هلسنكي وهامينلينا. حتى أول سجلات الضريبية تشير إلى وجود بعض المنازل بالمنطقة في نفس الفترة.
تنامت قرية هوفينكا تدريجياً في النصف الأخير من القرن التاسع عشر، إلا أن إنشاء شبكة السكك الحديدية الفنلندية ابتداء من عام 1861، هو ما سجل بداية النمو السريع للمدينة.
في الواقع كان خط هلسنكي هامينلينا أول خط للسكك الحديدية الفنلندية، والذي حدد موقع مركز هوفينكا الحالي ومحطة السكة قطاراتها هي واحدة من محطات قليلة لا تزال تعمل حتى اليوم. من هوفينكا تتجه فروع السكة أيضاً نحو ميناء هانكو. وكانت سكة الحديد هانكو - هوفينكا أول خط سكة حديد خاصة في فنلندا، تأسست في عام 1872 وتحصلت عليها سكة حديد الدولة الفنلندية ف سنة 1875. في أوائل القرن العشرين كانت محطة هوفينكا مرحلة توقف وسيطة لكثير من المهاجرين الذين يغادرون على متن السفن من هانكو بحثاً عن حياة جديدة في أمريكا الشمالية.
اعتبرت جودة الهواء قي هوفينكا صحية بفضل غابات الصنوبر الكثيفة، في ثمانينات القرن التاسع عشر فتحت مجموعة أطباء من هلسنكي بها مصحة للمرضى بحثاً عن الراحة والنقاهة.
حمل التصنيع إلى هوفينكا مصنعاً لغزل الصوف في عام 1892 لأسرة دونر. توقف المصنع عن العمل في تسعينات القرن العشرين، ولكن مبان الطوب الأحمر لا تزال موجودة، وتستغل لمهام أخرى من بينها مركز للمعارض.
عمل مطار هوفينكا بمثابة المطار الرئيسي في البلاد لفترة قصيرة بعد الحرب العالمية الثانية، بينما كان مطار مالمي في هلسنكي تحت سيطرة الحلفاء. اليوم بالقرب من المطار يوجد مركز لرياضة السيارات.
شخصيات من هوفينكا: * هيكي ميكولا، و 4 مرات بطل العالم، موتوكروس * كاتري روزندال، بطلة فروسية التحمل الوطنية 2007 * يوها رووكانغاس، أستاذ صناعة القيثار، مؤسس رووكانغاس غيتارس * أوريو سآرينن، رسام * توكو سالينن، رسام * هيليني شييرفبك، رسامة * أوسي سافولاينن، رئيس بلدية هوفينكا * إسا سآرينن، فيلسوف * لاوري توكونن، لاعب هوكي جليد محترف * ماركو أوسيبآفالنييمي، لاعب كيرلنغ، وسياسي * بتيري فيرتانن، لاعب هوكي جليد محترف * روني تران بين ترونغ، مغني * بيتو بيروينن -- الحائز على الميدالية الفضية الأولمبية في التزلج الرجالي
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Hyvinkää
Hyvinkää | Cities and towns in Finland | Municipalities of Uusimaa Region | Populated places established in 1917
Hyvinkää (ˈhyʋiŋkæː: ; Hyvinge: ) is a town and municipality of Finland. It is located in Uusimaa region, approximately north of the capital Helsinki. The town was chartered in 1960. Hyvinkää belongs to the Province of Southern Finland. The population of Hyvinkää is .
Highways and rail connections make it one of the suburban commuter centers of Greater Helsinki. The city planning has had an emphasis on recreational facilities, acknowledging the fact that the modest city center cannot compete with the shops and boutiques of the capital.
Some of the more well-known buildings in Hyvinkää are, among others, the Church (1961, Aarno Ruusuvuori) of Hyvinkää and the manor house of Kytäjä. The Finnish Railway Museum is located in Hyvinkää.
Hyvinkää is also home to Konecranes, which specializes in the manufacture and service of cranes and KONE Elevators, the world's third-largest elevator company who manufacture, install and service elevators and escalators.
The workshop of Ruokangas Guitars, the leading Finnish electric guitar maker, is located at Wanha Villatehdas, Hyvinkää.
Hyvinkää is known among Scandinavian golf enthusiasts due to Kytäjä golf, located at the countryside of Hyvinkää. It offers two courses designed by Tom McBroom: South East Course opened in the August 2003, and North West Course in August 2004. * History
In the 16th century there was a tavern in the area now known as Hyvinkäänkylä, which lies approximately half-way between Helsinki and Hämeenlinna. The first tax catalogues also marked the existence of some houses in the area around the same time.
Hyvinkää village gradually grew in the latter half of the 19th century, though it was the construction of the railway network through Finland, beginning in 1861, that marked the starting point for the town's rapid growth.
The construction of Finland's first stretch of railroad, the Helsinki–Hämeenlinna line, determined the location of the present city centre and the railway station of Hyvinkää is one of the few original stations still in use. From Hyvinkää the railway also branches off to the port of Hanko. The Hanko–Hyvinkää Railroad was the first private railroad in Finland, founded in 1872, and acquired by the Finnish State RR Co. in 1875. In the early 1900s the station village in Hyvinkää was an intermediate stopping point for many emigrants leaving by ship from Hanko for a new life in North America.
The air quality of Hyvinkää was considered healthy due to dense pine forests, and in the 1880s a group of physicians from Helsinki opened a sanatorium for patients seeking rest and recuperation.
Industrialization brought a wool factory to Hyvinkää in 1892 – the Donner family's Hyvinge Yllespinneri. The factory ceased operation in the 1990s, but the red-brick halls still remain. The building has found several new uses, including an exhibition centre and a theater.
Hyvinkää airfield served as the country's main airport for a short time after the second World War while the airport at Malmi, Helsinki in Helsinki was under the control of the Allied Powers. There is now a motorsports centre near the airfield. * Politics
Results of the Finnish parliamentary election, 2011 in Hyvinkää: * National Coalition Party 25.1% * Social Democratic Party 23.9% * True Finns 22.4% * Green League 8.1% * Left Alliance 7.6% * Centre Party 7.5% * Christian Democrats 2.9% * Swedish People's Party 0.8% * People from Hyvinkää * Heikki Mikkola, 4 times world champion, motocross * Katri Rosendahl, Endurance Riding National Champion [2007] * Juha Ruokangas, master luthier, founder of Ruokangas Guitars * Yrjö Saarinen, painter * Tyko Sallinen, painter * Helene Schjerfbeck, painter * Ossi Savolainen, mayor of Hyvinkää * Esa Saarinen, philosopher * Lauri Tukonen, professional ice hockey player * Markku Uusipaavalniemi, curler, politician * Petteri Wirtanen, professional ice hockey player * Roni Tran Binh Trong, singer * Peetu Piiroinen, Olympic Silver Medallist in the Men's Halfpipe * Sanna Valkonen, professional football player * Festivals
In the Summer, there is an annual beer festival which attracts rock bands from Scandinavia and about 10,000 visitors. * International relations
List of twin towns and sister cities in Finland: : Twin towns — Sister cities
Hyvinkää is twinned with: * Norway: Eigersund, Norway * Hungary: Kecskemét, Hungary * Denmark: Korsør, Denmark * Russia: Kostroma, Russia * Sweden: Motala, Sweden * Germany: Hersfeld-Rotenburg district, Germany * Projects
The educational department takes part in Lifelong Learning Programme 2007–2013 in Finland. * References ==
reflist:
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Hyvinkää
Ville de Finlande | Municipalité d'Uusimaa
Hyvinkää est une ville du sud de la Finlande dans la région d'Uusimaa et la province de Finlande méridionale. Elle fait partie de l'agglomération d'Helsinki, dont le centre ville est distant de tout juste 50 kilomètres (40 minutes en train).
On y trouve le musée finlandais du chemin de fer, une église moderne ainsi qu'une station de ski, la plus grande à proximité d'Helsinki, même si le dénivelé de la colline de Kulomäki n'est que de 85 mètres. La station est nommée Sveitsi (la Suisse, humour finlandais).
Hyvinkää, traversée par la rivière Vantaa, est bordée par les municipalités et villes suivantes : * Uusimaa : Mäntsälä à l'est, Tuusula et Nurmijärvi au sud, Vihti à l'ouest. * Kanta-Häme : Loppi au nord-ouest, Riihimäki et Hausjärvi au nord.
Histoire : La première mention du lieu date du XVIe siècle: , mais Hyvinkää connaît un décollage spectaculaire lors de la construction de la première ligne ferroviaire de Finlande entre Helsinki et Hämeenlinna dans les années 1860. Elle est alors la gare qui marque la mi-parcours. Son importance croît encore lorsqu'elle devient un nœud ferroviaire avec l'ajout en 1872 à la première ligne d'une ligne vers le port de Hanko. La gare de Hyvinkää voit ainsi passer la plupart des migrants à destination de l'Amérique du Nord au début du XXe siècle: .
Dès la fin du XIXe siècle: , la position privilégiée de la ville permet un net développement de l'industrie. Aujourd'hui, Hyvinkää reste une ville largement industrielle, avec notamment une usine de Saint-Gobain et une de Kone.
* Personnalités liées à la commune * Wille Mäkelä (né en 1974), curleur * Kalle Kiiskinen (né en 1975), curleur * Jani Sullanmaa (né en 1981), curleur * Lauri Tukonen (né en 1986), joueur de hockey sur glace
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بيضة (أحياء)
بيض | جهاز تناسلي
في معظم الطيور والزواحف، البيضة (باللاتينية ovum) هي اللاقحة الناشئة عن تخصيب fertilization البييضة ovum. وهي تشكل كيانا صلبا يحمي الجنين. الحيوانات البيوضة هي حيوانات تضع البيض وترقد عليها دون أي تغيرات أخرى تطرا على الأنثى. دراسة جمع البيض، خاصة بيض الطيور يدعى علم البيض oology.
بيوض الزواحف وبيوض الطيور التي تضعها في المياه تكون محاطة بقشرة إما مرنة أو غير مرنة.
مقدمة : عند العديد من الحيوانات، البيضة هي الخلية الأوليّة التي بتلقيحها تبدأ دورة الحياة لهذه الحيوانات. وهي الوسط الذي يتغذى منه جنين هذه الحيوانات، كما أنها (أي البيضة) توفر لأجنة هذه الحيوانات الحماية. والحيوانات التي تضع البيوض وبشكل عام لا تطور الأجنة داخل جسم الأم، بل يتم كامل التطور داخل البيوض، هذه هي طريقة التكاثر للعديد من أنواع الأسماك، البرمائيات والزواحف، كما أن كلّ فصائل الطيور والمونوتيرمات (ثدييات تبيض)، بالإضافة لمعظم الحشرات والعنكبوتيات.
في معظم الطيور والزواحف، البيضة (باللاتينية ovum) هي الزيغوت الناشيء عن تخصيب fertilization البييضة ovum. وهي تشكل كيانا صلبا يحمي الجنين. الحيوانات البيوضة هي حيوانات تضع البيض وترقد عليها دون أي تغيرات أخرى تطرا على الأنثى. دراسة جمع البيض، خاصة بيض الطيور يدعى علم البيض oology.
بيوض الزواحف وبيوض الطيور التي تضعها في المياه تكون محاطة بقشرة إما مرنة أو غير مرنة.
عند العديد من الحيوانات، البيضة هي الخلية الأوليّة التي بتلقيحها تبدأ دورة الحياة لهذه الحيوانات. وهي الوسط الذي يتغذى منه جنين هذه الحيوانات، كما أنها (أي البيضة) توفر لأجنة هذه الحيوانات الحماية. والحيوانات التي تضع البيوض وبشكل عام لا تطور الأجنة داخل جسم الأم، بل يتم كامل التطور داخل البيوض، هذه هي طريقة التكاثر للعديد من أنواع الأسماك، البرمائيات والزواحف، كما أن كلّ فصائل الطيور والمونوتيرمات (ثدييات تبيض)، بالإضافة لمعظم الحشرات والعنكبوتيات.
يحيط بالبيض قشرة أو غشاء لحمايته, وتحوي البيض على المح الذي يمد الجنين النامي بالغذاءوعلى جزء شفاف هو بياض البيض, ويظهر بجانب من جوانب المح نقطة البروتوبلازم التي تتحول بعد التخصيب إلى جنين صغير.
يتكون مح البيض من مواد غذائية وحيمينات, كما يحتوي بياض البيض على الماء وال آحين، يرتبط مح البيضة مثبت بقشرتها بواسطة شعيرات دقيقة ويظل في حالة طفو داخل بياض البيضة. لهذا فأن الكتكوت النامي يظل دائما في وضع علوي وقريبا من الدفء, ويمتص الجنين الأوكسجين الذي يخترق القشرة القشرة المسامية للبيضة.
صغير سلحفاة برية يخرج من بيضته.
مراجع : * from School of Life Sciences, Napier University. * John Pickrell, National Geographic News, 11 Oct 2005. * Andrew Gosler, Yet even more ways to dress eggs in British Birds, vol 99 no 7, July 2006
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Egg (biology)
Eggs | Reproductive system | Oology | Bird breeding | Aviculture
dateDecember 2008: An egg is an organic vessel in which an embryo first begins to develop. In most birds, reptiles, insects, molluscs, fish, and monotremes, an egg (Latin, ) is the zygote, resulting from fertilization of the ovum, which is expelled from the body and permitted to develop outside the body until the developing embryo can survive on its own. The term "egg" is restricted to the animal kingdom, similar reproductive structures in other kingdoms are termed spores, or (in spermatophytes) seeds, see ovum.
Oviparous animals are animals that lay eggs, with little or no other development within the mother. The study or collecting of eggs, particularly bird eggs, is called oology.
Reptile eggs, bird eggs, and monotreme eggs, which are laid out of water, are surrounded by a protective shell, either flexible or inflexible. The special membranes that support these eggs are traits of all amniotes, including mammals.
Eggs laid on land or in nests are usually kept within a favourable temperature range (warm) while the embryo grows. When the embryo is adequately developed it breaks out of the egg's shell. This breaking out is known as hatching. Baby animals which have just hatched are hatchlings, though standard names for babies of particular species continue to apply, such as chick for a baby chicken. Some embryos have a temporary egg tooth with which to crack, pip, or break the eggshell or covering.
The ostrich egg is the largest egg currently known, though the extinct Aepyornis and some dinosaurs had larger eggs. The Bee Hummingbird produces the smallest known bird egg, which weighs half of a gram. The eggs laid by some reptiles and most fish can be even smaller, and those of insects and other invertebrates can be much smaller still. * Bird eggs
Bird eggs are laid by females and incubated for a time that varies according to the species; a single young hatches from each egg. Average clutch sizes range from one (as in condors) to about 17 (the Grey Partridge). Some birds lay eggs even when not fertilized (e.g. hens); it is not uncommon for pet owners to find their lone bird nesting on a clutch of unfertilized eggs, which are sometimes called wind-eggs. * Colors
The default color of vertebrate eggs is the white of the calcium carbonate from which the shells are made, but some birds, mainly passerines, produce colored eggs. The pigments biliverdin and its zinc chelate give a green or blue ground color, and protoporphyrin produces reds and browns as a ground color or as spotting.
Non-passerines typically have white eggs, except in some ground-nesting groups such as the Charadriiformes, sandgrouse and nightjars, where camouflage is necessary, and some parasitic cuckoos which have to match the passerine host's egg. Most passerines, in contrast, lay colored eggs, even if there is no need of cryptic colors.
However some have suggested that the protoporphyrin markings on passerine eggs actually act to reduce brittleness by acting as a solid state lubricant. If there is insufficient calcium available in the local soil, the egg shell may be thin, especially in a circle around the broad end. Protoporphyrin speckling compensates for this, and increases inversely to the amount of calcium in the soil.
For the same reason, later eggs in a clutch are more spotted than early ones as the female's store of calcium is depleted.
The color of individual eggs is also genetically influenced, and appears to be inherited through the mother only, suggesting that the gene responsible for pigmentation is on the sex determining W chromosome (female birds are WZ, males ZZ).
It used to be thought that color was applied to the shell immediately before laying, but this research shows that coloration is an integral part of the development of the shell, with the same protein responsible for depositing calcium carbonate, or protoporphyrins when there is a lack of that mineral.
In species such as the Common Guillemot, which nest in large groups,each female's eggs have very different markings, making it easier for females to identify their own eggs on the crowded cliff ledges on which they breed. * Shell
Bird eggshells are diverse. For example: * cormorant eggs are rough and chalky * tinamou eggs are shiny * duck eggs are oily and waterproof * cassowary eggs are heavily pitted
Tiny pores in bird eggshells allow the embryo to breathe. The domestic hen's egg has around 7500 pores. * Shape
Most bird eggs have an oval shape, with one end rounded (the aerus) and the other more pointed (the taglion). This shape results from the egg being forced through the oviduct. Muscles contract the oviduct behind the egg, pushing it forward. The egg's wall is still shapeable, and the pointy end develops at the back. Cliff-nesting birds often have highly conical eggs. They are less likely to roll off, tending instead to roll around in a tight circle; this trait is likely to have arisen due to evolution via natural selection. In contrast, many hole-nesting birds have nearly spherical eggs. * Predation
Many animals feed on eggs. For example, principal predators of the Black Oystercatcher's eggs include raccoons, skunks, mink, river and sea otters, gulls, crows and foxes. The stoat (Mustela erminea) and long-tailed weasel (M. frenata) steal ducks' eggs. Snakes of the genera Dasypeltis and Elachistodon specialize in eating eggs.
Brood parasitism occurs in birds when one species lays its eggs in the nest of another. In some cases, the host's eggs are removed or eaten by the female, or expelled by her chick. Brood parasites include the cowbirds and many Old World cuckoos. * Various bird * Invertebrate eggs
Eggs are common among invertebrates, including insects, spiders, mollusks, and crustaceans. * Fish and amphibian eggs
The eggs of fish and amphibians are jellylike. Fish eggs are fertilized externally, typically with the male inseminating the eggs after the female lays them. These eggs do not have a shell and would dry out in the air. Even air-breathing amphibians lay their eggs in water, or in protective foam as with the Coast foam-nest treefrog, Chiromantis xerampelina. * Amniote eggs and embryos
Like amphibians, amniotes are air-breathing vertebrates, but they have complex eggs or embryos, including an amniotic membrane. Amniotes include reptiles (including dinosaurs and their descendants, birds) and mammals.
Reptile eggs are often rubbery and are always initially white. They are able to survive in the air. Often the sex of the developing embryo is determined by the temperature of the surroundings, with cooler temperatures favouring males. Not all reptiles lay eggs; some are viviparous ("live birth").
Dinosaurs laid eggs, some of which have been preserved as petrified fossils.
Among mammals, early extinct species laid eggs, as do platypuses and echidnas (spiny anteaters). Platypuses and two genera of echidna are Australian monotremes. Marsupial and placental mammals do not lay eggs, but their unborn young do have the complex tissues that identify amniotes. * Human use * Food
Egg (food): Eggs laid by many different species, including birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish, have probably been eaten by mankind for millennia. Popular choices for egg consumption are chicken, duck, roe, and caviar, but by a wide margin the egg most often humanly consumed is the chicken egg. * Vaccine manufacture
Many vaccines for infectious diseases are produced in fertile chicken eggs. The basis of this technology was the discovery in 1931 by Alice Miles Woodruff and Ernest William Goodpasture at Vanderbilt University that the rickettsia and viruses that cause a variety of diseases will grow in chicken embryos. This enabled the development of vaccines against influenza, chicken pox, smallpox, yellow fever, typhus, Rocky mountain spotted fever and other diseases. * A baby tortoise emerges from its egg.
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Œuf (biologie)
Embryologie
Dans la reproduction sexuée, la cellule œuf ou zygote (ce nom provient de l'adjectif grec zugôtos, se traduisant par « joint, attelé ») est le premier stade de la vie d'un individu. Il s'agit d'une cellule diploïde non encore divisée issue de la fécondation de gamètes haploïdes, c'est-à-dire de la fusion d'un ovocyte (gamète femelle chez les animaux) ou de l'oosphère (gamète femelle chez les végétaux), avec un gamète mâle : spermatozoïde pour les animaux (créant ainsi un embryon), et pollen chez les végétaux, créant ainsi une graine.
Chez les animaux : Les types de zygotes : On distingue plusieurs types d'œufs en fonction de leur structure : * Oligolécithe (oligos, peu nombreux) : Œuf à teneur moyenne en vitellus. La segmentation est subégale. Chez les échinodermes et les procordés. * Centrolécithe : Œuf dont le vitellus est surtout concentré au centre. Ce type d'œuf se rencontre chez les arthropodes. Leur noyau est très légèrement excentré du fait de la présence de vitellus sous forme de petites granulations dans le cytoplasme. La taille de ces œufs est approximativement de 0,5 mm de diamètre. ** Œuf des insectes
Chez les batraciens, certains plathelminthes, la plupart des annélides et la plupart des mollusques * Hétérolécithe (heteros, autre) : Ce terme désigne les œufs dont le vitellus est réparti de façon inégale, provoquant une segmentation inégale (chez les amphibiens).
Chez les amniotes, les œufs des oiseaux, monotrèmes, reptiles, céphalopodes et la plupart des poissons : * Télolécithe (τέλος telos, fin, but, entier, achevé) : Œuf caractérisé par un volume considérable de vitellus localisé à l’un des pôles. La segmentation n'atteint que le territoire situé près du pôle animal. Cette segmentation produit une blastula en forme de disque (blastodisque), qui flotte sur les réserves de vitellus (le « jaune » de l'œuf).Œuf amniotique: Chez les mammifères placentaires, on donne aussi ce nom à un ovule non fécondé. * Alécithe (a privatif privation, négation) : Œuf caractérisé par un volume faible de vitellus. Les blastomères qui résultent de la segmentation (égale) seront sensiblement égaux.
Le processus de division cellulaire du zygote : La division par mitose dépend du type du zygote : * Les zygotes contenant peu de vitellus se divisent de façon holoblastique (l'entièreté du zygote se divise) et ** radiaire, pour les oligolécithes : le zygote est divisé selon des plans méridiens passant par les pôles ; ** en spirale pour les télolécithes « pauvres » (exceptés les amphibiens, dont le zygote se divise de façon radiaire) : les deux premières divisions sont radiaires, mais à partir de la troisième, elles deviennent inégales et les plans méridiens deviennent obliques, chaque cellule se trouvant à cheval sur deux cellules du plan horizontal inférieur. * Les zygotes contenant beaucoup de vitellus se divisent de façon méroblastique : la segmentation est incomplète et se produit uniquement dans la partie riche en cytoplasme (le vitellus ne se divise pas) et ** discoïdale pour les télolécithes « riches » : seul un disque de cellules situées au pôle animal se divise selon des plans méridiens d'abord et selon quelques plans équatoriaux ensuite ; ** superficielle pour les centrolécithes : le noyau se divise sans segmentation du cytoplasme central et les nouveaux noyaux migrent vers la surface interne de l'œuf, emmenant chacun une parcelle du cytoplasme qui se fond avec le cytoplasme superficiel qui devient un syncytium (cellule à plusieurs noyaux), qui par segmentation cytoplasmique se transforme en blastoderme.
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هندسة وصفية
هندسة وصفية
الهندسة الوصفية هي علم يبحث طرق تمثيل الأجسام الهندسية المختلفة على سطح مستوي مثل سطح ورقة الرسم (أو على شاشة الحاسوب). وكما يقول نفس مونج (Gaspare Monge): "الغرض الأساسي للهندسة الوصفية هو الإظهار بدقة أشكال ثلاثية الأبعاد بواسطة رسومات ثنائية الأبعاد الخاضعة لتعريفات صارمة". ,في تعريف مونج يوجد أيضا هدف ثاني وهو "استخلاص من الوصف الدقيق للمجسمات كل ما يليها من شكل ومواضع، وبهذا المعنى، الهندسة الوصفية هي وسيلة بحث للحقيقة العلمية وتعطي أمثلة على الانتقال الدائم من المعروف إلى المجهول".
تعتبر فرع من فروع الهندسة البديهية, أي تبحث من خلال طرق الإسقاط المختلفة (مركزية,موازية), بيان العلاقة الهندسية بين كل من النقاط والخطوط والمستويات والأجسام في الفراغ, بهدف الوصول، من خلال البحث العلمي المستمر, إلى نتائج وإجراءات هندسية تمكن, المهندس: * من تنمية قدراته التصورية للفراغ المعماري؛ * من وصف ذلك الفراغ بشكل دقيق من خلال رسومات ثنائية الأبعاد أو نماذج (geometry modeling) ثلاثية الأبعاد. * من حل مشاكل القياس الخطية والزاوية * من حل المشاكل المظهرية (Appearance) والتصورية (perception) للأشكال الهندسية.
ويعتمد علم الهندسة الوصفية, كنقطة انطلاق, على مبادئ الهندسة الإسقاطية بكافة نظرياتها وقواعدها المعروفة.
مقدمه : علم الهندسة هو أحد فروع علم الرياضيات الذي يعتنى بدراسة الخواص المتريه للخطوط والسطوح من اطوال وزوايا ومساحات وحجوم وكذلك الخواص الغير متريه أو الخواص الإسقاطية وهي الخواص التي لا تعتمد على الاطوال والزوايا ولا تتغير بالإسقاط مثل درجه المنحنى والنسبة المضاعفة وغيرهما ويتشعب الجيومترى إلى عده شعب منها الهندسة الوصفيه والهندسه الفراغيه والهندسة التحليلية والهندسه التفاضلية والهندسة الاسقاطية والهندسة الحسابية كما ينتمى علم الطوبولوجى إلى الجيومترى.
و في كل من الهندسة الفراغيه أو التحليلية أو ألتفاضلية أو ألحسابية يتم التعبير عن الخطوط والسطوح وما يتعلق بهما من مسائل بعلاقات ومعادلات رياضيه. أما في الهندسة ألوصفية فيتم تمشيل هذه الخطوط والسطوح بالطرق ألبيانية حيث تكون وسيله التمثيل في هذه الحالة هي طرق الإسقاط المختلفة لذا فان طريقه التمثيل في الهندسة ألوصفية تكون برسم مساقط للخطوط والسطوح على اسطح إسقاط أو اسطوا نيه أو كرويه وتبعا لطريقه الإسقاط ونوع سطح الإسقاط فان هذه المساقط تعبر تعبيرا كاملا عن طريق هذه المساقط وكذلك تعيين أبعادها في الفراغ كما أن كثير من المسائل ألرياضية المتعلقة بهذه الخطوط والسطوح يكون حلها أحيانا أيسر وأسرع إذا استخدمت الهندسة الوصفية بدلا من الرياضيات ألتقليدية وبجانب هذا فان الهندسة ألوصفية تساعد على تنميه ملكه التصور والتخيل والتفكير الرياضي المنطقي ولها استخدامات عمليه كثيره فنجد أنها تستخدم في رسم الصور المنظورة والظلال التي تضيف على الرسومات ألمعمارية طابعا يجعلها اقرب إلى الطبيعة كما تستخدم في حل بعض مسائل الفلك والميكانيكا وينتفع بنظرياتها في الفوتوجرامترى وعمل الخرائط الجغرافيا والطبوغرافيا اللازمة للمهندس ألمدني في تخطيط مشاريعه من ترع ومصارف وجسور الخ كما تستخدم أيضا في تصميم الآليات الفراغية الميكانيكية وتعيين سرعتها وعجلاتها وتستخدم في الهندسة ألبجرية وهندسه الطيران في تصميم هياكل السفن والطائرات وتحديد ما يعرف بخطوط المياه وخطوط القطاعات الطولية لجانب السفينة أو الطائرة.
و مع ازدياد استخدام الحاسب الآلي في التصميم ألهندسي ازدادت أهمية الهندسة ألوصفية وأصبح يعقد لها مؤتمرات عالميه للوقوف على طرق استخدامها على الحاسب ألآلى في شتى فروع الهندسة فنجد أنها تستخدم بجانب الهندسة ألحسابية في تصميم وتطوير البرامج المعروفة باسم كاد كما تستخدم في تصميم برامج الحاسب الآلي التي تحلل حركه نقطه في الفراغ وسط مجموعه من العوائق حيث يدخل هذا التحليل في تصميم الإنسان الألى المستخدم حاليا في معظم مصانع السيارات.
و يرجع الفضل في وضع أساس ونظريات علم الهندسة ألوصفية إلى العالم الرياضي ألفرنسي غاسبار مونج (1764 - 1818) الذي جمع الأسس والنظريات في كتابه المشهور الذي نشر سنه 1779 وهو بعنوان Essais sur les Geometrie Descriptine (اختبارات على الهندسة الوصفية)
تخصصات الرسم: الرسم هو الوسيلة التي يستخدمها المهندس لتكوين وتواصل المشروع المعماري. ليس الرسم الناتج من بديهية وخبرة فنان ماهر،، لأن المهندس المعماري لا يهتم فقط بجماليات المبنى، بل أيضاً بالتحقق من الشكل والمقاس والمواصفات التقنية، وبصفات أخرى كثيرة. والتي يمكن تلخيصها بالمصطلح التحكم المتري والإدراكي. على وجه الخصوص، من خلال استخدام الهندسة الوصفية، يمارس المهندس كيفية إنشاء النماذج الرسومية للأشكال في الفراغ ثلاثي الأبعاد ويدرس خصائصها الهندسية.
لتنفيذ رسومات المشروع، المهندس بحاجة أولا إلى مهارته في الرسم الحر، ولكن يجب أيضا ترجمة بديهية وتلقائية الرسم الحر إلى مخططات دقيقة، والتي يمكن رسمها بالمسطرة والفرجار وغيرها من ادوات الرسم التقني. من بين هذة الادوات منذ أواخر الثمانينات تم ادخال الكمبيوتر، والذي يستخدم الآن على نطاق واسع ويسمح ليس فقط بالرسم ثنائي الأبعاد، بل أيضا بنمذجة مجسمات افتراضية ثلاثية الأبعاد.
بدون هذه الأداة لم يكن من الممكن انجاز الكثير من المشاريع المعمارية الجريئة في السنوات الأخيرة.
ونستنتج من ذلك أن تدريس الرسم في كلية الهندسة المعمارية، يجب أن يدمج المقررات التالية: * الرسم الحر، الذي لا يزال الوسيلة الأكثر فعالية والاسرع لتسجيل فكرة فراغية ما * الهندسة الوصفية والتي تدرب على ادراك الفراغ وفهم قواعدة وأساليب اظهارة، * وأخيرا الرسم التقني، بما في ذلك الرسم الرقمي.
هذه التخصصات تساهم جميعها في تكوينة الطالب العمارة في السنوات الدراسية الأولى, لإعطاءة القدرة على تصميم الفراغ المعماري في السنوات اللاحقة.
أساليب ألهندسة ألوصفية : أساليب الهندسة الوصفية (من منظور ،الاسقاط المزدوج العمودي (Monge method) والاسقاط الاكسونومتري (axonometry) تقوم أساسا على عمليتين أساسيتين :الاسقاط والتقاطع.
أساليب الهندسة الوصفية تصنف، بصفة عامة، وفقا لطبيعة مركز الإسقاط م. عندما م تكون نقطة نهائية (على مسافة محدودة)، ألإسقاط يُسمى، إسقاط مركزي (أو منظور) ويُسمى إسقاط متوازي، عندما م تكون نقطة لانهائية (على مسافة لانهائية). * إسقاط مركزي (أو طريقة المنظور). ** استرداد منظوري (بالإيطالية:fotorestituzione). ** نظرية الظل من مصدر ضوء على مسافة محدودة. * إسقاط متوازي ** إسقاط عمودي *** إسقاط اكسونومتري *** طريقة مونج (أو الاسقاط المزدوج العمودي) *** il metodo delle proiezioni quotate ** إسقاط مائل *** إسقاط اكسونومتري ***** نظرية الظل من مصدر ضوء على مسافة غير محدودة.
تاريخ : منذ الحضارات القديمة في مصر، قد تجلى من الرسومات الهليلجيه في القبور، الاستخدام الصحيح للإسقاطات المتعامدة. في القرن الأول قبل الميلاد والقرن الأول بعد الميلاد فيتروفيو Vitruvius، في كتبة ،بعنوان دي اركيتيتورا "De architectura" ،استخدمت المساقط الرأسية والعمودية في رسوم المباني والمصانع ولقبت إكونوكرافيا وأورتوكرافيا (iconography and orthography).
في وقت لاحق ياكوبو باروتسو (Jacopo Barozzi) في عملة:"الخمس عناصر للهندسة المعمارية" (five orders of architecture) أستعملت المساقط العمودية التي تشبه طريقة غاسبر مونج (Gaspard monge). خلال الفترة نفسها، البرتو دورير (1471-1528- Alberto Dürer) عمل رسوم واجراءات تتعلق بالمخروطيات، كأقسام للمخروط وعمق أيضا دراسة المنظور (perspective).
في 1600 العلماء غوارينو غواريني (Guarino Guarini) وجيرارد ديساركس (Girard Desargues) قد وضعوا أسس الهندسة الوصفية" كما سميت من قبل الباحث الفرنسي غاسبار مونج (Gaspard Monge 1746- 1818). في 1700 نشر كتاب "الهندسة الوصفية" التي تطرح فيها القواعد الأساسية لهذا العلم الجديد. القواعد التي تهدف، قبل كل شيء، ان تمثل على نفس المستوي الاشياء ثلاثية الابعاد. في الوقت الحاضر الهندسة الوصفية تشمل الهندسه الاسقاطية (GEOMETRY PROJECTIVE).التي أهم نتائجها دُرست من قبل العالم جان فيكتور بونسيليت (Jean Victor Poncelet 1788-1867) تلميذ غاسبار مونج. الهندسة السقاطية عرضت مفهوم هندسي جديد تتعلق باالهيئة الانهائية (النقطة الانهائية، الخط الانهائي والمستوى الانهائي). هذا يؤدي إلى وجود اختلاف كبير مع القاعدة الخامسة لهندسة إقليدس (325 ق.م - 265 ق.م)، في حين ان النسبة المتبقية من قواعد ارشميدس تبقى صحيحة.
مفاهيم : بعض المفاهيم الأساسية للهندسة الوصفية هي : * تعريف الكيانات الهندسية الاساسية (نقطة، خط، مستوى، اتجاه (نقطة لانهائية) وميلان (خط لانهائي)) * شروط الانتماء : نقطة على خط، خط على سطح ونقطة على سطح. * حالات التقاطع: بين خطين، بين خط وسطح، وبين سطحيين. ** شروط التوازي والتعامد (كحالات خاصة للتقاطع). * شروط التماس وخصوصاً بين المخروطيات وبين الأسطح الدورانية * التقابل، التماثل، التماثل المعاكس، التألف المنظوري ،التألف، التحول، التحول المعاكس والالتفاف.
منحنيات : سطوح: تأملات: * في بعض الحالات من المهم الأخذ في الاعتبار النمذجة الرقمية كأداة أساسية لفهم بعض الهندسيات الفراغية التي قد تكون في بعض الأحيان معقدة لدرجة أنها تجعل من المستحيل التحكم بها من خلال الطرق التقليدية, التي تعتمد على الإسقاطات المستوية التي كانت تدرسها تطبيقات الهندسة الوصفية. * لا يمكننا تقييم كفاءة تدريس الهندسة الوصفية باستخدام الوسائل التقليدية أو الرقمية أن لم يتم متابعة الطلاب لمدة قد تدوم عدة سنوات أو على الأقل حتى مرحلة مقررات التصميم المتقدمة. وفقط عندئذ يمكن أن نعرف أفضلية هذه أو تلك الطريقة في تدريس الهندسة الوصفية وكفائتها الفعلية في ممارسة تفكير الطلاب على ادراك مفهوم الفراغ وتحقيقه بعد ذلك في تمثيل حجوم معمارية مثيرة للاهتمام من الناحية الهندسية والوظيفية. * ببليوغرافيا مصادر===
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Descriptive geometry
Descriptive geometry
dateNovember 2007: date: February 2011: Descriptive geometry is the branch of geometry which allows the representation of three-dimensional objects in two dimensions, by using a specific set of procedures. The resulting techniques are important for engineering, architecture, design and in art. Drawing is the language of design, and if drawing can be thought of as a language then, descriptive geometry is the grammar of this language. The theoretical basis for descriptive geometry is provided by planar geometric projections. Gaspard Monge is usually considered the "father of descriptive geometry". He first developed his techniques to solve geometric problems in 1765 while working as a draftsman for military fortifications, and later published his findings.
Monge's protocols allow an imaginary object to be drawn in such a way that it may be 3-D modeled. All geometric aspects of the imaginary object are accounted for in true size/to-scale and shape, and can be imaged as seen from any position in space. All images are represented on a two-dimensional surface.
Descriptive geometry uses the image-creating technique of imaginary, parallel projectors emanating from an imaginary object and intersecting an imaginary plane of projection at right angles. The cumulative points of intersections create the desired image.
Protocols: * Project two images of an object into mutually perpendicular, arbitrary directions. Each image view accommodates three dimensions of space, two dimensions displayed as full-scale, mutually-perpendicular axes and one as an invisible (point view) axis receding into the image space (depth). Each of the two adjacent image views shares a full-scale view of one of the three dimensions of space. * Either of these images may serve as the beginning point for a third projected view. The third view may begin a fourth projection, and on ad infinitum. These sequential projections each represent a circuitous, 90° turn in space in order to view the object from a different direction. * Each new projection utilizes a dimension in full scale that appears as point-view dimension in the previous view. To achieve the full-scale view of this dimension and accommodate it within the new view requires one to ignore the previous view and proceed to the second previous view where this dimension appears in full-scale. * Each new view may be created by projecting into any of an infinite number of directions, perpendicular to the previous direction of projection. (Envision the many directions of the spokes of a wagon wheel each perpendicular to the direction of the axle.) The result is one of stepping circuitously about an object in 90° turns and viewing the object from each step. Each new view is added as an additional view to an orthographic projection layout display and appears in an "unfolding of the glass box model".
Aside from the Orthographic, six standard principal views (Front; Right Side; Left Side; Top; Bottom; Rear), descriptive geometry strives to yield four basic solution views: the true length of a line (i.e., full size, not foreshortened), the point view (end view) of a line, the true shape of a plane (i.e., full size to scale, or not foreshortened), and the edge view of a plane (i.e., view of a plane with the line of sight perpendicular to the line of sight associated with the line of sight for producing the true shape of a plane). These often serve to determine the direction of projection for the subsequent view. By the 90° circuitous stepping process, projecting in any direction from the point view of a line yields its true length view; projecting in a direction parallel to a true length line view yields its point view, projecting the point view of any line on a plane yields the plane's edge view; projecting in a direction perpendicular to the edge view of a plane will yield the true shape (to scale) view. These various views may be called upon to help solve engineering problems posed by solid-geometry principles.
Heuristics: There is heuristic value to studying descriptive geometry. It promotes visualization and spatial analytical abilities, as well as the intuitive ability to recognize the direction of viewing for best presenting a geometric problem for solution. Representative examples:
The best direction to view : * Two skew lines (pipes, perhaps) in general positions in order to determine the location of their shortest connector (common perpendicular) * Two skew lines (pipes) in general positions such that their shortest connector is seen in full scale * Two skew lines in general positions such the shortest connector parallel to a given plane is seen in full scale (say, to determine the position and the dimension of the shortest connector at a constant distance from a radiating surface) * A plane surface such that a hole drilled perpendicular is seen in full scale, as if looking through the hole (say, to test for clearances with other drilled holes) * A plane equidistant from two skew lines in general positions (say, to confirm safe radiation distance?) * The shortest distance from a point to a plane (say, to locate the most economical position for bracing) * The line of intersection between two surfaces, including curved surfaces (say, for the most economical sizing of sections?) * The true size of the angle between two planes
A standard for presenting computer-modeling views analogous to orthographic, sequential projections has not yet been adopted. One candidate for such is presented in the illustrations below. The images in the illustrations were created using three-dimensional, engineering computer graphics.
Three-dimensional, computer modeling produces virtual space "behind the tube", as it were, and may produce any view of a model from any direction within this virtual space. It does so without the need for adjacent orthographic views and therefore may seem to render the circuitous, stepping protocol of Descriptive Geometry obsolete. However, since descriptive geometry is the science of the legitimate or allowable imaging of three or more dimensional space, on a flat plane, it is an indispensable study, to enhance computer modeling possibilities.
General solutions: General solutions are a class of solutions within descriptive geometry that contain all possible solutions to a problem. The general solution is represented by a single, three-dimensional object, usually a cone, the directions of the elements of which are the desired direction of viewing (projection) for any of an infinite number of solution views.
For example: To find the general solution such that two, unequal length, skew lines in general positions (say, rockets in flight?) appear: * Equal length * Equal length and parallel * Equal length and perpendicular (say, for ideal targeting of at least one) * Equal to lengths of a specified ratio * others.
In the examples, the general solution for each desired characteristic solution is a cone, each element of which produces one of an infinite number of solution views. When two or more characteristics of, say those listed above, are desired (and for which a solution exists) projecting in the direction of either of the two elements of intersections (one element, if cones are tangent) between the two cones produces the desired solution view. If the cones do not intersect a solution does not exist. The examples below are annotated to show the descriptive geometric principles used in the solutions. TL True-Length; EV : Edge View.
Figs. 1-3 below demonstrate (1) Descriptive geometry, general solutions and (2) simultaneously, a potential standard for presenting such solutions in orthographic, multiview, layout formats.
The potential standard employs two adjacent, standard, orthographic views (here, Front and Top) with a standard "folding line" between. As there is no subsequent need to 'circuitously step' 90° around the object, in standard, two-step sequences in order to arrive at a solution view (it is possible to go directly to the solution view), this shorter protocol is accounted for in the layout. Where the one step protocol replaces the two-step protocol, "double folding" lines are used. In other words, when one crosses the double lines he is not making a circuitous,90° turn but a non-orthodirectional turn directly to the solution view. As most engineering computer graphics packages automatically generates the six principal views of the glass box model, as well as an isometric view, these views are sometimes added out of heuristic curiosity.
Figure 1: Descriptive geometry - skew lines appearing perpendicular
Figure 2: Descriptive geometry - skew lines appear equal length
Figure 3: Descriptive geometry - skew lines appear in specified length ratio
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Géométrie descriptive
Géométrie affine | Dessin technique
technique: La géométrie descriptive est une branche de la géométrie qui définit les méthodes nécessaires à la résolution graphique des problèmes d'intersections et d'ombres entre volumes et surfaces définis de façon géométrique dans l'espace à trois dimensions. Il s'agit, en général, de rechercher la vraie grandeur de côtes, de tracer les courbes d'intersections de solides, de déterminer la nature de courbes (ellipse, parabole, hyperbole), de développer des surfaces (conique, cylindrique, prismatique...) ou encore de dessiner un objet selon un angle de vision donné (rotation, rabattement, changement de plan dans l'espace).
Ces problèmes sont pour une part ceux qui étaient posés dans les métiers de la taille des pierres de la charpente (exemple des escaliers débillardés, etc.), de l'usinage et, plus généralement, des métiers mettant en œuvre les métaux en feuille (tôlerie, carrosserie, dinanderie, chaudronnerie). Notons que dans ce dernier cas, l'application spécifique des principes de la géométrie descriptive prend le nom de « traçage des métaux en feuille » (ou simplement « traçage »). La géométrie descriptive a été théorisée par le mathématicien français Gaspard Monge mais les méthodes de projection lui étaient antérieures.
Elle consiste donc à représenter un ou plusieurs objets de l'espace à 3 dimensions en un minimum de projections orthogonales pour en lever l'ambiguïté et conserver, pour le problème posé, le maximum de propriétés utiles (conservation d'angles et de longueurs).
Le choix des plans de projection est donc fonction du problème posé et deux plans de projection sont la plupart du temps suffisants. Un certain nombre de conventions sont nécessaires pour rendre lisible un tracé de géométrie descriptive : * La projection frontale qui est une projection orthogonale d'une vue de face, est en haut de la feuille ; * La projection horizontale de la vue de dessus sur le plan horizontal est en bas de la feuille ; * Les deux projections sont séparées par la « ligne de terre » (« XY » en géométrie descriptive, « LT » en traçage), une ligne horizontale représentant l'intersection des deux plans de projection dans l'espace ; * Les points des deux projections sont appariés par des lignes de rappel figurées par des traits fins (ou rouges) ; * La vraie grandeur est dessinée en traits fins de couleur bleue ; * Les objets sont considérés comme des solides opaques. Les arêtes vues sont en trait noir continu et les arêtes cachées sont en pointillé.
Le « dessin géométral », couramment appelé dessin industriel, est une mise en œuvre directe de la géométrie descriptive avec des conventions proches, mais un peu différentes.
Représentation des points d'intersection d'une droite quelconque avec un cône oblique à base elliptique : Épure réalisée au moyen de deux vues, une vue frontale et une vue horizontale, ces deux vues étant séparées par une ligne de terre (LT), les points d'intersection sont représentés en {G,H}.
Explication de l'épure au moyen d'une représentation en perspective :
Représentation d'une intersection entre deux volumes : L'intersection de deux volumes (par exemple un perçage débouchant en surface ou bien deux pièces soudées) suit souvent une courbe « complexe ». Le dessin de cette courbe nécessite de repérer les points sur deux projections : le point appartient aux deux volumes, une des vues va donner sa cote, l'autre vue son éloignement.
La construction de cette courbe va se faire "point par point", avec la méthode du plan auxiliaire.
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قاطور أمريكي
قاطوريات | زواحف الولايات المتحدة
القاطور الأمريكي (واسمه العلمي Alligator mississippiensis) يتواجد القاطور الأمريكي في الجنوب الشرقي للولايات المتحده من الشرق شمال كاليفورنيا إلى جنوب فلوريدا ومن غرب إلى شمال تكساس إلى شمال وجنوب اركانسس وشرق اكلاهوما ويستطيع ان يعيش في المناطق البارده أكثر من اي تمساح اخر فلذلك من الممكن ان يتواجدفي المناطق الشماليه.
مزارع القاطور (التماسيح) : تعتبر زراعة القواطير (التماسيح) زراعة ذات صناعة كبيرة ومتزايدة في جورجيا وفلوريدا وتكساس ولويزيانا. تنتج هذه البلدان مجتمعة ما مجموعه السنوي للجلود 45،000. ويخفي القاطور تحقيق أسعار جيدة ويخفي في القدمين 6-7 (1،8-2،1 م) مجموعة 300 دولار لكل منهما، على الرغم من أن الأسعار يمكن أن تتذبذب بشكل كبير من سنة إلى أخرى. وكذلك سوق لحوم التماسيح ينمي ما يقرب من 300000 جنيه استرليني ويتنج سنويا (140،000 كيلوغرام). ووفقا لإدارة ولاية فلوريدا الزراعية والخدمات الاستهلاكية، لحم التمساح الخام يحتوي على حوالي 200 سعرة حرارية بينها 27 من السعرات الحرارية تأتي من الدهون.
التماسيح والبشر : التماسيح قادرة على قتل البشر ،وعضات التمساح تسبب بإصابات خطيرة وتعرض لخطر الإصابة بالعدوى. وعد المعاملة اللازمة أو الإهمال من عضة تمساح قد تؤدي إلى الإصابة التي تستدعي بتر أحد الأطراف، وذيل التمساح هو سلاح قادر على ضرب شخص لأسفل وكسر العظام، ومنذ عام 1948، كانت هناك أكثر من 275 هجوما غير مبرر على البشر في ولاية فلوريدا، وأدت إلي موت ما لا يقل عن 17. لم يكن هناك سوى تسع هجمات قاتلة في جميع أنحاء الولايات المتحدة.
مراجع : ثبت_المراجع: بذرة حيوان:
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American alligator
Crocodilians | Symbols of Florida | Megafauna of North America | Endemic fauna of the United States | Reptiles of the United States | Alligatoridae | Cuisine of the Southern United States | Florida culture | Fauna of the Southeastern United States | Louisiana culture | Mississippi culture | Animals described in 1802
The American alligator (Alligator mississippiensis), sometimes referred to colloquially as a gator, is a reptile endemic only to the Southeastern United States. It is one of the two living species of alligator, in the genus Alligator, within the family Alligatoridae. It is larger than the other extant alligator species, the Chinese alligator.
The American alligator inhabits wetlands that frequently overlap with human-populated areas. * Description
The American alligator has a large, slightly rounded body, with thick limbs, a broad head, and a very powerful tail. Adult Alligators generally have dark gray or nearly black color. They may at times appear to be lighter based on detritus or algae in the water covering their skin. Juvenile alligators have a striped pattern for camouflage that they lose as they mature. Averaging about 9.5 in (24 cm) in length when newly hatched, alligators reach sexual maturity when they measure about . Adult male alligators average in length, while adult females average . Average adult body weights are reported from , with a few exceptionally large and old males exceeding and . One American Alligator reached a length of and 2,200 lb (1,000 kg), which made it not only the largest alligator ever recorded, but also among the largest crocodilians on record (although the related Black Caiman and 5 other crocodilians are believed to equal or exceed this size and prehistoric crocodilians such as Sarcosuchus, Deinosuchus, and Purussaurus reached much greater size). The tail, which accounts for half of the alligator's total length, is primarily used for aquatic propulsion. The tail can also be used as a weapon of defense when an alligator feels threatened. Alligators travel very quickly in water and while they are generally slow-moving on land, alligators can lunge short distances very quickly. They have five claws on each front foot and four on each rear foot. American Alligators have the strongest laboratory measured bite of any living animal, measured at up to in laboratory conditions. It should be noted that this experiment has not (at the time of the paper published) been replicated in any other crocodilians.
Some alligators are missing an inhibited gene for melanin, which makes them albino. These alligators are extremely rare and almost impossible to find in the wild. They could survive only in captivity. Like all albino animals, they are very vulnerable to the sun and predators.
American Alligators can remain underwater for several hours if not actively swimming or hunting (then it is only about 20 minutes); they do this by rerouting blood to reduce circulation to the lungs, and thus the need for oxygen.
Habitat: American alligators are mostly found in the Southeastern United States, from Great Dismal Swamp in North Carolina south to Everglades National Park in Florida and west to the southern tip of Texas. They are found in the U.S. states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Texas, and Oklahoma. Florida and Louisiana currently have the largest population of alligators. Florida has an estimated population of 1 to 1.5 million: while Louisiana has an estimated population of 1.5 million
Although primarily freshwater animals, alligators will occasionally venture into brackish water.
Alligators live in wetlands and this is the vital habitat that holds the key to their continued long-term survival. Alligators depend on the wetlands, and in some ways the wetlands depend on them. As apex predators, they help control the population of rodents and other animals that might overtax the marshland vegetation.
American alligators are less prone to cold than American crocodiles. Unlike the American crocodile, which would immediately succumb to the cold and drown in water of 45 °F (7.2 °C), an alligator can survive in such temperatures for some time without any signs of evident discomfort. It is thought that this adaptiveness is the reason why American alligators spread farther north than the American crocodile. In fact, the American alligator is found farther from the equator and is more equipped to deal with cooler conditions than any other crocodilian.
In Florida, alligators face ambient temperature patterns unlike elsewhere in their range. The consistently high temperatures lead to increased metabolic cost. Alligators in the Everglades have reduced length to weight ratio, reduced total length, and delayed onset of sexual maturity compared with other parts of their range. The reason for this poor condition is currently suspected to be a combination of low food availability and sustained high temperatures.
Diet: Alligators eat fish, birds, turtles, snakes, mammals, and amphibians. Hatchlings diet on invertebrates, insects, larvae, snails, spiders, worms, and other small prey. They will also eat small fish at any opportunity. As they grow, they gradually move on to larger fish, mollusks, frogs and small mammals like rats, and mice. Some adult alligators take a larger variety of prey ranging from a snake or turtle to a bird and moderate sized mammals like a raccoon or deer.
Once an alligator reaches adulthood, any animal living in the water or coming to the water to drink is potential prey. Adult alligators will eat wild boars, deer, dogs of all sizes, livestock including cattle and sheep, and are often known to kill and eat smaller alligators. In rare instances, large male alligators have been known to prey on the Florida panther and American black bear, making the American alligator the apex predator throughout its distribution. The American alligator is known as King of the Everglades, although the American crocodile, which shares parts of the Everglades with the alligator, is capable of growing larger (over 5 meters), mostly in warmer regions like Central America, Mexico, and the Caribbean.
Although fish and other prey taken in the water or at the water edge form the major part of alligator's diet, adult alligators also spend considerable time hunting on land, up to 50 m (170 feet) from water, ambushing terrestrial animals on trailsides and road shoulders on warm nights.
The gizzards (stomachs) of alligators often contain gastroliths. The function of these stones is to grind up food in the stomach and help with digestion. This is important because gators swallow their food whole. These gastroliths are also used in buoyancy control.
In 2005, the bite force of a , alligator was measured to be 2209 pounds-force (9.826 kN)by Greg Ericson.
American alligators cruise through water at just over ; in pursuit of prey they can swim much faster over short distances.
Reproduction: The breeding season begins in the spring. Although alligators have no vocal cords, males bellow loudly to attract mates and warn off other males during this time by sucking air into their lungs and blowing it out in intermittent, deep-toned roars. Male alligators are also known to use infrasound during their mating behavior, as one of their routines is to engage in bellowing in infrasound while their head and tail are above the water, with their midsection very slightly submerged, making the surface of the water that is directly over their back literally "sprinkle" from their infrasound bellowing, in a so-called "water dance". Recently it was discovered that on spring nights alligators gather in large numbers for group courtship, the so-called "alligator dances".
The female builds a nest of vegetation, sticks, leaves, and mud in a sheltered spot in or near the water. After she lays her 20 to 50 white, goose egg-sized eggs, she covers them under more vegetation, which, like mulch, heats as it decays, helping to keep the eggs warm. This differs from Nile crocodiles who lay their eggs in pits.
The temperature at which alligator eggs develop determines their sex. Those eggs which are hatched in temperatures ranging from 90 to 93 degrees Fahrenheit (32 to 34 °C) become males, while those in temperatures from 82 to 86 °F (23 to 30 °C) become female. Intermediate temperature ranges have proven to yield a mix of both male and females. The female will remain near the nest throughout the 65-day incubation period, protecting the nest from intruders. When the young begin to hatch they emit a high-pitched croaking noise, and the mother quickly digs them out.
The young are tiny replicas of adult alligators with a series of yellow bands around their bodies. They find their way to water after hatching. For several days they continue to live on yolk masses within their stomachs. The baby spends about five months with the mother before leaving her. Snapping turtles, large snakes, raccoons, largemouth bass, American black bears and large raptorial birds like great horned owls and bald eagles prey upon the young. The adult alligator grows up to prey upon many of the same species.
Alligators reach breeding maturity at about 6 to 10 years of age, at which time they are about 6 to 7 feet (1.8–2.1 m) long. From then on, growth continues at a slower rate. The oldest males may grow to be 16 feet (4.85 m) long and weigh up to 1,200 pounds (510 kg) during a lifespan of 30 or more years. A recent study by scientists from the Savannah River Ecology Laboratory in South Carolina reveals that up to 70 percent of A. mississippiensis females chose to remain with their partner, often for many years. * Relationships with humans * Human deaths and injuries
List of fatal alligator attacks in the United States by decade: Alligators are capable of killing humans, but are generally wary enough not to see them as a potential prey. Alligators are often less aggressive towards humans than large crocodile species, a few of which (mainly the Nile and Saltwater Crocodiles) may prey on humans with some regularity. Alligator bites are serious injuries due to the reptile's sheer bite force and risk of infection. Even with medical treatment, an alligator bite may still result in a fatal infection. The alligator's tail is a formidable weapon that can easily knock a person down and break their bones. Alligators are protective parents who will protect their young by attacking anything that comes too close or poses threats to baby alligators.
Since 1948, there have been more than 275 unprovoked attacks on humans in Florida, of which at least 17 resulted in death. There were only nine fatal attacks in the U.S. throughout the 70s, 80s, and 90s, but alligators killed 12 people from 2001 to 2007. In May 2006, alligators killed three Floridians in less than a week.
Alligator wrestling : Alligator wrestling: Several Florida tourist attractions have taken advantage of fears and myths about alligators—as well as the reality of their danger—through a practice known as alligator wrestling. Created in the early 20th century by some members of the Miccosukee and Seminole Tribe of Florida, this tourism tradition continues to the present day.
Endangered species recovery : Historically, alligators were depleted from many parts of their range as a result of market hunting and loss of habitat, and 30 years ago many people believed their population would never recover. In 1967, the alligator was listed as an endangered species (under a law that preceded the Endangered Species Act of 1973), meaning it was considered in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range.
A combined effort by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, state wildlife agencies in the South, and the creation of large, commercial alligator farms were instrumental in aiding the American alligator's recovery. The Endangered Species Act outlawed alligator hunting, allowing the species to rebound in numbers in many areas where it had been depleted. As the alligator began to make a comeback, states established alligator population monitoring programs and used this information to ensure alligator numbers continued to increase. In 1987, the Fish and Wildlife Service pronounced the American alligator fully recovered and consequently removed the animal from the list of endangered species. The Fish and Wildlife Service still regulates the legal trade in alligator skins and products made from them.
Recently, a population of non-native Burmese Pythons has become established in Everglades National Park. While there have been observed events of predation by Burmese pythons on alligators and vice versa, there is currently no evidence of a net negative effect on alligator populations.
Alligator farming : Alligator farm: Alligator farming is a big and growing industry in Georgia, Florida, Texas and Louisiana. These states produce a combined annual total of some 45,000 alligator hides. Alligator hides bring good prices and hides in the range have sold for $300 each, though the price can fluctuate considerably from year to year. The market for alligator meat is growing and approximately of meat is produced annually. According to the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, raw alligator meat contains roughly 200 calories (840 kJ) per serving size, of which 27 calories (130 kJ) come from fat.
Alligator meat is sometimes used in jambalayas, soups, and stew.
Symbol: The American alligator is the official state reptile of three states: Florida, Louisiana, and Mississippi. In addition, the Gators have titled the University of Florida's teams since 1911. In that year, a printer made a spur-of-the-moment decision to print an alligator emblem on a shipment of the schools football pennants; the mascot stuck, perhaps because the team captain's nickname was Gator.
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Alligator d'Amérique
Crocodilien (nom vernaculaire) | Alligatoridae | Symbole de la Floride
Alligator (animal):
LC :
Taxobox fin: Alligator mississippiensis, lAlligator d'Amérique ou cocodri(e) ou crocodril en français cadien, est une espèce de crocodiliens de la famille des Alligatoridae. * Description
La longueur moyenne des mâles est comprise entre 4 et 4,5 mètres et ils peuvent atteindre exceptionnellement 5 à 6 mètres. Les femelles mesurent moins de 3 mètres. Il est plus grand que l'autre espèce d'alligator, l'Alligator de Chine.
Il a été mesuré en laboratoire que l'alligator américain peut exercer entre ses mâchoires une force atteignant N, soit le poids d'une masse de . Cette force dans la mâchoire est supérieure à celle que peut fournir n'importe quelle autre espèce actuellement vivante. Toutefois, l'étude n'a pas été menée sur d'autres crocodiliens. * Écologie et biologie
L'espèce fréquente les eaux douces marécageuses mais peut se rencontrer aussi dans des rivières ou des lacs. Elle tolère un léger degré de salinité durant un bref laps de temps et peut alors se trouver dans des eaux saumâtres comme des mangroves.
Les jeunes se nourrissent d'invertébrés et particulièrement d'insectes, de petits poissons et de grenouilles. En grandissant, ils chassent des proies de plus en plus grandes comme des tortues, des petits mammifères, des oiseaux, des reptiles y compris d'autre alligators.
Cette espèce peut rester sous l'eau plusieurs heures en détournant la circulation sanguine uniquement vers les poumons et le cerveau ; si elle nage ou chasse, cette durée est réduite à 20 minutes. Les poumons lui servent à respirer, mais aussi à manœuvrer sous l'eau selon une étude réalisée par des biologistes de l’Université d'État de l'Utah . Ses poumons agissent comme des « flotteurs internes » (variation de flottabilité comme la vessie natatoire des poissons, projetant ses poumons sur le côté lorsqu'elle se retourne sur elle-même, vers la tête lorsqu’elle refait surface, vers la queue quand elle plonge), lui permettant ainsi lorsqu'elle chasse de se déplacer discrètement sans alerter la proie. En conclusion de cette étude, les chercheurs émettent l'hypothèse que le développement du muscle du diagraphme a eu d'abord une fonction locomotrice puis une fonction respiratoire et étendent leurs observations à certaines tortues, salamandres, grenouilles africaines à griffes et lamantins qui pourraient avoir la même adaptation apparue chez les archosauriens .
La détermination du sexe dépend de la température régnant durant une période critique de l’incubation. Une température inférieure à 30° entre le 7e: et le 21e: jour ne donnera que des femelles; si la température excède les 34° le nids ne donnera que des mâles . Si la température varie, la proportion entre les mâles et les femelles variera.
Œuf amniotique: Distribution : Cette espèce se rencontre aux États-Unis dans la totalité de la Floride et de la Louisiane, les parties méridionales de la Géorgie, de l'Alabama et du Mississippi; les régions côtières de la Caroline du Sud et de la Caroline du Nord, le sud-est du Texas et l'extrême Sud-Est de l'Oklahoma et de l'Arkansas. La majorité des alligators américains se situent en Floride et en Louisiane, avec plus d'un million d'individus dans chaque État. Cette espèce est aussi présente dans le nord du Mexique.
Les alligators américains vivent dans des environnements d'eau douce, comme les étangs, les marais, les marécages, les rivières et les lacs, ainsi que dans les milieux saumâtres. La Floride du Sud est le seul endroit où coexistent alligators et crocodiles.
Taxinomie : François Marie Daudin a commis une erreur lorsqu'il décrivit la première fois cette espèce. En effet, il orthographia son nom en mississipiensis, en oubliant l'un des p. Son erreur a été officiellement réparée par une décision de la Commission internationale de nomenclature zoologique.
Étymologie : Le nom de l'espèce, mississippiensis, vient du fleuve Mississippi suivi du suffixe latin ensis (provenant de).
L'alligator d’Amérique et l'homme : On connaît des cas exceptionnels où un alligator ait attaqué des enfants et même des adultes. Les alligators sauvages que des êtres humains nourrissent s'habituent à la présence humaine et attaquent plus volontiers.
Protection : Ses effectifs sont estimés à plus d'un million de spécimens. Cette espèce est la mieux connue parmi les crocodiliens. Les programmes de protection mis en place à la fin des années 1960 ont permis une très nette augmentation de ses effectifs. C'est en particulier l'instauration de quotas sur la chasse qui a permis cette embellie. Les fermes d'élevage, aujourd'hui on en compte plus de 150, ont permis des réintroductions dans de nombreux milieux où ils avaient disparu (par exemple en Arkansas et au Mississippi).
Cuisine : L'Alligator entre à titre de composant dans la cuisine cadienne. Il est surtout utilisé dans des recettes de ragoûts, tel le gumbo. Sa chair dense et blanche est très ressemblante, selon les dires, au poulet.
Galerie :
message galerie: Publication originale : * Daudin, 1802 : Histoire Naturelle, Générale et Particulière des Reptiles; ouvrage faisant suit à l'Histoire naturelle générale et particulière, composée par Leclerc de Buffon; et rédigee par C.S. Sonnini, membre de plusieurs sociétés savantes, 2: , F. Dufart, Paris, 1-432: .
Notes et références : Références:
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فيروز (مغنية)
مواليد 1935 | أشخاص على قيد الحياة | روم أرثوذكس | مسيحيون لبنانيون | مغنيات لبنانيات
نهاد وديع حداد المشهورة باسم فيروز (21 نوفمبر 1935 -)، مغنية لبنانية. قدمت مع زوجها الراحل عاصي الرحباني وأخوه منصور الرحباني المعروفين بالأخوين رحباني العديد من الأغاني والأوبريهات التي لاقت رواجا واسعا في العالم العربي والعديد من دول العالم.
نبذة : ولدت فيروز في حارة زقاق البلاط في مدينة بيروت في لبنان لعائلة فقيرة الحال. والدها وديع حداد سرياني الأصل كان قد نزح مع عائلته من مدينة ماردين الواقعة في تركيا حاليا، وعمل لاحقا في مطبعة ببيروت. ووالدتها مارونية تدعى ليزا البستاني توفيت في نفس اليوم الذي سجلت فيه فيروز أغنية "يا جارة الوادي". اشتهرت منذ صغرها بغنائها بين أفراد العائلة وفي تجمعات الحي. بدأت عملها الفني في عام 1940 كمغنية كورس في الإذاعة اللبنانية عندما إكتشف صوتها الموسيقي محمد فليفل وضمها لفريقه الذي كان ينشد الأغاني الوطنية. وألف لها حليم الرومي مدير الإذاعة اللبنانة أول اغانيها ومن ثم عرفها على عاصي الرحباني الذي أطلقها في عالم النجومية .
وكانت انطلاقتها الجدية عام 1952 عندما بدأت الغناء لعاصي الرحباني، وكانت الأغاني التي غنتها في ذلك الوقت تملأ كافة القنوات الإذاعية، وبدأت شهرتها في العالم العربي منذ ذلك الوقت. كانت أغلب أغانيها آنذاك للأخوين عاصي ومنصور الرحباني الذين يشار لهما دائما بالأخوين رحباني.
وفي 1955 تزوجت من عاصي، وأنجبت منه زياد عام 1956 ثم هالي عام 1958 وهو مقعد، ثم ليال عام 1960 (والتي توفيت بعام 1988) وأخيراً ريما عام 1965.
قدم الأخوين رحباني معها المئات من الأغاني التي أحدثت ثورة في الموسيقى العربية وذلك لتميزها بقصر المدة وقوة المعنى على عكس الأغاني العربية السائدة في ذلك الحين والتي كانت تمتاز بالطول، كما إنها كانت بسيطة التعبير وفي عمق الفكرة الموسيقية وتنوع المواضيع، حيث غنت الحب والأطفال، وللقدس لتمسكها بالقضية الفلسطينية، وللحزن والفرح والوطن والأم، وقدم عدد كبير من هذه الأغاني ضمن مجموعة مسرحيات من تأليف وتلحين الأخوين رحباني وصل عددها إلى خمس عشرة مسرحية تنوعت مواضيعها بين نقد الحاكم والشعب وتمجيد البطولة والحب بشتى أنواعه.
وقد غنت لعديد من الشعراء والملحنين ومنهم ميخائيل نعيمة بقصيدة تناثري وسعيد عقل بقصيدة لاعب الريشة وغيرها، كما إنها غنت أمام العديد من الملوك والرؤساء وفي أغلب المهرجانات الكبرى في العالم العربي. وأطلق عليها عدة ألقاب منها "سفيرتنا إلى النجوم" الذي أطلقه عليها الشاعر سعيد عقل للدلالة على رقي صوتها وتميزه.
بعد وفاة زوجها عاصي عام 1986 خاضت تجارب عديدة مع مجموعة ملحنين ومؤلفين من أبرزهم فلمون وهبة وزكي ناصيف، لكنها عملت بشكل رئيسي مع ابنها زياد الذي قدم لها مجموعة كبيرة من الأغاني أبرزت موهبته وقدرته على خلق نمط موسيقي خاص به يستقي من الموسيقى العربية والموسيقى العالمية.
وقد أصدرت خلال هذه المرحلة العديد من الألبومات من أبرزها "كيفك انت"، "فيروز في بيت الدين 2000" والذي كان تسجيلاً حياً من مجموعة حفلات أقامتها فيروز بمصاحبة ابنها زياد وأوركسترا تضم عازفين أرمن وسوريين ولبنانيين، وكانت البداية لسلسلة حفلات حظيت بنجاح منقطع النظير لما قدمته من جديد على صعيد التوزيع الموسيقي والتنوع في الأغاني بين القديمة والحديثة، ألبوم ايه في امل2010 كان آخر ما قدمته من ألبومات عديدة. * الحفلات
قدمت حفلاتها في العديد من الدول قلما توجد فنانة قامت بمثلها. الدول التي قدمت حفلاتها فيها (هذا لا يتضمن المسرحيات إلا إذا ذكر عكس ذلك): * فلسطين: زارت فيروز القدس 1964 لترتل في المدينة الخالدة في مناسبة زيارة البابا للقدس، كما قام (إميل الخوري وخير الدين الحسيني) نائبا القدس بزيارة إلى بيروت ليسلما فيروز في مؤتمر صحفي مفتاح مدينة القدس من خشب الزيتون المقدس. * البحرين: قلعة عراد 1987، قاعة المؤتمرات الدولية 1998، قلعة عراد 2008. * الكويت: أعوام 1966 و 1989 و 2001. * الإمارات: أبوظبي مسرح وزارة الثقافة في 1985 وقصر الإمارات في 2006؛ الشارقة 1979 و 2008 (مسرحية صح النوم لمدة 5 أيام)، دبي 1990 و 1993 و 1997 و 2001 و 2002 حيث اهدت الحفل إلى الشعب الفلسطيني و 2003و 2006. * قطر: الدوحة مسرح فندق الشيراتون 1992 و 2003. * العراق: بغداد 1975. * الأردن: عمان 1963 و 1975 و 1999 و 2004 و 2007 (مسرحية صح النوم), جرش 1983. * سوريا: دمشق 1959 و 1960 و 1961 و 1966 و 1976 و 2008 (مسرحية صح النوم), بصرى 1985. * مصر: القاهرة 1976 حديقة الأندلس و 1989 مسرح الصوت والضوء الأهرامات. * المغرب: الرباط 1975. * الجزائر: الجزائر 1968. * تونس: تونس 1968 و 1998. * هولندا: أمستردام 2011. * اليونان: أثينا 2007. * سويسرا: جنيف 1999 الذكرى ال50 للصليب الأحمر، بازل 2001. * فرنسا: باريس 1979 الأولمبيا و 1988 بيرسي و 2002 بالايل. * بريطانيا: لندن 1962 رويل ألبرت هول و 1978 باليديوم و1986 رويل فيستيفل هول وكنيسة سانت مارغريت و 1994 الأولمبيا. * المكسيك: المركز اللبناني السوري بمكسيكو 1971. * البرازيل: 1961 و 1970 و 1981. * الأرجنتين: 1961 و 1970. * أمريكا: 1971 (11 مدينة) و1981 (11 مدينة) و1987 (واشنطن، نيويورك، ماستشيوتس، ميشيغن) و 1999 (لاس فيغاس) و 2003 (كونيكيت، ميشيغن، كاليفورنيا). * أستراليا: ملبورن وسيدني 1984. * كندا: قصر الثقافة والفنون مونتريال 1971 و 1981 و 2005، أوتاو 1981. * لبنان: بعلبك 1957، أيام الحصاد 1967، ساحة الشهداء ببيروت 1994، بعلبك 1998 بيت الدين (1965 و 2000 و 2001 و 2002 و 2003) البيال بيروت 2010، (بلاتيا، ساحل علما) ديسمبر 2011 خمس حفلات. * المسرحيات الغنائية * جسر القمر إنتاج عام 1962. * الليل والقنديل إنتاج عام 1963. * بياع الخواتم إنتاج عام 1964. * أيام فخر الدين إنتاج عام 1966. * هالة والملك إنتاج عام 1967. * الشخص إنتاج عام 1968. * جبال الصوان إنتاج عام 1969. * يعيش يعيش إنتاج عام 1970. * صح النوم إنتاج عام 1971، وأعادت عرضها في البيال في بيروت في ديسمبر 2006، وكذلك في 2 و3 نوفمبر 2007 في مسرح الأرينا بعمّان، وكذلك في دار الأوبرا بدمشق بعام 2008 وإستمر عرضها أكثر من أسبوع من 28 يناير حتى 5 فبراير. * ناس من ورق إنتاج عام 1972، وكذلك عرضت أجزاء من هذه المسرحية في جولتها عام 1971 في الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية في سان فرانسيسكو. * ناطورة المفاتيح إنتاج عام 1972. * المحطة إنتاج عام 1973. * لولو إنتاج عام 1974. * ميس الريم إنتاج عام 1975. * بترا إنتاج عام 1977. * السكتشات * سكتش الناطور. * سكتش مسرح الضيعة. * سكتش رابوق. * اسكتش عصفورتي. * سكتش كاسر مزراب العين. * سكتش عودة الصنوبر. * سكتش ورد وشبابيك. * سكتش المصالحة. * سكتش غربال. * سكتش الحصاد. * سكتش زرياب. * سكتش حكايات الربيع. * سكتش غرباء شعر هارون هاشم رشيد. * سكتش غرباء. * سكتش المحاكمة. * سكتش ضيعة الأغاني. * سكتش حصاد ورماح. * سكتش جسر العودة. * سكتش دفاتر الليل. * سكتش إشاعة حب. * سكتش روكز خطب. * سكتش روكز تجوز. * سكتش عمرو وهند. * سكتش ليالي نيسان * سكتش نبع الصفصاف
وكانت تقام مسرحياتها في عدة أماكن منها: كازينو لبنان ومهرجانات بعلبك الدولية ومهرجان دمشق الدولي ومهرجان صيدا ومسرح قصر البيكاديلي في بيروت والمدرج الروماني بالأردن. * الأفلام والبرامج المتلفزة * بياع الخواتم إنتاج عام 1965. * سفر برلك إنتاج عام 1967. * بنت الحارس إنتاج عام 1968.
كما أنها عملت برنامج تليفزيوني غنائي بعنوان الإسوارة بعام 1963. * فيروز والقصائد
على الرغم من قلة عدد القصائد التي غنتها فيروز نسبة إلى إجمالي أغانيها، إلاّ أن القصائد تعتبر من أجمل أغانيها، مثل خذني بعينيك، والآن الآن وليس غدا، وتناثري وسكن الليل، وزهرة المدائن، وأناجيك في سر، وأعطني الناي وغني، واحب من الأسماء,ولما بدا يتثنى. لكن هذه الأغاني لا تذاع كثيراً في التلفيزيون ربما لأن بعضها غير مصور.
وقامت العظيمة فيروز في حياتها بتقديم عدد من الاغانى
وعددها إلى الآن في يوم 5 أكتوبر لعام 2010.
729 اغنية
ومن الأشهر على الإطلاق
باكتب اسمك ياحبيبي
ياسهر الليالي
أنا لحبيبي
نسم علينا الهوي
القدس
حبيتك تنسيت النوم
سلملي عليه
سألوني الناس
سألتك حبيبي
غنيت مكة
أعطني الناي وأغني
عودك رنان
طلعلي البكي
من عز النوم
سهار بعد سهار * الألبومات الغنائية * القدس في البال - 8 اغنية * الليل والقنديل - 21 اغنية * المحطة - 9 اغنية * إلى عاصي - 17 اغنية * الاسوارة - 1 اغنية * الاغاني الخالدة - 15 اغنية * الجمعة الحزينة - 10 اغنية * الشخص - 18 اغنية * انا وسهرانة - 15 اغنية * اناشيد - 4 اغنية * اندلسيات - 15 اغنية * ايام فخر الدين - 6 اغنية * احلى ما غنت فيروز - 14 اغنية * اسهار - 8 اغنية * اغاني الميلاد - 13 اغنية * بليل وشتي - 4 اغنية * بنت الحارس - 22 اغنية * بياع الخواتم - 39 اغنية * تراتيل الميلاد - 9 اغنية * تغني فيلمون وهبي - 12 اغنية * تغني زكي ناصيف - 9 اغنية * جبال الصوان - 28 اغنية * جسر القمر - 17 اغنية * دبكات 1 - 13 اغنية * دبكات 2 - 16 اغنية * راجعون - 10 اغنية * سفيرة العرب - 7 اغنية * سهرة مع فيروز - 7 اغنية * سهرة الحب - 6 اغنية * شط إسكندرية - 11 اغنية * صح النوم - 7 اغنية * عودة العسكر البعلبكية - 12 اغنية * عودة العسكر البعلبكية 2 - 12 اغنية * في الأولمبيا بباريس - 23 اغنية * في الروايال فستفال هول لندن 1986 - 11 اغنية * في بيت دين - 17 اغنية * في بترا - 2 اغنية * فيروز - 10 اغنية * فيروز والذكريات - 16 اغنية * قصيدة حب - 2 اغنية * قصائد - 8 اغنية * كيفك انت - 11 اغنية * لولو - 11 اغنية * لبنان الحقيقي جايني - 9 اغنية * ميس الريم - 12 اغنية * مش كاين هيك تكون - 9 اغنية * مشوار - 16 اغنية * معكم - 7 اغنية * معرفتي فيك - 10 اغنية * معرض دمشق الدولي 1960 - 20 اغنية * ناس من ورق - 9 اغنية * ناطورة المفاتيح - 2 اغنية * هموم الحب - 12 اغنية * هالة والملك - 2 اغنية * و لا كيف - 9 اغنية * وحدن - 5 اغنية * يا ترى نسينا - 16 اغنية * يا رايح - 8 اغنية * يسعد صباحك - 11 اغنية * يعيش يعيش - 14 اغنية * ايه في أمل - 12 اغنية * مواقف فيروز والحياة السياسية
تكاد تكون فيروز هي الوحيدة من المغنين العرب الكبار التي لم تذكر الرؤساء والملوك في أغانيها الوطنية، وهذا جعلها على مسافة واحدة من معظم التيارات السياسية، كما ضمن لأغانيها الوطنية عمراً أطول من الأغاني الوطنية لكثير من المغنين الآخرين. مع ذلك لم تسلم مواقف فيروز السياسية من نقد بعض المجموعات، فمثلاً تعرضت للنقد من جماعات معادية لسوريا عندما غنت فيروز فيها عام 2008. وشغلت فيروز الصحافة الفنية عام 2010 عندما أشيع أن ورثة عاصي الرحباني منعوها من الغناء بقرار قضائي إلا أن الخبر لم يكن صحيحا. وأطلقت العديد من الأغاني الجديدة لزياد الرحباني في مسرح البيال في بيروت عام 2010 . وتصدرت أغانيها الجديدة مبيعات الالبومات بشكل ملفت . * معرض الصور فيروز سنة حفل زفاف فيروز وعاصي فيروز مع والدتها ليزا البستاني فيروز رسم حنا عصفور
Fairuz: * أنظر أيضا * فن لبنان * مراجع ==
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Fairuz
1935 births | Living people | Lebanese artists | Lebanese Christians | Lebanese people | Arabic-language singers | Lebanese female singers | Lebanese women | EMI Records artists | Virgin Records artists | Syriac-language singers | Converts to Eastern Orthodoxy from Catholicism
Nouhad Wadi Haddad (}}) (born November 21, 1935), famously known as Fairuz (}}, also spelled Fairouz or Fayrouz, meaning "Turquoise") is a Lebanese singer who is widely considered to be the most famous living singer in the Arab world and one of the best known of all time. Her songs are constantly heard throughout the region, and still spark Lebanese national pride.
She was first noticed at the International Festival of Baalbek, where she performed many of her songs. She became famous after appearing on the "Lebanese Nights" part of the festival for many successive years.
Fairuz is commonly known as "Ambassador to the Stars" and "Neighbor to the Moon".
Biography: 1935-1950s - The early years: See Timeline of Fairuz.
Nouhad Haddad was born on 21 November 1935 in dateSeptember 2011: , Lebanon into a Syriac-Maronite family. The family later moved into a home in cobblestone alley called 'Zuqaq el Blatt' in Beirut. Living in a single room of a typical Lebanese stone house facing Beirut's Patriarchate school, they shared a kitchen with the neighbours. Her father Wadīʿ was from Mardin and of the Syriac Orthodox faith,>http://www.fanoos.com/info/fairouz_info.htm and worked as a typesetter in a print shop. Lisa, her mother, stayed home and took care of her four children, Nouhad, Youssef, Hoda and Amal.
Nouhad was a shy child and did not have many friends at school. However, she was very attached to her grandmother who lived in Debbieh (Shuf area), where Nouhad used to spend her summer holidays. Nouhad seemed to enjoy the rural village life. During the day, Nouhad would help her grandmother with house chores and fetch fresh water from a nearby water spring. She would sing all the way to the spring and back. In the evening, Nouhad would sit by the candlelight with her grandmother, who would tell her stories.
By the age of ten, Nouhad was already known at school for her unusual singing voice. She would sing regularly during school shows and on holidays. This was how she came to the attention of Mohammed Fleyfel, a well known musician and a teacher at the Lebanese Conservatory, who happened to attend one of the school's shows in February 1950. Impressed by her voice and performance, he advised her to enroll in the conservatory, which she did. At first, Nouhad's conservative father was reluctant to send her to the conservatory; however, he eventually allowed her to go on condition that her brother accompany her. That having been said, Nouhad's family as a whole encouraged her in her musical career.
Mohammed Fleyfel took a close interest in Nouhad's talent. Among other things, he taught her to recite verses from the Koran (in the Recitative style known as Tajweed). On one occasion, Nouhad was heard singing by Halim el Roumi, head of the Lebanese Radio Station and a prominent musician in his own right (also the father of the famous Lebanese singer Majida Roumi). Roumi was impressed by her voice and noticed that it had a rare flexibility that allowed her to sing both Arabic and Western modes admirably. At Nouhad's request, El Roumi appointed her as a chorus singer at the radio station in Beirut and went on to compose several songs for her. He chose for her the stage name Fairuz, which is the Arabic word for turquoise.
A short while later, Fairuz was introduced to the Rahbani brothers, Assi and Mansour, who also worked at the radio station as musicians.,and they discoverd her talent, The chemistry was instant, and soon after, Assi started to compose songs for Fairouz, one of which was 'Itab (the third song he composed for her), which was an immediate smash hit in all of the Arab world, establishing Fairuz as one of the most prominent Arab singers on the Arabic music scene. Assi and Fairuz were married on 23 January 1955.
Fairuz and Assi had four children: Ziad, a musician and a composer, Layal (died in 1987 of a brain stroke), Hali (paralysed since early childhood after meningitis) and Rima, a photographer and film director.
Fairuz's first large-scale concert took place in 1957 as part of the Baalbeck International Festival, which took place under the patronage of then President of Lebanon Camille Chamoun, and where she performed alongside the British prima ballerina Beryl Goldwyn and the Ballet Rambert. Fairuz was paid one Lebanese pound for that show. Musical operettas and concerts followed for many years, eventually establishing Fairuz as one of the most popular singers in Lebanon and throughout the Arab world.
1960s - The establishment of a new star: As the 1960s wore on, Fairuz became known as the "First Lady of Lebanese singing", as Halim Roumi dubbed her. During this period the Rahbani brothers wrote and composed for her hundreds of famous songs, most of their operettas, and 3 motion pictures.
In 1969, Fairuz's songs were banned from the radio stations in Lebanon for six months because she refused to sing at a private concert in honour of Algerian President Houari Boumedienne. The incident only served to increase her popularity. Fairuz made it clear then and since that while always willing to sing to her public and to various countries and regions, she would never sing to any individual.
1970s - International fame and the Lebanese Civil War: In 1971, Fairuz's fame became international after her major North American tour, which was received with much excitement by the Arab-American and American community and yielded very positive reviews of the concerts.
On September 22, 1972, Assi suffered a brain hemorrhage and was rushed to the hospital. Fans crowded outside the hospital praying for him and lighting candles. After three surgeries, Assi's brain hemorrhage was halted. Ziad Rahbani, the eldest son of Fairuz and Assi, at age 16, gave his mother the music of one of his unreleased songs "Akhadou el Helween" (that he had composed to be sung by Marwan Mahfouz in "Sahriyyi" Ziad's first play) and his uncle Mansour Rahbani re-wrote new lyrics for it to be called "Saalouni n'Nass" (The People Asked Me) which talked about Fayrouz being on stage for the first time without Assi. Three months after suffering the hemorrhage, Assi attended the premiere performance of that musical "Al Mahatta" in Piccadilly Theatre on Hamra Street. Elias Rahbani, Assi's younger brother, took over the orchestration and musical arrangement for the performance.
Within a year, Assi had returned to composing and writing with his brother. They continued to produce musicals, which became increasingly political in nature. After the Lebanese Civil War erupted, the brothers continued to use political satire and sharp criticism in their plays. In 1977, their musical "Petra" was shown in both the Muslim western and Christian eastern portions of Beirut.
In 1978, the trio toured Europe and the Persian Gulf nations, including a concert at the Paris Olympia. As a result of this busy schedule, Assi’s medical and mental health began to deteriorate. Fairuz and the brothers agreed to end their professional and personal relationship in 1979. Fairuz began to work with a production team helmed by her son, Ziad Rahbani, and Assi and Mansour composed for other artists such as Ronza.
During the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990), Fairuz never left Lebanon to live abroad and did not hold any concerts there with the exception of the stage performance of the operetta "Petra", which was performed in both the Western and Eastern parts of the then-divided Beirut in 1978. However, during that time period, Fairuz held many very successful and record-breaking concerts and tours in numerous countries around the world.
She made her first European TV appearance on French TV on May 24, 1975, in a "Carpentier special show" called "Numero 1" dedicated to French star Mireille Mathieu. She sang one of her big hits "Habbaytak Bissayf" and was thanked and embraced after performing it by Mireille Mathieu.
1980s - A new production team: After the artistic divorce between Fairouz and the Rahbani Brothers in 1979, Fairuz carried on with her son, composer Ziad Rahbani, his friend the lyricist Joseph Harb, and composer Philemon Wehbe.
Fairuz made a second and final European Television appearance on French TV on the 13 October 1988 in a show called Du côté de chez Fred. Fairuz, who had scheduled a concert at the POPB of Paris Bercy concert hall three days later on 16 October, was the main guest of French TV presenter Frédéric Mitterrand, today France's Minister of Culture (2009). The program features footage of her rehearsals for her concert at Bercy in addition to the ceremony featuring then French Minister of Culture Jack Lang awarding Fairuz the medal of "Commandeur des Arts et des Lettres". It also includes a video montage of her previous movies and concerts. In that show, Fairuz also sang the three songs "Ya hourrié", "Yara" and "Zaali tawwal".
1990s–present: In the 1990s, Fairuz produced six albums (two Philemon Wehbe tributes with unreleased tracks included, a Zaki Nassif album, three Ziad Rahbani albums, and a tribute album to Assi Rahbani orchestrated by Ziad) and held a number of large-scale concerts, most notably the historic concert held at Beirut's Martyr's Square in September, 1994 to launch the rebirth of the downtown district that was ravaged by the civil war. She appeared at the Baalbeck International Festival in 1998 after 25 years of self imposed absence where she performed the highlights of three very successful plays that were presented in the 1960s and 1970s.
She also performed a concert at the Las Vegas MGM Grand Arena in 1999 which was attended by over 16,000 spectators, mostly Arabs. Ever since, Fairuz has held sold out concerts at the Beiteddine International Festival (Lebanon) from 2000 to 2003, Kuwait (2001), Paris (2002), the United States (2003), Amman (2004), Montreal (2005), Dubai, Abu Dhabi, Baalbeck, BIEL (2006), Athens, Amman (2007) Damascus, and Bahrain (2008).
Fairuz now works exclusively with her composer son Ziad. Her first album in the new millennium "Wala Keef", was released in 2002.
Her 2008 performance in Damascus caused considerable controversy in Lebanon, given the tense relationship between Lebanon and Syria. Several members of parliament publicly asked her to cancel the concert. She went to Syria where she was received by a crowd of 7000 fans, screaming her name at the borders, as her car passed into Syrian grounds. Mosques and prayers on radio were all held back as Fairouz's songs played day and night through almost every media outlet in the Syrian nation. Radio channels, TV channels, the Syrian satellite broadcasters, restaurants and cafes, and newspapers were all focused on Fairouz's legendary return after 20 years absence. However big this controversy was, it seems it has not affected her popularity in Lebanon as she held the Orthodox Good Friday Prayer Mass in West Beirut as hundreds and hundreds crowded the church premises.
Fairuz's new album titled "Eh... Fi Amal" was released on the 7th of October 2010, produced by Fairuz productions and written entirely by Ziad Rahbani. Two concerts took place at BIEL Center in Beirut, Lebanon on the 7th and 8 October. Fairouz’s last appearance in Beirut was in December 2006 during the re-make of the play “Sah El Nom” by the Rahbani brothers. Later a concert in Bahrain was cancelled in March 2011. She performed in Netherlands for the first time in Amsterdam on the 26 June 2011.
Live concerts: Fairuz has performed in many countries around the globe including Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Kuwait, United Arab Emirates, Qatar, Bahrain, Egypt, Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, France, United Kingdom, Switzerland, Netherlands, Greece, Canada, United States, Mexico, Brazil, Argentina, Australia, and her home country Lebanon.
Fairuz has performed in many venues such as the Royal Albert Hall in London in 1962, the New York Carnegie Hall in 1971, the London Palladium in 1978, L'Olympia de Paris in 1979, London's Royal Festival Hall in 1986, the Shrine Auditorium in Los Angeles (1971, 1981, and 2003), the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts in Washington D.C. (1981 and 1987) among many others (for the complete concert chronology, see Fairuz Concerts).
Fairuz has yielded record-breaking performances in almost every concert she has held around the world. Fairuz, Assi, and Mansour have become the most famous and dominant music production phenomenon in the Arab world, and their music has spread beyond the Arab world to Europe, the Americas, and Australia.
Of Fairuz's numerous concerts, few are officially released. They are the Damascus 1960, Olympia 1979 concert (audio and video released in the 80's), USA tour 1981, Jarash 1983, Royal Festival Hall London 1986, USA tour 1987, Baalbek 1998 (Video), Las Vegas 1999 concert (on DVD with make over and rehearsals), Beiteddine 2000 and Dubai 2001 (on DVD, it includes parts from concerts in 1997 and 2002 as well as rehearsals from 2001 and 2002 concerts, released May 2008). Pirated versions of other concerts exist: Kuwait 1966, Syria and Egypt 1976, Olympia 1979, Australia 1984, Syria 1985, Bahrain 1987, France 1988, Kuwait1989, Cairo 1989, London 1994, Beirut 1994, and parts of the four Beiteddine concerts (2000–2003), Parts of Dubai concerts (1990–2006), Paris 2002, Amman 2004, Canada 2005, parts of the play Sah Ennawm which was performed in Beirut (2006), Athens 2007 and Bahrain 2008. On June 26, 2011 Fairuz performed in the Royal Carre Theater in Amsterdam, Netherlands.
On December 2011, Fairuz performed 5 concerts on Platea Theatre in Sahel Alma in Lebanon, on 9th, 10th, 16th, 17th and 23rd of December, where the theater accommodates for 4,000 person approximately.
Fairuz is known as the Jewel of Lebanon. * Theatrical works
Musical plays or operettas were the cornerstone works of the Rahbani Trio, Fairuz, Assi and Mansour. The Rahbani Brothers produced 25 popular musical plays (20 with Fairuz) over a period of more than 30 years. They were possibly the first to produce world-class Arabic musical theatre.
The musicals combined storyline, lyrics and dialogue, musical composition varying widely from Lebanese folkloric and rhythmic modes to classical, westernized, and oriental songs, orchestration, and the voice and acting of Fairuz. She played the lead roles alongside singers/actors Nasri Shamseddine, Wadih El Safi, Antoine Kerbaje, Elie Shouayri (Chouayri), Hoda (Fairuz's younger sister), William Haswani, Raja Badr, Siham Chammas (Shammas), Georgette Sayegh and many others.
The Rahbani plays expressed patriotism, unrequited love and nostalgia for village life, comedy, drama, philosophy, and contemporary politics. The songs performed by Fairuz as part of the plays have become immensely popular among the Lebanese and Arabs around the world.
The Fairuz-Rahbani collaboration produced the following musicals (in chronological order): * Ayyam al Hassad (Days of Harvest - 1957) * Al 'Urs fi l’Qarya (The Wedding in the Village - 1959) * Al Ba'albakiya (The Girl from Baalbek) - 1961) * Jisr el Amar] (Bridge of the Moon - 1962) * Awdet el 'Askar (The Return of the Soldiers - 1962) * Al Layl wal Qandil] (The Night and the Lantern - 1963) * Biyya'el Khawatem (Ring Salesman - 1964) * Ayyam Fakhreddine (The Days of Fakhreddine - 1966) * Hala wal Malik (Hala and the King - 1967) * Ach Chakhs (The Person - 1968-1969) * Jibal Al Sawwan (Sawwan Mountains - 1969) * Ya'ich Ya'ich (Long Live, Long Live - 1970) * Sah Ennawm (Did you sleep well? - 1970-1971 - 2006-2008) * Nass min Wara' (People Made out of Paper - 1971-1972) * Natourit al Mafatih (The Guardian of the Keys - 1972) * Al Mahatta (The Station - 1973) * Loulou - 1974 * Mais el Reem (The Deer's Meadow - 1975) * Petra - 1977-1978 * Elissa - 1979 (Never performed due to the separation of Fairuz and Assi) * Habayeb Zaman the old friends - 1979 (Never performed due to the separation of Fairuz and Assi)
Most of the musical plays were recorded and video-taped. Eighteen of them have been officially released on audio CD, two on DVD (Mais el Reem and Loulou). A pirated version of Petra and one pirated live version of Mais el Reem in black and white exist. Ayyam al Hassad (Days of Harvest) was never recorded and Al 'Urs fi l’Qarya (The Marriage in the Village) has not yet been released (yet a pirated audio record is available). * Discography
Fairuz discography: Fairuz possesses a large repertoire of around 1500 songs out of which nearly just 800 have been released. She has also been offered prestigious awards and titles over the years (see Fairuz Awards and Recognitions).
Around 1985 Fairuz CDs, vinyls and cassettes have been officially released so far. Most of the songs that are featured on these albums were composed by the Rahbani brothers. Also featured are songs by Philemon Wehbe, Ziad Rahbani, Zaki Nassif, Mohamed Abd El Wahab, Najib Hankash and Mohamed Mohsen.
Many of Fairuz's numerous unreleased works date back to the 1950s and 1960s and were composed by the Rahbani Brothers (certain unreleased songs, the oldest of all, are by Halim el Roumi). A Fairuz album composed by Egyptian musician Riad Al Sunbati (who has worked with Umm Kulthum) was produced in 1980, but is unlikely to be released. There are also fifteen unreleased songs composed by Philemon Wehbe and 24 unreleased songs composed by Ziad Rahbani in the 80's.
Fairuz has also released an album on Folkways Records, entitled Lebanon: The Baalbek Folk Festival. * Personal life
She was born in Jabal al Arz (Cedar Mountain) to a Syriac Orthodox and Syriac Maronite Christian family. She is of the Greek Orthodox faith, having converted when she married Assi Rahbani, one of the two brothers who helped shape her singing career. She is also the mother of the Lebanese singer and composer Ziad Rahbani and the Lebanese director and photographer Rima Rahbani.
References: Reflist:
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Fairuz
Chanteuse libanaise | Naissance en 1935 | Nom de scène | Naissance à Beyrouth | Chanteuse arabophone
Fairuz , née le 21 novembre 1935 dans un village de la montagne libanaise sous le nom de Nouhad Haddad , est une des plus célèbres chanteuses libanaises. Son nom de scène, également orthographié Fairouz ou Fayrouz, signifie « turquoise » en arabe. * Biographie et œuvre musicale
Sa famille s’installe avec elle à Beyrouth dans le quartier de Zqaq El Blat où elle grandit. Avec les frères Rahbani,Assy et Mansour (Assi deviendra son mari), elle crée un nouveau style de musique libanaise initialement très influencé par la musique latino-américaine.
Son premier concert public a eu lieu en 1957. Elle devient très vite célèbre dans tout le monde arabe mais se fait rare pendant la guerre civile libanaise afin d’éviter d’être utilisée par un camp ou par un autre. Cette retenue lui vaut l’affection et l’intérêt du public de toutes confessions.
Depuis la fin de la guerre civile, elle travaille avec son fils Ziad Rahbani. Sa musique est de plus en plus influencée par les rythmes jazz. * Les débuts au festival de Baalbeck
Fairuz n’acquit sa célébrité que lorsque les frères Rahbani commencèrent à composer pour elle au début des années 1950.
Ces années-là furent très fertiles et Fairuz s’essaya à de nombreux genres musicaux, et, ayant un penchant pour la modernité et la musique occidentale, les frères Rahbani vont exceller aussi bien dans des compositions symphoniques que dans des tangos et autres danses latines.
Ceci ne fut pas du goût de tous les auditeurs et critiques de l’époque habitués aux longues mélopées égyptiennes aux mélodies languissantes et aux orchestrations aussi naïves que traditionnelles.
Mais le style des Rahbani s’impose petit à petit, et c’est en 1957 que le comité du festival international de Baalbeck, qui fêtait son premier anniversaire, demanda aux Rahbani de préparer une « soirée libanaise » qui ferait découvrir au public du festival (composés surtout d’étrangers et de libanais intellectuellement occidentalisés, le festival se contentant jusque là de présenter des spectacles de musique et de danses classiques et des tragédies grecques), les musiques et danses traditionnelles du Liban.
Le programme fut à la hauteur des espérances et le public revint aussi nombreux en 1959 pour applaudir le ballet Rambert que pour applaudir Fairuz encore une fois invitée pour faire la vedette des soirées libanaises (sachant que le festival s’était interrompu en 1958 à cause de troubles communautaires). Cependant il ne faudrait pas croire que les Rahbani présentaient ce qui est communément appelé le Folklore : leurs compositions étaient bel et bien personnelles, et quand il y avait des chants folkloriques dont les compositeurs étaient inconnus, les Rahbani prenaient bien soin de leur donner un nouveau souffle de vie en les présentant dans des orchestrations symphoniques somptueuses ou sur des rythmes latins.
En 1961 Fairuz revint à Baalbeck avec une superproduction : le spectacle de 1957 était une suite de tableaux sans véritable lien, en 1959 était présentée une opérette d’un seul acte (Al' Mouhakama — le procès) mais les Rahbani créèrent en 1961 une comédie musicale en 4 actes intitulée Al Ballbakieh (la Baalbakiote). Pénétrant l’univers de la mythologie, les Rahbani écrivirent l’histoire d’une jeune fille dotée d’une voix envoutante, universelle et éternelle, Fairuz chanta ainsi aussi bien les mélodies andalouses que celles puisées dans la pure musique classique occidentale (la célèbre « Ode à Baalbeck »). Présenté à Londres et en Amérique du sud, le spectacle, dans son côté le plus osé et le plus occidental, n'eut pas un accueil très chaleureux, surtout de la part de la presse britannique.
En 1962, Fairuz revint encore une fois, dans une comédie musicale, cette fois en 2 actes : Jisr el Kamar qui est le nom d’un village situé au nord du Liban et qui, traduit textuellement signifie le pont de la Lune. Cette comédie musicale dans laquelle Fairuz joue le rôle d’une fille envoûtée par les djinns et qui cherche à réconcilier les habitants de deux villages voisins en guerre, en écho à la première guerre civile de l'histoire du Liban moderne, celle de 1958, vit s’épanouir les talents des deux frères Rahbani, leur musique devenant de plus en plus expressive et dramatique, s’agissant des passages chantés par le chœur, et plus lyrique s’agissant des passages chantés par Fairuz.
Cette évolution va être encore plus marquée en 1963, quand les Rahbani composeront Allayl wa’l Kandil (La nuit au fanal), où Fairuz (mantoura), jeune vendeuse de lanternes, tombe amoureuse d’un « horla » (hawlou) qui trahit sa confiance, et qui fut représentée au théâtre du Casino du Liban ainsi qu’à la foire internationale de Damas.
En 1964, fut montée au festival des Cèdres, la pièce qui sera l’année d’après le premier film, dirigé par Youssef Chahine, de Fairuz et des Rahbani, Bayya’a el khawatim (Le vendeur de bagues) histoire d’une jeune orpheline fataliste (Fairuz) prise dans les méandres des mensonges d’un oncle mythomane. Au Liban, on parle désormais du « théâtre des Frères Rahbani » : le théâtre musical libanais né de rien, se développe à une vitesse vertigineuse.
En 1965 les frères Rahbani présentèrent au festival de Baalbeck une nouvelle comédie musicale avec pour vedette cette fois-ci la chanteuse libanaise Sabah : Dawalib el hawa — les moulinets —, histoire d’amour impossible entre un seigneur féodal et h’ala (Sabah) jeune fille très belle mais têtue (ce fut la deuxième et dernière fois que les frères Rahbani montèrent une pièce avec Sabah après la première en 1960 à Baalbeck aussi : mawsemm el e’ezz, La belle saison).
En 1966, un retour en force de Fairuz et des Frères Rahbani au festival de Baalbeck toujours, avec cette fois une fiction historique : Ayyam Fakhreddine — Du temps de Ficardin. Tout est dans le titre : Otr ellayl (Fairuz) se veut la conscience fictive d’un peuple qui attend que son souverain le protège et fasse de lui un peuple indépendant (Ficardin est un émir qui régna sur la montagne libanaise au XVIIe siècle) ,: . * Du Piccadilly au Carnegie Hall * Les débuts de l'aventure urbaine
Jusqu’en 1966, Fairuz n’était encore jamais montée sur scène à Beyrouth, mis à part un passage furtif en 1962 au théâtre du Capitole où elle présenta un programme de variétés et une opérette de 20 minutes glorifiant l’armée libanaise qui venait de faire face à une tentative de coup d’État. En 1967, en plein cœur du quartier le plus intellectuel et cosmopolite de Beyrouth, à Hamra, un théâtre venait d’ouvrir ses portes : le théâtre Piccadilly. Fairuz et les Rahbani y furent invités et présentèrent leur dernière production : Hala wel Malik (Le Roi et Hala), une comédie musicale de « masques et bergamasques », où les passages récitatifs sont presque inexistants, un nouveau tour de force : Hala, jeune fille sans défense, est reniée par son père, un ivrogne qui avec la cour du Roi veulent faire croire à ce dernier que Hala est fille de roi et qu’elle lui est envoyée par les astres comme épouse. Le succès est fulgurant et la pièce est reprise en été de la même année au festival des Cèdres et en automne à la foire internationale de Damas.
En 1967, sort aussi la deuxième production cinématographique des Frères Rahbani, Safar barlik (L’exil) qui relate une période de l’histoire du Liban, l’occupation ottomane et la résistance qui s’exacerba en 1914 lorsque le sultanat prit des mesures drastiques contre la population libanaise. Ce film fut suivi d’un autre, tous deux dirigés par Henri Barakat, filmé en 1967 et sorti en 1968, et qui fut le dernier, Bint el hariss (la fille du garde), qui, dans registre léger, traite des délicates questions du chômage et de l’adultère dans le cadre d’un petit village où rien ne peut rester secret. * 1967, un tournant politique et artistique
1967, l'année de la défaite des armées arabes face à Israël, sonna le glas de l'insousiance et de la frivolité du mouvement théâtral libanais et en particulier celui des Frères Rahbani. La "dolce vita" libanaise n'était plus de mise, momentanément du moins.
En 1968, Fairuz ne monta pas sur les planches au Liban, et ce fut en Syrie qu’elle donna avec les Frères Rahbani la première de Ash-shakhs (Son Excellence) qui est le premier volet d’une trilogie satirique (avec Yaiche Yaiche et Sahh Ennom en 1970) de la bureaucratie et la politique des régimes arabes de l’époque. Ashakhs est l’histoire d’une vendeuse ambulante de tomates qui se trouve avec sa charrette au beau milieu d’une réception donnée en l’honneur d’un hôte de marque, soupçonnée d’espionnage elle se retrouve au tribunal au banc des accusés.
En 1969 la pièce fut jouée pendant près de trois mois au théâtre Piccadilly, et pour l’été de la même année les Frères Rahbani composèrent une comédie musicale épique pour le festival de Baalbeck, Jibal As-sawan (Les montagnes de Silex), prônant la résistance à l’oppresseur et dont le moment fort reste le tableau final où Gherbeh meurt en martyre.
L'année 1970 fut une année particulièrement riche, les Rahbani composèrent deux comédies musicales, Yaiche Yaiche (Longue vie à sa majesté..) et Sahh En-nom (Bon réveil à vous !). La première, présentée au théâtre Piccadilly de Beyrouth en hiver, est une satire grinçante de l’instabilité des gouvernements et des incessants coups d’État qui secouaient la région. Elle ne fut pas représentée en Syrie où les Rahbani montèrent Sahh En-nom, une comédie musicale qui emprunte beaucoup au théâtre de l’absurde, où le gouverneur ne fait que dormir et les citoyens pâtir.
En 1971, les Frères Rahbani composèrent une comédie musicale « mise en abîme » puisqu’elle avait elle-même pour sujet une troupe de chanteurs et de danseurs, à leur tête Maria (Fairuz). La première de Nass min Warak (Gens de papier) fut donnée à la FI de Damas, suivie d’une tournée dans les salles les plus prestigieuses de l’Amérique du nord (le Carnegie Hall notamment), avant d’atterrir au Piccadilly de Beyrouth en hiver 1972.
Pour l’été 1972, les frères Rahbani présentèrent avec Fairuz au festival de Baalbeck Natourit al Mafatih (La gardienne des clés), une comédie noire où un peuple opprimé choisit la résistance passive : tout le monde fuit le royaume de Sira sauf Zad el khayr (Fairuz) qui reste seule face au tyran. Après les représentations de Baalbeck, ce fut le tour de Damas. À la fin de la saison, Fairuz épuisée, échoue dans une clinique de Beyrouth. Son mari et compositeur fétiche Assi Rahbani est interné quelques jours plus tard : un accident cardio-vasculaire cérébral a failli lui coûter la vie . * La maladie et la séparation
L’état de Assi Rahbani était précaire. Plusieurs interventions chirurgicales furent nécessaires et il fut transporté jusqu’à Paris à bord du jet privé du président syrien de l’époque Hafez el Assad pour recevoir les soins nécessaires. Son état se rétablit peu à peu mais Assi Rahbani était devenu pseudo-amnésique et une bonne partie de son cerveau avait été gravement touchée. Toutefois, il put composer de nouveau et sa première mélodie fut Layali el chimal el hazini (Les tristes nuits) pour Fairuz qui la chanta en ouverture de la Comédie musicale Al-mahatta (la gare) qu’on représenta au théâtre Piccadilly en février 1973 ; histoire d’une jeune étrangère qui fait croire à tout un village qu’un train venant de nulle part passera pour les prendre « vers le nord » où ils trouveront le bonheur. Une comédie aux mélodies grinçantes et mélancoliques qui vit naître la première composition de Ziad Rahbani pour sa mère : Sa’alouni en-nas (Ils s'enquirent de toi), dédiée à Assi Rahbani, qui était toujours hospitalisé à Paris le jour de la première, et ce fut le cadet de la famille Elias Rahbani qui prit la houlette du chef d’orchestre.
Pour l’été 1973, un spectacle de variétés fut monté à Baalbeck, Qasidet Hobb (Poème d’amour) où Ziad Rahbani composa une deuxième chanson pour Fairuz, Eddaysh kan fi nass (il y avait tant de monde) dans le style des grands classiques. En 1974, les frères Rahbani jouèrent la comédie musicale Loulou au Piccadilly, où Fairuz tenait le rôle d’une prisonnière blanchie après 15 ans de prison et qui menace tout son entourage d’une vengeance sanglante. Le 13 avril 1975, la guerre civile éclata au Liban pendant que les frères Rahbani et Fairuz jouaient au Piccadilly Mays el Rim, un village où deux familles se font la guerre et qui prennent Zayyoun (Fairuz) pour témoin, et dont l’ouverture du premier acte est restée l’une des plus importantes compositions de Ziad Rahbani (qui composa aussi une des chansons de la comédie, habbou ba’adoun — ils se sont tant aimés).
En 1976, un spectacle de variétés fut monté à la FI de Damas, et en 1977 les frères Rahbani composèrent Petra dont la première fut donnée à Amman à l’occasion de l’anniversaire de l’accession au trône du Roi Hussein, et fut jouée par la suite à Damas, au Casino du Liban et au Piccadilly. Petra, dernière comédie musicale qui unit les frères Rahbani à Fairuz, est une comédie musicale historique où Chakila (Fairuz) reine du royaume de Petra en guerre contre Rome se trouve prise dans un dilemme cornélien : sauver sa fille kidnappée au prix de la défaite de son armée. En 1978, Fairuz et les Rahbani présentèrent un concert au London Palladium, et l’année suivante l’Olympia de Paris vivait le dernier concert où Fairuz chantait sous la direction de Assi Rahbani. Leur collaboration artistique se termina ainsi que leur vie commune. * Les années 1980 et 1990 : l’ère "Ziad Rahbani"
L’année 1979 qui vit la séparation du couple artistique Fairuz-les frères Rahbani, vit aussi naître le premier album de Fairuz dont les compositions étaient toutes signées de son fils Ziad Rahbani. L’album Wahdoun (Seuls) est un tournant dans la carrière de la chanteuse qui s’adonne pour la première fois aux mélodies et arrangements jazzy de son fils (Wahdoun, al bosta), qui a pu aussi lui composer des mélodies orientales dans un style se rapprochant de celui des « frères » (Habbaytak ta nsit ennawm- je t’ai aimé à en oublier le sommeil-, ana andi hanine-je suis nostalgique-). Mais le public, habitué aux textes romantiques des frères Rahbani fut choqué par les textes crus et osés de Ziad et son humour noir. Cette querelle des « anciens » et des « modernes » renaîtra d’ailleurs avec chaque nouvel album de la chanteuse.
Le deuxième album de ce couple dont la réputation devint très vite sulfureuse, ne vit le jour qu’en 1987, Maarefti fik(Notre rencontre). Très hétéroclite, il regroupe aussi bien des atmosphères orientales (toujours dans le style Rahbani) que jazz (surtout la chanson-titre Ma’erefti fik). Entretemps, Assi Rahbani était mort le 21 juin 1986. Fairuz, peu de temps auparavant se produisit au Royal Festival Hall de Londres, accompagné de Ziad Rahbani au piano, et qui écrivit aussi de nouvelles orchestrations pour les anciennes chansons de Fairuz. En 1988, Ziad Rahbani l’accompagna aussi pour un concert-évènement au Palais Omnisports de Paris-Bercy, à l’occasion duquel elle fut nommée commandeur des arts et des lettres par le ministre de la culture française de l’époque Jack Lang (Fairuz recevra la légion d’honneur à Beyrouth en 1998).
En 1991, sortit le troisième album de Fairuz et Ziad, Kifak enta ? (Comment vas-tu ?), qui fit couler beaucoup d’encre. Les textes de Ziad Rahbani était décidément trop modernes pour le goût de certains qui refusaient d’écouter Fairuz déclarer son amour à un homme qu’elle savait marié ! (la chanson comment vas-tu ? raconte l’histoire d’une femme qui rencontre son ancien amant désormais marié, et lui dit ouvertement qu’elle aimerait se remettre en ménage avec lui). Ces critiques virulentes laissèrent peu de place à l’appréciation de la musique que présentait Ziad Rahbani (toujours aussi hétéroclite), et ce n’est que des années plus tard que Kifak enta? deviendra un « classique » de Fairuz, qu’elle chante dans presque tous ses concerts.
En 1994, Fairuz qui n’avait pas chanté au Liban depuis 1977 se produisit dans un méga-concert dans le centre-ville de Beyrouth et en 1995, Ziad Rahbani et Fairuz présentèrent en hommage à Assi Rahbani, l’album Ila Assi (À Assi), qui regroupa 19 des chansons de Fairuz et des frères Rahbani réorchestrées par Ziad Rahbani. Ce n’est qu’en 1999 que Fairuz sortit un nouvel album avec Ziad Rahbani, Mish Kayen Hayk Tkoun (Tu as vraiment changé), cet album contint aussi des chansons composées par le syrien Mohammed Mohsen. * Les concerts au festival de Beiteddine
En 2000, Fairuz préparait son véritable come-back. Son concert de 1994 était fait de nostalgie plus que de musique et l’anthologie qu’elle présenta au festival de Baalbeck en 1998 (qui avait repris ses activités en 1997), où elle chanta en playback, ne purent convaincre ses fans. C’est alors qu’en août 2000, elle présenta au festival de Beiteddine, accompagné de son fils Ziad Rahbani, et d’un orchestre symphonique composé de musiciens arméniens, français, hollandais et libanais, sous la houlette de l’arménien Karen Durgaryan, trois concerts dont le programme, choisi avec le plus grand soin, regroupait des anciennes chansons savamment réorchestrées (dont la fameuse La inta habibi -tu n’es plus mon amour) ainsi que de nouveaux titres (dont le tout aussi fameux, désormais, Sabah w massa-matin et soir). Fairuz avait reconquis un public jeune et convaincu les plus réticents. L’été 2001, le même orchestre fut à Beiteddine pour Fairuz. Un nouvel album sortit en janvier 2002 Wala kif (…ni comment), précédé en 2001 par l’enregistrement des concerts de Beiteddine 2000. En 2003, Fairuz revint avec le même orchestre une fois de plus à Beiteddine (en 2002, Fairuz avait présenté à Beiteddine avec un orchestre restreint un programme-rétrospective). Désormais c’est cet orchestre dont la plus grande partie est composée de membres de l’orchestre symphonique d’Erevan, sous la direction de Karen Durgaryan qui accompagne Fairuz dans ses tournées.
En 2006, la comédie musicale Sahh ennom des frères Rahbani et Fairuz qui avait été représentée en 1970 connut une seconde vie : elle fut programmée pour ouvrir les festivités de Baalbeck qui fêtaient leur cinquantenaire. Mais la guerre qui éclata le jour même obligea Fairuz et Ziad Rahbani de remettre les représentations à plus tard. Ce n’est qu’en décembre 2006 que le public libanais eut la chance de découvrir au BIEL (Beyrouth) les nouvelles orchestrations de Ziad Rahani pour Sahh ennom ainsi que la come back d’une Fairuz comédienne. Fairuz en tournée dans Sahh ennom depuis 2006 joua à Damas en 2008 à guichets fermés pour neuf représentations, à Sharjah et à Amman. * 2010-2011, un nouvel album et un retour sur scène
Après quatre années d'absence de la scène libanaise, Fairuz se produit au BIEL, à Beyrouth, les 7 et 8 octobre 2010. Son nouvel album Eh fi amal (L'espoir fait vivre), composé par Ziad Rahbani, est disponible depuis le 7 octobre. Il contient douze titres: huit titres inédits, deux compositions instrumentales et deux chansons réarrangées par Z.Rahbani, une des frères Rahbani, Biktoub ismak, et une ballade folk dont le compositeur est anonyme, Al bint al chalabiya, que les frères Rahbani avaient déjà adapté pour Fairuz dans les années 50.
En juin 2011, Fairuz a donné un concert unique à Amsterdam, dans le cadre du Holland Festival. Quatre concerts sont par ailleurs prévus en décembre 2011 au Liban dans le nouveau complexe polyvalent Platea, au nord de Beyrouth. * Une œuvre protéiforme
Les frères Rahbani et Fairuz eurent une activité extrêmement riche dans les années 1960 et 1970 dans le domaine du théâtre du cinéma et de la télévision
* Au théâtre
N.B: Les spectacles musicaux ne contenaient pas ou peu de dialogues chantés. Ils étaient composés d'une suite de tableaux de chants et de danses, avec, pour quelques uns des spectacles, comme Nass min warak, une trame qui unissait ces différents tableaux. * Au cinéma * Biya el-Khawatim ( Le Vendeur de bagues ), film de Youssef Chahine, 1965 * Safr Barlk (L'exil), film d'Henri Barakat, 1967 * Bint Al Hares (La Fille du gardien), film d'Henri Barakat, 1968 * A la télévision * Al-Iswara (La Gourmette) 1967 * Day'it al aghani (un village en chansons) 1966 * Layali es-saed (nos nuits heureuses) 1966 * Al quds fi el bal (Je pense à toi, Jérusalem) 1967 * Dafater ellayl (les cahiers de la nuit) 1968 * Ma'a el hikayat ( ...et nos histoires) 1970 * Sahra (une veillée) 1970 * Qasidet hobb (la comédie musicale filmée pour la télévision) 1973 * Loulou (idem) 1977 * Mays eerim (idem) 1977 * Discographie sélective ==
La discographie complète de Fairuz ne compte pas moins de cinquante titres. * Rajioun, compilation (1950-1960), Voix de l’orient (VDLCD) 546. * Jisr el kamar, comédie musicale (1962), enregistrée au festival international de Baalbeck, VDLCD 645-646. * Hala wil malik, comédie musicale (1967), enregistrée au théâtre Piccadilly, Beyrouth, VDLCD 536-537 * Sahh ennom, comédie musicale (1970), enregistrée à la foire internationale de Damas, VDLCD 636-637 * Safar barlik / Bint el hariss, bandes originales (1967-1968), VDLCD 535 * Mechwar, compilation (années 60), VDLCD 627 * En concert de Noël à Westminster (1986), VDLCD 515 * En concert au Royal Festival Hall de Londres (1986), VDLCD 509 * Kifak enta ? (1991), Relax-in, EMI 528 * Ila Assi (1995), VDLCD 600 * En concert au festival de Beiteddine (2000), Relax-in/EMI * Wala Kif (2002) * Eh Fi Amal (2010)
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أقاليم مناخية
مناخ
تختلف درجات الحرارة في كل أنحاء العالم ومعها تختلف الأقاليم النباتية وأنواع النباتات، وعادة كل مساحة واسعة من اليابس بها نفس معدل درجات الحرارة تسمى إقليم مناخي. ويتحكم في توزيع الأقاليم المناخية في الكرة الأرضية : * مواقع اليابس بالنسبة لدوائر العرض. * توزيع المسطحات المائية. * نوع واتجاه الرياح الساقطة على منطقة معينة. * امتداد أي نوع من المرتفعات سواء هضاب أو جبال أو تلال في اتجاه معين ؛ فاذا كانت تمتد من الشمال إلى الجنوب فانها تحجز الرياح القادمة من الشرق عن الوصول للغرب والعكس صحيح، وأيضا إذا كانت تمتد من الشرق إلى الغرب فانها تحجز الرياح القادمة من الشمال من الوصول إلى الجنوب والعكس صحيح.... وغيرها من المؤثرات التي تسبب اختلاف أنواع الأقاليم المناخية.
تقسيم الأقاليم المناخية في الكرة الأرضية : * الإقليم الاستوائي : حرارة مرتفعة وأمطار غزيرة طوال العام، يكون بين دائرتى عرض 10 شمالا وجنوبا، وتنمو فيه أشجار كالابنوس والماهوجنى الموز الأناناس وجوز الهند وغيرها من الأشجار الاستوائية، ويوجد كثير من أنواع الحيوانات والحشرات خاصة البعوض وذبابة تسى تسى. * الإقليم المداري: يقع بين مداري السرطان والجدي) أمطاره صيفية، وتزدهر فيه حشائش السافانا متدرجة الطول حسب كمية المطر وتذبل تلك الحشائش بالشتاء لقلة المطر، ويوجد كثير من أنواع الحيوانات. وهذا في آسيا. * الإقليم المعتدل: ويقسم إلى : * # المعتدل الدافئ (البحر المتوسط): من 30 إلى 40 شمالا وجنوبا. حار جاف صيفاً معتدل ممطر شتاء، تنمو به أشجار كالعرعر والأرز الفلين الكروم الحمضيات، ويوجد بعض أنواع الحيوانات والطيور كالنورس. * # المعتدل البارد: من 30 حتى 60 شمالا وجنوبا، وتنمو فيه الغابات الصنوبرية كالصنوبر والأرز والشربين، ويتوفر بعض أنواع الحيوانات أهمها الثعلب القطبي. * الإقليم القطبي الشمالي والجنوبي : وبه لاتنمو الكثير من النباتات ولكن قد تزدهر الحشائش أو تنمو الطحالب، ويوجد بعض أنواع الحيوانات التي تتحمل برودة الجو كالدب القطبي والرنة. * الإقليم الصحراوي: بين دائرتي عرض 18 إلى 30 شمالا وجنوبا تهب عليه رياح تجارية جافة وهو شديد الحرارة صيفاً بارد شتاء، تنمو به النباتات الصحراوية كالنخيل والتين الشوكي وغيره ومعظمها شوكية لتحتفظ بالماء ؛ حتى لا تفقده في عملية النتح، ويوجد بعض الحيوانات كالجمل والغزال وغيره، وحشرات كالعقارب، ويوجد أيضا الثعابين ايتنبني وغيرها. * الإقليم الموسمي: ينمو حيث تهب الرياح الموسمية الممطرة بغزارة وينقسم إلى: * # الموسمي البارد : معتدل صيفا وبارد في الشتاء وأمطاره قليلة، وتنمو به الغابات النفضية واشجارها كالبلوط والفلين. * # الموسمي الدافئ : حار ممطر صيفا ومعتدل قليل المطر شتاء، وتنمو به أشجار كالساج الخيزران(البامبو) والكافور، ويوجد الكثير من أنواع الحيوانات والطيور الملونة.
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Köppen climate classification
Köppen climate classifications | Climate | Classification systems
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The Köppen climate classification is one of the most widely used climate classification systems. It was first published by Crimea German climatologist Wladimir Köppen in 1884, with several later modifications by Köppen himself, notably in 1918 and 1936. Later, German climatologist Rudolf Geiger collaborated with Köppen on changes to the classification system, which is thus sometimes referred to as the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system.
The system is based on the concept that native vegetation is the best expression of climate. Thus, climate zone boundaries have been selected with vegetation distribution in mind. It combines average annual and monthly temperatures and precipitation, and the seasonality of precipitation.200–1: : Scheme
Köppen climate classification scheme divides the climates into five main groups and several types and subtypes. Each particular climate type is represented by a 2 to 4 letter symbol. * GROUP A: Tropical/megathermal climates
Tropical climates are characterized by constant high temperature (at sea level and low elevations) — all twelve months of the year have average temperatures of or higher. They are subdivided as follows: * Tropical rainforest climate (Af):205–8: All twelve months have average precipitation of at least . These climates usually occur within 5–10° latitude of the equator. In some eastern-coast areas, they may extend to as much as 25° away from the equator. This climate is dominated by the Doldrums Low Pressure System all year round, and therefore has no natural seasons. ** Examples: *** Belém, Brazil *** Hilo, Hawaii, United States *** Singapore ** Some of the places that have this climate are indeed uniformly and monotonously wet throughout the year (e.g., the northwest Pacific coast of South and Central America, from Ecuador to Costa Rica, see for instance, Andagoya, Colombia), but in many cases the period of higher sun and longer days is distinctly wettest (as at Palembang, Indonesia) or the time of lower sun and shorter days may have more rain (as at Sitiawan, Malaysia). ** A few places with this climate are found at the outer edge of the tropics, almost exclusively in the Southern Hemisphere; one example is Santos, Brazil. Note. The term aseasonal refers to the lack in the tropical zone of large differences in day light hours and mean monthly (or daily) temperature throughout the year. There are annual cyclic changes in the tropics, not as predictable as those in the temperate zone, albeit unrelated to temperature but to water availability whether as rain, mist, soil, or ground water. Plant response (e. g., phenology), animal (feeding, migration, reproduction, et cetera), and human activities (plant sowing, harvesting, hunting, fishing, et cetera) are tuned to this seasonality. Indeed, in tropical South America and Central America, the rainy season (and the high water season) is called Invierno or Inverno, even though it could occur in the northern hemisphere summer; likewise, the dry season (and low water season) is called Verano or Verão and can occur in the northern hemisphere winter. * Tropical monsoon climate (Am):208: This type of climate, most common in South America, results from the monsoon winds which change direction according to the seasons. This climate has a driest month (which nearly always occurs at or soon after the "winter" solstice for that side of the equator) with rainfall less than 60 mm, but more than (100 − [total annual precipitation {mm}/25]). ** Examples: *** Conakry, Guinea *** Chittagong, Bangladesh *** Miami, Florida, United States *** Cairns, Australia ** There is also another scenario under which some places fit into this category; this is referred to as the trade-wind littoral climate because easterly winds bring enough precipitation during the "winter" months to prevent the climate from becoming a tropical wet-and-dry climate. Nassau, Bahamas is included among these locations. * Tropical wet and dry or savanna climate (Aw):208–11: These climates have a pronounced dry season, with the driest month having precipitation less than 60 mm and also less than (100 − [total annual precipitation {mm}/25]). ** Examples: *** Jakarta, Indonesia *** Mumbai, Maharashtra, India *** Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil *** Veracruz, Veracruz, Mexico *** Lagos, Lagos State, Nigeria *** Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia ** Most places that have this climate are found at the outer margins of the tropical zone, but occasionally an inner-tropical location (e.g., San Marcos, Antioquia, Colombia) also qualifies. Actually, the Caribbean coast, eastward from Urabá gulf on the Colombia–Panamá border to the Orinoco river delta, on the Atlantic ocean (ca. 4,000 km), have long dry periods (the extreme is the BSh climate (see below), characterised by very low, unreliable precipitation, present, for instance, in extensive areas in the , and Coro, western Venezuela, the northernmost peninsulas in South America, which receive 212: The threshold is determined as follows: * To find the precipitation threshold (in millimeters), multiply the average annual temperature in °C by 20, then add 280 if 70% or more of the total precipitation is in the high-sun half of the year (April through September in the Northern Hemisphere, or October through March in the Southern), or 140 if 30%–70% of the total precipitation is received during the applicable period, or 0 if less than 30% of the total precipitation is so received. * If the annual precipitation is less than half the threshold for Group B, it is classified as BW (desert climate); if it is less than the threshold but more than half the threshold, it is classified as BS (steppe climate). If it's more than the threshold, the area does not have a Group B climate. * A third letter can be included to indicate temperature. Originally, h signified low latitude climate (average annual temperature above 18 °C) while k signified middle latitude climate (average annual temperature below ), but the more common practice today (especially in the United States) is to use h to mean that the coldest month has an average temperature that is above , with k denoting that at least one month averages below 0 °C. ** Examples: *** Konya, Turkey(BSk) *** Murcia, Spain (BSh) *** Albacete, Spain (BSk) *** Almería, Spain(BSh) *** Yuma, Arizona, United States (BWh) *** Boise, Idaho, United States (BSk) *** Denver, Colorado, United States (BSk) *** Medicine Hat, Alberta, Canada (BSk) *** Ogallala, Nebraska, United States (BSk) *** Mossoró, Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil (BSh) *** Dubai, United Arab Emirates (BWh) ** Desert areas situated along the west coasts of continents at tropical or near-tropical locations are characterized by cooler temperatures than encountered elsewhere at comparable latitudes (due to the nearby presence of cold ocean currents) and frequent fog and low clouds, despite the fact that these places rank among the driest on earth in terms of actual precipitation received. This climate is sometimes labelled BWn and examples can be found at Lima, Peru and Walvis Bay, Namibia. The BSn category can be found in foggy coastal steppes. * On occasion, a fourth letter is added to indicate if either the winter or summer is "wetter" than the other half of the year. To qualify, the wettest month must have at least of average precipitation if all twelve months are above , or if not; plus at least 70% of the total precipitation must be in the same half of the year as the wettest month — but the letter used indicates when the dry season occurs, not the "wet" one. This would result in Khartoum, Sudan being reckoned as BWhw, Niamey, Niger as BShw, El Arish, Egypt as BWhs, Asbi'ah, Libya as BShs, Ömnögovi Province, Mongolia as BWkw, and Xining, China as BSkw (BWks and BSks do not exist if 0 °C in the coldest month is recognized as the h/k boundary). If the standards for neither w nor s are met, no fourth letter is added. * GROUP C: Temperate/mesothermal climates
These climates have an average temperature above in their warmest months (April to September in northern hemisphere?), and a coldest month average between and .
Some climatologists, particularly in the United States, however, prefer to observe rather than in the coldest month as the boundary between this group and Group D; this is done to prevent certain headland locations in or near New England — principally Cape Cod — and such nearby islands as Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, from fitting into the Maritime Temperate category noted below; this category is alternately known as the Marine West Coast climate, and eliminating the aforementioned locations indeed confines it exclusively to places found along the western margins of the continents, at least in the Northern Hemisphere. This also moves some mid-latitude areas – such as parts of the Ohio Valley and some areas in the Mid-Atlantic States, plus parts of east-central Asia – from humid subtropical to humid continental. * The second letter indicates the precipitation pattern — w indicates dry winters (driest winter month average precipitation less than one-tenth wettest summer month average precipitation; one variation also requires that the driest winter month have less than 30 mm average precipitation), s indicates dry summers (June, July and August in northern hemisphere?) (driest summer month less than 30 mm average precipitation and less than one-third wettest winter month precipitation) and f means significant precipitation in all seasons (neither above mentioned set of conditions fulfilled). * The third letter indicates the degree of summer heat — a indicates warmest month average temperature above with at least 4 months averaging above , b indicates warmest month averaging below 22 °C, but with at least 4 months averaging above 10 °C, while c means 3 or fewer months with mean temperatures above 10 °C. * The order of these two letters is sometimes reversed, especially by climatologists in the United States. * Group C climates are subdivided as follows: ** Dry-summer subtropical or Mediterranean climates (Csa, Csb):221–3: These climates usually occur on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 30° and 45°. These climates are in the polar front region in winter, and thus have moderate temperatures and changeable, rainy weather. Summers are hot and dry, due to the domination of the subtropical high pressure systems, except in the immediate coastal areas, where summers are milder due to the nearby presence of cold ocean currents that may bring fog but prevent rain. *** Examples: **** Adelaide, South Australia, Australia (Csa) **** Antalya, Turkey (Csa) **** Athens, Greece (Csa) **** Barcelona, Spain (Csa) **** Cape Town, South Africa (Csa) **** Coimbra, Portugal (Csa) **** Izmir, Turkey (Csa) **** Jerash, Jordan (Csa) **** Jerusalem, Israel (Csa) **** Lisbon, Portugal (Csa) **** Los Angeles, California, United States (Csa) **** Madrid, Spain (Csa) **** Marseille, France (Csa) **** Medford, Oregon, United States (inland) (Csa) **** Palermo, Italy (Csa) **** Perth, Australia (Csa) **** Porto, Portugal (Csb) **** Risan, Montenegro (Csb) **** Sacramento, California, United States (Csa) **** San Francisco, California, United States (Csb) **** San Jose, California, United States (Csb) **** Sanremo, Italy (Csa) **** Santiago, Chile (Csb) **** Seville, Spain (Csa) **** Split, Croatia (Csa) **** Tel Aviv, Israel (Csa) **** Valladolid, Spain (Csb) ** Under the Köppen-Geiger classification, dry-summer subtropical (Csb) extends to additional areas not typically associated with a typical Mediterranean climate, such as much of the Pacific Northwest, much of southern Chile, parts of west-central Argentina, and areas of northern Spain and Portugal. Many of these areas would be Oceanic (Cfb), except dry-summer patterns meet Köppen's Cs minimum thresholds. Additional highland areas in the subtropics also meet Cs requirements, although they too are not normally associated with Mediterranean climates. *** Examples: **** Portland, Oregon, United States (Csb sometimes Cfb ) **** Seattle, Washington, United States (Csb sometimes Cfb ) **** Victoria, British Columbia, Canada (Csb sometimes Cfb ) **** Vigo, Spain (Csb / Cfb ) ** Humid subtropical climates (Cfa, Cwa):223–6: These climates usually occur in the interiors of continents, or on their east coasts, mainly in the high 20s and 30s latitude (although they may occur as far north as 46°N in Europe). Unlike the Mediterranean climates, the summers are humid due to unstable tropical air masses, or onshore Trade Winds. In eastern Asia, winters can be dry (and colder than other places at a corresponding latitude) because of the Siberian high pressure system, and summers very wet due to the Southwest Asian monsoonal influence. *** Examples: **** Atlanta, Georgia, United States (Cfa — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Raleigh, North Carolina, United States (Cfa) **** Houston, Texas, United States (Cfa) **** Belgrade, Serbia (Cfa) **** Edirne, Turkey (Cfa) **** Varna, Bulgaria (Cfa) **** Corvo, Azores, Portugal (Cfa) **** Odessa, Ukraine (Cfa) **** Tbilisi, Georgia (Cfa) **** Milan, Italy (Cfa) **** Buenos Aires, Argentina (Cfa — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Porto Alegre, Brazil (Cfa — uniform precipitation distribution) **** São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil (Cfa) **** Okinawa, Japan (Cfa) **** Brisbane, Queensland, Australia (Cfa — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Durban, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Cfa — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico (Cwa) **** Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India (Cwa) **** Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan (Cwa) **** Zhengzhou, China (Cwa) **** Hong Kong (Cwa) **** Busan, South Korea (Cwa) **** Hanoi, Vietnam (Cwa) ** Maritime Temperate climates or Oceanic climates (Cfb, Cwb, Cfc):226–9: Cfb climates usually occur on the western sides of continents between the latitudes of 45° and 55°; they are typically situated immediately poleward of the Mediterranean climates, although in Australia and extreme southern Africa this climate is found immediately poleward of the humid subtropical climate, and at a somewhat lower latitude. In western Europe, this climate occurs in coastal areas up to 63°N latitude. These climates are dominated all year round by the polar front, leading to changeable, often overcast weather. Summers are cool due to cloud cover, but winters are milder than other climates in similar latitudes. *** Examples: **** Bilbao, Spain (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Limoges, France (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Liverpool, England, United Kingdom (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** London, England, United Kingdom (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Hamburg, Germany (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Bergen, Norway (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Rize, Turkey (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** George, South Africa (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Melbourne, Victoria, Australia (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Hobart, Tasmania, Australia (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Wellington, New Zealand (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution, but with drying trend in summer similar to Csb) **** Prince Rupert, British Columbia, Canada (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Castro, Chile (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Oviedo, Spain (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) *** Cfb climates are also encountered at high elevations in certain subtropical and tropical areas, where the climate would be that of a subtropical/tropical rain forest if not for the altitude. These climates are called "Highlands". Examples include: **** Curitiba, Brazil (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Boone, North Carolina, USA (Cfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Higher elevations of Tamil Nadu, India (e.g. Ooty) **** Crkvice, Montenegro (Cfsb —perhumid Mediterranean mountain climate without summer dryness, Crkvice on Orjen also holds Europe's precipitation record – averaging 4927 mm/m² 1931–1960). *** The temperate climate with dry winters (Cwb, Cwc) is a type of climate characteristic of the highlands inside the tropics of Mexico, Peru, Bolivia, Madagascar, Zambia, Zimbabwe and South Africa but it is also found in central Argentina, outside the tropics. Winters are noticeable and dry and summers very rainy. In the tropics the rainy season is provoked by the tropical airmasses and the dry winters by subtropical high pressure. Temperate temperatures are the consequence of altitude which become cooler year-round. **** Examples: ***** Cuzco, Peru (Cwb) ***** Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (Cwb) ***** Bogotá, Colombia (Cwb) ***** Mexico City, Mexico (Cwb) ***** Campos do Jordão, São Paulo, Brazil (Cwb) ***** La Paz, Bolivia (Cwb) ***** Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa (Cwb) ***** Gangtok, Sikkim, India (Cwb) ***** Juliaca, Peru (Cwb) ** Maritime Subarctic climates or Subpolar Oceanic climates (Cfc): These climates occur poleward of the Maritime Temperate climates, and are confined either to narrow coastal strips on the western poleward margins of the continents, or, especially in the Northern Hemisphere, to islands off such coasts. *** Examples: **** Monte Dinero, Argentina (Cfc — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Reykjavík, Iceland (Cfc — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Tórshavn, Faroe Islands (Cfc — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Bodø, Norway (Cfc — uniform precipitation distribution)
GROUP D: Continental/microthermal climate:
These climates have an average temperature above in their warmest months, and a coldest month average below −3 °C (or 0 °C in some versions, as noted previously). These usually occur in the interiors of continents, or on their east coasts, north of 40° North latitude. In the Southern Hemisphere, Group D climates are extremely rare due to the smaller land masses in the middle latitudes and the almost complete absence of land between 40°-60° South latitude, existing only in some highland locations. * The second and third letters are used as for Group C climates, while a third letter of d indicates 3 or fewer months with mean temperatures above 10 °C and a coldest month temperature below . * Group D climates are subdivided as follows: ** Hot Summer Continental climates (Dfa, Dwa, Dsa):231–2: Dfa climates usually occur in the high 30s and low 40s latitudes, with a qualifying average temperature in the warmest month of >22°C. In eastern Asia Dwa climates extend further south due to the influence of the Siberian high pressure system, which also causes winters there to be dry, and summers can be very wet because of monsoon circulation. *** Examples: **** Chicago, Illinois, United States (Dfa — summer wetter than winter) **** Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Dfa — summer somewhat wetter than winter) **** Santaquin, Utah, United States (Dfa — summer drier than winter) **** Cleveland, Ohio, United States (Dfa — summer somewhat wetter than winter) **** Beijing, China (Dwa) **** Cheorwon, South Korea (Dwa) *** Dsa exists only at higher elevations adjacent to areas with hot summer Mediterranean (Csa) climates, such as Cambridge, Idaho and Saqqez in Iranian Kurdistan. ** or Hemiboreal climates (Dfb, Dwb, Dsb): Dfb and Dwb climates are immediately north of Hot Summer Continental climates, generally in the high 40s and low 50s in latitude in North America and Asia, and also in central and eastern Europe and Russia, between the Maritime Temperate and Continental Subarctic climates, where it extends up to high 50s and even lowest 60 degrees latitude. *** Examples: **** Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada (Dfb — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Minsk, Belarus (Dfb — summer wetter than winter) **** Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada (Dfb; summer wetter than winter) **** Revelstoke, British Columbia, Canada (Dfb — summer drier than winter) **** Fargo, North Dakota, United States (Dfb — winter drier than summer) **** Helsinki, Finland (Dfb — winter somewhat drier than summer) **** Växjö, Sweden (Dfb — winter somewhat drier than summer) **** Vladivostok, Russia (Dwb) **** Kars, Turkey (Dfb) *** Dsb arises from the same scenario as Dsa, but at even higher altitudes or higher latitudes, and chiefly in North America since here the Mediterranean climates extend further poleward than in Eurasia; Mazama, Washington is one such location. ** Continental Subarctic or Boreal (taiga) climates (Dfc, Dwc, Dsc):232–5: Dfc and Dwc climates occur poleward of the other Group D climates, mostly in the 50s and low 60s North latitude, although it might occur as far north as 70° latitude. *** Examples: **** Sept-Îles, Quebec, Canada (Dfc — uniform precipitation distribution) **** Anchorage, Alaska, United States (Dfc — summer wetter than winter) **** Mount Robson, British Columbia, Canada (Dfc — summer drier than winter) **** Murmansk, Russia (Dfc – summer wetter than winter) **** Irkutsk, Russia (Dwc) **** Kirkenes, Finnmark, Norway (Dfc – summer wetter than winter) **** Luleå, Sweden (Dfc – uniform precipitation distribution) *** Dsc, like Dsa and Dsb, is confined exclusively to highland locations near areas that have Mediterranean climates, and is the rarest of the three as a still higher altitude is needed to produce this climate. Examples of this type of climate are Zubački kabao, Montenegro (Dfsc perhumid Mediterranean snow climate), Galena Summit, Idaho and the upper portions of the Massif Central in France ** Continental Subarctic climates with extremely severe winters (Dfd, Dwd): These climates occur only in eastern Siberia. The names of some of the places that have this climate — most notably Verkhoyansk and Oymyakon — have become veritable synonyms for extreme, severe winter cold.
GROUP E: Polar climates: Polar climate: These climates are characterized by average temperatures below in all twelve months of the year: * Tundra climate (ET):235–7: Warmest month has an average temperature between and . These climates occur on the northern edges of the North American and Eurasian landmasses, and on nearby islands. It also occurs on some islands near the Antarctic circle. ** Examples: *** Iqaluit, Nunavut, Canada *** Provideniya, Russia *** Nuuk, Greenland *** Vardø, Norway *** Longyearbyen, Svalbard *** Barrow, Alaska *** Grytviken, South Georgia *** ET is also found at high elevations outside the polar regions, above the tree line — as at Mount Washington, New Hampshire and Jotunheimen, Norway. * Ice Cap climate (EF):237: All twelve months have average temperatures below . This climate is dominant in Antarctica (e.g., Scott Base) and in inner Greenland (e.g., Eismitte or North Ice). * Occasionally, a third, lower-case letter is added to ET climates if either the summer or winter is clearly drier than the other half of the year; thus Herschel Island ('Qikiqtaruk', in Inuvialuit) off the coast of Canada's Yukon Territory, becomes ETw, with Pic du Midi de Bigorre in the French Pyrenees acquiring an ETs designation. If the precipitation is more or less evenly spread throughout the year, ETf may be used, such as for Hebron, Labrador. When the option to include this letter is exercised, the same standards that are used for Groups C and D apply, with the additional requirement that the wettest month must have an average of at least 30 mm precipitation (Group E climates can be as dry or even drier than Group B climates based on actual precipitation received, but their rate of evaporation is much lower). Seasonal precipitation letters are almost never attached to EF climates, mainly due to the difficulty in distinguishing between falling and blowing snow, as snow is the sole source of moisture in these climates.
GROUP H: Alpine climates: Alpine climate: The Alpine climates are considered to be part of group E. * Alpine Climate ** Examples: *** The Cascade Mountains *** The Rocky Mountains *** The Andes *** The Himalayas *** The Tibetan Plateau *** The Eastern Highlands of Africa *** The Snowy Mountains of Australia *** The West Coast Range of Tasmania *** The Alps
Criticisms of the Köppen scheme: dateMarch 2009: Some climatologists have argued that Köppen's system could be improved upon. One of the most frequently-raised objections concerns the temperate Group C category, regarded by many as overbroad (it includes both Tampa, Florida and Philadelphia, Pennsylvania for example, even using as the baseline). In Applied Climatology (first edition published in 1966), John F. Griffiths proposed a new subtropical zone, encompassing those areas with a coldest month of between and , effectively subdividing Group C into two nearly equal parts (his scheme assigns the letter B to the new zone, and identifies dry climates with an additional letter immediately following the temperature-based letter).
Another point of contention involves the dry B climates; the argument here is that their separation by Köppen into only two thermal subsets is inadequate. Those who hold this view (including Griffiths) have suggested that the dry climates be placed on the same temperature continuum as other climates, with the thermal letter being followed by an additional capital letter — S for steppe or W (or D) for desert — as applicable (Griffiths also advances an alternate formula for use as an aridity threshold: R : 160 + 9T, with R equalling the threshold, in millimeters of mean annual precipitation, and T denoting the mean annual temperature in degrees Celsius).
A third idea is to create a maritime polar or EM zone within Group E to separate relatively mild marine locations (such as Ushuaia, Argentina and the outer Aleutian Islands) from the colder, continental tundra climates. Specific proposals vary; some advocate setting a coldest-month parameter, such as , while others support assigning the new designation to areas with an average annual temperature of above 0 °C.
The accuracy of the 10 °C warmest-month line as the start of the polar climates has also been questioned; Otto Nordenskiöld, for example, devised an alternate formula: W 9 − 0.1 C, with W representing the average temperature of the warmest month and C that of the coldest month, both in degrees Celsius (for instance, if the coldest month averaged −20 °C, a warmest-month average of 11 °C or higher would be necessary to prevent the climate from being polar). This boundary does appear to more closely follow the tree line, or the latitude poleward of which trees cannot grow, than the 10 °C warmest-month isotherm; the former tends to run poleward of the latter near the western margins of the continents, but at a lower latitude in the landmass interiors, the two lines crossing at or near the east coasts of both Asia and North America. * Trewartha climate classification scheme
The Trewartha climate classification scheme is a modified version of the Köppen system, as an answer to some of its deficiencies. It attempts to redefine the broad climatic groups in such a way as to be closer to vegetational zoning, especially in the United States. Under the standard Köppen system western Washington and Oregon are classed into the same climate as southern California, even though the two regions have strikingly different weather and vegetation. It also classes southern New England into the same climate as the Gulf Coast. Trewartha's modifications sought to reclass the Pacific Northwest seaboard as a different climate from California, and New England from the Gulf Coast. * Group A * This the tropical climate realm, defined the same as in Köppen's scheme (i.e., all 12 months average 18 °C or above). Climates with no more than two dry months (defined as having less than 60 mm average precipitation, same as per Köppen) are classified Ar (instead of Köppen's Af), while others are classified Aw if the dry season is at the time of low sun/short days or As if the dry season is at the time of high sun/long days. There was no specific monsoon climate identifier in the original scheme, but Am was added later, with the same parameters as Köppen's (except that at least three months, rather than one, must have less than 60 mm average precipitation). * Group B * BW and BS mean the same as in the Köppen scheme, with the Köppen BWn climate sometimes being designated BM (the M standing for "marine"). However, a different formula is used to quantify the aridity threshold: 10 X (T − 10) + 3P, with T equalling the mean annual temperature in degrees Celsius and P denoting the percentage of total precipitation received in the six high-sun months (April through September in the Northern Hemisphere and October through March in the Southern). If the precipition for a given location is less than the above formula, its climate is said to be that of a desert (BW); if it is equal to or greater than the above formula but less than twice that amount, the climate is classified as steppe (BS); and if the precipitation is more than double the value of the formula the climate is not in Group B. Unlike in Köppen's scheme, no thermal subsets exist within this group in Trewartha's, unless the Universal Thermal Scale (see below) is used. * Group C * In the Trewartha scheme this category encompasses subtropical realm climates only (8 or more months above 10 °C). Cs and Cw have the same meanings as they do in Köppen's scheme, but the subtropical climate with no distinct dry season is designated Cr instead of Köppen's Cf (and for Cs the average annual precipitation must be less than in addition to the driest summer month having less than 30 mm precipitation and being less than one-third as wet as the wettest winter month). * Group D * This group represents cold continental realms (4 to 7 months above 10 °C). Maritime temperate climates (most of Köppen's Cfb and Cwb climates, though some of these would fit into Trewartha's Cr and Cw respectively) are denoted DO in the Trewartha classification (although some places (like Halifax) near the east coasts of both North America and Asia actually qualify as DO climates in Trewartha's scheme when they fit into Cfa/Cwa rather than Cfb/Cwb in Köppen's), while continental climates are represented as DCa (Köppen Dfa, Dwa, Dsa) and DCb (Köppen Dfb, Dwb, Dsb). For the continental climates, sometimes the third letter (a or b) is omitted and DC is simply used instead, and occasionally a precipitational seasonality letter is added to both the maritime and continental climates (r, w, or s, as applicable). The dividing point between the maritime and continental climates is 0 °C in the coldest month, rather than the Köppen value of −3 °C (as noted in the section on the Köppen scheme, however, some climatologists — particularly in the United States — now observe 0 °C in the coldest month as the equatorward limit of the continental climates in that scheme as well). * Group E * This represents Ice realms, defined the same as in Köppen's scheme (1 to 3 months with average temperatures of 10 °C or above; Köppen Cfc, Dfc, Dwc, Dsc, Dfd, Dwd). In the original scheme, this group was not further divided; later, the designations EO and EC were created, with EO (maritime subarctic) signifying that the coldest month averages above −10 °C, while EC (continental subarctic or "boreal") means that at least one month has an average temperature of −10 °C or below. As in Group D, a third letter can be added to indicate seasonality of precipitation. There is no separate counterpart to the Köppen Dfd/Dwd climate in Trewartha's scheme. * Group F * This is the polar climate group, split into FT (Köppen ET) and FI (Köppen EF). * Group H * Highland climates, in which altitude plays a role in determining climate classification.237–40: Specifically, this would apply if correcting the average temperature of each month to a sea-level value using the formula of adding 5.6 °C for each 1,000 meters of elevation would result in the climate fitting into a different thermal group than that into which the actual monthly temperatures place it. Sometimes G is used instead of H if the above is true and the altitude is 500 meters or higher but lower than 2,500 meters; but the G or H is placed in front of the applicable thermal letter rather than replacing it — and the second letter used reflects the corrected monthly temperatures, not the actual monthly temperatures. * Universal Thermal Scale * An option exists to include information on both the warmest and coldest months for every climate by adding a third and fourth letter, respectively. The letters used conform to the following scale:i — severely hot: Mean monthly temperature or higherh — very hot: a — hot: b — warm: l — mild: k — cool: o — cold: c — very cold: d — severely cold: e — excessively cold: or below.Examples of the resulting designations include Afaa for Surabaya, Indonesia, BWhl for Aswan, Egypt, Crhk for Dallas, Texas, DOlk for London, EClc for Arkhangelsk, Russia, and FTkd for Barrow, Alaska.
World Map of the Köppen–Geiger climate classification for the period 1951–2000: Based on recent data sets from the Climatic Research Unit (CRU) of the University of East Anglia and the Global Precipitation Climatology Centre (GPCC) at the German Weather Service, a new digital Köppen–Geiger world map on climate classification for the second half of the 20th century has been compiled.
Other maps: All maps use the >0°C definition for temperate climates
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Classification de Köppen
Climatologie
La Classification de Köppen est une classification des climats fondée sur les précipitations et les températures. C'est le botaniste Wladimir Peter Köppen qui l'a inventée en 1900 en combinant la carte mondiale de la végétation publiée en 1866 par Griesbach et la division du climat en cinq zones par Candolle .
C'est la plus courante des classifications climatiques dans sa version présentée par Rudolf Geiger en 1961. Un très grand nombre d'études climatiques et de publications ont adopté une des versions de ce système. La carte de Köppen-Geiger reste aujourd'hui une référence, grâce à ses mises à jour fréquentes, tant dans les domaines de l'hydrologie, de la géographie, de l'agriculture, de la biologie, la climatologie à travers ses recherches sur l'évolution des climats.
De ce système sont issues d'autres classifications plus conformes aux différences de biomes rencontrées comme la classification de Trewartha qui introduit donc des variables empiriques. Ces classification sont cependant moins utilisées.
Un climat, selon cette classification, est repéré par un code de deux ou trois lettres :
1re: lettre : type de climat :
On obtient donc les catégories suivantes : * Af : climat équatorial * Aw : climat de savane avec hiver sec * As : climat de savane avec été sec * Am : climat de mousson * BS : climat de steppe (semi-aride) * BW : climat désertique * Cf : climat tempéré chaud sans saison sèche * Cw : climat tempéré chaud avec hiver sec * Cs : climat tempéré chaud avec été sec (méditerranéen) * Df : climat continental froid sans saison sèche * Dw : climat continental froid avec hiver sec * Ds : climat continental froid avec été sec (continental méditerranéen) * ET : climat de toundra * EF : climat d'inlandsis * EM : climat subpolaire océanique * 3e: lettre : variations de température
Pour affiner les types B, C et D, une troisième lettre précise les variations de température :
Exemples : * Le Sahara, ou le désert d'Arabie, sont de type BWh * La zone équatoriale est de type Af * La majeure partie de France et la Belgique sont de type Cfb * L'Amazonie est de type Aw * Le centre du Groenland est de type EF * La Sibérie est de type Dfc
Notes et références : Références: Palette Climat:
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فلاديمير كوبن
مواليد 1846 | وفيات 1940 | علماء | علماء ألمان
date=أبريل 2010:
فلاديمير بيتر كوبن Wladimir Peter Köppen: هو عالم روسي المولد ألماني الأصل من علماء الجغرافيا المناخية. ترجع شهرته إلى محاولاته العديدة لتصنيف المناخ، بدأ معتمدًا على الحرارة فقط ثم أعتمد على الحرارة والمطر. وقد ظهر تصنيفه للمناخ لأول مرة مطبوعًا سنة 1918م، ثم أخذ ويُحسن هذا التصنيف حتى أخرجه بصورة متكاملة سنة 1936م. ويبدو أنة تأثر بأقوال بنك ومقترحاته عن المناخ. عمل فلاديمير في الارصاد الجوية بألمانيا أكثر من اربعين عاما.
بذرة:
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Wladimir Köppen
1846 births | 1940 deaths | People from Saint Petersburg | Köppen climate classifications | Climatologists | Russian meteorologists | German scientists | Russian Esperantists
Wladimir Petrovich Köppen (Владимир Петрович Кёппен: ) (September 25, 1846 – June 22, 1940) was a Russian geographer, meteorologist, climatologist and botanist. After studies in St. Petersburg, he spent the bulk of his life and professional career in Germany and Austria. His most notable contribution to science was the development of the Köppen climate classification system, which, with some modifications, is still commonly used. Köppen made significant contributions to several branches of science.
Background and education : Köppen's grandfather belonged to the cohort of German physicians that were invited to Russia by empress Catherine II to improve sanitation in the provinces, and later became a personal physician to the tsar. His father Peter Köppen was a noted geographer, historian and ethnographer of ancient Russian cultures, and an important contributor to intellectual exchanges between western European slavists and Russian scientists. Wladimir attended secondary school in Simferopol, Crimea and began his studies of botany in 1864 at the University of St. Petersburg. He frequently travelled to his family's estate on the Crimean coast from St. Petersburg, and to and from Simferopol, in the interior of the peninsula. The floral and geographical diversity of the Crimean peninsula, and the starker geographical transitions between the capital and his home, did much to awaken an interest in the relationship between climate and the natural world. In 1867, he transferred to the University of Heidelberg and defended his doctorate dissertation on the effects of temperature on plant growth at the University of Leipzig in 1870.
Career and contributions : Between 1872 and 1873 Köppen was employed in the Russian meteorological service. In 1875, he moved back to Germany and became the chief of the new Division of Marine Meteorology at the German naval observatory (Deutsche Seewarte) based in Hamburg. There he was responsible for establishing a weather forecasting service for the northwestern part of Germany and the adjacent sea areas. After four years of service, he was able to move on to his primary interest - fundamental research - and left the meteorological office.
Köppen began a systematic study of the climate and also experimented with balloons to obtain data from upper layers of the atmosphere. In 1884, he published the first version of his map of climatic zones in which the seasonal temperature ranges were plotted. This work led to the development of the Köppen climate classification system around 1900, which he kept improving for the rest of his life. The full version of his system appeared first in 1918 and, after several modifications, the final version was published in 1936.
Apart from the description of various climate types, he was acquainted with paleoclimatology as well. In 1924 he and his son-in-law Alfred Wegener published a paper called Die Klimate der Geologischen Vorzeit (The climates of the geological past) providing crucial support to the Milanković theory on ice ages.
Towards the end of his life, Köppen cooperated with the German climatologist Rudolf Geiger to produce a five-volume work, Handbuch der Klimatologie (Handbook of Climatology). This was never completed, but several parts, three of them by Köppen, were published. After Köppen's death in 1940, Geiger continued to work on modifications to the climate classification system.
Köppen was a prolific scientist, producing more than 500 papers, and retained his intellectual curiosity and wide range of interests throughout his life. In 1890 he co-authored the first cloud atlas. Alongside scientific pursuits, he was actively involved in social questions, devoting much time and energy to such problems of land-use and school reform and nutrition for the underprivileged. He was a strong advocate for the use of Esperanto in the cause of world peace, translating several of his publications into Esperanto.
References: * Allaby, Michael (2000). Encyclopedia of Weather and Climate. New York: Facts On File, Inc. ISBN 0-81-604071-0.
reflist:
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Wladimir Peter Köppen
Botaniste | Botaniste allemand | Climatologue | Météorologue allemand | Naissance en 1846 | Décès en 1940
Wladimir Peter Köppen est un météorologue, un climatologue et un botaniste allemand. Il est né à Saint-Petersbourg le 25 septembre 1846, et décédé à Graz, Autriche, le 22 juin 1940. Il a élaboré le système de classification de Köppen, qui est toujours utilisé à l'heure actuelle avec quelques modifications, pour regrouper les climats en types similaires.
Bien que ses parents soient allemands, il est né en Russie, et débute sa scolarité en Crimée. Dès l'école, il est attiré par les relations entre les plantes et le climat dans lequel elles poussent. Plus tard, il étudie dans les universités de Heidelberg puis de Leipzig, en Allemagne, dont il devient docteur en 1870. Sa thèse porte sur les effets de la température sur la croissance des plantes.
Entre 1872 et 1873, Köppen est employé aux services météorologiques de Russie. En 1875, il retourne en Allemagne, où il devient chef du nouveau service de météorologie marine à l'observatoire naval Allemand (Deutsche Seewarte) basé à Hambourg. Là, il est responsable de l'établissement d'un bulletin de prévision météo pour la partie nord-ouest de l'Allemagne. Après quatre ans de service, il peut revenir à ce qui l'intéressait prioritairement : la recherche fondamentale.
Köppen commence une étude systématique du climat et fait des expériences avec des ballons pour obtenir des données sur l'air en altitude. En 1884, il publie la première version de sa carte des zones climatiques, dans laquelle sont indiqués les intervalles de température saisonnière. Ce travail mène au développement du système de classification de Köppen aux alentours de 1900, qu'il continua à améliorer toute sa vie. La version complète de son système apparaît pour la première fois en 1918, et après plusieurs modifications, la version finale est publiée en 1936.
À part la description des différents types de climats, il s'intéresse aussi à la paléoclimatologie. En 1924, il publie avec son gendre Alfred Wegener un article intitulé Die Klimate der Geologischen Vorzeit (« Les climats du passé géologique ») qui apporte un soutien crucial à la théorie de Milutin Milanković sur les ères glaciaires.
Jusqu'à la fin de sa vie, Köppen coopère avec le climatologue allemand Rudolph Geiger à la rédaction d'un manuel de climatologie en cinq volumes (Handbuch der Klimatologie) qui ne fut jamais terminé mais dont plusieurs parties, dont trois de Köppen, furent publiés. Après la mort de Köppen en 1940, Geiger continue à travailler aux modifications du système de classification des climats.
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تردد فائق العلو
اتصالات | أمواج كهرومغناطيسية | تقنيات تلفزة
التردد فائق العلو Ultra high frequency (UHF): هو حزمة أمواج كهرومغناطيسية ذات ترددات بين 300 ميغاهرتز إلى 3 غيغاهرتز. تقع الأمواج ذات ترددات أعلى من التردد فائق العلو ضمن مجال الموجات الصغرية. تسمى الترددات ذات التردد أقل من التردد فائق العلو بالتردد عالي جداً. من أجل جميع حزم الترددات انظر ترددات الطيف الكهرومغناطيسي.
استخدامات : تستخدم الترددات فائقة العلو في البث التلفزيوني، أجهزة الهاتف النقال، وأجهزة الاتصال ثنائية الاتجاه العامة، ونظام التموضع العالمي وغيرها.
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Ultra high frequency
Radio spectrum | Television technology | Wireless
UHF:
Ultra-High Frequency (UHF) designates the ITU Radio frequency range of electromagnetic waves between 300 MHz and 3 GHz (3,000 MHz), also known as the decimetre band or decimetre wave as the wavelengths range from one to ten decimetres (10 cm to 1 metre). Radio waves with frequencies above the UHF band fall into the SHF (super-high frequency) and EHF (extremely high frequency) bands, all of which fall into the microwave frequency range. Lower frequency signals fall into the VHF (very high frequency) or lower bands. See Electromagnetic spectrum and Radio spectrum for a full listing of frequency bands.
Characteristics, advantages, and disadvantages: radio propagation: The point to point transmission and reception of TV and radio signals is affected by many variables. Atmospheric moisture; solar wind; physical obstructions, such as mountains and buildings; and time of day all affect the signal transmission and the degradation of signal reception. All radio waves are partly absorbed by atmospheric moisture. Atmospheric absorption reduces, or attenuates, the strength of radio signals over long distances. The effects of attenuation degradation increases with frequency. UHF TV signals are generally more degraded by moisture than lower bands, such as VHF TV signals. The ionosphere, a layer of the Earth's atmosphere, is filled with charged particles that can reflect some radio waves. Amateur radio enthusiasts primarily use this quality of the ionosphere to help propagate lower frequency HF signals around the world: the waves are trapped, bouncing around in the upper layers of the ionosphere until they are refracted down at another point on the Earth. This is called skywave transmission. UHF TV signals are not carried along the ionosphere but can be reflected off of the charged particles down at another point on Earth in order to reach farther than the typical line-of-sight transmission distances; this is the skip distance. UHF transmission and reception are enhanced or degraded by tropospheric ducting as the atmosphere warms and cools throughout the day.
The main advantage of UHF transmission is the physically short wave that is produced by the high frequency. The size of transmission and reception antennas is related to the size of the radio wave. The UHF antenna is stubby and short. Smaller and less conspicuous antennas can be used with higher frequency bands.
The major disadvantage of UHF is its limited broadcast range and reception, often called line-of-sight between the TV station's transmission antenna and customer's reception antenna, as opposed to VHF's very long broadcast range and reception, which is less restricted by line of sight.
UHF is widely used in two-way radio systems and cordless telephones, whose transmission and reception antennas are closely spaced. UHF signals travel over line-of-sight distances. Transmissions generated by two-way radios and cordless telephones do not travel far enough to interfere with local transmissions. Several public-safety and business communications are handled on UHF. Civilian applications, such as GMRS, PMR446, UHF CB, 802.11b ("WiFi") and the widely adapted GSM and UMTS cellular networks, also use UHF frequencies. A repeater propagates UHF signals when a distance greater than the line of sight is required. * See "Radio horizon".
History : Australia: In Australia, UHF was first anticipated in the mid 1970s with TV channels 27-69. The first UHF TV broadcasts in Australia were operated by Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) on channel 28 in Sydney and Melbourne starting in 1980, and translator stations for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC). The UHF band is now used extensively as ABC, SBS, commercial and public-access television services have expanded, particularly through regional areas.
Australia also provides the UHF CB service for general-purpose two-way communications.
Canada: The first Canadian television network was publicly owned Radio-Canada, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Its stations, as well as that of the first private networks (CTV and TVA, created in 1961), are primarily VHF. More recent third-network operators initially signing-on in the 1970s or 1980s were often relegated to UHF, or (if they were to attempt to deploy on VHF) to reduced power or stations in outlying areas. Canada's VHF spectrum was already crowded with both domestic broadcasts and numerous foreign border stations.
The use of UHF to provide programming that otherwise would not be available, such as province-wide educational services (Knowledge Channel, TVOntario (incidentally the first UHF station in Canada), Télé-Québec, French language programming (outside Québec) and ethnic/multilingual television, has therefore become common. Third networks such as Quatre-Saisons or Global often will rely heavily on UHF stations as repeaters or as a local presence in large cities where VHF spectrum is largely already full. The handful of digital terrestrial television stations currently on-air in Canada are also all UHF broadcasts, although some digital broadcasts will return to VHF channels vacated after the digital transition is completed in August 2011.
Digital Audio Broadcasting, deployed on a very limited scale in Canada in 2005, uses UHF frequencies in the L band from 1452 to 1492 MHz. There are currently no VHF Band III digital radio stations in Canada as, unlike in much of Europe, these frequencies are among the most popular for use by television stations.
Ireland: In the Republic of Ireland, UHF was introduced in 1978 to augment the existing RTÉ One VHF 625-line transmissions and to provide extra frequencies for the new RTÉ Two channel. The first UHF transmitter site was Cairn Hill in Co. Longford, followed by Three Rock Mountain in South Co. Dublin. These sites were followed by Clermont Carn in Co. Louth and Holywell Hill in Co. Donegal in 1981. Elsewhere in Ireland, both the RTÉ channels are available on VHF. Since then RTÉ have migrated nearly all their low-power relay sites to UHF. TV3 and TG4 are transmitted entirely in UHF only. When Digital Terrestrial TV is introduced, it is intended to broadcast this on UHF only initially, although VHF allocations exist. VHF TV is likely to cease whenever the existing analogue broadcasts are switched off. The UHF band is also used in parts of Ireland for Television deflector systems bringing British television signals to towns and rural areas that cannot receive these signals directly
Japan: In Japan, an is one of a loosely knit group of free commercial terrestrial television stations that is not a member of the major national networks keyed in Tokyo and Osaka.
Japan's original broadcasters were VHF. Although some experimental broadcasts were made as early as 1939, NHK (founded in 1926 as a radio network modeled on the BBC) began regular VHF television broadcasting in 1953. Its two terrestrial television services (NHK General TV and NHK Educational TV) appear on VHF 1 and 3, respectively, in the Tokyo region. Privately owned Japanese VHF TV stations were most often built by large national newspapers with Tokyo stations exerting a large degree of control over national programming.
The independent stations broadcast in analogue UHF, unlike major networks, which were historically broadcast primarily in analogue VHF. The loose coalition of UHF independents is operated mostly by local governments or metropolitan newspapers with less outside control. Compared with major network stations, Japan's UHF independents have more restrictive programming acquisition budgets and lower average ratings; they are also more likely to broadcast single episode or short-series UHF anime (many of which serve to promote DVD's or other product tie-ins) and brokered programming such as religion and infomercials.
Japanese terrestrial television is in the process of switching entirely to digital UHF, with all analogue television (both VHF and UHF) planned to shut down in 2011.
Malaysia: UHF broadcasting was used outside Kuala Lumpur and the Klang Valley by private TV station TV3 in the late 80s, with the government stations only transmitting in VHF (Bands 1 and 3) and the 450 MHz range being occupied by the ATUR cellular phone service operated by Telekom Malaysia. The ATUR service ceased operation in the late 90s, freeing up the frequency for other uses. UHF was not commonly used in the Klang Valley until 1994 (despite TV3's signal also being available over UHF Channel 29, as TV3 transmitted over VHF Channel 12 in the Klang Valley). 1994 saw the introduction of the channel MetroVision (which ceased transmission in 1999, got bought over by TV3's parent company - System Televisyen Malaysia Berhad - and relaunched as 8TV in 2004). This was followed by Ntv7 in 1998 (also acquired by TV3's parent company in 2005) and recently Channel 9 (which started in 2003, ceased transmission in 2005, was also acquired by TV3's parent company shortly after, and came back as TV9 in early 2006). At current count, there are 4 distinct UHF signals receivable by an analog TV set in the Klang Valley: Channel 25 (8TV), Channel 29 (TV3 UHF transmission), Channel 37 (NTV7) and Channel 39 (TV9). Channel 39 is usually allocated for VCRs, decoder units (i.e. the ASTRO and MiTV set top boxes) and other devices that have an RF signal generator (i.e. game consoles).
United Kingdom: In the UK, UHF television began in 1964 following a plan by the General Post Office to allocate sets of frequencies for 625-lined television to regions across the country, so as to accommodate four national networks with regional variations (the VHF allocations allowed for only two such networks using 405 lines). The UK UHF channels would range from 21 to 68 (later extended to 69) and regional allocations were in general grouped close together to allow for the use of aerials designed to receive a specific sub-band with greater efficiency than wider-band aerials could. Aerial manufacturers would therefore divide the band into over-lapping groups; A (channels 21-34), B (39-53), C/D (48-68) and E (39-68). The first service to use UHF was BBC2 in 1964 followed by BBC1 and ITV (already broadcast on VHF) in 1969 and Channel 4/S4C in 1982. PAL colour was introduced on UHF only in 1967 (for BBC2) and 1969 (for BBC1 & ITV).
As a consequence of achieving maximum national coverage, signals from one region would typically over-lap with that of another, which was accommodated for by allocating a different set of channels in each adjacent area, often resulting in greater choice for viewers when a network in one region aired different programmes to the neighbouring region.
Initial uptake of UHF television was very slow: Differing propagation characteristics between VHF and UHF meant new additional transmitters needed to be built, often at different locations to the then-established VHF sites, and in general with a larger number of relay stations to fill the greater number of gaps in coverage that came with the new band. This led to poor picture quality in bad coverage areas, and many years before the service achieved full national coverage. In addition to this, the only exclusively UHF service, BBC2, would run for only a few hours a day and run alternative programming for minority audiences in contrast to the more populist schedules of BBC1 and ITV. However the 1970s saw a large increase in UHF TV viewing while VHF took a significant decline: The appeal of colour, which was never introduced to VHF (despite preliminary plans to do so in the late 1950s and early 1960s) and the fall in television prices saw most households use a UHF set by the end of that decade. With the second and last VHF television service having launched in 1955, VHF TV was finally decommissioned for good in 1985 with no plans for it to return to use.
The launch of Channel 5 in 1997 added a fifth national television network to UHF, requiring deviation from the original frequency allocation plan of the early 1960s and the allocation of UHF frequencies previously not used for television (such as UK Channels 35 and 37, previously reserved for RF modulators in devices such as domestic videocassette recorders, requiring an expensive VCR re-tuning programme funded by the new network). A lack of capacity within the band to accommodate a fifth service with the complex over-lapping led to the fifth and final network having a significantly reduced national coverage compared to the other networks, with reduced picture quality in many areas and the use of wide-band aerials often required.
The launch of digital terrestrial television in 1998 saw the continued use of UHF for television, with six multiplexes allocated for the service, all within the UHF band. However analogue transmissions have been planned to cease completely by 2012 after which time it is uncertain as to whether the vacated capacity will be used for additional digital television services or put into alternative use, such as mobile telecommunications or internet services.
United States : Television : On December 29, 1949, KC2XAK of Bridgeport, Connecticut, became the first UHF television station to operate on a regular daily schedule. The first commercially licensed UHF television station was WWLP in Springfield, Massachusetts; however, the first commercially licensed TV station on the air was KPTV, Channel 27, in Portland, Oregon, on September 18, 1952. This TV station used much of the equipment, including the transmitter, from KC2XAK.
American television broadcasting, which began experimentally in the 1930s with some regular commercial broadcasting in just a few cities (such as New York and Chicago) in 1941, was originally allocated (by the Federal Communication Commission - the FCC) broadcasting channels solely in the VHF (Very High Frequency) band. All VHF TV channels except channel 1 through 13 had been removed from the FCC allocation list during World War II and those frequencies re-allocated for military use, leaving thirteen channels as of May 1945. While efforts at TV broadcasting on any channel were drastically curtailed for the duration of WW II, due largely to lack of available receivers, the post-war era would bring rapid expansion in the nascent broadcast television industry.
After VHF Channel 1 was re-allocated to land-mobile radio systems in 1948 due to radio-interference problems, a mere one dozen TV channels remained. These were found to be not enough to serve the needs of television broadcasting as it grew nationwide during the latter 1940s and the 1950s. For example, these cities were never able to be allocated any VHF-TV stations at all, due to technical reasons found by the FCC: Fort Wayne, Indiana, Lexington, Kentucky, Huntsville, Alabama, and Fresno, California. In addition, scores more cities were able to receive only one VHF broadcast station, for example High Point, North Carolina, Montgomery, Alabama, Wilmington, Delaware, Bakersfield, California, and Santa Barbara, California. Also, the entire state of New Jersey would receive only one VHF broadcast station of its own (which was to ultimately become WNET 13 Newark), leaving much of the state to be served from New York City or Philadelphia, and Delaware has had only one VHF station. However, there was a problem with an insufficient number of TV channels being available to cover all of the United States.
With a grand total of 106 VHF stations broadcasting by the end of the 1940s in the U.S., problems with interference between stations due to some overcrowding of stations were already becoming apparent in the densely populated areas, such as the eastern mid-Atlantic states (New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and Connecticut) and Southern California. In 1949, the Federal Communications Commission stopped accepting applications for licensing new stations (a freeze that lasted until 1952) in order to address questions such as the allocation of additional channel frequencies, and also the selection of an electronic system for color television.
Allocating more of the VHF band (30 to 300 MHz) by moving existing radio communication users off this band seemed to be impossible. For example, FM radio broadcasting had already suffered a huge setback after a forced move from its original 42-50 MHz allocated band to the current 88-108 MHz band in 1946 rendered all existing FM transmitters and receivers obsolete. Furthermore, several other important radio communications services use the VHF band. For example, in aeronautical radio use, a so-called "UHF radio" system for voice communications actually falls in VHF spectrum as all of its frequencies are below 300 MHz. The aeronautical radio VHF radio system, located above 108 MHz, is among the frequencies fall into the wide band that is in between Channel 6 and Channel 7 of VHF broadcast TV. Police and fire department radios, land-mobile users and two-meter amateur radio operators also occupy VHF Band II, along with the entire FM broadcast band. It was impractical and uneconomic to require these well-established users to move to other frequencies, such as to the genuine UHF band (300 MHz-3 GHz).
The U.S. Army and Navy did not need to keep their huge wartime UHF spectrum allocation simply because they had never used most of it. That allocation had been done hastily in 1942 in the face of the emergency of a huge war of unknown duration - and with the presence of very new and poorly understood electronic technologies like radar. In 1942, nobody knew how much bandwidth that the Army and the Navy might need for radar and for radio communications, so the Federal Government took a wise expedient: it allocated a huge amount of radio spectrum to the uniformed services for the time being, in case the service might need it. Then, it could make adjustments later.
After the War ended, and after the growth of civilian TV broadcasting in the years after the war, by 1950 expansion of TV channels into the UHF band of frequencies became inevitable. However, lots of UHF TV technology remained unproven at that time, though plenty had been learned about UHF electronics during the war, especially in the development and improvement of radar. (There are significant advantages to using shorter wavelengths, hence higher frequencies, for radars.) Also, the question of which owners should retain the more-valuable (at that time) VHF TV channels remained hotly contested between several different competing interests.
To incumbent corporations, such as the Radio Corporation of America and its National Broadcasting Company subsidiary, UHF-TV and FM radio represented disruptive technologies - competition to their existing and long-established manufacturing and broadcast interests in VHF-TV and AM radio. In the fall of 1944, Columbia Broadcasting System pressed a high-definition black and white system on the UHF band employing 750-1,000 scanning lines that offered the possibility of higher-definition monochrome and color broadcasting, both then were precluded from the VHF band because of their bandwidth demands; more significantly, it offered the possibility for sufficient numbers of conventional 6MHz channels to support the FCC's goals of a "truly nationwide and competitive service." CBS was not trying maximize broadcast (or network) competition through freer market entry in the UHF system, but instead CBS's 16MHz channels would have allowed only 27 UHF channels versus the 82 channels possible under the standard 6MHz bandwidth. Vice President of CBS, Adrian Murphy, told the FCC: "I would say that it would be better to have two networks in color" instead of the four or more networks possible with narrower bandwidths in UHF. To newer entrants into TV broadcasting such as the DuMont Laboratories company and its fourth-ranked DuMont Television Network, however, the need for additional TV channels in major markets was urgent. For proponents of educational TV broadcasting, the difficulties in competing with commercial broadcasters for the increasingly scarce VHF channels becoming a key problem.
Any attempt to pursue the objective of broadcast localism on the VHF-TV channels threatened in many regions to push the third-network TV companies such as the American Broadcasting Company onto stations in outlying communities, if they could be accommodated on VHF channels at all.
A key question in the FCC's allocation of TV channels was hence that of intermixture.dateDecember 2009: To allocate four to as many as seven VHF channels to each of the largest cities would mean forcing the smaller, intervening cities completely onto the UHF channels, while an allocation scheme that sought to assign one or two VHF channels in each smaller city would force VHF and UHF stations to compete in most markets. (Some may find it hard to believe, but the large metropolitan areas of New York City, Washington-Baltimore, Los Angeles, and San Francisco received seven VHF stations apiece, and Chicago was allocated five, with the other two possible ones going to Milwaukee and Rockford, Illinois.)
Hopes that UHF-TV would allow dozens of television stations in every media market were thwarted not only by poor image frequency rejection in superheterodyne receivers with the standard intermediate frequency of 45.75 MHz, but also by very poor adjacent-channel rejection and channel selectivity by early tuner designs and manufactures. UHF-TV stations in the same immediate area were usually assigned by the FCC a minimum of six channels apart due to inadequate TV receiver manufacture. Technical problems with the design of vacuum tubes for operation at high UHF frequencies were beginning to be addressed as late as 1954. These shortcomings led to "UHF taboos", which in effect limited each metropolitan area to only moderately more UHF stations than VHF ones, despite the much higher number of channels.
When the Freeze ended in 1952, the television industry exploded. It grew from the 108 pre-Freeze stations to more than 530 in 1960. These stations were established on the UHF band despite the fact it did not have near the coverage of their VHF competitors. The FCC tried solving this problem by allowing the lower powered UHF stations more power, but it did not work, VHF still had more coverage. At the same time, advertisers had caught on to this and did most of their business with VHF stations. In all, the FCC’s effort to try to intermix VHF and UHF stations in the same market had failed . While the more-established broadcasters were operating profitably on VHF channels as affiliates of the largest TV networks (at the time, NBC and CBS), most of the original UHF local stations of the 1950s soon went bankrupt, limited by the range their signals could travel, the lack of UHF tuners in most TV sets, and difficulties in finding advertisers willing to spend money on them. UHF stations fell quickly behind the VHF stations. UHF station revenues in 1953 were recorded as having a loss of $10,500,000. More stations left the air than began broadcasting and 60 percent of the industry losses were by UHF stations from 1953 to 1956. TV network affiliations were also difficult to get in many locations; the UHF stations with major-network affiliation would often lose these affiliations in favour of any viable new VHF TV station that entered the same market. Of the 82 new UHF-TV stations in the United States broadcasting as of June 1954, only 24 of them remained on the air a year later. The fraction of new TV receivers that were factory-equipped with all-channel tuners dropped from 35% in early 1953 to 9% by 1958, a drop that was only partially compensated for by field upgrades or the availability of UHF converters for separate purchase.
The majority of the 165 UHF stations to begin telecasting between 1952 and 1959 did not survive. Under the All-Channel Receiver Act, FCC regulations by 1965 would ensure that all new TV sets sold in the U.S. had built-in UHF tuners that could receive channels 14-83. In spite of this, by 1971, there were just more than 170 full-service UHF broadcast stations nationwide. * Independent and educational stations
In the United States, the UHF stations gained a reputation for being locally owned, less polished and professional, not as popular, and having weaker signal propagation than their VHF channel counterparts.
While UHF-TV has been available to American TV broadcasters since 1952, affiliates of the four major American TV networks (NBC, CBS, ABC, and DuMont) continued to transmit their programs primarily on VHF channels wherever they were available. With the availability of the twelve VHF television channels limited by FCC spacing rules to avoid co-channel and adjacent channel interference between TV stations in the same or nearby cities, all available VHF-TV allocations were already in use in most large TV markets by the mid-1950s.
To be more specific, two TV stations on the same channel needed to be about 160 or more miles apart, and two TV stations on adjacent channels needed to be about 60 or more miles apart. Exceptions to this rule occurred with VHF channels 4 and 5, and VHF channels 6 and 7, because there are additional "guard bands" between these two pairs that are allocated to other uses. Thus, the pair channel 4 and 5 was found in New York City, Washington, D.C., St. Louis, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and many other places. Likewise, the pair channel 6 and 7 was found in Denver and several other places.
With the most financially affluent and network-connected TV broadcasters all on VHF channels, UHF stations in major population centers of the United States were usually unable to get big TV-network affiliations (ABC, CBS, & NBC), and thus were usually either educational network or independent TV stations. Other UHF stations did for a time affiliate with less-affluent broadcast networks that didn't last very long; for example, the fourth-ranked DuMont Network, which operated from 1946 to 1956, and then went out of business. The movie UHF, starring "Weird Al" Yankovic and Michael Richards, parodied the independent UHF station phenomenon.
However, there were significant cities that had few or no VHF channels allocated to them. Hence, these cities did get UHF stations that did get major network affiliations and did become financially sound businesses. Some of these stations have been located in or near state capital cities or served nearby major rural regions, such as Montgomery, Alabama, Frankfort, Kentucky, Dover, Delaware, Lincoln, Nebraska, Topeka, Kansas, Jefferson City, Missouri, Lansing, Michigan, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, Madison, Wisconsin, and Springfield, Missouri. In the United States, television stations of or near state capital cities are important because they closely cover the operations of the state governments and spread the information to the residents of a wide region of the states.
TV antenna manufacturers of years ago often rated their top-of-the-line "deep-fringe" antenna models with phrases like "100 miles VHF/60 miles UHF" if the antenna included UHF reception at all. (In the practice of electrical engineering, the frequency range in which an antenna is to be used is an important factor in its design.)
TV set manufacturers of years ago often treated UHF tuners as extra-charge optional-items until the All-Channel Receiver Act of 1964 forced their inclusion in all new TV sets as a standard. By 1964, many pioneering UHF broadcasters had already gone bankrupt. Various attempts were made by the FCC regulators to stem the tide of UHF station failures met with mixed results: * Limits on the number of owned-and-operated stations controlled by one corporation were raised from five stations to seven, provided that two of them were UHF stations. Both NBC-TV (WBUF 17 Buffalo, WNBC 30 Hartford) and CBS-TV (WHCT 18 Hartford, WXIX 19 Milwaukee) acquired pairs of UHF stations as an experiment in the mid-1950s, only to abandon the stations in 1958-59. Their commercial network programming soon returned to VHF channel affiliates. WBUF's allocation on channel 17 was donated to the public-TV broadcaster WNED-TV, which now broadcasts as a Public Broadcasting Service station. * The UHF television impact policy (1960–1988) allowed applications for new VHF TV stations to be opposed in cases where licensure could lead to the economic failure of an existing UHF TV broadcaster. * The secondary affiliation rule (1971–1995) prohibited a network entering a market with two existing VHF TV network affiliates and one UHF independent TV station from placing its programs on a secondary basis on one or both VHF stations without offering them to the UHF station. * Limits on UHF effective radiated power, originally very restrictive, were relaxed. A UHF TV station could be licensed for up to five megawatts of carrier power, unlike VHF TV stations, which were limited to 100 (Channels 2-6) or 316 kilowatts of carrier power (Channels 7-13) depending on their channel. * More recent limits on station ownership are based on the combined percentage of the American population (originally 35% maximum, now increased to 45%) reached by one group of stations under common ownership. A UHF discount, by which only half of the audience of a UHF station would be counted against these limits, would ultimately allow groups such as PAX to reach the majority of the American audience using owned-and-operated UHF stations.
The situation was to begin to improve in the 1960s and 1970s, but progress was to be slow and difficult.
While ABC-TV and the short-lived DuMont Network, being smaller and less prosperous networks, had had a number of UHF affiliates, National Educational Television and the later PBS had even more.
The original SIN (Spanish International Network), which was established in 1962 as the predecessor of the modern Univision network, was built primarily by UHF-TV broadcasters, such as charter stations KWEX-TV, Channel 41 in San Antonio and KMEX-TV, Channel 34, in Los Angeles.
Ultimately, in addition to providing TV service where VHF channels simply were not possible because of the limitations on the technology, UHF-TV also became a means to obtain programming that was not being provided by the "Big Three" commercial networks. For example, there were educational services like the Public Broadcasting Service, religious broadcasting, and Spanish language or multilingual broadcasting that all relied primarily on UHF channels to offer programming alternatives. * Fourth networks, satellite and cable television
In 1970, Ted Turner had acquired a struggling independent station on Channel 17 in Atlanta, Georgia, purchasing reruns of popular television shows, the Atlanta Braves baseball team and the Atlanta Hawks basketball team in order to provide access to entertainment for broadcast.
This station, renamed as WTBS, was uplinked in 1975 to satellite alongside new premium channels such as HBO, gaining access to distant cable television markets and becoming the first of various superstations to obtain national coverage. In 1986 Turner purchased the entire MGM film library, and Turner Broadcasting System's access to movie rights was to prove commercially valuable as home videocassette rental became ubiquitous in the 1980s.
In 1986, the DuMont owned-and-operated station group Metromedia was acquired by News Corporation and used as the foundation to relaunch a fourth commercial network, which obtained affiliation with many former big-city independent stations as Fox TV.
While built largely from former independents and UHF stations in its early years, Fox had the large programming budgets that the original DuMont lacked. Ultimately, it was able in some markets to draw existing long-standing VHF affiliates away from established big-three networks, outbidding CBS for National Football Conference programming in 1994 and attracting many of that network's affiliates. Various smaller networks were created with the intent to follow in its footsteps, often assembling a fledgling network by affiliating with a disparate collection of formerly independent UHF stations that otherwise would have no network programming.
Fox launched in 1986. The film UHF portrayed a fictional station on channel 62 in 1989. By 1994, New World Communications was moving its established stations from CBS to Fox affiliations in multiple markets, including WJBK-TV 2 Detroit. In many cases, this pushed CBS onto UHF; "U-62" as the new home of CBS in Detroit became CBS owned-and-operated station WWJ-TV in 1995, obtaining access to audiences thousands of miles distant through satellite and cable television.
The concentration of media ownership, the proliferation of cable and satellite television and the digital television transition have contributed to the quality equalization of VHF and UHF broadcasts. The distinction between UHF and VHF characteristics has declined in importance with the emergence of additional broadcast television networks (Fox, The CW, MyNetworkTV, Univision, Telemundo and ION), and the decline of direct OTA reception. The number of major large-city independent stations has also declined as many have joined or formed new networks. * Digital television
See also DTV transition in the United States#VHF_frequencies_and_digital_television
The majority of digital TV stations currently broadcast their over-the-air signals in the UHF band, both because VHF had been already filled largely with analog TV at the time the digital facilities were built and because of severe issues with impulse noise on digital low-VHF channels. While virtual channel numbering schemes routinely display channel numbers like "2.1" or "6.1" for individual North American terrestrial HDTV broadcasts, these are more often than not actually UHF signals. Many equipment vendors therefore use "HDTV antenna" or similar branding as all but synonymous to "UHF antenna".
Terrestrial digital television is based on a forward error correction scheme, in which a channel is assumed to have a random bit error rate and additional data bits may be sent to allow these errors to be corrected at the receiver. While this error correction can work well in the UHF band where the interference consist largely of white noise, it has largely proven inadequate on lower VHF channels where bursts of impulse noise disrupt the entire channel for short lengths of time. A short impulse-noise burst might be a minor annoyance to analog TV viewers, but due to the fixed timing and repetitive nature of analog video synchronization is usually recoverable. The same interference can prove severe enough to prevent the reliable reception of the more fragile and more highly compressed ATSC digital television. Power limits are also lower on low-VHF; a digital UHF station may be licensed to transmit up to a megawatt of effective radiated power. Very few stations returned to VHF channels 2-6 after digital transition was completed in 2009. At least three quarters of all full-power digital broadcasts continued to use UHF transmitters, even after transition is complete, with most of the others located on the high-VHF channels. In some American markets, such as Syracuse, New York, there are no full-service VHF TV stations remaining after digital transition.
The one remaining limitation of UHF, that of a greatly reduced ability for signals to travel great distances in the presence of obstacles due to terrain, continues to adversely affect digital UHF TV reception. This limitation could potentially be overcome by the use of
DTS (Distributed Transmission Systems). Multiple digital UHF transmitters in carefully selected locations can be synchronized as a single-frequency network to produce a tailored coverage area pattern rivaling that of a single full-power VHF transmitter.
While the Federal Communications Commission authorization to use DTS on anything more than an experimental basis came in November 2008, too late for sites to be acquired and transmitters built before the 2009 end of American digital transition, it is likely that more of these distributed UHF transmission systems will be constructed alongside conventional digital broadcast translator systems in the years to come as a means to get digital and high-definition television out to a wider audience. * UHF islands
One notable exception to historical patterns favoring VHF broadcasters has existed in mid-size television markets within the United States that were too close to the outer fringe of the broadcast range of large-city VHF stations to qualify for their own stations on these frequencies. As no full-power VHF channels could be made available in these areas without encountering problems of interference from overlapping broadcast ranges, the Federal Communications Commission granted some mid-sized cities only UHF licenses. With all stations (including big-three network affiliates) on UHF, all-channel receivers and antennas became commonplace locally and UHF stations signing on as early as 1954 were often able to obtain the programming and viewership needed to remain viable into the modern era.
These communities, known as UHF islands, included cities like Springfield, Massachusetts; Fresno, California; South Bend, Indiana;Fort Wayne, Indiana; and Lexington, Kentucky. Other smaller cities found that only one VHF channel was open and any additional programming would need to be provided either by UHF, by distant stations, or by low-power broadcasting. * Broadcast translators and low-power television
A large number of very small UHF TV transmitters continue to operate with no programming or commercial identity of their own, merely retransmitting signals of existing full-power stations to a smaller area poorly covered by the main VHF signal. Such transmitters are called "translators" rather than “stations”. The smallest, owned by local municipal-level groups or the originating TV stations, are numbered sequentially - W or K, followed by the channel number, followed by two sequentially issued letters, yielding a "translator callsign" in a generic format that appears K14AA through W69ZZ. Translators and repeaters also exist on VHF channels, but infrequently and with stringently limited power as the VHF spectrum is already crowded with full-power network stations in most regions.
The translator band, UHF TV channels 70-83, consisted mostly of these small repeaters; it was removed from television use in 1983 with the tiny repeaters moved primarily to lower UHF channels. The 804-890 MHz band segment is now used primarily by mobile phones.
As improvements to originating stations signals lessen the need for these small translators in some areas, often the small transmitter facilities and their allocated frequencies would be repurposed for low-power broadcasting; instead of repeating a distant signal, the tiny transmitter would be used to originate programming for a small local area. * Radio, mobile and non-broadcast applications
The Family Radio Service and General Mobile Radio Service use the 462 and 467 MHz areas of the UHF spectrum. There is a considerable amount of lawful unlicensed activity (cordless phones, wireless networking) clustered around 900 MHz and 2.4 GHz. These ISM bands - open frequencies with a higher unlicensed power permitted for use originally by Industrial, Scientific, Medical apparatus - are now becoming some of the most crowded in the spectrum because they are open to everyone.
The 2.45 GHz frequency is the standard for use by microwave ovens in residential ovens; (915 MHz is used in commercial microwave ovens) .
The spectrum from 806 MHz to 890 MHz (UHF channels 70-83) was taken away from TV broadcast services in 1983, primarily for analogue mobile telephony. In 2009, as part of the transition from analog to digital over-the-air broadcast of television, the spectrum from 698 MHz to 806 MHz (UHF channels 52-69) was also no longer used for TV broadcasting. Channel 55, for instance, was sold to Qualcomm for their MediaFLO service, which is resold under various mobile telephone network brands. Some US broadcasters had been offered incentives to vacate this channel early, permitting its immediate mobile use.
The FCC's scheduled auction for this newly available spectrum was completed in March 2008.
Frequency allocation: Australia: * - UHF CB News, Information & Repeater Locations. UHF CB Australia Supporting and expanding the UHF CB network * UHF Citizens Band: 300- 3000MHz
Canada: * 470-806 MHz: Terrestrial television (with select channels in the 700 MHz band left vacant) * 1452-1492 MHz: Digital Audio Broadcasting (L band) * Many other frequency assignments for Canada and Mexico are similar to their US counterparts
United Kingdom: * 380–395 MHz: Terrestrial Trunked Radio (TETRA) service for emergency use * 430–440 MHz: Amateur radio (ham - 70 cm band) * 457–464 MHz: Scanning telemetry and telecontrol, assigned mostly to the water, gas, and electricity industries * 606–614 MHz: Radio microphones and radio-astronomy * 470–862 MHz: TV channels 21–69 (channel 36 used for radar, channel 38 used for radio astronomy, channel 69 used for licenced and licence exempt wireless microphones, channels 31-40 and 63-68 to be released and may be made available for other uses by Ofcom. Public consultation due December 2006) * 1240–1316 MHz: Amateur radio (ham - 23 cm band) * 1880–1900 MHz: DECT Cordless telephone * 2310–2450 MHz: Amateur radio (ham - 13 cm band)
United States: A brief summary of some UHF frequency use: * 225–420 MHz: Government use, including meteorology, military aviation, and federal two-way use * 420–450 MHz: Government radiolocation and amateur radio (70 cm band) * 433 MHz: Short range consumer devices including automotive, alarm systems, home automation, temperature sensors * 450–470 MHz: UHF business band, General Mobile Radio Service, and Family Radio Service 2-way "walkie-talkies", public safety * 470–512 MHz: TV channels 14–20 (also shared for land mobile 2-way radio use in some areas) * 512–698 MHz: TV channels 21–51 (channel 37 used for radio astronomy) * 698–806 MHz: Was auctioned in March 2008; bidders got full use after the transition to digital TV was completed on June 12, 2009 (formerly UHF TV channels 52–69) * 806–824 MHz: Public safety and commercial 2-way (formerly TV channels 70–72) * 824–851 MHz: Cellular A & B franchises, terminal (mobile phone) (formerly TV channels 73–77) * 851–869 MHz: Public safety and commercial 2-way (formerly TV channels 77–80) * 869–896 MHz: Cellular A & B franchises, base station (formerly TV channels 80–83) * 902–928 MHz: ISM band, amateur radio (33 cm band), cordless phones and stereo, radio-frequency identification, datalinks * 929–930 MHz: Pagers * 931–932 MHz: Pagers * 935–941 MHz: Commercial 2-way radio * 941–960 MHz: Mixed studio-transmitter links, SCADA, other. * 960–1215 MHz: Aeronautical Radionavigation * 1240–1300 MHz: Amateur radio (23 cm band) * 1452–1492 MHz: Military use (therefore not available for Digital Audio Broadcasting, unlike Canada/Europe) * 1710–1755 MHz: AWS mobile phone uplink (UL) Operating Band * 1850–1910 MHz: PCS mobile phone—order is A, D, B, E, F, C blocks. A, B, C 15 MHz; D, E, F : 5 MHz * 1920–1930 MHz: DECT Cordless telephone * 1930–1990 MHz: PCS base stations—order is A, D, B, E, F, C blocks. A, B, C 15 MHz; D, E, F : 5 MHz * 2110–2155 MHz: AWS mobile phone downlink (DL) Operating Band * 2300–2310 MHz: Amateur radio (13 cm band, lower segment) * 2310–2360 MHz: Satellite radio (Sirius and XM) * 2390–2450 MHz: Amateur radio (13 cm band, upper segment) * 2400–2483.5 MHz: ISM, IEEE 802.11, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n Wireless LAN, IEEE 802.15.4-2006, Bluetooth, Radio-controlled aircraft, Microwave oven, ZigBee
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Ultra haute fréquence
Radiofréquence
télécommunications: La bande des Ultra hautes fréquences (UHF) est la bande du spectre radioélectrique comprise entre et , soit les longueurs d'onde de à .
Vocabulaire : La bande UHF est le terme officiel désignant les fréquences de 300 à , mais la partie haute appartient plus généralement au domaine technique des « hyperfréquences » qui s'étend de à . On y trouve donc des appellations anciennes et largement utilisées comme la Bande L et la Bande S.
Propriétés générales : Les fréquences UHF se propagent principalement en vue directe. Leur usage s'est développé avec la saturation de la bande VHF pour les applications de radiotéléphonie fixe ou mobile et de télévision, au fur et à mesure de la disponibilité de composants adaptés, en particulier le passage de l'électronique à tubes aux transistors. La bande au-dessus de a été utilisée d'abord pour les radars, puis les faisceaux hertziens, puis les liaisons satellitaires (GPS, téléphonie mobile), et enfin plus récemment pour les téléphones mobiles GSM et les liaisons Wi-Fi. Le tableau ci-dessous résume cette répartition du spectre.
Liaisons troposphériques : Les fréquences UHF sont également réfléchies de manière diffuse par la troposphère, ce qui permet la réalisation de faisceaux hertziens troposphériques sur des distances de quelques centaines de kilomètres. Comme l'atténuation est très importante, ces liaisons demandent des antennes très directives et de fortes puissances.
Utilisations : * Notes et références
colonnes: 1:
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ريازان
مدن ريازان أوبلاست
ريازان Рязань: هي إحدى مدن روسيا في الكيان الفدرالي الروسي ريازان أوبلاست.
بعد نهاية الحرب الباردة وكأول مدينة في الكتلة السوفياتية السابقة، دخلت مدينة ريازان الروسية في عام 1989 في شراكة مع مدينة مونستر في ألمانيا. حافظت المدينتان بالفعل منذ أوائل ثمانينات القرن العشرين على علاقة ودية. تقف المساعدات الإنسانية على وجه الخصوص في الصدارة. ولكن أمكن أيضا إقامة روابط في مجالات الفنون والطب وإدارة المدن ، والمصارف المحلية .
بذرة مدينة روسية:
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Ryazan
Ryazan
Ryazan is a city and the administrative center of Ryazan Oblast, Russia. It is located on the Oka River southeast of Moscow. Population:
The strategic bomber base Dyagilevo is just west of the city, and the air base of Alexandrovo is to the southeast as is the Ryazan Turlatovo Airport. Major industries in the city include electronics and oil refining.
History: Principality of Ryazan: It is argued that the Ryazan kremlin was founded in 800, by Slavic settlers,dateMay 2007: as a part of their drive into territory previously populated by Finnic peoples.date: November 2008: Initially it was built of wood, gradually replaced by masonry. The oldest preserved part of the kremlin dates back to the 12th century.
However, the first written mention of the city, under the name of Pereslavl, dates to 1095. At that time the city was part of the independent Ryazan Principality, which had existed since 1078 and which was centered on the old city of Ryazan. The first ruler of Ryazan was supposedly Yaroslav Sviatoslavich, Prince of Ryazan and Murom (cities of Kievan Rus').
The lands of Ryazan, situated on the border of forest and steppe, suffered numerous invasions from the south as well as from the north, carried out by a variety of military forces including Cumans, but particularly the Principality was in a conflict with Vladimir-Suzdal. By the end of XII the capital of Duchy was burnt couple of times by the armies of Suzdal. Ryazan was the first Russian city to be sacked by the Mongol horde of Batu Khan. On December 21, 1237 it was thoroughly devastated and never fully recovered. As result of the sack, the seat of the principality was moved about to the town of Pereslavl-Ryazansky, which subsequently took the name of the destroyed capital. The site of the old capital now carries the name of Staraya Ryazan (Old Ryazan), close to Spassk-Ryazansky.
In the 1380 during the Battle of Kulikovo the Grand Prince of Ryazan Oleg and his men came under a coalition of Mamai, a strongman of the Tartar Golden Horde, and the Grand Duke of Lithuania, against the armies under the command of the Grand Prince of Vladimir, Dmitri Ivanovich of Moscow.
Late in the 13th century the Princes of Ryazan moved their capital to Pereslavl, which is known as Ryazan from the 16th century (officially renamed in 1778). The principality was finally incorporated into that of Moscow in 1521.
In September 1999, Ryazan was one of the cities involved in the Russian apartment bombings episode, though did not actually experience a successful bomb attack.
Administrative divisions: The city of Ryazan is divided into four administrative districts: Moskovsky, Oktyabrsky, Sovetsky, and Zheleznodorozhny.
Education: An economically important educational institution in the city is the State Radiotechnical University. The Higher Paratrooper Command Academy used to be Russia's only military school training officers for the airborne forces, giving Ryazan the reputation as "paratroopers capital". However, in 2010 the institution discontinued enrollment to its paratrooper program, and now focuses on training professional sergeants for the armed forces.
The Gorky Library serves Ryazan as well as Ryazan Oblast. It is the largest library in the region. * Economy
Ryazan has a reputation of being one Russia's electronics hubs. Around a quarter of the city's population is affected by the electronics industry. The most notable company in this sector is Plazma (company), which produces plasma screens for products including tanks and locomotives. In 1994, the company created a 50-50 research and development joint-venture with the South Korean company Orion PDP. Plazma's expertise helped Orion PDP become one of the world's leading manufacturers of plasma television panels. In addition to plasma technology, Plazma produces LCD screens, industrial gas lasers and medical lasers. The company exports its products to foreign countries, including to the United States, China and Israel.
Another key industry in the city is oil refining. The Ryazan Oil Refinery, owned by TNK-BP, is one of the city's largest employers. The plant can refine 17 million metric tons of oil per year.
The economy of Ryazan benefits from a large number of skilled engineers graduating from the State Radiotechnical University, and from the city's close proximity to Moscow, which can be reached in 90 minutes by car.
Sights: * Ryazan Kremlin * Pavlov Museum * Architectural Museum * Art Museum * Art Gallery "At The Old Crossroad" are situated in the historical and cultural monument of the 18 century "Gostiny Dvor" * Drama Theater * Puppet Theater * Children's Circus * Pyany Park ("Drunk" Park)
Notable people: * Alexander Vasilyevich Alexandrov, Russian Soviet composer; wrote the music for the national anthem of the Soviet Union, which, in 2001, became the anthem of Russia (with new lyrics) * Alexander Pirogov, a Russian bass opera singer * Aleksandr Isayevich Solzhenitsyn, a Russian and Soviet novelist and dramatist * Andrey Markov, the mathematician who pioneered work on Markov chains * Erast Garin, one of the leading comic actors of the Soviet cinema * Irina Meleshina, a Russian long jumper * Ivan Vladimirovich Michurin, a practitioner selectionist * Ivan Petrovich Pavlov, the famous physiologist and founder of classical conditioning * Kirill Sosunov, a Russian long jumper * Konstantin Georgiyevich Paustovsky, the Russian Soviet writer nominated for the Nobel Prize for literature in 1965 * Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky, one of the inventors of the space rocket * Mikhail Yevgrafovich Saltykov-Shchedrin, a major Russian satirist of the 19th century (Deputy Governor of Ryazan in 1858-1860) * Sergei Yesenin, a poet, for whom the Ryazan State University is named * Yakov Petrovich Polonsky, a Russian poet and writer
International relations: List of twin towns and sister cities in Russia: Twin towns/sister cities: Ryazan is twinned with: * France: Bressuire, France * Serbia: Kruševac, Serbia * Bulgaria: Lovech, Bulgaria * Germany: Münster, Germany * Abkhazia: New Athos, Abkhazia * Croatia: Omiš, Croatia * Poland: Ostrów Mazowiecka, Poland * People's Republic of China: Xuzhou, China
References: Reflist:
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Riazan
no categories
Riazan (en Ряза́нь: ) est une ville de Russie, capitale administrative de l'oblast de Riazan. La ville se trouve au bord de la rivière Oka, à au sud-est de Moscou. Sa population s'élève à habitants au .
Histoire : Riazan aurait été créée en 1095 par des colons russes, comme poste avancé d'un territoire peuplé jusque-là par des Finnois. La ville était initialement en bois ; elle fut progressivement reconstruite en pierre. La partie la plus ancienne de la ville remonte aujourd'hui au XVe siècle: .
Toutefois la ville n'est citée pour la première fois qu'en 1301 sous l'appellation Pereslavl-Riazanski. À l'époque elle faisait partie de la principauté de Riazan qui fut indépendante jusqu'au milieu du XIIe siècle: . Le premier dirigeant de Riazan a sans doute été Iaroslav Sviatoslavitch, prince de Tchernigov (ville de la Rus' de Kiev), plus tard prince de Mourom-Riazan.
La région située à la limite de la steppe et de la forêt a souffert de nombreuses invasions venues du sud : Khazars, Petchenègues, Polovtses. La capitale de la principauté de Riazan fut la première ville russe à tomber sous le joug des Mongols : la ville fut conquise et détruite en 1237. Elle fut reconstruite 50 km plus loin sous l'appellation de Pereslavl-Riazanski : l'ancien site est aujourd'hui désigné sous l'appellation Staraïa Riazan (« Vieux Riazan »).
À la fin du XIIIe siècle: , le prince de Riazan déplaça la capitale de la principauté à Pereslavl-Riazanski. En 1521 la principauté fut rattachée à l'empire russe. Pereslavl-Riazanski obtint le statut de ville en 1719 et fut rebaptisée Riazan en 1778
Aujourd'hui Riazan est une ville tournée vers l'industrie et l'armée. Les principaux secteurs d'activité sont l'industrie lourde et la métallurgie. Il existe de nombreux centres de formation dont celui des troupes aéroportées.
Divisions administratives : La ville de Riazan est divisée en quatre districts : Moskovski, Oktiabrski, Sovetski, et Jeleznodorojny.
Population : * Les monuments de Riazan * Le kremlin de Riazan (s) : la cathédrale Ouspenski (1699, par Yakov Boukhvostov), le clocher (1789-1840, par Tonn et Voronikhin) * La cathédrale Ouspenski achevée en 1699 dont la flèche culmine à 72 mètres. * Le musée dédié à Pavlov * Le musée d'architecture * Le musée des arts * Le théâtre * Le théâtre de marionnettes * Le cirque pour enfants
* Personnalités
Personnalités nées à Riazan : * Sergueï Essénine (1895-1925) : poète * Vassili Golovnine (1776-1831) : amiral, explorateur et écrivain russe * Andreï Markov (1856-1922) : mathématicien connu pour les chaînes de Markov. * Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) : physiologiste et psychologue connu pour ses théories sur le conditionnement (le réflexe pavlovien). * Constantin Tsiolkovski (1857-1935) : l'un des inventeurs des fusées spatiales * Jumelages Autre article * Le Village du péché (Babi Ryazanskie), film d'Olga Preobrajenskaïa, tourné dans le village en 1926 et 1927, dont l'action se déroule du printemps 1914 à l'été 1920. La version restaurée en 2005 propose une bande sonore composée de chants de femmes enregistrés à Riazan entre 1950 et 2005. * Isaac Schneersohn
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مرض البروتيوس
أمراض
تاريخأبريل_2010: تاريخ: أبريل_2010: تدقيق:
مرض البروتيوس أو ظاهرة أعراض البروتيوس (بالإنجليزية: Proteus Syndrome), ويطلق عليه أيضا اسم مرض فيدمان. هو مرض جيني جد معقد يصيب واحد أو عدة مناطق من الجسم كالبشرة, العظام, النخاع الشوكي. يظهر المرض منذ الولادة لدى حامليه, ويبقى احتمال الإصابة بجلطة سرطانية نتيجة هذا المرض احتمالا ظئيلا جدا, إلا أن الجلطات في البويضة عند المرأة, أو في الخصيتين عند الرجل, أو جلطات الجهاز العصبي محتملة الحدوث.
و لعل أكثر شخص عرف بحمله لهذا المرض هو جوزيف مريك (Joseph Merrick) الذي لقب بالرجل الفيل نظرا لحمله هذا المرض, كما هناك امرأة معروفة حاليا تحمل هذا المرض واسمها ماندي سيلارز (Mandy Sellars).
إن مرض البروتيوس ليس مرضا وراثيا وتناقله لا يتعلق بتعرض أحد الوالدين بالإصابة, هو مرض تركيبي يصيب أحد المناطق في الجسم, وطرق علاجه حتى الآن لا تزال مبهمة وعليها عدة علامات استفهام, ويجدى الإشارة إلى أن هناك مستشفى في بريطانيا متخصص في هذا المرض (Proteus Syndrome Foundation) وهو الذي يتابع حالة ماندي سيلارز مثلا.
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Proteus syndrome
Congenital disorders | Syndromes | Rare diseases | Genodermatoses | Genetic disorders with OMIM but no gene
Proteus syndrome, also known as Wiedemann's syndrome (named after the German paediatrician Hans-Rudolf Wiedemann), is a congenital disorder 554: that causes skin overgrowth and atypical bone development, often accompanied by tumors over half the body. 776:
Proteus syndrome is highly variable, and is named after the Greek sea-god Proteus, who could change his shape.
The condition appears to have been first described in the American medical literature by Drs. Samia Temtamy and John Rogers in 1976 Dr. Michael Cohen described it in 1979, only a few more than 200 cases have been confirmed worldwide, with estimates that about 120 people are currently alive with the condition. As attenuated forms of the disease may exist, there could be many people with Proteus syndrome who remain undiagnosed. Those most readily diagnosed are also the most severely disfigured.
Presentation: Proteus syndrome causes an overgrowth of skin, bones, muscles, fatty tissues, and blood and lymphatic vessels.
Proteus syndrome is a progressive condition wherein children are usually born without any obvious deformities. Tumors and skin and bone growths appear as they age. The severity and locations of these various asymmetrical growths vary greatly but typically the skull, one or more limbs, and soles of the feet will be affected. There is a risk of premature death in affected individuals due to deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism caused by the vessel malformations that are associated with this disorder. Because of carrying excess weight and enlarged limbs, arthritis and muscle pain may also be symptoms — as is the case for Mandy Sellars, a woman living with a form of Proteus syndrome. Further risks may occur due to the mass of extra tissue — Joseph Merrick, the most famous sufferer of Proteus syndrome, himself died when the weight of his head dislocated his neck while he was sleeping.
The disorder itself does not uniformly cause learning impairments: the distribution of intelligence deficits among sufferers of Proteus syndrome appears higher than that of the general population, although this is difficult to determine with statistical significance. In addition, the presence of visible deformity may have a negative effect on the social experiences of the sufferer, causing cognitive and social deficits.
Afflicted individuals are at increased risk for developing certain tumors including unilateral ovarian cystadenomas, testicular tumors, meningiomas, and monomorphic adenomas of the parotid gland.dateMarch 2009: : Genetics
In 2011 researchers determined the cause of Proteus syndrome. In 26 of 29 patients who met strict clinical criteria for the disorder Lindhurst et al. identified an activating mutation in AKT1 kinase in a mosaic state gene. This mutation was not present in more than 1,000 persons who were unaffected by this disorder.
Previous research had suggested the condition linked to PTEN on chromosome 10, while other research pointed to chromosome 16. Prior to the determination of the cause of the disease in 2011, other researchers expressed doubt regarding the involvement of PTEN or GPC3. * Treatment
A team of doctors in Australia have trial tested the drug Rapamycin in the treatment of a patient said to have Proteus syndrome and have found it to be an effective remedy. However, the diagnosis of Proteus syndrome in this patient has been questioned by others. * Classification
Many sources classify Proteus syndrome to be a type of nevus syndrome. The lesions appear to be distributed in a mosaic manner. It has been confirmed that the disorder is an example of genetic mosaicism.
Notable cases: In 1971, Ashley Montagu suggested in his book The Elephant Man: A Study in Human Dignity that Joseph Merrick suffered Neurofibromatosis type 1, and this has continued to be reported. However, careful research has shown that Merrick actually suffered from Proteus syndrome.
Mandy Sellars has been diagnosed by some doctors as suffering from this condition. Her legs and feet have grown at a disproportionate rate since birth.
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Syndrome de Protée
Maladie génétique
Le syndrome de Protée est une maladie génétique complexe comprenant des hamartomes de taille importante impliquant plusieurs tissus: tissu conjonctif, tissu épidermique et tissu osseux. Elle se manifeste dès la naissance et les hamartomes grandissent au cours de la vie. Les tumeurs cancéreuses sont rares. Des tumeurs de l'ovaire, des tumeurs testiculaires, des tumeurs de la parotide et des tumeurs du système nerveux sont parfois associées avec les hamartomes.
Historique: Le syndrome est individualisé pour la première fois en 1976 mais est nommé ainsi qu'en 1983 .
Joseph Merrick, connu sous le surnom de l'homme éléphant, était très probablement porteur de cette pathologie et non pas de la maladie de Recklinghausen, ni de l'éléphantiasis. Des tests ADN récents le prouveraient ,: ,: , comme les recherches le soupçonnaient depuis longtemps, peut-être combinée à la maladie de Recklinghausen.
Cause: Il s'agit d'un cas de mosaïque où le génome des lésions (hamartome) est différent de celui du tissu normal chez le même sujet. Une mutation sur l'oncogène AKT1 est retrouvée uniquement dans le tissu des lésions .
Sources : * en: Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man, OMIM (TM). Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD. MIM Number:176920
Références :
portail médecine:
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زفير
تنفس
الزفير (بالإنجليزية : exhalation ) هو عملية خروج الهواء من الأسناخ الرئوية (الحويصلات الهوائية) الموجودة في الرئتين ثم يمر بالقنوات الهوائية الموجودة في الجهاز التنفسي و أخيراً إلى الجو الخارجي .
يمتاز هواء الزفير بأنه غني بغاز ثاني أكسيد الكربون ، علماً أن هذا الغاز ينتج بعد أن تطرده الخلايا في عملية التنفس الداخلي لإنتاج أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات .
الزفير هو عملية معاكسة لـ الشهيق ، تعمل هاتان الآليتان معاً للحفاظ على الاتزان الداخلي للجسم .
آلية عمل الزفير : عند حدوث الزفير تنبسط عضلة الحجاب الحاجز مقلصةً حجم الرئتين من أسفل لأعلى ، و تنبسط أيضاً عضلات الضلوع مقلصةً حجم الرئتين من الخلف إلى الأمام ، لذلك يتقلص حجم الرئتين مما يجعل ضغط الهواء في الرئتين أعلى من الضغط الجوي في الجو الخارجي، فيندفع الهواء من الرئتين إلى الجو .
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Exhalation
Respiration | Respiratory physiology
Exhale:
Exhalation (or expiration) is the movement of air out of the bronchial tubes, through the airways, to the external environment during breathing.
This happens due to elastic properties of the lungs, as well as the internal intercostal muscles which lower the rib cage and decrease thoracic volume. As the thoracic diaphragm contracts during inhaling, its relaxation causes it and the tissue it has depressed to rise superiorly and put pressure on the lungs to expel the air too.
Exhaled air is rich in carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular respiration during the production of energy, which is stored in ATP.
Exhalation has a complementary relationship to inhalation; the cycling between these two efforts define respiration.
During forced exhalation, as when blowing out a candle, expiratory muscles including the abdominal muscles and internal intercostal muscles, generate abdominal and thoracic pressure, which forces air out of the lungs.
It is during exhalation that the olfaction contribution to flavor occurs in contrast to that of ordinary smell which occurs during the inhalation phase.
References: reflist:
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Souffle
Respiration
Souffle (homonymie):
anatomie: Le souffle est une expulsion volontaire d'air (expiration) par le relâchement du diaphragme et la contraction des muscles intercostaux. La pression exercée ainsi sur les alvéoles pulmonaires libère l'air qu'elles contiennent.
Il peut aussi décrire en médecine les bruits en général pathologiques issus de lappareil cardio-vasculaire dus à la circulation du sang dans les vaisseaux ou le cœur.
Mesure du souffle : En forçant un patient à expulser ainsi de l'air, on peut déceler certaines maladies pulmonaires, qui gênent l'expiration car les bronches sont alors encombrées.
Exploration ventilatoire : Permet de mesurer et enregistrer des volumes respiratoires et des débits expiratoires.
Pas fumer depuis plus de 3 heures.
Arrêt de certains médicaments sur prescription médicale.
Utilisation d'un pince nez.
Mesure du DEP (Débit expiratoire de pointe) : (Peak flow en anglais)
Débit espiratoire maximal atteint lors d'une expiration forcée commencée en inspiration forcée.
Méthode :
En position debout, tenir le débimètre de pointe entre les main (attention de ne pas bloquer le curseur, a ce qu'il soit en position vertical et qu'il soit bien sur 0).
Prendre une inspiration profonde.
Placer l'embout dans la bouche et serrer les lèvres.
Expirer aussi fort et vite que possible.
Enregistrer le résultat. Remettre à 0.
Répéter 2 fois la manœuvre. Prendre la meilleure des 3 valeurs.
Exploration fonctionnelle respiratoire : Étude des volumes et débits gazeux qui entrent et sortent de l'appareil respiratoire au cours des mouvements de la respiration.
Examen réalisé avec un spiromètre.
Signification dans les religions : Dans les religions sémitiques, le souffle se dit He (H) ou Yahve (YHVH). C'est à partir de cela que s'est formé le nom donné au dieu sémitique Yahvé.
Dans le sport : Une des pratiques sportives utilisant le souffle est la Sarbacane.
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شهيق
تنفس
الشهيق inspiration: أو inhalation: هو عملية دخول الهواء من الجو الخارجي ثم يمر عبر القنوات الهوائية في الجهاز التنفسي حتى يصل إلى الأسناخ الرئوية (الحويصلات الهوائية) الموجودة في الرئتين .
يمتاز هواء الشهيق بأنه غني بغاز الأكسجين ، علماً أن هذا الغاز تحتاجه الخلايا في التنفس الداخلي لإنتاج أدينوسين ثلاثي الفوسفات .
تعتبر عملية الشهيق معاكسة لعملية الزفير ، و تعمل هاتان الآليتان معاً للحفاظ على الاتزان الداخلي للجسم.
آلية عمل الشهيق : عند حدوث الشهيق تنقبض عضلة الحجاب الحاجز دافعةً الرئتين للاتساع من الأعلى للأسفل ، كما تنقبض عضلات الضلوع دافعةً الرئتين للاتساع من الأمام إلى الخلف ، هاتان الحركتان تعملان معاً على زيادة حجم الرئتين فيقل ضغط الهواء فيهما ، مما يؤدي لحدوث فرق بالضغط بين الضغط الجوي و ضغط الهواء في الرئتين فيندفع الهواء نحو الرئتين .
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Inhalation
Respiration | Respiratory physiology
Inhale: Inhalation (also known as inspiration) is the movement of air from the external environment, through the air ways, and into the alveoli.
Inhalation begins with the onset of contraction of the diaphragm, which results in expansion of the intrapleural space and an increase in negative pressure according to Boyle's Law. This negative pressure generates airflow because of the pressure difference between the atmosphere and alveolus. Air enters, inflating the lung through either the nose or the mouth into the pharynx (throat) and trachea before entering the alveoli.
Other muscles that can be involved in inhalation include: * External intercostal muscles * Scalene muscles * Sternocleidomastoid muscle * Trapezius muscle * Hyperaeration==
Hyperaeration or hyperinflation is where the lung volume is abnormally increased, with increased filling of the alveoli. This results in an increased radiolucency on X-ray, a reduction in lung markings and depression of the diaphragm. It may occur in partial obstruction of a large airway, as in e.g. congenital lobar emphysema, bronchial atresia and mucous plugs in asthma.
It causes one form of overexpansion of the lung. Overexpansion, however, can also be caused by increase in lung mass itself.
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Inhalation
Terme médical
médecine: En médecine, une inhalation désigne l'absorption par les voies respiratoires. Le terme peut désigner : * Une méthode d'absorption à des fins thérapeutiques, de certaines substances sous forme de gaz, de micro-gouttelettes ou de poudre en suspension (anesthésiques, désinfectants, bronchodilatateur ... ). L'inhalation est aussi très utilisée dans la médecine traditionnelle avec des infusions à base de plantes. * Une inhalation pulmonaire du contenu gastrique, pouvant provoquer une pneumopathie d'inhalation.
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مؤسسة الإمارات للاتصالات
شركات مقرها أبوظبي | شركات مدرجة في سوق أبوظبي للأوراق المالية | شركات اتصالات إماراتية | شركات الهاتف المحمول الإماراتية
مؤسسة الإمارات للاتصالات، المعروفة باسم اتصالات، كانت المؤسسة الوحيدة للاتصالات في دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة حتى صدور قرار تأسيس شركة اتصالات جديدة في 2005. تقدم اتصالات جميع خدمات الاتصالات والانترنت في الدولة. أسست الشركة في 30 أغسطس 1976م. رئيس مجلس الإدارة والمدير التنفذي هو السيد محمد حسن عمران الحمادي.
تأسست مؤسسة الإمارات للاتصالات "اتصالات" في عام 1976، لتحظى بعد ذلك بسمعة مرموقة كمؤسسة حديثة وعالية التقنية توفر مختلف خدمات الاتصالات كالهاتف الثابت وهاتف نقال والانترنت في كافة أنحاء دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة. حيث ساهمت في جعل الدولة واحدة من أكثر دول العالم تقدماً في قطاع الاتصالات.
وتحتل المؤسسة موقعا متقدما ضمن أكبر 140 شركة في العالم وفقا لتصنيف "الفايننشال تايمز" فيما يتعلق برأس المال، وكذلك المرتبة السادسة ضمن أفضل 100 شركة ومؤسسة في الشرق الأوسط لما يتعلق بالايرادات ورأس المال وفقا لمجلة ذي ميدل إيست اللندنية. وتعد من أكبر الشركات المحلية مساهمة في الميزانية الاتحادية وفي دعم الفعاليات الاجتماعية
و تعد مؤسسة الإمارات للاتصالات "اتصالات"، أحد أبرز مزودي خدمات الاتصالات في المنطقة، إذ تقدم العديد من الخدمات الحديثة، بـدءاً من الخدمات الهاتفيـة الأساسية وما يتصل بها من خدمات البريد الصوتي وتحويـل المكالمات والخدمات الإضافية، وكذلك خدمات الجيل التالي من الهواتف الثابتة، وكذلك أحدث خدمـات الهاتف المتحرك وأكثر خدمات تبـادل البيانـات تطوراً كبروتوكول التطبيقات اللاسلكية (WAP) وخدمة التراسل بالحزم العامة (GPRS) وخدمات الجيل الثالث للهواتف المتحركة((3Gوخدمة التراسل بالوسائط المتعددة (MMS) إلى جانب خدمات الـ "انترنت" والتجارة الإلكترونية والكيبل التليفزيوني ومقاصة بيانات الهاتف المتحرك "جي اس ام".
كما توفر "اتصالات" مجموعة واسعة من خدمات البيانات باستخدام أرقى التقنيات المتطورة، مثل الخطوط المؤجرة والتراسل اللامتزامن للبيانات (ATM) وخدمة مرَحل الإطار(frame relay) ونظام المحطات الطرفية صغيرة المنافذ (VSAT) والشبكة الرقمية للخدمات المتكاملة (ISDN).
ويعتبر استخدام الهواتف المتحركة في دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة من بين أعلى المعدلات العالمية، ولدى "اتصالات" اتفاقيات تجوال مع أكثر من 265 مشغل هواتف متحركة في معظم دول العالم. وتوفر عدة خيارات للاتصال منها بطاقة "واصل" للهواتف المتحركة "جي إس إم" المدفوعة مقدماً اتصالاً سهلاً من هواتفهم المتحركة.
وكانت المؤسسة قد طرحت خدمة الهواتف المتحركة في دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة كأول دولة في منطقة الخليج العربي وذلك في عام 1982 ثم طرحت نظام GSM عام 1994 حيث كانت من أوائل الدول الإقليمية التي طرحت هذا النظام. كما تعد "اتصالات" أول من أطلق خدمات الجيل الثالث للهواتف المتحركة G3 على المستوى الإقليمي في ذات السنة التي قدمت فيها خدمات الرسائل متعددة الوسائط MMS وذلك في2003 لتكون بذلك هي المزود الأول على المستوى الإقليمي في تقديم هذه الخدمات.
ويعتبر معدل استخدام الهواتف المتحركة في دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة الآن من بين أعلى المعدلات العالمية، حيث زاد على 100%، حيث تعتبر الإمارات واحدة أعلى الدول على الصعيد العالمي من حيث انتشار هذه الخدمة.
خدمات الهواتف الثابتة : وعلى صعيد خدمات الهواتف الثابتة، تعمل المؤسسة على تطويره حيث ستبدأ عملية الانتقال إلى شبكة الجيل التالي هذا العام 2006، وسيتم تحويل 50% من الشبكة الحالية إلى الجيل الجديد بنهاية 2007 بحيث يتم تفعيل عملية النقل المشترك للصوت والصورة وخدمات الإنترنت من خلال شبكة واحدة
الانتقادات : تتلقى اتصالات الكثير من الأنتقادات بسبب الكثير من أعمال الشركة: * أرتفاع أسعار الخدمات : أسعار خدمات اتصالات مرتفعة بشكل كبير في دولة الإمارات وهذا هو ما لاحظه معظم مستخدمي اتصالات في الإمارات، وسبب أرتفاع الأسعار سبب الانتقاد الأول لاتصالات في دولة الإمارات، بينما تقوم شركة اتصالات بتوفير عروض وخيارات أكثر في دول مثل مصر والسعودية وأسعار أقل في معظم الخدمات, تتلقى شركة اتصالات انتقادات أيضا من مستخدمين الإنترنت في الإمارات بسبب أرتفاع سعر خدمة الإنترنت "شامل"، بينما تكون رخيصة جدا في دول أخرى مثل مصر ويوضح الجدولان التاليان أسعار خدمات اتصالات أنطلاق من رسائل الsms وخدمة الإنترنت النطاق الواسع :
يوضح الجدول التالي أسعار خدمات اتصالات في الإمارات ومصر مع استخدام الدولار الأميركي كعملة للمقارنة:
يوضح الجدول التالي أسعار خدمة الإنترنت واسع النطاق (broadband), تحديدا بباقة 256 كيلو بايت في الإمارات ومصر، مع استخدام الدولار الأميركي كعملة للمقارنة:
* نظام حظر المواقع : تحظر اتصالات الكثير من المواقع حتى أن بعضها لا يخالف الشروط اللازمة لحظر الموقع مثل موقع Brothersoft والكثير من المواقع الأخرى. * حظر الكثير من البرامج التي تقدم خدمة الأتصال عبر الأنترنت مثل سكايب (Skype) وياهو فويس (Yahoo! Voice). * يشكو بعض مستخدمي اتصالات من معاملة بعض موظفي خدمة العملاء التي تؤدي إلى القصور والبطئ في معالجة الطلبات.
فضيحة مكافآت مجلس الإدارة : في 25 مايو 2010، قامت هيئة تنظيم الاتصالات في دولة الإمارات بمنح اتصالات 37 مليون كمكافآت لكن اكتشف لاحقاً من خلال جهات إعلامية أن مجلس إدارة اتصالات قام بإخذ جميع الـ37 مليون، ولم يقم بتوزيعهاإلى موظفي اتصالات المتبقين علي مستوي الشركة بفروعها باستثناء القليل من الموظفين.
فضيحة البلاك بيري : في يوليو 2009 قامت شركة اتصالات بتوزيع تحديثات لإجهزة البلاك بيري تقوم بتحسين الأداء، لكن أجهزة البلاك بيري أصبحت بطيئة للغاية, لاحقاً اكتشف أن التحديث كان مجرد برامج تجسس تتعدى على خصوصية مستخدم البلاك بيري، أثبتت شركة الولايات المتحدة لتطوير البرامج الأساسية أن التحديث كان برامج تجسس وقالت الشركة أن التحديث يسمح لإجهزة البلاك بيري أن ترسل معلومات عشوائية عن المستخدم (مثل رقم الهواتف, الملفات....) إلى خوادم اتصالات. رفضت اتصالات التعليق على هذه الفضيحة لأي جهة أعلامية.
في 20 يوليو 2009، أعلنت شركة بلاك بيري الرئيسية أن تحديث اتصالات كان عبارة عن برامج تجسس خطيرة تقوم بخفض سرعة الجهاز لنقل المعلومات وأصدرت أداة لمسح برنامج التجسس.
في 27 ديسمبر 2009 قامت أتصالات ودو بحظر العديد من المواقع في بلاك بيري.
في 1 أغسطس 2010 أعلنت هيئة تنظيم الاتصالات في الإمارات أنها أصدرت قرار يقضي بحظر خدمة الإنترنت التي تحتوي على الماسنجر والبريد الألكتروني وتصفح الإنترنت وجميع التطبيقات التي ترتبط بالإنترنت ابتداءاً من تاريخ 1 أكتوبر 2010، وأعلنت اتصالات موافقتها وأيضا دو. ويعود هذا القرار إلى المحاولات الفاشلة والمستمرة من قبل اتصالات لضبط المشاكل التي تصدر من خدمة الماسنجر.
في 8 أكتوبر 2010 وقبل يومين عن حظر خدمات بلاك بيري المزعم حدوثه في 11 أكتوبر 2010 أعلنت هيئة الاتصالات رجوعها عن قرار إلغاء خدمات بلاك بيري وهذا ينطبق على اتصالات ودو،
استثمارات دولية : تدير اتصالات 14 شركة اتصال عاملة خارج دولة الإمارات في كل من الشرق الأوسط، وآسيا، وأفريقيا. وتعمل "اتصالات" حالياً في أسواق تضم أكثر من 400 مليون مشترك محتمل، وتقدم خدماتها لأكثر من 32 مليون مشترك، وتوظف اتصالات أفضل التقنيات في مجال الهواتف الثابتة، والإنترنت، والهواتف المتحركة والخدمات البيانية بالإضافة إلى خدمات الاتصالات المباشرة والغير مباشرة المختلفة وهناك خطط جارية حاليا للدخول في أسواق أخرى في المنطقة واسيا
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أنظر أيضا : * قائمة مشغلي شبكات الهاتف المحمول
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Emirates Telecommunications Corporation
Companies based in Abu Dhabi | Internet service providers of the United Arab Emirates | Mobile phone companies of Egypt | Mobile phone companies of Pakistan | Mobile phone companies of the United Arab Emirates | Companies of the Arab League | Arab Mobile phone companies
dateNovember 2011: date: February 2009:
Emirates Telecommunications Corporation, branded trade name Etisalat (إتصالات: , literally, Communications) is a UAE based telecommunications services provider, currently operating in 18 countries across Asia, the Middle East and Africa. As of February 2011, Etisalat is the 16th largest Mobile network operator in the world, with a total customer base of more than 135 million.
On 10 February 2011, Etisalat reported net revenue of USD $8.4 billion (AED 31.9 billion) and net profits of USD US$2.078bn (AED 7.631 billion).
Etisalat is one of the Internet hubs in the Middle East (AS8966), providing connectivity to other telecommunications operators in the region. It is also the largest carrier of international voice traffic in the Middle East and Africa and the 12th largest voice carrier in the world. As of October 2008, Etisalat has 510 roaming agreements covering 186 countries and enabling BlackBerry, 3G, GPRS and voice roaming. Etisalat operates Points of Presence (PoP) in New York, London, Amsterdam, Frankfurt, Paris and Singapore.
History: Emirates Telecommunication Corporation – Etisalat was founded in 1976 as a joint-stock company between International Aeradio Limited, a British Company, and local partners. In 1983 the ownership structure changed – United Arab Emirates government held a 60% share in the company and the remaining 40% were publicly traded.
In 1991 the UAE central government issued Federal Law No. 1, which gave the corporation the right to provide the telecommunications wired and wireless services in the country and between UAE and other countries. It also gave the firm the right to issue licenses for owning, importing, manufacturing, using or operating telecommunication equipment. This practically gave Etisalat both regulatory and control powers, which completed the monopoly of the telecom giant in the UAE. In order to safeguard the country's economic development, the law made provisions for the development of the telecommunication sector in the country.
The increase of exchange lines from 36,000 in 1976 to more than 737,000 in 1998 was one of the important indicators of Etisalat network's growth and development.
An important milestone was Etisalat's commencement of international operations in January 2001, when under the brand name of Ufone it started operating out of Islamabad.
Today Etisalat stands 140th among the Financial Times Top 500 Corporations in the world in terms of market capitalisation, and is ranked by The Middle East magazine as the 6th largest company in the Middle East in terms of capitalization and revenues. The Corporation is the largest contributor outside the oil sector to development programmes of the UAE Federal Government.dateOctober 2010: Etisalat has also won accolades from across the region for its nationalization programme. * Business units
In addition to its telecommunication services provider and carrier units, Etisalat incorporates a number of additional non-telecom business units under the umbrella of Etisalat Services Holding LLC. These units support the company's operations and even provide services to other operators and organizations, namely: training and consultancy services(Etisalat Academy), SIM/smart card manufacturing and payment solutions (Ebtikar), data clearing house services (EDCH ), peering/voice and data transit (Emirates Internet Exchange – EMIX), call center (The Contact Centre),cable TV (eVision), facilities management (EFM), as well as submarine cable laying services (eMarine).
Etisalat is a major investor in Thuraya (34.5%), a satellite geo-mobile communication systems provider.
In 2006 Etisalat started a major restructuring program that resulted in the de-merger of many of its non-core business units operating under the telecom's centralized and direct management; core services were consolidated and streamlined, reflecting the company's shift from a technology-driven telecom to a customer-focused services provider. As part of the program, Etisalat had launched a re-branding campaign, releasing a new corporate logo and identity in May 2006. The restructuring culminated in the incorporation of Etisalat Services Holding LLC, which as of 2008 oversees the operation of Etisalat's non-telecom business units with huge success stories . * Etisalat International Investments
Etisalat International Investments is the business unit of Etisalat that operates outside the UAE and manages the corporation's stakes in telecommunications carriers in Afghanistan, Benin, Burkina Faso, the Central African Republic, Gabon, India, Indonesia, Iran, the Ivory Coast, Egypt, Niger, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Sri Lanka and Pakistan.
The International Investments unit also manages Etisalat's minor stakes in other telecommunications services providers, such as Sudatel (a mobile, fixed and Internet services provider in Sudan), and Qtel (Qatar-based telecommunications services provider). * Free Libyana – Libya
The Emirati government, as part of its support to the National Transitional Council in the course of the 2011 Libyan civil war, requested that Etisalat assist the NTC restore mobile communications to the rebel-held areas of Libya, which had been cut off by the government of Muammar Gaddafi. Etisalat provided the equipment needed to restore the main mobile network of Libyana, the primary carrier in the country, to full capacity, and obtained a Tripoli-based database of phone numbers gives them information necessary to patch existing Libyana customers and phone numbers into their new system—which has been dubbed "Free Libyana." It includes a satellite feed through which the Free Libyana calls can be routed.
* Mobily – Saudi Arabia
Mobily: One of Etisalat's first international investments was the bid to become the second mobile services operator in Saudi Arabia. Etihad Etisalat, a consortium led by Etisalat, won the 2G GSM license by offering US$ $3.25 billion. Currently operating under the brand name Mobily, Etihad Etisalat offers Saudi Arabia subscribers conventional and 3.5G mobile telephony services, and has floated shares on the Saudi stock market. * PTCL – Pakistan
Among the acquisitions of Etisalat in 2005 was a 26% management stake in Pakistan Telecommunications (PTCL) that was put on sale by the Government of Pakistan as part of a large privatization initiative. In order to outbid competitors (which included Singapore Telecommunications and China Mobile), Etisalat offered USD $2.56 billion for the stake. According to some analysts, the telecom has overpaid, as the bid went far beyond the estimated USD $2 billion value of the package. * Etisalat Egypt
In July 2006, a consortium led by Etisalat was granted the rights to develop Egypt's third mobile network, with a winning bid of 16.7 billion Egyptian pounds (EUR €2.29 billion euro). The venture, Etisalat Egypt, competes with existing service providers Vodafone and Mobinil. On 12 September 2006, it was announced that the network would be built by Ericsson of Sweden, and Huawei of China, at a cost of approximately USD $1.2 billion.
In 2007, at the Comms MEA Awards ceremony Etisalat was presented with the ‘Best New Entrant’ award for its Egyptian operations. Award winners were selected by a panel of experts from KPMG, the Arab Advisors Group and Oliver Wyman, Dubai. * Canar – Sudan
Etisalat is one of the founding partner companies of Canar Telecom, a fixed-line telecom services operator. In September 2007 Etisalat has raised its stake in Canar from 37% to 82% at an estimated cost of AED 584.17 million (USD $159 million).
Canar was launched on 27 November 2005. The operator is reported to use NGN and Wireless Local Loop (WLL) technologies for its voice, data, internet and multimedia services. Canar is one of the first operators in Africa to use an NGN network core.
EMTS – Nigeria: Etisalat signed an agreement to acquire 40% of and manage Emerging Markets Telecommunications Services, Nigeria’s fifth GSM operator. It is now operating with about 5 million Subscribers, and recently signed an agreement with Main One cable company to launch one of the first major broadband service in Nigeria. It became a household name
Zantel – Tanzania: ETISALAT bought 65% of Zantel Tanzania's shares and are joint owners with The government of Zanzibar (18%) and Meeco International of Tanzania (17%). Zantel has grown rapidly are the take over by ETISALAT and as of June 2007 they were the fastest growing operator in the region. Zantel has its own international gateway and was the first to reduce rates on international calls by 60%. Zantel was the first to introduce wireless internet in Tanzania Zantel was the first to introduce per second billing in Tanzania Zantel offers Internet and High Speed Data Network in Dar es Salaam and Zanzibar
Atlantique Telecom/Moov – West Africa: In Africa, Etisalat acquired 50% of Atlantique Telecom’s shares in April 2005. Based in the Ivory Coast, AT owns mobile operators in Benin, Burkina Faso, Togo, Niger, Central African Republic, Gabon and Ivory Coast. In 2007, Etisalat increased its shares in AT to 70% and again in May 2008, to 82%. AT group subscribers totaled 2.9 million at the end of 2007, which is a 107% increase from of Benin, honoured Etisalat chairman, Mohammad Hassan Omran during a ceremony to celebrate Etisalat’s efforts in developing and promoting the telecommunications sector in Benin.
XL Axiata – Indonesia: Indonesia-based mobile services operator PT XL Axiata (formerly PT Excelcomindo Pratama) is Etisalat’s first acquisition in the Far East. In December 2007 Etisalat took a 15.97% stake after paying USD $438 million (AED 1.6 billion). At the time of the acquisition XL had 15 million mobile subscribers. As of Q2 2011, Axiata's mobile subscribers are about 38.8m. * Etisalat – Afghanistan
Etisalat Afghanistan is a newly established GSM operator, 100% owned by Etisalat. It was established in May 2006 after the UAE telecom won the license to operate the fourth mobile services provider in the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Etisalat's bid for the license was USD $1.2 billion (AED 4.4 billion) and services were launched in August 2007. Etisalat Afghanistan operates out of Kabul and as of 3 March 2010, the company has achieved 24 per cent market share in 27 provinces of Afghanistan.
Etisalat – Iran (canceled) : In January 2009 Etisalat in consortium with Tamin Telecom (a subsidiary of the Iranian Social Security Organization (SSO)) won the bid for running the third mobile services operator in the Islamic Republic of Iran. The license included an exclusive two-year agreement for 3G services provisioning, but in Sep 2009 the licence was revoked and given to its local partner, Tamin Telecom.
Etisalat had planned to invest over $5 billion (AED 18.39 billion) over a period of five years, but following the license suspension all plans for launching operation in Iran have been put on hold.
Etisalat – Sri Lanka: Etisalat acquired the Sri Lankan Operation of Millicom International Cellular (MIC), Tigo (Sri Lanka) on 16 October 2009. The acquisition was completed with a total enterprise value of 207 Million US$, out of which 155 Million US$ was in cash.
Tigo (Sri Lanka) under the then brand name CELLTEL started operations in June 1989 on a Motorola TACS system and was the first cellular operator in Sri Lanka as well as South Asia. In January 2007, Millicom replaced the local CELLTEL brand with Tigo, their international brand. In February 2010, Tigo was rebranded as Etisalat.
Etisalat Lanka operates a GSM/EDGE supported network using 900 / 1800 MHz. The company on 5 May 2011 launched HSPA+ services over 2100 MHz, becoming the first LTE ready mobile network in the country.
Etisalat – India: In 2009 Etisalat has announced that its Indian unit, erstwhile Swan Telecom (owned by Dynamix Balwas Realty and Reliance Communications), headquartered in Mumbai, is renamed to Etisalat DB Telecom India Pvt. Ltd The business unit has been awarded Unified Services Access License in 15 circles – Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Mumbai, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu (including Chennai), Uttar Pradesh (East), Uttar Pradesh (West), Madhya Pradesh and Bihar. In April 2010 Etisalat began signal testing in Chennai [IND 922], Delhi & NCR [IND 913], Maharashtra & Goa [IND 919], Mumbai [IND 916] and Gujarat[IND 914]. In May 2010, Etisalat was in talks to buy 25% stake in Reliance Communications, but the deal was not finalised.
In 2010, following the $39 billion 2G spectrum scam, Etisalat DB, the Indian subsidiary of the company, was stopped from buying a stake in a Chennai-based company due to objections raised by the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA). Etisalat DB was not allowed to buy back the 5.27 per cent stake held by Chennai-based Genex Exim Ventures since the home ministry raised objections based largely on security concerns. The MHA had pointed out four issues that needed to be resolved before allowing the company to come into Etisalat DB, a company that got scarce 2G spectrum at allegedly throwaway prices. * The vice chairman, Shahid Balwa should not be involved in the operations of the company in any capacity, because of his connections with underworld don Dawood Ibrahim,. * The MHA raised objections about the commercial relationship between the Dubai-based Etisalat Group and China's Huawei. The MHA suspects, Huawei has links with China's People's Liberation Army – the country's military organisation of all land, sea, strategic missile and air forces – and has the capacity to manipulate equipment supply. * It raised objections about Etisalat's presence in Pakistan and it's connection with Pakistan's intelligence agency ISI. Etisalat owns a 26% stake in Pakistan Telecommunications and has a subscriber base of 3 million in Afghanistan. * The MHA has also expressed concerns about the telecom surveillance software Etisalat had used in a Blackberry service it had introduced in the UAE and recommended that the company should not be allowed to offer Blackberry services in India. * Etisalat UAE
Etisalat UAE is headquartered in Abu Dhabi and includes three regional offices – Abu Dhabi, Dubai, and Northern Emirates.
Abu Dhabi Region
Key positions: * Etisalat Chairman : Mohamed Hassan Omran * Etisalat CEO: Ahmad Abdulkarim Julfar * Etisalat A/CEO: Nasser Bin Abood * Senior Vice President Marketing : Khalifa Al Forah Al Shamsi * Group Senior Vice President – corporate Communications : Ahmed Bin Ali
In the UAE, Etisalat operates where mobile penetration is already among the highest in the world "200%",
Etisalat became known for its efforts to roll out its Fibre-To-The-Home (FTTH) network in the UAE. By the end of 2009 Etisalat had completed the FTTH roll-out for 85% of households in Abu Dhabi, positioning the UAE’s capital as
the first in the world to be covered by fibre.
The advanced infrastructure allows the utilization of the most advanced technology applications to the UAE market. Its high-speed broadband internet enables users to enjoy multiple high bandwidth applications such as IPTV and online gaming in an integrated single interface for landline, internet and television-based services, providing a truly converged digital home experience to its customers.
The Northern Emirates regional center is based in Sharjah and covers the telecom's operations in the emirates of Ajman, Umm Al Quwain, Fujairah and Ras Al Khaimah. * Internet services
The number of Etisalat's Internet subscribers reportedly stands at 1.02 million.
Some of the Internet services for home users that Etisalat offers include: * 3G Mobile Internet access * Broadband Internet services (Al Shamil and eLife) * Prepaid and post-paid dialup Internet access
Etisalat also operates iZone, a system of Wi-FI hotspots in central locations, such as shopping malls, restaurants, and sheesha cafes. iZone can be accessed by either purchasing prepaid cards (AED 15/hour, USD $4.5/hour), or if using an existing account with the operator (AED 3/hour for dial-up account holders, or AED 10/hour for broadband users).
Dial-up and ISDN Internet access services are billed by the hour, whereas the domestic and residential cable and DSL connections have a fixed monthly rate depending on speed. Other Internet links, aimed at business users, have traffic utilization plans and relatively high rates when exceeding the allocated bandwidth quota. This has caused bad publicity for Etisalat and is a major source of criticism.
Internet censorship: dateFebruary 2008: date: October 2007: Etisalat operates an Internet content filtering system that blocks access to web resources. The web resources are claimed to be controversial or offensive (i.e. sexually explicit content, certain political and religious websites, anonymizers and proxies) or harmful (i.e. numeric IP addresses, known phishing or malicious websites, botnet command servers). The use of content filtering is mandated by the Telecommunications Regulatory Authority (TRA) of the United Arab Emirates.
The type of content that is restricted by Etisalat includes: * Pornography, nudity and sexually explicit content. * The entire Israel country code top-level domain (.il) * Certain media-sharing websites * Anti-Islamic websites. * Websites criticizing the United Arab Emirates (such as UAEprison and Arab Times) * Anonymous proxy sites (such as vtunnel, pzeg, etc.) * Gay and Lesbian Rights websites (such as Gaydar, Mogenic etc.) * Numerical IP address links (for example, http://10.11.1.1/) * Voice over IP services providers' websites (such as Skype Vonage)
There are claims that Etisalat breaks the rules of net neutrality by throttling peer-to-peer, gaming and other types of network traffic in order to reduce the load on its oversubscribed international links. The effect of this interference is most noticeable during weekends or periods of high network use.dateNovember 2008: The overall efficiency of the country-wide content filtering is unclear, as many of the technologically savvy users have discovered tools and methods to bypass the content filter, such as using Tor. * BlackBerry controversy
In July 2009, Etisalat pushed an update to BlackBerry devices operating on the telecom's national network, citing performance improvements. However, it was later discovered that the update contained eavesdropping software, developed by the US-based software development company SS8, which specializes in electronic surveillance. It is reported that the software enabled the company to monitor and forward communications on BlackBerry devices to their servers.
Research in Motion, BlackBerry's developer, acknowledged that the patch was a form of spyware, and issued a removal patch on 20 July.
On 27 December 2009, both Etisalat and Du (telco) have been mandated by the UAE telecom regulator to start filtering BlackBerry users' web access and block illegal content.
Due to concerns with the security and the provisioning of legal interception for Blackberry non-voice services, on 1 Aug 2010, the Telecommunication Regularity Authority of the UAE instructed Etisalat that all Blackberry e-mail, internet and messenger functions must be suspended on 1 Oct 2010. However, an agreement between Blackberry's developer Research In Motion and UAE's telecom regulator has been reached, and the announced BlackBerry services suspension has been canceled.
Blackberry Services currently do not work over WIFI and have been blocked by Etisalat. There is no clarification from the provider on this. Web Services using the browser function but blackberry messenger and email does not connect to blackberry servers over WIFI connections * Acquisition of PTCL and Parliamentary Inquiry
The National Assembly (NA) Standing Committee on IT and Telecom criticized PTCL’s administration over its inability to fulfil obligations made to the government. On 20 December 2010, the committee met under the chairmanship of Chaudhry Muhammad Barjees Tahir, at the parliament house to probe into the privatization of PTCL. After hearing the officials of both the ministries, the committee declared that despite having outstanding financial portfolio, PTCL was privatized to an entity which did not fulfill contractual obligations despite the grant of concessions by the government.
On 01 Jan 2011, The Federal Minister for Privatisation Senator Waqar Ahmed Khan Wednesday revealed before the National Assembly that the privatization deal of PTCL with Etisalat was not transparent and made in violation of rules and procedures.
“The part of the privatisation of PTCL was not transparent. It was made in violation of the rules and procedures, said the minister replied to a question, and later, the House referred the matter to the National Assembly Standing Committee on Privatisation for sin.
It was told to the House that the SPA is completed and the transaction was made without the privatization of the Commission Council in confidence, adding that Etisalat 800 million U.S. dollars has kept the sport of land issue be transferred to the UAE-based company. Also, it was found out that around 3,500 properties were to be transferred to Etisalat which also comprise lands not even owned by federal or any provincial government rather either those are private properties are under litigation.
In June 2005, Etisalat $2.6 billion bid beat those of Singapore Telecom and China mobile for the purchase of a 26 per cent stake in PTCL, Pakistan’s telecom operator. Etisalat has management control with 26 per cent shares of PTCL, which was in 2006 for US$2.6 billion and is withholding $ 799,000,000 worth of initial payments to the Pakistani Government, part of the company’s 2006 properties with the acquisition in PTCL registered in name.
The Performance under control to Etisalat, PtCl wealth declined. For four years, before privatization, profit after tax increased from approximately 18 billion to more than 27 billion rupees, which is the rate corresponding to 11 percent annually.
The committee expressed its reservations over the entire privatization process and said, “it seems as if the previous government wanted to get rid of PTCL which was a profit earning entity at the time of its privatisation.”
The committee also expressed reservations over the exclusion of Telephone Industries of Pakistan from the privatization process, which was a subsidiary of PTCL.
Matter is still under investigation by the committee under his chairmanship and house is waiting for the committee's report. * References
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Emirates Telecommunications Corporation
Entreprise émiratie | Entreprise de télécommunications | Opérateur mobile
Unicode arabe:
Emirates Telecommunications Corporation, dont la marque commerciale est Etisalat (إتصالات: , littéralement « Communications »), est une société de télécommunications dont le siège social est aux Émirats arabes unis. En 2010, elle est présente dans 18 pays en Asie, au Moyen Orient et en Afrique. En novembre 2009, Etisalat est le 13e: plus important exploitant de réseau de téléphonie mobile au monde : son nombre de clients dépasse 100 millions
Le 31 janvier 2010, Etisalat a rapporté des revenus nets de 8,4 milliards USD (30,831 milliards AED) et des bénéfices nets de 2,407 milliards USD (8,836 milliards AED).
Etisalat exploite un des hubs internet au Moyen Orient (AS8966), offrant un service de connexions aux autres opérateurs de télécommunications dans cette région . C'est aussi le plus grand carrier d'appels internationaux au Moyen Orient et en Afrique (c'est le 12e: plus important au monde) . En octobre 2008, Etisalat avait signé 510 ententes d'itinérance qui couvraient 186 pays et reconnaissait les communications BlackBerry, 3G et GPRS . Etisalat maintient des Points of Presence (PoP) dans différentes villes d'importance, dont New York, Londres, Amsterdam, Francfort, Paris et Singapour.
Notes et références : colonnes=2:
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ريتشارد روجرز
معماريون بريطانيون | فائزون بجائزة بريتزكر | مواليد 1933 | أشخاص على قيد الحياة
Richard Rogers: ريتشارد جورج روجرز،(البارون روجرز) (ولد بـ 23 يوليو/تموز 1933) معمارى بريطاني مشهور بتصاميمِه التي تنتمى لطرز الحداثة والوظيفية. وهو ولدَ في فلورينس في 1933 ودرس بمدرسةَ الجمعيةِ المعماريةِ للهندسة المعماريةِ في لندن، قبل التَخَرُّج مِنْ المدرسةِ يايل للهندسة المعماريةِ في 1962.
بداية حياته المهنية : في يايل قابلَ زميله الطالبَ نورمان فوستر ومع عَودته إلى إنجلترا بَدأَ الممارسةً المعماريةً كفريق من 4 مَع فوستر وزوجاتهم سو روجرز وويندي تشيزمان.إستطاعوا أن يكَسبوا بسرعة سمعة للتصميم الصناعي التقنيِ. في 1967 الممارسةِ إنفصلتْ، وروجرز إنضمَّ إلى رينزو بيانو. وفي تكليف مبكّر كَان بيت وإستوديو لهمفري سبيندر قُرْب مالدون، إسيكس، وكان مكعّبُ زجاجَ مُحاط بإطار حديدى. قَفزتْ حياته المهنية للأمام عندما رَبحَ منافسةَ التصميمَ لمركز بومبيتو في 13 يوليو/تموزِ 1971 مع رينزو بيانو وبيتر رايز. أَسّستْ هذه البنايةِ طابع أغلب أعمال روجرز، وذلك بعرض وعدم أخفاء أغلب خدماتِ البنايةَ (ماء، قنواتِ التدفئة، ودرجات السلالم) على الخارجِ، يَتْركُ الفضاء الداخلى مرتّباً. إنّ البنايةَ من أهم مَعْالَم باريس الأكثر شعبية، لكن في ذلك الوقت النقّاد خُلِطوا، ما بين طرز (الداخل للخارج) وطراز (الأحشائى)
مشاريعه : * بيت روجرز ويمبليدون (1967) * مركز بومبيدو، باريس (1972 -78) * بناية لويد، لندن (1979 -84) * المحكمة أوروبية لحقوقِ الإنسان، ستراسبورغ (1984) * قبّة الألفية، لندن (1999) * 88 شارع وود، لندن (1993-2001) * مخرج مصمّمى آشفورد, آشفورد، كنت (2000) * متنزه الأعمال ،متنزهِ تشيسوك، لندن (2002) * محطة مطارِ الجوى لـ براجاز 4، مدريد (2005) * مجمع محاكم، أنتويرب، بلجيكا (2005) * برج هيسبيريا، برشلونة (2005) * سينيدد، البناية الجديدة للجمعيةِ الوطنيةِ لويلز، كاردف (2006) * لاس أريناس، برشلونة، إعادة تصميم حلبة مصارعة الثيرانِ، لـ يُحوّلُه إلى مركز تسوّق (إكمال متَوقّعَ في 2009) * 122 ليدينهال (إكمال متَوقّعَ في 2010)
الجوائز والتكريم : روجرز حصل على لقب فارس في 1981 مِن قِبل الملكة إليزابيث الثانيةِ. هو مُنِحَ ميدالية ريبا الذهبيةَ الملكية في 1985. إستلمَ جائزة (الأسد الذهبي لإنجازِ العمرِ) في المعرض الدولي العاشر للمعمار بفينيسيا في 2006، وأيضاً حصل على جائزةَ ستيرلنج لمحطة المطار الجوى صالة الوصول 4 مِنْ مطارِ براجاز
تم تنصيبه البارونَ روجرز للضفةِ في 1996.و يَجْلسُ كممثل عن حزب العمّال في مجلس اللورداتِ.
روجرز مُنِحَ درجة فخريةَ مِنْ جامعةِ كنت، وسَيُمْنَحُ جائزةَ بريتزكر الـ2007 ،الذي يعتبر أعلى أوسمة الشرف للهندسة المعماريةِ
معماريين معاصرين:
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Richard Rogers
Richard Rogers | Richard Rogers buildings | 1933 births | British architects | Labour Party (UK) life peers | Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour | Knights Bachelor | Living people | Modernist architects | Old Johnians (St John's School, Leatherhead) | People from Florence | Fellows of the Royal Institute of British Architects | Pritzker Prize winners | Stirling Prize laureates | Recipients of the Royal Gold Medal
otherpersons:
Richard George Rogers, Baron Rogers of Riverside CH Kt FRIBA FCSD (born 23 July 1933) is a British architect noted for his modernist and functionalist designs.
Rogers is perhaps best known for his work on the Pompidou Centre in Paris, the Lloyd's building and Millennium Dome both in London, and the European Court of Human Rights building in Strasbourg. He is a winner of the RIBA Gold Medal, the Thomas Jefferson Medal, the RIBA Stirling Prize, the Minerva Medal and Pritzker Prize.
Rogers was born in Florence in 1933 and attended the Architectural Association School of Architecture in London, before graduating with a master's degree from the Yale School of Architecture in 1962. While studying at Yale, Rogers met fellow student Norman Foster. On returning to England he and Foster set up architectural practice as Team 4 with their respective wives, Su Brumwell and Wendy Cheeseman. They quickly earned a reputation for what was later termed by the media high-tech architecture.
By 1967 the Foster/Rogers partnership had split up, but Rogers continued to collaborate with Su Rogers, along with John Young and Laurie Abbott. In early 1968 he was commissioned to design a house and studio for Humphrey Spender near Maldon, Essex, a glass cube framed with I-beams. He continued to develop his ideas of prefabrication and structural simplicity to design a Wimbledon house for his parents. This was based on ideas from his conceptual 'Zip Up' house, such as the use of standardised components based on refrigerator panels to make energy-efficient buildings.
Rogers subsequently joined forces with Italian architect Renzo Piano, a partnership that was to prove fruitful. His career leapt forward when he and Piano won the design competition for the Pompidou Centre in July 1971, alongside a team from Ove Arup that included Irish engineer Peter Rice.
This building established Rogers's trademark of exposing most of the building's services (water, heating and ventilation ducts, and stairs) on the exterior, leaving the internal spaces uncluttered and open for visitors to the centre's art exhibitions. This style, dubbed "Bowellism" by some critics, was not universally popular at the time the centre opened in 1977, but today the Pompidou Centre is a widely admired Parisian landmark. Rogers revisited this inside-out style with his design for London's Lloyd's building, completed in 1986 - another controversial design which has since become a famous and distinctive landmark in its own right.
Later career: After working with Piano, Rogers established the Richard Rogers Partnership along with Marco Goldschmied, Mike Davies and John Young in 1977. This became Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners in 2007. The firm maintains offices in London, Barcelona, Madrid, and Tokyo.
Rogers has devoted much of his later career to wider issues surrounding architecture, urbanism, sustainability and the ways in which cities are used. One early illustration of his thinking was an exhibition at the Royal Academy in 1986, entitled "London As It Could Be", which also featured the work of James Stirling and Rogers' former partner Norman Foster. This exhibition made public a series of proposals for transforming a large area of central London, subsequently dismissed as impractical by the city's authorities.
In 1995 he became the first architect to deliver the BBC's annual . This series of five talks, titled Sustainable City, were later adapted into the book Cities for a Small Planet (Faber and Faber: London 1997, ISBN 0-571-17993-2). The BBC made these lectures available to the public for download in July, 2011.
In 1998 he set up the Urban Task Force at the invitation of the British government, to help identify causes of urban decline and establish a vision of safety, vitality and beauty for Britain's cities. This work resulted in a white paper, Towards an Urban Renaissance, outlining more than 100 recommendations for future city designers. Rogers also served for several years as chair of the Greater London Authority panel for Architecture and Urbanism. He resigned from this post in 2009. He has been Chair of the Board of Trustees of The Architecture Foundation. From 2001 to 2008 he was chief advisor on architecture and urbanism to Mayor of London Ken Livingstone; he was subsequently asked to continue his role as an advisor by new mayor Boris Johnson in 2008. He stood down from the post in October 2009. Rogers has also served as an advisor to the mayor of Barcelona on urban strategies.
Amidst this extra-curricular activity, Rogers has continued to create controversial and iconic works. Perhaps the most famous of these, the Millennium Dome, was designed by the Rogers practice in conjunction with engineering firm Buro Happold and completed in 1999. It was the subject of fierce political and public debate over the cost and contents of the exhibition it contained, although the building itself cost only £43 million.
In May 2006 Rogers' practice was chosen as the architect of Tower 3 of the new World Trade Center in New York City, replacing the old World Trade Center which was destroyed in the September 11 attacks.
Some of Rogers' recent plans have failed to get off the ground. The practice was appointed to design the replacement to the Central Library in the Eastside of Birmingham; however, his plan was shelved for financial reasons. City Park Gate, the area adjacent to the land the library would have stood on, is now being designed by Ken Shuttleworth's MAKE Architects.
Selected projects: Team 4 : * Creek Vean, Cornwall, UK (1966) * Reliance Controls factory, Swindon, UK (1967)
Richard and Su Rogers, with John Young and Laurie Abbott : * 22 Parkside (Dr. Nino and Dada Rogers' house), Wimbledon, London, UK (1967) * Zip Up house (1968) * Humphrey Spender's house, Maldon, UK (1967–1968)
Piano + Rogers : * Universal Oil Products, Tadworth, UK (1969–1974) * B&B Italia headquarters, Como, Italy (1972–1973) * Pompidou Centre, Paris, France (1971–77) * IRCAM, Paris, France (1971–1977) * Patscentre Research Laboratory, Melbourn, UK (1976–1983)
The Richard Rogers Partnership :
Rogers Stirk Harbour + Partners : * London Heathrow Terminal 5, London, UK (1989–2008) * Maggie's Centre, London, UK (2001–2008) * Bodegas Protos, Peñafiel, Valladolid, Spain (2008) * (R9), Kaohsiung Mass Rapid Transit system, Kaohsiung City, Taiwan (2003–2007) * 300 New Jersey Avenue, Washington, D.C., USA (2004–2009) * Ching Fu Group Headquarters, Kaohsiung, Taiwan (2005–2007) * Campus Palmas Altas Seville, Spain; Abengoa's Headquarters (2005–2009) * 175 Greenwich Street, New York, USA (2006-) * Capodichino Underground Station, Naples, Italy (2006-) * Santa Maria del Pianto Underground Station, Naples, Italy (2006-) * British Museum, Northwest Development, London, UK (2007-) * 360-London (2007-) * Greater Paris / Grand Paris, France (2008-) * Oxley Woods, Milton Keynes, UK; Government-sponsored 'Design for Manufacture (DfM)' competition (completion expected 2010) * Las Arenas, Barcelona, remodeling of the bullring into a shopping mall (opened March, 2011) * One Hyde Park, London (2007–2010) * Leadenhall building, London, UK (completion expected 2012-2014) * Neo Bankside, London, UK (completion expected 2012) * New city centre and tram station in Scandicci, Italy (2007-) * Barangaroo, Sydney, Australia (2009-) * Honours and awards
Rogers was knighted in 1981 by Queen Elizabeth II. He was created Baron Rogers of Riverside in 1996. He sits as a Labour peer in the House of Lords. Rogers was appointed a Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour in the 2008 Birthday Honours list.
Rogers was awarded the RIBA Royal Gold Medal in 1985 and made a Chevalier, L’Ordre National de la Légion d'honneur in 1986. He received a Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement at the 10th Mostra di Architettura di Venezia. In 2006, the Richard Rogers Partnership was awarded the Stirling Prize for Terminal 4 of Barajas Airport, and again in 2009 for Maggie's Centre in London. In 2007 Rogers was made Laureate of the Pritzker Architecture Prize - architecture's highest honour. He was awarded the Minerva Medal by the Chartered Society of Designers in the same year.
Rogers has been awarded honorary degrees from several universities, including Alfonso X El Sabio University in Madrid, Oxford Brookes University, the University of Kent, the Czech Technical University in Prague and the Open University.
Palestine controversy: In February 2006, Lord Rogers hosted the inaugural meeting of the campaigning organisation Architects and Planners for Justice in Palestine (APJP) in his London offices. At that time his practice had secured a number of projects in New York, including the redevelopment of the Silvercup Studios site, a masterplan for the East River Waterfront and a commission for a $1.7 billion expansion of the Jacob K. Javits Convention Centre in Manhattan. Rogers publicly dissociated himself from the group within weeks, however, following the widely expressed public sentiment from generally pro-Israeli New York voters and politicians, which threatened him with the loss of prestigious commissions including projects in New York and abroad. He announced his withdrawal with the statement "I unequivocally renounce Architects and Planners for Justice in Palestine and have withdrawn my relationship with them."
Rogers at first said he was dissociating himself from APJP because of its published aims and "in view of the suggested boycott (of Israeli companies) by some members", although APJP denied it was promoting such a boycott. Rogers subsequently hardened his line, coming out with statements defending Israel's right to build its separation wall. He described the Israel-Palestine conflict as being between a "terrorist" state and a "democratic" one and said that he was "all for the democratic state".
Family: Rogers is married to Ruth Rogers, chef and co-owner of The River Café restaurant in west London. They have two sons together, Roo and Bo. He also has three sons, Ben, Zad and Ab, from his first marriage to Su Brumwell. He has ten grandchildren.
References: Reflist:
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Richard Rogers
Architecte britannique | Architecte contemporain | Architecte high-tech | Lauréat du prix Pritzker | Pair à vie | Membre de l'ordre des compagnons d'honneur | Knight Bachelor | Naissance en 1933 | Naissance à Florence
Rogers:
Sir Richard George Rogers (né le 23 juillet 1933 à Florence, en Italie), baron Rogers of Riverside, est un architecte britannique, lauréat en 2007 du prix Pritzker. * Biographie
Né le 23 juillet 1933 et célèbre pour son modernisme et des conceptions fonctionnalistes, il a suivi l'enseignement de l’Architectural Association School à Londres, avant d'achever ses études à l'Université Yale en 1962. À Yale, il rencontre Norman Foster, et de retour en Angleterre, ils fondent l'agence d'architecture Team 4 (« équipe 4 ») avec leurs épouses respectives Su Rogers et Wendy Cheesman. Ils gagnent alors rapidement une réputation de conception architecturale industrielle « de haute technologie ».
En 1971, Richard Rogers et Renzo Piano gagnent le concours pour le Centre national d'art et de culture Georges-Pompidou de Paris. Cette construction a établi le style caractéristique de Rogers dans lequel la plupart des réseaux techniques du bâtiment (l'eau, conduits de chauffage, escaliers, ascenseurs) sont rejetés sur la périphérie pour laisser des espaces internes non encombrés, avec des poutres d'une seule portée fabriquées en Allemagne. Ces « plateaux » sont ainsi totalement libres.
Le Royal Institute of British Architects lui décerne sa médaille d'or en 1985. La reine Élisabeth II du Royaume-Uni l'annoblit en 1991 et, en 1996, il est créé baron Rogers of Riverside et siège à la chambre des Lords. En 2000, l'association artistique japonaise lui décerne le Praemium Imperiale. En 2006, la dixième Mostra Internazionale di Architettura de la Biennale de Venise lui consacre son Lion d'or pour l'ensemble de son œuvre, la même année, il reçoit également le prix Stirling pour la réalisation de l'aéroport de Madrid-Barajas. En 2007, il reçoit la plus haute distinction pour un architecte, le prix Pritzker. * Influences * Les professeurs dont Rogers a suivi les cours à l'Université Yale constituent une influence directe sur son travail et sur l'élaboration de son style personnel. Paul Rudolph, en ce qu'il était un architecte phare du modernisme américain, poussa Rogers (aux côtés de Norman Foster) à repenser un modernisme alors fortement critiqué pour se diriger vers le mouvement high-tech. C'est James Stirling, lui aussi professeur, incarna auprès des architectes de la génération de Rogers cette remise en question des principes théoriques du modernisme. Serge Chermayeff, lui tout empreint de l'architecture Est-européenne et de constructivisme russe transmit à Rogers l'aspect éternellement fonctionnaliste de ses constructions. * Au-delà de l'enseignement reçu, des références architecturales diverses suivies par Rogers lui ont permis d'enrichir ses modes de pensées et méthodes de travail. Frank Lloyd Wright et Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, tous deux fondateurs de l'architecture moderne, ont légué à Rogers sa vision "naturelle" et sa comparaison du bâtiment à l'organisme vivant pour le premier ; son goût pour l'urbanisme et pour le style international pour le second. Louis Kahn représente davantage le côté social du travail de Rogers (Palais de Justice de Bordeaux, cour européenne des Droits de l'Homme, logements de haute qualité environnementale d'Oxley Park...). * Principes de référence
On compte trois grands principes qui tiennent lieu de références à Rogers : * larchitecture moderne : comme dit précédemment, elle constitue une réelle base au sein de l'architecture développée par Rogers ; * le style international : issu d'un mouvement moderne influencé par les architectes du Bauhaus arrivés aux États-Unis dans leur fuite du nazisme, il prône une rupture totale avec les traditions (aucun aspect décoratif, surfaces lisses, alliance industrielle verre/béton) * le mouvement high-tech et le fonctionnalisme : réponse à un certain "historicisme" du mouvement postmoderniste, Rogers incarne un des pionniers de ce mouvement. Les éléments fonctionnels et structurels sont mis en valeur, ainsi "la forme suit la fonction". Selon Rogers, la beauté est "inhérente à une structure bien pensée" . * Grandes lignes de l'architecture de Richard Rogers
Une notion chère à Rogers est celle de la pluridisciplinarité de ses équipes. Dès ses débuts, il s'entoure d'une "Design Community", notion qui le suit depuis lors : ce fut tout d'abord la "Team 4", puis la "Richard Rogers partnership" et enfin la "Rogers Stirk Harbout & partners". Ces "partnership" sont composés essentiellement d'architectes (Laurie Abott, John Young...) et d'ingénieurs (Peter Rice ingénieur structures, Tom Baker thermicien...). De plus, fidèle à cette philosophie de partage des idées, il n'hésite pas à glaner les conseils auprès d'intervenants extérieurs.
On peut facilement dégager les principes de base du travail de Rogers en suivant les thèmes de l'exposition "Richard Rogers + architectes" au Centre Pompidou (novembre 2007 - mars 2008) : * la lisibilité : une lisibilité totale de la construction qui est pensée comme une machine performante mise à nue. Les formes des bâtiments sont étudiées de façon à exprimer clairement les activités qui s'y déroulent. Le Lloyd’s Building à Londres en est une bonne illustration : marché d'assurances composé de "syndicates" indépendants, le bâtiment central relié à ses satellites exprime parfaitement son dynamisme, sa flexibilité et son unité "dans la diversité". * la transparence : actrice de la lisibilité par sa transparence, elle est indispensable à Richard Rogers. L'immeuble de la Channel 4 dont les espaces sont entièrement transparents contribuent à l'inclusion du bâtiment au sein du milieu urbain (jeu de reflets par exemple) et symbolisent aussi la communication avec la population entretenue par une chaîne du service public. * le rapport à la personne, lespace public : Richard Rogers s'est toujours attaché à relier ses constructions non seulement à leurs milieux urbains, mais aussi aux activités sociales périphériques et à la vie au sein des espaces publics. Prenons le Centre Pompidou et sa "piazza" qui encourage rencontres et "diversité sociale", spectacles, animations... * lenvironnement : le partnership a mis au centre de ses préoccupations la question écologique. La protection de l'environnement passe par des systèmes de récupération des eaux, de production d'énergies renouvelables (solaire par exemple), par l'installation d'une ventilation naturelle et de chaudières biomasse. Le Palais de Justice de Bordeaux incarne parfaitement bien ses principes : utilisation du bois et de la lumière naturelle, ventilation naturelle... Soulignons aussi que l'utilisation du bois ne constitue pas seulement symbole "naïf" de la nature, mais aussi un attachement à la région : en effet pour ce projet les équipes ont étroitement collaboré avec les savoirs-faire locaux ("penser global/agir local") ; les "cônes" abritant les sales d'audience étant le fait d'artisans tonneliers. * lurbanisme : dans la théorie comme dans la pratique, Richard Rogers est profondément "urbaniste". Le projet "London as it could be" lui a donné toute la possibilité de mettre en œuvre tout son intérêt pour l'organisation du milieu urbain. Notons que pour ce projet, l'agence a favorisé et revalorisé les espaces publics et sociaux. * la légèreté : c'est avant tout la pluridisciplinarité de l'équipe de Rogers qui a permis à l'architecte de s'étendre au domaine de la "légèreté" (dômes géodésiques par exemple). Structures suspendues et couvertures flottantes ont été utilisées dans la construction de l'usine de Fleetguard (1979-1981). Plus récemment, le dôme Millenium (1996-1999) a nécessité autant de prouesses techniques que de connaissances architecturales : des mâts en acier soutiennent une enveloppe de 100 000 m2: . * Principales réalisations
Le bâtiment qui le rend célèbre, conçu avec Renzo Piano, est le Centre national d'art et de culture Georges-Pompidou à Paris, construit entre 1972 et 1978. Peu après, construit entre 1979 et 1984, le Lloyd’s Building à Londres est le siège de la Lloyd's of London.
Dans les années 1990, il achève l'Institut de recherche et coordination acoustique/musique (1990, en collaboration avec Renzo Piano), le Reuters Data Centre de Londres (1992), la Cour européenne des droits de l'homme à Strasbourg (1994), le Palais de justice de Bordeaux (1997), et, pour finir le siècle, en 1999, le Dôme du millénaire à Londres.
L'achèvement du Senedd, nouveau bâtiment de l'Assemblée nationale de Galles à Cardiff (2003-2006) est mené en parallèle avec la construction du terminal 4 de l'Aéroport international de Madrid-Barajas (2005) et celle, achevée en 2006, du Palais de justice d'Anvers. La transformation des Arènes de Barcelone en centre commercial devrait être fini en 2009.*
L'Hotel Hesperia Tower à L'Hospitalet de Llobregat près de Barcelone en Espagne.
De 2008 à 2009, Richard Rogers est à la tête d'une équipe pluridisciplinaire avec laquelle il participe à la consultation sur le Grand-Paris lancée par le président de la République Nicolas Sarkozy et intitulée « Le Grand Pari(s) de l'agglomération parisienne ».
En 2011, le 122 Leadenhall, surnommé la « râpe à fromage » en raison de sa forme prismatique, devrait compléter le skyline de Londres en devenant le plus haut gratte-ciel de la ville. Sir Rogers conçoit aussi le 175 Greenwich Street, l'une des tours érigées sur l'emplacement des twin towers du World Trade Center et dont l'achêvement est aussi prévu pour 2011. * Collaborateurs
Richard Rogers a travaillé avec Renzo Piano sur le projet du Centre Pompidou * Expositions
L'exposition Richard Rogers + Architectes, s'est déroulée au Centre Pompidou à Paris, entre le 21 novembre 2007 et le 3 mars 2008.
La même exposition "Richard Rogers + Arquitectes, de la casa a la ciutat" est actuellement présentée à de Barcelone du 6 mars au 7 juin 2009.
Distinctions : * Chevalier (Knight Bachelor - 1991) * Membre de l'Ordre des compagnons d'honneur (CH - 2008)
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طبعة مبكرة
مسلسلات تلفزيونية أمريكية
الطبعة المبكرة مسلسل تلفزيوني أمريكي درامي عرض على قناة هيئة الإذاعة الكولومبية من 28 سبتمبر 1996 حتى 27 مايو 2000 حيث تم تصوير 4 أجزاء منه بواقع 91 حلقة .
القصة : يطرد غاري هوبسون من عمله بالمضاربة في البورصة وتمل منه زوجته فتقرر أيضا طرده فيقرر استئجار شقة جديدة ولكن في صباح كل يوم يحضر له قط صحيفة شيكاغو صن تايمز لعدد الغد وغاري لا يعلم من يبعث له هذا العدد المبكر . قرر البحث عن من يبعث له بهذه الصحيفة فيكتشف بأن العدد المبكر من هذه الصحيفة كان يبعث إلى شخص يدعى لوسيس سنو ولكنه توفي مؤخرا . لدى غاري صديقان وهما تشوك فيشمان منذ أيام الدراسة الجامعية والذي يطلب منه نتائج المباريات الرياضية من أجل المراهنة عليها والحصول على أموال كثيرة وماريسا العمياء والتي دائما تنصحه بالقيام بالأفعال الصائبة .
الشخصيات : * جوائز المسلسل
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Early Edition
1996 American television series debuts | 2000 American television series endings | 1990s American television series | 2000s American television series | English-language television series | CBS network shows | Television series by CBS Paramount Television | Television shows set in Chicago, Illinois | Television series by Sony Pictures Television | Time travel television episodes
Early Edition is an American television series that aired on CBS from September 28, 1996 to May 27, 2000. Set in the city of Chicago, Illinois, it follows the adventures of a man who mysteriously receives each Chicago Sun-Times newspaper the day before it is actually published, and who uses this knowledge to prevent terrible events each day. Created by Ian Abrams, Patrick Q. Page, and Vik Rubenfeld, the series starred actor Kyle Chandler as Gary Hobson, and featured many real Chicago locations over the course of the series' run. Despite fan efforts to save the show, it was cancelled in May 2000, and it began airing in syndication on Fox Family Channel that same month. CBS Home Entertainment subsequently scheduled a DVD release of the complete first season on June 24, 2008. As of June 2011 Early Edition can currently be seen on Syfy Channel.
Production: Conception: The origin of Early Edition stems from a collaborative idea between writers Vik Rubenfeld and Pat Page. After meeting each other while playing volleyball in Manhattan Beach, California, the pair began discussing ideas for feature films. While talking on the phone one day, they each contributed key parts for the idea of Early Edition. Rubenfeld believed the idea was more suited to television than a feature film, noting that, "it was a really unique way to put a character in physical jeopardy each week." The duo proceeded to write a document that described the show's characters and setting, and treatments for the first twelve episodes (a document known as a show's "Bible" in the TV industry). In the process they also created a detailed treatment for the pilot episode, which entitled them to "Story By" credit when the Pilot later aired.
Despite their idea, Rubenfeld and Page still faced the daunting task of finding a way to get the show on network television with limited television production and writing experience between them. Rubenfeld decided to pitch the show to Ian Abrams, whom he knew through a group called the Professional Authors Group Enterprise (or PAGE). Over lunch at RJ's restaurant in Los Angeles, Rubenfled and Page pitched the idea of "a guy who gets tomorrow's newspaper today." With Abrams's help, they decided to try to convince Tristar to pick up the show, and went about adding a few ground rules for the story, such as having the paper always accompanied by a mysterious cat. In an effort to rouse Tristar's interest in the show during their pitch meeting scheduled for August 24, 1995, Abrams had a mock newspaper created with the headline "Let's just let it end. O.J. Simpson confesses he is guilty of homicide." The catch to the mock newspaper was that it was dated the next day, August 25, 1995. After presenting the fake newspaper during the pitch meeting, a very lively conversation ensued, until someone realized the paper was dated the following day. Early Edition was green-lit not long after.
Since its debut, the plot of Early Edition has been compared to other intellectual properties with similar themes. In particular, the 1944 feature film It Happened Tomorrow centered upon a newspaper reporter who received a newspaper a day in advance. However, Early Edition 's creators claim that Early Edition is in no way based on this film. Ironically, in Poland the show was titled, "It Happened Tomorrow." * Filming locations
The series was filmed entirely within the Chicago area, with interior sets filmed on the Early Edition Sound Stage at Studio City in Cicero, Illinois. Many famous Chicago locations are seen throughout the series, such as Navy Pier in the third season episode "Play it Again, Sammo." The building used for exterior shots of McGinty's bar, a location of central importance to the series, was formerly used by the Chicago Fire Department, and is located at the northeast corner of the intersection of in downtown Chicago. Additionally, Hobson lived in the Blackstone Hotel during the show's first season. * Music
In the opening credits of each episode, W.G. Snuffy Walden is credited with composing Early Edition's title theme music. Coincidentally, W.G. Snuffy Walden also composed the theme song for Friday Night Lights, another television show for which Kyle Chandler (star of Early Edition) is known.
During Early Edition's original broadcast run in the United States, an edited version of the song "Time Has Come Today" by The Chambers Brothers was used during a revamped opening title sequence from episode 403 until the series' conclusion. * Episodes and plot * Episodes
List of Early Edition episodes: Early Edition premiered in the United States on CBS on September 28, 1996. A total of 90 episodes were produced over the course of the show's four seasons, with the last original episode airing in the United States on May 27, 2000. Its original time slot was Saturday night at 8pm Central Standard Time, sandwiched between airings of Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman and Walker, Texas Ranger. When Dr. Quinn ended in May 1998, Early Edition then began airing one hour earlier at 7pm for the remainder of the show's run. In January and February 2000, Early Edition went on temporary hiatus as the Dick Clark game show Winning Lines aired in its time slot. * Plot and synopsis
The show dealt with the life of Gary Hobson (Kyle Chandler), a Chicago man (initially a stock broker, later the owner of McGinty's bar) who mysteriously received newspapers (specifically, the Chicago Sun-Times) a day ahead of time, effectively giving him knowledge of the potential future. His newspaper apparently gets delivered by a ginger tabby cat, no matter where he goes, every morning at 6:30. The paper goes only to him except on some special occasions. He would then try to prevent tragedies described in "tomorrow's" Sun-Times from occurring, whereby story text and headlines in the newspaper change to reflect the outcome of his actions.
Often, Gary does not wish to be saddled with the responsibility of performing these deeds. The paper effectively presents him with many Hobson's choices: he must choose between helping someone in need for help for example accidents or someone dying only for those who are in danger.
Season 1 consists of 23 episodes, and ran from September 28, 1996 to May 10, 1997. The show begins by following Chicago resident and stockbroker Gary Hobson as he returns home from work one day, only to be thrown out of the house for no reason by his wife Marsha. Upon taking up residence in the Blackstone Hotel, Hobson begins receiving a copy of the Chicago Sun-Times, accompanied by a ginger tabby cat, every morning. Slowly, Hobson realizes the paper's contents reflect events that are to happen during that day, and confers this with his co-workers and friends Chuck Fishman and Marissa Clark. After deciding to use his knowledge of the future only for good (and not primarily for profit), Hobson is soon consumed by trying to prevent tragedies and help people, leading him to quit his job. During the season, Chuck consistently tries to use "The Paper" to make money, while Gary develops a precarious relationship with police Detective Ezekiel Crumb. By the season's end, Gary had begun to uncover some of the mystery surrounding the paper, including confirmation that a man named Lucius Snow received the paper from the cat before him.
Within the course of the series, Gary discovers that a few other people share his gift of receiving a newspaper early. The only people, besides Gary, who know about his gift are his parents; his friends Chuck Fishman (a former fellow stock broker) and Marissa Clark (the blind former receptionist at the brokerage); and Erica and Henry Paget, a single mother and her son (Gary gives Erica a job at McGinty's) though he tried to tell a few people such as his attorney and various police officers (Episode 407/408, "Fatal Edition"). On some occasions, he is given the ability to wake up in another time (such as in the early 20th century) to change the past. People who encounter Gary often strongly suspect (or know) that he has a secret, but do not know what it is.
During the course of the series, it is never clearly stated where the paper comes from. In one episode, Gary meets the group of people apparently responsible for giving him (as well as others) the Paper. Nothing much is revealed about them except that they have some sort of supernatural abilities, such as being able to mysteriously appear at any location.
In season four, episode 420, "Time" (the series finale that aired a few episodes early), it is briefly explained why Gary started receiving the paper. Apparently, he was given the responsibility by Lucius Snow (the man who received the Chicago Sun-Times before Gary), after Snow saved Gary's life when Gary was a child. The responsibility is represented by a pocket knife imprinted with the initials of the person next to receive the paper (Lucius gave Gary the red Swiss Army Knife). The initials mysteriously change every time the current person decides on a new person to receive the responsibility. At the end of the same episode, Gary passes on the same pen knife to a young girl named Lindsey Romick who had just lost her grandfather; and it is implied that Lindsey will begin receiving the paper when Gary is no longer able to carry on the responsibilities. * Themes
The show began with Gary being divorced by his wife, and stuck in a rut in his job. Once he begins to receive the "early edition" of the Chicago Sun-Times, he slowly gains a sense of purpose as a sort of superhero by seeking to prevent as many disasters as possible each day. The drawback to his situation is that, in his nearly-obsessional devotion to saving people, he rarely has time for his own personal life. Gary's fortuitous assumption of ownership of McGinty's Bar/Grill in downtown Chicago gives him a stable platform from which to carry out his newfound purpose. The other issue he occasionally grapples with is whether to use the information contained in the paper (such as lottery numbers, or sports scores) to profit from the paper.
The show rarely dealt with a common theme of time-travel dramas — the theory that changing the past (or the present in this case) produced potentially adverse consequences in the future. More often, the show would subtly display the butterfly effect. * Cast and characters
List of Early Edition characters: : Main cast * Gary Hobson — Kyle Chandler * Marissa Clark — Shanésia Davis-Williams * Chuck Fishman — Fisher Stevens (Narrator) (season 1–2) * The Cat — Panther, Pella, and Carl * Erica Paget — Kristy Swanson (season 3) * Henry Paget — Myles Jeffrey (season 3) * Patrick Quinn — Billie Worley (season 3–4) * Recurring cast * Detective Marion Zeke Crumb — Ron Dean * Bernie Hobson — William Devane * Lois Hobson — Tess Harper * Detective Toni Brigatti — Constance Marie * Miguel Diaz — Luis Antonio Ramos * Detective Paul Armstrong — Michael Whaley * Phil Kazakian - Fyvush Finkel * Supporting characters
The show's two key co-stars were Fisher Stevens as Chuck Fishman and Shanésia Davis-Williams as Marissa Clark.
Chuck was a foil to Gary, being a somewhat cynical, wisecracking realist in contrast to Gary's growing idealism. In early episodes, Chuck seeks to parlay the advance knowledge provided by the newspaper into windfall profits (e.g., sports betting and stock-market 'insider trading'). Over time, however, he begins to take a role in helping and backing up Gary as a problem-solver.
Davis-Williams may have performed an overlooked artistic service, in portraying a blind person able to cause one to totally overlook her blindnessdate: September 2009: . Marissa often was the voice of reasonable conscience, balancing Gary's earnest idealism against Chuck's skeptical realism.
Stevens's departure from the show after two seasons, however, fundamentally changed the dynamic of the showdateSeptember 2009: . The device of his voice-over narration was done away with, the theme music was changed, and there began a revolving door of foils for Gary, including Patrick Quinn (Billie Worley) and Erica Paget (Kristy Swanson). The latter had a romantic subplot with Gary. Fisher Stevens made several guest appearances on the show after leaving, and several of the characters stayed (such as a hard-boiled detective named Crumb, and Gary's bartender Patrick). * Guest Stars
Early Edition also featured many notable guest stars during the series' run from television, feature films, and other entertainment industries.
Notable TV regulars to appear include Felicity Huffman, Leslie Hope, John Spencer, Fyvush Finkel, Laura Leighton, Jane Krakowski, George Takei, Cynthia Nixon, Robert Picardo and Robert Duncan McNeil, Pauley Perrette, and Peri Gilpin.
Academy Award winner Louis Gossett, Jr had a major role in a second season episode, "The Medal".
Former Chicago Sun-Times publisher David Radler also appeared several times on the show as the publisher of the Sun-Times, the newspaper that was delivered to Gary, while movie reviewer Roger Ebert made a cameo as himself. Other cameos include Tara Lipinski, Coolio, Tone Loc, Dick Butkus, Pat O'Brien and Martina McBride.
There was a second-season cross-over with Chicago Hope with Hector Elizondo, Jayne Brook and Rocky Carroll playing their characters from that show. Also during the third season, CBS used an Early Edition episode as a promotional vehicle for the network's Martial Law TV series starring martial arts expert Sammo Hung. In the fourth and final season, professional wrestlers Tommy Dreamer and New Jack guest starred in the episode Mel Schwartz, Bounty Hunter.
One episode ended with a colorized clip of Rod Serling informing viewers they had just watched a tale from The Twilight Zone. * Ratings
* Cancellation and beyond
After May 27, 2000 (the end of its fourth season), CBS decided to end the series' run. Despite fan efforts to save the show, and a USA Today poll showing respondents were in favor by a two-to-one margin of keeping the "family-friendly" show on air, CBS did not renew the show for a fifth season. * Syndication
The Fox Family Channel was the first entity to acquire syndication rights to Early Edition, at a price of $500,000 per episode, and the show began airing on Fox Family in May 2000. The series debuted in wider syndication in September 2000, and was more recently seen on ION Television, where it last aired in January 2007. FamilyNet currently airs the show nightly at 9/8c. SyFy currently has the rights to air Early Edition. In Spain, the show aired first on Canal+ and, recently, by Calle 13 and Sony Entertainment Television (SET en VEO); it has been aired from Monday to Thursday from August until the end of November 2007. In Poland, Early Edition aired several times on TVP channels under the title "It Happened Tomorrow". In Estonia, Early Edition is being aired by TV 3, with the title translated to "Tomorrow's News".
Early Edition recently aired on GMC (formerly Gospel Music Channel), and returned to the current schedule in March 2011.
International: Outside the US, the series has been broadcast by the following stations under the following names:
* DVD releases
CBS DVD (distributed by Paramount) has released the first two seasons of Early Edition on DVD in Region 1 (US only).
Sony Pictures Home Entertainment owns the international DVD rights to the show, although they have not made any releases as of yet.
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Demain à la une
Série télévisée créée en 1996 | Série télévisée américaine des années 1990 | Série télévisée américaine des années 2000 | Série télévisée se déroulant à Chicago | Série télévisée fantastique | Série télévisée de CBS | Voyage dans le temps à la télévision
Liste séries TV: Demain à la une (Early Edition) est une série télévisée américaine en 90 épisodes de 44 minutes, créée par Ian Abrams, Patrick Q. Page et Vik Rubenfeld et diffusée entre le et le sur le réseau CBS.
En France, la série a été diffusée à partir du sur M6 puis sur NT1 et au Québec sur Séries+. * Synopsis
Gary Hobson, un agent de change de Chicago, est mis à la porte de chez lui par son épouse, il démissionne plus tard de son travail de financier. Installé dans un hôtel, le Blackstone, il est réveillé chaque matin à 6 heures 30 par les miaulements d'un mystérieux chat roux surnommé « Le chat de Mr Snow » se tenant devant la porte de sa chambre, avec un exemplaire de l'édition du Chicago Sun-Times du lendemain.
Avec la complicité de ses amis Marissa et Chuck, Gary décide d'essayer de changer le cours des événements à venir, sans toutefois savoir pourquoi ou comment il reçoit chaque jour ce journal. * Distribution * Principaux * Kyle Chandler (VF : Emmanuel Curtil) : Gary Hobson * Shanésia Davis-Williams (VF : Brigitte Berges) : Marissa Clark * Fisher Stevens (VF : Érik Colin) : Chuck Fishman (1996-1998) * Panther, Pella & Carl : Le Chat * Kristy Swanson (VF : Valérie Siclay) : Erica Paget (1998-1999) * Myles Jeffrey (VF : Eliott Weill) : Henry Paget (1998-1999) * Billie Worley (VF : Damien Boisseau) : Patrick Quinn (1998-2000) * Récurrents * Ron Dean (VF : Philippe Bouclet) : Détective Marion Zeke Crumb * William Devane (VF : Claude d'Yd) : Bernie Hobson * Tess Harper (VF : Jocelyne Darche) : Lois Hobson * Constance Marie (VF : Béatrice Delfe) : Détective Toni Brigatti * Luis Antonio Ramos (VF : Pierre Tissier) : Miguel Diaz * Michael Whaley (VF : Christophe Peyroux) : Détective Paul Armstrong * Guest Star * Felicity Huffman : Détective Tagliatti * Jane Krakowski : Dr Amy Handelman * Fyvush Finkel : Oncle Phil * Max Wright : Mayor Mike Garfield * Michael Warren : Connie Hooks * James Tolkan : Coach Phillips * Sammo Hung Kam-Bo : Sammo Law * Tim Kazurinsky : Walter Dalrymple * Bill Nunn : Detective Barns * Louis Gossett Jr. : Jim Matthews * Coolio : Julius "C-Roc" Ruby * Ernest Borgnine : Antonio Birelli * Épisodes * Première saison (1996-1997) * Première édition (Pilot) * Cas de conscience (The Choice) * Le Passage des cigognes (Baby) * L'Énigme de Lucius Snow (The Paper) * Qui gagne... perd ! (Thief Swipes Mayor's Dog) * Match fatal (Hoops) * Choix de vie (After Midnight) * Arme fatale (Gun) * Abus de confiance (His Girl Thursday) * Un mariage mouvementé (The Wrong Man) * Un Noël explosif (Christmas) * Chaud et froid (Frostbit) * Une fille dans la mafia (The Mob Wife) * La Grande menace - 1re: partie (The Wall - Part 1) * La Grande menace - 2e: partie (The Wall - Part 2) * Le Shérif de Chicago (Bat Masterson) * Juré malgré lui (The Jury) * Voyances (Psychic) * La Vieille dame et le chat (The Cat) * Le Fantôme de l'opéra (Phantom at the Opera) * La Foi (Faith) * Tel fils, tel père (Dad) * L'Amour est aveugle (Love is Blind) * Deuxième saison (1997-1998) * Un nouveau départ (Home) * La Médaille d'honneur (The Medal) * Un mariage explosif (The Wedding) * La Coqueluche de Chicago (Jenny Sloan) * Cure de jouvence (Downsized) * Anges et démons (Angels and Devils) * La Mélodie du passé (Redfellas) * Extrêmes (March in Time) * Champions d'un jour (A Regular Joe) * Les Jeux de l'amour (A Bris is Just a Bris) * Sauvetage inespéré (A Minor Miracle) * Une princesse à Chicago (Romancing the Throne) * Sois un héros et tais-toi ! (Walk, Don't Run) * Le Retour de Crumb (The Return of Crumb) * La Malédiction de la momie (Mum's the Word) * Esprit de famille (Where or When) * Loïs et Bernie (The Fourth Carpathian) * Entre la vie et la mort (The Quality of Mercy) * Faux et usage de faux (Show Me the Monet) * Sale temps pour un coup de foudre (Don't Walk Away, Renee) * Retour de flammes (Hot Time in the Old Town) * Vision finale (Second Sight) * Troisième saison (1998-1999) * Hautes tensions (Blackout) * Carambolage (Collision) * La formule magique (A Horse Is a Horse) * Le bal des torpilleurs (Lt. Hobson, USN) * Un monde sans limite (Saint Nick) * Mon sorcier bien aimé (Halloween) * Chic, revoilà Chuck ! (Up Chuck) * Coupable d'innocence (Deadline) * Fausse monnaie (In Gary We Trust) * Règlements de compte à Chicago (Nest Egg) * Un véritable puzzle (Teen Angels) * Duo d'enfer (Slippity-Doo-Dah) * Pour un million de dollars... (The Last Untouchable) * La Révélation (Just one of Those Things) * Coup de foudre à la Saint-Valentin (Funny Valentine) * Qui a peur du rappeur ? (Number One with a Bullet) * Amour, gloire et divorce (Two to Tangle) * L'Épreuve (Fate) * Crumb en danger (Crumb Again) * Quarantaine (Pinch Hitters) * Une cavale peu banale (Home Groan) * Le Flic de Shanghaï... à Chicago (Play It Again Sammo) * Dilemme explosif (Blowing Up is Hard to Do) * Quatrième saison (1999-2000) * Association de bienfaiteurs (The Out-of-Towner) * Une famille à toute épreuve (Duck Day Afternoon) * Visite surprise (Take Me out to the Ballgame) * L'Homme de glace (The Iceman Taketh) * Clic clash (Camera Shy) * Monsieur catastrophe (Wild Card) * L'Ennemi public n°1 - 1re: partie (Fatal Edition - Part 1) * L'Ennemi public n°1 - 2e: partie (Fatal Edition - Part 2) * Monsieur météo (Weathergirl) * Un journal sans fin (Run, Gary, Run) * Quitte ou double (Rose) * Le Bon Samaritain (Snow Angels) * La Petite fille et le chat (Gifted) * L'Examen (Performance Anxiety) * Faux témoin (False Witness) * Songe et mensonges (The Play's the Thing) * Confiance aveugle (Blind Faith) * Piège de jade (Occasionally Amber) * Le Chasseur de primes (Mel Schwartz, Bounty Hunter) * Ce jour-là (Time) * L'Incorruptible (Everybody Goes to Rick's) * Drôle de malchance (Luck o'the Irish) * Commentaires
La série est inspirée du film américain de René Clair It Happened Tomorrow (en français C'est arrivé demain), réalisé en 1944.
Le bâtiment servant de décor au McGinty's bar est un ancien bâtiment des pompiers de Chicago, datant de 1887, situé au 228 Illinois Avenue. * L'histoire
Au cours des épisodes, on apprend qu'il n'est pas le seul à avoir un journal de ce type. Chaque grande ville connaît son Gary Hobson. Il apprendra également qu'il n'est pas le premier à recevoir ce journal et qu'il ne sera pas le dernier. L'ancien détenteur du journal s'appelait Lucius Snow. Il est mort la veille du jour où Gary reçoit pour la première fois le journal du lendemain. * Produits dérivés * DVD * Early Edition - The First Season VO ASIN B000YA82GA
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علم النفس الفسيولوجي
علم النفس | فروع علم النفس
علم النفس الفسيولوجي من فروع علم النفس يدرس الأساس الفسيولوجي للسلوك الإنساني، وعلاقة جسم الإنسان بسلوكه؛ فهو - أي هذا العلم - يتخصص في دراسة أثر الجهاز العصبي والغدد الصماء على السلوك الإنساني والشخصية والأمراض النفسية والعقلية. ويدرس هذا العلم الجوانب الفسيولوجية في الانفعالات المصاحبة للدوافع.
أبرز المؤلفات العربية : * علم النفس الفسيولوجي - د/ أحمد عكاشة. * علم النفس الفسيولوجي - د/ سامي عبد القوي. * علم النفس الفسيولوجي: فسيولوجيا سلوك الإنسان والتعلم - د/ حمدي علي الفرماوي. * علم النفس الفسيولوجي: دراسة في تفسير السلوك الإنساني - د/ عبد الرحمن العيسوي. * أسس علم النفس الفزيولوجي - د/ السيد أبو شعيشع. * علم النفس الفسيولوجي: مقدمة في الأسس السيكوفسيولوجية والنيورلوجية للسلوك الإنساني - د/ عبد الوهاب محمد كامل. * علم النفس الفسيولوجي - د/ عزت سيد إسماعيل.
بذرة علوم:
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Physiological psychology
Physiological psychology | Biopsychology | Human physiology
Physiological psychology is a subdivision of behavioral neuroscience (biological psychology) that studies the neural mechanisms of perception and behavior through direct manipulation of the brains of nonhuman animal subjects in controlled experiments. Unlike other subdivisions within biological psychology, the main focus of physiological psychological research is the development of theories that explain brain-behavior relationships rather than the development of research that has translational valuedateMay 2010: . It is sometimes alternatively called psychophysiology, and in recent years also cognitive neuroscience.
One example of physiological psychology research is the study of the role of the hippocampus in learning and memory. This can be achieved by surgical removal of the hippocampus from the rat brain followed by an assessment of memory tasks by that same rat.
In the past, physiological psychologists received much of their training in psychology departments in major universities. Currently, physiological psychologists are also being trained in behavioral neuroscience or biological psychology programs that are affiliated with psychology departments, or in interdisciplinary neuroscience programs. * References==
Reflist: Psychology: psych-stub:
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Psychologie physiologique
psychologie
La psychologie physiologique est une autre branche des neurosciences comportementales (psychologie biologique) qui étudie les mécanismes neurologiques de la perception et du comportement à travers une manipulation cérébrale directe des cobayes (animaux) . Contrairement aux autres branches de la psychologie biologique, le but principal de la recherche dans la psychologie physiologique est le développement de théories les relations cerveau-comportement. D'une manière alternative, elle est appelée psychophysiologie et également neurosciences cognitives.
Un exemple de psychologie physiologique est l'étude du rôle de l'hippocampe dans la compréhension et la mémoire. L'hippocampe peut être chirurgicalement retiré du cerveau d'un cobaye (rat de la laboratoire) et suivi d'un test de mémoire par ce même cobaye .
Références : références: Palette Psychologie: psychologie:
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هليون
هليونية
ترجمة آلية: تاريخمايو 2008: تدقيق: الهليون نبات يستعمل كخضار. * الوصف النباتي
الهليون نبات عشبي معمر. يصل ارتفاعه إلى 100-150 سم، مع ساق قوية تنبت مع فروع كثيرة - ريشي الخضرة. أوراقه إبرية - مثل cladodes (modified stems) في الزاوية الحجم يترك ؛ وهم 6-32 مم 1 مم طويل وعريض، وتتجمع معا 4-15. الزهور هي على شكل جرس، مخضوضر - أبيض إلى مصفر، 4.5-6.5 مم طويلة، مع ستة بتلات جزئيا متجمعة معا في القاعدة ؛ يتم إنتاجها بصورة منفردة أو في مجموعات من 2-3 في المفارق للغصون الصغيرة. وهو بالعادة منفصل الجنس، فالأزهار المذكرة والمؤنثة منفصلة، ولكن في بعض الأحيان توجد الأزهار الخنثى. هو ثمرة عليق حمراء صغيرة 6-10 مم. والهليون تؤكل في جميع أنحاء العالم، عموما مع البيض في الصين ومع اللحم في بريطانيا. ولا تعتبر طعام مترف لأنها رخيصة جدا ويسهل الحصول عليها.
موطنه الأصلي السواحل الغربية من أوروبا (من شمال إسبانيا إلى شمال ايرلندا، وبريطانيا العظمى، وشمال غرب ألمانيا) باعتبارها الهليون officinalis تنوع. Prostratus (dumort.) corb.، وتتميز أعماله المنخفضة النمو، وغالبا ما ساجد ينبت فقط من ارتفاع 30-70 سم، وأقصر طول 2-18مم
* التاريخ
لقد استخدم الهليون منذ العصور القديمة في الطبخ والأدوية، نظرا لنكهته القوية وصفاته النادرة، وقد زرع منذ آلاف السنين، وأول من زرعه هم المقدونيون قبل حوالي 200 سنة ق.م وذلك. وهناك وصفة للطبخ الهليون باقية في أقدم كتب الوصفات، apicius 'sالقرن الثالث (AD De re coquinaria)، الكتاب الثالث. وكان يزرعه المصريون القدماء، واليونان والرومان، وكانوا يأكلون قسما منها طازجة في موسمها ويجففونها بغرض تخزينها واستخدامها في فصل الشتاء ،وكانت قد فقدت شعبيتها في العصور الوسطى ولكنها عادت من جديد لتكون من الخضار المفضلة في القرن السابع عشر. * الاستخدامات * الطبخ
يوجد ثلاثة أنواع من الهليون في متجر العرض، الهليون الأبيض الذي يظهر في الخلف الهليون الأخضر يظهر في الوسط. الهليون الذي في المقدمة ويسمى ornithogalum pyrenaicum))، هي التسمية الشائعة البرية الهليون، وأحيانا يسمى"حمام الهليون".
فقط البراعم الصغيرة تصلح للأكل في الهليون. الهليون هو منخفض السعرات الحرارية، ولا يحتوي على دهون أو الكولسترول، ومنخفضة جدا في الصوديوم. وهو مصدر جيد لحمض الفوليك، البوتاسيوم، والألياف الغذائية، وروتين. فإن الأحماض الأمينيه الهليونية يقتبس اسمها من الهليون، الهليون النباتية غنية في هذه المواد والمكونات الغذائية.
الجذور تحضر وتطبخ في عدد من الطرق في جميع أنحاء العالم. في منطقة آسيا - أسلوب الطبخ، للهليون هو في كثير من الأحيان – على شكل قلي سريع. أما المطاعم التي توجد في الولايات المتحدة كثيرا ما يطبخ الهليون – قليا سريعا مع الدجاج، أو الجمبري، أو اللحم، كما تطبخ ملفوفة في اللحم المقدد. الهليون يمكن أيضا يشوى بسرعة على الفحم أو الخشب الصلب أكثر من الجمر. وهو مكون في طبخ الطعام بالبخار والشوربات. في النمط الفرنسي، ومن المغلي أو البخار، ويطبخ مع صلصله البيض والزبده بعصير الليمون، وذاب الزبد أو زيت الزيتون وجبن البارميزان الإيطالي أو الميونيز. أفضل الهليون يميل إلى أن يكون النمو المبكرة (الأول من الموسم)، وكثيرا ما يكون ببساطة على البخار ويطبخ مع الزبدة المذابة. طول طبخ الهليون في أواني الطهي يسمح للبراعم بالنضج على
البخار بلطف.
الهليون يمكن أيضاأن يخلل ويخزن لعدة سنوات. بعض الماركات قدتحمل العلامة هذه الاتهامات بأنها " marinated " مما يعني الشيء نفسه.
والجزء الأسفل من الهليون غالبا ما تحتوي على الرمال، وعلى هذا النحو فان الإعداد السليم له عموما وهذا ما ينصح به هو الطبخ.
القيمة الغذائية : ٪ من usrda
حجم الحصة 5،3 أوقيه
• البروتين 6 ٪
• السعرات الحراريه8
• 20٪ من فيتامين A
• 3غراما من البروتين
• وفيتامين C 20 ٪
• الكربوهيدرات 15 ٪
• 0 غرام دهون
• فيتامين B 6 ٪
• الكولسترول 0 مللي غرام
• حامض النيكوتين 6 ٪
• 5 مللي غرامات الكالسيوم
• الصوديوم 2 ٪
• البوتاسيوم 400 مللي غرام
• حديد 3 غراما
• المغنيسيوم 4 ٪
النحاس 4 ٪ * الاستخدام الطبي
الساق الأرضية للهليون والجذر ethnomedically)) يستخدم لعلاج التهابات المسالك البولية، وكذلك الكليتين والمثانة من الحصوة والترسبات. أيضا يعتقد أن لها خصائص aphrodisiac)).
هضم الهليون قد يأتي على هجوم من النقرس في بعض الأفراد بسبب ارتفاع مستوى purines. * الزراعة
أنظر أيضا : قائمة الأمراض الهليون
منذ الهليون غالبا ما ينشأ في الموانئ البحرية، وهو يترعرع في تربة مالحة جدا أن تكون عادية لتنمو فيها الأعشاب الضارة وهكذا بقليل من الملح وكان يستخدم تقليديا لقمع الأعشاب الضارة في سرير يقصد الهليون ؛ لها مساوئ وهي أن التربة لا يمكن أن تستخدم لزراعة أي شيء آخر. 'تيجان' زرعت في الشتاء، وأول ما يبدو في براعم الربيع ؛ الأولى الفضلات أو 'thinnings' هي المعروفة باسم فتحه الهليون. وقد فتحه رقيقة وينبت.
يرجى ملاحظه قلت "زراعة" لا "زرع". أنا أحيانا تحصل وردا على سؤال حول تزايد فان الهليون النباتات من البذور. إن كان حاول قبل سنوات عديدة في منطقتنا دون نجاح يذكر. لشيء واحد، والهليون التاج يحتاج إلى زرعه عميقا حتى إن لم يكن لديك الرماح طويل ضعيف، وإذا كانت هذه البذور التي زرعت فيها انه يتعين عليه الإنبات، التاج لن تكون عميقة بما فيه الكفاية. إنني أوصي بقوة عاما الحضانة نمت التيجان. وهى صغيرة بما يكفى إنهم لا يعانون من ذلك كثيرا من زرع الصدمة. وحتى سنتين من العمر لا تفعلوا التيجان وكذلك التيجان عاما) لأنها كبيرة بحيث أن زرع صدمة يلغي أي فائدة أكبر من حجم التاج.
كثيرا ما تحصل وردا على سؤال حول زراعة اوتحريك التيجان الناضجة إلى موقع مختلف. وفي حين أن ذلك ممكنا من الناحية التقنية، ونصيحتي على أن الفكرة هذه يجب أن تنسى! يتوج أكثر من عامين القديمة بصورة عامة ضخمة، ومن الصعب جدا الحصول على إخراجهم من الأرض في قطعة واحدة. الزرع هو الصدمة الأكبر وبالمقابل فان النتيجة النهائية هي إن انتقلت التيجان عادة ما يموت. حتى ولو كانوا لا يموت فورا، وأنت ربما تحريك fusarium تعفن جذور الكائن، والتي يكاد يكون من المؤكد أن المصابين التاج، مع أنها، وأضعفت شرط التيجان يقعون ضحية لهذا المرض بسرعة أكبر كثيرا.
يفضل الهليون الترب الرملية ويحتاج الهليون للزراعة في خندق بعمق 8-10 بوصة. طين التربة ينبغي أن يكون ضحالة الخنادق، وحوالي 6 بوصة في عمق. الصفوف في ميشيغان زرعت في الفترة من 4 إلى 5 أقدام إلى جانب إعطاء السرخس مجال للنمو في الصيف. التيجان ينبغي زرعت ما بين 8 و 12 بوصة وبصرف النظر عن المركز. قليلا من الفوسفات والأسمدة وينبغي وضع في الخنادق قبل التيجان هي مجموعة. كن حذرا إن استخدام الأسمدة انك لا أيضا لديها ما يكفي البوتاسيوم أو النيتروجين لحرق التاج. ي عادة ما يوصي السوبر فوسفات الثلاثي، والذي يعرف أيضا 0-46-0، إذا كنت ذاهبة إلى استخدام الأسمدة الجافة. اعتقد يمكنك أيضا شراء السائل، رفيعة الفوسفات، وأسمدة الزرع. نحن لسنا على يقين من بالضبط ماذا الفوسفات هو المهم، على الرغم من أننا يمكن التكهن بما انه يعزز التنمية للجذور النظام ويساعد في تقليل زرع الصدمة. ويبدو أن هذا الاستحقاق بغض النظر عن أن يحدث من مستوى الفسفور بالفعل في التربة.
لا تملأ تماما في الخنادق، وعلى الرغم من انه في بعض الأحيان ذلك بنجاح جدا على الاراضي الرملية. النهج الأفضل هو لتغطية التيجان مع حوالي 3 بوصة من التربة. اسمحوا الجديدة من النباتات التي تنمو من خلال التربة لنحو 6 أسابيع وإضافة آخر 3 بوصة من التربة. انتظر النباتات ذهبت نواءمه في أواخر الخريف أو في فصل الربيع قبل أن يبدأ النمو إلى نهاية ملء الخنادق.
الهليون التجارية في ميشيغان يستمر عادة ما بين 12 و 15 عاما، ولكن في التربة إن لم نمت قبل المحصول وهي معزولة عن سائر الميادين الهليون متوسط العمر المتوقع يمكن أن تكون أطول. عدد قليل من الناس أن الهليون سرير يزيد عمرها على 50 سنة. ومع ذلك، يمكن أن تبدأ الرمح قطرة قطرة كما على سرير الأعمار. * حصاد الهليون
لا يمكن الحصاد في السنة التي زرع فيها النبات ويمكن في السنة التي تلي الغرس. فان الهليون نبات بحاجة إلى النمو ووضع صحي التاج وانه سيكون في حاجة إلى كل طاقاته على القيام بذلك. السنة الثالثة - بعد زراعة المحصول ونحن عموما الميدان لمدة حوالي أسبوعين. أفضل طريقة لننظر ومن حيث عدد من الفضلات. ونحن نحاول الحصاد الميادين 8 إلى 12 مرات في السنة الأولى من الحصاد. عدد التي نستخدمها يعتمد على قوة الميدان. أ قطافها اتخاذها كلما الرماح طويل بما فيه الكفاية للحصول على الحصاد، وعادة ما بين 8 و 10 بوصة، والتي قد تكون كل يوم في الطقس الحار أو كل أربعة أيام في طقس بارد جدا. في الطقس أكثر دفئا وستجدون أن نوعية نصيحته ستكون أفضل إذا الرماح يتم الحصول عليها في أقصر نهاية هذا الحجم المدى. السنة الثانية من الحصاد سنقوم اختيار ميدان لنحو أربعة أسابيع والسنة الثالثة من حصاد سنقوم اختيار لكامل الموسم والذي هو ستة أو سبعة أسابيع. من حيث عدد من المحاصيل لموسم كامل. المحاصيل قد تكون أكثر أو اقل اعتمادا على قوة ميدان أشار تخزين الكربوهيدرات في الجذور. ومع ذلك، فان معظم بستانيين يعانون من الافتقار إلى إمكانيه الوصول إلى الأدوات الحديثة اللازمة لقياس تلك المستويات. شيء واحد يمكنك استخدام ما هو دليل وقطر عددا من الرماح انت الحصاد. واذا كان عدد من الرماح في الحصاد تنخفض بشكل كبير بعد 15 الفضلات أو نحو ذلك، أو إذا الرمح قطرات قطر، قد ترغب في أن تنظر في انهاء الحصاد المبكر. هذه هي الغله قطرات بادرة طيبة ان التاج هو بداية لتجربة الاجهاد.
الزارعون الحصاد ينبغي للجميع ان تأتي الرماح حتى نهاية فترة الحصاد، حتى الصغيرة منها قطر نسميه "السياط". ستجدون أن السياط هي أعلى عموما في الألياف وأشد من اكل كبيرة قطرها الرماح. وذلك لان الجزء الأكبر من الالياف في الهليون هو في الجلود، وجعل أكبر الرمح الأكثر عطاء. وهذا هو عكس ما تفترض المستهلكين عند شراء الهليون الطازجه، ولكن مع ذلك صحيح.
كما أنني احصل على اسءله عدة قطاعات مقابل العض من الهليون. ونحن لا نرى أي فارق على ما إذا كان المصنع هو الرمح قطع أسفل سطح التربة، وعلى سطح التربة أو معضوض من فوق سطح التربة. معظم العالم تخفيضات على الهليون، ولكن نحن في ميشيغان الخاطف لنا. العض وقد ميزة للمنزل البستاني في أن كنت حقا لا تحتاج إلى تقليم معضوض الهليون لانها عموما راحة من فوق الاشجار الخشبيه، والالياف عالية - قسم الرمح. كنت قد لاحظت أن الطازجه الهليون شرائها من دول أخرى وعادة ما يتطلب قدرا كبيرا من التشذيب للتخلص من اسفل الباب الخشبي، حتى لو الأبيض "المءخره" هي قلصت من قبلكم شرائه. العض عموما يزيل هذه المشكلة.
بعد نهاية موسم الحصاد، والرماح وينبغي ان يسمح لتنمو. أ الرمح هي حقا مجرد مصنع إطلاق النار، ويطلق النار على ستنمو إلى أن تنضج السرخس اعادة رسوم التاج لموسم الحصاد القادم.
إدارة الهليون سرخس :
ومن المهم أن نتذكر أن الهليون السرخس هو "المصنع" ان امدادات الطاقة إلى التاج وتخزين الجذور لمحصول العام القادم. بستاني ان اي شيء يمكن ان نفعله لابقاء صحيه، السرخس الخضراء طوال ما بعد الحصاد في موسم النمو ستزيد الغله وجوده الموسم القادم. السرخس لا ينبغي ابدا ان مشذب أو تخفض. تنافس الاعشاب الضاره والحشرات والامراض والآفات ينبغي يسيطر طوال موسم النمو. ومع ذلك، فهي ليست فكرة جيدة لتشجيع النمو المفرط السرخس في أواخر الموسم، اب / اغسطس وايلول / سبتمبر في ميشيغان. وهذا يعني ان مياه الري والاسمدة ويجب أن تتوقف بعد أول اغسطس. يستغرق قدرا كبيرا من الطاقة من التاج ينمو جديدة سرخس، وبعد هذا التاريخ هناك قد لا يكون كافيا اليوم الخفيفه والطقس الدافئ ترك السماح للمصنع بما فيه الكفايه لجعل photosynthate جديدة لتحل محل الطاقة المفقودة في تزايد السرخس. * مكافحة الاعشاب
مكافحة الأعشاب الضارة مهمة جدا في الهليون بنجاح متزايد، وخاصة في أول عامين بعد زراعة عند الشباب التيجان هي أهم الضعيفه. الزارعون التجارية استخدام مجموعة متنوعة من السيطرة على الاعشاب الضاره ومبيدات الاعشاب. ومعظم هؤلاء إما غير متوفره أو لبستانيون باهظه الثمن لاستخدامها على اقل من أساس تجاري. إذا كنت حقا غريبة عن مبيدات الاعشاب واقترح ان تزور الموقع التالي على شبكة الإنترنت، http://www.msue.msu.edu/vegetable/weeds.htm، الذي هو جزء من الخضار مجال الخبرة شبكة الإنترنت على موقع جامعة ولاية ميتشغان. سؤال الأول هو في كثير من الأحيان للحصول على استخدام الملح لمكافحة الاعشاب. هذا وقد مورست على نطاق واسع في الولايات المتحدة في القرن التاسع عشر. الهليون هو متسامح جدا لمعظم الملح والاعشاب ليست كذلك. الصوديوم في الملح يمكن أن تحل محل بعض فعلا من المصنع البوتاسيوم والحاجة قد تكون هناك بعض المنافع الصغيرة في fusarium قمع من الملح. ولكن، فإنها تأخذ الكثير من الملح! واحد السيطرة على الامراض في دراسة اجرتها الدكتورة ماري hausbeck في جامعة ولاية ميتشغان في التسعينات، تم تطبيق الملح يصل إلى مستويات 1000 ليرة للدونم الواحد. وفي 1000 جنيه للدونم الواحد المستوى، وبعض مكافحة الاعشاب وحظ. أفضل لمكافحة الاعشاب الضاره وربما تتطلب أكثر من الملح. كما يمكنك ان تتخيل، وتطبيق الملح في المبالغ التي تزيد عن 1000 ألف جنيه للدونم الواحد وقد اثار جانبية قليلة. على طين التربة ويمكن ان يتسبب في خسارة كاملة للبنية التربة مما تسبب في التربة على اتخاذ ملموس - مثل الاتساق. على الاراضي الرملية في هذا الشأن لم يكن لاحظ، ولكن هذا هو الأرجح لأن الملح كان جرفت بواسطة مياه الأمطار يترشح من خلال التربة. امامكم محاولة الملح بوصفه مكافحة الاعشاب الضاره، ويمكنك أيضا ان تنظر في أن عددا قليلا جدا من النباتات الأخرى التي يستحسن ان يمكنهم التعامل مع الملح مستويات الهليون، حتى أنت ذاهبه إلى ان التصق مع ميت المجال الخاص بك في حديقة لعقود بعد أن لم يعد الهليون اجراء التصحيح. الحرث هو اخر خيار ممكن. الزارعون التجارية في ميشيغان جميلة قد تخلت عن الكثير من الحراثه لأن المعدات يمكن قطع الهليون في التيجان، وفتح لهم حتى fusarium تعفن جذور وبالتالي اختصار حياة الميدان. إذا كان البيت بستانيون يريدون حتى الهليون وجود سرير، في أوائل الربيع قبل الرماح يبدأ بالنمو من التاج هو الأسلم، وعلى الرغم من أن بعض الناس أيضا حتى مباشرة بعد الحصاد الأخير هو المتخذة. الراحل الحرث ستكون بالتأكيد قطع بعض من الرماح التي كان يمكن ان تحولت جديدة السرخس تستخدم حتى بعض من التيجان احتياطي الطاقة. كما تذكر حتى بشكل ضحل لكم في الفلاح وسيتيح. وفي حين انني ليست لديه خبرة مع الجراثيم العضويه، ويمكنني ان ارى اي سبب يحول دون ورقة للنبات أو القش الجرثومه التطبيقيه 3 إلى 5 بوصات العميق بعد السرخس بدأ ينمو في الصيف لن تكون فعالة أيضا. * الحشرات
الهليون هو هجوم من جانب عدد من الحشرات في ميشيغان، وربما أكثر في أجزاء أخرى من الولايات المتحدة. أول واحدة ستلاحظ في الربيع هو الدوده. في ميشيغن، ونرى ان الدوده البيضاء الأولى. الدوده البيضاء - الشتاء أكثر من ألف يرقة كما ويمكن ان يبدأ مهاجما الرماح في اقرب وقت ظهورها في الربيع. المعتاد ان الضرر هو ان نتائج القمة يأكلونه من الرمح.
المشترك الهليون الخنفسه هو القادم الآفات الرئيسية في منطقتنا الزمني. هذا هو فريد خنفساء الملونة مع أبيض واسود اللوحه نمط ميدانيه على مجموعة من المارونيين. رئيسة الاضرار خلال موسم الحصاد هو الغراء السود والبيض على الرماح. هذه البيض، والتي يمكن ان تكون عديدة، هي مستطيل والخروج من عصا الرمح. وتستغرق هذه الآفات من خلال موسم الحصاد وتفريخ اليرقات تتغذى على تنامي سرخس، وكثيرا ما الاحمرار السرخس تماما من إذا تركت بلا ضابط.
الظلام من جانب والدوده أيضا يصل خلال موسم الحصاد، ولكن عادة اسبوعين بعد الدوده البيضاء، ومنذ ما يزيد في فصل الشتاء - كما البيض. هذه الدوده تتغذى على الجانب من الرمح إذ ينمو مما أدى إلى منعطف، في كثير من الأحيان في شكل المفتاح. وفي الوقت الحاضر، carbaryl، العنصر النشط في معظم حديقة الغبار، وكثيرا ما يستخدم من قبل اصحاب المنازل لمراقبة كل من هذه الآفات. ومع ذلك، carbaryl 'sصاحب البيت الاستخدامات هي أن تتم مراجعتها من قبل وكالة حمايه البيئة، وإذا كان ذلك هو العلامه الغي، بديلا ستكون هناك حاجة إلى العثور عليه. لcutworms، carbaryl يجب أن يستخدم كوسيله للرذاذ والساءله ومن أفضل لتطبيقها قبل لحظات من الشمس يحدد cutworms هي ليلة الطاعمون. ومن المهم ان نتذكر انه إذا كنت تستعمل carbaryl عليك الانتظار 24 ساعة على الاقل قبل التقاط تعامل الهليون. اتبع العلامه جميع الاتجاهات عند تطبيق هذا أو اي مبيدات. * مكافحة الامراض
الامراض التي غالبا ما تكون أكثر ضررا لالهليون آفات النباتات. وهناك اثنان foliar الامراض الرئيسية في ميشيغان، والهليون الصدأ stemphylium الارجوانيه البقعه. الاصحاح هو أداة هامة في السيطرة على هذه الامراض. وبما ان كلا من الامراض التي تنتقل من الحطام من السنة السابقة على الظهور الرماح والسرخس، وهو مفيد لا زالة الانقاض من السنة السابقة السرخس في مطلع الشتاء أو أوائل الربيع وتدمير أو السماد العضوي لانها تقتل أكثر من امضاء الشتاء - هياكل كلا من هذه الامراض. وبما ان كلا من هذه الامراض تحتاج إلى ظروف رطبة تنمو، وآخر من الممارسات الثقافيه ويمكن لذلك ان اسرة النبات الساءده يمكن ان تهب رياح الصيف طول الصف والجافه بها السرخس بسرعة. قليلا أوسع صف التباعد، وربما 6 أقدام، وأوسع المباعده بين التيجان ويمكن أيضا ان تساعد في تحسين حركة وتجفيف الهواء من السرخس. إذا تعذر ذلك، السرخس وينبغي التعامل مع اي مبيد الفطريات على أساس منتظم، وبعد اسبوعين وكثيرا ما تستخدم في العلاجات الوقاءيه، طوال فصل الصيف لمنع الاحمرار من السابق لاوانه للالسرخس. مبيد الفطريات العلاجات التجارية الهليون الزارعون في ميشيغان عندما تبدأ براعم جديدة تماما ferned بها حتى الأسبوع الأول من شهر سبتمبر.
ارجواني بقعة الصدأ، وغالبا ما يكون من الصعب للبستاني العاديين إلى جانب تل. ارجواني بقعة وغالبا ما يظهر على الهليون الرماح أثناء الحصاد. وعند هذه النقطه المرض، كما يوحي الاسم، يشبه البقع الارجوانيه وفي الحالات الشديدة قد يكون رمادي بقعة في المركز. هذا المرض لا يزال يمثل مشكلة عامة لبستانيين، منذ الطبخ وعادة ما يسبب البقع تختفي من الرماح. ارجواني بقعة السرخس خلال الموسم هو أكثر خطورة. آفات لها لون بنفسجي ضارب إلى السمرة - وعادة ما تكون غير منتظمة الشكل والغارقة.
آفات على القصبة السفلى ليست خطيرة بما فيه الكفايه ما لم العديدة إلى نطاق القصبة، ولكن على فروع صغيرة أو الابر ويمكن ان تتسبب في إسقاط ابرة. منذ القصبة عموما لا يزال اخضر، وكثيرا ما تفوت بستانيون ظهور هذا المرض، ولكن إذا كنت اشعار السجاد الاصفر من الابر دون السرخس، فان هذا المرض قد فعلت ربما يترتب عليه من اضرار.
الصدأ يمكن ان يكون أكثر ضررا حتى المرض. وهو سريع جدا يتحرك بمجرد ان بدأ يحصل. وخلافا للارجواني البقعه، ولديها ثلاث آفات متميزه. أقرب الافات الكبيرة، ونصف بوصة من جانب ¼ بوصة، والتي أثيرت، على شكل عين وcreamy في لون برتقالي. انها يمكن ان تظهر في وقت متأخر على الحصاد اللحيه الخفيفه في فترة الحصاد. منتصف الصيف هو نوع الافه مظلم - الاحمر، لون صدئ، واثير على شكل قضيب عندما يفتح البثره. وخلافا أيضا الارجوانيه البقعه، وهذه الآفات هي تقتصر على القصبة والفروع، ولكن عندما يمكن ان تتسبب في العديد من النباتات لكامل بدوره براون. في خريف هذه الآفات يتحول الثالث نوع الافه. خصائصه هي تماما مثل صيف النسخه، سوى لون أسود. هذه المرحلة الأخيرة هي أكثر من امضاء الشتاء - المرحلة من الفطر. الزارعون معاملة تجارية فقط المرحلتين الأوليين من هذا المرض، وعادة مع المرشات وقائية للمبيدات الفطريات تحتوي على المكونات النشطه chlorothalonil أو ebdc - نوع مبيد الفطريات التي غالبا ما توجد في مجتمعه الحشرات / الأمراض حديقة المرشات. إذا كنت تريد من التفاصيل حول هذا العنوان التجاري ومبيدات الفطريات، http://www.msue.msu.edu/vegetable ستاخذك إلى واو msu الخضر aoe موقعا على الإنترنت مختلف القوائم والنشرات التي تتناول السيطرة على الامراض في الخضر. نشرات اثنين آخرين للبحث عن هذا الموقع هي "بيربل بقعة المرض من الهليون" و"مرض الصدأ من الهليون."
الرئيسية التربة المرض من الهليون في ميشيغان هو الجذر fusarium تعفن، والتي تسببها الفطريات التي توجد في جميع أنواع التربة في بعض المستوى. الهليون هو بلد مضيف ممتاز لهذا المرض والسكان ينمو باطراد في السرير الخاص بك الهليون مع مرور الوقت. وفي الوقت الحاضر الوحيد هو السيطرة على ابقاء الهليون التيجان صحيه حتى يتمكنوا من النجاح في مكافحة هذا المرض لاطول وقت ممكن. التيجان المتضرره سيكون لها الطوب الاحمر تعفن ان تعمل من خارج التاج حتى في التاج هو قتل. وهذا المرض ما يفسر أيضا انها ليست فكرة جيدة لمصنع ثان من المحاصيل التيجان في قديم الهليون سرير. لان مستويات fusarium بالفعل عالية، وغلة العمر المتوقع من السرير الجديد هو اقل بكثير.
غير المسببه للامراض ومشاكل الهليون : بستانيون أيضا قد ترى عدة شروط أخرى اعتقد انها قد تكون تسببت بها الآفات، ولكن الحقيقة هي التي تسببها اشياء أخرى. الرمل في مهب رياح عالية في معظم الأحيان أحد من هذه الاشياء. في مهب الريح والرمل يمكن ان تجرح الرماح، عادة على الجانب المواجه للريح. وهذا ما يجعل خلايا غير مجروح على الجانب الآخر من الرمح تنمو بسرعة أكبر التسبب الرمح بنت ينمو في اتجاه الريح ان تسبب اصابات. الصقيع كما يمكن ان يكون مدمرا لالهليون سرير، والرماح إلى التسبب الأولى على اتخاذ زجاجي، مظلم - أخضر اللون وبعد ذلك انتقل إلى انكمش والاسود. في كل من هذه الحالات المتضرره الرماح ينبغي ازالة جديدة وسمح لتنمو. الرماح يمكن أيضا التوصل إلى بنت الملتويه واذا اريد لها ان الذي يزرع في التربة الصخريه. ليس هناك سوى القليل جدا مما يمكن عمله ازاء هذه الحاله والانحناء لا يؤثر على نوعية الاكل الرمح. * التسميد
عموماً، تستند توصيات التسميد للهليون على تحليل حديث للتربة (ثلاث سنوات أو أقل). في العام، الهليون يمثل ثغرة المستخدم من البوتاسيوم، والفوسفور الاستخدامات الأخرى قليلة جدا عما كان عليه الحال في السنة التيجان هي مجموعة، وتستخدم كميات صغيرة من النيتروجين. أنواع الأسمدة لا يبدو أن من المهم جدا، غير أن هناك بعض الادله على ان الامونيوم - أنواع الاسمدة النيتروجينية- قد تؤدي إلى زيادة الاحتمالات بالإصابة بفطر المغزلاوية Fusarium: . وهذا يعني ان النترات - أنواع مثل نترات الكالسيوم قد تكون أفضل، على الرغم من انها أكثر كلفة بكثير. الكبريت في بعض المناطق قد يكون من الضروري أيضاً، ودرجة الحموضة المرتفعة جداً في بعض الحالات من المغذيات الدقيقة مثل المنغنيز ويجوز أيضا ناقص. * الري
في ميشيغان وشرق الولايات المتحدة، لا يكون الري ضرورياً عادة، وذلك لأن الهليون متعمق الجذور، وكثيراً ما يصل عمقها إلى 3 أمتار. في المناطق القاحلة قد يكون بعض الري ضرورياً، وفي تلك الحالة يجب توخي الحذر لأن الري يخلق بيئة مثالية لأمراض الأوراق.
الهليون الأبيض :
وخلافا للاعتقاد الشائع، ليست بيضاء الهليون متنوعة. انه يعني ببساطة الهليون الرماح نمت في غياب أشعة الشمس بحيث لا تضع اليخضور. الهليون الأبيض لديها بشكل طفيف أحلى مذاقا واقل من الالياف الخضراء الهليون. في أجزاء من أوروبا، وخاصة ألمانيا وهولندا وهذه هي الطريقة الأساسية التي يزرع الهليون والمستهلكه. خارج أوروبا، وهو يعتبر أكثر باعتباره الفضول أو الذواقه البند.
الطريقة التقليديه التي تنمو على النبات ومن التيجان على سطح التربة بدلا من الخنادق والاوساخ التي تصل إلى تل أكثر من الصفوف. أثناء الحصاد القاطفون كوم المشي بين الصفوف وعندما يرون ان وجود الهليون نصيحه عادل الانشقاق عن طريق حفر التربة انهم الرمح من الاوساخ وقطع عليه حالا. مناوبا طريقة لرفع الهليون البيضاء وضعه الدكتور جيم motes، امتدادا اخصائي المتقاعد حديثا من جامعة اوكلاهوما الدولة. نظام بلده هو مكان بنت أكثر من أطواق الحديد المسطح الصفوف وتغطيتها مع البلاستيك الاسود السميك. القطع البلاستيكيه اشعه الشمس وبعد ذلك فقط يمكن القاطفون انتشال البلاستيكيه والخاطف قبالة الرماح.http://www.asparagus.org
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Asparagus (genus)
Asparagus | Asparagaceae genera | Invasive plant species | Medicinal plants
Asparagus is a genus in the plant family Asparagaceae, subfamily Asparagoideae. It comprises up to 300 species. Most are evergreen long-lived perennial plants growing from the understory as lianas, bushes or climbing plants. The best-known species is the edible Asparagus officinalis, commonly referred to as just asparagus. Other members of the genus are grown as ornamental plants.
Ecology : The genus includes a variety of living forms, occurring from rainforest to semi-desert habitats; many are climbing plants. The differences among them came from the communities and ecosystems in which they occur, and the ecological and evolutionary processes that keep them functioning, yet ever changing and adapting. Most are dispersed by birds.dateMay 2011: Ornamental species such as Asparagus plumosus, Asparagus aethiopicus, Asparagus setaceus, and Asparagus virgatus are finely branched and are misleadingly known as "asparagus fern".
In the Macaronesian Islands, several species (such as Asparagus umbellatus and Asparagus scoparius) grow in moist laurel forest habitat, and preserve the original form of a leafy vine. In the drier Mediterranean climate the asparagus genus evolved in the Tertiary into thorny, drought-adapted species.date: May 2011: Many species, particularly from Africa, were once included in separate genera such as Protasparagus and Myrsiphyllum. However, partly in response to the implications of the discovery of new species, those genera have been reunited under Asparagus. Species in this genus vary in their appearance, from unarmed herbs to wiry, woody climbers with formidable hooked spines that earn them vernacular names such as "cat thorn" and "wag 'n bietjie" (literally "wait a bit"). Most species have photosynthetic flattened stems, called phylloclades, instead of true leaves. Asparagus officinalis, Asparagus schoberioides, and Asparagus cochinchinensis are dioecious species, with male and female flowers on separate plants.
Selected species: * Asparagus acutifolius * Asparagus aethiopicus (Asparagus sprengeri, Protasparagus aethiopicus) - Ground Asparagus, Asparagus Fern, (S. Afr.) Emerald Fern, Basket Asparagus ** Asparagus aethiopicus 'Sprengeri' - Sprenger's Asparagus * Asparagus africanus (: Protasparagus africanus) - African Asparagus * Asparagus asparagoides ( Myrsiphyllum asparagoides) - Smilax, African Asparagus Fern, (Austr.) Bridal Creeper * Asparagus cochinchinensis - Tian men dong (天門冬) in Chinese, of which the tubers are used as a kind of herb in Traditional Chinese Medicine. * Asparagus declinatus - Foxtail Asparagus Fern, (Austr.) Bridal vein * Asparagus densiflorus (: Protasparagus densiflorus) * Asparagus falcatus – Large Forest Sicklethorn of southern Africa) * Asparagus fallax – Esparraguera de monteverde. Macaronesian native flora. * Asparagus flagellaris * Asparagus macowanii (Protasparagus macowanii) * Asparagus maritimus * Asparagus nesiotes – Esparraguera majorera. Macaronesian native flora. * Asparagus officinalis - Asparagus ** Asparagus officinalis subsp. officinalis - Garden Asparagus ** Asparagus officinalis subsp. prostratus * Asparagus pastorianus – Esparraguera espinablanca. Macaronesian native flora. * Asparagus racemosus * Asparagus scandens – Krulkransie of the Western Cape, South Africa * Asparagus schoberioides * Asparagus scoparius – Esparragón raboburro. Macaronesian native flora. * Asparagus setaceus (: Protasparagus setaceus, A. plumosus) - Lace Fern, Asparagus Fern, Florist's Fern, (Austr.) Climbing Asparagus * Asparagus tenuifolius * Asparagus umbellatus – Esparraguera común. Macaronesian native flora. * Asparagus vaginellatus Bojer ex Baker * Asparagus virgatus
Pests and diseases: * Asparagus Beetle (Crioceris asparagi) * Spotted Asparagus Beetle (Crioceris duodecimpunctata) * Asparagus Fern Caterpillar, also known as Beet Armyworm (Spodoptera exigua). * Asparagus Fly (Platyparaea poeciloptera), a fruit fly * Fusarium root and crown rot, caused by two species of fungi, Fusarium monoliforme and Fusarium oxysporium asparagi * Asparagus rust, caused by the fungus Puccinia asparagi * Botrytis blight, caused by the fungus Botrytis cinerea * The larvae of some Lepidoptera species have been recorded feeding on Asparagus. These include Coleophora lineapulvella, Ghost Moth, The Nutmeg, Small Fan-footed Wave, and Turnip Moth
Invasive species: A. asparagoides, known as bridal creeper, is a problematic weed in southern Australia.
A. asparagoides, A. aethiopicus (under the name A. densiflorus) and A. scandens are listed on the New Zealand National Pest Plant Accord since they are invasive plants.
References: Reflist: Asparagus: Bibliography: * Fellingham, A.C. & Meyer, N.L. (1995) "New combinations and a complete list of Asparagus species in southern Africa (Asparagaceae)". Bothalia 25: 205-209.
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Asparagus
Liliaceae (Cronquist) | Asparagaceae | Flore (nom scientifique)
végétal :
Asparagus : Asparagus : Taxobox fin: Asparagus est un genre de plante de la famille des Liliacées en classification classique, ou de celle des Asparagacées en classification phylogénétique. L'asperge (Asparagus officinalis) appartient à ce genre.
Liste d'espèces : * Asparagus acutifolius L. * Asparagus africanus Lam. * Asparagus asparagoides (L.) Druce * Asparagus densiflorus (Kunth) Jessop * Asparagus fallax Svent., 1960 * Asparagus officinalis L., 1753 - asperge * Asparagus setaceus (Kunth) Jessop
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بنحاس تسوكرمان
موسيقيون إسرائيليون | مواليد 1948 | أشخاص على قيد الحياة
بنحاس تسوكرمان (بالعبرية:פנחס צוקרמן) (16 يوليو 1948 في تل أبيب) هو عازف كمان وقائد لفرقة موسيقية إسرائيلي
حياته : بدأ بنحاس في دراسة الموسيقى بالمعهد الموسيقي (الكونسرفتوار) وعمره ثمانية أعوام. وفي عام 1962 سافر إلى مدينة نيويورك بالولايات المتحدة الأمريكية في منحة دراسية من إحدى المؤسسات الثقافية. وشرع في دراسة الموسيقى. بدأ من عام 1965 وحتى عام 1969 في مدرسة جوليارد بولاية نيويورك الأمريكية. حقق بنشاس شهرته الفنية في نيويورك كعازف للكمان عام 1969 وظهر لأول مرة قائدا موسيقيا عام 1974 في أوركسترا الحجرة الإنجليزي. عمل مديرا لأوركسترا سانت بول بولاية مينيسوتا من عام 1980 وحتى عام 1987 .
بذرة فنان:
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Pinchas Zukerman
Fiorello H. LaGuardia High School alumni | Israeli classical violinists | Israeli classical violists | Israeli conductors (music) | Israeli people of Polish origin | Jewish classical musicians | Jewish Canadian musicians | Living people | Jewish violinists | Manhattan School of Music faculty | 1948 births | Juilliard School alumni | Leventritt Award winners | Grammy Award winners | Honorary Members of the Royal Academy of Music | Performing arts pages with videographic documentation
dateNovember 2011:
Pinchas Zukerman (פנחס צוקרמן: , born July 16, 1948) is a world-renowned violinist, violist, and conductor. He is considered one of the greatest violinists of the 20th and 21st centuries, and his ongoing 45-year career has seen him perform with the world's best-known orchestras and record over 100 works. Zukerman has held the position of Principal Conductor and Music Director of Ottawa's National Arts Centre Orchestra since April 1998, and the position of Principal Guest Conductor of the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra since 2009.
Zukerman was born in Tel Aviv to Yehuda and Miriam Lieberman Zukerman. At the age of 4 he was introduced to the recorder and then clarinet by his father, and picked up the violin at the age of 8. His talent on that instrument was discovered by Isaac Stern and Pablo Casals during their trip to Israel in 1962, which resulted in his 1962 move to the United States for study at the Juilliard School, under the tutelage of Stern and Ivan Galamian. He made his New York début in 1963 and in 1967 shared the prestigious Leventritt Prize with the Korean violinist Kyung-wha Chung. His 1969 debut recordings of the concerti by Tchaikovsky (under the direction of Antal Dorati, with the London Symphony Orchestra) and Mendelssohn (with Leonard Bernstein and the New York Philharmonic) launched a successful recording career that continues to the present day and boasts over 110 releases.
Zukerman launched his conducting career in 1970 with the English Chamber Orchestra, and was particularly active during the early 1970s as Director of the Southbank Festival in London (1971–1974). From 1980 to 1987 Zukerman was the director of the Saint Paul Chamber Orchestra in Minnesota, and later directed the summer festivals of the Dallas (1991–1995) and Baltimore (1996–1999) symphony orchestras. He has collaborated with filmmaker Christopher Nupen on several projects, and was the subject of Nupen's "Pinchas Zukerman: Here to Make Music" documentary of 1974.
Zukerman performs over 150 concerts around the world each year, and is still considered to be in the very top echelon of violinists. His playing has earned him 21 Grammy nominations, 2 Grammy wins, the King Solomon Award, the National Medal of Arts (presented by President Reagan in 1983), the Isaac Stern Award for Artistic Excellence, and an honorary doctorate from Brown University.
Zukerman has always been an avid performer of chamber music, and has collaborated extensively with artists such as Zubin Mehta, Daniel Barenboim, Itzhak Perlman, Jacqueline DuPre, Yo-Yo Ma, Lynn Harrell, and Yefim Bronfman. In 2003 he founded the Zukerman Chamber Players, a string quintet that has performed at festivals and venues around the world including the BBC Proms, Amsterdam's Concertgebouw, Verbier, the 92nd Street Y, Ravinia, and Tanglewood, and has released 3 CD recordings.
Zukerman is on the faculty at the prestigious Manhattan School of Music and is the head and founder of the Zukerman Performance Program at the school. Amongst his former students have been Koh Gabriel Kameda, Julian Rachlin, Guy Braunstein and others. In 1999 he founded the National Arts Centre Young Artists Programme, which counts young musicians such as Viviane Hagner, Jessica Linnebach, Antal Szalai, and Caitlin Tully as alumni. In 2006 Zukerman began his involvement in the Rolex Artistic Mentorship programme.
He plays the "Dushkin" Guarnerius del Gesù violin of 1742.
Personal life: Zukerman lives in the Rockcliffe Park area of Ottawa with his wife Amanda Forsyth, who is the National Arts Centre Orchestra's principal cellist. He has two daughters, Arianna and Natalia, from his 17-year marriage (1968–1985) to flutist and novelist Eugenia Zukerman. Both daughters are musicians; Arianna Zukerman is a classical soprano, while Natalia Zukerman is a folk singer and guitarist. He was married to actress Tuesday Weld from 1985 to 1998.
References: * Boris Schwarz: Great Masters of the Violin. From Corelli and Vivaldi to Stern, Zukerman and Perlman. Simon and Schuster, New York 1983. * Darryl Lyman: Great Jews in Music. J. D. Publishers, Middle Village, NY 1986. * Stanley Sadie, H. Wiley Hitchcock (Ed.): The new Grove dictionary of American music. Grove's Dictionaries of Music, New York, N.Y 1986. * Kurtz Myers: Index to record reviews 1984-1987. G.K. Hall, Boston, Ma. 1989. * Alan Rich: Masters of Music: Great artists of work. Preface by Nicolas Slonimsky, foreword by Isaac Stern, photographs by James Arkatov. Capra Press, Santa Barbara, Ca. 1990.
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Pinchas Zukerman
Violoniste classique | Altiste israélien | Chef d'orchestre israélien | Violoniste israélien | Naissance en 1948 | Naissance à Tel Aviv-Jaffa | Lauréat du Grammy Award
dateoctobre 2009: Pinchas Zukerman (né le 16 juillet 1948 à Tel Aviv) est un violoniste, altiste et chef d'orchestre israëlien. * Biographie
Il commence avec son père Yehuda, musicien klezmer, l'étude de la flûte à bec et de la clarinette. Il entre ensuite au conservatoire de Tel-Aviv dans la classe de violon d'Ilona Feher où il est remarqué par le violoniste Isaac Stern et le violoncelliste Pablo Casals. Avec leur soutien (et celui de différents fondations artistiques), il part en 1962 se perfectionner aux États-Unis, à la Juilliard School dans la classe d'Ivan Galamian. En 1967, son premier prix au 25e: Concours international Leventritt lance sa carrière de soliste et de chambriste : ses partenaires musicaux s'appelleront désormais Daniel Barenboim, Itzhak Perlman, Vladimir Ashkenazy…
En parallèle, il mène également une intense activité de chef d'orchestre :
De 1980 à 1987, il est directeur de l'Orchestre de chambre de Saint-Paul (dans l'État américain du Minnesota) et, depuis avril 1998, il est directeur musical de l'Orchestre du Centre national des Arts (National Arts Centre Orchestra) d'Ottawa, centre avec lequel il a lancé plusieurs projets pédagogiques auprès des jeunes musiciens canadiens.
Enseignant également à la Manhattan School of Music, il fait figure de précurseur en utilisant la vidéoconférence et internet pour donner certains cours.
Sa discographie compte plus d'une centaine de disques, dont deux ont été recompensés par des Grammy Awards.
Il a été marié de 1985 à 1998 à l'actrice américaine Tuesday Weld. Il est marié à Amanda Forsyth, premier violoncelle. En 2003, il a créé son propre ensemble de chambre, les Zukermann Chamber Player. * Sources * sur le site du Centre national des Arts * sur le site de « La scena musicale » (revue musicale canadienne)
musique classique:
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كف مريم
نباتات | نباتات طبية | الفصيلة الشفوية
كف مريم ( الاسم العلمي:Vitex agnus-castus)، هي شجيرة يصل طولها من 2الى 4 أمتار سريعة النمو، كثيرة التفرع من القاعدة. أورقها كفية متساقطة رمادية فضية وريقاتها 5-7 وريقات. أما أزهرها قمية متجمعة صغيرة جدا بيضاء. ثمارها سوداء صغيرة بقطر نصف سم.
تستطيع الشجيرة أن تتحمل حرارة قدرها 40 -45 درجة مئوية، تتحمل الصقيع والتعرض لأشعة الشمس المباشرة. كما أنها جيدة التحمل للجفاف والرياح.تحتاج إلى تربة رطبة عميقة جيدة الصرف وتتحمل الملوحة حتى 5.000-6.500جزء في المليون. تزرع للزينة في الحدائق والمنتزهات والشوارع وتصلح لعمل الاسيجة يستخلص من هذا النبات مادة فعالة لأمراض العيون وأمراض المعدة. ويكون تكاثرها بواسطة العقل والبذور.
مراجع : الاشجار والشجيرات د.طارق القيعي
بذرة نبات:
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Vitex agnus-castus
Vitex | Medicinal plants
italic title: :"Chaste tree" redirects here. This may refer to any species of Vitex.
Vitex agnus-castus, also called Vitex, Chaste Tree, Chasteberry, Abraham's Balm or Monk's Pepper, is a native of the Mediterranean region. It is one of the few temperate-zone species of Vitex, which is on the whole a genus of tropical and sub-tropical flowering plants. Theophrastus mentioned the shrub several times, as agnos (άγνος) in Enquiry into Plants. Vitex, its name in Pliny the Elder, is derived from the Latin vieo, meaning to weave or to tie up, a reference to the use of Vitex agnus-castus in basketry. Its macaronic specific name repeats "chaste" in both Greek and Latin.
Confusion with Vitex on the part of early settlers in the West Indies gave to Ricinus communis the name "Castor-oil plant".
Cultivation: Vitex agnus-castus is widely cultivated in warm temperate and subtropical regions for its delicate-textured aromatic foliage and lavender flowers in late summer. It grows to a height of 1–5 meters. It requires full sun or partial shade along with well-drained soil. Under ideal conditions it is hardy to USDA Zone 7, on the south shore of Long Island and Nantucket on the East Coast of North America and in the southwest of England.
Garden history: dateApril 2011: : Uses
Vitex, also a traditional plant in Africa, is a little-known fruit plant that has potential to improve nutrition, boost food security, foster rural development and support sustainable landcare. * Herbal medicine
The leaves and tender stem growth of the upper 10 cm (4 inches), along with the flowers and ripening seeds, are harvested for medicinal purposes. The berries are harvested by gently rubbing the berries loose from the stem. The leaves, flowers, and/or berries may be consumed as a decoction, traditional tincture, cider vinegar tincture, syrup, elixir, or simply eaten straight off the plant as a medicinal food. A popular way of taking Vitex is on awakening as a simple 1:1 fluid extract, which is said to interact with hormonal circadian rhythms most effectively.
The berries are considered a tonic herb for both the male and female reproductive systems. The leaves are believed to have the same effect but to a lesser degree.
In ancient times it was believed to be an anaphrodisiac, hence the name chaste tree. Pliny, in his Historia Naturalis, reports the use of stems and leaves of this plant by women as bedding "to cool the heat of lust" during the time of the Thesmophoria, when Athenian women left their husbands' beds to remain ritually chaste. At the end of the thirteenth century John Trevisa reports of it "the herbe agnus-castus is always grene, and the flowre therof is namly callyd Agnus Castus, for wyth smel and vse it maketh men chaste as a lombe". Chaucer, in "The Flower and the Leaf," refers to it as an attribute of the chaste Diana, and in the 16th century the English herbalist William Turner reports the same anaphrodisiac properties of the seed, both fried and not fried. More recently, this plant has been called monk's pepper in the thought that it was used as anti-libido medicine by monks to aid their attempts to remain chaste. There are disputed accounts regarding its actual action on libido, with some claims that it is anaphrodisiac and others that it is aphrodisiac. Because of the complex mechanism of action it can be probably both, depending on concentration of the extract and physiologic variables (see below). * Medical use
Clinical studies have demonstrated effectivness of standardised and controlled medications produced from extract of the plant in the management of premenstrual stress syndrome (PMS), and cyclical breast pain (mastalgia). The medication is recommended in Germany. * Mechanism of action
The mechanism of action is not exactly understood but it is assumed that it has dopaminergic effects resulting in changes of prolactin secretion. At low doses, such as might have been used in previous centuries for suppression of sexual desire, it inhibits activation of dopamine 2 receptor by competitive binding, causing a slight increase in release of prolactin. In higher concentrations, as in modern extracts, the binding activity is sufficient to reduce the release of prolactin. A study has found that treatment of 20 healthy men with higher doses of Vitex agnus-castus was associated with a slight reduction of prolactin levels, whereas lower doses caused a slight increase as compared to doses of placebo. A decrease of prolactin will influence levels of Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and estrogen in women; and testosterone in men.
Dopaminergic compounds(diterpenes with prolactin-suppressive effects that were almost identical in their prolactin-suppressive properties than dopamine itself) present in Vitex agnus castus seem likely to be the clinically important compounds which improve premenstrual mastodynia and possibly also psycho-somatic symptoms of PMS.
Chemical analysis: Flavonoids, alkaloids, diterpenoids, Vitexin, Casticin and steroidal hormone precursors have been isolated from the chemical analysis of Vitex agnus-castus. It is believed that some of these compounds work on the pituitary gland which would explain its effects on hormonal levels. A study has shown that extracts of the fruit of VAC can bind to opiate receptors; this could explain why intake of VAC reduces PMS discomforts. * Current uses
Vitex agnus-castus is used to alleviate symptoms of various gynecological problems. All evidence is limited to standardised controlled extracts such as used in Germany, different extracts or herbal mixes may have significantly different properties and safety issues.
Good evidence and safety exists for these uses: * PMS * Cyclical mastalgia * Mild hyperprolactinemia * Luteal phase defect
No specific clinical studies but use partially supported by clinical evidence on symptoms and mechanism of action: * Polycystic Ovarian Syndrome (PCOS), improvement of symptoms * Uterine fibroids, control of bleeding symptoms
Emerging uses: * Menopause, mechanism of action completely unclear.
Prostate disorders Rarely used, but given its mode of action theoretically interesting,
Contraindications: It is recommended that Vitex agnus-castus be avoided during pregnancy due to the possibility of complications.
Other uses: Historical uses, uses outside the scope of medicine. * Galactagogue, historical usage in very low concentrations and not advisable today. However one recent study did find "Oral administration of 70 mg/kg/day of Vitex agnus - castus extract in lactation stages, significantly increased serum prolactin, compared with the control group of rats." * Potential use as an insect repellent * Used in supplements for male bodybuilders as a secondary component because of its effects on testosterone levels. * Links
WHO Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants - Volume 4
References: 2:
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Vitex agnus-castus
Flore (nom scientifique) | Verbenaceae (Cronquist) | Lamiaceae | Arbre de climat méditerranéen
lamiacée:
Vitex agnus-castus : Taxobox fin: L’Arbre au poivre ou le Gattilier (Vitex agnus-castus), est une espèce d'arbuste appartenant à la famille des Verbenaceae selon la classification classique, ou de celle des Lamiaceae selon la classification phylogénétique.
Description: C'est un arbuste buissonnant à feuilles composées-palmées et à inflorescences en épi de petites fleurs violacées. Vigoureux et rustique, il peut atteindre de 1.50 à de haut.
Ses fleurs en fines panicules sont bleues en août-septembre.
Utilisation: Appelé « chaste tree » en anglais, « arbre chaste » en français , il est réputé calmer les ardeurs sexuelles et était notamment utilisé dans les matelas des lits médiévaux . On en tire d'ailleurs une épice nommée « poivre des moines ».
L'arbuste ressemble au troène de Chine (Vitex negundo), avec qui il a pu être confondu.
Également utilisé en cas de règles douloureuses chez la femme.
Cultivars : * Vitex agnus-castus 'Alba' a des inflorescences blanches * Vitex agnus-castus 'Rosea' a des inflorescences roses
Notes :
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إليعيزر بن يهودا
لغة عبرية | صهاينة | كتاب ومؤلفون يهود
إليعيزر بن يهودا (1858-1922، بالعبرية: אֱלִיעֶזֶר בֶּן־יְהוּדָה) كان أديبًا، وصحافيًا ولغويًا يهوديًا صهيونيًا، يعرف ك"محيي اللغة العبرية" لكونه من أبرز العاملين من أجل ترويج التكلم باللغة العبرية لدى اليهود، ومن أبرز منشئي المسار الذي أدى إلى تطور اللغة العبرية العصرية.
نشأته وحياته : ولد بن يهودا باسم إليعيزز إسحاق پرلمن في 7 يناير 1858 في مدينة لوجكي التي كانت تقع في محافظة فيلنيوس بلتوانيا (أما اليوم فتقع داخل حدود البيلاروس). كان أهله يهود أشكناز متشددين بالدين ومن طائفة حسيدية. عندما كان في الخامس من عمره تيتم عن أبيه فأرسلته أمه ليتعلم في يشيفا (مدرسة يهودية دينية). عندما كان في العشرين من عمره سافر إلى باريس ليتعلم الطب، ولكنه ترك الدراسة بعد 3 أعوام قبل إتمامها.
في أبريل 1879 نشر مقالته الأولى حيث قال إن نهضة اليهود ستكون في فلسطين ("إيرتس إسرائيل") وإن أساسها سيكون تبني اللغة العبرية في جميع مجالات الحياة اليهودية، لأن الشعب لا يتمكن من النهضة دون لغة مشتركة لأبنائه. في هذه المقالة استخدم اسم "بن يهودا" كاسم مستعار، ثم جعله اسمه الرسمي. في ذلك الحين تزوج من دڤورا يونس.
في 1881 هاجر بن يهودا مع زوجه إلى القدس حيث عاش حتى آخر أيامه. في القدس بدأ يشتغل في هيئة تحرير جريدة "حاڤاتسيلت" (חבצלת) التي كانت من أول الجرائد الصادرة بالعبرية. في 1884 أسس جريدة أخرى باللغة العبرية اسمها "هاتسڤي" (הצבי).
في المقالات التي نشرها دعا اليهود إلى تبني اللغة العبرية وأبدع كلمات جديدة خاصة في مجالات الحياة اليومية إذ كان العبرية تستخدم حتى ذلك الحين في الكتابة الدينية أو في الأدب الراقي ونقصت كلمات لأشياء يومية بسيطة مثل أسماء المأكولات، ألعاب الأطفال، اختراعات تكنولجية وغيرها. كذلك عبر عن تأييده بنشطات الحركة الصهيونية الأولى وخاصة بإقامة تجمعات زراعية يهودية في فلسطين.
أصر بن يهودا على التكلم بالعبرية فقط في بيته وطالب زوجه بأن يسمع أطفالهما العبرية لا غيرها. هذا أثار اتهمات ضده بأنه يسيء معاملة أطفاله. لم يبدأ ابنه الأكبر النطق إلا في الثالثة من عمره ولكنه كان فصيحا في العبرية وتعلم لاحقا لغات أخرى. كذلك عارض أبناء الطوائف اليهودية العريقة في القدس استخدام اللغة العبرية في الحياة اليومية لاعتبارها لغة مقدسة لا يمكن استعمالها إلا لغايات دينية. أدى الخلاف بين بن يهودا وقادة الطوائف اليهودية المقدسية إلى حبسه في السجن العثماني بعد أن اتهمه القادة اليهود بالتمرد ضد السلطات العثمانية. ثم أطلق صراحه بعد تدخل بعض القادة اليهود المعتدلين.
عانى بن يهودا وأبناء عائلته من الدرن. في 1891 توفيت زوجه من المرض، أما بن يهودا نفسه فانتعش، غير أنه لم يشف بشكل تام. بعد وفاة زوجه الأولى تزوج من أختها حيمدا.
في 1890 أسس بن يهودا "لجنة اللغة العبرية" التي جمعت كبار الأدباء واللغويين اليهود في فلسطين في ذلك الحين، حيث عملوا من أجل ترويج التعليم بالعبرية في المدارس اليهودية، واتخذوا قرارات بشأن الصيغة واللفظ المفضلة للغة العبرية في المدارس والمؤسسات.
من أهم المشاريع التي عكف عليها بن يهودا هو قاموس شامل للغة العبرية يشمل على جميع كلمات اللغة عبر التاريخ وعلى التجديدات التي اقترحها بن يهودا. تمكن بن يهودا من إصدار 5 جلود قبل وفاته، أما زميله نفتالي هيرتس طور سيناي فأكمل المشروع في 1959 حيث أصدر 11 جلود إضافية.
وفاته : توفي إليعيزر بن يهودا في 16 ديسمبر 1922 بالقدس من مرض الدرن الذي عانى منه سنوات طويلة. تم دفنه في المقبرة اليهودية على جبل الزيتون. في نوفمبر 2007، بمناسبة مرور 150 سنة منذ ولادته، أعلنته منظمة يونسكو التابعة للأمم المتحدة من كبار الأدباء الذين أثروا على الحضارة العصرية.
من الكلمات التي أبدعها بن يهودا والتي ما زالت مستعملة في العبرية العصرية:
Eliezer Ben-Yehuda: de:
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Eliezer Ben-Yehuda
1858 births | 1922 deaths | People from Sharkowshchyna Raion | Belarusian Jews | Hebrew language | Jewish grammarians | Lexicographers | Jewish printing and publishing | Newspaper editors | Zionists | Jews in Ottoman and British Palestine | Burials at the Jewish cemetery on the Mount of Olives | Orthographers
Eliezer Ben‑Yehuda (אליעזר בן־יהודה: ; 7 January 1858 – 16 December 1922) was a Jewish lexicographer and newspaper editor. He was the driving spirit behind the revival of the Hebrew language in the modern era.
Biography: Eliezer Ben-Yehuda was born Eliezer Yitzhak Perlman (Yiddish אליעזר יצחק פערלמאן), in Luzhki (Belarusian Лужкі (Łužki), Polish Łużki), Vilna Governorate of the Russian Empire (now Vitsebsk Voblast, Belarus). He attended cheder where he studied Hebrew and the Bible from the age of three, as was customary among the Jews of Eastern Europe. By the age of twelve, he had read large portions of the Torah, Mishna, and Talmud. His parents hoped he would become a rabbi, and sent him to a yeshiva. There, he continued to study ancient Hebrew and was also exposed to the Hebrew of the enlightenment, including secular writings. Later, he learned French, German, and Russian, and was sent to Dünaburg for more education. Reading the Hebrew language newspaper HaShahar, he became acquainted with Zionism and concluded that the revival of Hebrew language in the Land of Israel could unite all Jews worldwide.
Upon graduation he went to Paris to study at the Sorbonne University. Among the subjects he studied there were history and politics of the Middle East, but the one that had the most lasting effect was Hebrew — specifically, his advanced Hebrew classes taught in Hebrew. It was this use of Hebrew in a spoken form that convinced him fully that the revival of Hebrew as the language of a nation was practical. Ben-Yehuda spent four years in Paris.
In 1881 Ben-Yehuda immigrated to Palestine, then ruled by the Ottoman Empire, and settled in Jerusalem. He found a job teaching at the Alliance Israelite Universelle school. Motivated by the surrounding ideals of renovation and rejection of the diaspora lifestyle, Ben‑Yehuda set out to develop a new language that could replace Yiddish and other regional dialects as a means of everyday communication between Jews who made aliyah from various regions of the world. Ben-Yehuda regarded Hebrew and Zionism as symbiotic: "The Hebrew language can live only if we revive the nation and return it to the fatherland," he wrote.
Ben Yehuda was married twice, to two sisters. His first wife, Devora (née Jonas), died in 1891 of tuberculosis, leaving him with five small children. Her final wish was that Eliezer marry her younger sister, Paula Beila. Soon after his wife Devora's death, three of his children died of diphtheria within a period of 10 days. Six months later, he married Paula, who took the Hebrew name "Hemda".
Ben‑Yehuda raised his son, Ben-Zion Ben-Yehuda (the first name meaning "son of Zion"), entirely through Hebrew. He refused to let his son be exposed to other languages during childhood. He even once yelled at his wife, after he caught her singing a Russian lullaby to the child. His son Ben-Zion was the first native speaker of modern Hebrew.
Journalistic career: Ben-Yehuda was the editor of several Hebrew-language newspapers: HaZvi, Hashkafa and HaOr. HaZvi was closed down for a year in the wake of opposition from Jerusalem's ultra-Orthodox community, which fiercely objected to the use of Hebrew, the holy tongue, for everyday conversation. * Lexicography
Ben-Yehuda was a major figure in the establishment of the Committee of the Hebrew Language (Va'ad HaLashon), later the Academy of the Hebrew Language, an organization that still exists today. He was the author of the first modern Hebrew dictionary and became known as the "reviver" of the Hebrew language, despite opposition to some of the words he coined. Many of these words have become part and parcel of the language but others — some 2,000 words — never caught on. His word for "tomato," for instance, was badura, but Hebrew speakers today use the word agvania. * Death and commemoration
In December 1922, Ben Yehuda, 64, died of tuberculosis, from which he suffered most of his life. He was buried on the Mount of Olives in Jerusalem. His funeral was attended by 30,000 people.
Ben Yehuda built a house for his family in the Talpiot neighborhood of Jerusalem, but died three months before it was completed. His wife Hemda lived there for close to thirty years. Ten years after her death, her son Ehud transferred the title of the house to the Jerusalem municipality for the purpose of creating a museum and study center. Eventually it was leased to a church group from Germany who established a center there for young German volunteers. The house is now a conference center and guesthouse run by the German organization Action Reconciliation Service for Peace (ARSP), which organizes workshops, seminars and Hebrew language ulpan programs.
In his book Was Hebrew Ever a Dead Language, Cecil Roth summed up Ben-Yehuda's contribution to the Hebrew language: "Before Ben‑Yehuda Jews could speak Hebrew; after him, they did."
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Eliézer Ben Yehoudah
Grammairien hébraïsant | Langue hébraïque | Personnalité israélienne | Naissance en 1858 | Décès en 1922 | Personnalité de la première aliyah
Éliézer Ben-Yéhouda (Hébreu : אֱלִיעֶזֶר בֶּן־יְהוּדָה), né Éliézer Isaac Perelman Elianov, à Lujki, Empire russe, (aujourd'hui en Biélorussie) , le 7 janvier 1858, décédé à Jérusalem le 16 décembre 1922), journaliste et philologue juif palestinien originaire de Lituanie - Biélorussie. En tant que lexicographe, il joue un rôle de premier plan dans la résurrection de l'hébreu, comme langue parlée (l'hébreu moderne), quelque cent ans après la renaissance de l'hébreu comme langue littéraire, au commencement de la Haskala. Son fils Ben-Zion est considéré comme étant le premier locuteur natif de l'hébreu contemporain. * Biographie * Famille
Son père est Yéhouda Leib et sa mère Feyga Perelman. Tous deux sont juifs hassidiques (Hassidim Habad) et parlent le yiddish. * Éducation
Comme bon nombre de garçons juifs élevés en Europe de l’Est à la même époque que lui, il sera en contact avec l'hébreu biblique et talmudique pendant 9 ans. En effet, dès l'âge de trois ans, il débute l'étude des principaux textes de la liturgie hébraïque que sont la Torah et Mishna. Suite au décès de son père à l'âge de 5 ans, sa mère confie sa garde à son oncle David Wolfson.
Après avoir atteint l'âge de la majorité religieuse (bar mitsvah), soit 13 ans, son oncle l'envoie poursuivre des études religieuses dans une petite académie talmudique (yeshiva) situé à Polatsk, ville de l'actuelle Biélorussie. Un étudiant qu'il croise par hasard lui ayant conseillé de s'inscrire à la nouvelle petite yeshiva de la ville, il devient l'élève du rabbin maskil Rav Yossi Bloïker qui l'introduira secrètement aux idées juives de la Haskala en lui faisant lire certains livres jugés hérétiques par les orthodoxes. Il lira entre autres Tsohar Ha-Teva (La lucarne de l'Arche), Kour Oni (Robinson Crusoé), le Guide des Égarés de Moïse Maïmonide, Principes et fondements de la sagesse divine de Haïm Z. Slonimski, le Trésor de la sagesse de Zvi Rabinovitch, Ahavat Tsion (L'amour de Sion) de Abraham Mapu . Il se détache de plus en plus de la religion jusqu'au jour où il décide de l'abandon total de ses études rabbiniques. Il est déterminé à entrer au gymnase russe laïc à Dünabourg, une ville de l'actuelle Lettonie, afin d'aller plus tard étudier la médecine à l'université de Moscou. C'est la rupture avec son oncle et le jeune Éliézer se voit livré à lui-même.
Un homme d'affaires hassidique, Samuel Naphtali Herz Jonas, de Glubokoye l'adopte alors. C'est dans cette famille qu'il rencontre sa future femme, Déborah, fille ainée de son nouveau parrain. De quatre ans plus âgée qu'Éliézer, elle lui apprendra le russe, le français et l'allemand.
À peine arrivé à Dünabourg, il est présenté à un juif nommé Vitinski, qu'il considérera comme son second maître. Vintinski subvient alors à ses besoins primaires durant une année et l'aide à se préparer à l'entrée en classe terminale au gymnasium (lycée) de la ville. Le maître le met en contact avec les idées du nihilisme russe, lui faisant découvrir Lavrov Pietr Illitch, Dimitri Pissarev et Nikolaï Tchernychevsky. Dans son autobiographie, Ben-Yéhouda confesse qu'à cette époque, il rompt presque totalement avec son appartenance à la communauté juive. La seule chose qui l'empêche de devenir complètement russe est son attachement à la langue hébraïque. Il continue de lire tout texte hébreu qui lui tombe sous la main. Il devient entre autres lecteur du journal mensuel Ha Shahar de Peretz Smolenskin .
En 1876, les Bulgares se soulèvent contre la puissance ottomane.
C'est aux cours de ces années qu'il en vient à la conviction ferme que le peuple juif a droit, comme tous les autres peuples, de se constituer en État-Nation quelque part sur Terre. Dans une autobiographie qu'il écrit entre 1917 et 1919, il explique que c'est à cette époque, vers l'âge de 17 ans, qu'il se laisse envahir par l'idéal qu'est la renaissance du peuple juif et de sa langue historique sur la terre des ancêtres, Eretz Israël. Malgré le pessimisme des auteurs juifs de cette époque face à l'avenir de la langue hébraïque et même face à son utilité, il acquiert la conviction qu'il faut tenter de reconstituer, sur Eretz Israël, une nation juive parlant l'hébreu, seule langue commune à tous les Juifs . Mais l'hébreu n'est plus la langue maternelle d'aucun juif depuis des siècles. Après avoir lu Vistnik Yebroukou, traduction russe du roman anglais Daniel Deronda de George Eliot, il prend la décision de se rendre à Paris pour y étudier la médecine et se donner une autonomie financière. Il projette déjà de s'installer en Israël par la suite.
En 1877, à l'âge de 19 ans, il termine ses études secondaires et en 1878, il quitte Dinabourg pour la France. * Paris
C'est dans un café du Quartier latin qu'il fait la rencontre de son troisième maître, un journaliste russe du nom de Tchashnikov, correspondant au Rouski Mir. De famille noble et ami de la princesse Troubetskaïa, le journaliste, dans la quarantaine, le prend sous son aile et grâce à cette rencontre, Éliézer apprend tous les secrets du journalisme et du monde politique parisien. Il accompagne Tchashnikov aux débats de l'Assemblée nationale et au théâtre. Pour subvenir à ses besoins et payer ses études, Tchashnikov lui procure des travaux de traduction du français au russe.
Il débute des études médicales à l'Université de Paris (la Sorbonne). Au cours de son premier hiver dans la ville, il contracte la tuberculose, maladie mortelle encore aujourd'hui. Les médecins qu'il consulte craignent pour sa vie et lui conseillent de quitter la France pour un pays où les hivers sont moins froids. Sa condition de santé le forcera bientôt à abandonner ses études médicales, mais pas avant d'avoir fait connaître son projet à Paris.
Lorsque Éliézer se risque finalement à confier à son ami journaliste le secret de sa venue à Paris, Tchashnikov l'appuie et l'incite à faire connaître, par le biais des journaux, son idée de la résurrection de l'hébreu .
Sous le nom de plume E. Ben-Yéhouda, il soumet un article intitulé She'elah Lohatah (Une question brûlante) au journal Ha Maguid, mais sans succès. Son article est finalement publié en 1879 dans le journal Ha Shahar. Dans ce texte annonciateur du sionisme politique, il défend la thèse que l'hébreu ne peut exister que si une nation juive revit sur la terre de ses ancêtres.
Pourquoi en êtes-vous arrivés à la conclusion que l'hébreu est une langue morte, qu'elle est inutilisable pour les arts et les sciences, qu'elle n'est valable que pour les « sujets qui touchent à l'existence d'Israël »? Si je ne croyais dans la rédemption du peuple juif, j'aurais écarté l'hébreu comme une inutile entrave. J'aurais admis que les maskilim de Berlin avaient raison de dire que l'hébreu n'avait d'intérêt que comme un pont vers les Lumières. Ayant perdu l'espoir dans la rédemption, ils ne peuvent voir d'autre utilité à cette langue. Car, Monsieur, permettez-moi de vous demander ce que peut bien signifier l'hébreu pour un homme qui cesse d'être hébreu. Que représente-t-il de plus pour lui que le latin ou le grec? Pourquoi apprendrait-il l'hébreu, ou pourquoi lirait-il sa littérature renaissante?
Il est insensé de clamer à grands cris : « Conservons l'hébreu, de peur que nous ne périssions! » L'hébreu ne peut être que si nous faisons revivre la nation et la ramenons au pays de ses ancêtres. C'est la seule voie pour réaliser cette rédemption qui rien finit pas. Sans cette solution nous sommes perdus, perdus pour toujours.
[...] Il ne fait guère de doute que la religion juive sera capable de survivre, même en terre étrangère. Elle changera son visage selon l'esprit du moment et du lieu, et son destin sera celui des autres religions. Mais la nation? La nation ne pourra vivre que sur son sol, et c'est sur cette terre qu'elle renouvellera sa jeunesse et qu'elle produira de magnifiques fruits, comme dans le passé.
Son texte n'ébranle pas les hommes de la Haskala, qui selon Yéhouda avaient pour la plupart déjà renoncé autant à la religion qu'à l'héritage national juif et n'envisageaient l'usage de l'hébreu que comme moyen de favoriser l'intégration des juifs aux différentes nations de l'Europe. Berl Dov Bar Goldberg par exemple, que Yéhouda fréquente régulièrement durant son séjour à Paris, n'est pas du tout favorable à son projet de résurrection national.
C'est chez Goldberg que Yéhouda rencontre plusieurs juifs célèbres tels Michaël Erlanger, responsable des œuvres charitables du Edmond de Rothschild, Mordechaï Edelman rédacteur du journal socialiste Ha Emet (La vérité), ainsi que Getzel Zelikovitch, qui se fait connaître au cours de la Crise de Fachoda. La prononciation séfarade de l'hébreu parlé par ce dernier eut un grand effet sur Yéhouda qui l'entendait pour la première fois .
C'est à Paris qu'il prend l'habitude de ne converser qu'en hébreu avec les juifs qu'il rencontre. Pour les besoins de ses propres conversations, il dresse une liste de mots hébreux anciens et contemporains et se met même à inventer de nouveaux mots pour décrire des choses et des idées qui n'avaient alors pas de mots associés dans cette langue. Dans son autobiographie, il affirme que milon (dictionnaire) est en fait le premier néologisme qu'il a conçu dans cette langue adoptive.
En 1880, il publie deux articles dans le journal Havatzelet (Le lis) de Israël Dov afin de prôner l'utilisation de l'hébreu comme langue d'enseignement dans les écoles de Jérusalem.
Son état de santé se détériore rapidement. Les médecins qu'il rencontre lui interdisent de fréquenter les laboratoires de la faculté de médecine et lui suggèrent de quitter la France pour un pays plus chaud. Croyant qu'il succombera bientôt à sa maladie, il prendra la décision de se rendre à Jérusalem le plus tôt possible. À défaut d'une carrière de médecin, il participe à des séminaires données par l'Alliance israélite universelle (AIU) espérant se qualifier pour un poste d'enseignement à l'école d'agriculture Mikvé-Israël de Charles Netter. Il est jugé inapte au travail. Cependant Netter le fait admettre à l'école normale des enseignants de l'AIU. L'assyriologue Yoseph Halévi sera un de ses professeurs .
Lorsque Yéhouda se met à cracher du sang, le médecin de l'école normale le fait hospitaliser à l'hôpital Rothschild. C'est alors qu'il est hospitalisé qu'il rencontre Abraham Moshé Luntz, lui aussi hospitalisé, qui lui apprend que les différentes communautés juives déjà établies en Israël, les ashkénazes, séfarades, maghrébins et géorgiens, ont déjà l'habitude de se parler en hébreu séfarade, seule langue comprise de tous. Après deux semaines passées à l'hôpital, son médecin ordonne de quitter la France pour un pays du Sud. C'est l'hôpital qui finance son voyage à Alger où il reprend des forces durant la période hivernale. Il retourne en France à la fin de l'hiver, mais reste très peu de temps : il décide qu'il doit rencontrer le propriétaire du Ha Shahar qui, contrairement à lui, croit possible que le peuple juif vive sa vie de peuple, même en exil. Il passe donc à Vienne, aux frais de son ami russe . * Vienne, Jaffa
Arrivé à Vienne, il se rend directement au domicile de Peretz Smolenskin. La femme de celui-ci lui apprend qu'il n'est pas à la maison mais en Russie depuis deux mois pour enquêter sur les pogroms qui viennent d'éclater en plusieurs points de cet empire. Smolenskin revient chez lui quelque deux semaines après l'arrivée de Yéhouda. Il est alors inutile à ce dernier de convaincre le propriétaire du Ha Shahar de quoi que ce soit puisque celui-ci a complètement changé d'opinion .
Entre-temps, sa fiancée Déborah l'avait rejoint avec la ferme intention de le suivre où qu'il aille. Il commence à enseigner l'hébreu à Déborah qui comme toutes les femmes juives de l'époque n'a jamais appris à parler cette langue. Le jeune couple se marie au Caire en Égypte. Lors de leur voyage de noces, ils explorent quelques villes de la Méditerranée sur leur chemin vers la Palestine ottomane. Ils s'arrêtent à Bucarest et Constantinople. L'ami russe de Yéhouda, Tchashnikov, les rejoint en cours de route et ils débarquent tous trois au port de Jaffa (aujourd'hui Tel-Aviv-Jaffa) au mois d'octobre 1881.
À l'approche de cette ville portuaire, Yéhouda ressent un malaise, une profonde angoisse, affirme-t-il dans son autobiographie. Il parle même d'un sentiment de dépression, à la vue de la réalité : la terre de ces ancêtres étaient déjà habitée par des gens qui s'y sentaient chez eux, étaient citoyens et avaient des droits politiques, alors que lui était un étranger sans aucun droit. Au moment de fouler la terre sainte, il ne ressent qu'un puissant sentiment d'épouvante .
Les trois voyageurs se font inviter dans une auberge juive. Ce n'est qu'une fois rendu dans ce lieu et au contact de ses propriétaires, qu'il réussit tranquillement à se libérer de son angoisse. * Jérusalem
Arrivé à Jérusalem, Israël Dov lui offre de travailler pour son journal Havatzelet. Il devient rédacteur en chef adjoint et se voit offrir un salaire de vingt francs par mois. Il se sert de ce poste privilégié pour promouvoir la renaissance de langue et de la culture hébraïque dans Jérusalem. Son premier article, qui paraît le 12 septembre 1881, dénonce les décisions politiques de l'AIU et invite les Juifs à faire sans elle :
[...] Aussi, nous disons que la solution préconisée par l'Alliance contre la terre berceau de notre peuple ne sauvera pas la totalité du peuple et il est donc vain d'attendre d'elle le salut qui ne viendra que de nous. Il est vain d'attendre quoi que ce soit de cette société, au risque de nous enfoncer dans l'erreur. Réalisons donc nous-mêmes ce que l'Alliance refuse! Organisons une grande association qui fera ce que l'Alliance aurait pu et n'a pas voulu faire.
À cette époque, bon nombre de personnes se laissent gagner par le projet nationaliste juif. Suite aux premiers épisodes de pogroms en Russie impériale, ne se sentant plus en sécurité dans leur pays en raison de leur origine et de leur religion, n'ayant pratiquement plus rien à perdre et ayant tellement perdu déjà, quelque 10 000 personnes quittent le territoire de l'Empire russe pour s'installer en Eretz Israel. C'est la première Aliyah, qui couvre la période de 1881 à 1903. Quelques organisations comme Les Amants de Sion sous le leadership de Moïse Lilienblum et Léon Pinsker de même que le Bilou de Israël Belkind sympathisent avec la cause de l'hébreu comme langue nationale.
Malgré ce contexte, le grand projet de la renaissance de l'hébreu promu par Yéhouda reste très marginal et ses adhérents doivent surmonter plusieurs obstacles de taille. Ils se buttent entre autres à plusieurs groupes d'intérêts préférant que le français, ou l'allemand ou l'anglais, trois langues européennes fortes, jouent le rôle unificateur que Yéhouda projette pour l'hébreu en Israël.
Conscient qu'il devra composer avec la présence à Jérusalem de diverses communautés de croyances et d'individus qui sont de fervents religieux, il entreprend de nouer des liens d'amitié avec toutes les personnes influentes de Jérusalem. Au cours de sa première semaine dans la ville, il rencontre entre autres Yéhiel Michaël Pinès, le délégué de la Fondation Moses Montefiore et le consul russe M. Kouzibnikov .
Bien que découragé d'apprendre qu'à peine 30 000 juifs (quelque 16 000 à Jérusalem et les autres dispersés à Jaffa, Hébron, Safed, Tibériade, Haïfa, Saint-Jean-d'Acre et Sidon) habitent Eretz-Israel et qu'ils ne possèdent presque rien en fait d'institutions et de biens fonciers, il se console de constater que les juifs constituent la majorité de la population de la ville sainte, plus nombreux que les musulmans et chrétiens réunis .
Au troisième jour de la Fête des Tabernacles, il accompagne Israël Dov qui rend visite au Hakham Bachi, le rabbin Raphaël Meïr Panigel en poste depuis un an. Très peu impressionné par les qualités d'esprit de Meïr, il l'est cependant par son apparence. Il reste marqué par la physionomie et l'habillement solennel, majestueux et luxueux du personnage qui contraste avec la pauvreté généralisée des juifs de la ville sainte.
Au dernier jour de la Souccout (Hoshanna Rabba), il scelle un pacte avec Pinès, tous deux s'engageant à faire usage exclusif de l'hébreu entre eux, au sein de leurs foyers et dans toutes les situations où leurs interlocuteurs comprennent la langue. Cet unilinguisme volontaire fait partie de la stratégie de propagation de l'hébreu comme langue publique commune des juifs de toutes les nationalités en vue de cimenter leur union en une nationalité hébraïque ressuscitée .
Il décide de se conformer à toutes les règles religieuses juives et adopte les coutumes séfarades, incluant l'habillement moyen-oriental qu'il trouve très élégant. Il mange de la nourriture cacher, se laisse pousser la barbe et porte un tarbouch. Dans son autobiographie, il admet qu'il trouva très difficile de se conformer aux lois religieuses parce qu'il se sentait hypocrite, lui qui était incroyant depuis l'adolescence. Il renonce même à son statut de ressortissant russe et se fait citoyen turc .
En 1882, Nissim Béhar de l'École de l'Alliance israélite universelle, lui propose de devenir enseignant à Jérusalem, offre qu'il n'accepte qu'à condition qu'on lui donne la liberté de donner ses cours en hébreu. Nissim Béhar n'a pas besoin d'être convaincu et accepte la condition, même si elle contrevient à la politique de l'AIU .
C'est à cette époque que les pionniers des « Amants de Sion » que sont Joseph Feinberg, Z. J. Levontin, Moshé Lilienblum élisent la région de Jaffa comme chef lieu de la colonisation juive. Yéhouda et Pinès s'y opposent et favorisent plutôt Jérusalem qui est déjà une ville juive reconnue comme telle par les Arabes. Ils sont convaincus que l'implantation de Juifs dans une ville majoritairement arabe comme Jaffa est dangereuse pour le projet de renaissance nationale .
Le 25 juillet 1882 (9 Av 5642), un décret du Sultan interdit formellement aux Juifs de Russie de s'installer en Palestine et d'y acheter des terres. Le décret ne fut levé que 35 ans plus tard . Tous les efforts de colonisation durent se faire au prix de la corruption des agents du gouvernement turc.
C'est le 31 juillet 1882 (15 Av 5642) que naît son premier fils, Ben-Zion Ben-Yéhouda (plus connu sous son nom de plume Ithamar Ben-Avi), qui deviendra le premier enfant de l'époque contemporaine à grandir dans une famille ne parlant que l'hébreu. C'est aussi la date de fondation de la principale colonie juive Rishon-le-Tsion.
En 1885, il publie un ouvrage de géographie intitulé Terre d'Israël.
En 1888, il fonde son propre journal qu'il nomme Ha Zvi (Le cerf).
En 1890, avec David Yellin, il fonde le Wa'ad HaLaschon (Comité de la langue hébraïque) qui deviendra plus tard une Académie de la langue hébraïque.
En 1891, sa femme décède de la tuberculose après avoir vu plusieurs de ses enfants mourir en bas âge. Il se remarie avec Hemda, la jeune sœur de sa femme, six mois plus tard.
En 1894, il est jeté en prison par le gouvernement turc qui l'accuse de sédition. Il sera libéré sur l'intervention du baron de Rothschild après une incarcération d'un an.
En 1897, il fonde le Hashkafah (Vision), un hebdomadaire qui devient bi-hebdomadaire par la suite.
À partir de 1901, il débute un important travail de pionnier dans le domaine linguistique en élaborant son Dictionnaire de la langue hébraïque ancienne et moderne (Milon Halashon Ha’ivrit ha’yshana vehakhadasha). Non seulement il fait l'inventaire de toutes les ressources de langue hébraïque existantes, mais il crée quantité de néologismes pour décrire les réalités de son époque. Il travaille à cette œuvre jusqu'à la fin de sa vie. Les premiers volumes sont publiés en 1910. Sa deuxième femme et son fils Ehud poursuivront son travail et le termineront en 1959.
En 1914, il quitte Jérusalem pour les États-Unis, fuyant la persécution politique. * Exil aux États-Unis
Arrivé à New York en 1914, il publie un livre intitulé Jusqu'à quelle époque l'hébreu fut-il parlé?
En 1918, il publie son autobiographie intitulé Le rêve traversé.
Il rentre à Jérusalem en 1919. * Retour au pays
Il mène le combat pour que l'hébreu soit reconnu comme langue officielle en Palestine.
Il fonde Sefatenou (Notre langue), une société pour la diffusion de l'hébreu.
Il fait partie du comité préparatoire pour la création d'une université hébraïque à Jérusalem.
Il décède à Jérusalem le 16 décembre 1922. * Chronologie * 1858 - Le 7 janvier, naissance de Eliezer Yitzhak Perelman à Lujki en Russie. * 1862 - Moses Hess fait paraître Rome et Jérusalem. * 1863 - Son père décède. * 1877 - Il obtient son diplôme d'études secondaires. * 1878 - Il quitte la Russie pour la France pour y apprendre la médecine. * 1879 - Son célèbre article intitulé Une question brûlante (She'elah Lohatah) paraît dans le journal Ha-Shakhar. * 1880 - Il épouse Déborah Yonas au Caire en Égypte. * 1881 - En octobre, il s'installe à Jérusalem en Palestine avec sa femme. * 1881 - Pogroms de masse en Russie impériale suivi de la fondation du mouvement des Amants de Sion. * 1881 - Il fonde, avec Y.M. Fines, D. Yellin, Y. Meyuhas, and A. Mazie, la société Tekhiyat Israel. * 1882 - Fondation du mouvement Bilou (Beït Yaakov Léhou Vénelha) par Israël Belkind en Ukraine. * 1882 - Le 31 juillet, naissance de son premier fils, Ben-Zion Ben-Yéhouda, qui prononça ses premiers mots en hébreu. * 1888 - Il fonde un journal de langue hébraïque qu'il nomme Ha Zvi (Le cerf). * 1891 - Il est co-fondateur du Comité de la langue hébraïque (Vaad ha-lashon), qui deviendra l'Académie de la langue hébraïque (HaAkademia LaLashon HaIvrit) en 1953. * 1891 - Sa femme Déborah décède. Elle avait contracté la terberculose de son mari. * 1891 - Il se remarie avec Hemda, la sœur de Déborah. * 1894 - Le 22 décembre, le capitaine Alfred Dreyfus est condamné à la dégradation militaire et à la déportation au bagne de l'Île du Diable en Guyane après avoir été (suite à un complot antisémite au sein de l'armée) reconnu coupable de haute trahison par un tribunal militaire français. * 1894 - Il est accusé de sédition par le gouvernement turc et jeté un prison. Il est libéré un an plus tard. * 1896 - Parution du livre L'État juif (Der Judenstaat) de Théodore Herzl. * 1897 - Le 3 septembre, l'Organisation sioniste mondiale est créée lors du premier congrès sioniste tenu à Bâle en Suisse. * 1898 - Le 13 janvier, suite à l'affaire Dreyfus, Émile Zola publie une lettre ouverte au président de la République dans L'Aurore sous le titre « J'accuse...! ». * 1898 - Il met sur pied les premières écoles primaires et jardins d'enfants pour les jeunes hébréophones. * 1909 - Création de l'Union pour la langue et la culture hébraïques (Brit Ivrit Olamit). * 1910 - Il publie le premier volume de son Dictionnaire de la langue hébraïque ancienne et moderne. * 1914 - Il fuit Jérusalem sous le coup de persécutions de la part des autorités ottomanes et s'installe à New York avec sa famille. * 1914 - Il publie un livre intitulé Jusqu'à quelle époque l'hébreu fût-il parlé? * 1917 - Le 2 novembre, déclaration de Balfour. * 1918 - Parution de son autobiographie intitulée Le rêve traversé. * 1919 - Il retourne à Jérusalem àla fin de la première guerre mondiale. * 1919 - Naissance du premier quotidien hébreu, le Haddashot ha Haarets. * 1922 - Le 21 décembre, il décède à Jérusalem. * 1948 - L'hébreu devient une langue officielle de l'État d'Israël aux côtés de l'anglais et de l'arabe. * 1953 - Fondation de l'Académie de la langue hébraïque. * Ouvrages * Terre d'Israël, Jérusalem, 1885 (ouvrage de géographie) * Ha Zvi (Le cerf), Jérusalem, 1888 (journal hebdomadaire en hébreu transformé en un quotidien nommé Ha Or (La lumière) en 1908) * Hashkafah (Vision), Jérusalem, 1897 (hebdomadaire) * Thesaurus de la langue hébraïque ancienne et moderne, Jérusalem, 1901 (cinq volumes sur dix-sept) * Jusqu'à quelle époque l'hébreu fût-il parlé?, New York, 1914 * Le rêve traversé, New York, 1918 (autobiographie) * Notes
* Bibliographie * Livres * Gérard Haddad. La Renaissance de l'hébreu. Le rêve traversé par Éliézer Ben Yéhouda. Mémoires du premier enfant hébreu par Ithamar Ben-Avi. La psychose inversée par Gérard Haddad, Bruges : Éditions Desclée de Brouwer, 1998, 425 p. 2-220-04096-8: plume: * Maurice Adad. Éliézer Ben Yéhouda. Le rêve et sa réalisation et autres textes. La renaissance de l'hébreu parlé. Introduction et notes de Réuven Sivan. Traduit de l'hébreu par Maurice Adad, Paris : L'Harmattan, 2004, 278 p. 2-7475-6750-8:
Sites Web : * « », dans le site Web de l'Agence juive pour Israël, 1998 * Jacques Leclerc. « », dans L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde, mise à jour le 31 décembre 2006 * Mireille Hadas-Lebel. « », dans L'Arche, numéro 518, avril 2001 * Serge Frydman. « », dans le site Web Hebreu.org * Serge Frydman. « », dans le site Web Hebreu.org (PDF) * « », dans Terre d'Israël, site de l'Union des volontaires francophones d'Israël
Documentaire : * Eli Cohen. , Israël, 1991, 90 minutes, couleur (16mm/vidéo) hébreu, anglais, français et russe avec sous-titres anglais
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ماكينة حلاقة
أدوات شخصية
تستخدم ماكينة حلاقة يدوية أو كهربائية لحلاقة وقص شعر الرأس.
ولحلاقة شعر الوجه تستخدم ماكينة بسيطة تطورت كثيرا بعد أن كان يستخدم الموس (أشبه بالسكين) لهذا الغرض, من أشهر ماكينات حلاقة الوجه تلك المطورة والمنتجة من قبل شركة جيليت الأمريكية, وهناك شركات أخرى مثل شركة براون وشركة ولكنسون وغيرها.
لقد طورت هذه الماكينة من الماكينة التي تستجدم الشفرات ذات الحدين على الجانبين والتي تستخدم لمرة واحدة إلى ماكينات ذات شفرة واحدة مدمجة في إيطار وممسك, يوجد الآن في الأسواق ماكينات بشفرتين اوثلاث شفرات مدمجة.
كذلك هناك ماكينات للحلاقة يدوية أو الية أو كهربائي أو تدار بالبطارية الصغيرة أو التي تشحن بالكهرباء, وكل شخص يختار ما يناسبه, فأنه يتم استهلاك 700 مليون ماكينة حلاقة سنويا قيمة ها أكثر من 110 مليون دولار في منطقة الشرق الأوسط وحدها مع ما يوجد بالمنطقة من ملتحين.
من ملحقات عدة الحلاقة: * صابونة الحلاقة أو معجون حلاقة. * فرشاة الحلاقة. * أصبع الشب. * كلونيا. * مرآة.
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Razor
Cutting tools | Depilation | Shaving
Other uses:
A razor is a bladed tool primarily used in the removal of unwanted body hair through the act of shaving. Kinds of razors include straight razors, disposable razors and electric razors.
While the razor has been in existence since the Bronze Age, its modern counterpart was invented in the 18th century, and the 1930s saw the invention of electric razors. In the 21st century, the safety razor - electric or not - is most commonly used by both men and women, but other kinds still exist. * History
Razors have been identified from many Bronze Age cultures. These were made of bronze or obsidian and were generally oval in shape, with a small tang protruding from one of the short ends. "Even further away in time, during the Bronze Age, we now have evidence of people taking care of their appearance. This leaf-shaped bronze razor was found near Bidford on Avon and is one of only a few of this type of Bronze Age razor to be found in this country."
Various forms of razors were used throughout history, which are different in appearance but similar in use to modern straight razors. In prehistoric times clam shells, shark's teeth, and flint were sharpened and used to shave with. Drawings of such blades were found in prehistoric caves. Some tribes still use blades made of flint to this day. Excavations in Egypt have unearthed solid gold and copper razors in tombs dating back to the 4th millennium BC. The Roman historian Livy reported that the razor was introduced in ancient Rome in the 6th century BC. by legendary king Lucius Tarquinius Priscus. Priscus was ahead of his time because razors did not come to general use until a century later.
The first modern straight razor complete with decorated handles and hollow ground blades was constructed in Sheffield, in England, the centre of the cutlery industry, in the 18th and 19th centuries. Benjamin Huntsman produced the first superior hard steel grade, through a special crucible process, suitable for use as blade material in 1740. Huntsman's process was adopted by the French sometime later; albeit reluctantly at first due to nationalist sentiments. The English manufacturers were even more reluctant than the French to adopt the process and only did so after they saw its success in France. Sheffield steel, a highly polished steel, also known as Sheffield silver steel' and famous for its deep gloss finish, is considered a superior quality steel and is still used to this day in France by such manufacturers as Thiers Issard.
In the 18th and 19th centuries the wealthy had servants to shave them or could frequent barbershops. Daily shaving was not a widespread practice in the 19th century so some people never shaved. The custom of shaving every day among American men is a 20th century innovation. In the 19th century, cutlers in Sheffield, England and Solingen, Germany produced a variety of razors.
Straight razors were the most common form of shaving before the 20th century and remained that common in many countries until the 1950s. Barbers were specially trained to give customers a thorough and quick shave, and a collection of straight razors ready for use was a common sight in most barbershops. Barbers still have them, but they use them less often.
Straight razors eventually fell out of fashion. Their first challenger was manufactured by King C. Gillette: a double-edged safety razor with replaceable blades. Gillette's idea was the use of the "loss leader" concept, in which the razors were sold at a loss, but the replacement blades earned a high margin and provided continuous sales. They were immensely successful due to advertising campaigns and slogans denigrating the straight razor's effectiveness and questioning its safety.
These new safety razors did not require any serious tutelage to use. The blades were extremely hard to sharpen, and were meant to be thrown away after one use, and rusted quickly if not discarded. They also required a smaller initial investment, though they cost more over time. Despite its long-term advantages, the straight razor lost significant market share. And as shaving became less intimidating and men began to shave themselves more, the demand for barbers providing straight razor shaves decreased.
Around 1960, stainless steel blades which could be used more than once became available, reducing the cost of safety-razor shaving. The first such blades were made by the Wilkinson firm, famous maker of ceremonial swords, in Sheffield. Soon Gillette, Schick, and other manufacturers were making stainless-steel blades.
These were followed by multiple-blade cartridges and disposable razors. For each type of replaceable blade, there is generally a disposable razor.
In the 1930s, electric razors became available. These can rival the cost of a good straight razor, although the whole straight-razor shaving kit can exceed the cost of even an expensive electric razor. * Straight razors
Straight razor: Straight razors with open steel blades, also commonly known as cut-throats, were the most commonly used razors before the 20th century. However, they are now chiefly used by barbers.
Straight razors consist of a blade sharpened on one edge. The blade can be made of either stainless steel, which is slower to hone and strop, and holds an edge longer, or high carbon steel, which hones and strops quickly, but has a less durable edge. At present, stainless-steel razors are harder to find than carbon steel, but both are still in production.
The blade rotates on a pin through its tang between two protective pieces called scales: when folded into the scales, the blade is protected from damage, and the user is protected from injury. Handle scales are made of various materials, including mother-of-pearl, celluloid, bone, plastic and wood. They were once made of ivory, but this has been discontinued, though fossil ivory is still used occasionally. * Disposable blade straight razors
Razors which are similar in use and appearance to straight razors but which use either a standard double edged blade or specially made blades are available.
Disposable bladed straights have many of the advantages of straight razors without needing the stropping and honing of ordinary straight razors.
Disposable razors can be resharpened. * Safety razors
Safety razor: The first safety razor protected the skin from all but the very edge of the blade and was invented in the late 19th century by a Frenchman, Jean-Jacques Perret, who was inspired by the joiner's plane. In 1875 it was marketed by the Kampfe Brothers as "the best available shaving method on the market that won’t cut a user, like straight steel razors."
In 1901, the American inventor King Camp Gillette, with the assistance of William Nickerson, invented a safety razor with disposable blades. Gillette realized that a profit could be made by selling an inexpensive razor with disposable blades. This has been called the Razor and blades business model, or a "loss leader", and has become a very common practice for a wide variety of products.
There are also safety razors that are made of inexpensive materials that are meant to be wholly disposable. One device was invented in 1963 by American entertainer and inventor Paul Winchell.
Electric razors : The electric razor (also known as the electric dry shaver) has a rotating or oscillating blade. The electric razor usually does not require the use of shaving cream, soap, or water. The razor may be powered by a small DC motor, which is either powered by batteries or mains electricity. Many modern ones are powered using rechargeable batteries. Alternatively, an electro-mechanical oscillator driven by an AC-energized solenoid may be used. Some very early mechanical shavers had no electric motor and had to be powered by hand, for example by pulling a cord to drive a flywheel.
The first electric razor was patented in 1928 by the American manufacturer Col. Jacob Schick. The Remington Rand Corporation developed the electric razor further, first producing the Remington brand of razor in 1937. Another important inventor was Prof. Alexandre Horowitz, from Philips Laboratories in the Netherlands, who invented the very successful concept of the revolving (rotary) electric razor. It has a shaving head consisting of cutters that cut off the hair entering the head of the razor at skin level. The major manufacturers introduce new improvements to the hair cutting mechanism of their products each few years. Each manufacturer sells several different generations of cutting mechanism at the same time, and for each generation, several models with different features and accessories to reach various price points. The improvements to the cutting mechanisms tend to 'trickle-down' to lower priced models over time.
Early versions of electric razors were meant to be used on dry skin only. Many recent electric razors have been designed to allow for wet/dry use, which also allows them to be cleaned using running water or an included cleaning machine, reducing cleaning effort. Some patience is necessary when starting to use a razor of this type, as the skin usually takes some time to adjust to the way that the electric razor lifts and cuts the hairs. Moisturizers designed specifically for electric shaving are available.
Some modern styles of electric hair clippers include bulk hair clippers, which are used to remove a bulk of the hair being shaved; main hair clippers, on which guards are attached to achieve a perfect length all over the head; and mini clippers, which are used to trim the edges of the haircut.
Battery-powered electric razors : Since at least the mid-1960's , battery operated electric razors have been available using rechargeable batteries sealed inside the razor's case, previously nickel cadmium or more recently nickel metal hydride. Some modern shavers use Lithium-ion batteries that do not suffer from memory effect. Sealed battery shavers either have built-in or external charging devices. Some shavers may be designed to plug directly into a wall outlet with a swing out or pop-up plug, or have a detachable AC cord. Other shavers have recharging base units which plug into an AC outlet, which provide DC power at the base contacts (removing the need for the AC to DC convertor to be internal to the razor and reducing the risk of electric shock).
Some models, generally marketed as "travel razors" (or "travel shavers"), use removable rechargeable or disposable batteries, usually size AA or AAA. This offers the option of purchasing batteries while away from home instead of having to carry a compatible charging device.
Wet/dry razors, designed to allow use with soap and water, are exclusively of the battery-operated type (for obvious reasons of electrical safety).
Other razors : A single-edge razor blade was actually manufactured prior to the advent of the double edge razor, for various applications where the blade is required to be hand-held. Single-edge blades are often a more rigid carbon steel and much thicker. They are used in carpentry for detailed work, sanding, and scraping (in a specialized holder), in mechanical drawing for paper cutting, in plumbing and finish work for grouting and cleaning, for removing paint from flat surfaces such as panes of glass, and in many other applications. Razors are also sometimes used in bread production to slash the surface of an unbaked loaf; in this usage, they are referred to using the French word lame.
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Rasoir
Matériel de soin du corps | Rasage
Rasoir d'Occam: Un rasoir est un appareil destiné à couper les poils (barbe, cheveux, pubis), tant chez les hommes que chez les femmes (jambes, aisselles), ou encore chez les animaux.
On appelle rasoirs humides les rasoirs manuels nécessitant l'usage d'un lubrifiant (huile d'amande douce, mousse à raser, gel de rasage) comme le rasoir droit ou le rasoir de sécurité. Par opposition au rasoir humide, le rasoir sec, ou rasoir électrique, s'utilise à même la peau.
Historique : Il semble que le rasage soit une pratique millénaire : les rasoirs étaient confectionnés en silex, en bronze et même en or bien avant les rasoirs en fer .
Le premier rasoir en fer connu a été trouvé au Danemark et est daté du IIIe siècle: .
Le rasoir à lame d'acier fait son apparition au Royaume-Uni en 1680, le rasoir à lames jetables est breveté en 1895 et le premier rasoir électrique date de 1928. * Types de rasoirs
La "pogonotomie" est l'activité qui consiste à se tailler ou se raser la barbe est un terme inventé par M. Jean-Jacques Perret, maître et marchand coutelier du , dans le traité du même nom: * La pogonotomie* , ou l'art d'apprendre à se raser soi-même (Paris, 1769). Il y présente déjà l'idée d'un rasoir de sécurité. * Le rasoir droit
Rasoir droit: Le rasoir droit ou « coupe chou » ou « sabre » est constitué d'une grande lame s'escamotant dans la chasse (manche) lorsqu'on ne l'utilise pas. Il est toujours employé par les coiffeurs et les barbiers (avec des lames interchangeables pour des questions d'hygiène) ainsi que par des amateurs passionnés.
Deux inconvénients majeurs font qu'aujourd'hui il est généralement délaissé au profit du rasoir de sécurité : * le temps de rasage (environ 30 à 45 minutes pour un débutant, 10 minutes pour un pratiquant très entraîné) ; * le risque de coupure par la lame ouverte.
Cependant, il reste employé par des amateurs passionnés pour la qualité du rasage obtenu, pour le plaisir d'utiliser un beau rasoir ou de faire revivre un objet ancien, par tradition, ou encore pour des raisons écologiques ou économiques : la production de déchets et l'achat de consommables sont marginaux par rapport aux autres types de rasoirs. * Le rasoir de sécurité
Le rasoir de sécurité est, par opposition au rasoir droit, un rasoir dans lequel seule une portion de la lame est à nu, portion suffisante pour se raser mais insuffisante pour se blesser sérieusement.
À cet égard, l'inventeur ou le précurseur du rasoir de sûreté est un coutelier française, Jean Jacques Perret, qui a inventé ce qu'il appelait un rasoir à rabot en 1762 et l'a décrit en 1770 dans son ouvrage La pogonotomie, ou L'art d'apprendre à se raser soi-meme .
Beaucoup d'inventeurs tentèrent de créer un rasoir sûr et efficace : plus de cent brevets furent déposés dans la seconde moitié du , mais le premier véritable rasoir de sûreté fût créé par les frères Kampfe en 1880, et son succès inspira les inventeurs.
En 1895, King Camp Gillette a l'idée d'un rasoir de sécurité à lame (à double tranchant) interchangeable. Mais il faut attendre 1901 pour que les aciéries maîtrisent le processus de fabrication de ces lames rectangulaires à deux tranchants et très fines et l'invention de Gillette est brevetée en 1904 . Les lames sont insérées dans la tête du rasoir et ne dépassent que d'un millimètre ; on évite ainsi les coupures graves. De plus, la lame peut être remplacée, une véritable révolution technique qui évite l'affûtage, nécessaire sur un rasoir droit avant chaque rasage. C'est aussi un changement économique important : désormais, l'utilisateur n'a plus un rasoir à vie mais rachète régulièrement des lames, ce qui est l'objectif original de Gillette.
En 1971, Gillette commercialise le premier rasoir à deux lames jumelées sur un manche de plastique très léger. En 1974, les coûts de fabrication ont suffisamment baissé pour que l'ensemble rasoir-lame devienne jetable. En 1975 apparait le premier rasoir à tête pivotante.
En 1975, Bic propose son rasoir jetable à une seule lame, en partant du principe qu'une lame est suffisante.
En 2007 certains rasoirs peuvent recevoir jusqu'à cinq lames jumelées sur l'avant, et une lame sur l'arrière.
Le rasoir de sécurité se trouve aussi sous les vocables de « rasoir à main » ou « rasoir mécanique ».
Le vocable « rasoir de sécurité » (ou encore « rasoir de sûreté ») est désormais principalement employé pour désigner les rasoirs à lame unique à double tranchant que Gillette a popularisés à partir des années 1900 et que l'on retrouve aujourd'hui vendus par différentes marques dont la plus connue est Merkur. Ils sont utilisés avec des lames très peu chères dont le brevet a expiré depuis les années 1930 et proposés par une nombre important de marques/producteurs. Ils trouvent leur faveur auprès d'un public qui s'est souvent détourné du rasoir multi-lames pour des raisons de prix, de qualité de rasage, de plaisir à se raseretc.: et souvent associé à l'usage d'un blaireau et de savon ou crème à raser.
Le prix prohibitif des têtes multi-lames met les rasoirs à main hors de portée de la plupart des habitants des pays émergents où sont toujours utilisés les rasoirs avec lame unique jetable à double tranchant (DE safety razor en anglais). * Le rasoir électrique
Un rasoir électrique est un outil servant à couper les poils et parfois les cheveux de manière automatisée grâce à son alimentation électrique.Le premier rasoir électrique est attribué à l'Américain Jacob Schick en 1928, il s'agissait de dents actionnées par un petit moteur et qui se déplaçaient latéralement derrière une grille. Il mit son appareil en vente à partir de 1931 pour la somme de 25 dollars.
De nos jours, les poils sont coupés par un rotor, ou un couteau droit multilames oscillant derrière une grille.
En 1934, on avait déjà vendu aux USA rasoirs électriques, trois ans plus tard on avait atteint le million et demi d'appareils.
En Europe, le hollandais Philips est le premier à croire au potentiel de cette innovation. Il envisage tout d'abord d'importer les modèles américains, mais le projet est très vite abandonné et Philips décide de créer un modèle original. Un certain Lopez Cardoso est envoyé aux USA pour y acheter les produits de la future concurrence. Rapporté à Eindhoven (siège de la société Philips), ils sont soumis aux ingénieurs pour une batterie de tests et d'examens attentifs. Alexandre Horowitz, un inventeur, a l'idée de remplacer la grille rectangulaire par une ronde et de la munir de lames rotatives. Jusqu'en 1938, il met au point son prototype : une tête en bronze rotative, munie de trois lames tournant à à l'intérieur d'un boîtier cylindrique présentant 48 fentes sur la face supérieure. Ce modèle fonctionnant bien, Horowitz décide de le fabriquer en série.
Le 14 mars 1939, le premier rasoir électrique à tête rotative est présenté au public à la foire du Printemps d'Utrecht. Une campagne publicitaire demandait aux visiteurs de venir non rasés pour essayer le nouvel appareil.
En 1960, la firme américaine Remington Corporation lance le premier rasoir électrique à piles.
clr: Données commerciales : En France, les marques de rasoirs humides les plus vendues sont Gillette, Wilkinson et Bic.
En France, les marques de rasoirs sec les plus vendues sont Braun, Philips.
lien marques secteur:
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سجل المعالج
بنية الحاسب
ســِـجــِـل ّ المعالج أو مسجل المعالج Processor register: في معمارية الحاسوب عبارة عن كمية صغيرة من الذاكرة المتوافرة على وحدة المعالجة المركزية بهدف تسريع عمليات الوصول مقارنة بالذواكر الأخرى، أي أنها تتيح للمعالج الوصول إلى البيانات المخزنة في السـّـِـجــِـلاّت بشكل سريع جدًا. تدعم أغلب وليس كل الحواسيب ما يسمى مجموعة تعليمات بنية الحاسب حيث تتم عملية جر البيانات من مكان في الذاكرة إلى السـّـِـجــِـلاّت. يكون من المناسب جدا وضع هذه التعليمات البرمجية الأساسية بالقرب من وحدة المعالجة نظرا لتكرار استعمالها. تحتل ســِـجــِـلاّت المعالج الجزء الأعلى من بنية الذاكرة وتمثل الطريق الأسرع للوصول بالبيانات لوحدة المعالجة المركزية.
استخدامات السـّـِـجــِـلاّت : تسخدم السـّـِـجــِـلاّت (registers) غالباً كمكان تخزين مؤقت للتعليمات والبيانات الجاري تنفيذها إضافة لاستخدامات خاصة مثل عنونة الذاكرة والتحكم في مسار تنفيذ التعليمات والقيام بتنفيذ مهام متخصصة.
أهميتها تكمن في تخزين قيم ونواتج العمليات الحسابية بشكل سريع جداً لان هذه السـّـِـجــِـلاّت داخلة في تركيبة المعالج بعكس الذاكرة الرئيسة أو الرام وحتى ذاكرة الخابية (cache). لقرب السـّـِـجــِـلاّت من وحدة التنفيذ (execute unit) في المعالج؛ بالتالي لا يوجد تأخير في جلب البيانات والنتائج المؤقتة..
في الواقع وحذة التفيد والسـّـِـجــِـلاّت هي المان الحقيقي لتنفيذ التعليمات وتشغيل البرامج وأنظمة التشغيل.
إضافة لاستخدامات مخصصة للسـّـِـجــِـلاّت مثل عنونة الذاكرة بجعل قيمة إحدى السـّـِـجــِـلاّت تساوي قيمة عنوان الذاكرة المطلوب تخزينه أو جلب البيانات منه. وهذا يغني المبرمج عن كتابة العناون الحقيقي للذاكرة في كل مرة داخل البرنامج.
استخدام آخر وهو التعامل مع منافذ الإدخال والإخراج (input/output ports) حيث توفر السـّـِـجــِـلاّت عنوان جميع الأجهزة التي يتم ربطها بالمعالج كلوحة المفاتيح مثلاً..
أصناف السـّـِـجــِـلاّت : تقاس السـّـِـجــِـلاّت عادة بعدد البتات الممكن خزنها, على سبيل المثال, ســِـجــِـل ّ "8-بت أو ســِـجــِـل ّ "32-بت". أصبحت السـّـِـجــِـلاّت اليوم مضمنة كملف سجل, إلا أنه تم تضمينها قبل في القلابات ذاكرة نواة, ذاكة رقاقة فيلم, والعديد من الطرق على مختلف الالات.
يحوي المعالج غالبا بعض السـّـِـجــِـلاّت المختلفة, التي يمكن تصنيفها تبعا لمحتوياتها أو التعليمات التي تعمل بها: * ســِـجــِـلاّت قابلة لوصول المستخدم. * ســِـجــِـلاّت بيانات * ســِـجــِـلاّت عنوان * ســِـجــِـلاّت شرطية * ســِـجــِـلاّت النقطة العائمة (floating point registers المختزلة FPR) * ســِـجــِـلاّت ثوابت * ســِـجــِـلاّت متجه * سـِـجــِـلاّت أغراض خاصة * ســِـجــِـلاّت تعليمات * ســِـجــِـلاّت التحكم والحالة. * ســِـجــِـلاّت أخرى
دور عدد السـّـِـجــِـلاّت المتاحة في المعالج : يعتمد أداء الكود أو شفرة البرنامج بشكل ملحوظ على عدد السـّـِـجــِـلاّت المتاحة في المعالج. يطلق على أقل عدد لازم من السـّـِـجــِـلاّت لتقييم تعبير ما اسم عدد سترولر.
أمثلة : يبين الجدول عدد السـّـِـجــِـلاّت لمعماريات مختلفة.
إنظر أيضا : * سجل التعليمة (instruction register) * سجل الأعلام (register of flags) * تخصيص السجل
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Processor register
Digital registers | Central processing unit
date March 2008:
In computer architecture, a processor register is a small amount of storage available as part of a CPU or other digital processor. Such registers are (typically) addressed by mechanisms other than main memory and can be accessed more quickly. Almost all computers, load-store architecture or not, load data from a larger memory into registers where it is used for arithmetic, manipulated, or tested, by some machine instruction. Manipulated data is then often stored back in main memory, either by the same instruction or a subsequent one. Modern processors use either static RAM or dynamic RAM as main memory, the latter often being implicitly accessed via one or more cache-levels. A common property of computer programs is locality of reference: the same values are often accessed repeatedly and frequently used values held in registers improves performance. This is what makes fast registers (and caches) meaningful.
Processor registers are normally at the top of the memory hierarchy, and provide the fastest way to access data. The term normally refers only to the group of registers that are directly encoded as part of an instruction, as defined by the instruction set. However, modern high performance CPUs often have duplicates of these "architectural registers" in order to improve performance via register renaming, allowing parallel and speculative execution. Modern x86 is perhaps the most well known example of this technique.
Allocating frequently used variables to registers can be critical to a program's performance. This register allocation is either performed by a compiler, in the code generation phase, or manually, by an assembly language programmer. * Categories of registers
Registers are normally measured by the number of bits they can hold, for example, an "8-bit register" or a "32-bit register".
A processor often contains several kinds of registers, that can be classified accordingly to their content or instructions that operate on them: * User-accessible Registers - The most common division of user-accessible registers is into data registers and address registers. * Data registers are used to hold numeric values such as integer and floating-point values. In some older and low end CPUs, a special data register, known as the accumulator, is used implicitly for many operations. * Address registers hold addresses and are used by instructions that indirectly access memory. ** Some processors contain registers that may only be used to hold an address or only to hold numeric values (in some cases used as an index register whose value is added as an offset from some address); others allow registers to hold either kind of quantity. A wide variety of possible addressing modes, used to specify the effective address of an operand, exist. ** A stack pointer, sometimes called a stack register, is the name given to a register that can be used by some instructions to maintain a stack. * Conditional registers hold truth values often used to determine whether some instruction should or should not be executed. * General purpose registers (GPRs) can store both data and addresses, i.e., they are combined Data/Address registers. * Floating point registers (FPRs) store floating point numbers in many architectures. * Constant registers hold read-only values such as zero, one, or pi. * Vector registers hold data for vector processing done by SIMD instructions (Single Instruction, Multiple Data). * Special purpose registers ( SPR ) hold program state; they usually include the program counter (aka instruction pointer), stack pointer, and status register (aka processor status word). In embedded microprocessors, they can also correspond to specialized hardware elements. ** Instruction registers store the instruction currently being executed. * In some architectures, model-specific registers (also called machine-specific registers) store data and settings related to the processor itself. Because their meanings are attached to the design of a specific processor, they cannot be expected to remain standard between processor generations. * Control and status registers - It has three types: program counter, instruction registers and program status word (PSW). * Registers related to fetching information from RAM, a collection of storage registers located on separate chips from the CPU (unlike most of the above, these are generally not architectural registers): ** Memory buffer register ** Memory data register ** Memory address register ** Memory Type Range Registers (MTRR)
Hardware registers are similar, but occur outside CPUs. * Some examples
The table shows the number of registers of several mainstream architectures. Note that the stack pointer (ESP) is counted as an integer register on x86-compatible processors, even though there are a limited number of instructions that may be used to operate on its contents. Similar caveats apply to most architectures.
x86 FPUs have 8 80-bit stack levels in legacy mode, and at least 8 128-bit XMM registers in SSE modes.
Although all of the shown architectures are different, 95% of the computer architectures are based on a basic architecture known as Von Neumann architecture proposed by Von Neumann.
Clear: : Register usage==
The number of registers available on a processor and the operations that can be performed using those registers has a significant impact on the efficiency of code generated by optimizing compilers. The Strahler number defines the minimum number of registers required to evaluate an expression tree.
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Registre (informatique)
Processeur
Registre: à sourcer: Un registre est un emplacement de mémoire interne à un processeur. Les registres se situent au sommet de la hiérarchie mémoire : il s'agit de la mémoire au meilleur temps d'accès, mais dont le coût de fabrication est le plus élevé car la place dans un microprocesseur est limitée. Leur nombre dépasse donc rarement quelques dizaines d'octets.
Une architecture externe de processeur définit un ensemble de registres, dits architecturaux, qui sont accessibles par son jeu d'instructions. Ils constituent l'état externe (architectural) du processeur. Cependant, une réalisation donnée d'une architecture externe (microarchitecture) peut contenir un ensemble différent de registres, qui sont en général plus nombreux que les registres architecturaux. Ils stockent non seulement l'état externe du processeur, mais aussi celui de sa microarchitecture : valeurs opérandes, indicateurs, etc. Ce dernier état est utilisé exclusivement par la microarchitecture, et n'est pas visible par le jeu d'instructions (architecture) .
La plupart des architectures modernes sont qualifiées de : les programmes transfèrent d'abord des données de la mémoire centrale vers des registres, puis effectuent des opérations sur ces registres, et enfin transfèrent le résultat en mémoire centrale.
Utilisation des registres : On rencontre souvent les registres suivants : * compteur ordinal (CO) : indique l'emplacement de la prochaine instruction à être exécutée (synonymes : compteur de programme, pointeur d'instruction) ; * pointeur de pile : indique la position du prochain emplacement disponible dans la pile mémoire ; * accumulateur : dans certaines architectures, stocke les résultats des opérations arithmétiques et logiques ; * registre d'instruction : contient l'instruction en cours pendant son exécution ; * registre d'index : utilisé comme index lorsqu'on utilise le mode d'adressage du même nom ; * registre d'état (PSW pour ) : décrit l'état du processeur ; il est le plus souvent interprété bit à bit (synonyme : drapeaux) ; * registre d'adresse (RAD) : assure la communication avec le bus d'adresse ; * registre de données (RDO) : assure la communication avec le bus de données. * registre PTBR : registre matériel de la MMU permettant la gestion de la pagination.
Certains registres sont destinés à stocker des adresses (les deux premiers dans la liste ci-dessus), d'autres des données.
Sur certaines architectures, tout ou partie des registres spécialisés sont remplacés par un ensemble de registres d'usage général interchangeables (parfois notés R0, R1, etc.). Par exemple, le Motorola 68000 dispose de 8 registres de données banalisés (D0 à D7) et de 8 registres d'adresses (A0 à A7, banalisés sauf A7 qui sert de pointeur de pile).
Il est possible de faire correspondre les registres avec des adresses mémoire, typiquement à partir de 0 (c’est-à-dire que les cases mémoire d'adresse 0 à 31 pourront correspondre aux registres R0 — R31). C'est par exemple le cas des 16 registres du PDP-10. Les programmeurs astucieux désirant optimiser le temps d'exécution d'une boucle de code avaient donc la possibilité de la stocker dans les registres. Cette méthode évidemment marginale et dépendante de l'architecture de l'ordinateur montre la versatilité des registres généraux.
Réalisation physique : Divers procédés ont été retenus pour la réalisation des registres, notamment de la RAM statique, d'abord sous forme de bascules individuelles, puis plus récemment sous forme de bancs de registres.
Exemple de l'architecture x86/IA-32 : À recycler: Le 8088 comporte quatre registres généraux de 16 bits appelés AX, BX, CX, DX. Cependant, son jeu d'instructions comportes quelques spécialisations : * BX est utilisé comme registre d'index (adressage dit de base) ; * CX sert à contrôler des boucles introduites par l'instruction LOOP ; * DX est utilisé pour certaines divisions.
Il comporte également quatre registres de segment appelés : * CS : sera utilisé chaque fois qu'il s'agit d'une adresse du « code » (du programme), c’est-à-dire de IP ; * DS : sera utilisé chaque fois qu'il s'agit d'une adresse de « données », c'est-à-dire des variables du programme, autrement dit, tous les « registres de données » (AX, BX, CX, DX) et également SI pour les « instructions de » (voir « ES » ci-dessous) ; * SS : utilisé avec les registres SP et BP ; la pile sert par exemple à garder en mémoire les contenus des registres CS et IP lors de l'exécution d'instructions ou des interruptions ; * ES : utilisé essentiellement avec le registre DI pour les « instructions de » (« primitive instructions ») qui permettent des transferts d'emplacements en mémoire contigus (« en chaîne »).
Autres registres : Certains de ces registres peuvent se trouver dans le microprogramme du processeur. Sur architecture x86, pour le mode protégé : * GDTR où est stockée l'adresse de la table globale de descripteurs (GDT) ; * LDTR où est stockée l'adresse de la table locale de descripteurs (LDT) du processus courant (voir en: ) ; * IDTR où est stockée l'adresse et la taille de l' ; * TR où est stockée l'adresse du TSS du processus courant ; * CR0 ( ou MSWR pour ) où sont stockés des indicateurs pour l'ensemble du système (activation de la segmentation et de la pagination entre autres) ; * CR3 ( ou PDBR pour ) où est stockée l'adresse du courant (pagination).
Notes et références :
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إي جي إيه
بطاقات عرض مرئي
إي جي إيه Enhanced Graphics Adapter EGA: وهو معيار عرض الرسومات لشركة أي بي أم وهو يقع بين سي جي إيه و منظومة عرض مرئي من ناحية أداء الرسومات (أي الألوان ودقة الشاشة). وكان قد قدمة من قبل شركة أي بي أم عام 1984 لأنظمة حواسيبها بي سي/إيه تي, وهي تولد شاشة ب16 لونا ودقة شاشة تصل إلى 640x350. وإحتوت على 16 كيلوبايت من ذاكرة القراءة فقط لتوسيع قدرة بيوس لتشمل وظائف عرض إضلفية و وحدة تحكم بالرسومات 6845 من شركة موتورولا.
بذرة حاسوب:
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Enhanced Graphics Adapter
Computer display standards | IBM personal computers | Video cards
The Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) is the IBM PC computer display standard specification which is between CGA and VGA in terms of color and space resolution. Introduced in October 1984 by IBM shortly after (but not exclusively for) its new PC/AT, EGA produces a display of 16 simultaneous colors from a palette of 64 at a resolution of up to 640×350 pixels. The EGA card includes a 16 KB ROM to extend the system BIOS for additional graphics functions, and includes the Motorola MC6845 video address generator as used in the CGA.
Each of the 16 colors can be assigned a unique RGB color code via a palette mechanism in the 640×350 high-resolution mode; the 64 palette colors are a balanced RGB color set comprising all possible combinations of two bits per pixel for red, green and blue. EGA also includes full 16-color versions of the CGA 640×200 and 320×200 graphics modes; only the 16 CGA/RGBI colors are available in these modesdateJune 2011: . EGA 4-bit (16 colors) graphic modes are also notable for a sophisticated use of bit planes and mask registers together with CPU bitwise operations, which constitutes an early graphics accelerator inherited by VGA and numerous compatible hardware.
The original CGA modes are also present, though EGA is not 100% hardware compatible with CGA. EGA can drive an MDA monitor by a special setting of switches on the board; only 640×350 high-resolution monochrome graphics and the standard MDA text mode are available in this mode.
EGA cards use the PC ISA bus and were available starting in 8-bit versions. The base IBM EGA card came with 64 KB of video memory installed, only enough for 4 colors in high-resolution graphics. Expansion to 256 KB required a daughterboard. Eventually, most EGA cards and clones would come with 256 KB of memory. A few third-party EGA clones (notably the ATI Technologies and Paradise boards) feature a range of extended graphics modes (e.g., 640×400, 640×480 and 720×540), as well as automatic monitor type detection, and sometimes also a special 400-line interlace mode for use on CGA monitors.
The EGA standard was made obsolete by the introduction of VGA by IBM in April 1987 with the PS/2 computer line.
* Color palette
The EGA palette allows all 16 CGA colors to be used simultaneously, and it allows substitution of each of these colors with any one from a total of 64 colors (two bits each for red, green and blue). This also allows the CGA's alternate brown color to be used without any additional display hardware. The later VGA standard built on this by allowing each of the 64 colors to be further customized.
When selecting a color from the EGA palette, two bits are used for the red, green and blue channels. This allows each channel a value of 0, 1, 2 or 3. To select the color magenta, the red and blue values would be medium intensity (2, or 10 in binary) and the green value would be off (0). When calculating the intended value in the 64-color EGA palette, the binary number of the intended entry is of the form "rgbRGB" where a lowercase letter is the least significant bit of the channel intensity and an uppercase letter is the most significant bit. For magenta, the most significant bit in the red and blue values is a 1, so the uppercase R and B placeholders would become 1. All other digits are zeros, giving the binary number 000101 for the color magenta. This is 5 in decimal, so setting a palette entry to 5 would result in it being set to magenta. All the color values for the default colors are listed in the table on the right.
* Specifications
The EGA uses a female 9-pin D-subminiature (DE-9) connector which looks identical to the CGA connector. The hardware signal interface, including the pin configuration, is largely compatible with CGA. The differences are in the repurposing of three pins for the EGA's secondary RGB signals: the CGA Intensity pin (pin 6) has been changed to Secondary Green (Intensity); the second ground of CGA (pin 2) has been changed to Secondary Red (Intensity), and pin 7 (Reserved on the CGA) is used for Secondary Blue (Intensity). If the EGA is operated in the modes having the same scan rates as CGA, a connected CGA monitor should operate correctly, though if the monitor connects pin 2 to ground, the shorting of the EGA's Secondary Red (Intensity) output to ground could conceivably damage the EGA adapter. Similarly, if the CGA monitor is wired with pin 2 as its sole ground (which is poor design), it will not work with the EGA, though it will work with a CGA. Finally, because of the use of the CGA's Intensity pin as Secondary Green, on a CGA monitor connected to an EGA, all CGA colors will display correctly, but all other EGA colors will incorrectly display as the standard CGA color which has the same values for the g, R, G, and B bits (ignoring the r and b bits.) Conversely, an EGA monitor should work with a CGA adapter, but the Secondary Red signal will be grounded (always 0) and the Secondary Blue will be floating (unconnected), causing all high-intensity CGA colors except brown to display incorrectly and all colors to perhaps (but probably not) have a blue tint due to the indeterminate state of the unconnected Secondary Blue.
The IBM 5154 EGA monitor has a special IBM 5153 CGA compability mode when operating with CGA sync signals, and it will automaticly change to the CGA pinout to avoid all of the mentioned problems when operating in this mode. * Connector
Female DE-9, on EGA (computer).
Pin numbers (looking at socket): top row is pins 1-5, bottom row is pins 6 to 9, both numbered from right to left in this illustration.
Signal:
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Enhanced Graphics Adapter
Carte graphique | Matériel IBM
EGA: informatique: LEnhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA), pour ou adaptateur graphique enrichi, est un ancien standard d'affichage graphique.
Il se trouve en termes de fonctionnalités entre le CGA et le VGA et désigne aussi trois modes graphiques (appelés modes graphiques EGA) : le 320x200 en 16 couleurs fixes, le 640x200 en 16 couleurs fixes et le 640x350 en 16 couleurs parmi 64.
Introduit en 1984 par IBM pour son nouvel ordinateur personnel PC-AT, l'EGA est en partie compatible avec le CGA, et peut afficher une image de 16 couleurs en 640×350 pixels. Les cartes graphiques EGA comprenaient une ROM de 16 kilo-octets d'extension au BIOS, et un générateur d'adresses Motorola MC6845.
En 640×350, chacune des 16 couleurs peut être définie par une couleur RVB, via un mécanisme de palette. Chaque couleur peut être choisie parmi 64 (deux bits par pixel pour le rouge, le vert, et le bleu). Il existe aussi les modes graphiques EGA 16 couleurs du CGA 640×200 et 320×200, dans ce cas Seules les 16 couleurs CGA/RVBI sont alors disponibles.
Les cartes graphiques EGA sont partiellement compatible avec les modes graphiques CGA. Les cartes EGA peuvent s'accommoder d'un moniteur MDA par le biais de cavaliers sur la carte. Seul le mode 640×350 est alors disponible dans ce cas.
Le standard EGA fut rendu obsolète par l'introduction du VGA par IBM en avril 1987, dans la gamme d'ordinateurs PS/2.
Palette par défaut :
Modes graphiques de l'EGA : * Le mode 320x200 en 16 couleurs fixes, mode 7 en BASIC, 0Dh pour le BIOS * Le mode 640x200 en 16 couleurs fixes, mode 8 en BASIC, 0Eh pour le BIOS * Le mode 640x350 en 16 couleurs parmi une palette de 64, mode 9 en BASIC, 10h pour le BIOS * Le mode 640x350 en 16 tons de gris, mode 10 en BASIC, 0Fh pour le BIOS
Palette de l'EGA : Une couleur en EGA est déterminé ainsi :
bits 543210
couleur RVBrvb
Où :
B pour bleu vif
b pour bleu foncé
V pour Vert vif
v pour vert foncé
R pour rouge vif
r pour rouge foncé
Il y a donc trois tons pour les rouges, vert et bleu (en mettant deux bits à 1, on obtient une troisième teinte plus brillante que les deux autres.
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أنستاس ميكويان
رؤساء سوفييت | أرمن | مواليد 1895 | وفيات 1978 | ثوريون روس
أنستاس إيفانوفيتش ميكويان (أرمنية: : Անաստաս Հովհաննեսի Միկոյան، روسية: : Анаста́с Ива́нович Микоя́н ، عاش بين 25 نوفمبر 1895 - 21 أكتوبر 1978 م) رئيس مجلس السوفييت الأعلى بين عامي 1964 و1965 م، وقبل ذلك تدرج في المناصب حتى أصبح نائب رئيس وزراء من 1946 - 1964 م، تحت رئاسة ستالين ثم مالنكوف ثم خروشوف ثم بريجينيف.
زار أنستاس ميكويان العراق واستقبله الزعيم عبد الكريم قاسم في بغداد عام 1959 م ورحبت به الجموع المحتشدة آنذاك بأهزوجة (ميكويان، أهلا بيك، شعب كريم يحييك).
أخوه الأصغر، أرتم ميكويان، كان مصمم طائرات ميج (MiG) المقاتلة الشهيرة، بالمشاركة مع ميخائيل يوسفوفيتش جوريفيتش. لذلك كان اسم المقاتلة مشتق من اسميهما، كذلك لاحظ أن الحرف الأوسط صغير. مكتب التصميم الهندسي الذي كانا يعملان فيه حمل اسميهما، ميكويان جوريفيتش. إلا أن اسم المكتب تحول إلى ميكويان للتصميم الهندسي بعد وفاة ميكويان.
Anastas Mikoyan: en:
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Anastas Mikoyan
1895 births | 1978 deaths | Armenian atheists | Bolsheviks | Burials at Novodevichy Cemetery | Communist Party of the Soviet Union members | People's Commissars and Ministers of the Soviet Union | Great Purge perpetrators | Heads of state of the Soviet Union | Heroes of Socialist Labour | Old Bolsheviks | Party leaders of the Soviet Union | People from Lori Province | Russian Social Democratic Labour Party members | Russian Armenians | Russian revolutionaries | Soviet politicians | Soviet diplomats | Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union members | Communist Party of Armenia (Soviet Union) politicians
good article:
Anastas Ivanovich Mikoyan (Անաստաս Հովհաննեսի Միկոյան: , Anastas Hovhannesi Mikoyan; Анаста́с Ива́нович Микоя́н: ; – 21 October 1978) was an Armenian Old Bolshevik and Soviet statesman during the rules of Vladimir Lenin, Joseph Stalin, Nikita Khrushchev, and Leonid Brezhnev.
Mikoyan became an early convert to the Bolshevik cause. Mikoyan was a strong supporter of Stalin during the immediate post-Lenin years. During Stalin's rule, Mikoyan held several high governmental posts, including that of Minister of Foreign Trade. By the end of Stalin's rule Mikoyan was starting to lose favour with him, and in 1949, Mikoyan lost his long-standing post of foreign trade minister. At the 19th Party Congress Stalin even attacked Mikoyan viciously. When Stalin died in 1953, Mikoyan again took a leading role in policy-making. He backed Khrushchev and his de-Stalinization policy, and became First Deputy Premier under Khrushchev. Mikoyan's position under Khrushchev made him the second most powerful figure in the Soviet Union at the time.
Mikoyan made several key trips to communist Cuba and to the United States, acquiring an important stature on the international diplomatic scene. In 1964 Khrushchev was forced to step down in a coup that brought Leonid Brezhnev to power. Mikoyan served as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the nominal Head of State, from 1964 until his forced retirement in 1965.
Early life and career: Mikoyan was born in the village of Sanahin, then a part of the Yelizavetpol Governorate of the Russian Empire (presently a part of Alaverdi in Armenia's Lori Province) in 1895. His father, Hovhannes, worked as a carpenter and his mother as a rug weaver. He had one younger brother, Artem Ivanovich Mikoyan, who would go on to become the co-founder of the MiG aviation design bureau which became one of the primary design bureaus of fast jets in Soviet military aviation. Mikoyan received his education at the Nersisyan Theological seminary in Tiflis and the Gevorkian Theological Seminary in Echmiadzin. Religion, however, played an increasingly insignificant role in his life. He would later remark that his continued studies in theology drew him closer to atheism: "I had a very clear feeling that I didn't believe in God and that I had in fact received a certificate in materialist uncertainty; the more I studied religious subjects, the less I believed in God." Before becoming active in politics Mikoyan had already dabbed in in liberal and socialist politics.
At the age of twenty, he formed a workers' soviet in Echmiadzin. In 1915 Mikoyan formally joined the Bolshevik faction of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (later known as the Bolshevik Party) and became a leader of the revolutionary movement in the Caucasus. His interactions with Soviet revolutionaries led him to Baku, where he became the co-editor for the Armenian-language newspaper Sotsyal-Demokrat and later for the Russian-language paper Izvestia Bakinskogo Soveta. After the February 1917 revolution, which toppled the tsarist government, Mikoyan and other Bolsheviks fought against anti-Bolshevik elements in the Caucasus.
Mikoyan became a commissar in the newly-formed Red Army and continued to fight in Baku against anti-Bolshevik forces. He was wounded in the fighting and was noted for saving the life of fellow Party-member Sergo Ordzhonikidze. Afterwards, he continued his Party work, becoming one of the co-founders of the Baku Soviet, which lasted until 1918, when he and twenty-five other commissars fled Baku and were captured by the Transcaspian Government. Known as the Baku 26, all the commissars were executed with the sole exception of Mikoyan; the circumstances of his survival are shrouded in mystery. In February 1919 Mikoyan returned to Baku and resumed his activities there, helping to establish the Baku Bureau of the Caucasus Regional Committee (Kraikom).
Politburo member: Mikoyan supported Stalin in the power struggle that followed Lenin's death in 1924; he had become a member of the Bolshevik Central Committee in 1923. As People's Commissar for External and Internal Trade from 1926, he imported ideas from the West, such as the manufacture of canned goods. In 1935 he was elected to the Politburo, and was among one of the first Soviet leaders to pay goodwill trips to the United States in order to boost economic cooperation. Mikoyan spent three months in the United States, where he not only learned more about its food industry but also met and spoke with Henry Ford and inspected Macy's in New York. When he returned, Mikoyan introduced a number of popular American consumer products to the Soviet Union, including American hamburgers, ice cream, corn flakes, popcorn, tomato juice, grapefruit, and corn on the cob.
In the late 1930s Stalin embarked upon the Great Purge, a series of campaigns of political repression and persecution in the Soviet Union orchestrated against members of the Communist Party, the peasantry, and other unaffiliated persons. Mikoyan, like many other Politburo members, tried to save some close-knit companions from being executed. In assessing Mikoyan's role in the purges, historian Simon Sebag-Montefiore states that he "enjoyed the reputation of one of the more decent leaders: he certainly helped the victims later and worked hard to undo Stalin's rule after the Leader's death". Mikoyan was not without faults; in 1936 he enthusiastically supported the execution of Grigory Zinoviev and Lev Kamenev, claiming it to be a "just verdict". As with other leading officials in 1937, Mikoyan signed death-lists given to him by the NKVD. The purges were often accomplished by officials close to Stalin; he gave them the assignment largely as a way to test their loyalty to the regime. In September 1937 Stalin dispatched Mikoyan, along with Georgy Malenkov and Lavrentiy Beria, with a list of 300 names to Yerevan, the capital of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR), to oversee the liquidation of the Communist Party of Armenia (CPA), largely made up of Old Bolsheviks. Mikoyan tried, but failed, to save one from being executed during his trip to Armenia. That person was arrested during one of his speeches to the CPA by Beria. Over a thousand people were arrested and seven of nine members of the Armenian Politburo were sacked from office. In several instances, he intervened on behalf of his colleagues; this leniency towards the persecuted may have been one reason why he was selected by Stalin to oversee the purges in the ASSR. * World War II and de-Stalinization
In September 1939, Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union each carved out their own spheres of influence in Poland and Eastern Europe via the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. The Soviets arrested 26,000 Polish officers in the eastern portion of Poland and in March 1940, after some deliberation, Stalin and number of other high-ranking officials, Mikoyan included, signed an order for their execution. When Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941, Mikoyan was placed in charge of organizing the transportation of food and supplies. His son Vladimir, a pilot in the Red Air Force, died in combat when shot down over Stalingrad. Mikoyan's main assignment throughout the war was supplying the Red Army with materials, food, and other necessities. Mikoyan became a Special Representative of the State Defense Committee in 1941 by Stalin's orders; he was until that point not a member because Beria believed he would be of better use in government administration. Mikoyan was decorated with a Hero of Socialist Labor in 1943 for his efforts during the war. In 1946 Mikoyan became the Vice-Premier of the Council of Ministers.
Shortly before his death in 1953, Stalin considered launching a new purge against Mikoyan, Vyacheslav Molotov, and several other Party leaders. This never came to fruition as Stalin died before he could put the plan into motion. Mikoyan originally argued in favor of keeping Stalin's right-hand man, Beria, from punishment but later gave in to popular support among Party members for his arrest. Mikoyan remained in the government after Stalin's death, in the post of Minister of Trade, under Malenkov. He supported Khrushchev in the power struggle to succeed Stalin, and became First Deputy Premier in recognition of his services.
In 1956 Mikoyan helped Khrushchev organize the Secret Speech which Khrushchev delivered to the 20th Party Congress that denounced Stalin's personality cult. It was him, and not Khrushchev, who made the first anti-Stalinist speech at the 20th Congress. In 1957 Mikoyan refused to back an attempt by Malenkov and Molotov to remove Khrushchev from power; he thus secured his position as one of Khrushchev's closest allies. He backed Khrushchev because of his strong support for de-Stalinization and his belief that a triumph by the plotters might have given way to purges similar to the ones in the 1930s.
Foreign diplomacy: Hungary: In October 1956 Mikoyan was sent to the People's Republic of Hungary to gather information on the developing crisis caused by the revolution against the communist government there. Together with Mikhail Suslov, Mikoyan traveled in an armored personnel carrier to Budapest, due to the shooting on the streets. He sent a telegram to Moscow reporting his impressions of the situation. "We had the impression that Ernő Gerő especially, but the other comrades as well, are exaggerating the strength of the opponent and underestimating their own strength," he and Suslov wrote. Mikoyan strongly opposed the decision by Khrushchev and the Politburo to use Soviet troops, believing it would destroy the Soviet Union's international reputation, instead arguing for the application of "military intimidation" and economic pressure. The crushing of the revolution by Soviet forces nearly led to Mikoyan's resignation.
The United States: Khrushchev's liberalization of hard-line policies led to an improvement in relations between the Soviet Union and the United States during the late 1950s. As Khrushchev's primary emissary, Mikoyan visited the United States several times. Despite the volatility of the Cold War between the two superpowers, many Americans received Mikoyan amiably, including Minnesota Democrat Hubert Humphrey, who characterized him as someone who showed a "flexibility of attitude" and New York governor Averell Harriman, who described him as a "less rigid" Soviet politician.
During November 1958 Khrushchev made an unsuccessful attempt to turn all of Berlin into an independent, demilitarized "free city", giving the United States, Great Britain, and France a six-month ultimatum to withdraw their troops from the sectors they still occupied in West Berlin, or he would transfer control of Western access rights to the East Germans. Mikoyan disapproved of Khrushchev's actions, claiming they violated "Party principle." Khrushchev had proposed the ultimatum to the West before discussing it with the Central Committee. Ruud van Djik, a historian, believed Mikoyan was angry because of Khrushchev didn't consult him about the proposal. When asked by Khrushchev to ease tension with the United States, Mikoyan responded, "You started it, so you go!" However, Mikoyan eventually left for Washington and discussed the situation with Dwight D. Eisenhower, the President of the United States. While he succeeded in reducing the tension between the two countries, Mikoyan failed to alter the US's Berlin policy.
Mikoyan disapproved of Khrushchev's walkout from the 1960 Paris Summit over the U-2 Crisis of 1960, which he believed kept tension in the Cold War high for another fifteen years. However, throughout this time, he remained Khrushchev's closest ally in the upper echelons of the Soviet leadership. As Mikoyan later noted, Khrushchev "engaged [in] inexcusable hysterics".
In November 1963 Mikoyan was asked by Khrushchev to represent the USSR at President John F. Kennedy's funeral. At the funeral ceremony, Mikoyan appeared visibly shaken by the president's death and was approached by Jacqueline Kennedy, who took his hand and conveyed to him the following message: "Please tell Mr. Chairman [Khrushchev] that I know he and my husband worked together for a peaceful world, and now he and you must carry on my husband's work."
Cuba: The Soviet government welcomed the overthrow of Cuban President Fulgencio Batista by Fidel Castro's pro-socialist rebels in 1959. Khrushchev realized the potential of a Soviet ally in the Caribbean and dispatched Mikoyan as one of the top diplomats in Latin America. He was the first Soviet official to visit Cuba after the revolution, and secured important trade agreements with the new government. He left Cuba with a very positive impression, saying that the atmosphere there made him feel "as though I had returned to my childhood."
Khrushchev told Mikoyan of his idea of shipping Soviet missiles to Cuba; Mikoyan was opposed to the idea, and was even more opposed to giving the Cubans control over the Soviet missiles. During the Cuban Missile Crisis, Mikoyan was sent to Cuba to persuade Castro to remove the nuclear missiles and bombers the Soviet Union had placed on the island. In this he failed, and the Soviets were forced to remove the missiles and the bombers without any Cuban participation. Just prior to beginning negotiations with Castro, Mikoyan was informed about the death of his wife, Ashkhen, in Moscow; rather than return there for the funeral, Mikoyan opted to stay and sent his son Sergo there instead. * Head of state and coup involvement
On 15 July 1964, Mikoyan was appointed as Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, replacing Leonid Brezhnev, who received a promotion within the Party. Mikoyan's new position was largely ceremonial; it was noted that his declining health and old age were being considered.
Some historians are convinced that by 1964 Mikoyan believed that Khrushchev had turned into a liability to the Party, and that he was involved in the October 1964 coup that brought Brezhnev and Alexei Kosygin to power. However, William Taubman disputes this, as Mikoyan was the only member of the Presidium (the name for the Politburo at this time) to defend Khrushchev. Mikoyan, however, did vote to force Khrushchev's retirement (so as, in traditional Soviet style, to make the vote unanimous). Alone among Khrushchev's colleagues, Mikoyan wished the former leader well in his retirement, though he never spoke to him again. Mikoyan laid a wreath and sent a letter of condolence at Khrushchev's funeral in 1971.
Due to his partial defense of Khrushchev during his ouster, Mikoyan lost his high standing with the new Soviet leadership. The Politburo forced Mikoyan to retire from his seat in the Politburo due to old age. Mikoyan quickly also lost his post as head of state and was succeeded in this post by Nikolai Podgorny on 9 December 1965. Brezhnev officialised Mikoyan's retirement by awarding him an Order of Lenin. * Death, personality, and legacy
As with Khrushchev and other companions, Mikoyan in his last days wrote frank but selective memoirs from his political career during Stalin's rule. Mikoyan died on 21 October 1978, at the age of 82, from natural causes and was buried at Novodevichy Cemetery in Moscow. He received six commendations of the Order of Lenin.
Mikoyan, in a description by Simon Sebag-Montefiore, was "slim, circumspect, wily and industrious". He has been described as an intelligent man, understanding English, having learned German on his own by translating the German version of Karl Marx's Das Kapital to Russian. Unlike many others, Mikoyan was not afraid to come into a heated argument with Stalin. "One was never bored with Mikoyan", Artyom Sergeev notes, while Khrushchev called him a true cavalier. However, Khrushchev warned of trusting "that shrewd fox from the east." In a close conversation with Vyacheslav Molotov and Nikolai Bukharin, Stalin referred Mikoyan as a "duckling in politics"; he noted, however, that if Mikoyan ever took a serious shot he would improve. Mikoyan had so many children, five boys and the two sons of the late Bolshevik leader Stepan Shahumyan, that he and his wife faced economic problems. His wife Ashkhen would borrow money from Politburo wives who had fewer children. If Mikoyan had discovered this he would, according to his children, have become furious.
Dubbed the Vicar of Bray of politics and known as the "Survivor" during his time, Mikoyan was one of the few Old Bolsheviks who was spared from Stalin's purges and was able to retire comfortably from political life. This was highlighted in a number of popular sayings in Russian, including "From Illich [Lenin] to Illich [Leonid Illich Brezhnev]...without accident or stroke!". One veteran Soviet official described his political career in the following manner: "The rascal was able to walk through Red Square on a rainy day without an umbrella [and] without getting wet. He could dodge the raindrops."
Notes: 2: Further reading: wikiquote: * Miklós, Kun. Stalin: An Unknown Portrait. Budapest: Central European University Press, 2003. * Mikoyan, Anastas I. Memoirs of Anastas Mikoyan: The Path of Struggle, Vol 1. Trans. Katherine T. O’Connor and Diana L. Burgin. Madison, CT: Sphinx Press, 1988. ISBN 0-943071-04-6. * Mikoyan, Stepan A. Memoirs Of Military Test-Flying And Life With The Kremlin's Elite. Shrewsbury: Airlife Publishing Ltd., 1999. ISBN 1-85310-916-9.
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Anastase Mikoyan
Ancien bolchevik | Chef de l'État de l'URSS | Personnalité politique arménienne | Naissance dans l'Empire russe | Naissance en 1895 | Décès en 1978
Anastase Ivanovitch Mikoyan (en Անաստաս Հովհաննեսի Միկոյան: , ; en Анастас Иванович Микоян: ) né à Sanahin (Arménie) le et mort à Moscou le , est un homme politique et dirigeant de l'Union des républiques socialistes soviétiques (Union soviétique). Son frère Artem fut un concepteur d’avion soviétique.
Biographie : Issu d'une famille arménienne modeste, il étudia la théologie et se destina tout d'abord à la prêtrise, comme Staline. Durant la Première Guerre mondiale, il abandonna cette voie et adhéra au POSDR (tendance bolchevik) en 1915.
Il participa à la révolution d'Octobre dans le Caucase. Pendant la guerre civile il fut arrêté par l'armée britannique à Bakou ; il parvint à s'évader et à gagner Moscou où il rejoignit Lénine et les autres dirigeants bolcheviks.
Il devint membre du Comité central à partir de 1923. Après la mort de Lénine, il fut l'allié de Staline. Il occupa ensuite des postes de Commissaire du Peuple pour le Commerce intérieur et international et œuvra pour le développement de l'industrie alimentaire. En 1935, il fut élu au Bureau politique (Politburo). Pendant la Seconde Guerre mondiale, il fit partie du Comité de Défense d'État avec la responsabilité des questions de logistique.
Après la guerre, lui et Molotov tombèrent en disgrâce, subissant probablement là les conséquences d'une trop grande longévité au sein de l'appareil communiste. Lors du XIXe congrès du PCUS, en octobre 1952, ils furent violemment attaqués par Staline, et n'eurent probablement la vie sauve que grâce à la mort du dictateur en mars 1953.
Après avoir tenu différents postes élevés au gouvernement (il fut notamment Ministre du Commerce de Malenkov), il soutint pourtant Khrouchtchev contre Malenkov et en fut récompensé par sa nomination comme vice-premier ministre de 1955 à 1957 puis de 1958 à 1964.
En 1964, après la chute de Khrouchtchev, il fut élu Président du Présidium du Soviet suprême (chef de l'État en titre) jusqu'en 1965.
Il écrivit ses mémoires en 1970.
Début dynastie:
Fin dynastie:
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4 جي
اتصالات
4G تشير إلى الجيل الرابع من اللاسلكية الخلوية وهو خليفة لمعايير 3G و2G.بقية هذا المقال تنسب 4G إلى الاتصالات المتقدمة المتنقلة الدولية (IMT Advanced)، على الرغم من 4G هو مصطلح أوسع ويمكنه أن يشمل معايير خارج الاتصالات المتقدمة المتنقلة الدولية. يمكن لنظام 4G ترقية شبكات الاتصالات الحالية، ويُتَوقَّع أن يوفر حلا شاملا وآمنا على بروتوكول الإنترنت حيث تقدم المرافق مثل الصوت والبيانات والوسائط المتعددة المتدفقة إلى المستخدمين على قاعدة "أي زمان ومكان"، وبمعدلات بيانات أعلى بكثير مقارنة بالأجيال السابقة.
الهدف والنهج : الأهداف : يتم تطوير 4G حاليا للتوافق مع جودة الخدمة والمعدلات التي تحددها التطبيقات القادمة مثل الدخول اللاسلكي على النطاق العريض، وخدمة رسائل الوسائط المتعددة (ملتيميديا)، ودردشة الفيديو، والتلفزيون المتنقل، ومحتوى التلفزيون عالي الدقة، بث الفيديو الرقمي (DVB)، والخدمات الأصغر مثل الصوت والبيانات، والخدمات الأخرى التي تستخدم عرض النطاق الترددي.
وقد حددت مجموعة عمل 4G ما يأتي كأهداف لمعيار 4G للاتصالات اللاسلكية: * نظام كفء طيفيا (بت/ث/هرتز وبت/ث/هرتز/الموقع)، * قدرة عالية للشبكة: مزيد من المستخدمين في وقت واحد لكل خلية، * معدل بيانات اسمي 100 ميغابت/ثانية فيبينما يتحرك العميل فيزيائيا بسرعات عالية بالنسبة للمحطة، و 1 جيجابت/ثانية، بينما يكون العميل والمحطة في مواقع ثابتة نسبيا كما يحدد الاتحاد الدولي للاتصالات الراديوية، * معدل بيانات يقدر على الأقل ب100 ميغابت/ثانية بين أي نقطتين في العالم، * تحويلا سلسا عبر الشبكات غير المتجانسة، * ربط غير منقطع وتجوال عالمي عبر الشبكات المتعددة، * جودة عالية للخدمة لجيل الوسائط المتعددة المقبلة (صوت في الوقت الحقيقي، وبيانات بسرعة عالية، ومحتوى فيديو عالي الدقة، والتلفزيون المحمول، الخ) * التوافقية مع المعايير اللاسلكية الحالية، * شبكة آي بي شاملة مبدلة للحزم.
باختصار، ينبغي لنظام 4G أن يقوم حيويا بتبادل واستخدام موارد الشبكة لتلبية الحد الأدنى من متطلبات جميع المستخدمين الممكنين من 4G. * المناهج
كما هو موضح لدى اتحادات 4G بما في ذلك ، وWINNE—نحو وصول لاسلكية في كل مكان، ، فأحد النهوج الرئيسية القائمة على التكنولوجيا يمكن تلخيصه على النحو التالي، حيث مبادرة اللاسلكية العالمية والراديو الجديد (WINNER) هو اتحاد لتعزيز أنظمة الاتصالات المتنقلة. * نقاط الاعتبار * التغطية، والبيئة الإذاعية، والطيف، والخدمات، ونماذج الأعمال، وأنواع النشر، والمستخدمين. * التكنولوجيات الرئيسية * تقنيات الحزمة الرئيسية ** الموجات الكهرومغناطيسية: لاستغلال خاصية انتقائية قناة التردد ** MIMO "Multiple Input - Multiple Output" (عدة مدخلات وعدة مخرجات): لتحقيق فاعلية طيفية عالية ** مبدأ توربو: لتقليل الضوضاء/إشارة المطلوبة في جانب الاستقبال * واجهة الاذاعة التكيفية * التضمين، المعالجة المكانية مع تعدد الهوائيات وتعدد المستخدمين MIMO * التتابع، بما في ذلك شبكات التتابع الثابتة (FRNs)، ومفهوم التتابع التعاوني، والمعروف باسم بروتوكول الأوضاع المتعددة
مميزات ال4G : وفقا لأعضاء فريق عمل 4G، فإن البنية التحتية ومحطات ال4G ستكون لديها جميع المعايير تقريبا من 2G إلى 4G مُطبَّقة. وعلى الرغم من أن النظم القديمة موجودة لاعتماد المستخدمين الحاليين، إلا أن البنية التحتية لل4G ستكون على أساس الحزمة فقط (آي بي). وتقترح بعض العروض وجود منصة إنترنت مفتوحة. ومن التكنولوجيات الأولى التي تعد من الجيل الرابع ما يلي: Flash OFDM، والنسخة المحمولة من 802.16e واي ماكس (المعروفm أيضا باسم وايبرو في كوريا الجنوبية)، وHC-SDMA (انظر iBurst).قد يصل تطور 3GPP على المدى الطويل إلى السوق بعد سنة أو سنتين من صدور الواي ماكس المحمولة.
كما يوجد إصدار أعلى سرعة من واي ماكس هو مواصفة IEEE 802.16m. حيث سيكون التطور المتقدم طويل الأمد التطور اللاحق لمعيار 3GPP من التطور طويل الأمد.
المكونات : مخططات الوصول : كما تطورت المعايير اللاسلكية، فإن تقنيات الوصول المستخدمة أيضا أظهرت زيادة في الكفاءة والقدرة والاستيعاب. حيث استخدم الجيل الأول من المعايير اللاسلكية TDMA وFDMA. ففي القنوات اللاسلكية، أثبت TDMA كفاءة أقل في معالجة قنوات معدلات البيانات المرتفعة لأنه يتطلب فترات حراسة كبيرة للتخفيف من أثر تعدد المسارات. وبالمثل، استهلك FDMA عرض نطاق ترددي أكثر حتى يتجنب الحارس التداخلات بين الناقلين.لذا ففي أنظمة الجيل الثاني، استخدم أحد مجموعات المعايير الجمع بين FDMA وTDMA وقدمت المجموعة الأخرى مخططا جديدا للدخول يسمى CDMA. أزاد استخدام CDMA من قدرة النظام الاستيعابية، ووضع أيضا حدا برمجيا عليه بدلا من الحد الصلب. كما اوداد أيضا معدل البيانات لأن ذلك المخطط فعال بما فيه الكفاية للتعامل مع القنوات متعددة المسار. ومكن ذلك أنظمة الجيل الثالث من استخدام سى دى ام ايه كمخطط الوصول IS-2000، UMTS، 1xEV-DO، TD-CDMA، وTD-SCDMA. المشكلة الوحيدة مع سى دى ام ايه هي أنه يعاني من فقر في المرونة الطيفية والقابلية للتوسع.
وفي الآونة الأخيرة، تحصل مخططات وصول جديدة مثل FDMA المتعامد (OFDMA)، FDMA الناقل الواحد (SC-FDMA)، وFDMA المتداخل وتقسيم الرموز لعدة نُقًّال بتعدد الدخول (MC-CDMA) على أهمية أكبر بالنسبة لأنظمة الجيل القادم. يستخدم الواي ماكس OFDMA في وصلة التنزيل ووصلة الرفع. وللجيل القادم من UMTS، يجري اعتبار OFDMA لوصلة التنزيل. وعلى النقيض، يجري اعتبار IFDMA في وصلة الإرسال حيث أن OFDMA تسهم أكثر في الأمور المتصلة بPAPR ونتائج تشغيل المضخمات غير المتزامن. يوفر IFDMA أقل تذبذبا في الطاقة وبالتالي يتجنب مشاكل المضخمات. وبالمثل، فإن SC-CDMA موجودة في الاقتراح الداعي إلى معيار IEEE 802.20. وتعطي مخططات الوصول تلك نفس معدلات الكفاءة كما التقنيات القديمة مثل CDMA. لكن بعيدا عن هذا، فإن قابلية التوسع، ومعدلات البيانات المرتفعة يمكن تحقيقها.
الميزة الأخرى الهامة لتقنيات الوصول المذكورة أعلاه هي أنها تتطلب قدرا أقل من التعقيد لتحقيق التكافؤ في المُستَقبِل. هذه هي ميزة إضافية لا سيما في بيئات MIMO حيث ان انتقال أنظمة MIMO للإرسال المتعدد في الفضاء يتطلب تكافؤا عالي التعقيد لدى المتلقي.
وبالإضافة إلى التحسينات في نظم الإرسال المتعدد تلك، يجرى استخدام تقنيات تضمين محسنة. في حين أن المعايير السابقة قد استخدمت بكثرة تشفير تحويل طور الموجات، فإن نظما أكثر كفاءة مثل 64QAM يجري اقتراحها للاستخدام مع معايير تطور 3GPP التطور على المدى الطويل3GPP طويل الأمد.
دعم IPv6 : على عكس الجيل الثالث، والذي يقوم على بنيتين تحتيتين متوازيتين تتكونان من أطراف تحويل الدوائر، وتحويل الحزم للشبكة على التوالي، ستكون 4G على أساس تحويل الحزم فقط. وسوف يتطلب هذا نقل بيانات بتأخر منخفض.
بحلول الوقت الذي يتم نشر الجيل الرابع فيه، فإن عملية استنفاد عناوين IPv4 من المتوقع أن تكون في مراحلها النهائية. ولذلك، ففي سياق 4G، سيكون دعم IPv6 ضروريا من أجل دعم عدد كبير من الأجهزة المُمَكَّنَة لاسلكيا. فعن طريق زيادة عدد عناوين الآي بي، يزيل IPv6 الحاجة لترجمة عنوان الشبكة (NAT)، وهي وسيلة لتبادل عدد محدود من العناوين من بين مجموعة كبيرة من الأجهزة، على الرغم من أنه ستضل هناك حاجة للنات للاتصال مع الأجهزة التي تقوم على شبكات IPv4 الموجودة.
اعتبارا من يونيو 2009، نشرت فيريزون [https://www22.verizon.com/opendev/Forum/LTE_Document_Archives.aspx المواصفات] التي تتطلب من أي أجهزة 4G على شبكتها أن تدعم IPv6.
أنظمة الهوائي المتطورة : من البديهي أن أداء الاتصالات اللاسلكية يعتمد على التقدم في نظام الهوائي، أرجع إلى هوائي ذكي أو عاقل.في الآونة الأخيرة، تنشأ تكنولوجيات الهوائيات المتعددة لتحقيق أهداف أنظمة ال4G مثل المعدلات المرتفعة، والكفاءة العالية، والاتصالات بعيدة المدى. وفي بداية التسعينيات، تم اقتراح العديد من مخططات النقل، لتلبية الاحتياجات لمعدلات البيانات المتنامية. واكتسبت تكنولوجيا معينة، الارسال المتعدد عبر المكان، أهمية لحفظها عرض النطاق الترددي والكفاءة في استهلاك الطاقة. يتضمن الارسال المتعدد عبر المكان نشر هوائيات متعددة لدى المرسل والمستقبل. ومن ثم يمكن نقل التيارات المستقلة من كل من الهوائيات في وقت واحد. ويزيد لك من سرعة نقل البيانات في طيات متعددة بعدد متساو مع الحد الأدنى من عدد هوائيات الإرسال والاستقبال. ويسمى هذا MIMO (كفرع من الهوائي الذكي). وبعيدا عن هذا، فإن الدقة في نقل البيانات بسرعة عالية في قناة تضعف من الممكن تحسينها باستخدام المزيد من الهوائيات في المٌرسِل أو في المٌستقبِل. ويسمى هذا تنوع الإرسال أو الاستقبال. كلا من تنوع الإرسال/التلقي والارسال المتعدد عبر المكان يصنفان ضمن تقنيات ترميز المكان-الزمان، والتي لا تتطلب بالضرورة معرفة القناة لدى المُرسِل. الفئة الأخرى هي تكنولوجيات الحلقة المغلقة متعددة الهوائيات، والتي تستخدم معرفة قناة لدى المُرسِل..
الراديو المُعَرَّف برمجيا (SDR) : SDR هي أحد أشكال العمارة اللاسلكية المفتوحة (OWA). فحيث أن 4G هو مجموعة من معايير اللاسلكية، سيُكَوِّن الشكل النهائي لأي جهاز 4G عدة معايير مختلفة. ومن الممكن تحقيق ذلك بكفاءة باستخدام تكنولوجيا SDR، والتي يتم تصنيفها لدى منطقة التقاء الراديو.
section: التطويرات : ظلت الشركة اليابانية إن تي تي دوكومو باختبار النموذج الأولي لنظام تواصل 4G مع 4x4 MIMO يدعى VCF-OFCDM بمعدل 100 ميغابت/ثانية، بينما يتحرك، و 1 جيجابت/ثانية بينما هو ثابت. في شباط / فبراير 2007، استكملت إن تي تي دوكومو تجربة قد وصلوا فيها إلى حد أقصى لإرسال الحزمة بمعدل يقرب من 5 جيجابت/ثانية في وصلة تنزيل مع 12x12 MIMO باستخدام تردد عرض النطاق 100 MHz بينما يتحرك على 10 كم/ساعة، وتخطط إلى إطلاق أول شبكة تجارية في عام 2010.
أعلنت ديجيويب، وهي شركة نطاق واسع ثابت ولاسلكي أيرلندية، أنها تلقت رخصة اتصالات متنقلة من هيئة الاتصالات الأيرلندية، ComReg. سيتم إصدار هذه الخدمة برمز المحمول 088 في ايرلندا، وسوف يستخدم لتوفير اتصالات 4G النقالة. كما أطلقت ديجيويب شبكة للهاتف المحمول واسع النطاق باستخدام تكنولوجيا FLASH-OFDM بتردد 872 ميغاهيرتز.
إن الشبكات المستشرية هي مفاهيم غير متبلورة وافتراضية تماما في الوقت الحاضر حيث يمكن للمستخدم أن يكون متصلا بشكل متزامن مع عدة تكنولوجيات وصول لاسلكية ويمكنه التحرك بسهولة بينهم (انظر عملية التحويل الرأسي، IEEE 802.21). تكنولوجيات الوصول تلك يمكنها أن تكون واي فاي، UMTS ،إيدج، أو أي تكنولوجيا دخول أخرى مستقبلية. يُدرج في ذلك المفهوم أيضا الراديو الذكي (المعروف أيضا باسم تكنولوجيا الراديو المعرفية) الذي يدير بكفاءة استخدام الطيف وقوة الارسال، فضلا عن استخدام بروتوكولات التوجيه الشبكي لإنشاء شبكة مستشرية.
أعلنت فيريزون وايرلس يوم 20 سبتمبر 2007 أنها تعتزم بذل جهود مشتركة مع مجموعة فودافون لنقل شبكاتها إلى معيار 4G التطوري طويل الأمد. وفي 9 ديسمبر 2008، أعلنت فيريزون وايرلس أنهم ينوون بناء والبدء في طرح شبكة التطور طويل الأمد بحلول نهاية عام 2009.
أعلنت كل من تيلوس وبيل كندا، حاملي cdmaOne وEV-DO الكنديين الكبريان، أنهما سوف تتعاونا لبناء شبكة نطاق عريض من الجيل الرابع (4G) التطور طويل الأمد في كندا. وكتدبير انتقالي، فسيقومون بتنفيذ 3G UMTS لينطلق حيا مع أوائل عام 2010.
وأعلنت سبرينت أنها سوف تقدم خطة اتصال 3G/4G ب79.99 دولار، لكنها متاحة حاليا فقط في بالتيمور * التطبيقات
بالمعدلات الحالية من 15-30 ميغابت/ثانية، فإن 4G قادرة على تزويد المستخدمين بتدفق التلفزيون عالي الدقة. وبمعدلات 100 ميغابت/ثانية، فإن محتويات دي في دي 5 (على سبيل المثال فيلم) من الممكن تحميلها في غضون حوالي 5 دقائق للدخول عليها بدون اتصال. * معايير 4G اللاسلكية
تقوم 3GPP حاليا بتوحيد التطور المتقدم طويل الأمد كمعيار 4G المستقبلي. وهناك مجموعة أولى من متطلبات 3GPP على التطور المتقدم طويل الأمد قد تمت الموافقة عليها في حزيران / يونيو 2008. وتقيم مجموعات العمل حاليا المقترحات المختلفة لتوحيد المقاييس. وسيتم توحيد التطور المتقدم طويل الأمدكجزء من الإصدار 10 من مواصفات 3GPP. * المراجع * الاستشهادات
2: : موارد إضافية (118kb)
Mobile telecommunications standards: Wireless systems:
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4G
Software-defined radio | Emerging standards
the mobile telecommunications standard: dateMarch 2011: date: December 2011: In telecommunications, 4G is the fourth generation of cellular wireless standards. It is a successor to the 3G and 2G families of standards. In 2009, the ITU-R organization specified the IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) requirements for 4G standards, setting peak speed requirements for 4G service at 100 Mbit/s for high mobility communication (such as from trains and cars) and 1 Gbit/s for low mobility communication (such as pedestrians and stationary users).
One of the key technologies for 4G and beyond is called "Open Wireless Architecture (OWA)" supporting multiple wireless air interfaces in an open architecture platform.
A 4G system is expected to provide a comprehensive and secure all-IP based mobile broadband solution to laptop computer wireless modems, smartphones, and other mobile devices. Facilities such as ultra-broadband Internet access, IP telephony, gaming services, and streamed multimedia may be provided to users.
IMT-Advanced compliant versions of LTE and WiMAX are under development and called "LTE Advanced" and "WirelessMAN-Advanced" respectively. ITU has decided that LTE Advanced and WirelessMAN-Advanced should be accorded the official designation of IMT-Advanced. On December 6, 2010, ITU recognized that current versions of LTE, WiMax and other evolved 3G technologies that do not fulfill "IMT-Advanced" requirements could nevertheless be considered "4G", provided they represent forerunners to IMT-Advanced and "a substantial level of improvement in performance and capabilities with respect to the initial third generation systems now deployed."
As seen below, in all suggestions for 4G, the CDMA spread spectrum radio technology used in 3G systems and IS-95 is abandoned and replaced by OFDMA and other frequency-domain equalization schemes. This is combined with MIMO (Multiple In Multiple Out), e.g., multiple antennas, dynamic channel allocation and channel-dependent scheduling.
Background : The nomenclature of the generations generally refers to a change in the fundamental nature of the service, non-backwards compatible transmission technology, higher spectral bandwidth and new frequency bands. New generations have appeared about every ten years since the first move from 1981 analog (1G) to digital (2G) transmission in 1992. This was followed, in 2001, by 3G multi-media support, spread spectrum transmission and at least 200 kbit/s, in 2011 expected to be followed by 4G, which refers to all-IP packet-switched networks, mobile ultra-broadband (gigabit speed) access and multi-carrier transmission.dateJune 2010: The fastest 3G based standard in the WCDMA family is the HSPA+ standard, which was commercially available in 2009 and offers 28 Mbit/s downstreams without MIMO, i.e. only with one antenna (it would offer 56 Mbit/s with 2x2 MIMO), and 22 Mbit/s upstreams. The fastest 3G based standard in the CDMA2000 family is the EV-DO Rev. B, which was available in 2010 and offers 15.67 Mbit/s downstreams.date: January 2011: Requirements: In mid 1990s, the ITU-R organization specified the IMT-2000 specifications for what standards that should be considered 3G systems. However, the cell phone market brands only some of the IMT-2000 standards as 3G (for example WCDMA and CDMA2000), not all (3GPP EDGE, DECT and mobile-WiMAX all fulfill the IMT-2000 requirements and are formally accepted as 3G standards, but are typically not branded as 3G). In 2008, ITU-R specified the IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) requirements for 4G systems.
This article uses 4G to refer to IMT-Advanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced), as defined by ITU-R. An IMT-Advanced cellular system must fulfill the following requirements: * Based on an all-IP packet switched network. * Peak data rates of up to approximately 100 Mbit/s for high mobility such as mobile access and up to approximately 1 Gbit/s for low mobility such as nomadic/local wireless access, according to the ITU requirements. * Dynamically share and use the network resources to support more simultaneous users per cell. * Scalable channel bandwidth 5–20 MHz, optionally up to 40 MHz. * Peak link spectral efficiency of 15 bit/s/Hz in the downlink, and 6.75 bit/s/Hz in the uplink (meaning that 1 Gbit/s in the downlink should be possible over less than 67 MHz bandwidth). * System spectral efficiency of up to 3 bit/s/Hz/cell in the downlink and 2.25 bit/s/Hz/cell for indoor usage. * Smooth handovers across heterogeneous networks. * Ability to offer high quality of service for next generation multimedia support.
In September 2009, the technology proposals were submitted to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) as 4G candidates. Basically all proposals are based on two technologies: * LTE Advanced standardized by the 3GPP * 802.16m standardized by the IEEE (i.e. WiMAX)
Present implementations of WiMAX and LTE are largely considered a stopgap solution that will offer a considerable boost while WiMAX 2 (based on the 802.16m spec) and LTE Advanced are finalized. Both technologies aim to reach the objectives traced by the ITU, but are still far from being implemented.
The first set of 3GPP requirements on LTE Advanced was approved in June 2008. LTE Advanced will be standardized in 2010 as part of the Release 10 of the 3GPP specification. LTE Advanced will be fully built on the existing LTE specification Release 10 and not be defined as a new specification series. A summary of the technologies that have been studied as the basis for LTE Advanced is included in a technical report.
Current LTE and WiMAX implementations are considered pre-4G, as they do not fully comply with the planned requirements of 1 Gbit/s for stationary reception and 100 Mbit/s for mobile.
Confusion has been caused by some mobile carriers who have launched products advertised as 4G but which are actually current technologies, commonly referred to as '3.9G', which do not follow the ITU-R defined principles for 4G standards. A common argument for branding 3.9G systems as new-generation is that they use different frequency bands to 3G technologies; that they are based on a new radio-interface paradigm; and that the standards are not backwards compatible with 3G, whilst some of the standards are expected to be forwards compatible with "real" 4G technologies.
While the ITU has adopted recommendations for technologies that would be used for future global communications, they do not actually perform the standardization or development work themselves, instead relying on the work of other standards bodies such as IEEE, The WiMAX Forum and 3GPP. Recently, ITU-R Working Party 5D approved two industry-developed technologies (LTE Advanced and WirelessMAN-Advanced) for inclusion in the ITU’s International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced (IMT-Advanced program), which is focused on global communication systems that would be available several years from now. * 4G and near-4G systems
The wireless telecommunications industry as a whole has early assumed the term 4G as a shorthand way to describe those advanced cellular technologies that, among other things, are based on or employ wide channel OFDMA and SC-FDE technologies, MIMO transmission and an all-IP based architecture.date: December 2010: Mobile-WiMAX, first release LTE, IEEE 802.20 as well as Flash-OFDM meets these early assumptions, and have been considered as 4G candidate systems, but do not yet meet the more recent ITU-R IMT-Advanced requirements.
4G candidate systems : LTE Advanced : : See also: 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) below
LTE Advanced (Long-term-evolution Advanced) is a candidate for IMT-Advanced standard, formally submitted by the 3GPP organization to ITU-T in the fall 2009, and expected to be released in 2012. The target of 3GPP LTE Advanced is to reach and surpass the ITU requirements. LTE Advanced is essentially an enhancement to LTE. It is not a new technology but rather an improvement on the existing LTE network. This upgrade path makes it more cost effective for vendors to offer LTE and then upgrade to LTE Advanced which is similar to the upgrade from WCDMA to HSPA. LTE and LTE Advanced will also make use of additional spectrum and multiplexing to allow it to achieve higher data speeds. Coordinated Multi-point Transmission will also allow more system capacity to help handle the enhanced data speeds. Release 10 of LTE is expected to achieve the LTE Advanced speeds. Release 8 currently supports up to 300 Mbit/s download speeds which is still short of the IMT-Advanced standards.
* IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced
The IEEE 802.16m or WirelessMAN-Advanced evolution of 802.16e is under development, with the objective to fulfill the IMT-Advanced criteria of 1 Gbit/s for stationary reception and 100 Mbit/s for mobile reception. * 4G predecessors and discontinued candidate systems * 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) * See also: LTE Advanced above
The pre-4G technology 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) is often branded "4G", but the first LTE release does not fully comply with the IMT-Advanced requirements. LTE has a theoretical net bit rate capacity of up to 100 Mbit/s in the downlink and 50 Mbit/s in the uplink if a 20 MHz channel is used — and more if multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO), i.e. antenna arrays, are used.
The physical radio interface was at an early stage named High Speed OFDM Packet Access (HSOPA), now named Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access (E-UTRA).
The first LTE USB dongles do not support any other radio interface.
The world's first publicly available LTE service was opened in the two Scandinavian capitals Stockholm (Ericsson and Nokia Siemens Networks systems) and Oslo (a Huawei system) on 14 December 2009, and branded 4G. The user terminals were manufactured by Samsung. Currently, the three publicly available LTE services in the United States are provided by MetroPCS, Verizon Wireless, and AT&T. Sprint Nextel has also stated it's considering switching from WiMax to LTE in the near future.
In South Korea, SK Telecom and LG U+ have enabled access to LTE service since 1 July 2011 for data devices, slated to go nationwide by 2012.
Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e) : The Mobile WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e-2005) mobile wireless broadband access (MWBA) standard (also known as WiBro in South Korea) is sometimes branded 4G, and offers peak data rates of 80 Mbit/s downlink and 40 Mbit/s uplink over 20 MHz wide channels dateOctober 2010: .
In June 2006, the world's first commercial mobile WiMAX service was opened by KT in Seoul, South Korea.
Sprint Nextel has begun using Mobile WiMAX, as of September 29, 2008 branded as a "4G" network even though the current version does not fulfil the IMT Advanced requirements on 4G systems.
In Russia, Belarus and Nicaragua WiMax broadband internet access is offered by a Russian company Scartel, and is also branded 4G, Yota.
* UMB (formerly EV-DO Rev. C)
Ultra Mobile Broadband: UMB (Ultra Mobile Broadband) was the brand name for a discontinued 4G project within the 3GPP2 standardization group to improve the CDMA2000 mobile phone standard for next generation applications and requirements. In November 2008, Qualcomm, UMB's lead sponsor, announced it was ending development of the technology, favouring LTE instead. The objective was to achieve data speeds over 275 Mbit/s downstream and over 75 Mbit/s upstream.
Flash-OFDM : At an early stage the Flash-OFDM system was expected to be further developed into a 4G standard.
iBurst and MBWA (IEEE 802.20) systems : The iBurst system (or HC-SDMA, High Capacity Spatial Division Multiple Access) was at an early stage considered as a 4G predecessor. It was later further developed into the Mobile Broadband Wireless Access (MBWA) system, also known as IEEE 802.20.
Data rate comparison : The following table shows a comparison of 4G candidate systems as well as other competing technologies.
Comparison of mobile Internet standards: Objective and approach : Objectives assumed in the literature : 4G is being developed to accommodate the quality of service (QoS) and rate requirements set by further development of existing 3G applications like mobile broadband access, Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), video chat, mobile TV, but also new services like HDTV. 4G may allow roaming with wireless local area networks, and may interact with digital video broadcasting systems.
In the literature, the assumed or expected 4G requirements have changed during the years before IMT-Advanced was specified by the ITU-R. These are examples of objectives stated in various sources: * A nominal data rate of 100 Mbit/s while the client physically moves at high speeds relative to the station, and 1 Gbit/s while client and station are in relatively fixed positions as defined by the ITU-R * A data rate of at least 100 Mbit/s between any two points in the world * Smooth handoff across heterogeneous networks * Seamless connectivity and global roaming across multiple networks * High quality of service for next generation multimedia support (real time audio, high speed data, HDTV video content, mobile TV, etc.) * Interoperability with existing wireless standards * An all IP, packet switched network * IP-based femtocells (home nodes connected to fixed Internet broadband infrastructure) * Approaches * Principal technologies * Physical layer transmission techniques are as follows: ** MIMO: To attain ultra high spectral efficiency by means of spatial processing including multi-antenna and multi-user MIMO ** Frequency-domain-equalization, for example multi-carrier modulation (OFDM) in the downlink or single-carrier frequency-domain-equalization (SC-FDE) in the uplink: To exploit the frequency selective channel property without complex equalization ** Frequency-domain statistical multiplexing, for example (OFDMA) or (single-carrier FDMA) (SC-FDMA, a.k.a. linearly precoded OFDMA, LP-OFDMA) in the uplink: Variable bit rate by assigning different sub-channels to different users based on the channel conditions ** Turbo principle error-correcting codes: To minimize the required SNR at the reception side * Channel-dependent scheduling: To utilize the time-varying channel * Link adaptation: Adaptive modulation and error-correcting codes * Relaying, including fixed relay networks (FRNs), and the cooperative relaying concept, known as multi-mode protocol
4G features assumed in early literature : The 4G system was originally envisioned by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA).dateDecember 2010: The DARPA selected the distributed architecture and end-to-end Internet protocol (IP), and believed at an early stage in peer-to-peer networking in which every mobile device would be both a transceiver and a router for other devices in the network, eliminating the spoke-and-hub weakness of 2G and 3G cellular systems. Since the 2.5G GPRS system, cellular systems have provided dual infrastructures: packet switched nodes for data services, and circuit switched nodes for voice calls. In 4G systems, the circuit-switched infrastructure is abandoned and only a packet-switched network is provided, while 2.5G and 3G systems require both packet-switched and circuit-switched network nodes, i.e. two infrastructures in parallel. This means that in 4G, traditional voice calls are replaced by IP telephony.
Cellular systems such as 4G allow seamless mobility; thus a file transfer is not interrupted in case a terminal moves from one cell (one base station coverage area) to another, but handover is carried out. The terminal also keeps the same IP address while moving, meaning that a mobile server is reachable as long as it is within the coverage area of any server. In 4G systems this mobility is provided by the mobile IP protocol, part of IP version 6, while in earlier cellular generations it was provided only by physical-layer and datalink-layer protocols. In addition to seamless mobility, 4G provides flexible interoperability of the various kinds of existing wireless networks, such as satellite, cellular wireless, WLAN, PAN and systems for accessing fixed wireless networks.
While maintaining seamless mobility, 4G will offer very high data rates with expectations of 100 Mbit/s wireless service. The increased bandwidth and higher data transmission rates will allow 4G users the ability to utilize high-definition video and the videoconferencing features of mobile devices attached to a 4G network. The 4G wireless system is expected to provide a comprehensive IP solution where multimedia applications and services can be delivered to the user on an 'anytime, anywhere' basis with a satisfactory high data rate, premium quality and high security.
4G is described as MAGIC: mobile multimedia, anytime anywhere, global mobility support, integrated wireless solution, and customized personal service. date: March 2011: Some key features (primarily from users' points of view) of 4G mobile networks are: dateMarch 2011: * High usability: anytime, anywhere, and with any technology * Support for multimedia services at low transmission cost * Personalization * Integrated services * Components * Multiplexing and Access schemes
date: May 2010: The Migration to 4G standards incorporates elements of many early technologies and often you will read about solutions that use Code (a cypher), Frequency or Time as the basis of multiplexing the spectrum more efficiently. While Spectrum is considered finite, Cooper's Law has shown that we have developed more efficient ways of using spectrum just as the Moore's law has show our ability to increase processing.
As the wireless standards evolved, the access techniques used also exhibited increase in efficiency, capacity and scalability. The first generation wireless standards used TDMA and FDMA. In the wireless channels, TDMA proved to be less efficient in handling the high data rate channels as it requires large guard periods to alleviate the multipath impact. Similarly, FDMA consumed more bandwidth for guard to avoid inter carrier interference. So in second generation systems, one set of standard used the combination of FDMA and TDMA and the other set introduced an access scheme called CDMA. Usage of CDMA increased the system capacity, but as a theoretical drawback placed a soft limit on it rather than the hard limit (i.e. a CDMA network setup does not inherently reject new clients when it approaches its limits, resulting in a denial of service to all clients when the network overloads; though this outcome is avoided in practical implementations by admission control of circuit switched or fixed bitrate communication services). Data rate is also increased as this access scheme (providing the network is not reaching its capacity) is efficient enough to handle the multipath channel. This enabled the third generation systems, such as IS-2000, UMTS, HSXPA, 1xEV-DO, TD-CDMA and TD-SCDMA, to use CDMA as the access scheme. However, the issue with CDMA is that it suffers from poor spectral flexibility and computationally intensive time-domain equalization (high number of multiplications per second) for wideband channels.
Recently, new access schemes like Orthogonal FDMA (OFDMA), Single Carrier FDMA (SC-FDMA), Interleaved FDMA and Multi-carrier CDMA (MC-CDMA) are gaining more importance for the next generation systems. These are based on efficient FFT algorithms and frequency domain equalization, resulting in a lower number of multiplications per second. They also make it possible to control the bandwidth and form the spectrum in a flexible way. However, they require advanced dynamic channel allocation and traffic adaptive scheduling.
WiMax is using OFDMA in the downlink and in the uplink. For the next generation UMTS, OFDMA is used for the downlink. By contrast, IFDMA is being considered for the uplink since OFDMA contributes more to the PAPR related issues and results in nonlinear operation of amplifiers. IFDMA provides less power fluctuation and thus avoids amplifier issues. Similarly, MC-CDMA is in the proposal for the IEEE 802.20 standard. These access schemes offer the same efficiencies as older technologies like CDMA. Apart from this, scalability and higher data rates can be achieved.
The other important advantage of the above mentioned access techniques is that they require less complexity for equalization at the receiver. This is an added advantage especially in the MIMO environments since the spatial multiplexing transmission of MIMO systems inherently requires high complexity equalization at the receiver.
In addition to improvements in these multiplexing systems, improved modulation techniques are being used. Whereas earlier standards largely used Phase-shift keying, more efficient systems such as 64QAM are being proposed for use with the 3GPP Long Term Evolution standards.
IPv6 support : Unlike 3G, which is based on two parallel infrastructures consisting of circuit switched and packet switched network nodes respectively, 4G will be based on packet switching only. This will require low-latency data transmission.
By the time that 4G was deployed, the process of IPv4 address exhaustion was expected to be in its final stages. Therefore, in the context of 4G, IPv6 support is essential in order to support a large number of wireless-enabled devices. By increasing the number of IP addresses, IPv6 removes the need for network address translation (NAT), a method of sharing a limited number of addresses among a larger group of devices, although NAT will still be required to communicate with devices that are on existing IPv4 networks.
, Verizon has posted [https://www22.verizon.com/opendev/Forum/LTE_Document_Archives.aspx specifications] that require any 4G devices on its network to support IPv6.
Advanced antenna systems : The performance of radio communications depends on an antenna system, termed smart or intelligent antenna. Recently, multiple antenna technologies are emerging to achieve the goal of 4G systems such as high rate, high reliability, and long range communications. In the early 1990s, to cater for the growing data rate needs of data communication, many transmission schemes were proposed. One technology, spatial multiplexing, gained importance for its bandwidth conservation and power efficiency. Spatial multiplexing involves deploying multiple antennas at the transmitter and at the receiver. Independent streams can then be transmitted simultaneously from all the antennas. This technology, called MIMO (as a branch of intelligent antenna), multiplies the base data rate by (the smaller of) the number of transmit antennas or the number of receive antennas. Apart from this, the reliability in transmitting high speed data in the fading channel can be improved by using more antennas at the transmitter or at the receiver. This is called transmit or receive diversity. Both transmit/receive diversity and transmit spatial multiplexing are categorized into the space-time coding techniques, which does not necessarily require the channel knowledge at the transmitter. The other category is closed-loop multiple antenna technologies, which require channel knowledge at the transmitter.
Software-defined radio (SDR) : SDR is one form of open wireless architecture (OWA). Since 4G is a collection of wireless standards, the final form of a 4G device will constitute various standards. This can be efficiently realized using SDR technology, which is categorized to the area of the radio convergence.
History of 4G and pre-4G technologies : As of December 2011, there are no 4G networks that fulfil the International Telecommunication Union's criteria of being able to achieve 1Gbit/s while stationary.
However in December 2010, the ITU recognized that current versions of LTE, WiMax and other evolved 3G technologies that do not fulfill "IMT-Advanced" requirements could nevertheless be considered "4G", provided they represent forerunners to IMT-Advanced and "a substantial level of improvement in performance and capabilities with respect to the initial third generation systems now deployed." * In 2002, the strategic vision for 4G—which ITU designated as IMT-Advanced—was laid out. * In 2005, OFDMA transmission technology is chosen as candidate for the HSOPA downlink, later renamed 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) air interface E-UTRA. * In November 2005, KT demonstrated mobile WiMAX service in Busan, South Korea. * In June 2006, KT started the world's first commercial mobile WiMAX service in Seoul, South Korea. * In mid-2006, Sprint Nextel announced that it would invest about US$5 billion in a WiMAX technology buildout over the next few years ($}} in real termsUS: ). Since that time Sprint has faced many setbacks, that have resulted in steep quarterly losses. On May 7, 2008, Sprint, Imagine, Google, Intel, Comcast, Bright House, and Time Warner announced a pooling of an average of 120 MHz of spectrum; Sprint merged its Xohm WiMAX division with Clearwire to form a company which will take the name "Clear". * In February 2007, the Japanese company NTT DoCoMo tested a 4G communication system prototype with 4x4 MIMO called VSF-OFCDM at 100 Mbit/s while moving, and 1 Gbit/s while stationary. NTT DoCoMo completed a trial in which they reached a maximum packet transmission rate of approximately 5 Gbit/s in the downlink with 12x12 MIMO using a 100 MHz frequency bandwidth while moving at 10 km/h, and is planning on releasing the first commercial network in 2010. * In September 2007, NTT Docomo demonstrated e-UTRA data rates of 200 Mbit/s with power consumption below 100 mW during the test. * In January 2008, a U.S. Federal Communications Commission (FCC) spectrum auction for the 700 MHz former analog TV frequencies began. As a result, the biggest share of the spectrum went to Verizon Wireless and the next biggest to AT&T. Both of these companies have stated their intention of supporting LTE. * In January 2008, EU commissioner Viviane Reding suggested re-allocation of 500–800 MHz spectrum for wireless communication, including WiMAX. * On 15 February 2008 - Skyworks Solutions released a front-end module for e-UTRAN. * In 2008, ITU-R established the detailed performance requirements of IMT-Advanced, by issuing a Circular Letter calling for candidate Radio Access Technologies (RATs) for IMT-Advanced. * In April 2008, just after receiving the circular letter, the 3GPP organized a workshop on IMT-Advanced where it was decided that LTE Advanced, an evolution of current LTE standard, will meet or even exceed IMT-Advanced requirements following the ITU-R agenda. * In April 2008, LG and Nortel demonstrated e-UTRA data rates of 50 Mbit/s while travelling at 110 km/h. * On 12 November 2008, HTC announced the first WiMAX-enabled mobile phone, the Max 4G * In December 2008, San Miguel Corporation, Asia's largest food and beverage conglomerate, has signed a memorandum of understanding with Qatar Telecom QSC (Qtel) to build wireless broadband and mobile communications projects in the Philippines. The joint-venture formed wi-tribe Philippines, which offers 4G in the country. Around the same time Globe Telecom rolled out the first WiMAX service in the Philippines. * On 3 March 2009, Lithuania's LRTC announcing the first operational "4G" mobile WiMAX network in Baltic states. * In December 2009, Sprint began advertising "4G" service in selected cities in the United States, despite average download speeds of only 3–6 Mbit/s with peak speeds of 10 Mbit/s (not available in all markets). * On 14 December 2009, the first commercial LTE deployment was in the Scandinavian capitals Stockholm and Oslo by the Swedish-Finnish network operator TeliaSonera and its Norwegian brandname NetCom (Norway). TeliaSonera branded the network "4G". The modem devices on offer were manufactured by Samsung (dongle GT-B3710), and the network infrastructure created by Huawei (in Oslo) and Ericsson (in Stockholm). TeliaSonera plans to roll out nationwide LTE across Sweden, Norway and Finland. TeliaSonera used spectral bandwidth of 10 MHz, and single-in-single-out, which should provide physical layer net bitrates of up to 50 Mbit/s downlink and 25 Mbit/s in the uplink. Introductory tests showed a TCP throughput of 42.8 Mbit/s downlink and 5.3 Mbit/s uplink in Stockholm. * On 25 February 2010, Estonia's EMT opened LTE "4G" network working in test regime. * On 4 June 2010, Sprint Nextel released the first WiMAX smartphone in the US, the HTC Evo 4G. * In July 2010, Uzbekistan's MTS deployed LTE in Tashkent. * On 25 August 2010, Latvia's LMT opened LTE "4G" network working in test regime 50% of territory. * On 6 December 2010, at the ITU World Radiocommunication Seminar 2010, the ITU stated that LTE, WiMax and similar "evolved 3G technologies" could be considered "4G". * On 12 December 2010, VivaCell-MTS launches in Armenia 4G/LTE commercial test network with a live demo conducted in Yerevan. * On 28 April 2011, Lithuania's Omnitel opened LTE "4G" network working in 5 biggest cities. * In September 2011, All three Saudi telecom giants STC, Mobily and Zain announced that they will offer 4G LTE for high speed USB sticks for mobile computers, with further development for telephones by 2013. * In 2011, Argentina´s Claro launch 4G HSPA+ network in the country. * Deployment plans
In May 2005, Digiweb, an Irish fixed and wireless broadband company, announced that they had received a mobile communications license from the Irish Telecoms regulator, ComReg. This service will be issued the mobile code 088 in Ireland and will be used for the provision of 4G Mobile communications. Digiweb launched a mobile broadband network using FLASH-OFDM technology at 872 MHz.
On September 20, 2007, Verizon Wireless announced plans for a joint effort with the Vodafone Group to transition its networks to the 4G standard LTE. On December 9, 2008, Verizon Wireless announced their intentions to build and begin to roll out an LTE network by the end of 2009. Since then, Verizon Wireless has said that they will start their rollout by the end of 2010.
On July 7, 2008, South Korea announced plans to spend 60 billion won, or US$58,000,000, on developing 4G and even 5G technologies, with the goal of having the highest mobile phone market share by 2012, and the hope of an international standard.
Telus and Bell Canada, the major Canadian cdmaOne and EV-DO carriers, have announced that they will be cooperating towards building a fourth generation (4G) LTE wireless broadband network in Canada. As a transitional measure, they are implementing 3G UMTS that went live in November 2009.
Sprint Nextel offers a 3G/4G connection plan, currently available in select cities in the United States. It delivers rates up to 10 Mbit/s. Sprint has announced that they will launch a LTE network in early 2012.
In the United Kingdom, Telefónica O2 is to use Slough as a guinea pig in testing the 4G network and has called upon Huawei to install LTE technology in six masts across the town to allow people to talk to each other via HD video conferencing and play PlayStation games while on the move.
Verizon Wireless has announced that it plans to augment its CDMA2000-based EV-DO 3G network in the United States with LTE, and is supposed to complete a rollout of 175 cities by the end of 2011, two thirds of the US population by mid-2012, and cover the existing 3G network by the end of 2013. AT&T, along with Verizon Wireless, has chosen to migrate toward LTE from 2G/GSM and 3G/HSPA by 2011.
Sprint Nextel has deployed WiMAX technology which it has labeled 4G as of October 2008. It is currently deploying to additional markets and is the first US carrier to offer a WiMAX phone.
The U.S. FCC is exploring the possibility of deployment and operation of a nationwide 4G public safety network which would allow first responders to seamlessly communicate between agencies and across geographies, regardless of devices. In June 2010 the FCC released a comprehensive white paper which indicates that the 10 MHz of dedicated spectrum currently allocated from the 1700 MHz spectrum for public safety will provide adequate capacity and performance necessary for normal communications as well as serious emergency situations.
TeliaSonera started deploying LTE (branded "4G") in Stockholm and Oslo November 2009 (as seen above), and in several Swedish, Norwegian, and Finnish cities during 2010. In June 2010, Swedish television companies used 4G to broadcast live television from the Swedish Crown Princess' Royal Wedding.
Safaricom, a telecommunication company in East& Central Africa, began its setup of a 4G network in October 2010 after the now retired& Kenya Tourist Board Chairman, Michael Joseph, regarded their 3G network as a white elephant i.e. it failed to perform to expectations. Huawei was given the contract the network is set to go fully commercial by the end of Q1 of 2011
Telstra announced on 15 February 2011, that it intends to upgrade its current Next G network to 4G with Long Term Evolution (LTE) technology in the central business districts of all Australian capital cities and selected regional centers by the end of 2011.
Sri Lanka Telecom Mobitel and Dialog Axiata announced that first time in South Asia Sri Lanka have successfully tested and demonstrated 4G technology on 6th of May 2011(Sri Lanka Telecom Mobitel) and 7th of May 2011(Dialog Axiata) and began the setup of their 4G Networks in Sri Lanka.
On May 2011, Brazil's Communication Ministry announced that the 12 host cities for the 2014 FIFA World Cup to be held there will be the first to have their networks upgraded to 4G. Mobitel was able to reach 96mbps of speed while Dialog Axiata reached 128mbps on their demonstration.
In mid September 2011, Mobily of Saudi Arabia, announced their 4G LTE networks to be ready after months of testing and evaluations.
On September 2011, UAE's Etisalat announced commercial launch of 4G LTE services covering over 70% of country's urban areas.
India is expected to see launch of 4G services using TD-LTE technology in January 2012. The services will be launched by Augere, a UK based company, in Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh under the Zoosh brand name. * Beyond 4G research
5G: A major issue in 4G systems is to make the high bit rates available in a larger portion of the cell, especially to users in an exposed position in between several base stations. In current research, this issue is addressed by macro-diversity techniques, also known as group cooperative relay, and also by Beam-Division Multiple Access (BDMA).
Pervasive networks are an amorphous and at present entirely hypothetical concept where the user can be simultaneously connected to several wireless access technologies and can seamlessly move between them (See vertical handoff, IEEE 802.21). These access technologies can be Wi-Fi, UMTS, EDGE, or any other future access technology. Included in this concept is also smart-radio (also known as cognitive radio) technology to efficiently manage spectrum use and transmission power as well as the use of mesh routing protocols to create a pervasive network. * References ==
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4G
Téléphone mobile | 4G
technique: En télécommunications, 4G est la 4e: génération de standards pour la téléphonie mobile. Elle est le successeur de la 3G et de la 2G. Elle permet le "très haut débit mobile", soit des transmissions de données à des débits théoriques de l'ordre de 100 Mb/s. Mais ils seraient en pratique de l'ordre de quelques dizaines de Mb/s, suivant le nombre d'utilisateurs puisque la bande passante est partagée entre les terminaux des utilisateurs gérés par une même station.
Normes : * IMT-Advanced : ** LTE-Advanced ** Gigabit WiMAX * IMT-2000 : ** LTE ** WiMAX
L'organisme de normalisation IUT-R a établie les spécifications "IMT-Advanced" (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) pour les normes 4G. La norme LTE-Advanced fait partie des technologies réseau retenues pour IMT-Advanced, avec le Gigabit WiMAX.
Les normes LTE et WiMax sont en principe des normes de troisième génération, établies dans le cadre des technologies IMT-2000. Cependant, en décembre 2010, l'IUT accorda aux normes LTE et WiMax établies avant les spécifications "IMT-Advanced" et qui ne satisfont pas pour autant à ses prérequis, comme pouvant être considérées comme des systèmes "4G" du fait d'un niveau substanciel d'amélioration des performances et des caractéristiques comparées à celles des premiers systèmes "3G".
Historique de déploiement : Europe : Une première commercialisation d'une offre mobile en 4G utilisant le standard LTE a été lancée sur les villes de Stockholm (Suède) et Oslo (Norvège) le 15 décembre 2009 par l'opérateur téléphonique TeliaSonera .
Samsung a commercialisé le premier téléphone compatible 4G LTE sous la référence SCH-R900, dans le second semestre 2010. La connexion peut également se faire depuis un ordinateur et une clé 4G LTE fabriquée par Samsung Electronics.
Les déploiements à grande échelle ne sont pas attendus avant 2011. * France
En France, l'ARCEP a attribué les licences 4G LTE aux opérateurs en 2011. Les enchères vont rapporter à l'état plus de 2,6 milliards d'euros.
Le résultat du premier appel d’offres 4G pour la bande de fréquence des 2 600 MHz se répartit comme suit : * Bouygues Telecom obtient 15 MHz duplex pour 228 011 012 € ; * Free Mobile obtient 20 MHz duplex pour 271 000 000 € ; * Orange obtient 20 MHz duplex pour 287 118 501 € ; * SFR obtient 15 MHz duplex pour 150 000 000 €. La filiale de Vivendi est par ailleurs le seul opérateur à ne pas avoir souscrit d'engagement à accueillir des opérateurs virtuels (MVNO) sur son réseau.
Soit un total de 936 129 513 €.
Le résultat du second appel d'offres 4G pour la bande des 800 Mhz, issue de l'arrêt de la télévision hertzienne analogique, se répartit comme suit : * Bouygues Telecom obtient 10 MHz duplex pour 683 087 000 € ; * Orange obtient 10 MHz duplex pour 891 000 005 € ; * SFR obtient 10 MHz duplex (2 blocs de 5 MHz) pour 1 065 000 000 €. ; * Free Mobile n'obtient pas de fréquences dans cette bande.
Soit un total de 1 748 087 000 €. * Japon
Alors que les réseaux mobiles LTE 3.9G (Long Term Evolution) commencent à peine à être lancés en tant que réseaux commerciaux, l'opérateur japonais DoCoMo se prépare déjà à faire sortir la génération suivante, LTE-Advanced, des laboratoires ,: .
L'opérateur DoCoMo a obtenu le feu vert du bureau des télécommunications rattaché au Ministère de l'Intérieur japonais pour mener des expérimentations LTE-Advanced sur le terrain via une pré-licence qui lui permettra d'exploiter des fréquences sur les villes de Yokosuka et Sagamihara.
Ce pilote permettra de tester des équipements LTE-Advanced en intérieur comme en extérieur. DoCoMo a déjà réalisé une série d'expérimentations en simulant un environnement radio perturbé par des obstacles, modélisant des configurations telles qu'on peut les trouver dans les villes, mais dans ses centres R&D, où il a déjà réussi à obtenir des débits descendants de et montants de . * Tableau récapitulatif des technologies de téléphonie mobile
Notes et références : colonnes=1:
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هانس ديلبروك
مواليد 1848 | وفيات 1929 | مؤرخون ألمان | عسكريون ألمان في الحرب الفرنسية البروسية
هانس ديلبروك Hans Delbrück : هو مؤرخ وسياسي ألماني ولد في 11 نوفمبر 1848 في بيرغن أوف روغين وتوفى في 14 يوليو 1929 في برلين.
عائلته : في سنة 1884 تزوج هانس من لينا ذيرش وهي حفيدة الكيميائي الألماني يوستوس فون ليبغ. والذي ينتمي أيضا من بعيد إلى أحد فروع عائلة ديلبروك، وأنجبا سبعة أطفال.
حياته : درس هانس ابتداء من سنة 1886 التاريخ وتخرج على يد هاينرش فون زيبل. وفي هذا الوقت شارك أيضا في الحرب الفرنسية البروسية.
اشتغل ابتداء من سنة 1883 مع هاينريش فون ترايتشكي في النشر.
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Hans Delbrück
1848 births | 1929 deaths | People from Bergen auf Rügen | German historians | German military personnel of the Franco-Prussian War | People from the Province of Pomerania | University of Bonn alumni | Members of the Prussian House of Representatives | Members of the Reichstag of the German Empire
Hans Delbrück (November 11, 1848 - July 14, 1929) was a German historian. Delbrück was one of the first modern military historians, basing his method of research on the critical examination of ancient sources, the use of auxiliary disciplines, like demography and economics, to complete the analysis and the comparison between different epochs to trace the evolution of military institutions.
Delbrück's writings are chiefly concerned with the history of the art of war, his most ambitious work being his Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen Geschichte (History of warfare in the framework of political history, four volumes, third edition published in 1920). Other works are Die Perserkriege und die Burgunderkriege (The Persian and Burgundian Wars, 1887), Die Strategie des Perikles erläutert durch die Strategie Friedrichs des Grossen (The strategy of Pericles described through the strategy of Frederick the Great, 1890) and Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen Neithardt von Gneisenau (Life of Marshal Count Neithardt von Gneisenau, 1894).
Biography: Delbrück was born at Bergen on the island of Rügen, and studied at the universities of Heidelberg and Bonn. As a soldier, he fought in the Franco-German War, after which, in 1874, he became for some years tutor to Prince Waldemar of the German imperial family, a brother of the future emperor, Wilhelm II. He served in the Reichstag from 1882 to 1883, and afterward, in 1883, he became an editor of the Preussische Jahrbücher, a noted political magazine. He assumed charge of this publication in 1889, and kept working on it in that capacity until 1920.
In 1885, he became professor of modern history in the University of Berlin, where his lectures were highly popular. He was a member of the German Reichstag from 1884 to 1890. Delbrück vigorously opposed the policy of the Prussian government in dealing with the Danes and the Poles, with the result that he was twice subjected to disciplinary penalties as a professor and therefore, in Prussia, a civil servant. At an early stage of World War I, he became pessimistic regarding the possibility of any real success for Germany except by military and political strategy and tactics of a purely defensive character. He was, on tactical rather than on moral grounds, a strenuous opponent of intensified submarine warfare, and did not conceal his conviction that the result of this method of warfare would ultimately be the intervention of America. He was a member of the German Delegation during the Versailles Peace Conference that ended World War I where he mainly endeavoured to prove that Germany could not be made solely responsible for the outbreak of war. He died in Berlin.
He was the father of Max Delbrück, who did pioneering work in physics and also won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1969). * Hypotheses
Overall, Delbrück's works tried to place military history in the framework of general history. He regarded warfare as a cultural feature of societies, subject to evolution and influenced by the economy and the political system. His works, however, were not translated into English for some time, hence the reputation of him held by professional military theorists in English-speaking countries has not reached the significance of Clausewitz, for example. * Ancient warfare
Delbrück's conclusions regarding ancient warfare were revolutionary. He showed that the figures for armies in antiquity were inflated in the sources, and that, contrary to what is stated in most writings, the winner in a battle usually had more troops than the loser. He gave a completely new interpretation to some of the most famous battles in history, like Marathon, Gaugamela and Zama. He concluded that the advantage of Roman armies over the "barbarians" rested, not so much in their discipline and refined tactics, but rather in their logistical support. The Romans were able to raise and maintain huge armies on the field, while the "barbarians" were unable to match them. * Medieval warfare
Regarding medieval warfare, Delbrück's findings were more controversial. He made a distinction between knights (mounted warriors) and cavalry (an organized mass of mounted troops), and regarded the medieval warrior as an independent fighter, unable to join others and form units with tactical significance. This conclusion was contested by later scholars, in particular the Belgian historian J. F. Verbruggen. * Modern warfare
When moving into modern warfare, Delbrück showed his intellectual roots in Clausewitz. He made a distinction between two possible strategies in war: attrition and annihilation (in German, Ermattungsstrategie and Niederwerfungsstrategie, respectively), derived from Clausewitz's distinctions between strategies seeking limited objectives and strategies aimed at rendering one's opponent militarily helpless, the latter often confused with the concept of "Total War" (a term Clausewitz did not use) advocated by Ludendorff and rejected by Delbrück during WWI. The choice depended on the nature of the political objectives and existing political and economic limitations, as well as on the correlation of forces. He applied this analytical tool to the wars of Frederick the Great, concluding that, due to their numerical inferiority, the Prussians had pursued a strategy of attrition. His overall treatment of this era was, however, disappointing, in part because Delbrück overlooked the Spanish wars.
Delbrück was also very critical of his country's strategy during World War I. He said it would have been much better to seek victory in the Eastern front, gain minor objectives on the West and then seek peace. This was one example of the general principle, Delbrück maintained, that military and political maneuvers should be integrated. * Works
Among the other works of Delbrück, besides those mentioned above, are: * Historische und politische Aufsätze (1886) * Erinnerungen, Aufsätze und Reden (1902) * Die Polenfrage (1894) * Numbers in History (1913) * Regierung und Volkswille (1914) * Bismarcks Erbe (1915) * Krieg und Politik (1918) * Kautsky und Harden (1920) * Ludendorff, Tirpitz, Falkenhayn (1920)
In his book Regierung und Volkswille (1914), Delbrück attempted a defence of the old system of government in Germany and Prussia with particular reference to its “dualism,” that is parliamentary representation and simultaneously a certain degree of autocracy on the part of the sovereign in Prussia and of the federated government in the empire. A succinct statement of Delbrück's views on Germany's responsibility for World War I and an English reply can be found in articles by Delbrück and J. W. Headlam-Morley in the Contemporary Review (March 1921).
In Fiction: In Mel Brooks's comedy Young Frankenstein, Doctor Frankenstein sends his assistant, Igor, to retrieve the brain of Hans Delbrück for transplant into Frankenstein's monster, but a mishap leads to hilarious consequences. The tag by the tank where the brain of Delbrück is stored reads 'scientist and saint,' so it is debatable whether Brooks intended this or a fictional Delbruck.
In a clearer reference to the historical figure, in Mel Brooks's comedy The Producers: The Movie Musical, Hans Delbrück is the name of the man to whom Franz Liebkind sends a letter by carrier pigeon.
In Victor Serge’s novel Unforgiving Years (Les Années sans pardon) the character Herr Schiff - an old German professor loyal to the Nazi regime, demoralized and disoriented in war-ravaged Berlin in the closing days of the Second World War – rereads Hans Delbrück’s The History of Warfare: “Lately, it was true, the sense of most of what he read escaped him; but being incapable of inattention, the mechanical act of reading acted upon him like a sedative. His cheek cupped in his hand, he reread the works he admired out of duty.”
Hans Delbrück appears in the professor’s thoughts again, while contemplating the meaning of the war as American soldiers overtake Berlin: “The Second World War was already down as a great historical tragedy – a quasi-mythological one – which nether Mommsen, Hans Delbrück, Gobineau, Houston Stewart Chamberlin, Oswald Spengler, or Mein Kampf could elucidate entirely…”
References: reflist: * Delbrück, Hans (1920): History of the Art of War, University of Nebraska Press; Reprint edition, 1990. Translated by Walter, J. Renfroe. 4 Volumes. * Bucholz, Arden (1985): Hans Delbrück and the German Military Establishment: War Images in Conflict, University of Iowa Press. * Bucholz, Arden (1993): Hans Delbrück and Modern Military History - German Military Historian. Historian, Spring.
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Hans Delbrück
Historien allemand | Naissance en 1848 | Décès en 1929
histoire: Hans Gottlieb Leopold Delbrück (né le 11 novembre 1848 à Bergen auf Rügen - décédé le 14 juillet 1929 à Berlin) Historien et homme politique allemand.
Avec Heinrich von Treitschke, il est l'éditeur des Preußische Jahrbücher. En 1885, il est professeur à l'Université de Berlin.
Œuvres: * Das Leben des Feldmarschalls Grafen Neidhardt von Gneisenau. 2 Bände (Fortsetzung einer Arbeit des Historikers Georg Heinrich Pertz), Berlin 1880/81. * Die Perserkriege und die Burgunderkriege, 1887. * Die Strategie des Perikles, 1890. * Geschichte der Kriegskunst im Rahmen der politischen Geschichte, 4 Bände, Berlin 1900–1920; neue Aufl. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2000, 3-1101-6886-3: * Erinnerungen, Aufsätze und Reden, 3. Aufl. Georg Stilker, Berlin 1907. * Weltgeschichte. Vorlesungen, gehalten an der Universität Berlin 1896/1920, 5 Bände, Berlin 1924–1928; 2. Aufl. Berlin 1931.
Bibliographie: * Karl Christ: Hans Delbrück, in: Von Gibbon zu Rostovtzeff: Leben und Werk führender Althistoriker der Neuzeit, Darmstadt 1972, 3-534-06070-9: , p.159–200. * Sven Lange: Hans Delbrück und der „Strategiestreit“. Kriegführung und Kriegsgeschichte in der Kontroverse 1879–1914, Rombach, Freiburg/Br. 1995, 3-7930-0771-5: * Markus Pöhlmann: Kriegsgeschichte und Geschichtspolitik: Der Erste Weltkrieg. Die amtliche deutsche Militärgeschichtsschreibung 1914-1956, Paderborn: Schöningh, 2002, 3-506-74481-X: * Anneliese Thimme: Hans Delbrück als Kritiker der Wilhelminischen Epoche, Droste, Düsseldorf 1955
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علم اللغة النفسي
علم النفس التطبيقي | لغويات
تاريخ=مايو_2011: علم اللغة النفسي أو علم النفس اللغوي هو دراسة العوامل النفسية والعصبية الحيوية التي تمكن الإنسان من اكتساب واستخدام وفهم وإنتاج اللغة. وبدأ هذا التخصص على أسس فلسفية، ويرجع ذلك أساسًا إلى عدم وجود بيانات متماسكة حول الكيفية التي يعمل بها الدماغ البشري. تقدم هذا التخصص بعد انتعاش البحوث الحديثة المتعلقة بعلم الأحياء وعلم الأعصاب والعلوم المعرفية واللسانيات ونظرية المعلومات، والتي تناولت كيفية تحليل الدماغ للغة.
يغطى علم اللغة النفسي العمليات المعرفية التي تساهم في إنشاء جملة صحيحة ذات معنى من مفردات وتراكيب نحوية، كما تغطي العمليات التي تساهم في فهم تلك العبارات والكلمات والنصوص. كما تهتم دراسات علم اللغة النفسي التطويري بدراسة قدرة الأطفال على تعلم اللغة.
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Psycholinguistics
Applied psychology | Psycholinguistics
Linguistics: dateNovember 2008: Psycholinguistics or psychology of language is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language. Initial forays into psycholinguistics were largely philosophical ventures, due mainly to a lack of cohesive data on how the human brain functioned. Modern research makes use of biology, neuroscience, cognitive science, linguistics, and information theory to study how the brain processes language. There are a number of subdisciplines with non-invasive techniques for studying the neurological workings of the brain; for example, neurolinguistics has become a field in its own right.
Psycholinguistics covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures, as well as the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, etc. Developmental psycholinguistics studies children's ability to learn language. * Areas of study
Psycholinguistics is an interdisciplinary field. Hence, it is studied by researchers from a variety of different backgrounds, such as psychology, cognitive science, linguistics, and speech and language pathology. Psycholinguists study many different topics, but these topics can generally be divided into answering the following questions: (1) how do children acquire language (language acquisition)?; (2) how do people process and comprehend language (language comprehension)?; (3) how do people produce language (language production)?; and (4) how do adults acquire a new language (second language acquisition)?
Subdivisions in psycholinguistics are also made based on the different components that make up human language.
Linguistics-related areas: * Phonetics and phonology are concerned with the study of speech sounds. Within psycholinguistics, research focuses on how the brain processes and understands these sounds. * Morphology is the study of word structures, especially the relationships between related words (such as dog and dogs) and the formation of words based on rules (such as plural formation). * Syntax is the study of the patterns which dictate how words are combined to form sentences. * Semantics deals with the meaning of words and sentences. Where syntax is concerned with the formal structure of sentences, semantics deals with the actual meaning of sentences. * Pragmatics is concerned with the role of context in the interpretation of meaning.
A researcher interested in language comprehension may study word recognition during reading to examine the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed text. A researcher interested in language production might study how words are prepared to be spoken starting from the conceptual or semantic level. Developmental psycholinguistics study infants' and children's ability to learn and process language. * Theories
In this section, some influential theories are discussed for each of the fundamental questions listed in the section above. * Language acquisition
Language acquisition: There are essentially two schools of thought as to how children acquire or learn language, and there is still much debate as to which theory is the correct one. The first theory states that all language must be learned by the child. The second view states that the abstract system of language cannot be learned, but that humans possess an innate language faculty, or an access to what has been called universal grammar. The view that language must be learned was especially popular before 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf Carnap. Likewise, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by B.F. Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is a behavior shaped by conditioned response, hence it is learned.
The innatist perspective began with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959. This review helped to start what has been termed "the cognitive revolution" in psychology. Chomsky posited humans possess a special, innate ability for language and that complex syntactic features, such as recursion, are "hard-wired" in the brain. These abilities are thought to be beyond the grasp of the most intelligent and social non-humans. According to Chomsky, children acquiring a language have a vast search space to explore among all possible human grammars, yet at the time there was no evidence that children receive sufficient input to learn all the rules of their language (see poverty of the stimulus). Hence, there must be some other innate mechanism that endows a language ability to humans. Such a language faculty is, according to the innatist theory, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal communication.
The field of linguistics and psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and con. The pro view still holds that the human ability to use language (specifically the ability to use recursion) is qualitatively different from any sort of animal ability. This ability may have resulted from a favorable mutation or from an adaptation of skills evolved for other purposes. The view that language can be learned has had a recent resurgence inspired by emergentism. This view challenges the "innate" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested. With the amount of computer power increasing since the 1980’s, researchers have been able to simulate language acquisition using neural network models. These models provide evidence that there may, in fact, be sufficient information contained in the input to learn language, even syntax. If this is true, then an innate mechanism is no longer necessary to explain language acquisition. * Language comprehension
One question in the realm of language comprehension is how people understand sentences as they read (also known as sentence processing). Experimental research has spawned a number of theories about the architecture and mechanisms of sentence comprehension. Typically these theories are concerned with what types of information contained in the sentence the reader can use to build meaning, and at what point in reading does that information become available to the reader. Issues such as "modular" versus "interactive" processing have been theoretical divides in the field.
A modular view of sentence processing assumes that the stages involved in reading a sentence function independently in separate modules. These modulates have limited interaction with one another. For example, one influential theory of sentence processing, the garden-path theory, states that syntactic analysis takes place first. Under this theory as the reader is reading a sentence, he or she creates the simplest structure possible in order to minimize effort and cognitive load. This is done without any input from semantic analysis or context-dependent information. Hence, in the sentence "The evidence examined by the lawyer turned out to be unreliable," by the time the reader gets to the word "examined" he or she has committed to a reading of the sentence in which the evidence is examining something because it is the simplest parse. This commitment is made despite the fact that it results in an implausible situation; we know that experience that evidence can rarely if ever examine something. Under this "syntax first" theory, semantic information is processed at a later stage. It is only later that the reader will recognize that her or she needs to revise the initial parse into one in which "the evidence" is being examined. In this example, readers typically recognize their misparse by the time they reach "by the lawyer" and must go back and re-parse the sentence. This reanalysis is costly and contributes to slower reading times.
In contrast to a modular account, an interactive theory of sentence processing, such as a constraint-based lexical approach assumes that all available information contained within a sentence can be processed at any time. Under an interactive account, for example, the semantics of a sentence (such as plausibility) can come into play early on in order to help determine the structure of a sentence. Hence, in the sentence above, the reader would be able to make use of plausibility information in order to assume that "the evidence" is being examined instead of doing the examining. There are data to support both modular and interactive accounts; which account is the correct one is still up for debate. * Methodologies * Behavioral tasks
Many of the experiments conducted in psycholinguistics, especially earlier on, are behavioral in nature. In these types of studies, subjects are presented with linguistic stimuli and asked to perform an action. For example, they may be asked to make a judgment about a word (lexical decision), reproduce the stimulus, or name a visually presented word aloud). Reaction times to respond to the stimuli(usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of performance in behavioral tasks. Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a "priming" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related "target" word later.
As an example of how behavioral methods can be used in psycholinguistics research, Fischler (1977) investigated word encoding using the lexical decision task. She asked participants to make decisions about whether two strings of letters were English words. Sometimes the strings would be actual English words requiring a "yes" response, and other times they would be nonwords requiring a "no" response. A subset of the licit words were related semantically (e.g., cat-dog) while others were unrelated (e.g., bread-stem). Fischler found that related word pairs were responded to faster when compared to unrelated word pairs. This facilitation suggests that semantic relatedness can facilitate word encoding.
Eye-movements: Recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language processing. Beginning with Rayner (1978) the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was established. Later, Tanenhaus et al. (1995) used the visual-world paradigm to study the cognitive processes related to spoken language. Assuming that eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented auditorily with linguistic input.
Neuroimaging: Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the brain. For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of epilepsy. Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such drastic surgery. Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their research.
Newer, non-invasive techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG); and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy). Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in psycholinguistics.
Computational modeling: Computational modeling—e.g. the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Coltheart and colleagues—is another methodology. It refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer programs. Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis unreliable. Another example of computational modeling is McClelland and Elman's TRACE model of speech perception.
Issues and areas of research: Psycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce language. For example, the cohort model seeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic input.
Recent research using new non-invasive imaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the brain.
There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human language.
Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language acquisition. In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languages than it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily). Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned readily. A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over time. It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn more.
The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain damage. Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes language.
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Psycholinguistique
Psycholinguistique | Neurosciences cognitives | Neuropsychologie | Sciences cognitives | Psychologie cognitive
La psycholinguistique est l'étude des processus cognitifs mis en œuvre dans le traitement et la production du langage. Fondée dans les années 1950, la psycholinguistique fait appel à de nombreuses disciplines, telles les sciences du langage, la neurologie et la neurobiologie, la psychologie et les sciences cognitives.
La faculté de l'homme à communiquer nécessite de nombreuses tâches intellectuelles qui s'exécutent très rapidement, en l'espace de quelques centaines de millisecondes. Leur variété et leur complexité reposent sur des processus cognitifs, la plupart du temps inconscients et de ce fait difficilement définissables. Leur observation ne peut donc s'opérer qu'indirectement, ainsi la connaissance en psycholinguistique est essentiellement empirique.
La psycholinguistique s'intéresse particulièrement aux pathologies neurologiques qui affectent les capacités linguistiques, telles que les aphasies, la dyslexie, etc.
Domaines d'étude : La psycholinguistique est interdisciplinaire par nature et est étudiée par des domaines variés tels que la psychologie, les sciences cognitives, et la linguistique. On peut distinguer plusieurs composantes à l'intérieur de la psycholinguistique : * La phonétique et la phonologie qui s'intéressent à l'étude des sons de la parole. Autrement dit, comment le cerveau fait-il pour produire et comprendre ces sons ? * La morphologie ; * La syntaxe ; * La sémantique ; * La pragmatique.
Elle est composée des domaines suivants : * L'acquisition du langage * La compréhension du langage * La perception de la parole * La production verbale orale et écrite * Les troubles du langage * Langage et pensée * La reconnaissance visuelle des mots (ou la lecture)
Théories : Un des psycholinguistes les plus connus est Noam Chomsky. Chomsky pense que les humains ont une grammaire universelle innée. Cette grammaire universelle contiendrait les règles grammaticales permettant de parler toutes les langues. C'est un point de vue récusé notamment par le courant du connexionnisme.
Méthodes : Beaucoup de recherches en psycholinguistique se basent sur des expériences comportementales ou de neuroimagerie. Dans les expériences de type comportemental, on présente au sujet des stimuli linguistiques et on lui demande d'effectuer une tâche particulière. Les temps de réaction ainsi que la proportion de réponses correctes sont les mesures les plus souvent employées.
Un exemple d'une telle tâche consiste à demander aux sujets de convertir des noms en verbes ; par exemple, « le livre » suggère « écrire » ; « eau » suggère « boire », etc. Une autre expérience possible consiste à présenter une phrase active comme « Bob a lancé la balle à Bill » et un équivalent passif, « la balle a été lancée à Bill par Bob » et poser ensuite la question : « qui a lancé la balle ? ».
Ceci doit permettre de vérifier (et c'est effectivement le cas) que les phrases actives sont traitées plus facilement et plus rapidement que les phrases passives. Plus intéressant encore, on pourrait aussi mettre en évidence (c'est également le cas) le fait que certaines personnes sont incapables de comprendre des phrases passives ; on pourrait alors tenter de progresser de quelques pas dans la compréhension de certains types de déficits langagiers (souvent regroupés sous le terme général d'aphasie).
Les expériences psycholinguistiques reposent sur des protocoles précis qui permettent de mettre en évidence un phénomène sur certains sujets, et de reproduire ces expériences sur d'autres sujets. La comparaison des résultats entre sujets sains et sujets déficients permet d'identifier les zones cérébrales impliquées dans un processus cognitif de traitement linguistique, grâce notamment aux techniques d'imagerie cérébrale : EEG et MEG, TEP et IRM.
Exemple d'expérience psycholinguistique utilisant l'EEG : Après apposition des électrodes, les sujets sont confrontés à des expériences de transgression sémantique et syntaxique. Dans le premier cas, une onde négative (appelée N400) est émise environ 400 ms après le stimulus transgressif correspondant à l'anomalie sémantique. Dans le second cas, une onde positive (appelée P600) est émise environ 600 ms après le stimulus correspondant à l'anomalie syntaxique.
Cela indique que l'activité sémantique précède l'activité syntaxique, du moins chez les sujets sains. Chez les patients aphasiques, l'onde N400 étant plus tardive et de moindre amplitude, leur accès à l'information sémantique serait plus lent.
Questions en débat : # La capacité à utiliser le langage est-elle apparue brusquement (position défendue par Noam Chomsky) ou grâce à la sélection naturelle (position défendue par Steven Pinker) ? * Quelles facultés nécessaires au langage sont modulaires ? * Y a-t-il une période critique pour apprendre à parler ? (voir la question des enfants sauvages) * Comment est organisé le lexique mental ? * Notre langue influence-t-elle notre façon de penser (voir Hypothèse Sapir-Whorf) ? * Comment acquiert-on une seconde langue ? * A quoi sert le langage ?
Grandes questions en partie résolues : # Les animaux ont-ils des facultés langagières ? * Le langage: une faculté innée ou acquise ? * La lecture repose-t-elle sur la lecture silencieuse ? (voie phonologique)
Psycholinguistes importants : * Gustave Guillaume, parfois considéré comme l'inventeur de la psycholinguistique ; * Noam Chomsky ; * Steven Pinker ; * Mark Seidenberg ; * George Lakoff ; * Eleanor Rosch; * Denis Legros.
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محرك
محركات | ديناميكا حرارية
المحرك Engine: ، هو جهاز يقوم بتحويل أشكال الطاقة المتنوعة إلى طاقة حركة. من أشكال الطاقة المستخدمة الطاقة الحرارية(كما في محرك الاحتراق الداخلي) والطاقة الكهربائية والطاقة البخارية المستعملة في المحرك البخاري، كما ساد استعمال المحركات النفاثة في الطيران.
وفي الصواريخ المحركات الصاروخية.
أنواع المحركات : من أشهر محركات الاحتراق: * محرك ديزل * محرك أوتو * محرك ستيرلينغ * محرك الاحتراق الداخلي * محرك احتراق خارجي * المحرك البخاري
و عادة ما نجد المحركات البخارية في ميدان تحريك الآلات وخاصة النقل كالسيارات والسفن. وتوجد محركات أخرى لا تولد الحركة عن طريق إحراق الوقود مثل * محرك كهربائي
طريقة عمل محركات الاحتراق الداخلى : طريقة عمل محرك الاحتراق الداخلى الرباعى الاشواط.
المحرك طرق عملة تتكون من اربع اشواط: * الشوط الأول وهو(شوط سحب رذاذ الوقود)ويكون المكبس (piston) في وضع النزول لأسفل. * الشوط الثاني وهو(شوط الضغط)ويكون المكبس في وضع الصعود لضغط مخلوطالهواء والوقود. * الشوط الثالث وهو(شوط الإشعال)ويكون المكبس وضع النزول لأسفل. * الشوط الرابع وهو(شوط طرد العادم)ويكون المكبس في وضع الصعود.
خطوات عمل المحرك الذي يعمل بالبنزين (وهو يختلف عن محرك الديزل): * شوط السحب؛يقوم المكبس (piston) بسحب المخلوط الذي يتكون من الهواء والبنزين. * شوط الضغط ؛يقوم المكبس بضغط المخلوط لأعلى لأقصى درجة. * شوط الإشعال ؛تقوم شمعة الشرر باشعال المخلوط ينتج عن ذلك انفجار المخلوط فيعمل على دفع المكبس لأسفل بقوة. * شوط الطرد ؛يقوم المكبس بطرد نواتج الاحتراق خارج الاسطوانة.
وتتكرر هذة العملية على التوالي بترتيب معين للاسطوانات بحسب عددالاسطوانات وشكل
المحرك. ويبين الشكل طريقة عمل المحرك الرباعى الاشواط.
كفاءة محرك البنزين : يضع القانون الثاني للحرارة حدا أقصى لكفاءة الآلة الحرارية سواء كانت تعمل بالبنزين أو بالبخار. وحتي لو فرض أن الآله مثالية ولا تفقد حرارة بالاحتكاك فهي لا تستطيع تحويل كمية الحرارة المعطاة لها إلى شغل. والحدود المتحكمة في ذلك هي درجة الحرارة T1 المتولدة في المحرك، ودرجة حرارة الوسط المحيط T2 للمحرك والذي يخرج فيه الغاز العادم. مع العلم أننا نعني هنا درجات الحرارة المطلقة أي المقاسة بالكلفن. وتعطينا معادلة كارنو العلاقة لآلة تعمل بين تلك الدرجتين كالآتي :
* \eta_{th} \le 1 - \frac{T_2}{T_1}\,
وهذا الحد يسمى كفاءة دورة كارنو وهي تعطي كفاءة آلة مثالية لا يحدث فيها أي فقد للحرارة أو احتكاك. ولا يمكن لأي آلة عملية تعدي ذلك الحد مهما كانت تركيبتها.
وبالمقارنة بمحرك السيارة يحرق البنزين في أسطوانة السيارة عند درجة حرارة T11089 كلفن وباعتبار درجة حرارة الجو T2: 294 كلفن، يمكننا حساب الحد الأقصى لكفاءة محرك البنزين، وهو يعطى بالعلاقة الآتية :
* \eta_{th} \le 1 - \frac{294 K}{1089 K} 73.0%\,
ونظرا لظروف تشغيل آلة حقيقية يحدث فيها احتكاك وفقد لا خلاص منه للحرارة تكون كفاءة محرك البنزين إقل كثيرا عن كفاءة دورة كارنو. وتصل كفاءة محرك الاحتراق الداخلى بين 30 % و 35 % فقط. * اجزاء المحرك
يتكون محرك السيارة من عدة اجزاء رئيسية: * الاسطوانة :تعد الاسطوانة الجزء الرئيسي للمحرك أو وعادة ما تحتوي محركات السيارات على اربعة اسطوانات أو ستة أو ثمانية وفي هذه الحالة يتم ترتيب الاسطوانات في المحرك بثلاثة أوضاع فإما تكون مرتبة على خط مستقيم أو ترتب في خطين متوازيين أو على شكل حرف V، لكل شكل مجموعة مزايا وعيوب تميزة عن غيرة من حيث تقليل ارتجاج المحرك وكفاءتة وسعرة. * البوجيه :تقوم هذة القطعه بتوليد الشرارة الكهربية في لحظة انضغاط الخليط(الهواء والبانزين) لتحدث الاحتراق امافي محركات الديزل لا توجد هذه القطعة حيث يحترق الوقود نتيجة لارتفاع درجة حرارته. * الصمامات :لكل اسطوانة صمامين واحد لادخال الوقود والهواء والثاني لإخراج ناتج الاحتراق وكلاهما يفتحا ويغلقا حسب الشوط ولكن في حالة شوط الانضغاط يغلقا تماما. * المكبس :وهو قطعة من الصلب تتحرك للأعلى والأسفل داخل الاسطوانة. * حلقات المكبس : توجد حلقات المكبس بين الجزء الخارجي للمكبس والجزء الداخلى للاسطوانة لتسمح بحركة المكبس دون السماح لتسرب خليط الوقود والهواء أو ناتج الاحتراق من التسرب كذلك تمنع من تسرب الزيت إلى داخل الاسطوانة. وعادة ما يحتاج المحرك إلى تغيير هذه الحلقات إذا لوحظ نقصان متكرر في معدل الزيت لانه يكون قد تسرب إلى داخل الاسطوانة * غرفة الاحتراق : وهي المساحة التي يحدث فيها الانضغاط والاحتراق وكما لاحظنا فهي تتغير بين قيمة صغرى (عند الانضغاط) وقيمة عظمى (عند سحب الخليط). * عمود التوصيل :وهو العمود الذي يوصل المكبس مع عمود ناقل الحركة والذي يجعله يدور في حركة دائرية * عمود ناقل الحركة : وهو الذي يعمل على تحريك المكبس للأعلى وللأسفل. * وعاء الزيت : وهو وعاء يحتفظ بالزيت ليغمر عمود ناقل الحركة.
بوابة هندسة تطبيقية: : أنظر أيضا * دورة كارنو * محرك الاحتراق الداخلي * المحرك البخاري * محرك احتراق خارجي * محركات الحقن المباشر للبنزين . * محركات توقيت الصمامات المتغير المستمر .
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Synchronous motor
Electric motors
dateDecember 2009: A synchronous electric motor is an AC motor in which the rotation rate of the shaft is synchronized with the frequency of the AC supply current; the rotation period is exactly equal to an integral number of AC cycles. Synchronous motors contain electromagnets on the stator of the motor that create a magnetic field which rotates in time with the oscillations of the line current. The rotor turns in step with this field, at the same rate.
Another way of saying this is that the motor does not rely on "slip" under usual operating conditions, and as a result produces torque at synchronous speed. Synchronous motors can be contrasted with induction motors, which must slip in order to produce torque. The speed of the synchronous motor is determined by the number of magnetic poles and the line frequency.
Synchronous motors are available in sub-fractional self-excited sizes to high-horsepower direct-current excited industrial sizes. In the fractional horsepower range, most synchronous motors are used where precise constant speed is required. In high-horsepower industrial sizes, the synchronous motor provides two important functions. First, it is a highly efficient means of converting ac energy to work. Second, it can operate at leading or unity power factor and thereby provide power-factor correction. * Type
There are two major types of synchronous motors: 'non-excited' and 'direct-current excited', which have no self-starting capability to reach synchronism without extra excitation means, such as electronic control or induction.
With recent advances in independent brushless excitation control of the rotor winding set that eliminates reliance on slip for operation, the 'brushless wound-rotor doubly fed electric machine' is the third type of synchronous motor with all the theoretical qualities of the synchronous motor and the wound-rotor doubly fed motor combined, such as power factor correction, highest power density, highest potential torque density, low cost electronic controller, highest efficiency, etc. * Non-excited motors
In non-excited motors, the rotor is made of solid steel. At synchronous speed it rotates in step with the rotating magnetic field of the stator, so it has an almost-constant magnetic field through it. The external stator field magnetizes the rotor, inducing the magnetic poles needed to turn it. The rotor is made of a high-retentivity steel such as cobalt steel, These are manufactured in permanent magnet, reluctance and hysteresis designs: * Reluctance motors: These have a rotor consisting of a solid steel casting with projecting (salient) toothed poles, the same number as the stator poles. The size of the air gap in the magnetic circuit and thus the reluctance is minimum when the poles are aligned with the magnetic field of the stator, and increases with the angle between them. This creates a torque pulling the rotor into alignment with the nearest pole of the stator field. Thus at synchronous speed the rotor is "locked" to the rotating stator field. This cannot start the motor, so the rotor poles usually have squirrel-cage windings embedded in them, to provide torque below synchronous speed. The machine starts as an induction motor until it approaches synchronous speed, when the rotor "pulls in" and locks to the rotating stator field. * Hysteresis motors: These have a solid smooth cylindrical rotor, cast of a high coercivity magnetically "hard" cobalt steel. This material has a wide hysteresis loop (high retentivity), meaning once it is magnetized in a given direction, it requires a large reverse magnetic field to reverse the magnetization. The rotating stator field causes each small volume of the rotor to experience a reversing magnetic field. Because of hysteresis the phase of the magnetization lags behind the phase of the applied field. The result of this is that the axis of the magnetic field induced in the rotor lags behind the axis of the stator field by a constant angle δ, producing a torque as the rotor tries to "catch up" with the stator field. As long as the rotor is below synchronous speed, each particle of the rotor experiences a reversing magnetic field at the "slip" frequency which drives it around its hysteresis loop, causing the rotor field to lag and create torque. There is a 2-pole low reluctance bar structure in the rotor. As the rotor approaches synchronous speed and slip goes to zero, this magnetizes and aligns with the stator field, causing the rotor to "lock" to the rotating stator field. * A major advantage of the hysteresis motor is that since the lag angle δ is independent of speed, it develops constant torque from startup to synchronous speed. Therefore it is self-starting and doesn't need an induction winding to start it, although many designs do have a squirrel-cage conductive winding structure embedded in the rotor to provide extra torque at start-up. * Permanent-magnet motors: These have permanent magnets embedded in the solid steel rotor to create a constant magnetic field. At synchronous speed these poles lock to the rotating magnetic field. They are not self-starting. Because of the constant magnetic field in the rotor these cannot use induction windings for starting, and must have electronically controlled variable frequency stator drive.
Reluctance motor designs have ratings that range from sub-fractional to about 30 hp. Sub-fractional horsepower motors have low torque, and are generally used for instrumentation applications. Moderate torque, integral horsepower motors use squirrel cage construction with toothed rotors. When used with an adjustable frequency power supply, all motors in the drive system can be controlled at exactly the same speed. The power supply frequency determines motor operating speed.
Hysteresis motors are manufactured in sub-fractional horsepower ratings, primarily as servomotors and timing motors. More expensive than the reluctance type, hysteresis motors are used where precise constant speed is required.
DC-excited motors: Made in sizes larger than 1 hp, these motors require direct current supplied through slip rings for excitation. The direct current can be supplied from a separate source or from a dc generator directly connected to the motor shaft
Slip rings and brushes are used to conduct current to the rotor. The rotor poles connect to each other and move at the same speed - hence the name synchronous motor.
Synchronous motors fall under the category of synchronous machines which also includes the alternator (synchronous generator). These machines are commonly used in analog electric clocks, timers and other devices where correct time is required.
Synchronous speed: The "synchronous speed" n_s\, of a synchronous motor is the rate of rotation in RPM of the stator magnetic field. After startup it is also the rotation rate of the motor: * n_s{120\times{f}\over{p}}\,
where f\, is the frequency of the AC supply current in Hz and p\, is the number of magnetic poles per phase. For example, small 3-phase synchronous motors usually have 6 poles organized as 3 opposing pairs at angles of 120°, each pair powered by one phase, so p : 2. Thus for 60 Hz supply current the synchronous speed is 3600 RPM.
Parts: A typical synchronous motor has the following parts: * A stator winding, connected to the AC supply, which creates a rotating magnetic field. * A rotor which turns within the stator field. In excited machines this carries a field winding supplied by DC current from the slip rings. This winding is an electromagnet. In non-excited machines, the rotor is a solid cylindrical steel casting, while in permanent magnet motors there are permanent magnets in the rotor. * In DC excited machines, slip rings on the rotor supply the DC to the field winding from an external supply (some motors have other arrangements). * The stator frame contains and supports the other parts and may include bearing housings.
Large machines include additional parts for cooling the machine, supporting the rotor, lubricating and cooling the bearings, and various protection and measurement devices.
Operation: The operation of a synchronous motor is simple to imagine. The 'Stator' winding, when excited by a poly-phase (usually 3-phase) supply, creates a rotating magnetic field inside the motor. The rotor winding, which acts as a permanent magnet, simply locks in with the rotating magnetic field and rotates along with it. During operation, as the rotor locks in with the rotating magnetic field, the motor is said to be in synchronization.
Once the motor is in operation, the speed of the motor is dependent only on the supply frequency. When the motor load is increased beyond the breakdown load, the motor falls out of synchronization i.e., the applied load is large enough to pull out the field winding from following the rotating magnetic field. The motor immediately stalls after it falls out of synchronization.
Starting methods: Synchronous motors are not self-starting motors. This property is due to the inertia of the rotor. When the power supply is switched on, the armature winding and field windings are excited. Instantaneously, the armature winding creates a rotating magnetic field, which revolves at the designated motor speed. The rotor, due to inertia, will not follow the revolving magnetic field. In practice, the rotor should be rotated by some other means near to the motor's synchronous speed to overcome the inertia. Once the rotor nears the synchronous speed, the field winding is excited, and the motor pulls into synchronization.
The following techniques are employed to start a synchronous motor: * A separate motor (called pony motor) is used to drive the rotor before it locks in into synchronization. * The field winding is shunted or induction motor like arrangements are made so that the synchronous motor starts as an induction motor and locks in to synchronization once it reaches speeds near its synchronous speed. * Reducing the input electrical frequency to get the motor starting slowly, variable-frequency drives can be used here which have rectifier-inverter circuits or cycloconverter circuits.
Special Properties: Synchronous motors show some interesting properties, which finds applications in power factor correction. The synchronous motor can be run at lagging, unity or leading power factor. The control is with the field excitation, as described below: * When the field excitation voltage is decreased, the motor runs in lagging power factor. The power factor by which the motor lags varies directly with the drop in excitation voltage. This condition is called under-excitation. * When the field excitation voltage is made equal to the rated voltage, the motor runs at unity power factor. * When the field excitation voltage is increased above the rated voltage, the motor runs at leading power factor. And the power factor by which the motor leads varies directly with the increase in field excitation voltage. This condition is called over-excitation. * The most basic property of synchro motor is that it can be used both as a capacitor or inductor. Hence in turn it improves the power factor of system.
The leading power factor operation of synchronous motor finds application in power factor correction. Normally, all the loads connected to the power supply grid run in lagging power factor, which increases reactive power consumption in the grid, thus contributing to additional losses. In such cases, a synchronous motor with no load is connected to the grid and is run over-excited, so that the leading power factor created by synchronous motor compensates the existing lagging power factor in the grid and the overall power factor is brought close to 1 (unity power factor). If unity power factor is maintained in a grid, reactive power losses diminish to zero, increasing the efficiency of the grid. This operation of synchronous motor in over-excited mode to correct the power factor is sometimes called as Synchronous condenser.
Uses: * Synchronous motors find applications in all industrial applications where constant speed is necessary. * Improving the power factor as synchronous condensers. * Low power applications include positioning machines, where high precision is required, and robot actuators. * Mains synchronous motors are used for electric clocks. * Record player turntables
Advantages: Synchronous motors have the following advantages over non-synchronous motors: * Speed is independent of the load, provided an adequate field current is applied. * Accurate control in speed and position using open loop controls, e.g. stepper motors. * They will hold their position when a DC current is applied to both the stator and the rotor windings. * Their power factor can be adjusted to unity by using a proper field current relative to the load. Also, a "capacitive" power factor, (current phase leads voltage phase), can be obtained by increasing this current slightly, which can help achieve a better power factor correction for the whole installation. * Their construction allows for increased electrical efficiency when a low speed is required (as in ball mills and similar apparatus). * They run either at the synchronous speed or they do not run at all.
Examples: * Three-phase AC synchronous motors. * Synchronous brushless wound-rotor doubly fed electric machine.
The following have synchronous types, but are frequently not synchronous: * stepper motor. * reluctance motor.
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Machine synchrone
Machine électrique
Une machine synchrone est une machine électrique : * soit produisant un courant électrique dont la fréquence est déterminée par la vitesse de rotation du rotor: Générateur électrique ; * soit absorbant un courant électrique dont la fréquence détermine la vitesse de rotation de la machine : Moteur électrique .
Au-delà de quelques kilowatts, les machines synchrones sont généralement des machines triphasées. Le rotor, souvent appelé « roue polaire », est alimenté par une source continue.
Principes généraux : La machine synchrone se compose d'une partie tournante, le rotor, et d'une partie fixe, le stator. Le rotor se compose d'aimants permanents ou d'électro-aimants (bobinages alimentés par un courant continu).
Pour produire du courant, on utilise une force extérieure pour faire tourner le rotor : son champ magnétique, en tournant, induit un courant électrique dans les bobines du stator. La vitesse de ce champ tournant est appelée « vitesse de synchronisme ».
Si l'on ne fait pas tourner le rotor par une force extérieure, il tournera seul s'il est alimenté par un courant alternatif : son champ magnétique s'alignera tour à tour sur chacune des trois bobines du stator provoquant, de décalage en décalage, la rotation du rotor. Sa vitesse de synchronisme sera directement liée à la fréquence de l'alimentation électrique.
Machine synchrone triphasée : Mise en équation : Méthode utilisée : Notations : * Toutes les grandeurs statoriques sont repérées soit par l'indice S soit par des indices en majuscules. * Toutes les grandeurs rotoriques sont repérées soit par l'indice r soit par des indices en minuscules.
L'angle \theta (t) \Omega_m .t \, correspond au décalage angulaire entre le stator et le rotor. * L_S ; L_r \, : Inductances propres d'un enroulement du stator ; d'un enroulement du rotor. * M_S \, : Inductance mutuelle entre deux enroulements du stator. * M_{rS} \, : Valeur maximale de l'inductance mutuelle entre l'enroulement du rotor et un du stator (correspondant à une position pour laquelle θ : 0 ± 2π/3 ).
Hypothèse : La mise en équation n'est opérable que pour une machine à pôles lisses et dont le circuit magnétique est non saturé. Pour les autres machines, on apportera des correctifs permettant (avec plus ou moins d'exactitude) la prise en compte de leurs complexités.
Pour la suite on considère une machine pour laquelle : * Son circuit magnétique est homogène (entrefer constant) et non saturé. De ce fait, les diverses inductances sont constantes (entrefer constant). * Les courants des trois phases statoriques ont la même valeur efficace IS (la machine est assimilable à un récepteur triphasé parfaitement équilibré). * Elle possède une seule paire de pôles (machine bipolaire). Les machines multipolaires se ramènent à une machine bipolaire au prix d'une transformation angulaire.
Les courants : Au stator : On fixe l'origine des temps de manière à pouvoir écrire : * i_A (t) I_S \sqrt{2} \cdot \cos \alpha_S \,
On en déduit les courants des deux autres phases du stator : * i_B (t) : I_S \sqrt{2} \cdot \cos \left(\alpha_S - \frac{2 \pi}{3}\right) \, * i_C (t) I_S \sqrt{2} \cdot \cos \left(\alpha_S + \frac{2 \pi}{3}\right) \,
Avec : \alpha_S : \omega_S \cdot t \,, et \omega_S \, : pulsation des courants statoriques
Au rotor : Au rotor, il n'y a que le courant continu Ir alimentant la bobine du rotor par l'intermédiaire d'un contact glissant sur une bague collectrice.
Remarque * Si le rotor est constitué d'un aimant, on considèrera une bobine produisant un moment magnétique équivalent, c’est-à-dire traversée par un courant Ir que l'on determine à l'aide de la méthode d'Hopkinson (application du théorème d'Ampère à un circuit magnétique). * C’est-à-dire : * : L_a \, la longueur de l'aimant * : S_a ; S_b \, respectivement la section moyenne de l'aimant et celle de la bobine * On pose : * : \mathcal{M}_b \mathcal{M}_a \, * : NI_r .S_b: H.L_a.S_a \, * En supposant que la bobine et l'aimant ont la même section, on obtient : * : NI_r \frac{B_r.L_a}{\mu_0} \, * Les flux * Flux à travers un enroulement statorique * \Phi_A : L_S i_A + M_S i_B + M_S i_C + M_{rS} \cos \theta \cdot I_r ,
Comme : * i_A + i_B + i_C 0 \,, alors M_S i_B +M_S i_C : - M_S i_A \,, * \Phi_A (L_S - M_S) i_A + M_{rS} \cos \theta \cdot I_r ,
On pose * (L_S - M_S) : \mathcal{L}_S \, : inductance cyclique
L'expression du flux devient alors * \Phi_A \mathcal{L}_S i_A + M_{rS} \cos \theta I_r \,
l'expression du nombre complexe représentant le flux est * \underline \Phi_A : \mathcal{L}_S \underline i_A + M_{rS} \underline I_r \,
avec \underline I_r \, la représentation complexe d'un courant sinusoïdal « fictif » de valeur maximale I_r \, et de pulsation \theta \omega t \,.
En toute rigueur, cette substitution n'est valable qu'en régime établi : aucune modification de la charge ou de l'alimentation. C'est une condition nécessaire pour affirmer que la fréquence de rotation est exactement égale à la fréquence de l'alimentation. * Flux à travers un enroulement rotorique
Le flux traversant le rotor est le résultat de deux champ magnétiques : * Le champ tournant, créé par les enroulements statoriques ; * Le champ propre, créé par l'enroulement rotorique qui est constant (courant continu) mais qui tourne mécaniquement à la même vitesse que le précédent (machine synchrone). Avec la même limite qu'au paragraphe précédent : aucune modification de la charge ou de l'alimentation. * Les tensions * Tension aux bornes d'une phase du stator * \ V_A : R_S . I_A + \frac{d\Phi_A}{dt} \, * \underline V_A (R_S + j \omega_S \mathcal{L}_S) \underline I_A + j \omega_S \mathcal{M}_{rS} \underline I_r \,
On pose E_{av} la tension à vide, c’est-à-dire la tension lorsque \underline I_A : 0 (tension créée par le seul champ rotorique) * \underline V_A (R_S + j \omega_S \mathcal{L}_S) \underline I_A + \underline E_{av} \, * Modélisation
Il existe plusieurs modèles équivalents de la machine synchrone suivant le nombre de paramètres dont on veut tenir compte. * Le modèle équivalent de Behn-Eschenburg
Le modèle de Behn Eschenburg ne s'applique que si la machine est non saturée et à pôles lisses. C'est le plus simple, il ne tient compte d'aucune saturation ni variation de l'entrefer. Il consiste à remplacer chaque phase de la machine par un ensemble de trois dipôles en série tels que la tension aux bornes de ce dipôle est égale à : * \underline E_{av} : (R_S + j \omega_S \mathcal{L}_S) \underline I_A + \underline V_A (R_S + j X_S) \underline I_A + \underline V_A \,
avec : * :R_S \, et X_S \, constants et indépendants du fonctionnement de la machine. * : \underline E_{av} : k \omega I_r \, uniquement proportionnelle à la fréquence de rotation et au courant d'excitation (courant rotorique).
Ce modèle convient bien aux gros turboalternateurs de forte puissance. On peut encore simplifier le modèle (et les calculs qui en découlent) en négligeant R_S \, devant X_S \, .
Le modèle équivalent de Potier : Ce modèle est plus complet que celui de Behn-Eschenburg. Il tient compte de la saturation en faisant varier le courant d'excitation en fonction du courant traversant les bobines du stator. Cette modification du courant excitateur fait varier la fcem.
Dans ce modèle on a : * i_r i_{rv} - \alpha.I \, * E : V + R.I + j.\omega.\lambda.I \,
Détermination des paramètres du modèle de Potier : Le modèle de Blondel à deux réluctances : Il permet de prendre en compte les variations angulaires de réluctance des machines synchrones à pôles saillants.
Notes et références : colonnes1: : Annexes * Articles connexes
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ك3ب
كدي | برمجيات حرة بلغة سي++
ك3ب هو برنامج وأدارة لحرق الأقراص المدمجة وأقراص دي في دي يعمل لواجهة كدي. يستعمل واجهة رسومية. تم اختياره كأفضل كأفضل برنامج لسنة 2006 في الاستفتاء الذي جرى في موقع LinuxQuestions.org, حيث حصل هذا البرنامج على 70% من مجموع الأصوات.
تم برمجة ك3ب بلغة سي++ وهو يعتمد على واجهة كدي وأدوات كيو تي لكي يعمل. ك3ب هو برنامج يصدر تحت رخصة جنو العمومية.
المميزات : * حرق أقراص مدمجة. * حرق أقراص دي في دي. * دعم الملفات التي بامتداد.iso * حرق الملفات الصوتية. * دعم DVD-R/DVD+R/DVD-RW/DVD+RW/CD-R/CD-RW. * فحص الملفات المكتوبة على الأقرص
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K3b
KDE Extragear | Free CD writing software | Optical disc authoring software | Linux CD/DVD writing software | Free software programmed in C++ | Linux CD ripping software
K3b (from KDE Burn Baby Burn) is a CD and DVD authoring application by KDE for Unix-like computer operating systems. It provides a graphical user interface to perform most CD/DVD burning tasks like creating an Audio CD from a set of audio files or copying a CD/DVD, as well as more advanced tasks such as burning eMoviX CD/DVDs. It can also perform direct disc-to-disc copies. The program has many default settings which can be customized by more experienced users. The actual disc recording in K3b is done by the command line utilities cdrecord or cdrkit, cdrdao, and growisofs. As of version 1.0, K3b features a built-in DVD ripper.
As is the case with most KDE applications, K3b is written in the C++ programming language and uses the Qt GUI toolkit. Released under the GNU General Public License, K3b is free software.
A first alpha of a KDE Platform 4 version of K3b was released on 22 April 2009, the second on 27 May 2009 and a third on 14 October 2009.
K3b is a software project that was started in 1998, and is one of the mainstays of the KDE desktop. * Features ==
Some of K3b's main features include: * Data CD/DVD burning * Audio CD burning * CD Text support * Bluray/DVD-R/DVD+R/DVD-RW/DVD+RW support * CD-R/CD-RW support * Mixed Mode CD (Audio and Data on one disk) * Multisession CD * Video CD/Video DVD authoring * eMovix CD/eMovix DVD * Disk-to-disk CD and DVD copying * Erasing CD-RW/DVD-RW/DVD+RW * ISO image support * Ripping Audio CDs, Video CDs, Video DVDs
K3b can also burn data CDs that support Linux/Unix based OS, Windows, DOS, Very Large Files (UDF), Linux/Unix + Windows, Rock Ridge, and Joliet file systems.
K3b's full list of features (the below list could be still incomplete): * Creating data cds: * - Add files and folders to your data cd project via drag'n'drop. * - Remove files from your project, move files within your project. * - Create empty direcories within your project. * - Write data cds on-the-fly directly without an image file or with image file. It's also possible to just create the image file and write it to cd later. * - Rockridge and Joliet file system support. * - Rename files in your project. * - Let K3b rename all the mp3/ogg files you add to your project to a common format like "artist - title.mp3". * - For advanced users: support for nearly all the mkisofs options. * - Verifying the burned data. * - Support for multible El-Torito boot images. * - Multisession support * Creating audio cds: * - Pluggable audio decoding. Plugins for WAV, MP3, FLAC, and Ogg Vorbis are included. * - CD-TEXT support. Will automagically be filled in from tags in audio files. * - Write audio cds on-the-fly without decoding audio files to wav before. * - Normalize volume levels before writing. * - Cut audio tracks at the beginning and the end. * Creating Video CDs: * - VCD 1.1, 2.0, SVCD * - CD-i support (Version 4)
- Creating mixed-mode CDs: * - CD-Extra (CD-Plus, Enhanced Audio CD) support. * - All data and audio project features. * Creating eMovix CDs * CD Copy * - Copy single and multi session data CDs * - Copy Audio CDs * - Copy Enhanced Audio CDs (CD-Extra) * - Copy CD-Text * - Add CD-Text from cddb * - CD Cloning mode for perfect single session CD copies * DVD burning: * - Support for DVD-R(W) and DVD+R(W) * - Creating data DVD projects * - Creating eMovix DVDs * - Formatting DVD-RWs and DVD+RWs * CD Ripping: * - CDDB support via http, cddbp and local cddb directory. * - Sophisticated pattern system to automatically organize the ripped tracks in directories and name them according to album, title, artist, and track number. * - CD-TEXT reading. May be used instead of CDDB info. * - K3b stores CDDB info of the ripped tracks which will automatically be used as CD-TEXT when adding the ripped files to an audio project. * - Plugin system to allow encoding to virtually every audio format. Plugins to encode to Ogg Vorbis, Mp3, FLAC, and all formats supported by SoX included. * DVD Ripping and DivX/XviD encoding * Save/load projects. * Blanking of CDR-Ws. * Retrieving Table of contents and cdr information. * Writing existing iso images to CD or DVD with optional verification of the written data. * Writing cue/bin files created for CDRWIN * DVD copy (no video transcoding yet) * Enhanced CD device handling: * - Detection of max. writing and reading speed. * - Detection of Burnfree and Justlink support. * - Good media detection and optional automatic CD-RW and DVD-RW blanking * KParts-Plugin ready.
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K3b
KDE | Logiciel de gravure | Logiciel libre sous licence GPL | Linux
K3b est un logiciel de gravure pour CD/DVD fonctionnant sur les systèmes d'exploitation GNU/Linux et autres systèmes Unix.
Il fait partie de KDE et s'appuie donc sur les bibliothèques KDE, mais il est aussi disponible sous GNOME. Il fournit une interface graphique pour la gravure des CD/DVD permettant à l'utilisateur de graver du contenu multimedia et des données.
K3b est développé depuis 1999. Il est encore développé activement. La version 1.0 – c’est-à-dire la première version considérée comme stable et complète par l'équipe de développement – est sortie le .
Le nom K3b est le raccourci de KBBB, soit "KDE Burn Baby, Burn !" (En français, Kde grave bébé, grave !)
Le programme est très finement paramétrable pour une utilisation avancée, néanmoins les paramètres par défaut conviennent parfaitement à l'utilisateur occasionnel.
K3b est soutenu officiellement par la société française Mandriva depuis qu’elle a engagé l’initiateur et le principal contributeur de K3b en août 2006 .
Les dépendances : La gravure des CD dans K3b est en fait réalisée grâce aux logiciels en lignes de commandes : mkisofs, cdrecord, cdrdao et growisofs.
K3b nécessite un programme externe appelé GNU VCDImager pour graver les VCD et DVD, et les vidéos doivent être dans un format reconnu par l'application.
K3B a besoin également d'une bibliothèque, appelée libk3b2-mp3, lors de la gravure d'un CD audio à partir de fichiers MP3.
Notes et références :
Lien externe : wikibooks=K3b: * en: * fr:
Palette KDE: logiciels libres:
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لوبياء ظفرية
بقولية
اللُوبِيَاء الظفرية اللُوبِيَاء أو الدجر في الفصيح، نوع نباتي عشبي يتبع جنس اللوبياء. * الوصف النباتي
نبات حولي ينتمي إلى الفصيلة البقولية. * الأهمية الطبية
تفيد قرون اللوبياء ولا سيما الخضراء الطازجة في تخفيض السكر في الدم. ويمكن تناول القرون الجافة كمشروب شاي يفيد في الاستسقاء وتجمع الماء في الجسم ولا سيما القدمين. كما يفيد في عرق النسا والروماتيزم المزمن وتراكم حامض البوليك ويفيد في القرحة وتقرح الجلد. ومسحوق القرون لو نقع في ماء يوضع على حب الشباب أو الإكزيما فيفيدهما. * مصادر ==
ثبت المراجع: بذرة نبات:
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Cowpea
Vigna | Edible legumes | Nitrogen-fixing crops
The Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) (International Feed Number, 5-01-661) is one of several species of the widely cultivated genus Vigna. Four cultivated subspecies are recognised: * Vigna unguiculata subsp. cylindrica Catjang * Vigna unguiculata subsp. dekindtiana * Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis Yardlong bean * Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata Black-eyed pea
Cowpeas are one of the most important food legume crops in the semi-arid tropics covering Asia, Africa, southern Europe and Central and South America. A drought-tolerant and warm-weather crop, cowpeas are well-adapted to the drier regions of the tropics, where other food legumes do not perform well. It also has the useful ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen through its root nodules, and it grows well in poor soils with more than 85% sand and with less than 0.2% organic matter and low levels of phosphorus. In addition, it is shade tolerant, and therefore, compatible as an intercrop with maize, millet, sorghum, sugarcane, and cotton. This makes cowpea an important component of traditional intercropping systems, especially in the complex and elegant subsistence farming systems of the dry savannas in sub-Saharan Africa.
Research in Ghana found that selecting early generations of cowpea crops to increase yield is not an effective strategy. Francis Padi from the Savannah Agricultural Research Institute in Tamale, Ghana, writing in Crop Science, suggests other methods such as bulk breeding are more efficient in developing high-yield varieties.
Cowpeas are a common food item in the southern United States, where they are often called Black-eyed pea or field peas. Two subcategories of field peas are crowder peas, so called because they are crowded together in their pods, causing them to have squarish ends, and cream peas.
In India, in Bengali, it is called Barboti Kolai, in Kannada, it is called Alasande. In Hindi, it is called lobhia or bura (when used as a string bean). In Gujarati, these are called Chola or Chowla (ચોળા). In Marathi, these are called Chawali or Chavali (चवळी). Kārāmani or Kārāmani Payir or Thatta Payir Tamil) the beans are called thatta kaai and are an integral part of the cuisine in southern region of India. In Tamilnadu during the Tamil month of Maasi (February) - Panguni (March) a cake-like dish called Kozhukattai or Adai (steamed sweet dumplings) prepared with cooked and mashed cowpeas mixed with jaggery, ghee and other ingredients. Thatta payir in sambar and pulikkuzhambu (spicy semisolid gravy in tamarind paste) is a popular dish in Thamil Nadu.
According to the USDA food database, the leaves of the cowpea plant have the highest percentage of calories from protein among vegetarian foods. * Traditional Cooking
In Sri Lanka, Cowpea is cooked in many different ways. One way is to cook cowpea with coconut milk. * References==
Reflist:
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Vigna unguiculata
Fabaceae | Flore (nom scientifique)
végétal :
Vigna unguiculata : Taxobox fin: légumineuse: Vigna unguiculata est une espèce de plante du genre Vigna de la famille des Fabaceae d'origine tropicale, dont plusieurs sous-espèces sont cultivées comme plantes alimentaires pour leurs graines, proches des haricots, ou pour leur gousses.
Nom scientifique complet : Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp., famille des Fabacées, sous-famille des Faboideae, tribu des Phaseoleae, sous-tribu des Phaseolinae.
Nom vernaculaire à La Réunion : voème.
Principales sous-espèces : * Vigna unguiculata subsp. baoulensis (A. Chev.) Pasquet * Vigna unguiculata subsp. burundiensis Pasquet * Vigna unguiculata subsp. cylindrica (L.) Verdc., la dolique mongette. * Vigna unguiculata subsp. dekindtiana (Harms) Verdc. * Vigna unguiculata subsp. letouzeyi Pasquet * Vigna unguiculata subsp. mensensis (Schweinf.) Verdc. * Vigna unguiculata subsp. pubescens (R. Wilczek) Pasquet * Vigna unguiculata subsp. sesquipedalis (L.) Verdc., le haricot kilomètre ou dolique asperge, * Vigna unguiculata subsp. stenophylla (Harv.) Maréchal et al. * Vigna unguiculata subsp. tenuis (E. Mey.) Maréchal et al. * Vigna unguiculata subsp. unguiculata, la cornille, pois à vache ou niébé.
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ينكرز إف 13
طائرات مدنية | طائرات مصنعة من قبل ألمانيا
ينكرز إف 13 Junkers F 13: طائرة نقل ألمانية من إنتاج شركة ينكرز تعد أول طائرة بالعالم تصنع من المعدن بشكل كامل، يتألف طاقم الطائرة من طيارين وقدرة نقل استعيابية لعدد 4 أفراد، تبلغ السرعة القصوى لطائرة الينكرز اف 13 198 كم بالساعة وتبلغ قوة محركها الوحيد 310 حصان وهو من نوع ينكرز L-5 ذو 7 إسطوانات ، صدر من الطائرة نسخ عديدة حول العالم وبلغ إنتاجها أكثر من 300 نسخة خلال اعوام إنتاجها من 1920 إلى 1932.
Junkers F 13:
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Junkers F.13
German airliners 1910–1919 | Junkers aircraft
The Junkers F.13 (also known as the F 13) was the world's first all-metal transport aircraft, developed in Germany at the end of World War I. It was an advanced cantilever-wing monoplane, with enclosed accommodation for four passengers. Over 300 were sold. It was in production for 13 years and in commercial service almost 20.
Design and development: The F.13 was a very advanced aircraft when built, an aerodynamically clean all-metal low-wing cantilever (without external bracing) monoplane. Even later in the 1920s, it and other Junkers types were unusual as unbraced monoplanes in a biplane age, with only Fokker's designs of comparable modernity. It was the world's first all-metal passenger aircraft and Junkers' first commercial aircraft.
The designation letter F stood for Flugzeug, aircraft; it was the first Junkers aeroplane to use this system. Earlier Junkers notation labelled it J 13. Russian built aircraft used the designation Ju 13.
Like all Junkers designs, from the 1918 J 7 to the 1932 Ju 46, some 35 models, it used an aluminium alloy (duralumin) structure entirely covered with Junkers' characteristic corrugated and stressed duralumin skin. Internally, the wing was built up on nine circular cross-section duralumin spars with transverse bracing. All control surfaces were horn balanced.
Behind the single engine was a semi-enclosed cockpit for the crew, roofed but without side glazing. There was an enclosed and heated cabin for four passengers with windows and doors in the fuselage sides. Passenger seats were fitted with seat belts, unusual for the time. The F.13 used a fixed conventional split landing gear with a rear skid, though some variants landed on floats or on skis.
The F 13 first flew on 25 June 1919, powered by a 127 kW (170 hp) Mercedes D IIIa in-line upright water-cooled engine. The first production machines had a wing of greater span and area and had the more powerful 140 kW (185 hp) BMW IIIa upright in-line water-cooled motor.
Many variants were built using Mercedes, BMW and Junkers liquid-cooled inline engines, see Variants below and by Armstrong Siddeley Puma, Gnome-Rhône Jupiter and Pratt & Whitney Hornet radial engines. The variants were mostly distinguished by a two letter code, the first letter signifying the airframe and the second the engine. Junkers L5-engined variants all had second letter -e, so type -fe was the long fuselage -f airframe with a L5 engine.
Operational history: [[
Any manufacturer of civil aircraft immediately after World War I was faced with competition from the very large numbers of surplus warplanes that might be cheaply converted - for example, the DH.9C. German manufacturers had further problems with the restrictions imposed by the Inter-Allied Aeronautical Commission of Control, which banned the production of warplanes and of any aircraft in the period of 1921-2. Junkers picked up orders abroad in 1919 in Austria, Poland and the USA and, in the following years with SCADTA (Colombia) and the United States Post Office Department. John Larsen Aircraft in the USA purchased a production licence, their machines being designated JL-6. In 1922 there were sales in England, France Italy and Japan.
In Bolivia, LAB's first airplane was a Junkers F-13; first flight took off from Cochabamba on September 23, 1925.
Junkers set up its own airline - Junkers Luftverkehr AG in 1921 - to encourage the acquisition of the F.13 by German airlines which was flying 60 of them by 1923. They also established a branch of this airline in Iran. Other marketing techniques were used, providing F.13s on cheap leases and free loans, with such effect that some 16 operators across Europe were flying them. When Junkers Luftverkehr merged into Luft Hansa in 1926, 9.5 million miles had been flown by them. Luft Hansa itself bought 55 aircraft and in 1928 were using them on 43 domestic routes. Even in 1937, their F.13s were flying over 50 flights per week on four routes. They were finally withdrawn in 1938.
Most of the F.13s produced before completion of the marque in 1932 were built at Junkers German base at Dessau. During the difficult 1921-3 period production was transferred to Junkers plants at Danzig and Reval. In 1922-3, Hugo Junkers signed a contract with the Soviet Union to produce the aircraft in a Soviet factory at Fili near Moscow which became known as "Plant no. 22". Some of these aircraft served Soviet airlines and some the Red Army.
There were some other military users. The Colombian Air Force used the F.13 (and the related W.33, W.34 and K.43) as bombers in the Colombia-Peru War in 1932-3. The Republic of China flew F.13s converted into scout bombers until the January 28 Incident in 1932, when they were destroyed by the Japanese along with the Shanghai Aircraft Factory. The Turkish Flying Forces flew a few.
Variants: ;F.13: first prototype, smaller wings (span 14.47 m/47 ft 5.75 in, area 38.9 m² /419 ft²) and less powerful engine 127 kW (170 hp) Mercedes D IIIa in-line) than production models.
;F.13a: first production aircraft with 140 kW (185 hp) BMW IIIa motor.
;F.13ba, ca, da, fa: all with the 149 kW (200 hp) Junkers L2 upright in-line water-cooled engine and a series of structural modifications. The fa variant was about 1 m (3 ft) longer.
;F.13be, ce, de, fe: as the above but all with 230 kW (310 hp) Junkers L5 upright in-line water-cooled engines.
;F.13dle, fle, ge, he, ke: variants with the Junkers L5 above.
;F.13bi, ci, di, fi,: as ca to fa but all with the 186 kW (250 hp) BMW IV engine.
;F.13co, fo, ko: with the 230 kW (310 hp) BMW Va engine.
;Junkers-Larsen JL-6:American version of the F.13 built by Junkers-Larsen. Eight built.
Operators: ; * Afghan Air Force acquired four aircraft from 1924 through 1928.
;Argentina: ;Austria: * Austrian Air Force (1927-1938) * Österreichische Luftverkehrs AG (ÖLAG) started flying with F.13 and operated 24 aircraft
;Bolivia: * Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano received the first F.13 as a gift from the German community on the occasion of the centennial of Bolivian independence.
;Brazil: * Syndicato Condor - Serviços Aéreos Condor * Varig
;China as ROC: ;Bulgaria: * Bunavad operated two aircraft between 1927 and 1928.
;COL: : * SCADTA (Avianca) * Colombian Air Force
;Danzig: Free City of Danzig * Danziger Luftpost * Lloyd Ostflug
;EST: * Aeronaut operated F.13 between 1922 and 1927.
;FIN: * Aero Airways * Kauhajoki Flying Club * Finnish Air Force
;FRA: ; * Junkers Luftverkehr, primary user until merger with Deutscher Aero Lloyd into Deutsche Luft Hansa * Deutsche Luft Hansa operated about 110 aircraft, a large part taken over from Junkers Luftverkehr
; * Aeroexpress operated six aircraft between 1923 and 1927.
; * Flugfélag Íslands operated three aircraft between 1928 and 1931.
;
;JPN: ;
; * Mongolian People's Army Air Force operated 3 aircraft between 1925 and 1931.
;POL: * Aero-Targ leased six aircraft from Danziger Luftpost in 1921. * Aerolloyd (later renamed Aerolot) operated 16 aircraft between 1922 and 1929. * LOT Polish Airlines took over 15 remaining aircraft from Aerolot and operated them between 1929 and 1936.
;POR: * Serviços Aéreos Portugueses operated one aircraft between 1929 and 1931.
; * Aviaarktika operated several aircraft.
; * South African Airways operated four aircraft obtained from Union Airways.
;SWE: * Swedish Air Force
; * Ad Astra Aero operated at least four F.13s (registered CH-91/92/93/94) between 1919 and probably 1930.
;TUR: * Turkish Air Force operated three aircraft between 1925 and 1933. * Turkish Air Post operated two ex-military aircraft between 1933 and 1938. * Turkish Mapping Command operated one ex-Air Force aircraft (serial no: 882) equipped with aerial photo system from 1933 to 1938.
;UK: * Civil register lists five F.13s during 1930s
; * United States Post Office Department
Survivors: ;Aircraft on display * Reserve collection Musée de l'Air et de l'Espace, le Bourget, Paris, France * Deutsches Museum Munich, Germany * Budapest Aircraft Museum, Transport Museum of Budapest, Hungary * SE-AAC, ex-D-343, Tekniska museet, Stockholm, Sweden
;In storage or under restoration * Deutsches Technikmuseum Berlin, Germany
Specifications (F 13 - 1919): Specifications (F.13fe - 1928): Aero specs missing:
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Junkers F 13
Avion civil | Junkers
Le Junkers F 13 (l'appellation interne chez Junkers était J 13) a été le premier avion entièrement métallique de l'aviation civile. La Première Guerre mondiale venait tout juste de se terminer lorsque Hugo Junkers confia à son ingénieur en chef Otto Reuter la tâche de développer un avion entièrement métallique destiné au transport de passagers. Sa structure consistait en bielles de Duralumin rivetées.
Le F 13 était un monoplan à ailes basses monomoteur accueillant quatre passagers dans une cabine hermétiquement fermée. Les modèles de série étaient équipés de sièges rembourrés ou de fauteuils en osier. La cabine possédait en outre le chauffage et l'éclairage électrique. Les deux pilotes étaient tout d'abord assis dans un poste de pilotage ouvert comme sur les avions précédents car ce n'est que plus tard que les avions eurent un poste de pilotage fermé.
Cet avion a été développé uniquement pour les besoins de l'aviation civile, les aspects militaires ne jouant absolument aucun rôle. Après le premier vol qui eut lieu le 28 juin 1919 à Dessau avec le pilote Emil Monz aux commandes et bien qu’il ait battu plusieurs records il ne connut pas le succès sur le marché en Allemagne de sorte que la société Junkers vendit le premier appareil de série F 13 le 29 octobre 1919 à John M. Larsen aux États-Unis. Ce fut le point de départ de la société « Junkers-Larsen Aircraft Corporation » domiciliée à New York qui se chargea de remonter l'appareil livré en caisses. Larsen fournit à la Marine américaine deux appareils (appelés JL6) équipés de flotteurs.
Il y eut d'autres coopérations de ce type dont celle avec la société Dobrolet (ancêtre d'Aeroflot) basée à Fili en Union soviétique où il fut mis en œuvre par la compagnie de transport aérien locale.
Au total près de 330 Junkers F 13 ont été fabriqués dont environ 110 étaient immatriculés en Allemagne.
La puissance du moteur fut peu à peu relevée de 118 kW à 420 kW ce qui permit d'atteindre des vitesses de croisière et des distances plus importantes. Un très grand nombre de versions dérivées ont été produites.
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حرب المتصفحات
متصفحات ويب | حروب البرمجيات
حرب المتصفحات مصطلح يشير إلى المنافسة من أجل السيطرة على سوق متصفحات الوب. ويستخدم هذا المصطلح للدلالة على فترتين زمنيتين منفصلتين. الأولى في أواخر التسعينات وكانت فيها التنافس بين نتسكيب نافيجاتور وإنترنت إكسبلورر، وانتهت هذه المنافسة بهزيمة الأول. أما الفترة الثانية تبدأ من العام 2003 إلى الآن والتنافس فيها يدور بين إنترنت إكسبلورر المسيطر ومتصفحات أخرى صاعدة مثل: موزيلا فايرفوكس، سافاري، أوبرا، ومنذ منتصف 2008، حيث ظهر متصفح جوجل كروم.
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Browser wars
Web browsers | Software wars
Browser wars is a metaphorical term that refers to competitions for dominance in usage share in the web browser marketplace. The term is often used to denote two specific rivalries: the competition that saw Microsoft's Internet Explorer replace Netscape's Navigator as the dominant browser during the late 1990s and the erosion of Internet Explorer's market share since 2003 by a collection of emerging browsers including Mozilla Firefox, Google Chrome, Safari, and Opera.
Background : The World Wide Web is an Internet-based hypertext system invented in the late 1980s and early 1990s by Tim Berners-Lee. Berners-Lee wrote the first web browser WorldWideWeb, later renamed Nexus, and released it for the NeXTstep platform in 1991.
By the end of 1992 other browsers had appeared, many of them based on the libwww library. These included Unix browsers such as Line Mode Browser, ViolaWWW, Erwise and MidasWWW, and MacWWW/Samba for the Mac. This created choice between browsers and hence the first real competition, especially on Unix.
Mosaic wars :
Further browsers were released in 1993, including Cello, Arena, Lynx, tkWWW and Mosaic. The most influential of these was Mosaic, a multiplatform browser developed at National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA). By October 1994, Mosaic was "well on its way to becoming the world's standard interface", according to Gary Wolfe of Wired.
Several companies licensed Mosaic to create their own commercial browsers, such as AirMosaic and Spyglass Mosaic. One of the Mosaic developers, Marc Andreessen, founded Mosaic Communications Corporation and created a new web browser named Mosaic Netscape. To resolve legal issues with NCSA, the company was renamed Netscape Communications Corporation and the browser Netscape Navigator. The Netscape browser improved on Mosaic's usability and reliability and was able to display pages as they loaded. By 1995, helped by the fact that it was free for non-commercial use, the browser dominated the emerging World Wide Web.
Other browsers launched during 1994 included IBM Web Explorer, Navipress, SlipKnot, MacWeb, and Browse.
In 1995, Netscape faced new competition from OmniWeb, WebRouser, UdiWWW, and Microsoft's Internet Explorer 1.0, but continued to dominate the market.
The first browser war:
By mid-1995 the World Wide Web had received a great deal of attention in popular culture and the mass media. Netscape Navigator was the most widely used web browser and Microsoft had licensed Mosaic to create Internet Explorer 1.0, which it had released as part of the Microsoft Windows 95 Plus! Pack in August.
Internet Explorer 2.0 was released as a free download three months later. Unlike Netscape Navigator it was available to all Windows users for free, even commercial companies. Other companies later followed and gave their browsers away for free. Both Netscape Navigator and competitor products like InternetWorks, Quarterdeck Browser, InterAp, and WinTapestry were bundled with other applications to full internet suites. New versions of Internet Explorer and Netscape (branded as Netscape Communicator) were released at a rapid pace over the following few years.
Development was rapid and new features were routinely added, including Netscape's JavaScript (subsequently replicated by Microsoft as JScript) and proprietary HTML tags such as ; and <marquee>.
Internet Explorer began to approach feature parity with Netscape with version 3.0 (1996), which offered scripting support and the market's first commercial Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) implementation.
In October 1997, Internet Explorer 4.0 was released. The release party in San Francisco featured a ten-foot-tall letter "e" logo. Netscape employees showing up to work the following morning found the giant logo on their front lawn, with a sign attached that read "From the IE team ... We Love You". The Netscape employees promptly knocked it over and set a giant figure of their Mozilla dinosaur mascot atop it, holding a sign reading "Netscape 72, Microsoft 18" representing the market distribution.
Internet Explorer 4 changed the tides of the browser wars. It was integrated into Microsoft Windows, which IT professionalsdateOctober 2011: and industry criticsdate: October 2011: considered technologically disadvantageous and an apparent exploitation of Microsoft's monopoly on the PC platform. Users were discouraged from using competing products because IE was "already there" on their PCs.dateNovember 2009: During these releases it was common for web designers to display 'best viewed in Netscape' or 'best viewed in Internet Explorer' logos. These images often identified a specific browser version and were commonly linked to a source from which the stated browser could be downloaded. These logos generally recognized the divergence between the standards supported by the browsers and signified which browser was used for testing the pages. In response, supporters of the principle that web sites should be compliant with World Wide Web Consortium standards and hence viewable with any browser started the "Viewable With Any Browser" campaign, which employed its own logo similar to the partisan ones. * Internet Explorer 5 & 6
Microsoft had three strong advantages in the browser wars.
One was resources: Netscape began with about 80% market share and a good deal of public goodwill, but as a relatively small company deriving the great bulk of its income from what was essentially a single product (Navigator and its derivatives), it was financially vulnerable. Netscape's total revenue never exceeded the interest income generated by Microsoft's cash on hand. Microsoft's vast resources allowed IE to remain free as the enormous revenues from Windows were used to fund its development and marketing. Netscape was commercial software for businesses but provided for free for home and education users; Internet Explorer was provided as free for Windows users, cutting off a significant revenue stream: As it was told by Jim Barksdale, President and CEO of Netscape Communications: "Very few times in warfare have smaller forces overtaken bigger forces..."
Another advantage was that Microsoft Windows had over 90% share of the desktop operating system market. IE was bundled with every copy of Windows; therefore Microsoft was able to dominate the market share easily as customers had IE as a default. In this time period, many new computer purchases were first computer purchases for home users or offices, and many of the users had never extensively used a web browser before, so had nothing to compare with and little motivation to consider alternatives; the great set of features they had gained in gaining access to the Internet and the World Wide Web at all made any modest differences in browser features or ergonomics pale in comparison.
During the United States Microsoft antitrust case in 1998, Intel vice president Steven McGeady, a witness called by the government, said on the stand that a senior executive at Microsoft told him in 1995 of his company's intention to "cut off Netscape's air supply". Microsoft attorney said that McGeady's testimony is not credible. That same year, Netscape, the company, was acquired by America Online for USD $4.2 billion. Internet Explorer became the new dominant browser, attaining a peak of about 96% of the web browser usage share during 2002, more than Netscape had at its peak.
The first browser war ended with Internet Explorer having no remaining serious competition for its market share. This also brought an end to the rapid innovation in web browsers; until 2006 there was only one new version of Internet Explorer since version 6.0 had been released in 2001. Internet Explorer 6.0 Service Pack 1 was developed as part of Windows XP SP1, and integrated into Windows Server 2003. Further enhancements were made to Internet Explorer in Windows XP SP2 (released in 2004), including a pop-up blocker and stronger default security settings against the installation of ActiveX controls. * Consequences
The browser wars encouraged three specific kinds of behavior among their combatants. * Adding new features instead of fixing bugs: A web browser had to have more new features than its competitor, or else it would be considered to be "falling behind." But with limited manpower to put towards development, this often meant that quality assurance suffered and that the software was released with serious bugs. * Adding proprietary features instead of obeying standards: A web browser is expected to follow the standards set down by standards committees (for example, by adhering to the HTML specifications) in order to assure interoperability of the Web for all users. But competition and innovation led to web browsers "extending" the standards with proprietary features (such as the HTML tags <font>, <marquee>, and <blink>) without waiting for committee approval. Sometimes these extensions produced useful features that were adopted by other browsers, such as the XMLHttpRequest technology that resulted in Ajax. * Inadvertently creating security loopholes: In the race to add development features, the line between document and application is crossed, and the Active Content Exploit is born. This is because, whenever applications have been allowed to masquerade as documents (e.g. Master Mode, Office macros, etc.) anyone can slip malicious code into what is otherwise a trustworthy format. As a virus scanner can only detect a virus that is old enough to be catalogued (usually more than 48 hours), it cannot protect against a zero day attack. Thus this blurring of the boundary between application and document creates an easy access point that is the basis for delivery of nearly all of today's drive-by downloads and auto-loading malicious code.date: November 2009: Support for web standards was severely weakened. For years, innovation in web development stagnated as developers had to use obsolete and unnecessarily complex techniques to ensure their pages would render properly in Netscape Navigator and Internet Explorer. Netscape Navigator 4 and IE6 lacked full compliance with several standards, including CSS and the PNG image format.
On February 2, 2008 the last update to Netscape Navigator 9 was released, based on Mozilla Firefox 2. However, it never regained its market share. Netscape was discontinued on March 1, 2008.
The second browser war: [[ After the defeat of Navigator by Internet Explorer, Netscape open-sourced their browser code, and entrusted it to the newly formed non-profit Mozilla Foundation—a primarily community-driven project to create a successor to Netscape. Development continued for several years with little widespread adoption until a stripped-down browser-only version of the full suite was created, which included features, such as tabbed browsing and a separate search bar, that had previously only appeared in Opera. The browser-only version was initially named Phoenix, but because of trademark issues that name was changed, first to Firebird, then to Firefox. This browser became the focus of the Mozilla Foundation's development efforts and Mozilla Firefox 1.0 was released on November 9, 2004. Since then it has continued to gain an increasing share of the browser market, until a peak in 2010, after which it has remained largely stable.
In 2003, Microsoft announced that Internet Explorer 6 Service Pack 1 would be the last standalone version of its browser. Future enhancements would be dependent on Windows Vista, which would include new tools such as the WPF and XAML to enable developers to build extensive Web applications.
In response, in April 2004, the Mozilla Foundation and Opera Software joined efforts to develop new open technology standards which add more capability while remaining backward-compatible with existing technologies. The result of this collaboration was the WHATWG, a working group devoted to the fast creation of new standard definitions that would be submitted to the W3C for approval.
2006–2007: On February 15, 2005, Microsoft announced that Internet Explorer 7 would be available for Windows XP SP2 and later versions of Windows by mid-2005. The announcement introduced the new version of the browser as a major upgrade over Internet Explorer 6 SP1.
Opera had been a long-time small player in the browser wars, known for introducing innovative features such as tabbed browsing and mouse gestures, as well as being lightweight but feature-rich. The software, however, was commercial, which hampered its adoption compared to its free rivals until 2005, when the browser became freeware. On June 20, 2006, Opera Software released Opera 9 including an integrated source viewer, a BitTorrent client implementation and widgets. It was the first Windows browser to pass the Acid2 test. Opera Mini, a mobile browser, has significant mobile market share as well as being available on the Nintendo DS and Wii.
On October 18, 2006, Microsoft released Internet Explorer 7. It included tabbed browsing, a search bar, a phishing filter, and improved support for Web standards — all features already familiar to Opera and Firefox users. Microsoft distributed Internet Explorer 7 to genuine Windows users (WGA) as a high priority update through Windows Update. Typical market share analysis showed only a slow uptake of Internet Explorer 7 and Microsoft decided to drop the requirement for WGA and made Internet Explorer 7 available to all Windows users in October 2007.
On October 24, 2006, Mozilla released Mozilla Firefox 2.0. It included the ability to reopen recently closed tabs, a session restore feature to resume work where it had been left after a crash, a phishing filter and a spell-checker for text fields.
In 2002 Apple created a fork of the open-source KHTML and KJS layout and javascript engines from the KDE project Konqueror browser, explaining that those would provide easier development than other technologies by virtue of being small (fewer than 140,000 lines of code), cleanly designed and standards compliant, now known as WebKit project. A Safari browser was first shipped with Mac OS X v10.3. On June 13, 2003 Microsoft said it was discontinuing their browser on the Mac platform. On June 6, 2007, Apple released their initial beta version of Safari for Microsoft Windows.
On December 19, 2007, Microsoft announced that an internal build of Internet Explorer 8 has passed the Acid2 CSS test in "IE8 standards mode" – the last of the major browsers to do so.
On December 28, 2007, Netscape announced that support for its Mozilla-derived Netscape Navigator would be discontinued on February 1, 2008, suggesting its users migrate to Mozilla Firefox.
However, on January 28, 2008, Netscape announced that support would be extended to March 1, 2008, and mentioned Flock, alongside Firefox, as an alternative to its users.
2008–2010: alignright: Mozilla released Firefox 3.0 on June 17, 2008, with performance improvements, and other new features. Firefox 3.5 followed on June 30, 2009 with further performance improvements, native integration of audio and video, and more privacy features.
[[
according to ]]
Google released the Chrome browser for Microsoft Windows on December 11, 2008, using the same WebKit rendering engine as Safari and a faster JavaScript engine called V8. An open sourced version for the Windows, Mac OS X and Linux platforms was released under the name Chromium. According to Net Applications, Chrome had gained a 3.6% usage share by October 2009. After the release of the beta for Mac OS X and Linux, the market share had increased rapidly.
On March 19, 2009, Microsoft released Internet Explorer 8, which added accelerators, improved privacy protection, a compatibility mode for pages designed for Internet Explorer 7 and improved support for various web standards.
During December 2009 and January 2010, StatCounter reported that its statistics indicated that Firefox 3.5 was the most popular browser, when counting individual browser versions, passing Internet Explorer 7 and 8 by a small margin. This is the first time a global statistic has reported that a non-Internet Explorer browser version has exceeded the top Internet Explorer version in usage share since the fall of Netscape Navigator. This feat, which GeekSmack called the "dethron[ing of] Microsoft and its Internet Explorer 7 browser," can largely be attributed to the fact that it came at a time when IE 8 was replacing IE 7 as the dominant Internet Explorer version. No more than two months later IE 8 had established itself as the most popular browser version, a position which it still holds as of March 2011. It should also be noted that other major statistics, such as Net Applications, never report any non-IE browser version as having a higher usage share than the most popular Internet Explorer version, although Firefox 3.5 was reported as the third most popular browser version between December 2009 and February 2010, to be replaced by Firefox 3.6 since April 2010, each ahead of IE7 and behind IE6 and IE8.
On January 21, 2010, Mozilla released Mozilla Firefox 3.6, which allows support for a new type of theme display, 'Personas', which allows users to change Firefox's appearance with a single click. Version 3.6 also improves JavaScript performance, overall browser responsiveness and startup times.
In October 2010, StatCounter reported that Internet Explorer had for the first time dropped below 50% market share to 49.87% in their figures. Also, StatCounter reported Internet Explorer 8's first drop in usage share in the same month.
Race to HTML5: On February 3, 2011, Google released Chrome 9. New features introduced include: support for WebGL, Chrome Instant, and the Chrome Web Store.
StatCounter global market share figures were as follows for February 2011. Internet Explorer 45%, Firefox 30%, Chrome 17%, Safari 5%, and Opera 2%, leaving all the others sharing the remaining 1%.
On March 8, 2011, Google released Chrome 10. New features can be found on the blogspot release.
On March 14, 2011, Microsoft released Internet Explorer 9.
On March 22, 2011, Mozilla released Firefox 4.0.
On April 4, 2011, Google released Chrome 11.
On June 7, 2011, Google released Chrome 12.
On June 21, 2011, Mozilla released Firefox 5.0.
On August 2, 2011, Google released Chrome 13.
On August 16, 2011, Mozilla released Firefox 6.0.
On September 15, 2011, Google released Chrome 14.
On September 27, 2011, Mozilla released Firefox 7.0.
On October 25, 2011, Google released Chrome 15.
On November 8, 2011 Mozilla released Firefox 8.
On December 15, 2011, Google released Chrome 16.
On December 21, 2011, Mozilla released Firefox 9.
In development: Microsoft's Internet Explorer 10 which supports Windows 7 or later.
Google's Chrome Chrome 17 in Dev.
Mozilla's Firefox 10, Firefox 11, and Firefox 12, in Beta, Aurora (Alpha 2), and Nightly (Alpha 1) respectively.
Opera Software's Opera 12, in pre-Alpha.
Other browser competition: Microsoft Windows: Although its usage share has been dropping since the mid-2000s, Internet Explorer still has, as of January 2011, the largest usage share on Microsoft Windows, with Mozilla Firefox the second most used web browser. Google Chrome, released in September 2008, is gaining ground in third place. In March 2008, Apple released Safari 3.1, began including it as a pre-selected update in the Apple Software Update program and its market share on Windows tripled. It is now in fourth place followed by Opera. Other browsers based on Internet Explorer's Trident layout engine, such as Maxthon, included features like tabbed browsing and were once popular but fell out of use when IE began adding such features itself from version 7 onwards.
Linux and Unix: The Unix-based Konqueror browser is part of the KDE project and is the primary competitor against Mozilla-based browsers (Firefox, Mozilla Application Suite/SeaMonkey, Epiphany, Galeon, etc.) for market share on Unix-like systems.
Konqueror's KHTML engine is an API for the KDE desktop. Derivative browsers and web-browsing functionality (for example, Amarok has a Wikipedia sidebar that gives information about the current artist) based on KDE use KHTML.
Mac OS X: Safari is Apple's web browser for Mac OS X, and also has the highest usage share on Mac OS X. The web browser is based on WebKit, a derivative of the KHTML engine. Other Mac browsers including iCab (since 4.0), OmniWeb (since 4.5), and Shiira, use the WebKit API, and many other Macintosh programs add web-browsing functionality through WebKit. Mozilla Firefox and Opera Browser also have high usage on Mac OS X.
Camino is a Mozilla-based Gecko browser for the Mac OS X platform, and uses Mac's native Cocoa interface like Safari does, instead of Mozilla's XUL which is used in Firefox. It was initially developed by Dave Hyatt, until he was hired by Apple to develop Safari.
Embedded devices: Opera Mini is a popular web browser on mobile devices such as most Java ME enabled internet connected phones and smartphones because of its small footprint. It has also recently been released for the iPhone and iPod Touch. Opera Mobile for smartphones main competition is from Netfront. Sony developed a mobile browser for their PSP, using Netfront's codebase. Sony's PlayStation 3 also includes a web browser. PC Site Viewer, the web browser included on many Japanese cellular phones, is based on Opera. In February, 2006 it was announced that Nintendo "will release an add-on card" with a version of Opera for the Nintendo DS (Nintendo DS Browser). This DS browser has since been criticized for its lack of Flash support and slowness. Opera is also used as a web browser on the Wii console.
Nokia released a WebKit-based browser in 2005, which comes with every Symbian S60 platform-based smartphone. On Nokia's N900 is MicroB, a Firefox derivate, preinstalled. It competes with Opera for the N900.
Windows Phone 7 comes with a version of Internet Explorer Mobile with a rendering engine which Steve Ballmer said to be "somewhere between Internet Explorer 7 and Internet Explorer 8". Microsoft plans to update the layout engine to that of Internet Explorer 9.
Windows Mobile comes with Internet Explorer Mobile by default and competes with Opera Mobile, Netfront, Iris, and Mozilla's Minimo, and lately the Skyfire browser (also available for Android, iOS, and Symbian).
MobileSafari, Apple's browser based on WebKit/KHTML, comes with iPhone, iPod Touch and the iPad.
Android, Google's open-source OS for mobile devices, uses a browser based on WebKit. Since March 2010, Opera Mini has been available for Android. Other browsers include Opera Mobile and Firefox 4.
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Évolution de l'usage des navigateurs Web
Navigateur web
datemars 2007: Lévolution de l'usage des navigateurs internet est l' de l'usage du logiciel de navigation web que les internautes ont observée à travers le temps. Elle est souvent la conséquence d'une compétition entre les compagnies développant ces logiciels pour la domination du marché. Cette évolution a surtout été marquée par le combat entre Internet Explorer et Netscape Navigator (en particulier sur la plate-forme Windows) à la fin des années 1990. Durant les années 2000, le combat marquant a été celui qui oppose Internet Explorer à Mozilla Firefox. L'arrivée récente de Google Chrome a changé la donne et celui-ci est en passe de ravir la seconde place à Firefox. * Historique * L'ère Mosaic
Le World Wide Web a commencé à croître exponentiellement avec l'apparition du navigateur web NCSA Mosaic en 1993. Ce navigateur était gratuit et développé par le National Center for Supercomputing Applications. Il fut le plus utilisé durant un an, jusqu'à fin 1994, avec l'apparition de Netscape Navigator, développé par Netscape Communications Corporation qui a débauché la plupart des développeurs de NCSA Mosaic. Mosaic fut supplanté par Netscape Navigator en quelques mois. * L'ère Netscape
En 1995, alors qu'Internet commence à être connu du grand public grâce au Web et au courriel, Microsoft préparait la sortie de Windows 95 en pensant que l'offre d'Internet était d'une qualité trop inégale pour le grand public. C'est ainsi que Microsoft lança Windows 95 avec The Microsoft Network, un réseau censé concurrencer Internet.
Pendant ce temps, suite notamment à la sortie du langage Java et à son intégration par plugin dans Netscape Navigator, le monde informatique commençait à sérieusement spéculer sur la possibilité de voir le web devenir une plate-forme de développement qui rende la plate-forme sous-jacente, soit le système d'exploitation, donc notamment Microsoft Windows, interchangeable. Cela signifierait que le monopole de fait détenu par Microsoft se transformerait en monopole de fait de Netscape Communications Corporation. En août 1995 Netscape rentra en bourse à 28 dollars et l'action fut immédiatement sujette à une très forte spéculation.
Microsoft, au vu du succès d'Internet et de Netscape, prit conscience du danger et du potentiel du web et créa Internet Explorer 1.0 grâce à l'acquisition d'une licence de Spyglass Mosaic (à ne pas confondre avec NCSA Mosaic).
Internet Explorer 1.0 fut alors inclus dans le Pack Plus Windows 95 en août 1995. La sortie d'Internet Explorer 2.0 trois mois plus tard marqua le début de la guerre. The Microsoft Network fut également pleinement intégré au web. * Netscape contre Internet Explorer
Les versions de Netscape Navigator (Netscape Communicator plus tard) et d'Internet Explorer se succédèrent rapidement durant les quelques années qui suivirent. L'ajout précipité de fonctionnalités prit le pas sur le développement de spécifications techniques concertées, et cette guerre eut comme conséquences des navigateurs instables, de faible respect des standards alors naissants, de plantages fréquents, de failles de sécurité et de beaucoup d'autres problèmes pour les utilisateurs. Internet Explorer ne fut pas compétitif avant la version 3.0 (1996) qui incluait le support de scripts et les premières implémentations commerciales des feuilles de style en cascade.
Internet Explorer 4.0 sortit en octobre 1997. Un logo géant de trois mètres représentant la lettre « e » fut créé à l'occasion de la cérémonie de lancement à San Francisco. Les employés de Netscape découvrirent ce logo géant sur la pelouse de leur lieu de travail le lendemain matin, avec un écriteau « de la part de l'équipe d'IE ». Les employés de Netscape réagirent rapidement et posèrent dessus une maquette géante de leur mascotte, un dragon, tenant une pancarte déclarant « Netscape 72, Microsoft 18 » (pour illustrer les parts de marché).
IE 4 fut un tournant de la guerre des navigateurs. Il était plus rapide et supportait mieux les spécifications du W3C que Netscape Navigator 4.0. Installer Internet Explorer 4.0 était considéré comme une évolution qui permettait par exemple de jouer des fichiers MP3 en arrière-plan.
Durant cette période, il était très fréquent pour les concepteurs de sites web d'afficher des logos « optimisé pour Netscape » ou « optimisé pour Internet Explorer ». Ces logos identifiaient souvent une version précise et proposaient un lien pour télécharger le navigateur « préféré ». D'une certaine façon, ces logos reflétaient une différence entre les « standards » supportés par les navigateurs et précisaient quel navigateur avait été utilisé pour tester les pages. Des défenseurs de la notion selon laquelle les sites web devraient être visibles avec n'importe quel navigateur entamèrent la campagne « visible avec n'importe quel navigateur ».
Microsoft disposait de deux gros avantages dans cette guerre. Le premier était tout simplement lié aux ressources : Netscape a débuté avec 90 % de parts de marché et une bonne dose de bienveillance de la part du public, mais c'était une société relativement petite dont la majeure partie des revenus étaient issue d'un seul produit (Navigator et ses dérivés) ; elle était donc vulnérable financièrement. Le produit financier total de Netscape n'a jamais dépassé les intérêts créditeurs générés par les fonds de caisse de Microsoft.
L'autre avantage de Microsoft, le plus important, était le quasi monopole qu'il détenait sur le marché des systèmes d'exploitation et qu'il put utiliser comme levier afin d'établir IE dans une position dominante. IE était incorporé à chaque copie de Windows ; Microsoft a ainsi été capable d'augmenter ses parts de marché bien que les premières versions de IE aient été sensiblement moins performantes que Netscape. De plus, IE restait gratuit tout en profitant des énormes recettes de Windows pour son développement et son marketing. IE a ainsi pu se développer rapidement jusqu'à être équivalent à Netscape, ce qui a alors incité à l'utiliser directement au lieu de télécharger et installer Netscape.
D'autres actions de Microsoft ont aussi été préjudiciables à Netscape, par exemple : * Le modèle économique de Netscape consistait à offrir le navigateur, mais à vendre des applications serveur. Microsoft, ayant compris cela, attaqua Netscape sur ce terrain en fournissant le serveur web de Microsoft Internet Information Services « gratuitement » avec les versions serveur de Windows, et en offrant à ses clients des clones des serveurs proxy de Netscape, des serveurs de courriel, des serveurs de nouvelles et d'autres applications gratuites ou à prix cassés. Cela eut peu d'effet au début, car la plupart des recettes de Netscape venaient de la clientèle des serveurs de Sun Microsystems, mais popularisa progressivement Windows NT comme serveur Internet ou Intranet, supprimant ainsi les revenus de Netscape. En outre, Microsoft interdit d'utiliser une version personnelle de Windows pour servir un nombre non négligeable de postes clients, ce qui revient à interdire l'usage des serveurs HTTP concurrents sur une version de Windows moins chère que la version serveur qui contient IIS. * Microsoft créa des contrats de licence avec les fabricants d'ordinateurs, exigeant qu'ils placent une icône sur le bureau pour IE, et les pénalisant s'ils préinstallaient Netscape sur leurs ordinateurs. * Microsoft facilita pour les petits et moyens fournisseurs d'accès Internet la réalisation de versions personnalisées d'Internet Explorer, ce qu'ils firent, sauf rares exceptions ; les utilisateurs étaient ainsi encouragés à utiliser IE et pas Netscape. * Microsoft créa un contrat de licence avec AOL pour baser l'interface principale d'AOL sur IE plutôt que sur Netscape. * Microsoft acquit et sortit un éditeur WYSIWYG de sites web, Microsoft FrontPage, qui avait tendance à créer des pages ayant une meilleure apparence sous IE. * Microsoft incorpora dans IE le support des CSS et rendit IE plus tolérant que Netscape au mauvais HTML (comme celui généré par les éditeurs WYSIWYG). Certains concepteurs trouvaient plus simple d'écrire leur pages uniquement pour IE que de corriger le mauvais HTML ou de supporter la couche d'extensions de Netscape. * Ces actions eurent pour effet de « couper l'alimentation d'air de Netscape », comme l'a déclaré un cadre de Microsoft durant le procès antitrust de Microsoft (qui aboutit à la condamnation de Microsoft pour avoir utilisé sa position monopolistique en vue de manipuler le marché). Combiné à plusieurs mauvaises décisions commerciales de Netscape, cela provoqua la chute de son navigateur fin 1998, après quoi la société fut rachetée par America Online pour 4,2 milliards de dollars US. Internet Explorer devint le nouveau navigateur dominant — plus que Netscape à son apogée — puisqu'il atteignait à cette époque 96 % du marché des navigateurs. * L'ère Internet Explorer
La guerre des navigateurs prit fin lorsque IE cessa d'avoir des concurrents sérieux. Cela entraîna également la fin des innovations dans le navigateur web dominant : il n'y eut pas de nouvelle version d'Internet Explorer entre 2001 (version 6.0) et 2006 (version 7). * Une seconde guerre des navigateurs ?
Fin 2004, la guerre a été relancée suite à la sortie du navigateur Firefox qui est basé sur le moteur Gecko du navigateur de Netscape, projet lancé par des anciens employés de Netscape, rejoints par une communauté de développeurs code source libre se structurant autour de la Fondation Mozilla.
En septembre 2007, après plus de 400 millions de téléchargements, Firefox a augmenté ses parts d'utilisation par rapport à IE. En Europe ce chiffre est de près de 27,7 % (le plus fort taux est de 45,4 % en Finlande) et en Océanie il a passé les 30 % .
En 2006, Microsoft n'ayant toujours pas mis à jour IE et son obsolescence commençant à agacer les développeurs web et les responsables de sécurité, des navigateurs alternatifs modernes, respectueux des standards et sécurisés tels que Firefox, Konqueror, Safari et Opera font leur apparition dans les statistiques des sites web.
Alternatives : Du côté de Konqueror et Safari, l'épisode des contributions de code par Apple à KHTML semble se diriger vers une convergence avec WebKit, utilisé également par le navigateur mobile de Nokia.
Dans le marché des mobiles et assistants, Opera semble se tailler la part du lion. D'autres initiatives existent dont Firefox Mobile de la Fondation Mozilla.
La réponse de Microsoft : Microsoft riposte en annonçant qu'Internet Explorer 7, qui initialement ne devait être qu'une version renommée de la version 6 pour Windows Vista, fonctionnerait également sur Windows XP et serait une évolution majeure.
IE7, sorti en octobre 2006 intègre donc beaucoup de fonctions jugées essentielles, comme la navigation par onglets ou un moteur de recherche à droite de la barre de navigation. Il ne comble qu'une partie des retards acquis au cours des années précédentes, mais bénéficie toujours de son monopole sur le poste de travail.
Entrée de Google : En 2008, Google présente Google Chrome, qui selon AT Internet Institute (anciennement XiTiMonitor) atteindra une part de marché, en Europe, proche de 2 % le jour de sortie, puis descendra et se stabilisera les jours suivants autour de 1 %. Google propose ainsi un navigateur qui tranche radicalement par rapport aux existants, présentant une interface dépouillée et une meilleure rapidité. Chrome possède désormais 12,2 % de parts de marché, se plaçant devant Safari (4,56 %), atteignant ainsi la troisième place, derrière IE (49,37 %) et Mozilla Firefox (31,27 %).
Le rythme soutenu de la croissance des parts de marché de Google Chrome obligea Microsoft à revoir sa copie et à annoncer IE9, qui a une interface copiée sur Google Chrome, ainsi que Mozilla avec Mozilla Firefox 4.
Selon Statcounter, Mozilla Firefox serait en décembre 2010 le navigateur le plus populaire en Europe (38,1 % des utilisateurs), devançant désormais Internet Explorer (37,5 %) et Google Chrome (14,6 %) .
Parts de marché des navigateurs web:
Conséquences : La guerre des navigateurs a encouragé deux attitudes spécifiques parmi ses protagonistes. * Fonctionnalités contre bogues : Un navigateur Web se doit d'avoir plus de fonctionnalités que la concurrence, ou alors il sera considéré comme « dépassé ». Du fait d'effectifs souvent limités, les programmes étaient souvent livrés dans le passé avec des bogues importants. * Respecter les standards contre en créer d'autres : Un navigateur était supposé suivre les standards fixés par les comités indépendants (par exemple en adhérant aux spécifications du HTML). Mais la compétition et l'innovation ont amené à ce que les navigateurs étendent ces standards, sans attendre l'approbation des comités, comme par exemple l'ajout du VBScript ou de balises ;. Ce genre de nouvelles balises ne fonctionnent qu'avec le navigateur qui les implémente, et peuvent donc ne pas fonctionner avec tous les navigateurs.
Les standards du Web ont par la suite été affaiblis à cause de la domination d'une seule société sur le marché des navigateurs. Plusieurs standards ne sont pas bien supportés par Internet Explorer, comme les évolutions des feuilles de style en cascade (CSS), le format d'image PNG, et le XHTML. Cela a pour effet une stagnation du développement du Web et l'utilisation de techniques inutilement complexes (comme l'abus des tableaux pour la mise en page, alors qu'il est préférable d'utiliser les feuilles de style). Beaucoup de développeurs Web écrivent également leurs pages afin qu'elles fonctionnent avec les idiosyncrasies d'Internet Explorer plutôt que de coller aux standards, et cela signifie que les pages ne peuvent être vues correctement qu'avec IE.
En plus de cela, IE a implémenté plusieurs extensions propriétaires, rendant beaucoup de pages incompatibles avec les autres navigateurs ou plates-formes (le VBScript et les ActiveX en sont des exemples, ainsi que les techniques DHTML spécifiques à Microsoft (qui sont clairement antérieures au standard DOM officiel, mais restent néanmoins utilisées).
L'adoption quasi-universelle d'Internet Explorer a également été facteur du succès massif des vers informatiques, qui exploitent ses failles logicielles pour se propager, car plus il y a de machines exposées, plus le ver aura de facilité à infecter des machines. Un logiciel utilisé par beaucoup est plus fréquemment cible de pirates informatiques, qu'il s'agisse d'IE ou, à moindre échelle, de Firefox.
Enfin, comme le nom Internet Explorer comporte le mot « Internet », beaucoup d'utilisateurs inexpérimentés peuvent être trompés et assimiler le navigateur à Internet lui-même, ce qui rend difficile l'idée de changement de navigateur. À ce titre, la version d'Internet Explorer incorporée à Windows 95 se lançait du « bureau » par une icône intitulée « Internet ». Or, Internet est un réseau de réseaux d'ordinateurs, alors que les navigateurs ne sont que des clients pouvant accéder à un aspect particulier d'Internet, le World Wide Web.
La compétition à l'heure actuelle : [[
selon .]]
En 1998, les développeurs de Netscape ont libéré le code source de Navigator, en le renommant « Mozilla ». Mozilla a par la suite été réécrit entièrement et amélioré sous plusieurs angles. En 2002, Mozilla a atteint la version 1.0 et est devenu populaire dans la communauté du logiciel libre. Plusieurs produits dérivés ont été créés, parmi lesquels Firefox, le navigateur multi-plateforme allégé de Mozilla. Mozilla et les navigateurs issus de Mozilla ont créé une niche en expansion dans le marché des navigateurs.
Le navigateur du monde Unix Konqueror fait partie du projet KDE et est en concurrence avec Mozilla sur les systèmes Unix. KHTML, le moteur de Konqueror a également été utilisé par Apple pour son navigateur Safari, qui est maintenant le navigateur par défaut sur Macintosh. Prévu pour Konqueror, KHTML permet à toutes les autres applications KDE d'afficher une page HTML voire d'embarquer un mini navigateur en quelques lignes de code, et plusieurs applications qui ne sont pas des navigateurs à la base s'en servent. Le lecteur de musique Amarok affiche par exemple la biographie présente sur Wikipédia de l'artiste ou du compositeur du morceau écouté. Cette idée a été reprise par Apple, et exploitée par des navigateurs concurrents de Safari (OmniWeb) ou d'autres programmes Macintosh.
En 2003, Microsoft annonçait qu'Internet Explorer 6.0 SP1 serait la dernière version indépendante de son navigateur et que les améliorations futures dépendraient de la prochaine version de Windows, dont le nom fut Microsoft Windows Vista. Windows Vista inclut de nouveaux outils comme Windows Presentation Foundation et le XAML (un langage XML propriétaire) qui permettra aux développeurs de créer des applications web extensibles, et que l'on peut approximativement comparer au concept multiplate-forme de Mozilla, le XUL (XML-based user interface language).
Opera dispose d'une petite part sur le marché des micro-ordinateurs, mais est un navigateur populaire sur les appareils mobiles, comme les smartphones, et les consoles de jeu Nintendo (comme la Wii ou la Nintendo DS ou encore la Nintendo DSi). Initialement payante sous la forme d'un partagiciel, puis financée par un bandeau publicitaire ou l'achat d'une licence, sa version PC est devenue totalement gratuite et sans publicités en septembre 2005.
Notes et références : Références: Annexes : Articles connexes : * Liste de navigateurs Web * Navigateur Web * World Wide Web
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ويكيبيديا:أسخف الحروب التحريرية
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ضروس، نشبت لسبب تافه، ويظهر محاولة إحدى النساء فك الاشتباك. في قدميها ينظر بتعجب متسائلين: أهذه ويكيبيديا؟]]
منذ بزوغ فجر التاريخ، تقاتل الناس لأسباب تافهة، راجع حرب البسوس وداحس والغبراء.
أحيانا يقوم سخيفة شبيهة. هذه الصفحة لا تعد أو ، بل تحاول توضيح مدى سخافة بعض الحروب التحريرية، علّها تفيد "من كان له قلب أو ألقى السمع وهو شهيد".
دليل إضافي : إذا كنت تريد إضافة المزيد إلى "أسخف الحروب التحريرية"، تذّكر: * أن تكون الحرب لسبب تافه وسخيف بالفعل. * أن تكون حربا تحريرية، هذا يعني أن يتضمن نقاشات عقيمة في صفحة نقاش المقالات، و، سيكون أكثر طرافة لو أضفت وصلة لشكوى في . * أن !
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Wikipedia:Lamest edit wars
Wikipedia culture | Wikipedia lamest edit wars
(center) tries to bring to an end a great involving dozens of respected editors. At her feet, three bewildered are seen caught in the middle of the dispute.]]
Occasionally, even experienced lose their heads and devote every waking moment to over the most trivial thing. This page documents our lamest examples. It isn't comprehensive or authoritative, but it serves as a showcase of situations where people lose sight of the big picture and obsessively expend huge amounts of energy fighting over something that, in the end, isn't really so important.
Back in the good old days, people would just get out their swords and guns and fight a duel; nowadays physical combat has been replaced by careful inciting of , strategic templating and , timely notices on and (in some cases) marking the changes as . Truly, the revolutionary Wikipedia outlook has changed the way things get done. It has changed them from actually getting done to never getting done. On the other hand, nobody gets dispatched (so far!).
limit: 2: Guidelines on how to create lameness : Some discussions are born lame; some achieve lameness; some have lameness thrust upon them. Upon coming across a discussion that is borderline lame, some Wikipedians may be tempted to go do something useful. This is a big mistake. Left to its own devices, the discussion might inadvertently become useful. What's the fun in that? It is essential that as many editors as possible chime in, not adding to the discussion at hand, but merely commenting how lame it is and what a big waste of time it is. (See Self-fulfilling prophecy, Positive feedback, and Exponential growth). Merely stating the discussion is lame is frequently not sufficient; every opposing statement must be denied with increasingly vehement assertions of the lameness. While at first blush wasting time whining about what a waste of time something is may seem illogical, the inherent irony just magnifies the lameness. An additional step to increase lameness is to include repeated links to this essay, which is . have a special role to play: proposing/implementing topic bans on lame participants is doubly effective: it not only increases the present day lameness, but, by quashing debate, helps ensure the lame issue remains unsolved for future generations of Wikipedians to go on about. Lamely.
Guidelines on how to add an entry to this guide : If you want to add a "lame edit war" to this page, keep the following in mind: * It must have been an actual edit war. Discussions on talk pages, even over trivially lame details are not "edit wars" and should NEVER be added: we want to encourage such rational debates between users/viewpoints (as opposed to actual edit warring). Note that pithy quotes on talk pages may be suitable for . * It should truly be amongst the lamest edit wars. Not just garden-variety lame. * Unless a participant is for their part in the edit war, do not give the names of participants or link to their userpages. People have lapses in judgment, and some end up edit warring; they shouldn't, however, be stuck with that for the rest of their on-wiki careers for no reason. This is absolutely not the place for harping over someone's past editing. * Be careful to avoid even the semblance of taking sides in the war. If one version was more or less accepted afterwards, it's OK to note that, but the fact that an edit war occurred means that neither side was "in the right all along". * ! If you feel that an edit war was truly lame, add it! You don't need to ask on the talk page. The lameness of it should speak for itself. Of course, editors with a more experienced eye for lameness may disagree with your claim to the "lamest," which may just result in yet another lame edit war! * Note that the and policies are meant to apply to the article , not on pages like this in the Wikipedia (project) namespace, which is intended for the community rather than readers. Humorous, insightful commentary is encouraged here.
Ethnic and national feuds : People : Chopin : Was Chopin Polish, French, Polish–French, or French–Polish? For years, there has been a low level (and at times high intensity) conflict about which country can claim Chopin as its son. Or was it Szopen? The observer learns a lot about the Napoleonic code, about the nuances of "citizenship," "nationality," and "ethnicity." Students of law can argue the finer points of jus sanguinis and jus soli. The use of "Polish born" is branded as a racist slur. There is spirited debate about whether the citing of a passage of law is considered original research, tantamount to "dropping Mentos into a bottle of Pepsi to see if it will explode." Can you emigrate from a country of which you are not a citizen? Can you receive citizenship if you already have it? The possibilities for intensive study are endless. Celebrity witnesses such as Obama, Churchill, Sean Taro Ono Lennon and Dr. Seuss are pressed into making appearances. Collateral damage even reaches , where the because of an alleged lack of lameness. And then there are the . Even Chopin's remains are divided. The body rests in Paris, the heart in Warsaw. * Ányos Jedlik
He is considered by both Hungarians and Slovaks to be the unsung father of the dynamo and electric motor. But what was his true ethnicity, Hungarian or Slovak? At one point, the score in this heated battle was in favour of the Hungarian side, with the Slovak side being handed both Dubious: and Verify source: tags. Who knows how this will end as we get into the final minutes of this contest. * Freddie Mercury
There was a feud that was going on for a long time on this one concerning Freddie Mercury's true ancestry. Is he the most famous Iranian rock star? Indian? Parsi? Azeri? You'd be surprised how many people get this annoyed, to the point that it is still a hotly contested item over there. Just one example can be seen Oh, and this one, like all the others, had its share of random vandals, people leaving unmarked anonymous insults, and gnashing of teeth. Let's just say for now he's a Parsi whose parents originated from India!
Ivana Miličević : Is she a "Bosnian actress of Croatian descent/ethnicity" or a "Croatian actress"? Should she be called American without sourcing because she's resided in America for nearly 30 years? Is she "Bosnian" because she was born in Sarajevo or "Bosnian-born" because Bosnia did not exist as a nation when she was born there? Go ahead and edit the article and see how long your version lasts before someone reverts you!
Jennifer Aniston : Is she American or American-born? Is she Greek-American? Is she English-American? Is she Greek-and-English-American? Does she need all-those-prefixes-in-front-of-her-nationality-American? Did Kiriakis mastermind the entire affair?
Nicolaus Copernicus : Was he Polish, German or Prussian? Or did he have no nationality at all that bears mentioning? If Copernicus were around today, he might have suggested that he would be satisfied to be remembered as an astronomer, but we will never know.
Was he ever married? What is his middle name? No one knows exactly.
Whether this edit war will spread to the page on his memorial on the periodic table is unknown.
Nikola Tesla : Born of Serbian parents in a part of the Austrian Empire, which a short time later became a part of the Hungarian half of Austria-Hungary and is now in Croatia. He eventually became a naturalized citizen of the US. So was he Serbian? Croatian? Austrian? Austro-Hungarian? Istro-Romanian? Jewish? American? You decide! But don't forget to leave saying how pathetic it is to choose any other version.
Raven Riley : Is this porn star Italian? Native American? Puerto Rican? Cypriot? Does she have Indian blood? Who cares? But make sure that, when you change it, you don't even think about citing any source; please feel free to insult whoever put in the previous ethnicity. Anonymous editors: be sure to insert multitudes of different "real names" of her, with no sourcing whatsoever.
Werner Herzog : Born in Germany, supposedly of a German mother and a Yugoslav father, and raised in Bavaria, Germany. Does that make Herzog: a) Croatian or b) Serbian? How about the fact that the relatives live in Bosnia-Herzegovina? Use edit summaries to publish interviews that you conducted—or heard rumors about. are great sources too. After consulting a printed source, it turns out that it was the mother who was from Croatia. Ouch.
Milla Jovovich : Is Милица Наташа Јововић/Milica Jovović Serbian/Montenegrin or only Serbian? Montenegrin became the official language of Montenegro in 2007 and received a new standard on 10 July 2009, but it has been promoted by the Montenegrin community since 2004. Montenegro legally seceded from Serbia and Montenegro in 2006, but Milla was born in Ukraine in the Soviet Union in 1975 to a Russian/Ukrainian mother and father of Serbian (Serbian/Montenegrin?) extraction when Serbia (Serbia and Montenegro?) was still in Yugoslavia. Where do you stand?
Orpheus : A mercifully brief edit war over whether Orpheus can be classified as Greek, Thracian, or Macedonian. And to what extent does "Thracian" mean "Bulgarian"? The fact that it is normally rather hard to determine the origin of mythical figures didn't seem to bother any of the warriors in the slightest.
John Logie Baird : Apparently one may be Scottish, or British, but not both. Good thing he wasn't from some more hot-headed part of the world. A year-long, low-intensity desultory chain of edits and reversions consumes human time and effort with no net content added to the Encyclopedia.
U2 : Are U2 an "Irish band" or simply a band that happen to be from Ireland, since two of their members were born in the UK? Many discussions have taken place over the course of several years as whether "U2 are an Irish rock band" or simply "U2 is a rock band" should be included in the text. Edit wars continued back and forth, and at one point the article even read "U2 are an Irish and British rock band" (which didn't last very long). Perhaps Casey Kasem had it right when he declared that "these guys are from England and who gives a shit!" Eventually, a heated discussion took place for over two-and-a-half weeks that resulted in at least one editor getting blocked and many more getting warnings, to eventually come to the conclusion that U2 are, in fact, an Irish band. (At least for now.)
Places and other things : Association of British Counties: You'd have thought Counties of the United Kingdom would be a fairly uncontroversial subject, but no - this insider outsider pressure group involving ninety-two eighty-six UK counties (that doesn't involve Government policy) is guaranteed to bring out the red mist every once in a while. One thing's for sure, the edit warring on this article is far from over...
Caesar salad: Was this tasty salad invented in Mexico in 1924, or in ancient Rome? Is it named after Caesar Cardini or Julius Caesar? Is it spelled Caesar, Cesar, or Cesare? If you add tomatoes is it still a Caesar or is it something called a "Letchworth salad?" A slow motion edit war stretching out over a year two years is surely the best way to find out!
Ceviche: Was this marinated raw fish delicacy invented in Peru, or in Ecuador? Or maybe Mexico, Polynesia, Spain, Chile, Granada, Argentina............
Derry/Londonderry : Should the article on this city in Northern Ireland be called Derry or should it be called Londonderry? With loyalists and republicans on both sides, don't expect an answer soon. * cough** cough*
Enceladus (moon): An image on this featured article shows the tiny moon of Saturn superimposed on a map of the British Isles, the United Kingdom, the Netherlands Great Britain and Ireland, Luxembourg, and the North Sea. Cue edit warring, accusations of vandalism, and full protection of the article.
The phrase 'British Isles': Is this wording acceptable? Can it include the entire Northern European archipelago, or is the term anti-Irish? If so, what's a better one? Many, many edit wars across the whole of Wikipedia on nearly any article with the words 'British Isles' on it have resulted in topic bans, blocks and stress all around. But thus far, no consensus has emerged as of yet as to a better term, or even if the existing one is an issue or not.
Export House, that internationally renowned tower block in Woking: Multiple back and forth about whether the local nickname for the building is the bat building or the B.A.T building (from British American Tobacco). For a while this was resolved by quoting both, but then further edit warring ensued as to whether it should be followed by '(more commonly known as bat)' or B.A.T. Looking for citations showed that it is mostly referred to as BAT, which led to the absurdity of three versions of the nickname in the lead for this barely notable tower block in a small provincial town. of said tower now seems inevitable, presumably dressed as an alternative superhero from usual.
Florina and other towns in Macedonia (Greece) : Edit war about whether the alternative name Lerin is Macedonian, Bulgarian or south Slavic (which covers both Macedonian and Bulgarian).
Fustanella : Who first donned a frilly skirt and threatened to kill anyone who questioned his manhood over it? Was he Albanian or Greek? If Albanian, Gheg or Tosk? Thankfully, none of the modern day warriors on this topic have access to real weapons (we hope!)
Grand Theft Auto IV: Is Niko Bellic (the main character) Serbian, Slovak, Bosnian, Croatian, Russian, or from some unnamed Eastern European country? Reliable sources do not agree on the matter (with those written pre-launch suggesting the character is Russian, and post-launch Serbian or Croatian), and the actual game itself is just ambiguous enough about the subject to create dissent (and of course this is a part of the world where nationalist feelings run high, see Balkanization). , the article contained five consecutive citations, repeated each of the three times the character's nationality is mentioned, totalling a whopping fifteen citation numbers throughout the article to justify the purported nationality of a fictional video game character.
Hogenakkal Falls: Are these beautiful waterfalls on the Kaveri River located in Tamil Nadu—or on the border between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka—or in Tamil Nadu on its border with Karnataka? Or is it really the Cauvery river, and Hogenakal Falls? Do a dispute over water usage, and a separate dispute over access to an island below the Falls, have no bearing on this, or do they prove that the location of the Falls must be on the border? Whatever you believe, be sure to bring a (Google) map to the debate, and point out that your opponent's sources are not RS or NPOV!
Hummus and friends : Hummus: they love it in Israel, so shouldn't it be in ? Or is it a purely Arab food that the Zionists have illegally occupied?[]
After a related skirmish on Za'atar, the ingredients were listed in alphabetical order, but was this all part of a shrewd Zionist plot? Don't be silly, came the response: and anybody who removes the Hebrew name from the first sentence is a racist vandal.[] Meanwhile, back at Hummus an attempt is made to replace a mention that the Oxford English Dictionary says that the word entered English via Turkish with a reference to the Greek name for the dish. Finally, Tabbouleh saw action, this time mercifully free of Arab-Israeli connotations; instead, the question was: can we call this dish a part of Levantine cuisine, or is the very term "Levantine" a European colonial plot to divide the great Arab nation?[]
In the mean time, another attempt is made to expunge the Turks from description of the traditional Greek (or maybe Arab) dish of pita (or is it pitta?), while controversy bubbles as to whether a photo of an Israeli falafel house constitutes "Zionism".
Conclusion: Tasty snacks in the Middle East are hilariously politicized. The talk page for Hummus currently states: "The article Hummus, along with other articles relating to the Arab–Israeli conflict, is currently subject to active arbitration remedies".
Liancourt Rocks: Dokdo → Liancourt Rocks → Takeshima → Dokdo → Dokdo → Liancourt Rocks → ?
A group of sinking volcanic rocks has been claimed by both Japan and South Korea since really, really long ago. Evidence of ownership for either side rests on hard-to-read decaying pieces of old paper. This is not a silly dispute as the rocks have important economic and military value, . Serious Japanese or Korean Wikipedians may even choose to make these rocks their place of residence (living there not required!) to bolster their case. This article extensively documents every little factoid that could possibly indicate ownership by one country, with each, of course, having a countering statement. Newspapers and internet forums like 2channel are part of the discussion, yet everyone claims their POV is NPOV. As properly befitting this major political issue, most edit summaries begin with "rv..." Luckily, at least the title of the article has been settled on...or has it? See also: Liancourt Rocks dispute. * National House Building Council
The headquarters of this British organisation are located in Buckinghamshire. But should it be called 'Buckinghamshire, England' or 'Buckinghamshire, United Kingdom'? In April 2008, this crucial issue became the focus of an edit war involving no fewer than 8 users and one anonymous editor over a period of a week. (This is particularly inexplicable since England is, of course, part of the United Kingdom.) On April 23, the participants finally settled on 'England' and the edit war ended – perhaps in recognition of St. George's Day? * Pavlova (food)
Not the dancer, but rather the tasty antipodean dessert, which was invented in Australia[], New Zealand [], Australia[], [], [], New Zealand [],
Rabbit Season, Duck Season, fire! * Rajni Kanth
There is an ongoing dispute on the order and necessity of transliteration of the famous actor Rajni Kanth's names into languages like Marathi, Hindi, and Kannada. The people for the inclusion and giving a higher priority believe that the actor has significant history in that state of India, as well as sufficient fan-following to merit a transliteration, while the editors from Tamil origin are of the opinion that they would be surrendering their most prized possession. The talk page has been bubbling with so many threads on this singular issue. * Šarplaninac
Does the Šarplaninac (Yugoslav/Illyrian shepherd dog) originate from Kosovo, Albania, Serbia and/or Macedonia? Nobody can agree, but even flags are being hoisted at this point in the infobox. * Sea of Japan
Should it be called the Sea of Japan, the East Sea, or even the East Sea of Korea? Are both names valid, and if so, should the article be named Sea of Japan (East Sea) or Sea of Japan / East Sea? Or should it be the actual most common English and international name Sea of Japan (East Sea), parentheses and all? Should the dispute page be called the Sea of Japan naming dispute, or the Naming dispute over the body of water between Japan and Korea and the Russian Far East? Given the existence of other names meaning "East Sea" in other languages, should East Sea redirect to the disambiguation page or to the "body of water bordered by Japan, Russia and Korea"?
Siena College : Which unincorporated (and thus unbounded) hamlet of the town of Colonie north of Albany, New York, is this small Catholic liberal arts college in — Loudonville or Newtonville? The college's website says Loudonville, but how can we trust it when the Colonie Town Hall just across US 9 uses Newtonville for its address? Discussion reaches 30,000 words, reverts spill across all three articles, two get protected, an informal RFC is opened and one editor briefly retires.
Vipera palaestinae : Snakes from the Middle East are hilariously politicized too! This one is found in Syria, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, and either 'Palestine' or 'the Palestinian territories'. Users have been edit-warring for three years now over how to describe it. The opinions of the snake itself on the political status of Palestine are unknown.
Names : English names : Aeris vs. Aerith : The Final Fantasy VII character was introduced to English audiences in 1997 as Aeris, but her name changed to Aerith in later appearances. Was the first name a misspelling? A mistranslation from the original Japanese pronunciation? But that's how it was when it was first released in English so that makes it her official name. But the later appearances are official too right? But she was known as and referred to Aeris for years, so that makes it the common name. But she's been going by Aerith since 2002, so now that's her common name. Many edit wars, page moves, and lengthy discussions later, the page is at Aerith Gainsborough and when mentioning her first 1997 appearances, she is called Aeris. All other appearances are called Aerith. With every title in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII using Aerith, the warring and discussions seem to have ended. The lengthy discussions are archived at (page size of the archive is 113kb).
Avengers (comics) : Should there be a separate page for New Avengers (comics)? Is the name of the team now the New Avengers or is it just a new Avengers? Is it a new comic entirely or just a continuation of the old one? Following a positive merge vote, a series of reverts occurs when an editor "merges" the two by simply pasting the merged information into the article, creating two articles in one. The slow nature of the revert war means that, technically, nobody violates , and requests for help from other admins go unheeded because, well, it's lame. After a series of exchanges on the talk page questioning people's command of English as well as their sanity, the issue appears to have been settled with the creation of New Avengers (comic book) (note the oh-so-subtle distinction) based on the .
Clover (creature) : The creature from the movie Cloverfield was never explicitly named in the movie, or was it? Is "Cloverfield" the name of the military casefile, or the monster, or both? Some reporter referred to the creature itself as "Cloverfield" so let's go with "Cloverfield (creature)" Wait, shouldn't we follow suit with Frankenstein and call it "The Cloverfield creature"—Or wait, maybe it should just be "Cloverfield creature", maybe it should be "Cloverfield (monster)", no we can't do that, it shows bias and isn't NPOV. Rumor has it that the production staff just called it "Clover", but that's just a nickname, it doesn't count, does it? No matter, we can't use that until we find a source confirming that they call it Clover....OK, now we have one. How's about we skirt all naming conventions and call it "The Monster/Clover (creature)" to make everyone happy. Nah that's no good, back to "Clover (creature)" But wait, that's still not the true name of the creature, so we shouldn't use that. Followed by and interspersed with a cavalcade of "Alright how about we just compromise and set it back to ." It's extremely important that an article on a fictional topic which only narrowly escaped AfD be properly named. Rather amusingly, considering how much edit warring there was/is on the page, it's been awarded "" status!
Compact Disc : Compact Disc is a tradename, therefore is capitalised. But the logo says "Compact disc". And the term is now used as a generic term for compact disks or compact discs, depending whereabouts in the world they are. Everyone calls them CDs (or maybe CD's). So where to put the article? Passions have been raised on this compelling topic on the article's sporadically since 2004, boiling over briefly in 2007 and 2009. Everyone calm down – relax, have a cup of coffee, and listen to your favourite... erm...
Devil's Lake (North Dakota) : Shockingly, there are multiple locations in the United States with the name "Devil's Lake." A very heated war broke out regarding which one should be featured, whether a disambig page was needed, even over the usage of the apostrophe—eventually literally degenerating into "my lake is better than yours!" Solution: RENAME THE FREAKIN' LAKES!!!
Eagles (band) : Is it "Eagles" or "the Eagles" when speaking about this group? The band's name is "Eagles", yet all former and current band members talk about their tenure with "the Eagles" in published interviews and on the official website. Despite this fact (and lengthy talk page discussions), every blue moon there appears an odd and concerted effort to erase the lower-case "the" from all instances in the article and related ones, leading to awkward "bizarro-speak" that even the band members themselves would surely laugh at.. Someone needs to tell Don Felder to change the title of his , because apparently he was wrong.
Eris (dwarf planet) : Was Eris named after the Greek goddess Eris or the Greek and Discordian goddess Eris? Does it matter that the IAU and discoverer Michael E. Brown referenced only the Greek aspect, even though the referenced mythological event was identical with The Original Snub? Is mentioning Discordianism POV because it gives the religion undue weight? Edit war results in loss of good article status and temporary article locking. Hail Discordia! War finally resolved by not actually mentioning what type of goddess Eris is. See also: Pluto and Ceres (dwarf planet).
European Robin: A took place on whether English Robin was an alternate common name for the European Robin, often simply called Robin. One editor persisted in adding this essential piece of information despite opposition,, until there was a ... . Or does Maybe . Is the last word on the matter? Who knows... Can it suspend a coconut from its husk?
Flavor of Love : Should second-season winner "Deelishis" be credited as her birth name, Chandra Davis, or her stage name, London Charles? Months of IP additions and months of "IF YOU REVERT WITHOUT DISCUSSION, YOU'RE GONNA BE BLOCKED!" ensue. In the end, nobody got blocked and the dispute died down on its own, probably because both sides realized they were battling over a woman who willingly went on a reality television show to "fall in love with" Flavor Flav. Yeah, boyeeeeeee!
G4techTV Canada : Does the name of a Canadian TV channel, originally an offshoot of namesake American one, contain the word "Canada" in its official title, ergo it should be parenthesized in the title? It's a terribly important matter, as witnessed by an and circular discussion on the . * Fossil fuel for reciprocating piston engines equipped with spark plugs
Should this substance be called 'gasoline' or 'petrol'? See the for a about the total number of English speakers in the world (and whether Americans should be considered an important part of it); the relative utility of search engines, closely followed by the unleashing of various Pie charts and tables; claims that UK-wikipedians are set to re-establish the British empire by moving pages to British spellings, counter-claims that Americans who want "gasoline" are being their usual nationalistic/culturally-imperialistic selves; nominations, page-move warring and , failed attempts to achieve compromise via some truly freaky article names (far beyond the suggested "" and "") and even the to into sections individually tailored for both Commonwealth and American English tastes. Gasoline has been settled on for now, in part because that was the article's title originally, but the fallout has yet to settle. * Gender of God
Or is it 'Gender of god'? How about 'Gender of Gods', gotta remember those damn pagans. Or is that 'Gender of gods'? Is 'sex' more appropriate than 'gender'? Is god/God/gods/Gods appropriate at all? How about (d/D)ivine entit(ies/y)... or supreme (b/B)eing(s)... or some mix of all the above? Meanwhile this doesn't account for religions with no explicit sex (or is that explicit gender?). We haven't quite decided yet but rest assured whilst some silly people are trying in vain to reach consensus those with the power are proving their point with reverts. There have even been threats of ArbCom. *
Alessa was captured, but just how captured do you have to be to be considered "captured"? That "forced medical attention" makes all the difference in the world, so why would we need the word "captured"? While playing the game, a user might get the idea that a character implies something, so does a subtle wink at the camera mean something entirely different; something that could affect the whole plot and our own pride, for going with sourced material? It mattered for some, obviously, as a broke out about a few words here and there and the war would be still going on, had it not been for the fact that administrators did some shallow digging and discovered that the of the edit war was a who has been discovered to create no fewer than 23 . * 'Heather' of Silent Hill 3
The protagonist from Konami's survival horror video game Silent Hill 3 is known to those who have played the game as 'Heather'. But what is her last name? Is it Morris after the actress who portrayed her? Is it Mason? Does anyone care? Many sources disagree. A 'my source is more valid than yours' edit war broke out in an unlikely place. It wasn't on the page for the character in question. Certainly not on the page for the game itself. It actually broke out on the Silent Hill 3 blurb on the series overview page and its . * Halo 1, Halo 2, and Halo 3
Should there be disambiguation notices on the respective articles of the Halo video games to the band Nine Inch Nails's personal Halo numbers for their albums? Do the numbers' acceptance by Trent Reznor mean anything? Are the Halo numbers notable enough to be disambiguated? Are any people going to search for Halo 2 or 3, not expecting information about a video game? Is the form of the Halo number Halo 3 or halo_03 or HALO 3? * Interstate 75
Is the southern terminus of Interstate 75 located in Hialeah, Florida, or would it serve the typical Wikipedia reader better if the infobox said "near Miami, Florida", a better-known city with twice the population away? A discussion followed by a straw vote indicated that the majority of the participants preferred the latter wording, but there was no consensus. The debate (and the edit war) settled down for a few months until someone associated with Miami Dade College, whose Hialeah Campus is, er, near Miami, rekindled the reversions with an insistence that the phrase should be with an online reference and that "near Miami" violates . Since then, the dispute – mainly through edit comments – has spread to a question as to whether a cited "in Hialeah" should be trumped by an uncited "near Miami". The dispute has pitted students and faculty of MDC against a handful of Wikipedians who believe that a precedent should prevail. As the standoff persists, the rest of the world rolls by...until finally, it seems "in Hialeah, FL, near Miami", with cite! gets the nod. * Lady Jane Grey
Was she really a Queen of England? Should her page be at Jane of England or Lady Jane Grey? Should she be referred to as Her Majesty Queen Jane? Does her husband merit inclusion in The List of royal consorts of the United Kingdom? (Notice that, until recently, "Royal Consorts of the United Kingdom was a red link, unlike The weather in Liverpool.) Resulted in many cut-and-paste page moves, edit warring across multiple pages and flaming on those talk pages. Warriors did not come to their senses even when it was pointed out how long Jane herself had been dead, though mercifully none of them met the same fate as their subject by having their heads lopped off. Though that would reduce the chatter! * J. K. Rowling
Is her name pronounced like "rolling" or to rhyme with "howling"? Rowling is on record claiming she pronounces her name like "rolling". An irate editor argues that this is a "British" pronunciation and the "American" pronunciation of her name should also be noted. This is slightly ridiculous as she is English, and therefore of course will pronounce it in an English manner. Cue endless spats on talk pages over whose arguments are "more cogent", and multiple reversions. Issue finally resolved (sort of) by very,very, very obliquely implying that she pronounces her name "rolling", rather than stating that that is how her name is pronounced. Edit war was brief, but, astoundingly, other people have since logged on and made the same complaint. Perhaps it rhymes with "Trolling"? * Nobel Prize in Economics
Should this article (and other articles and templates that mention this award) use the common name of the award, the official name, Bank of Sweden Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, the even more official name, Sveriges Riksbanks pris i ekonomisk vetenskap till Alfred Nobels minne, or perhaps a compromise name, Nobel Memorial Prize in Economics? The debate has involved endless discussions, requested moves, revert wars, blocks, and strangely, two (N/n)obel Prizesfact: . * Richard Kyanka
An unseemly brawl over whether the article should name him "Richard Kyanka" or "Richard Charles Kyanka". At least the anon editors insisting on the insertion of the middle name provided good verifiable sources. * Missing sun motif
Is it a collection of myths or a motif? Should "sun" be capitalized or not? What about "underworld"? Edit warring over these and other weighty issues have involved four editors and most of the article's history. * The Pope's title
Is he the Supreme Pontiff or just the Bishop of Rome? says the latter for a year and a half after its creation; then in December 2008 the reverts to "Supreme Pontiff" start, along with deletions of the "Roman" in "Roman Catholic Church", and continue in bursts from a number of different anons for several months until it's protected. Proof of lameness: a of the page's history is now the lead image at the . * Richard Neustadt
Two months of edit war on whether the page should say "President Truman" or "President Harry S Truman" (plus the same with several other presidents). * Pluto
For decades regarded as a planet, it became a dwarf planet (as defined by the IAU) in 2006. Shortly after, it was duly assigned a minor planet number of 134340. Much contention ensued at the about whether the article should be at 134340 Pluto or whether the disgraced planet should retain its simpler name (or, for that matter, whether to consider it a planet or not). Pluto could not be contacted for its thoughts on the matter. See also: Ceres (dwarf planet) and Eris (dwarf planet). * Potrero Hills
The Potrero Hills are "a range of low hills on the western edge of Richmond, California". They're pretty unremarkable; there happens to be a Chevron oil refinery there. But is it the "Chevron Richmond refinery" or the "Chevron Richmond Refinery"? An on-and-off edit war over this detail roils for months. After an exasperated (if excitable) administrator goes to the length of fully protecting the page, the war spills over onto Potrero Hill, San Francisco, where it is now being "debated" whether the disambiguation tag at the top should say "For the Potrero Hills in Richmond, California, see Potrero Hills" or "For the bluffs in Richmond, California, see..." or "For the minor mountain range...". (The page has now been moved to Point Potrero for some reason, with additional disambiguation options appearing at Potrero Hill, San Francisco...)
Sega Genesis and Sega Mega Drive: Is Sega's 16-bit console the Genesis or the Mega Drive? Which one the proper name for the article when both are quite common? Genesis? But that was only ever released in North America. Mega Drive then? But far more reliable sources use Genesis. Well then, if neither one is the best, what about both? Surely something can be two things at the same time!
While the history of this console , for the most part the article managed to keep one name or the other. However, , that started to change when the article was moved, following a consensus being formed among group of editors to change the name. Most people presumed thought things were finally over, but not agreed. While the paint was still drying on the article's new dual name, yet another move , on the grounds that the Sega Genesis and Mega Drive . Of course not everyone agreed with this logic, having just made the switch and not liking the new proposal, and so another two-month long debate ensued. Some, more benign, suggestions called for the article to be given a title such as , while more extreme suggestions proposed an between Sega Genesis and Mega Drive. The debate reached the point where an unprecedented (not to be confused with ) formed to discuss the matter. Eventually, a non-binding preferential poll was performed, and it was found that "Sega Genesis" was the preferred title of . At this point a to move the article was submitted, and the obligatory on this took place for the third time in three months - seeing yet another . The original poll result held though, and the article currently sits at Sega Genesis - at least until Megatron, er Mega Drive, rises again... * Scotland
Is Scotland a Constituent country (linking to constituent country), or a Country within a country (linking to constituent country), or a Country (linking to constituent country), or Country (linking to country), or a Semi autonomous subdivision of the United Kingdom, or a Semi autonomous constituent subdivision of the United Kingdom, or a Semi autonomous subdivision of the United Kingdom, or a Home Nation, or a Nation, or a Kingdom, or a Part, or a Province, or a Region, or a combination of any of the above, or none of the above?
There have also been similar edit wars on pages about England, Northern Ireland and Wales. Following in the fine tradition of truly Lame edit wars, the conflict has spilt over into unlikely places – for example, cities twinned with Scottish cities have had flag icons the Union Flag and that of Scotland, with collateral damage seen on Colin McRae and Chris Hoy (whose page saw both the Union Flag being removed/added from nationality and switching between being British and Scottish). * St Pancras vs. St Pancras International
What name should Wikipedia give to the article about the railway station in London from which direct international passenger trains depart? Should it be primarily given the historic, shorter, simpler and everyday "St Pancras" or the (mostly) official, longer, more formal and more descriptive "St Pancras International"? Should the UK convention of calling a railway station "X railway station" be overturned in favour of "X station"? For that matter, as "St" is an abbreviation, should it have a full stop ? All rather lame as they all redirect to the article and the two most popular variations are bolded in the lead anyway. Multiple moves and a (complete with "exhibit A" and various chums) ensued. As yet unresolved. *
Should articles for U.S. state routes use the format "State Route xx" or "Route xx (State)" or something else (where xx is the route number)? There were numerous edit battles and huge debates over official terms versus common vernacular and over uniformity versus state individuality. Some advocated for the version while others preferred full string method of disambiguation. This skirmish raged on for about a full year between roadfans, members of the , regular editors, and administrators, resulting in a few probations and even . The debate was finally settled with a poll after three previous naming convention "conventions" (, , ) failed to resolve the conflict. In the end, the "State Route xx" format prevailed by a small margin. All the state route articles in the United States have been grandfathered into this format. Apparently the 's the charm! An account of the entire war and eventual peace agreement is found . * Straight Outta Lynwood
For this CD by "Weird Al" Yankovic, a dispute about whether "outta" should be capitalized spawned lengthy threads on the admin noticeboard, as well as accusations of abuse, and page protection. Arguments focus on whether "Outta" is a preposition, whether it's relevant that it's not shorter than five letters, and whether the way the title is spelled on the actual CD is more important than our manual of style. Until a naming convention change, Straight Outta Lynwood may be SOL (or SoL). * Tuatara
That odd little reptile from New Zealand, no wait, it's a , no it's a , no it's a , again, again, once more, ...an (??) The drama unfolds... but the tuatara itself just doesn't care. Oh yes I do!
Her Late Majesty : Must a queen deceased for over a century still be styled here "Her Majesty", an epithet conventionally reserved for the current monarch? This weighty dispute , filling talk pages and edit histories, has spilled over into other British monarchs, other royals and titleholders, several countries having or having had a monarchy, claimants and other royal pretensions, and even hundreds of holders of the papacy, where popes centuries dead are endorsed as “His Holiness” here, losing and regaining the endorsement with blinks of eyes. deal with the format of dates, and the used or unused, existing or non-existent surnames family names house names former fiefs (some inherited names, but very few are sure what they precisely are) of monarchs and relatively unfamiliar variants of those (as well as the ), with most edits being extremely trivial. Involved parties vouch for only aiming at accuracy, and certainly some argumentation goes deeper than believed humanly possible. This even created an . A truce, seemingly that dragged in innocent bystander Prince Michael of Kent, Scottish accents and snail slime, appears to be holding, though occasionally some is being generated.
“Local girl makes good” : Pet views on royalty again, mostly the same parties warring — but this time, aligned contrariwise. Could an American woman who made an ex-king her catch keep the title she was bestowed by the marriage … or is the “she stole our king” attitude a sufficient reason to revert her (posthumously) back to her second husband's surname, Wallis Simpson? See how contrary POVs enter : persons who had wanted “majesties” and “highnesses” used in each minor royal's articles arguing to strip an American girl of her only nobility title, and chivalrous Americans fighting to the metaphorical death in defense of a countrywoman's entitlement. An interesting point has been whether it is fatal or not that she married her Duke after his abdication, and this relates to various and sundry Austrian, Russian, and Romanian monarchies lost, as well as to her sisters-in-law and also to Fergie (no, not that Fergie).
Wii : Is this article about "Wii" or "Nintendo Wii"? If it's "Wii," should it be called just "Wii" or "the Wii"? Or maybe "Nintendo's Wii"? Does it rhyme with "We" or "Wee"? Should "Wee" link to urine? Is "Wee" slang or a euphemism for urine? Is it a British or International word for urine? Is it even worth mentioning in the article at all? (not to mention "wee" as a synonym for "small", or "diminutive") Just some of the hard-hitting issues that provoked in excess of 1500 edits in the space of two weeks – long before the console was even released, and shortly before a massive war breaks out over "non-official external links" that leads to a huge strawpoll to end the issue, and continuing debates over whether the official or unofficial names of the console (according to official Nintendo policy, the console is called the 'Wii', not 'Nintendo Wii') and its accessories (for example, the "Wii Remote" aka "Wii-mote" aka "Wiimote") are more commonly used and which ones should be mentioned in which articles.
William of Orange : Was this the name of one King of England and also of some totally obscure minor characters in the mists of history – or was it actually the name of two important and well-known Protestant Heads of State, etc? That became the object of a dispute over a redirect. This vital question divided a bunch of eminent readers of history and led to a revert war that alternated the redirect almost every hour. Casual viewers were holding their breath when coming to check what was the current position of that weathervane. As the name's usage in English-speaking cultures was perceived to be the determining factor, there were attempts to almost hand-count English-speakers in New Zealand, South Africa, etc. – all apparently using the hallowed name in a certain way. Extensive and in-depth in several talk pages and usertalk pages included claims of original primary authorship of a redirect as well as accusations of nationalistic POV, filibustering and "using all the tricks in the box." This teaches us some things about s and potential problems surrounding even such tools. A formal poll resulted in votes 9–5 in favor of renaming the disambiguation page as simply William of Orange, and most fallout is being settled.
There was an animal that was also referred to as William of Orange, but fortunately it is a pigeon, an animal that generally symbolizes peace, so the edit war and participants did not harm this unlucky pigeon (and also the fact that it's the only non-human that is called William of Orange).
U.S. Post Office : Many post offices in the United States are known as "U.S. Post Office, Podunk Branch" – unless of course that should really be "United States" and not "U.S." Which one is better? More accurate? More respectful? (Respectful?) Resolving this involved an edit war that sources ranging from the National Park Service to the U.S. United States Congress. Whoa nelly.
Involving other languages : 2006 FIFA World Cup : In Swiss Standard German, "ss" is used in place of the ligature "ß". So should the German name use "Fußball" or "Fussball"? Despite the fact that even the wasn't consistent, many editors were convinced that they knew best, and the edit war still lives on. See also Voßstraße below.
Bolzano-Bozen or Bozen-Bolzano : This city in North Italy has two official names, Bolzano and Bozen, which are used together on street signs and the like. Should the article be under Bolzano, Bozen, Bolzano-Bozen, Bolzano (Bozen), or Bozen-Bolzano? Surely one of these Italian-German German-Italian names is English usage; or should we try Botzen? Or Bolzano-Bozen-Bulsan-Bocen-Boceno-Bolzan-Bauzanum-Bocenas-Bulsaun-Bolzanu-Buzzanu? This has spread to several talk pages; highlights so far include the two separate move requests from Bozen-Bolzano to Bolzano-Bozen (or was it the other way around?).
Gdańzig : Edit wars have been occurring for most of Wikipedia's history with regards to the exact name of this Polish German Prussian Eastern Central Northern European Baltic Baltijas city. The edit war is so notorious that it is mentioned in the April Fools 2006 log. Perhaps ironically, the city hosted .
Kiev, the capital of Ukraine : Has the (mis)fortune of its Russian name being internationally much more widely known than its native Ukrainian name, Kyiv. The best efforts of the government of Ukraine to determine by legislation the name of its own capital in the English language led only to edit and revert wars in Wikipedia, as some editors refused to comply with the government's decision, insisting that the best-known version should be used, and in the end they won. Since it was unthinkable that any of the warring camps were wrong in their contentions, it must have been that was faulty.
Tsushima Basin : Is it important to know that Korea has been preparing to officially register the name "Ulleung Basin"? The ocean feature is known both under the Japanese name Tsushima basin and under the Korean name Ulleung basin. There is also lots of disagreement which name is the more commonly used name in English for a place that pretty much nobody knows. (Also see the related lame edit war for the Land making up Tsushima subprefecture below and the related edit war concerning the Liancourt Rocks above.)
University of Sydney : Does this university have a Latin name, Universitas Sidneiensis, and should it appear in the infobox? Is the evidence for the name from a primary source or a secondary source? The battle continues.
Voßstrasse : Edit war over which name to use: Voßstraße, Vossstrasse, or even Voss strasse or Voss-strasse. The lengthy, unproductive discussions involve legibility, respect of original spelling, a wide variety of silly name callings, an , a , , a short and Der Spiegel among the five absurdest Wikipedia debates. See also 2006 FIFA World Cup. * Dates * 2006 Atlantic hurricane season
Should a tropical cyclone that formed on December 30, 2005 and lasted until January 6, 2006 (Tropical Storm Zeta) be placed in the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season article? The debate eventually explores the terms of hurricane season, how long it lasts, why hurricane followers are so tied to the concept of a hurricane season, and even whether a stapler moved from one desk to another is considered to be on the other desk. It was a that spanned seven months, drew comparisons to civil unions and gay marriage, and could restart at any moment. * Jimmy Wales
Early in Wikipedia history, when dinosaurs roamed the Earth, Jimbo as well as the article talk page. Then, in 2007, he and used oversight tools to "unsign" his original edits. An edit war ensued over original research and whether Jimbo should be allowed to revoke his announcement of his own birthday, resulting in not one, but four secondary sources being tacked on to the date.
Nancy Reagan : Was she born in 1921? Or 1923? (This also came about as a result of age fabrication) After days of editing, does anyone really care THAT much?
*
Should a year appear as 2009 or 2009? Six months of edit warring goes through three requests for comment and culminates in a full arbitration case. The Arbitration Committee even finds it necessary to enact a temporary injunction. The 6-month arbitration case ends with 19 principles, 47 findings of fact, and 32 remedies. * Numbers and statistics * André the Giant
Was he 7'1"? 7'4"? 6'10"? Was his height even consistent during his entire career? Is this in reference to his actual height or the height which promoters billed him at? Did his actual height decrease in his final years due to the effects of acromegaly or due to back surgery? He was tall, just leave it at that. * Baltimore
Is the city's climate subtropical or continental? Are there a couple snowstorms a year, or several? Do some winters bring less than an inch of snow, or only a trace? How often does it get below 10°F or, for that matter, 5°F, or even 0°F? Is January's average low 29°F or 23°F? And just which weather station most accurately describes Baltimore's climate? These seemingly easily verifiable facts have been the subject of a slow-motion edit war for many months, with occasional language-parsing jockeying for position (for example, "However, winter warm fronts can bring brief periods of springlike weather, while Arctic fronts drop temperatures into the teens" vs. "However, winter warm fronts can bring periods of springlike weather, while Arctic fronts can briefly drop temperatures into the teens") continuing to this day. * Harry Chappas
Listed at 5'3", admits to being taller. Is he really 5'5"? Or 5'6"? Is an uncited claim valid for the latter? Sockpuppeting follows over a matter of one inch. * Cyclone Larry
It is widely acknowledged that Larry was a Category 5 storm on the Australian tropical cyclone scale (the one that matters with respect to Larry)... but what about the Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Scale? Was it a Category 3? Category 4? Category 5 perhaps? Soon after Larry made landfall in Queensland, Australia, edit warring broke out and the talk page became filled with personal attacks and egos. * Death Star
Is it 120km or 160km in diameter? Even 900km? How shall they word that? Is the hyperdrive class 3 or 4? Who really cares? George Lucas apparently doesn't. * Football World Cup
August 2005 edit war asking: who finished third in the 1930 FIFA World Cup? The United States? Yugoslavia? For a year before the Football World Cup 2006, and persisting after, this subject gives involved users something to pass the time. * 2010 FIFA World Cup
The infobox lists the four top scorers with five goals each: Forlán, Müller, Sneijder, Villa. Or was it Müller, Villa, Sneijder, Forlán? List in alphabetical order, or in order of FIFA's Golden Boot award where assists and playing time are tie-breakers. The fight continues more than a year after the players went home. Couldn't one of them just have scored another goal and saved us the trouble? * Rey Mysterio, Jr.
Is he 5'2"? 5'3"? 5'5"? Did he debut at 5'4" and later grow to be 5'5"? Is he actually 5'6"? Should the official WWE website be taken as accurate despite its common practice of increasing heights and weights for entertainment purposes? What about heights as they appear in video games? This edit war, which was strongly contested due to the many conflicting sources, led to the bizarre compromise of listing his height at 5'4½" with the text "We have come to a compromise between 5'2" and 5'5"." thus throwing out all sources and making a claim based on middle ground rather than accuracy... which, as of Feb 9 2008, has been supplanted by 5'6" again. * Preteen
Are they 8–12 years old? 9–12? 10–12? 8–13? Even 17 years old? Webster says something different from Oxford. American Dictionary says otherwise. And what is the deal with people typing in all caps? * Street Fighter character articles
Drawn-out revert wars over the correct heights and weights of fictional characters such as Ken Masters and Balrog are ultimately solved by leaving the statistics off entirely. Should the full names of characters be used, or the abbreviations? Let's not get into the Vega/M. Bison/Balrog naming dispute. * TNA World Heavyweight Championship
Is Kurt Angle the first champion, or is Christian Cage? When the NWA World Heavyweight Championship was withdrawn from TNA by the NWA, did TNA recognize the physical title as the TNA World Title, or did Angle win nothing when he took the belt from Cage? Is Angle in his first, or second title reign? And a discussion on various wrestling writers and webmasters and whose opinion is better than the other's there, too. * Transponder (aviation)
7500. Four simple numbers that got an add/remove/add/remove/consensus-add/remove-anyway/ADD edit war ongoing, in slow-motion and, perhaps, still ongoing on this page. What caused all the "squawk"ing? The fact that 7500 is the emergency code you put in a transponder when your aircraft has been hijacked. Although the code is public information provided by the Federal Aviation Administration and available in any student pilot's manual to be grabbed off the shelf, IP editors keep removing it from the article. Because, apparently, would-be hijackers use Wikipedia as their only source of information on aircraft, and would recognise the code when the pilot entered it, whereas it could be entered without recognition otherwise, or so the IPs claim. One even saying "Deleted reference to hijack code for secutity [sic] reasons. (Yes- I know it's available other places...)". Consensus keeps the code on the page, joined (after yet another well-meaning IP removed the code) by an admin admonishment in an editnotice.
WrestleMania III : Was the attendance of the event in question 78,000 or 93,178—or is it really 75,500? Is Dave Meltzer an unreliable source because he is personally anti-McMahon? Is McMahon an unreliable source because he is pro-McMahon? Should Meltzer be considered a reporter because he freelances for the LA Times and Sports Illustrated, or as a self-published hack who runs a tabloid? Either way, this has led to a lot of tears and an eight-month long edit war.
WrestleMania 23 : And because all wrestling feuds deserve a disappointing rematch, a nearly identical dispute erupted regarding the true attendance for this WWE event, which may or may not have set the all-time record for a particular sports arena that had existed for 4 years. The debate included insults, blocks, and an editor arguing that Dave Meltzer is not a reliable source for Dave Meltzer. Also included was the question of whether a statistic ending in 7 can be trusted. It ended with the WWE's claim being left alone for now, until the next exciting installment of Editmaaaaania!
Yao Ming: Just how tall is this famous Chinese basketball player?
Spelling: Alumin(i)um: Researchers and producers of element 13 have variously called the stuff “alumine”, “alumium”, “aluminium”, and “aluminum”. Speakers and writers of American and Canadian English spell it “aluminum” (as does the ACS). The non-American English-speaking world spells it “aluminium” (as does the IUPAC), which is where the article typically stands – with two letters ‘i’. There are occasional attempts to put the word back to aluminum. See here and for the gory historical details. As a gauge of the scale of this territorial feud, the specifically devoted to this debate is over 40,000 words of um/ium debate.
Avril Lavigne: Was her radio hit from her debut album, Let Go, spelled "I'm With You", or was it spelled "I'm with You"? Intense edit warring ensued, and continues, over this contentious matter. Many personal attacks and a request for page protection were also included.
Brazil: Editors constantly change spellings of the country name to Brasil, because this is the local name of the country. But since both pronunciations have the same sounding as z, but the correct spelling in Portuguese is s, Brazilians/Brasilians consider the z spelling an error. There have been heated debates about the spelling, saying that it is American imperialism naming Brasil with a z.
Coraline (film): Is it "jerkwad" or "jerk wad"? Made it to AN3 . * Color or Colour
Many a people(editors have made corrections to this word even though it is technically correct. Much like Honor/honour, program vs programme. Toe-may-toe, toe-MAH-toe. * Cougar and Cheetah
Should "Cougar" be capitalized? What better time to revert-war over this all-important issue than on , when it is Today's Featured Article? The war over capitalization erupts again a few months later, this time simultaneously in Cougar and Cheetah, and leads to full protection of both articles. * Danah Boyd
She writes it as danah boyd. Some say that the official style guidelines say it should be written Danah Boyd; others say they allow for exceptions for the subject's personal preferences. Are the extant references using all-lowercase sufficient and sufficiently independent to allow the style guide exemption? Or are scientific publications by her and her colleagues biased and not admissable references? Cue extensive edit (and rename) warring.. * Dovzhenko
This Soviet Ukrainian film director is an example of wars over whether the first name of Ukrainians should be Olexandr instead of Russian Aleksandr or international Alexander. * e (mathematical constant)
In addition to the debate over whether or not it is "actually" a number, the page has seen a pagemove controversy between whether the article's title begins with the letter "E" or the symbol "℮" (which resembles the letter "e") due to on article names versus a desire to avoid having to tag the article as wrongtitle: or lowercase: . * Eastern Gray Squirrel
Native species in North America where the dominant spelling is gray. Invasive species in the United Kingdom where they call it grey. Nationalistic tempers simmer for two years in slow and remorseless edit war after a content supposedly settles the issue in favor (favour) of the Americans. Dissatisfied Brits continually tiptoe back, changing a to e, without ever actually proposing a title change for the article. The British are coming! The British are coming! To arms! * Hannover 96
One "n" or two letters "n"? Filling up many talk pages and much time. * Istanbul
It was Constantinople, but is it now Istanbul or İstanbul? A few editors make nuclear war over a small speck above the I, bringing new meaning to the word iota. (Let's just hope this doesn't get the Christians and Muslims fighting all over again.)
(* plaintive* but it's a whole different letter, with a different sound...) * Orange (colour)
A cut-and-paste move to the American spelling "color". A move back, and statements that Canada, Australia, and the rest of the colour-spelling world didn't matter because the United States spelled it color. Other attempts follow, with one attempt to move it to simply Orange to end the war. Similar wars over the correct spelling of the word "colo[u]r" have happened far more times than anybody cares to
Template:User admins ignoring policy : A userbox reading "This user is pissed about admins ignoring policy" (the word "pissed" was later changed to "annoyed"). Surprisingly enough, the userbox was speedily deleted by admins... . See , , and Templates for Deletion votes. During its third DRV, support waned just enough and the userbox remains deleted.
: Should the font size for this userbox be 10pt or 14pt? 3rr violations, page protection, and vitriol spilling onto multiple talk pages ensue. Nobody is surprised. And then end result of the fight? – to make the text 12pt.
: A rather heated debate over changing the text of this user box from "This user comes from the United Kingdom." to "This user lives in the United Kingdom." This all arose from an argument over what took precedence; the text the user box said "This user comes from the United Kingdom." or the category it was grouped with Wikipedians in the United Kingdom: . It only got resolved by a and the changing of the text.
Colors (or is that colours?) : Reggie Jackson, et al.: (others include Joe Girardi Dave Winfield, and Rickey Henderson, Jeff Nelson (baseball player)) : What should the (barely noticeable, and ultimately superfluous) color be of the infobox for baseball players: the last team they were on, or the team they played the most often for? This terribly important convention was the subject of several reports at , multiple page protections, rampant sockpuppetry , , multiple 3RR blocks over several months, and several dozen reversions of a page within a few hours . As administrators were called in for assistance, everyone agreed the situation was truly, very very lame. * Other templates *
An EU flag is added to the template's header. Another editor reverts it as a Eurocrat POV. No, the tiny little flag is a statement of fact, and you're the POV pusher. No, you! Vandal! Vandal! Somehow, despite the 5-alarm urgency of this three-day edit war, Luxembourg's political system fails to fall apart or be in any way affected by the existence of an EU flag on its template. (Other small European countries are also involved.) * Jack Vance
Revert warring over the inclusion of the Wikipedia Biography Project template at the top of the talk page. Many breathless proclamations that (previously part of the Wikipedia Biography Project template) was RACIST OMG and a direct attack on author Jack Vance. * John Vanbrugh
Should be used in this article? Is it ugly or not? Are the place and date of his birth and death important enough to be highlighted in a big box? Does a box which repeats information that is already in the article offer any substantial advantage? Do the wishes of those who wrote most of this count for anything? Multi-sided edit war over these issues. *
58kb of plus a user block over how to copyedit a two line statement. *
92RR in five hours between two users. After about 10 reverts, the war settles into an edit summary-less back and forth. See .
: Two editors contribute more than over whether Spyro is a part of the Crash Bandicoot universe or not. Tempers flare in Edit Summaries, but Talkpage contributions are mysteriously left unsigned.
: Not two editors, but two ethnic groups of editors clashed on whether this stub template's icon should be a map, a flag, some other Cypriot symbol, or a combination of the three. This raged throughout a large number of Wikipedia's pages, including user talk pages, WikiProject Stub sorting, various Greece-, Turkey-, and Cyprus-related talk pages, and – of course – this template's talk page, where much of the evidence still resides.
User pages :
: Is it on the or not? SoxBot in early 2011.
Man vs machine: Patern-avoiding permutation : This epic man versus machine battle involves something widely agreed to be a problem: . Should patern-avoiding permutation and patern-avoiding permutations redirect to the correctly spelled pattern-avoiding permutation or directly to Stanley-Wilf conjecture? Pattern-avoiding permutation itself (which might some day get its own article) redirects to the latter. An administrator revert-warred with a bot called which fixes double redirects, and eventually blocked it for violation and "malfunctioning", before getting chastised by other admins. Finding the strong irony here is an exercise left up to the reader.
: A [ six-hour edit war] between and that turned a testing page into an arena. [ A suggested rematch] more than a year later was withdrawn after lack of interest from the now-inactive editor.
Deletion wars: The Gay Nigger Association of America is the most fought over article for whether it should be nuked, pipping our sister site enemy Encyclopedia Dramatica to the crown. The GNAA article was first created sometime in 2004 and finally deleted in November 2006. September 2010 saw what were hoped to be the final pushes to restore the article. A redirect to Goatse Security later took the absent article's place, and an RfD reaffirmed this redirect as the new status quo. After several more DRVs, the article was finally recreated after the 12th DRV.
Here are the glorious winners with the most debates: * 34 (41 counting deleted AfDs): Gay Nigger Association of America ( (25 counting deleted ones), 12 DRVs, , 2 MfDs on the userspace draft that was eventually restored, and an MfD on the userfied old copy of the page.)
GNAA_History: * 24: Encyclopedia Dramatica (8 AfDs, 16 DRVs) * 19: Daniel Brandt (, ... oh, and ) * 12: List of films that most frequently use the word "fuck" (, 2 DRVs, and ) * 10: Cleveland steamer (, ) * 10: Israel and the apartheid analogy aka Allegations of Israeli apartheid (, ) * 9: Uncyclopedia * 9: United States and state terrorism * 9: The Game (mind game) (6 AfDs, 3 DRVs) * 9: Al Gore III (Al Gore's son) (, , and the article was restored over the redirect three times since the last deletion in February 2008) * 9: Wikitruth (, ) * 9: List of male performers in gay porn films (7 AfDs, 2 DRVs) * 8: Angela Beesley Starling; Railpage Australia * 7: Girlfriend; Ashida Kim; Memory Alpha; Eep; * 6: Brian Peppers (and an ArbCom ruling); Nicholas Beale; Wikipedia Watch (related to the Daniel Brandt debacle); Essjay controversy; Able and Baker; Soggy biscuit; List of unusual personal names; Universism; Lightsaber combat; * 5: Scholars for 9/11 Truth; Yellowikis; Richard Tylman; Bullshido.net; GameTZ.com; LUEshi; List of bow tie wearers; Time Cube; Donkey punch; Andrew Schlafly; Xxxchurch; List of largest empires; BrokeNCYDE; Wookieepedia; Clea Rose; Anna Svidersky; Exopolitics; Roadgeek; * 4: Smosh; Man-Faye; Barbara Schwarz (and an ArbCom ruling); Magibon; Andrew Gower; List of YouTube celebrities; Roy St. Clair; Emmalina; Cyrus Farivar; Pearl necklace (sexuality); Joachim Cronman; Red Bar Radio; Feloni; Google Watch (related to the Daniel Brandt debacle); Chris Sligh; O RLY?; Sollog; Climate change denial; HHO gas; Artix Entertainment; Maravilla; GDrive; Chewbacca defense; WoWWiki; NeoGAF; Archimedes Plutonium; Generation Z; Deletionpedia; London Underground trivia; Rachel Marsden (and an ); Kancho. * Metawars
On rare occasions, edit wars have erupted where the vital subject at stake is... well, edit wars. *
An edit war regarding a page about preventing edit wars. Should editors assume their fellow Wikipedians have ? Resulted in full protection by two administrators,fact: a waste of a talk page, and a demotion from official policy to mere guideline.
*
In the course of the debate over a proposed policy banning all links to sites deemed to be "attack sites" against Wikipedians, some editors enforced the proposed policy against other editors who were, for the purposes of the debate, attempting to provide (in their opinion) legitimate examples of attack sites. Much edit warring followed, with accusations by both sides of bad faith, -making, and of ulterior motives. The conflict later resurfaced when similar language was added to the , and resulted in two (to date) arbitration cases.
*
In what is, ironically, a noticeboard for violators of a rule , an argument involving 6 reversions by a user, removing a report from the noticeboard citing that the Three Revert Rule does not apply to things such as obvious vandalism, or material in violation of some core policies such as for instance. The strangest fact of all about this incident is that the repeated reversions were done by the user who had originally introduced the 3 revert rule to Wikipedia.
Meta-lameness : Have you learned nothing from this entire page?!? Of course there have been lame edit wars about lame edit wars! Edit wars over which edit wars are allowed to be on these pages, or over how specific entries on this page should be worded (oh, the irony). See ; see also tail recursion. Examples have included "Cat" (under Wording), William of Orange, Her Late Majesty, Vic Grimes, List of virgins, e (mathematical constant), , Democratic Party (United States) and, yes, even this entry. The page as a whole has also survived at least six attempts at deletion, plus another attempt which was ultimately closed at the nominator's request.
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Wikipédia:Guerres d'édition les plus pitoyables
Humour sur Wikipédia
Humour: Navigation espace détente: Cette page propose une liste des plus pitoyables s'étant déroulées dans Wikipédia en français. Elles sont qualifiées de pitoyables car l'objet du litige est souvent jugé futile ou vain.
Les guerres d'édition ne sont pas propres à Wikipédia en français. Par exemple, la Wikipédia en anglais possède en: .
Cette page n'est pas exhaustive, mais démontre comment des contributeurs sérieux plus ou moins nombreux peuvent s'engager dans un conflit pour des raisons futiles, alors qu'un peu de retenue et un peu de détachement auraient évité une guerre qui laisse des traces dans l'historique.
Liste : * Bataille de Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier (avril - juillet 2006) * : Vous pensez qu'il est impossible d'en venir aux mains pour des faits s'étant produits il y a plus de cinq siècles ? Vous vous trompez. Sur Wikipédia, tout peut arriver. Ainsi, le 7 mars 2006, [//fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titleBataille_de_Saint-Aubin-du-Cormier&action: history vingt-deux reverts successifs ont eu lieu]. Un utilisateur anonyme refusait l'introduction du terme de "Guerre folle". Une à ce sujet avait déjà eu lieu quelques mois auparavant. * Endive/Chicon (juillet 2005) * : Quel doit être le titre correct pour l'article désignant ce légume ? En Belgique et dans le Nord de la France c'est « chicon », ailleurs « endive »… Que de sang et de larmes versées pour ce légume à l'arrière goût amer ! Beaucoup de pages de discussions, dont bien sûr . * Franz Kafka (mars 2006 - ) * :Kafka était-il tchèque, autrichien, allemand ? Après tout, la République tchèque n'existait pas encore à l'époque. * Hirohito/Shōwa (septembre 2006 - ) * : Shōwa est le nom posthume de l'empereur Hirohito. Quel nom conserver pour l'article ? Les discussions s'enchaînent sur . * Loi Fillon * :Souvenirs, souvenirs... et voilà du grand n'importe quoi. Dialogues de sourds, reverts intempestifs, bref encore un [//fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titleLoi_Fillon_%28%C3%A9ducation%29&limit: 500&actionhistory historique culte]. * Loi des pleins pouvoirs * :L' peut se répandre à d'autres articles, ben là c'est gràce à Zentrum (ou à cause) que [//fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title: Loi_des_pleins_pouvoirs&actionhistory la loi des pleins pouvoirs] n'en reste pas moins un article singulier. * Tōkyō/Tôkyô/Tokyo (avril - novembre 2005) * : Faut-il nommer l'article « Tokyo », « Tōkyō », « Tôkyô » ou même « 東京 » ? Voila une discussion que chacun a pu comprendre (ou cru pouvoir) et ne s'en est pas privé. Francophones du Japon, japonisants, fans de manga et tous ceux capables de placer le Japon sur une carte s'en sont donnés à cœur joie. a aussi largement débordé sur le bistro. Après un statu quo de six ans, la discussion reprend dans une . * Wallonie (juin 2006 - ) * : Doit-on l'appeler région wallonne ou bien Wallonie ? Selon que les locuteurs préfèrent l'allemand ou le français, cette distinction a de l'importance. La est - comment dire ? - anthologique. * Zentrum * :Il y a des articles qui brillent par leur contenu, d'autres par la pertinence de leur page de discussion. Zentrum, c'est un peu tout ca, l'[//fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title: Zentrum&actionhistory historique] a quelque chose d'artistique, une valse quoi... * Isabelle Adjani (novembre 2006) * :Son père est-il Turc ? Algérien ? Kabyle ? * Boris Eltsine ou Boris Ieltsine (avril 2007) * :Comment doit-on transcrire le russe ? Selon l'usage courant, la transcription phonétique ? La page de redirection [//fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title: Eltsine&actionhistory Eltsine] ne sait plus vers quoi pointer. En l'honneur du grand amateur de vodka, le débat se poursuit au bistro. * Réacteur pressurisé européen (2 mai 2007) * :Bon alors, il est de catégorie III ou IV, l'EPR ? Ou comment une escarmouche au cours du débat entre Ségolène Royal et Nicolas Sarkozy est suivie d'une guerre éclair sur WP : pas moins de 40 modifications en moins de 2 heures, sans compter une bagarre en page de discussion. L'article sera mis en semi-protection dans la nuit. :Conflit d'édition entre une IP et un utilisateur enregistré qui se révoquent mutuellement, tout ça pour une dispute sur une ligne de bus me semble t-il... * :Voir L'[//fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title: Mod%C3%A8le:Semitag&actionhistory historique] * Guy Môquet * :Guerre d'édition à propos de l'hommage de Nicolas Sarkozy :Faut-il écrire « Directeur de recherche au CNRS » ou « Directeur de recherche du CNRS » ? * 1 (septembre 2007) * : Quelle référence donner pour étayer l'affirmation « 1 est l'entier naturel suivant 0 et précédant 2.refnec: » ? — 16 novembre 2007 à 20:41 (CET) * (janvier à 9 février 2008) * : Quel animal choisir pour représenter les wikipédiens ayant commencés à contribuer en 2007 sur wikipédia? Le glyptodon ou l'ours des cavernes ? Au final, ce qui aurait pu être le début d'une petite coutume annuelle sympa est devenu une tragicomédie en deux actes. Quand le wikilove cède le pas au ... * ( 22 février 2008 au 28 février ) * : Drôle de guerre d'édition avec [//fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title: Wikip%C3%A9dia:Bistro_des_non-francophones&offset20080228042038&action: history plusieurs reverts] entre un bot , le maitre du robot , et un IP : (il insiste 8 fois le gars !) * Projectile utilisé au hockey sur glace (22 mars à mai 2008) * :Doit-on appeler cet objet « rondelle », terme utilisé dans la patrie du hockey sur glace, ou « palet », terme utilisé et connu par la majorité des francophones, ou encore, par compromis, « projectile » ? Le terme « puck » est-il impropre ou non selon les normes québécoises ? Si l'on croit la page de discussion et l'historique de l'article, ce sont des questions graves, justifiant un débat long et animé, alors que d'autres aspects encore absents de cette ébauche, comme l'historique ou la fabrication de l'objet, sont certainement très secondaires. Quand cette question sera résolue, il faudra encore débattre du meilleur nom de l'objet qui sert à frapper sur le projectile utilisé en hockey sur glace : Crosse ou bâton ? * (5-6 juillet 2008) * :Doit-on placer un bandeau d'avertissement sur un vote 2-3 lignes plus haut ou plus bas ? Deux admins [//fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titleDiscussion_Projet%3ACommunes_de_France%2Fchampsinfobox&diff: 31333846&oldid31333725] s'impliquent dans ce conflit d'une extrême importance avec un autre contributeur qui est bloqué, puis débloqué. Et en pratique, qu'est ce que cela change ? Pas grand chose ... comme le montre la galerie ci dessous
* Tex (humoriste) (septembre - octobre 2008) * :Attention, alors là, la question est gravissime : [//fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title: Tex_(humoriste)&diff34415430&oldid: 34395754 avec] ou [//fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?titleTex_(humoriste)&diff: 34436477&oldid34415430 sans] interlignes doubles ? 6 semaines de ping-pong entre les deux présentations, deux protections, et tout ça sans le moindre conflit sur un mot du texte. * Hégire (mai 2009) * :Dans le texte, le terme Hégire doit-il prendre ou pas un H majuscule [//fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title: H%C3%A9gire&diff41390708&oldid: 41389760 batailles d'arguments] à l'appui, deux contributeurs n'arrivent pas à se mettre d'accord... * Boîte de conserve ou Boite de conserve ? * :Oui, on s'engueule pour un accent circonflexe. 4 renommages d'article suivis d'annulations, on ne compte plus les conflits dans le texte. * Écran bleu de la mort (mai 2010) * :Faut il appeler un patch un patch ou une rustine ? [//fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title%C3%89cran_bleu_de_la_mort&diff: prev&oldid=53278192 Une guerre d'édition] faite des révocations incessantes entre un administrateur et plusieurs IP. * Arielle Dombasle (octobre 2005 - pas fini en 2011) * :Arielle Dombasle est-elle née en 1958 comme ses fans le prétendent ou en 1953, comme le montre un extrait d'acte de naissance publié en page de discussion. Les débats ont fait rage pendant 5 ans et en conclusion on a laissé 1958 pour faire plaisir aux fans en précisant que ce pouvait être une autre date ... du coup, de nouveaux contributeurs n'ayant pas suivi tous ces débats interviennent de temps en temps !
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القوانين الأساسية لإسرائيل
حكومة إسرائيل | سياسة إسرائيل
سياسة إسرائيل: القوانين الأساسية لإسرائيل (بالعبرية :חוקי יסוד) هي عنصر أساسي في القانون الدستوري لإسرائيل. هذه القوانين تتعامل مع تشكيل ودور مؤسسات الدولة الرئيسية، والعلاقات بين السلطات في الدولة. البعض منها أيضًا لحماية الحقوق المدنية. في حين كان من المفترض أصلا أن تكون هذه القوانين فصول مسودة للدستور الإسرائيلي في المستقبل ، إلا أنه تم بالفعل استخدامها على أساس يومي من قبل المحاكم كدستور رسمي. إسرائيل تعمل حاليًا وفقًا لدستور غير مدون يتألف من كلاً من مواد القانون الدستوري المبنية على القضايا والسوابق ، وأحكام هذه اللوائح الرسمية. أما اليوم فالقوانين الأساسية لا تغطي جميع القضايا الدستورية، وليس هناك من موعد نهائي محدد لإتمام عملية دمج هذه القوانين الأساسية في دستور واحد شامل. ولا توجد قاعدة واضحة لتحديد أسبقية القواعد الأساسية على التشريعات العادية ، وفي حالات كثيرة يتم ترك تفسير هذه المسألة للنظام القضائي.
بذرة:
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Basic Laws of Israel
Basic Laws of Israel | Government of Israel | Politics of Israel
Politics of Israel: The Basic Laws of Israel (חוקי היסוד: , ḥŭḳḳēi ha-yyǝsōd) are a key component of Israel's constitutional law. These laws deal with the formation and role of the principal state's institutions, and the relations between the state's authorities. Some of them also protect civil rights. While these laws were originally meant to be draft chapters of a future Israeli constitution, they are already used on a daily basis by the courts as a formal constitution. Israel currently functions according to an uncodified constitution consisting of both material constitutional law, based upon cases and precedents, and the provisions of these formal statutes. As of today, the Basic Laws do not cover all constitutional issues, and there is no deadline set to the completion of the process of merging them into one comprehensive constitution. There is no clear rule determining the precedence of Basic Rules over regular legislation, and in many cases this issue is left to the interpretation of the judicial system.
Background: The State of Israel was supposed to adopt a formal written constitution a few months after its declaration of independence on 14 May 1948. The declaration itself states that a constitution should be formulated and adopted no later than 1 October 1948. Adoption of a democratic constitution was also a demand of the General Assembly Resolution 181, which proposed the establishment of a "Jewish state". The State of Israel failed to adopt a formal constitution. While the deadline stated in the declaration of independence proved unrealistic in light of the war which went on between the new state and its neighboring countries, general elections were arranged on 25 January 1949, in order to elect the Constituent Assembly which would approve the new state's constitution. The Constituent Assembly convened on February 1949. It held several discussions about the constitution which soon reached a dead end.
Several arguments were proposed against the adoption of a formal constitution. The Religious Jews at the time opposed the idea of their nation having a document which the government would regard as nominally "higher" in authority than religious texts such as the Tanakh, Talmud, and Shulkhan Arukh. Therefore, after only four meetings, the Constituent Assembly adopted on 16 February 1949 the Transition Law, by means of which it became the "First Knesset" . The Knesset is, therefore, a Sovereign Parliament, like the Parliament of the United Kingdom, that is not bound by a formal Constitution. Because the Constituent Assembly did not prepare a Constitution for Israel, the Knesset is the heir of the Assembly for the purpose of fulfilling this function .
The Harari Decision: In 1950, the first Knesset came to what was called the Harari Decision. Rather than draft a full constitution immediately, they would postpone the work, charging the Knesset's Constitution, Law, and Justice Committee with drafting the document piecemeal. Each chapter would be called a Basic Law, and when all had been written they would be compiled into a complete constitution.
In 1998, Aharon Barak, Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of Israel declared a "constitutional revolution" and attached constitutional ascendancy to the Basic Laws of Israel. The basic laws are various pieces of legislation from the Knesset that outline the nation's political structure.
Between 1958 and 1988 the Knesset passed nine Basic Laws, all of which pertained to the institutions of state. In 1992, it passed the first two Basic Laws which related to rights and basis of the Supreme Court's recently declared powers of judicial review. These are , and . These were passed by votes of 32–21 and 23–0, respectively.
List of the Basic Laws of Israel:
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Lois fondamentales d'Israël
Droit en Israël | Politique d'Israël | Constitution par pays
politiqueIsraël: Les lois fondamentales d’Israël sont des textes à caractère constitutionnel adoptés par la Knesset comme chapitres d’une future constitution de l’État d’Israël.
Histoire : L'État d’Israël n’a pas de constitution formelle. Bien que la déclaration d’indépendance du 14 mai 1948 annonce « une Constitution qui devra être adoptée par une Assemblée constituante d’ici le 1er: octobre 1948 », les dissensions entre religieux et les laïcs empêchèrent la rédaction d’un texte constitutionnel unique. Le Premier ministre David Ben Gourion engagea l’Assemblée à ne pas achever ses travaux constitutionnels avant le retour des Juifs du monde entier dans leur patrie. Selon certains historiensRéférence nécessaire: , il souhaitait également repousser l’introduction de pouvoirs susceptibles de s’opposer aux siens.
Une partie des Juifs religieux rejetait l’idée d’un document qui aurait pour l’État une autorité supérieure aux textes religieux comme la Torah, le Tanakh ou le Choulhan Aroukh. Au début des années 1990, le chef du Shass, Aryé Déri, déclarait encore que si les Dix Commandements lui étaient présentés comme un projet de constitution, il refuserait de les signer.
Le 13 juin 1950, la première Knesset trouva un compromis avec la résolution Harari : plutôt que de rédiger immédiatement une constitution complète, elle chargea son comité de la constitution, des lois et de la justice d’adopter le document chapitre par chapitre. Chacun entrerait en vigueur avec le caractère de loi fondamentale, et ils seraient assemblés en une constitution après l’adoption du dernier.
De 1958 à 1988, neuf lois fondamentales furent adoptées qui disposaient de l’organisation des institutions politiques. En 1992, la Knesset adopta les deux premières relatives aux droits fondamentaux, ce qui permit par la suite à la Cour suprême d’Israël de se déclarer compétente en matière de contrôle de constitutionnalité.
Le comité de la constitution, des lois et de la justice de la Knesset s’est récemment remis à sa tâche de rédaction d’une constitution complète. Il a présenté une série de propositions le 13 février 2006, qui pourraient permettre de mettre fin au système des lois fondamentales et de finir d’appliquer la résolution Harari. Les chefs des trois principaux partis politiques – Ehud Olmert pour Kadima, Amir Peretz pour le Parti travailliste et Benyamin Netanyahou pour le Likoud – ont accepté ce travail et ont déclaré que la 17e: Knesset devrait examiner le projet d’un texte complet en séance plénière.
Liste des lois fondamentales : Le nom des textes en vigueur est indiqué en gras. * 1958 : La Knesset * 1960 : Les terres d’Israël * 1964 : Le président de l’État * 1968 : Le Gouvernement * 1975 : L’économie nationale * 1976 : Les Forces de défense d'Israël * 1980 : Jérusalem, capitale d’Israël * 1984 : Le pouvoir judiciaire * 1988 : Le contrôleur de l’État * 1992 : Dignité humaine et liberté * 1992 : Le Gouvernement * 1992 : Liberté professionnelle * 1994 : Liberté professionnelle * 2001 : Le Gouvernement
Critique : Le système issu de la résolution Harari est critiqué au motif que les lois ont été adoptées par un comité ne regroupant qu’une petite partie de la Knesset, n’ont pas fait l’objet d’un débat national et n’ont pas été légitimées par un référendum ou une autre procédure démocratique. De plus, ces lois peuvent être amendées à la majorité absolue, alors que la pratique normale dans les démocraties est une majorité qualifiée ou un référendum. Ce mode d’adoption et d'amendement permettrait de remettre en cause leur caractère constitutionnel.
D’autres considèrent que le simple fait qu'elles aient été adoptées par la Knesset agissant en qualité d'Assemblée constituante leur donne leur caractère constitutionnel et supérieur aux autres lois.
Notes et références : *
Références:
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الجماعة الإسلامية في مصر
جماعات إسلامية | منظمات تصنف كإرهابية | منظمات إسلامية | سياسة مصر
الجماعة الإسلامية جماعة إسلامية دعوية مسلحة.تعمل للدين من خلال الدعوة إلى الله والأمر بالمعروف والنهي عن المنكر والجهاد في سبيل الله
نشأت في تلك المنظمة في مصر بأوائل السبعينيات من القرن العشرين تدعو إلى "الجهاد" لإقامة "الدولة الإسلامية" كما تراها، وإعادة "الإسلام إلى المسلمين"، ثم الانطلاق لإعادة "الخلافة الإسلامية من جديد". واستخدمت الجماعة القتال في مصر ضد رموز السلطة وقوات الأمن المصري طوال فترة الثمانينيات وفترات متقطعة من التسعينيات، لكن بعد ضربات أمنية متلاحقة من قبل الأمن المصري والذي شمل اعتقال معظم أعضائها وضرب قواعدها، فان الجماعة حاليا ليست ذات أي وجود يذكر، ومؤخرا صدر تقرير لمجلة فورين بوليسي الأمريكية وضع مصر في المرتبة الثالثة علي قائمة الدول الأشد مكافحة للإرهاب و"الأكثر خطرا علي الإرهابيين".
التأسيس : نشأت الجماعة الإسلامية في الجامعات المصرية في أوائل السبعينات من القرن الماضي على شكل جمعيات دينية، لتقوم ببعض الأنشطة الثقافية والاجتماعية البسيطة في محيط الطلاب ونمت هذه الجماعة الدينية داخل الكليات الجامعية، واتسعت قاعدتها، فاجتمع بعض من القائمين على هذا النشاط واتخذوا اسم: "الجماعة الإسلامية" ووضعوا لها بناءً تنظيميًّا يبدأ من داخل كل كلية حقيقة: من حيث وجود مجلس للشورى على رأسه "أمير" وينتهي ب"مجلس شورى الجامعات" وعلى رأسه "الأمير العام" أو "أمير أمراء الجماعة الإسلامية"
وكان للجماعة العديد من المواقف السياسية برزت في موقفها من معاهدة كامب ديفيد وزيارة الشاه وبعض وزراء إسرائيل لمصر فأقامت المؤتمرات والمسيرات ووزعت المنشورات خارج أسوار الجامعة للتنديد بذلك والمطالبة بتطبيق الشريعة الإسلامية مما أدى إلى تدخل الحكومة في سياسات الاتحادات الطلابية، فأصدرت لائحة جديدة لاتحادات الطلاب تعرف بلائحة 1979م التي قيدت الحركة الطلابية. وازداد الضغط الإعلامي والأمني على قيادات الجماعة واشتدت مطاردتهم في جامعات الصعيد بوجه خاص، حيث تم اعتقال بعض قيادتهم وفصلهم من الجامعة كما تم اغتيال البعض على أيد الشرطه.
من أبرز أعضائها : * ناجح إبراهيم مؤسس الجماعة * عمر عبد الرحمن أمير الجماعة السابق * كرم زهدي عضو مجلس شورى الجماعة * خالد الإسلامبولي * عبود الزمر * على الشريف * أسامة حافظ * حمدى عبدالرحمن * عاصم عبد الماجد * عصام دربالة [ أمير الجماعـة حاليا ] * فؤاد الدواليبى * طلعت فؤاد * محمد جمال * محمد عشاوي * محمد أنور * عبدالرحمن أنور
أعمال الجماعة : * في 6 أكتوبر 1981 وهو يوم وطني في مصر، اغتالت الجماعة الرئيس المصري أنور السادات حيث قام الجناح العسكري للجماعة بقيادة الملازم أول خالد الإسلامبولي وبصحبة زملائه عبد الحميد عبد السلام الضابط السابق بالجيش المصري والرقيب متطوع القناص حسين عباس محمد والذي أطلق الرصاصة الأولى القاتلة والملازم أول احتياط عطا طايل حميده رحيل بقتل الرئيس أنور السادات أثناء احتفالات مصر بانتصارات أكتوبر في مدينة نصر بالقاهرة، وقد نسب للجماعة الإعداد لخطة تستهدف إثارة القلاقل والاضطرابات وللاستيلاء على مبنى الإذاعة والتليفزيون في ماسبيرو بالقاهرة والمنشآت الحيوية بمناطق مصرية مختلفة. وفي تلك الأثناء، وخلال هذه الأحداث قبض عليهم جميعاً، وقدموا للمحاكمة التي حكمت عليهم بالإعدام رمياً بالرصاص كما تم تنفيذ الحكم في زميلهم محمد عبد السلام فرج صاحب كتاب الفريضة الغائبة بالإعدام شنقاً. * في 8 أكتوبر 1981م قام بعض أفراد الجناح العسكري للجماعة الإسلامية بمهاجمة مديرية أمن أسيوط ومراكز الشرطة واحتلال المدينة ودارت بينهم وبين قوات الأمن المصرية معركة حامية قتل فيها العديد من كبار رجال الشرطة والقوات الخاصة حقيقة: وانتهت بالقبض عليهم وعلى رأسهم ناجح إبراهيم وكرم زهدي وعصام دربالة، والحكم عليهم فيما عرف في وقتها بقضية تنظيم الجهاد بالأشغال الشاقة المؤبدة لمدة 25 عاماً. * كان للجماعة دورها في حرب أفغانستان حيث قتل عدد من أعضائها، من أبرزهم علي عبد الفتاح أمير الجماعة بالمنيا سابقاً، ومن هناك أصدرت الجماعة مجلة المرابطون، وأقامت قواعد عسكرية لها. * ينسب إلى الجماعة محاولات إرهابية لاغتيال بعض الوزراء ومسؤولي الحكومة والشرطة ومن أبرزهم رفعت المحجوب رئيس مجلس الشعب المصري وهناك أقوال أن قتلة تصفية حسابات كما ورد بمرافعة دمندور المحامي بمرافعته والكاتب فرج فودة حقيقة: . * قامت في 17 نوفمبر 1997 بقتل 58 في خلال 45 دقيقة شخصا معظمهم سياح سويسريون بالدير البحري بالأقصر بمصر فيما عرفت لاحقا باسم مذبحة الأقصر أو مذبحة الدير البحري.
و فيها هاجم ستة رجال مسلحين بأسلحة نارية وسكاكين حيث كانو متنكرين في زي رجال أمن مجموعة من السياح كانوا في معبد حتشبسوت بالدير البحري * قامت بمحاولة لاغتيال الرئيس المصري حسني مبارك في أديس أبابا عام 1995 وقتل جميع أفرادها آنذاك من قبل الحرس الرئاسي المرافق. * في عام 1997 أعلن قادة الجماعة من داخل محبسهم "مبادرة لوقف العنف" وقد حظيت هذه المبادرة برفض من جانب بعض رموز الجماعة في الخارج الجماعة ومن أشهر من أنتقد ذلك من القيادات محمد الحكايمة.حقيقة: * في أغسطس 2006 أعلن أيمن الظواهري انضمام عدد من قيادات الجماعة لتنظيم القاعدة.
المصادر : ثبت المراجع: في 24 أبريل نيسان 2006 وقعت سلسلة انفجارات بمنتجع دهب على ساحل البحر الأحمر وقد أسفر ذلك عن مقتل 23 شخصا وإصابة عشرات آخرين. ووقعت الانفجارت في وسط المدية في مطعمي "نيلسون" و"علاء الدين" وفي متجر غزالة. • في 23 يوليو تموز 2005، قتل 60 شخصا على الاقل في سلسلة انفجارات استهدفت منتجع شرم الشيخ على ساحل البحر الأحمر. وبدأت الانفجارات في منطقة خليج نعمة، ونجمت عن ثلاث سيارات مفخخة على الأقل، حيث استهدف الأول فندق غزالة جاردنز مما أدى لتدمير الفندق بالكامل، واستهدف الثاني منطقة السوق القديم. • وفي 30 ابريل نيسان 2005، قتل شخص واحد وجرح ثمانية آخرين في انفجار قرب المتحف المصري بالقاهرة. وكانت الشرطة قد أطلقت النار وقتلت امرأة وجرحت أخرى بعدما أطلقتا النار على حافلة للسياح. • أما في 7 ابريل نيسان 2005 فقد وقع انفجار في قلب المدينة القديمة بالقاهرة ما أودى بحياة فرنسيين وأمريكي بالإضافة إلى منفذ الهجوم. • وفي 7 أكتوبر تشرين الأول 2004، لقي 34 شخصا من بينهم سياح إسرائيليون حتفهم وجرح 10 آخرون في ثلاثة انفجارات استهدفت فندق هيلتون طابا ومنتجعين سياحيين آخرين في سيناء. • في 17 نوفمبر تشرين الثاني 1997، قتل 62 شخصا بما فيهم 58 سائحا في الأقصر، وتبنت الهجوم "الجماعة الإسلامية". • وفي 18 سبتمبر أيلول 1997، قتل تسعة مصطافين ألمان وسائقهم المصري بعد أن تم تفجير حافلتهم خارج المتحف المصري وسط القاهرة. • أما في 18 ابريل 1996 فقد قتل 18 سائحا يونانيا وأصيب 14 بجروح في هجوم على واجهة فندق أوروبا قرب أهرام الجيزة. وتبنت الهجوم "الجماعة الإسلامية" قائلة إنها استهدفت سياحا إسرائيليين. • وفي 23 أكتوبر 1994 تبنت الجماعة الإسلامية هجومين في جنوب مصر، ما أسفر عن مقتل بريطاني وجرح خمسة أشخاص آخرين. • في 27 سبتمبر 1994 قتل ألمانيان ومصريان في منتجع بالبحر الأحمر. وقد اعدم عضوان من الجماعة الإسلامية بتهمة تنفيذ الجريمة في 1995. • أما في 26 أغسطس آب 1994 قام متطرفون إسلاميون بإطلاق النار على حافلة سياحية في بين الأقصر وسوهاج ما أسفر عن مقتل شاب أسباني. • وفي 4 مارس آذار 1994 تبنت الجماعة الإسلامية هجوما على عبارة سياحية على النيل في جنوب مصر. وقد أسفر الهجوم عن جرح سائح ألماني لفظ أنفاسه الأخيرة فيما بعد. • وفي 26 أكتوبر 1993 قتل أمريكيان وفرنسي وإيطالي، وجرح سائحان آخران في هجوم شنه رجل على فندق سميراميس بالقاهرة. وقالت الشرطة إن المنفذ مختل عقليا. وقد تم اعتقال المهاجم وإيداعه مستشفى للأمراض العقلية، لكنه هرب لاحقا وفجر حافلة قرب المتحف المصري بالقاهرة. • في 8 يونيو حزيران 1993 تم إلقاء قنبلة على حافلة سياحية قرب الأهرام ما أسفر عن مقتل مصريين وجرح 15 سائحا، من بينهم سائحان بريطانيان. • وفي 26 فبراير شباط 1993 قتل سائح تركي وآخر سويدي، وشخص ثالث مصري في انفجار قنبلة بمقهى في قلب القاهرة. وقد جرح 19 شخصا آخرين بما في ذلك 6 سياح. • أما في 21 أكتوبر 1992 فقد قتل سائح بريطاني قرب ديروط الجنوبية. وأعلنت الجماعة الإسلامية مسؤوليتها.
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Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya
European Union designated terrorist organizations | Islamic organizations | Islamic terrorism | Islamism in Egypt | Jihadist organizations | Organizations designated as terrorist by the United States government | United Kingdom Home Office designated terrorist groups | Government of Canada designated terrorist organizations
lowercase: :For the Southeast Asian organization of the same name, see Jemaah Islamiyah.
Islamism sidebar: Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya (الجماعة الإسلامية: ; al-jamāʻaħ al-ʼislāmiyyaħ) (Arabic for "the Islamic Group"; also transliterated El Gama'a El Islamiyya. Also called "Islamic Groups" and transliterated Gamaat Islamiya, al Jamaat al Islamiya) is an Egyptian Islamist movement, and is considered a terrorist organization by the United States, European Union and Egyptian governments. The group is (or was) dedicated to the overthrow of the Egyptian government and replacing it with an Islamic state.
The group(s) is said to have constituted "the Islamicist movement's only genuine mass organizations" in Egypt. The group is reported to be responsible for the killing of hundreds of Egyptian policemen and soldiers, civilians, and dozens of tourists in a violent campaign in the 1990s. While the assassination of the Egyptian president Anwar Sadat in 1981 is generally thought to have been carried out by another Islamist group, Egyptian Islamic Jihad, some have suggested al-Gamaa was responsible for or at least related to the assassination. In 2003 the imprisoned leadership of the group renounced bloodshed, and a series of high-ranking members have since been released by Egyptian authorities, and the group has been allowed to resume semi-legal peaceful activities. The now imprisoned cleric Omar Abdel-Rahman was a spiritual leader of the movement. * History * Origins in universities
Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya began as an umbrella organization for Egyptian militant student groups, formed, like the Egyptian Islamic Jihad, after the leadership of the Muslim Brotherhood renounced violence in the 1970s.
In its early days, the group was primarily active on university campuses, and was mainly composed of university students. Originally they were a minority in the Egyptian student movement which was dominated by leftist Nasserists and Marxists. The leftists were strongly critical of the new Sadat government, and urged Egypt to fight a war of revenge against Israel, while President Sadat wanted to wait and rebuild the military. However, with some "discrete, tactical collaboration" with the government, who sought a "useful counterweight" to its leftist opponents, the group(s) began to grow in influence in 1973.
The Gama'at spread quite rapidly on campuses and won up to one-third of all student union elections. These victories provided a platform from which the associations campaigned for Islamic dress, the veiling of women, and the segregation of classes by gender. Secular university administrators opposed these goals.
By march 1976 they were "dominant force" in the student movement and by 1977 "they were in complete control of the universities and had driven the left organizations underground."
Expansion: Having once been favored by the Egyptian government of Anwar Sadat they now threatened it, passionately opposing what they believed was a "shameful peace with the Jews," aka the Camp David Accords with Israel. By 1979 they began to be harassed by the government but their numbers grew steadily. In 1979 Sadat sought to diminish the influence of the associations through a law that transferred most of the authority of the student unions to professors and administrators. During the 1980s, however, Islamists gradually penetrated college faculties. At Asyut University, which was the scene of some of the most intense clashes between Islamists and their opponents (including security forces, secularists, and Copts), the president and other top administrators — who were Islamists — supported Gama'at demands to end mixed-sex classes and to reduce total female enrollment. In other universities Gama'at also forbade the mixing of genders, films, concerts, and dances, and enforced their bans with clubs and iron bars. From the universities the groups reached out to make new recruits, preaching in poor neighbourhoods of cities, and to rural areas. and after a crackdown against them, inmates of Egyptian jails.dateAugust 2011: In April 1981 the group became involved in what was probably started as a clan feud/vendetta about livestock or property lines between Coptic and Muslim Egyptians in the vicinity of Minya, Egypt. The group believed in the position of tributary or dhimmi for Christians in Egypt and opposed any signs of Coptic "arrogance" (istikbar), such as Christian cultural identity and opposition to an Islamic state. The group distributed a leaflet accusing Egypt's one Christian provincial governor (appointed by the government) of providing automatic weapons to Christians to attack Muslims, and the Sadat administration of following orders given by the United States.
Crackdown: In June 1981, a brutal sectarian Muslim-Copt fight broke out in the poor al-Zawaiyya Al Hamra district of Cairo. "Men and women were slaughtered; babies thrown from windows, their bodies crushed on the pavement below; there was looting, killing and arson." Islamic Group(s) were accused of participating in the incident and in September 1981, one month before the assassination of Sadat, the Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya were dissolved by the state (although they had never been legally registered in the first place), their infrastructure was destroyed and their leaders arrested."
Assassination of president Anwar Sadat in 1981 : Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya may have been indirectly involved in the assassination of president Anwar Sadat in 1981. Karam Zuhdi, group leader of Al-Jamaa Islamiya, expressed regret for conspiring with Egyptian Islamic Jihad in the 1981 assassination of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat, according to the Council on Foreign Relations. He was among the 900 militants who were set free in April 2006 by the Egyptian government. * Omar Abdel-Rahman
The cleric Omar Abdel-Rahman is the spiritual leader of the movement. He was accused of participating in the World Trade Center 1993 bombings conspiracy, and was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment for his espousal of a subsequent conspiracy to bomb New York City landmarks, including the United Nations and FBI offices. The Islamic Group has publicly threatened to retaliate against the United States unless Rahman is released from prison. However, the group later renounced violence and their leaders and members were released from prison in Egypt.date: September 2011: 1990s terrorism campaign : While the Islamic group had originally been an amorphous movement of local groups centered in mosques without offices or membership roll, by the late 1980s it became more organized and "even adopted an official logo: an upright sword standing on an open Qur'an with an orange sun rising in the background," encircled by the Qur'anic verse that Abdel Rahman had quoted at his trials while trying to explain jihad to the judges:
وَقَاتِلُوهُمْ حَتَّى لاَ تَكُونَ فِتْنَةٌ وَيَكُونَ الدِّينُ لِلّهِ فَإِنِ انتَهَواْ فَلاَ عُدْوَانَ إِلاَّ عَلَى الظَّالِمِينَ
Fight them on until there is no more Tumult, and there prevail justice and faith in Allah; but if they cease, Let there be no hostility except to those who practise oppression.
This became the official motto of the group.
The 1990s saw Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya engage in an extended campaign of violence, from the murders and attempted murders of prominent writers and intellectuals, to the repeated targeting of tourists and foreigners. Serious damage was done to the largest sector of Egypt's economy -- tourism -- and in turn to the government, but it also devastated the livelihoods of many of the people on whom the group depends for support.
Victims of campaign against the Egyptian state from 1992-1997 totaled more than 1200 and included the head of the counter-terrorism police (Major General Raouf Khayrat), a speaker of parliament (Rifaat al-Mahgoub), dozens of European tourists and Egyptian bystanders, and over 100 Egyptian police.
The 1991 killing of the group's leader, Ala Mohieddin, presumably by security forces, led Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya to murder Egypt's speaker of parliament in retaliation. In June 1995, working together with Egyptian Islamic Jihad, the group staged a carefully planned attempt on the life of president Mubarak, led by Mustafa Hamza, a senior Egyptian member of the Al-Qaeda and commander of the military branch of the Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya. Mubarak escaped unharmed and retaliated with a massive and ruthless crackdown on GI members and their families in Egypt.
Taalat Fouad Qassem was arrested in Croatia in 1995. * Nonviolence Initiative
By 1997 the movement had become paralyzed. 20,000 Islamists were in custody in Egypt and thousands more had been cut down by the security forces. In July of that year, Islamist lawyer Montassir al-Zayyat brokered a deal between the Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya and the Egyptian government, called the Nonviolence Initiative, whereby the movement formally renounced violence. The next year the government released 2,000 members of the Islamic Group. After the initiative was declared Sheikh Omar Abdul Rahman also gave his approval from his prison cell in the United States, though he later withdrew it.
The initiative divided the Islamic Group between members in Egypt who supported it and those in exile who wanted the attacks to continue. Leading the opposition was EIJ leader Ayman Zawahiri who termed it "surrender" in angry letters to the London newspaper Al-Sharq al-Awsat. * Temple of Hatshepsut attack
November 1997 Luxor massacre: Zawahiri enlisted Mustafa Hamza, the new emir of Islamic Groups and its military leader, Rifai Ahmed Taha, both exiles in Afghanistan with him, to sabotage the initiative with a massive terrorism attack that would provoke the government into repression. So on November 17, 1997 Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya killing campaign climaxed with the attack at the Temple of Hatshepsut (Deir el-Bahri) in Luxor, in which a band of six men dressed in police uniforms machine-gunned and hacked to death with knives 58 foreign tourists and four Egyptians. "The killing went on for 45 minutes, until the floors streamed with blood. The dead included a five-year-old British child and four Japanese couples on their honeymoons." Altogether 71 people were killed. The attack stunned Egyptian society, devastated the tourist industry for a number of years, and consequently sapped a large segment of popular support for violent Islamism in Egypt.
The revulsion of Egyptians and rejection of jihadi terrorism was so complete, the attack's supporters backpedaled. The day after the attack, Rifai Taha claimed the attackers intended only to take the tourists hostage, despite the evidence of the systematic nature of the slaughter. Others denied Islamist involvement completely. Sheikh Omar Abdel-Rahman blamed Israelis for the killings, and Zawahiri maintaining the Egyptian police had done it.
When Rifai Taha signed the al-Qaeda fatwa "International Islamic Front for Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders" to kill Crusaders and Jews on behalf of the Islamic Group, he was "forced to withdraw his name" from the fatwa, lamely explaining to fellow members ... than he had "only been asked over the telephone to join in a statement of support for the Iraqi people." * Attacks
Major attacks by Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya: * 8 June 1992 – assassination of Farag Foda. * 26 June 1995 – attempt to assassinate Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. * 20 October 1995 – Car bomb attack on police station in Rijeka, Croatia * 28 April 1996 – Europa Hotel shooting, Cairo. killing of 18 Greek tourists mistaken for Jews. * 17 November 1997 – Luxor massacre at Deir el-Bahri, Luxor, Egypt. 58 foreign tourists and four Egyptians killed.
It was also responsible for a spate of tourist shootings (trains and cruise ships sprayed with bullets) in middle and upper Egypt during the early 1990s. As a result of those attacks, cruise ships ceased sailing between Cairo and Luxor. * Renouncing terror
After spending more than two decades in prison and after intense debates and discussions with Al-Azhar scholars, most of the leaders of Al-Gama'a Al-Islamiyya have written several books renouncing their ideology of violence and some of them went as far as calling ex-Egyptian president Sadat, whom they assassinated, a martyr.
Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya renounced bloodshed in 2003, and in September 2003 Egypt freed more than 1,000 members, citing what Interior Minister Habib el-Adli called the group's stated "commitment to rejecting violence."
Harsh repressive measures by the Egyptian government and the unpopularity of the killing of foreign tourists have reduced the group's profile in recent years but the movement retains popular support among Egyptian Islamists who disapprove of the secular nature of Egypt's society and peace treaty with Israel.
In April 2006 the Egyptian government released approximately 1200 members, including a founder, Najeh Ibrahim, from prison.
Reportedly, there have been "only two instances where members showed signs of returning to their former violent ways, and in both cases they were betrayed by informers in their own group."
2011 Revolution: Following the 2011 Revolution, Al-Gamaa Al-Islamiya is working to establish a political party, the Building and Development Party. In August 2011, it presented 6,700 proxies (signatures) to the Egyptian political parties' committee on behalf of its party. In a statement the Gamaa said that any legislation drafted in Egypt after the revolution must refer to the sharia of God, “who blessed us with this revolution. We believe that the suffering we endured during the past years was due to neglecting religion and putting those who don't fear [God] in power.” It also stated that "Islam can contain everyone and respects the freedom of followers of other religions to refer to their own sharia in private affairs."
Beliefs: One scholar studying the group (Gilles Kepel) found a the group repeatedly used the name of radical Islamist theorist Sayyid Qutb, and often quoted from his manifesto, Ma'alim fi al-Tariq (Milestones), in their leaflets and newsletters. They emphasized the right to legislate belongs to God alone; and that divine unity (tawhid) in Islam signifies liberation (tahrir) from all that is corrupt in thought -- including the liberation of all that is inherited or conventional, like customs and traditions.
There was a scant supply of any writing by the groups members, but some issues leading writer(s) of the gama'at thought worth mentioning included: * Youth must be taught that Islam was nizam kamil wa shamil (a complete and perfect system) and must regulate government and war, the judicial system and the economy. * Egypt's disastrous 1967 War was the result of following Arab nationalism rather than Islam. * Signs of the growth of an Islamic movement were the wearing of the veil by women and the white gallabieh and untrimmed beard by men, early marriage, and attendance at public prayers on the major Muslim festivals, Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-adha.
While secularist social analyses of Egypt's socioeconomic problems maintained that poverty was caused by overpopulation or high defense expenditures, Al-Gama'at saw the cause in the populace's spiritual failures -- laxness, secularism, and corruption. The solution was a return to the simplicity, hard work, and self-reliance of earlier Muslim life. * Members allegedly allying with al-Qaeda
Deputy leader of al-Qaeda Ayman al-Zawahiri announced a new alliance with a faction of Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya. In a video released on the internet on 5 August 2006. Zawahiri said "We bring good tidings to the Muslim nation about a big faction of the knights of Al-Gama'a Islamiyya uniting with Al-Qaeda," and the move aimed to help "rally the Muslim nation's capabilities in a unified rank in the face of the most severe crusader campaign against Islam in its history." An Al-Gama'a leader, Muhammad al-Hukaymah, appeared in the video and confirmed the unity move. However, Hukaymah acknowledged that other Al-Gama'a members had "backslid" from the militant course he was keeping to, and some Al-Gama'a representatives also denied that they were joining forces with the international Al-Qaeda network. Sheikh Abdel Akhar Hammad, a former Al-Gama'a leader, told Al-Jazeera: "If [some] brothers have joined, then this is their own personal view and I don't think that most Al-Gama'a members share that same opinion".
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Gamaa al-Islamiya (Égypte)
Faction armée islamiste | Parti politique égyptien | Organisation considérée comme terroriste par l'Union européenne | Foreign Terrorist Organization | Organisation considérée comme terroriste par le gouvernement du Canada | Organisation considérée comme terroriste par le Home Office | Specially Designated Global Terrorist
Jemaah Islamiyah:
Les Gamaa al-Islamiya (الجماعة الإسلامية: ; al-jamāʕaħ al-'islāmiyyaħ ; Groupes islamiques) sont un groupe armé islamiste égyptien, dirigé par le cheikh Omar Abdel Rahman.
L'organisation est placée sur la liste officielle des organisations terroristes du Canada, des États-Unis d'Amérique, de l'Union européenne et du Royaume-Uni.
Désignant dans les années 1970 les associations islamistes étudiantes, le groupe prend la suite du Jihad islamique égyptien au début des années 1990 en s'attaquant à l'état égyptien, aux coptes et aux touristes. Son principal attentat est le massacre de Louxor.
Désorganisés par la répression en Égypte, les Gamaa al-Islamiya semblent avoir rejoint la mouvance islamiste internationale comme al-Qaida: .
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ظاهرة الإنبعاث الثانوي
ظواهر فيزيائية | مجهر إلكتروني
ظاهرة الانبعاث الثانوي ظاهرة فيزيائية في الصمامات المفرغة خصوصا. فعند سقوط جسيم ما على مادة محكومة بهذه الظاهرة, فإنه يحض جسيمات أخرى على الانبعاث, يسمى الجسيم الساقط بالجسيم الابتدائي, و يسمى الجسيم المنبعث بالجسيم الثانوي. قد يكون الجسيم الابتدائي إما إلكترونا أو أيونا أو أشعة سين أو أشعة غاما. أما الجسيم الثانوي فيمكن أن يكون: * إلكترون: في هذه الحالية يسمى الإلكترون إلكترونا ثانويا. * أيون: و يسمى أيون ثانوي. * فوتون: و تسمى الظاهرة حينها بـانبعاث ضوئي.
المبدأ : لو أخذنا الإلكترون كمثال, فحين يسقط على المادة بسرعة كبيرة فإنه سيخترق الذرة و يدخل المدار الإلكتروني الخاص بالذرة, و بما أن سرعته كبيرة فلن تتمكن النواة الموجبة من جذبه رغم أن شحنته سالبة, لكن و أثناء عبوره المدار ذا الإلكترونات السالبة فإنه سيتنافر معها بسبب تشابه الشحنات. قد تنجم تلك المنافرة عن تحرير عدد من إلكترونات المدار و جعلها تسبح (تبنعث) لكن ببطء. لحصول ذلك ينبغي أن تكون طاقة الإلكترون الساقط كافية لتحرير الإلكترونات. تدعى تلك الإلكترونات البطيئة إلكترونات ثانوية.
و و قد يسقط الإلكترون على المادة بطاقة كافية, و لكن لا يصادف إلكترونات أثناء اجتيازه المدار الإلكتروني, بل قد توثر قوة جذب النواة على اتجاه الالكترون, جاعلة يدور حولها و يرتد على منبعه دون أن يحرر أي يحرر أي الكترون. يدعى هذا الإلكترون بـ الكترون مرتد أو الكترون ناكص back-scattered electron: . كلما ازداد حجم النواة, ازداد رجيع الإلكترونات.
التطبيقات : تم توظيف هذه الظاهرة في تضخيم الضوء في جهاز صمام التضخيم الضوئي, حيث يكون الجسيم الابتدائي هو الألكترون و الجسيم الثانوي هو الإلكترون كذلك و الوسط بينهما قطب كهربائي معدني (داينود).
و وظفت كذلك في التصوير في المجاهر الإلكترونية المسحية, حيث يتم رش عينة الفحص بمادة تمتلك خاصية الانبعاث الثانوي قبل فحصها, و من ثم تسليط إلكترونات عليها و اصطياد الإلكترونات المنبعثة منها بواسطة شاشة فلورية.
و وظفت أيضا في مطيافية الكتلة بما يعرف بـ مطيافية الأيون الثانوي للكتلة.
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Secondary emission
Condensed matter physics | Vacuum tubes
Secondary emission in physics is a phenomenon where primary incident particles of sufficient energy, when hitting a surface or passing through some material, induce the emission of secondary particles. The primary particles are often charged particles like electrons or ions. If the secondary particles are electrons, the effect is termed secondary electron emission. In this case, the number of secondary electrons emitted per incident particle is called secondary emission yield. If the secondary particles are ions, the effect is termed secondary ion emission.
Applications : Secondary emissive materials : Most common used secondary emissive materials include : * alkali antimonide, * beryllium oxide (BeO), * magnesium oxide (MgO), * gallium phosphide (GaP), * gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP), * lead oxide (PbO), * etc.
Photo multipliers and similar devices : Secondary emission is a phenomenon where additional electrons, called secondary electrons, are emitted from the surface of a material when an incident particle (often, charged particle such as electron or ion) impacts the material with sufficient energy. The number of secondary electrons emitted per incident particle is called secondary emission yield.
The effect can also be exploited to advantage such as in the photomultiplier tube. In this instance the electrons (or an electron) emitted from a photocathode are accelerated towards a polished metal electrode (called a dynode). This electron or electrons strike with sufficient energy to 'knock' many more electrons from its surface through secondary emission. These new electrons are then accelerated towards another dynode where even more electrons are emitted. This process occurs (typically) 10 or so times. The result is that the tiny and normally undetectable current from the photocathode becomes a much larger and easily measurable current flowing in the final anode circuit. The current gain is typically many hundreds of millions.
For the first multiplication the electron is accelerated by 100 to 200 eV and hits the surface in grazing incidence so that a mean 10 secondary electrons are emitted and the chance that at least 2 electrons are emitted is very high. In this way every electron can be detected and the efficiency of about 0.3 is mostly governed by the generation of photoelectrons (one kind of secondary electron) and their ejection into the vacuum. Ions are detected by accelerating them onto a separate dynode, which suffers from sputtering, and detecting their secondary electrons. Ions at keV kinetic energy generate about 30 secondary electrons.
Historic applications : Special amplifying tubes : In the 1930s special amplifying tubes were developed which deliberately "folded" the electron beam, by having it strike a dynode to be reflected into the anode. This had the effect of increasing the plate-grid distance for a given tube size, increasing the transconductance of the tube and reducing its noise figure. A typical such "orbital beam hexode" was the RCA 1630, introduced in 1939. Because the heavy electron current in such tubes damaged the dynode surface rapidly, their lifetime tended to be very short compared to conventional tubes.
Early computer memory tubes : The first random access computer memory used a type of cathode ray tube called the Williams tube that used secondary emission to store bits on the tube face. Another random access computer memory tube based on secondary emission was the Selectron tube. Both were made obsolete by the invention of magnetic core memory.
Undesirable effects : Secondary emission can be undesirable such as in the tetrode thermionic valve (tube). In this instance the positively charged screen grid can accelerate the electron stream sufficiently to cause secondary emission at the anode (plate). This can give rise to excessive screen grid current. It is also partly responsible for this type of valve (tube), particularly early types with anodes not treated to reduce secondary emission, exhibiting a 'negative resistance' characteristic. This side effect could be put to use by using some older valves (e.g., type 77 pentode) as dynatron oscillators.
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Émission secondaire
Tube électronique
Lémission secondaire est l'émission d'électrons par un matériau, induite par un rayonnement ou un flux de particules. On distingue : * lémission secondaire électronique ou émission secondaire vraie, induite par un flux d'électrons (incidents ou primaires); * lémission induite par des ions; * la photoémission, induite par un rayonnement.
Enfin, on parle de rétrodiffusion lorsque les électrons émis ont une énergie proche de celle des électrons incidents. Par convention, on considère habituellement que les électrons d'émission secondaire une énergie inférieure à 50 eV. On voit cependant que si les électrons incidents sont eux-mêmes une énergie inférieure à 50 eV, la distinction entre émission secondaire et rétrodiffusion n'est pas nette.
Le rendement de l'émission secondaire varie d'un matériau à l'autre, et en fonction de l'énergie des particules incidentes. Généralement, le rendement est supérieur à un dans une gamme d'énergie comprise entre 10 eV et 1 keV approximativement.
L'émission secondaire vraie peut se produire dans les tubes électroniques lors de l'impact d'un électron sur une électrode si celui-ci a une énergie suffisante pour arracher des électrons de la surface de cette électrode.
Cet effet peut être indésirable comme c'est le cas dans la tétrode, à l'intérieur de laquelle la grille écran chargée positivement peut (selon la différence de potentiel entre celle-ci et la cathode) accélérer suffisamment les électrons pour qu'ils provoquent une émission secondaire de la part de l'anode, provoquant ainsi l'augmentation du courant de la grille écran pouvant aller jusqu'à la destruction de la grille. C'est aussi à cause de ce phénomène que ce type de tube montre sur une partie de ses caractéristiques une résistance négative.
L'effet peut aussi être exploité comme un avantage. C'est le cas des photomultiplicateurs et des électromultiplicateurs qui en accélérant chaque électron (émis au départ par une photocathode pour les premiers) pour provoquer la collision entre celui-ci et une dynode avec une énergie suffisante pour arracher plusieurs électrons, qui vont être à leur tour accélérés vers la dynode suivante. Cette opération étant répétée une dizaine de fois, le courant généré par la photocathode devient mesurable et cela même si le nombre d'électron émit par celle-ci dans le tube est faible. Le gain de ce genre de tube est d'environ cent millions.
Dans les années 1930, des tubes d'amplification utilisant un flux d'électron "replié" furent développés, ils utilisaient une dynode intercalée entre la grille et l'anode du tube. Cela ayant pour effet d'augmenter la distance entre la grille et l'anode, et permettant ainsi d'augmenter la transconductance du tube réduisant du même coût le bruit du tube. Un des modèles commercialisé fut le 1630 de la RCA qui sortie en 1939 et qui est une hexode (six électrodes actives). Mais à cause de la force importante du flux utilisé pour permettre l'émission secondaire, la durée de vie de ce genre de tube était très courte par rapport aux tubes traditionnels.
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راما السادس
ملوك | ملوك تايلاند | مواليد 1881 | وفيات 1925
!: 23 أكتوبر 1910م - 25 نوفمبر 1925م (15 سنة و33 يوما)
!: 1 يناير 1881م
!: 23 أكتوبر 1910م
!: بانكوك
!: 25 نوفمبر 1925 (العمر 44)
!: بانكوك
!: شولالون كورن "راما الخامس"
!: الملك براجاد هيبوك (راما السابع)
!: بوذية
!: سلالة شاكري
!: الملك شولالون كورن
الملك فاجيرافود شولالون كورن الملقب راما السادس (بالتايلندية:พระบาทสมเด็จพระปรเมนทรมหาวชิราวุธฯ พระมงกุฎเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัว) الحاكم السادس لمملكة سيام والذي امتد فترة حكمة من 1 يناير 1881م الي 25 نوفمبر 1925م يعتبر الملك فاجيرافود السادس في سلالة شاكري ويعرف عنه جهودة الي تعزيز القومية السيامية والتقدم نحو الديموقراطية , فاجيرافود أبن الملك شولالون كورن وتلقي تعليمه في المملكة المتحدة في أكاديمية ساند هيرست العسكرية وجامعة أوكسفورد. بدأت الحكومة في الشروع بالكثير من مشاريع التنمية علي الصعيد الوطني في عهد راما السادس، وعلى الرغم من المشاكل الاقتصادية فقد انتشرت الكثير من الطرق الجديدة والجسور والسكك الحديدية والمستشفيات والمدارس في جميع أنحاء البلاد. في عام 1917 أعلنت سيام دخولها في الحرب العالمية الأولى إلى جانب فرنسا وبريطانيا ضد ألمانيا والنمسا والمجر، وقد حارب الجنود التايلانديون في المعارك الأوروبية، ونتيجة لهذه المساعدة تخلت بريطانيا وفرنسا عن حق التمتع بالقوانين البريطانية والفرنسية لرعاياها في تايلاند. توفي الملك فاجيرافود "راما السادس" يوم 25 نوفمبر/تشرين الثاني 1925.
* انظر أيضًا * تايلاند * سلالة شاكري
Rama VI: بذرة تايلاند:
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Vajiravudh
1881 births | 1925 deaths | King Chulalongkorn's sons | Knights of the Golden Fleece | Chakri Dynasty | Thai monarchs | Graduates of the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst | Thai poets | Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order | Knights of the Order of the Most Holy Annunciation | Regents of Thailand | LGBT people from Thailand
dateNovember 2011: )
Phra Bat Somdet Phra Poramentharamaha Vajiravudh Phra Mongkut Klao Chao Yu Hua (พระบาทสมเด็จพระปรเมนทรมหาวชิราวุธฯ พระมงกุฎเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัว: ), or Phra Bat Somdet Phra Ramathibodi Si Sintharamaha Vajiravudh Phra Mongkut Klao Chao Yu Hua (พระบาทสมเด็จพระรามาธิบดีศรีสินทรมหาวชิราวุธฯ พระมงกุฎเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัว: ), or Rama VI (1 January 1881 – 25 November 1925) was the sixth monarch of Siam under the House of Chakri, ruling from 1910 until his death. King Vajiravudh is known for his efforts to create and promote Siamese nationalism. His reign was characterized by Siam's movement further towards democracy and minimal participation in World War I.
Education: Prince Vajiravudh was born on 1 January 1881 to Chulalongkorn and one of his four queens, Saovabha. In 1888, upon coming of age, Vajiravudh received the title Krom Khun Thep Dvaravati. He was firstly educated in the Royal Palace in Siamese and English language. He continued his education in Britain, at the Royal Military Academy Sandhurst in 1891 and became part of Durham Light Infantry Regiment upon graduation. In 1894, his half-brother Crown Prince Vajirunhis died. Vajiravudh was then appointed the new Crown Prince of Siam. He studied in law and history at Christ Church, Oxford in 1899. However, he suffered the appendicitis that barred him from personally receiving the graduation in 1901.
Crown Prince Vajiravudh returned to Siam in 1902 and became a monk in 1904 temporarily according to Siamese traditions. In 1906, his father Chulalongkorn traveled to Europe to seek treatment for his lung disease. Chulalongkorn made Vajiravudh the Regent of Siam. Crown Prince Vajiravudh's accomplishment during his regency was his supervision of the construction of Chulalongkorn Equesterian Statue.
Chulalongkorn died on 23 October 1910. Vajuravudh succeeded his father as the king of Siam.
Ascension and Early Reforms:
Even before coronation, Vajiravudh swiftly passed several reforms. He organized Siam’s Defence and established military academies. He created the rank of General for the first time in Siam, with his uncle Prince Bhanurangsi Savangwongse as the first Siamese general.
His first act following his ascension to the throne was to build the Royal Pages College which was subsequently renamed Vajiravudh College by King Rama VII to honour his brother. It was built as an all boy boarding school in the same tradition as English public schools such as Eton and Harrow. The school was built instead of a royal monastery - a custom of Thai kings, as King Vajiravudh deemed that there were already too many temples in Bangkok. In his own hand written letter, King Vajiravudh wrote that "In the Royal Pages College, what I want is not so much to turn out model boys, all of the same standard, all brilliant scholars with thousands of marks each, as to turn out efficient young men - young men who will be physically and morally clean, and who will be looking forward keenly to take up whatever burden the future may lay upon them". Later he also raised the Civil Servant School to Chulalongkorn Academy for Civil Officials – then Chulalongkorn University. Both Vajiravudh College and Chulalongkorn University still benefit from the personal funds that King Vajiravudh set aside for educational use at the two elite institution up till today. He also improved Siamese healthcare systems and set up some of the earliest public hospitals in Siam; Vajira Hospital and Chulalongkorn Hospital in 1912 and 1914 respectively.
In 1911, he established the Boy Scouts in Siam (with an adult arm disbanded in the latter part of his reign called the Wild Tiger Corps .) On 11 November 1911, Vajiravudh's coronation was held with royalties from Europe and Japan as guests – for the first time in Siam to host international parties. In December, the first airplane was flown in Siam.
Early years of Vajiravudh's administration was largely dominated by his two uncles - Prince Damrong and Prince Devawongse - both of them Chulalongkorn's right hand men. However, he disagreed with Prince Damrong, the Minister of Interior over Prince Damrong's negotiation of Anglo-Siamese Treaty of 1909 that ceded four sultanates to the British Empire.
Vajiravudh also reformed his father's monthon system by imposing the paks (ภาค: ) or regions over the administrative monthons. Each pak was governed by an Uparaja (viceroy} directly in command of the king. The Uparaja presided over the intendants of monthons in the region - thus grabbing local administrative powers in his hands - much to the dismay of Prince Damrong. * Incident of Bangkok Era 130
Palace Revolt of 1912: The radicals sternly expected that constitution upon the coronation of Vajiravudh. However, no constitution came. In 1911, the Wuchang Uprising that led to the fall of Qing dynasty was a strong urge for Siamese radicals to act. So, for the first time, an attempt to overthrow the monarchy and establish the democracy happened in Siam.
The immediate cause, however, was laid even before Vajiravudh’s coronation. In 1909, Crown Prince Vajiravudh had ordered a Thai Royal Military Academy’s student who had had an argument with one of Vajiravudh’s pages to be canned. The alumni of the Academy, who had already been stationed throughout the kingdom, was provoked further by Vajiravudh’s establishment of the Wild Tiger Corps, which was seen as Vajiravudh’s personal troops to replace the military.
The plotters were, however, relatively young army and navy officials, who was also the students in the 1909 event. The coup was planned to be staged on 1 April – Siamese traditional New Year Day. They also planned to choose one of Vajiravudh’s brothers as the first President of Siam. They also viewed that, if the absolute monarchy had been removed, Siam would achieve modernization like those of Japan. The coup leaders accused the King of devoting his time to writing plays and acting in them with his companions. They also accused him of living a luxurious life in western style; building Sanam Chan Palace and Lumphini Park, and owning expensive horses from Australia, while preaching to his subjects to be austere and nationalistic.
However, the coup plan was leaked. Captain Yut Kongyu, who was selected as the assassin by lottery, told Mom Chao Prawatpan – and then Prince Chakrabongse - about the upcoming coup. Prince Chakrabongse personally led the arrest of all conspirators and their punishments were severe – including executions to long-term imprisonment. However, Vajiravudh halted the punishment and released them all saying that what they did was for the sake of the kingdom. * Administration, Economy, and Infrastructure
Rama VI inherited his father's plan of building a modern nation although he was skeptical. Disagreements in new form of administration occurred constantly with 'old aristocrats', many of them were his relatives such as the celebrated Prince Damrong, his uncle, who took charge of the Ministry of Interior. As more and more corruptions in the newly created provinces were reported, Rama VI eventually suggested his own creation of viceroy system. Viceroys, who were appointed directly by the king, were sent to supervise the provincial governors and local officials.
In 1912, Vajiravudh announced the change of calendar usage from Rattanakosin Era designated by Chulalongkorn to the Buddhist Era which is still in use today. In 1913, Siam faced financial crisis as the Chinese-Siamese Bank went bankrupt.
In 1914, the construction of Don Mueang Airport, the first Siamese airport, began. In the same year the Siamese government decided to take a loan from the Federated Malay States to extend the railways to the south. In 1915, Vajiravudh himself visited the southern provinces to oversee the railway constructions. The Bangkok railway station at Hua Lamphong was then established as a center of Siamese railroads. Prince Damrong eventually left the Ministry of Interior in 1915. In 1916, Vajiravudh appointed his half-brother Prince of Kampangpetch as the Head of Railway Department.
In 1917, Vajiravudh established the Nakorn Sri Thammarat regiment as his handful forces. In the same year Vajiravudh officially founded the Chulalongkorn University - the first university in Siam named in honor of his father. In 1918, Vajiravudh founded the Dusit Thani near his Dusit Palace as an experimental place for democracy. The democratic institutions were imitated including elections, parliament, and the press. Vajiravudh himself acted as one of the citizens of Dusit Thani yet the city was perceived as another Vajiravudh's acting theatre. * World War I and Nationalism
In July 1917, Vajiravudh sided himself with the Allied Powers and expelled the German and Austrian officials from the Railway Department and Siam Commercial Bank. He also put the properties of the Central Powers nations under government's protectorate. Vajiravudh then saw this as an opportunity to create and promote Siamese nationalism, against the so-called enemies - the Central Powers. He changed the Flag of Siam from the elephant-banner to a tricolor one. King Vajiravudh is considered as the father of Thai nationalism, which was later built upon by Field Marshal Phibunsongkhram and Sarit Dhanarajata. He introduced the practice of using the name Rama for the Chakri kings in deference to foreign practice.
The Siamese troops were the only Southeast Asians in the European theatre (except for 140,000 Vietnamese troops and workers drafted by the French). They did not see much action though, as the Siamese troops arrived in Europe towards the end of the War. In any case, the participation in the War allowed Siam to later negotiate with the Western Powers on 'unfair' treaties made before. at knowledge.eduzones.com * Financial crisis
In 1917, price of silver rose and exceeded the face value of the (silver) coin. The coins were then melted down and sold out of Siam by individuals. The government solved this by changing the pure silver coin to alloy. Vajiravudh eventually forbade exports of Siamese coins. In 1918, the usage of 1-baht coins was nullified and the 1-baht banknotes were introduced. The coins were recalled and kept as national reserve. In 1919, Vajuravudh imposed his military-exemptation tax (เงินรัชชูปการ: ) that effected his popularity among the people.
Though the Siamese forces that joined the march at Versailles returned triumphant in 1919, the economic problems caused by World War I was serious - the Great Depression. In the same year, drought hit Siam and rice shortage ensued. The government forbade the export of rice - the main Siamese revenue since the Bowring Treaty. Queen Mother Saovabha, Vajiravudh's mother, died in 1919. Siamese participation in World War I opened the way to reconciliation, firstly with the United States in 1920, the unequal treaties imposed by Western Powers in the 19th century.
In spite of the financial crisis, the railway constructions continued. The trains reached Narathiwat and was expanded to the north and the east. The construction of Rama VI Bridge began in 1922 and the same year the railway reached Chiangmai. However, the national account was in such deficit that a large loan from Britain was taken. Also in 1922, an insurgency occurred in Pattani over the new taxation policies, which was readily subjugated by the Nakorn Sri Thammarat regiment. In 1923, Vajiravudh announced his six principles in the governance of Pattani Province, emphasizing local freedom and cautive tax measures. * Marriages
Vajiravudh had been a king without a queen for about ten years. In 1920, he met Mom Chao Wanwimon, at his theatre at Phayathai Palace. They got engaged and Mom Chao Wanwimon was elevated to Princess Wallapa. However, four months later in 1921, Vajiravudh nullified the engagement and went for Princess Wallapa's sister - Princess Laksamilawan - whom he engaged. However, the marriage was never held and the couple then separated.
In 1921, Vajiravudh married Prueng Sucharitkul, who was a daughter of Chao Phraya Sutham Montri and elevated her to Phra Sucharitsuda, as his concubine. He then married Sucharitsuda's sister Prapai Sucharitkul as his concubine with the title of Phra Inthrasaksachi. In 1922, Phra Inthrasaksachi was elevated to Queen Inthrasaksachi. However, the Queen suffered two miscarriages. In 1924, Vajiravudh married Krueakaew Abhaywongse, a daughter of Phraya Abhay Bhubet, as Concubine Suvadhana. Queen Inthrasaksachi was then demoted to Princess Consort Inthrasaksachi in 1925. * Succession Law
Chakri Kings: 1924 Palace Law of Succession: In 1924, Vajiravudh promulgated his Law of Succession - which has since become the code for successions of Chakri dynasty till today. According to the law, the throne would be passed to the king's sons and grandsons. However, in the case of Vajiravudh who had no sons, the throne would passed to his eldest true brother, that is, a brother who shared the same mother as his - Queen Saovabha. The law gave priority to the descendants of the princes born to Queen Saovabha, then to Queen Savang Vadhana, and then to Queen Sukumalmarsri. The law also forbade princes whose mother was foreign from the throne. This referred to his companion Prince Chakrabongse who had married a Russian woman and his son Prince Chula Chakrabongse was therefore barred from the throne. * Further financial problems and Death
In 1924, King Vajiravudh, accompanied by Concubine Suvadhana, visited Federated Malay States. The reconciliation with European powers on unequal treaties progressed gradually, while financial crisis was taking a great toll on Siam as another loan was taken from Britain and the fire of a large number of government officials occurred. In 1925 Vajiravudh had to dissolve his Nakorn Sri Thammarat regiment and merged the administrative provinces into larger ones to lower the maintenance cost.
In November 1925, it was announced that Vajiravudh fell ill due to his gustatory disease as Princess Consort Suvadhana was then pregnant. Vajiravudh then announced his succession will; that if Princess Suvadhana were to give birth to a son, the throne would go to him. If not, the throne would pass to his surviving brother Prince Prajadhipok of Sukhothai. He also barred Princess Inthrasaksachi from being interred with him in the future and instead granted that right to Princess Suvadhana. And Vajiravudh also barred his uncle Prince Damrong from the government.
On 24 November, midnight, Princess Suvadhana eventually gave birth to a princess, only 2 hours before Vajiravudh's death. Western doctors who tended the king then asked him if he would like to see his only child, and he concurred. Vajiravudh had a glimpse of his sole daughter before his demise. The throne passed to his brother Prajadhipok, who named Vajiravudh's daughter as Princess Bejaratana (Her Royal Highness Princess Bejaratana). * Vajiravudh as a writer
King Vajiravudh was one of Thailand's highly renowned artists, writing modern novels, short stories, newspaper articles, poems, plays and even journals. Among his works were translations of three Shakespeare plays - The Merchant of Venice, As You Like It and Romeo and Juliet and many other writing pieces to promote the ideology of Thai nationalism.
The King was one among those writers who introduced mysteries and detective stories to Thai literature circles. He translated Agatha Christie's Hercule Poirot fictions into Thai language, and created the character "Nai Thong-In" as Siam's first consulting detective, using Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's Sherlock Holmes as a model. He also translated Sax Rohmer's "the Golden Scorpion".
The King was also well-versed in Sanskrit and Hindu literatures, including the Ramayana and the Mahabharata epics. He translated many stories from the two epics into Thai and also wrote many plays with the inspiration from Hindu literatures. Indeed, he was quite influenced by Rama, the incarnation of Lord Vishnu and hero of the Ramayana epic, so much so that he systemized and promoted the use of the name "Rama" as the (English) reign names of all Thai Kings of the Bangkok (Rattanakosin) era. His own reign was dubbed as "Rama VI". (See Rama (Kings of Thailand)) * Ancestors
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ahnentafel bottom: References: Rama VI: reflist: * Greene, Stephen Lyon Wakeman. Absolute Dreams. Thai Government Under Rama VI, 1910-1925. Bangkok: White Lotus, 1999. * Vella, Walter Francis. Chaiyo! King Vajiravudh and the Development of Thai Nationalism. Honolulu: The University Press of Hawaii, 1978.
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Rama VI
Roi de Thaïlande | Chevalier grand-croix de l'ordre royal de Victoria | Homosexualité en Thaïlande | Naissance en 1881 | Décès en 1925 | Chevalier de l'ordre espagnol de la Toison d'or (XXe siècle)
Le roi Vajiravudh, (1er janvier, 1881 – 25 novembre, 1925), nom dynastique Rama VI - (Phrabat Somdej Phra Mongkut Klao Chaoyuhua en thaï : พระบาทสมเด็จพระมงกุฎเกล้าเจ้าอยู่หัว) fut roi du Siam (Thaïlande) de 1910 à sa mort.
Il succède à son père, le roi Rama V, plus connu sous le nom de Chulalongkorn. Vajiravudh s'efforce de continuer l'œuvre de modernisation de son prédécesseur et contribue à mettre en avant des idées nationalistes. Durant son règne, il poursuit la démocratisation des institutions et réussit à tirer profit de la Première Guerre mondiale en s'y engageant au moment opportun.
Siam dans la Première Guerre mondiale: Le calendrier est réorganisé sur le modèle occidental ; un nom de famille est créé et attribué à chacun. L'école est rendue obligatoire en 1921. En 1917, Rama VI fonde l'université Chulalongkorn, une des plus réputées du pays.
Homosexuel excentrique, entouré de nombreux favoris, Rama VI n'aurait sans doute pas accédé au trône si son père Rama V n'avait introduit le principe de primogéniture ,: . Amoureux des arts, il composa de nombreuses œuvres de prose, de poésie et de théâtre, ainsi que trois traductions thaïes de pièces de Shakespeare .
Son frère cadet lui succéda sous le nom de Rama VII.
Références : références:
début dynastie:
fin dynastie: Thaïlande:
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مخ
أعضاء | رأس وعنق | جهاز عصبي مركزي
يكون المخ القسم الأكبر والأهم من الجهاز العصبي المركزي حيث يتشكل من نصفي كرة مخيتين منفصلتين يرتبطان بجسر عصبي(حزمة عريضة من الالياف العصبية). ويهتم المخ بشكل عام بالوظائف الإدراكية والحسية والعقلية ووظائف اللغة.
لا يتعدى وزن المخ في المتوسط 1400 جرام في الإنسان البالغ، اما عند الولادة يكون حوالي 350 جرام ،ويعني ذلك أنه يشكل حوالي 2% من الوزن الإجمالي لجسم الإنسان كله، ورغم ذلك فإنه نظراً لأهمية وطبيعة وظائفه يحصل علي أكثر من 15% من غذاء الإنسان عن طريق الدورة الدموية ونظراً لأهمية المخ الخاصة أيضاً فإن حمايته من المؤثرات الخارجية مكفولة بنظام قوى، فهو محاط بعظام الجمجمة الصلبة، أما بقية الجهاز العصبي المركزي وهي النخاع الشوكي فإن حمايته تكفلها عظام العمود الفقري التي تحيط به، ويبلغ حجم الجمجمة للإنسان 1500 سم3 تقريباً، ويوجد بداخلها المخ يحيط به السائل المخي وكميته حوالي 150 سم3، ويتكون المخ بصفة رئيسية من نصفي كرة، والجزء الأهم هو القشرة أو الطبقة السطحية لنصفي الكرة حيث يتوقف علي مكوناتها من الخلايا كياننا كآدميين نعقل ونفكر ونتحكم، ورغم أن حجم المخ صغير نسبياً فإن الكثير من التلافيف تزيد من مساحة سطح المخ والقشرة التي ذكرناها لتصل إلي مساحة 1600 مم2 مع أن سمكها لا يزيد عن 2.5 ممويتكون المخ(الدماغ)من
1_الدماغ الامامي وبه قشرة المخ والمهاد وما تحت المهاد
2_الدماغ المتوسط
3_الدماغ الخلفي وبه المخيخ وقنطرة فارول والنخاع المستطيل
واهمية قشرة المخ تتكون من
1- الفص الجبهي وبه مراكزالحركات الارادية وبعض مراكز الذاكرة والنطق
2- الفص الجداري ويقوم بالتحكم في عدد كبير من الوظائف الحسية مثل الاحساس بالحرارة أو البرودة أو الضغط أو الالم
3-الفص المؤخري ويسمى أيضا بالقفوي وبه مراكز حساسة تتحكم في حاسة البصر
4- الفص الصدغي به مراكز حاسة الشم والتذوق كما ان به مركز السمع
5_الفص الجزيري.وسمي بهذا الاسم لانه يكون مغطىبالفصين الجبهي والجداري
المخ الأيسر * الكلمات * الأرقام * المنطق * التحليل * الترتيب * القوائم
يقرأ ليعرف الفكرة الأساسية في الموضوع
يحب الأمور العقلانية والمبنية على استنتاج واضح ويحب التنظيم
يعرف التعامل مع الزمن ويتذكر بشكل أفضل
المخ الأيمن * التناسق * الألوان * الخيال * أحلام اليقظة * الأبعاد * الألحان
يعتمد على العاطفة أكثر والأحلام والطموحات
ثلاثي أبعاد
بذرة تشريح:
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Cerebrum
Cerebrum
The cerebrum or telencephalon, together with the diencephalon, constitutes the forebrain. The cerebrum is the most anterior (or, in humans, most superior) region of the vertebrate central nervous system. Telencephalon refers to the embryonic structure, from which the mature cerebrum develops. In mammals, the dorsal telencephalon, or pallium, develops into the cerebral cortex, and the ventral telencephalon, or subpallium, becomes the basal ganglia. The cerebrum is also divided into approximately symmetric left and right cerebral hemispheres.
With the assistance of the cerebellum, the cerebrum controls all voluntary actions in the body.
Development : During vertebrate embryonic development, the prosencephalon, the most anterior of three vesicles that form from the embryonic neural tube, is further subdivided into the telencephalon and diencephalon. The telencephalon then forms two lateral telencephalic vesicles which develop into the left and right cerebral hemispheres.
Structure : The cerebrum is composed of the following sub-regions: * Cerebral cortex, or cortices of the cerebral hemispheres * Basal ganglia, or basal nuclei * Limbic System
Composition : The cerebrum comprises what most people think of as the "brain." It lies in front or on top of the brainstem and in humans is the largest and most well-developed of the five major divisions of the brain. The cerebrum is the newest structure in the phylogenetic sense, with mammals having the largest and most well-developed among all species. In larger mammals, the cerebral cortex is folded into many gyri and sulci, which has allowed the cortex to expand in surface area without taking up much greater volume.
In humans, the cerebrum surrounds older parts of the brain. Limbic, olfactory, and motor systems project fibers from the cerebrum to the brainstem and spinal cord. Cognitive and volitive systems project fibers from the cerebrum to the thalamus and to specific regions of the midbrain. The neural networks of the cerebrum facilitate complex behaviors such as social interactions, thought, judgement, learning, working memory, and in humans, speech and language.
Functions : Note: As the cerebrum is a gross division with many subdivisions and sub-regions, it is important to state that this section lists the functions that the cerebrum as a whole serves. See main articles on cerebral cortex and basal ganglia for more information.
Movement : The cerebrum directs the conscious or volitional motor functions of the body. These functions originate within the primary motor cortex and other frontal lobe motor areas where actions are planned. Upper motor neurons in the primary motor cortex send their axons to the brainstem and spinal cord to synapse on the lower motor neurons, which innervate the muscles. Damage to motor areas of cortex can lead to certain types of motor neuron disease. This kind of damage results in loss of muscular power and precision rather than total paralysis.
It functions as the center of sensory perception, memory, thoughts and judgement; also functions as the center of voluntary motor activity.
Sensory processing : The primary sensory areas of the cerebral cortex receive and process visual, auditory, somatosensory, gustatory, and olfactory information. Together with association cortical areas, these brain regions synthesize sensory information into our perceptions of the world around us.
Olfaction : Olfaction: The olfactory bulb in most vertebrates is the most anterior portion of the cerebrum, and makes up a relatively large proportion of the telencephalon. However, in humans, this part of the brain is much smaller, and lies underneath the frontal lobe. The olfactory sensory system is unique in the sense that neurons in the olfactory bulb send their axons directly to the olfactory cortex, rather than to the thalamus first. Damage to the olfactory bulb results in a loss of the sense of smell.
Language and communication : Language: Speech and language are mainly attributed to parts of the cerebral cortex. Motor portions of language are attributed to Broca's area within the frontal lobe. Speech comprehension is attributed to Wernicke's area, at the temporal-parietal lobe junction. These two regions are interconnected by a large white matter tract, the arcuate fasciculus. Damage to the Broca's area results in expressive aphasia (non-fluent aphasia) while damage to Wernicke's area results in receptive aphasia (also called fluent aphasia).
Learning and memory : Memory: Explicit or declarative (factual) memory formation is attributed to the hippocampus and associated regions of the medial temporal lobe. This association was originally described after a patient known as HM had both his hippocampuses (left and right) surgically removed to treat severe epilepsy. After surgery, HM had anterograde amnesia, or the inability to form new memories.
Implicit or procedural memory, such as complex motor behaviors, involves the basal ganglia.
Short-term or working memory involves association areas of the cortex, especially the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, as well as the hippocampus.
Variation among species: In the most primitive living vertebrates, the hagfishes and lampreys, the cerebrum is a relatively simple structure receiving nerve impulses from the olfactory bulb. In cartilaginous and lobe-finned fishes, and also in amphibians, a more complex structure is present, with the cerebrum being divided into three distinct regions. The lowermost (or ventral) region forms the basal nuclei, and contains fibres connecting the rest of the cerebrum to the thalamus. Above this, and forming the lateral part of the cerebrum, is the paleopallium, while the uppermost (or dorsal) part is referred to as the archipallium. The cerebrum remains largely devoted to olfactory sensation in these animals, despite its much wider range of functions in amniotes.
In ray-finned fishes, the structure is somewhat different. The inner surfaces of the lateral and ventral regions of the cerebrum bulge up into the ventricles; these include both the basal nuclei and the various parts of the pallium, and may be complex in structure, especially in teleosts. The dorsal surface of the cerebrum is membranous, and does not contain any nervous tissue.
In the amniotes, the cerebrum becomes increasingly large and complex. In reptiles, the paleopallium is much larger than in amphibians, and its growth has pushed the basal nuclei into the central regions of the cerebrum. As in the lower vertebrates, the grey matter is generally located beneath the white matter, but in some reptiles, it spreads out to the surface to form a primitive cortex, especially in the anterior part of the brain.
In mammals, this development proceeds further, so that the cortex covers almost the whole of the cerebral hemispheres, especially in more "advanced" species, such as primates. The paleopallium is pushed to the ventral surface of the brain, where it becomes the olfactory lobes, while the archipallium becomes rolled over at the medial dorsal edge to form the hippocampus. In placental mammals, a corpus callosum also develops, further connecting the two hemispheres. The complex convolutions of the cerebral surface are also found only in higher mammals.
The cerebrum of birds has evolved along different lines to that of mammals, although they are similarly enlarged, by comparison with reptiles. However, this enlargement is largely due to the basal ganglia, with the other areas remaining relatively primitive in structure. For example, there is no great expansion of the cerebral cortex, as there is in mammals. Instead, an HVC develops just above the basal ganglia, and this appears to be the area of the bird brain most concerned with learning complex tasks.
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Télencéphale
Neuroanatomie | Télencéphale
neuroscience: Définition : Le télencéphale désigne, en neuroanatomie des vertébrés, ce qu'on appelle couramment le cerveau. Plus spécifiquement, il s'agit de l'ensemble constitué par les hémisphères cérébraux (cortex cérébral, substance blanche et structures sous-corticales) et des structures associées.
Le télencéphale apparaît au stade 5 vésicules du neurodéveloppement embryonnaire, lorsque le prosencéphale se divise en deux, la partie rostrale formant le télencéphale et la partie caudale donnant le diencéphale.
Sur le plan phylogénétique, il s'agit de la structure nerveuse la plus récente et elle se trouve particulièrement développée chez les mammifères et en particulier les primates.
Vésicules du cerveau : # Télencéphale * Diencéphale * Mésencéphale * Métencéphale * Myélencéphale
Palette Système nerveux: Neurosciences:
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مطار العين الدولي
مطارات الإمارات العربية المتحدة | مرافق إمارة أبوظبي | مطار دولي
مطار العين الدولي يقع في مدينة العين، المطار هو البوابة الجوية الثانية لإمارة أبوظبي بدولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة.
لقد تم افتتاح مطار العين الدولي في 31 مارس 1994 من قبل سمو الشيخ خليفة بن زايد آل نهيان ولي عهد الإمارة آنذاك، تعمل اليوم في مطار العين ثمانية خطوط جوية. تأخذ كلية خليفة الجوية من المطار مقرا لها. ومنذ 2004 يعقد كل عام فيها بطولة العين الدولية للإستعراضات الجوية والتي تستقطب العديد من المشاركين الدولين والزوار. * الخطوط العاملة في المطار * الطيران العماني مسقط * الخطوط الجوية الآسوية (كراتشي, لاهور, بيشاور) * إير إنديا إكسبرس (Kozhikode) * الخطوط الجوية الباكستانية (إسلام آباد, كراتشي, لاهور) * الملكية الأردنية (عمان) * طيران شاهين الدولي (بيشاور) * الخطوط الجوية السودانية (الخرطوم) * توماس فلاي (لندن-جاتويك, مانشستر) * أنظر أيضا ==
بوابة طيران: قائمة مطارات دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة
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Al Ain International Airport
Buildings and structures in Al Ain | Airports in the United Arab Emirates
dateOctober 2010:
Al Ain International Airport (مطار العين الدولي: ; transliterated: Matar al-Ayn ad-Dowaly) is an airport located in Al Ain, United Arab Emirates. It was opened in March 31, 1994. Fourteen flights and 4,000 passenger pass through the airport each week. * Airlines and destisnations * Cargo airlines * Incidents and accidents
Accidents involving fatalities * On 27 February 2011, a Grumman 21T eight seater aircraft crashed shortly after takeoff killing four of those onboard. * References==
reflist:
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Aéroport international Al Ain
Aéroport émirati
LAéroport International Al Ain (en Arabe: مطار العين الدولي / Matar al-Ayn ad-Dowaly) est un aéroport situé à Al Ain, aux Émirats arabes unis.
Compagnies et destinations : * Inde: Air India Express (Kochi, Kozhikode) * Afghanistan: Ariana Afghan Airlines (Kaboul) * Pakistan: Pakistan International Airlines (Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar) * Oman: Oman Air (Mascate) * Jordanie: Royal Jordanian (Amman, Aqaba) * Pakistan: Shaheen Air International (Karachi, Peshawar, Doha) * Soudan: Sudan Airways (Khartoum)
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مطار أبوظبي الدولي
مطارات الإمارات العربية المتحدة | مرافق أبوظبي | مرافق إمارة أبوظبي | مطار دولي
مطار أبوظبي الدولي هو مطار يقع في إمارة أبوظبي ويبعد مسافة ليست بالطويلة عن العاصمة، ويعد هذا المطار مركز لعمليات طيران الإتحاد الذي تمتلكه حكومة أبوظبي.
تم تقييم المطار من قبل سكاي تراكس وتم تصنيفه بثلاث نجوم.
التاريخ : تم في أواخر الستينات تم بناء مطار في منطقة البطين، إلا أنه وبحلول نهاية عام 1970 كان التطور والازدهار يمضي قدماً وبخطى حديثة في المنطقة في حين أصبحت منطقة أبو ظبي مدينة كبيرة تزحف حدودها ممتدة حتى البطين وقد أصبح من الواضح أن هناك حاجة لمطار آخر يقع بعيداً عن المناطق التجارية والسكنية ويكون مجهزاً لاستيعاب حجم الركاب والبضائع المتزايدة في العقود المقبلة.
تم افتتاح المطار الحالي الذي تم إنشاؤه على البر الرئيسي في عام 1982 في موقع قريب من الطريق الرئيسي الذي يربط بين أبو ظبي ودبي يبعد حوالي 30 كيلومتراً من المدينة الحالية سريعة النمو والتوسع. لقد صمم المطار من قبل ((إيربورت دوباري – مطار باريس)) وهم المهندسين المعماريين المسئولين عن مطار شارل ديفول في باريس وكان مطار أبو ظبي الدولي الجديد قد بنى آنذاك بحيث يستوعب ما مقداره خمسة ملايين راكب في السنة كحد أقصى إلا أنه وبحلول منتصف التسعينات كان قد أصبح هناك حاجة لمزيد من التوسع فتم بناءاً على ذلك توسيع مبنى صالة الركاب كي تستوعب العدد المتزايد من المسافرين.
مشاريع تطوير وتوسعة مطار أبوظبي : مشروع مبنى المطار الرئيسي : خلال الأعوام القليلة المقبلة، يُتوقع أن يستخدم 20 مليون مسافر مطار أبوظبي الدولي كنقطة انطلاق أو وجهة أو محطة ترانزيت في رحلاتهم الداخلية والدولية.
باعتبارها مشغل عمليات مطار أبوظبي الدولي، فقد أوكلت إلى شركة أبوظبي للمطارات (أداك) مهمة ضمان قدرة المطار على توفير خدمات بمستوى عالمي لتلبية الطلب المتزايد خلال السنوات المقبلة.
يُعتبر تطوير "مجمع المطار الرئيسي الجديد" الجزء الجوهري من برنامج استثماري تنجزه شركة أبوظبي للمطارات (أداك) بقيمة تبلغ عدة مليارات من الدولارات. ويقع المجمع بين مدرجَي المطار، بحيث يسمح بأسرع تنقل ممكن من المدرج إلى مكان إنهاء إجراءات السفر، وتكون ثمرته حصول المسافرين على تجربة سفر سلسة ومريحة.
وسيكون مبنى المسافرين في "مجمع المطار الرئيسي الجديد" أحد الأبنية الأكثر إبهاراً من حيث تصميمها المعماري في المنطقة، وستتراوح مساحته بين 630 ألف و702.369 متراً مربعاً، ويمكن رؤيته على بعد 1.5 كيلومتراً. أما المساحة المركزية لمبنى المسافرين فتبلغ سعتها ثلاثة ملاعب دولية كرة قدم وتشمل سقفاً يرتفع 52 متراً في أعلى نقاطه.
سيضم المجمع 20 ألف إلى 25 ألف متر مربع من متاجر التجزئة والطعام والمشروبات، وهو ما يُعادل تقريباً مساحة "مارينا مول" في أبوظبي. وتنتشر هذه المتاجر حول حديقة داخلية تبلغ مساحتها 8400 متراً مربعاً تشمل نباتات وملامح متوسطية في مركزها، بالإضافة لمناظر طبيعية صحراوية في محيطها.
تم تصميم مبنى المسافرين بشكل صديق للبيئة بحيث يقلل الأثر السلبي عليها بالاستفادة من عدة عوامل كالأداء العالي والزوايا المائلة للهيكل الخارجي الزجاجي التي تسهم في منع الحرارة من دخول المبنى، مما يزيد من كفاءة عملية تكييف الهواء، ويوفر إضاءة كافية للمساحات الداخلية.
وتتضمن تصاميم المبادرات البيئية التي يتم إتّباعها حالياً عملية الحفاظ على الماء من خلال استخدام مياه الصرف الصحي المكرر لسقاية النباتات الموجودة خارج المبنى. كما يعمل فريق "مجمع المطار الرئيسي الجديد" عن كثب مع شركة أبوظبي لطاقة المستقبل"مصدر" التي تطوّر قرب المطار خالية من الانبعاثات الكربونية.
بدأت أعمال الأساسات في مبنى المسافرين الجديد في فبراير 2009. وقد أعلنت شركة أبوظبي للمطارات (أداك) عن طرح مناقصة بناء "مجمع المطار الرئيسي" الجديد في يناير 2011.
أعمال تطوير وتحديث المبنى 1 : حرصا من شركة أداك (شركة أبوظبي للمطارات) على توفير أفضل، وأرقى الخدمات في المبنى 1، فقد قامت بإغلاق المبنى رقم 1 لشهر مايو 2011 بالكامل وتحويل الرحلات إلى المبنى 3 إضافة إلى الإغلاقات الجزئية، وإعادة إفتتاحه في شهر يونيو 2011، وخلال تلك الفترة قامت أداك بعمل تصميم داخلي جديد يعكس طبيعة الثقافة العربية في المنطقة، وتبرز التصاميم الجديدة في الإضاءة، وتنسيق المناظر الطبيعية للحدائق.
وقد تم تطبيق تقنيات جديدة، ومتطورة في جميع أنحاء المبنى، جنباً إلى جنب مع عمليات تجديد دورات المياه، وإدخال تحسينات على كافة المظاهر التي تساعد المسافر على إيجاد الطريق الصحيح في المبنى، وجميع اللافتات الخاصة بذلك.
و بالإضافة لمضاعفة القدرة الاستيعابية لمقاعد الجلوس في المبنى، تمت ترقية قاعات الضيافة العالمية المستوى وفندق المطار إضافة إلى إطلاق مجموعة مختارة ومتميزة من محلات التجزئة والمطاعم والمقاهي الدولية والمحلية، والعمل على تقديم مجموعة متنوعة للمسافر لتزيد من متعته أثناء تواجده في المطار. ولإضفاء مزيد من مظاهر الراحة، تم زيادة عدد مكاتب صرف العملات الأجنبية وأجهزة الصراف الآلي أيضاً.
القضايا البيئية المرتبطة بالتوسعة : قامت لجنة الإشراف على توسعة مطار أبوظبي الدولي بتقييم المردود البيئي على الموقع المقترح لمجمع المطار الرئيسي الجديد وبدأت بنقل السحليات، وهي حيوانات المنطقة الأصلية، إلى موطن جديد.
كما بدأت أعمال الحفريات في ثلاثة مواقع أثرية يحتمل أنها تعود إلى عصر ما قبل الإسلام، فيما يجري العمل على قدم وساق لنقل إحدى الغبات الموجودة إلى الحدود الشمالية للموقع لمنع الضوضاء والتصوير.
الخطوط العاملة بالمطار: ناقلات الركاب :
* طائرات الشحن * كارجو لوكس * الخطوط الجوية الصينية (الشحن) * دولفين إير * طيران الاتحاد الكرستالة للشحن * لوفتهانزا (الشحن) * مارتن إير * الخطوط الجوية الباكستانية (الشحن) * الخطوط الجوية التركمنستانية
* الإحصائيات
* الأحداث والحوادث
في 23 سبتمبر 1983، طيران الخليج رحلة 771، التي كانت متوجهه من أبوظبي إلى مطار كراتشي الدولي في كراتشي، باكستان، إنفجرت قنبلة في الطائرة في أجواء الإمارات وقتل كل الأشخاص على متنها.
في 29 نوفمبر 1987، الطيران الكوري رحلة 858 ،والتي كانت تطير على خط طيران بغداد - أبوظبي - بانكوك - سيؤل إنفجرت قنبلة على متنها وسقطت في بحر أندامان، وقتل كل الاشخاص على متنها. * المصادر
ثبت المراجع: : أنظر أيضا ==
بوابة طيران: * قائمة مطارات دولة الإمارات العربية المتحدة.
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Abu Dhabi International Airport
Airports in the United Arab Emirates
Location of airport in UAE
Abu Dhabi International Airport (مطار أبو ظبي الدولي: ) is an airport in Abu Dhabi, the capital of the United Arab Emirates. The airport is one of the fastest growing airports in the world in terms of passengers (+34% in Q1:2008), new airline operators, and infrastructural development. The airport is now undergoing a major expansion, the total amount earmarked for projects is US$6.8 billion.
Abu Dhabi airport is the second largest in the UAE, serving 11 million passengers in 2010. Its terminal spaces are dominated by Etihad Airways which is the United Arab Emirates' second largest air carrier after Emirates.
The newest terminal, Terminal 3, opened in January 2009, enabling the airport to handle, approximately, 12 million passengers per annum. It is expected that passenger numbers will reach this level in 2011.
Development work has also started on a new passenger terminal, to be situated between the two runways and known as the Midfield Terminal. Upon completion in 2016, the Midfield Terminal will take the airport’s passenger capacity to more than 20 million per year.
Expansion: The expansion masterplan projects include a second 4,100 m parallel runway 2 km from the existing runway (already operational as of 2009); a new 110 metre tower between the two runways with the new Air Traffic Control centre; the new Midfield Terminal (the main building and centre-piece of the new airport) which is set for first phase completion in 2014; enhanced cargo and maintenance facilities and other commercial developments on the land immediately adjacent to and north of the existing airport.
The Midfield Terminal, when opened, will handle up to 20 million passengers per year, with options for this to double in capacity to 40 million. An additional facility is also under consideration that would take the capacity to 50 million.
The new Terminal 3, opened in January 2009, a UAE Dirhams 1 billion (US$ 271.9 million) interim facility, is to cater to the airport's passenger growth before the opening of the Midfield Terminal. Used predominantly by Etihad Airways, the terminal boosted the airport's seven million passenger per year capacity to 12 million. The new Terminal 3 also added 10 new gates at the airport, two of which are Airbus A380 compatible.
Abu Dhabi International Airport has a three star rating from Skytrax.
The airport handled more than 10 million passengers in 2010.
Terminal 2 is capable of handling up to two million passengers per year. It was built as a solution to air traffic volumes which have outgrown the existing terminal.
The project will provide a home base for the UAE's national carrier, Etihad Airways, which will be a major user of new cargo facilities with an ultimate handling capacity of around two million tonnes of freight a year. Close to the new cargo facilities land has been allocated for commercial activities, business parks and property developments. Aircraft maintenance facilities will continue to be concentrated on the south side of the existing airport. The plan also sets aside land for the growth of other operators such as Royal Jet and Abu Dhabi Aviation. One of the first phases of the project will be the construction of a second 4,100 metre runway which will cater for the latest generation of aircraft, including the new Airbus A380, the world’s largest passenger aircraft.
Among other aspects of the project, when completed, are the design of remote aircraft stands complete with airfield ground lighting and hydrant fuel.
Airlines and destinations: Passenger services:
Notes:
Cathay Pacific service HKG to AUH continues onto Jeddah, however they don't have rights to carry passengers between AUH and JED. * Cargo airlines * Statistics
Ground transportation: Etihad Airways provides bus coaches between Dubai and Abu Dhabi International Airport for Etihad customers.
A city bus also connects the airport to Abu Dhabi city centre.
Notes and references:
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Aéroport international d'Abou Dabi
Abou Dabi (ville) | Aéroport émirati
Émirats arabes unis:
L’Aéroport international d'Abou Dhabi aussi connu sous son nom anglais de Abu Dhabi International Airport ou Nadia International, ou en arabe مطار أبو ظبي الدولي) est l'aéroport international desservant Abou Dabi et est le deuxième plus important aéroport des Émirats arabes unis. En octobre 2008, une deuxième piste est ouverte . en janvier 2009, le terminal 3 est ouvert.
Il sert de plate-forme de correspondance à la compagnie aérienne Etihad Airways.
Statistiques : * Compagnies et destinations * Aero Asia (Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar) * Air Blue (Islamabad, Lahore) * Air France (Paris-Charles de Gaulle) * Air India opéré par Indian Airlines (Delhi, Bombay) * Air India Express (Amritsar, Chennai, Delhi, Kochi, Kozhikode, Mangalore, Muscat, Thiruvananthapuram, Tiruchirapalli) * Biman Bangladesh Airlines (Chittagong, Dhaka, Sylhet) * British Airways (London-Heathrow, Muscat) * EgyptAir (Le Caire) * Etihad Airways (Almaty, Athens, Baghdad, Bahrain, Bangkok-Suvarnabhumi, Beijing-Capital, Brisbane, Brussels, Cape Town, Dammam, Delhi, Doha, Dublin, Erbil, Francfort, Geneva, Hyderabad, Istanbul-Atatürk, Jakarta, Jeddah, Johannesburg, Kochi, Kozhikode, Kuala Lumpur, Kuwait, Lahore, Larnaca, London-Heathrow, Manchester, Manila, Melbourne, Milan-Malpensa, Minsk, Moscow-Domodedovo, Mumbai, Munich, Muscat, Nagoya-Centrair, Paris-Charles de Gaulle, Riyadh, Singapour, Sydney, Tokyo-Narita, Toronto-Pearson) * Ethiopian Airlines (Adis Abeba) * GMG Airlines (Dhaka, Karachi) * Gulf Air (Bahrain) * Iran Aseman Airlines (Lar) * Jazeera Airways (Kuwait) * Jet Airways Delhi, Mumbai * Kam Air Kabul * KLM Royal Dutch Airlines (Amsterdam, Muscat) * Kuwait Airways (Kuwait, Muscat) * Lufthansa (Francfort, Muscat) * Middle East Airlines (Beyrouth) * Nas Air (Jeddah, Riyadh) * Oman Air (Mascate) * Pakistan International Airlines (Faisalabad, Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar, Rahim Yar Khan, Sialkot) * Royal Falcon (Amman) * Royal Air Maroc (Casablanca) * Royal Jordanian (Amman) * Qatar Airways (Doha) * Sama Airlines Damman, Jeddah * Saudi Arabian Airlines (Jeddah, Medinah, Riyadh) * Shaheen Air International (Islamabad, Karachi, Lahore, Peshawar) * Singapore Airlines (Jeddah, Koweit, Singapour) * SriLankan Airlines (Colombo) * Sudan Airways (Khartoum) * Syrian Arab Airlines (Alep, Damas) * Turkish Airlines (Istamboul-Atatürk) * Turkmenistan Airlines (Ashgabat) * Ukraine International Airlines (Kiev) * Yemenia (Riyan, Sanaa) * Cargo Airlines * Cargolux * China Airlines Cargo * Dolphin Air * Etihad Airways Crystal Cargo * Lufthansa Cargo * Martinair * Pakistan International Cargo * Turkmenistan Airlines * Notes et références
* Sources *
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ملعب روبرت كينيدي التذكاري
ملاعب كرة قدم في الولايات المتحدة | ملاعب متعددة الاستخدام
ملعب روبرت كينيدي التذكاري هو ملعب متعدد الاستخدام يقع في واشنطن عاصمة الولايات المتحدة . غالبا ما يتم استخدامه لمباريات كرة القدم . يسع الملعب لجلوس 56،692 متفرج . يعتبر الملعب الرسمي الذي يخوض فيه دي سي يونايتد مبارياته . تم افتتاح الملعب في 1 أكتوبر 1961 . استضاف 5 مباريات في بطولة كأس العالم لكرة القدم 1994 أبرزها فوز السعودية على بلجيكا 1-0 بهدف سعيد العويران .
بذرة كرة قدم:
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Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium
Event venues established in 1961 | 1996 Summer Olympic venues | D.C. United | Defunct Major League Baseball venues | Defunct National Football League venues | FIFA Women's World Cup stadiums | 1994 FIFA World Cup stadiums | CONCACAF Gold Cup stadiums | Landmarks in Washington, D.C. | Major League Soccer stadiums | Multi-purpose stadiums in the United States | Olympic football venues | Robert F. Kennedy | Soccer venues in Washington, D.C. | United States Football League venues | NCAA bowl game venues | Washington Nationals stadiums | Washington Redskins stadiums | Washington Senators (1961–1971) stadiums | Baseball venues in Washington, D.C. | American Le Mans Series circuits | Rugby league stadiums in the United States
John F. Kennedy Stadium:
in CURRENTYEAR: dollarsUS: )
Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium (originally "District of Columbia Stadium" (D.C. Stadium), commonly "RFK Stadium" or "RFK") is a multi-purpose stadium, in Washington, D.C., United States, and the current home of MLS's D.C. United.
The stadium was opened in October 1961, as the District of Columbia Stadium. It is owned and operated by the Washington Convention and Sports Authority (WCSA).
The stadium was home for a number of major professional sports teams, including the NFL's Washington Redskins (1961 through 1996; moved to FedExField in suburban Maryland), the American League's Washington Senators (1962 through 1971; moved to Arlington, Texas and renamed Texas Rangers), and the National League's Washington Nationals (2005 through 2007; moved to Nationals Park). It has hosted international soccer matches in the 1994 FIFA World Cup, 1996 Summer Olympics and 2003 Women's World Cup.
The stadium was renamed in January 1969, for U.S. Senator and presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy, who had been assassinated in Los Angeles the previous June. As Attorney General, Kennedy's Justice Department played a role in the racial integration of the Washington Redskins: along with Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall, Kennedy threatened to revoke the team's lease at the federally-owned stadium until it promised to sign African American players.
RFK was the first major stadium designed specifically as a multisport facility for both football and baseball.
During the Nationals' tenure at the stadium, it was the fourth-oldest active stadium in Major League Baseball behind Fenway Park, Wrigley Field and Yankee Stadium. * History
RFK Stadium was home for 36 seasons to the Redskins, whose return to prominence as a football power began the same year (1960) that the original baseball Senators played their final season, relocating in 1961 to Minnesota as the Twins. The Redskins' first game in D.C. Stadium was a 24–21 loss to the New York Giants on October 1, 1961. The team's first win in the stadium was over its future archrival, the Dallas Cowboys, on December 17, 1961. This was the only win in a 1–12–1 season, and it came on the final weekend of the regular season. The Redskins' last win at RFK was a 37–10 victory over the Cowboys on December 22, 1996.
The stadium hosted its first baseball All-Star Game in its first season of 1962, which was attended by Robert Kennedy's brother, President John F. Kennedy (in whose administration Robert Kennedy served as Attorney General), and the 1969 All-Star Game, which was played in the daytime, after a rainout the night before. It turned out to be the final MLB All-Star Game played during the daytime hours.
Another notable baseball moment occurred in a Cracker Jack Old Timers game in 1982, when 75 year-old Hall of Famer Luke Appling hit a home run. Although he had a .310 lifetime batting average, Appling only hit 45 home runs in 20 seasons. However, because the stadium had not been fully reconfigured, it was just to the left-field foul pole, far shorter than normal.
In its tenure as the Senators' home field, RFK Stadium was known as a hitters' park. Slugger Frank Howard, a six-foot-seven-inch tall, 255-pound left fielder, hit a number of tape-measure home runs in his career, a few of which landed in the center field area of the upper deck. The seats Howard hit with his home runs are painted white, rather than the gold of the rest of the upper deck. Howard also hit the last home run in the park's original tenure, on September 30, 1971. With one out remaining in the game, a fan riot turned a 7–5 Senators lead over the New York Yankees into a 9–0 forfeit loss. However, in its tenure as the Nationals' home field, RFK has been known as a pitchers' park. While Howard hit at least 44 home runs for three straight seasons (1968–70), the 2005 Nationals had only one hitter with more than 15 home runs, José Guillén with 24.
From 1993 to 1999 and from 2001 to 2004, former rock radio station WHFS held its annual HFStival rock concert at RFK Stadium. * Design
The stadium's design was nearly circular, attempting to facilitate both football and baseball. It was the first to use the so-called "cookie-cutter" concept, an approach also used by Philadelphia, New York, Houston, Atlanta, St. Louis, San Diego, Cincinnati, Oakland and Pittsburgh. Except for the stadiums in Houston, San Diego, and Oakland (the former is still standing but is no longer actively used, while the latter two are still active), RFK Stadium ultimately outlasted all of the aforementioned stadiums.
However, as would become the case with every other stadium where this was tried, the design was not ideal for either sport due to the different shapes and sizes of the playing fields. As the playing field dimensions for football and baseball vary greatly, seating had to accommodate the larger playing surface. In the case of RFK Stadium, this resulted in the first ten rows of the football configuration being nearly at field level, making it difficult to see over the players.
As a baseball park, RFK was a particular target of scorn from baseball purists, largely because it had no lower-deck seats in the outfield. The only outfield seats are in the upper deck, above a high wall. It was said that RFK was "the first ballpark built that had only an upper deck." According to Sporting News publications in the 1960s, over 27,000 of RFK's 45,000 baseball seats were in the upper tier or mezzanine levels. The lower-to-upper proportion improved for the Redskins, with end-zone seats filling in some of the gaps.
A complex conversion was necessary, at a cost of $40,000 per switch, to convert the stadium from a football/soccer configuration to baseball and back again; in its final form, this included rolling the 3rd-base lower-level seats into the outfield along a buried rail, dropping the hydraulic pitcher's mound into the ground, and laying sod over the infield dirt. Later facilities were designed so the seating configuration could be changed much more quickly and at a lower cost. The conversion was only required several times per year during the Senators' joint tenancy with the Redskins, but became much more frequent while the Nationals and D.C. United shared the stadium during the mostly-concurrent MLB and MLS seasons; in 2005, the conversion was made more than 20 times. Originally the seats located behind the stadium's third-base dugout would be removed for baseball games and put back in place when the stadium was converted to the football (and later soccer) configuration. When these sections were in place, RFK seated approximately 56,000 fans. Following the Washington Nationals' move to RFK in 2005, this particular segment of the stands was permanently removed to facilitate the switch between the baseball and soccer configurations. These seats were not restored following the Nationals' move to Nationals Park, leaving the stadium's seating capacity at approximately 46,000. D.C. United do not normally make the tickets for the majority of the upper-level seating available for purchase, and the stadium's reduced capacity thus is not normally problematic for the club.
During the years when the stadium was used only for Redskins games, the rotating seats remained in the football configuration. If a baseball game was scheduled, the left-field wall was only from home plate, and for some exhibition baseball games, a large screen was erected.
Some of RFK's quirks endear the venue to fans and players. The large rolling bleacher section is less stable than other seating, allowing fans to jump in rhythm to cause the whole area to bounce. Also, because of the stadium's design and the proximity of the fans to the football field, the stadium was extremely loud when the usual sell-out Redskins crowds became vocal. Legend has it that former Redskins coach George Allen would order a large rolling door opened in the side of the stadium when visiting teams were attempting field goals at critical moments in games so that a swirling wind from off the Potomac and Anacostia rivers would interfere with the flight of the kicked ball.
Since the stadium is on a direct sight line with the Washington Monument and the United States Capitol, light towers were not allowed; instead, arc lights were placed on its curved, dipping roof. * Seating Capacity * Baseball * 43,500 (1962–1970) * 45,016 (1971–2004) * 45,596 (2005–present)
Football: * 49,219 (1961–1964) * 50,000 (1965–1969) * 50,415 (1970) * 53,041 (1971) * 53,039 (1972) * 54,381 (1973) * 54,395 (1974) * 55,004 (1975–1976) * 55,031 (1977–1979) * 55,045 (1980–1983) * 55,431 (1984) * 55,750 (1985–1991) * 56,454 (1992–2004)
Dimensions: The dimensions of the baseball field were down the foul lines, to the power alleys and to center field during the Senators' time. The official distances when the Nationals arrived were identical, except for two additional feet to center field. After complaints from Nationals hitters it was discovered in July 2005 that the fence had actually been put in place incorrectly, and it was to the power alleys in left; to the right-field power alley; and to center field. The section of wall containing the sign was moved closer to the foul lines to more accurately represent the distance shown on the signs but no changes were made to the actual dimensions.
Stadium name: The stadium was opened in October 1961 as the District of Columbia Stadium (D.C. Stadium for short). The stadium was renamed in January 1969, for U.S. Senator and presidential candidate Robert F. Kennedy, who had been assassinated in Los Angeles the previous June. As attorney general, Kennedy's Justice Department played a role in the racial integration of the Redskins. Along with Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall, Kennedy threatened to revoke the team's lease at the federally owned stadium until it promised to sign African American players.
On April 14, 2005, just before the Nationals' home opener, the D.C. Sports and Entertainment Commission announced an agreement with the Department of Defense under which the military would pay the city about $6 million for naming rights and the right to place recruiting kiosks and signage in the stadium. In return, the stadium would be dubbed Armed Forces Field at RFK Stadium. This plan was dropped within days, however, after several prominent members of Congress questioned the use of public funds for a stadium sponsorship. Similar proposals to sell the naming rights to the National Guard, ProFunds (a Bethesda, Maryland investment company) and Sony were rumored that season, but no agreement was ever finalized.
Notable games and events: American football: * After trailing the Cowboys 24–6 halfway through the third quarter on November 28, 1965, quarterback Sonny Jurgensen leads the Redskins to 21 fourth-quarter points and a 34–31 comeback victory. * The Redskins beat the New York Giants 72–41 on November 27, 1966. The 113 combined points are the most ever scored in an NFL game. * On December 31, 1972, the Redskins defeat the Cowboys 26–3 in the NFC Championship game to earn a trip to Super Bowl VII. * In a Monday Night Football game on October 8, 1973, Redskins safety Ken Houston stops Cowboys' receiver Walt Garrison at the goal line as time expired to secure a win. * December 17, 1977 – the Redskins defeat the Los Angeles Rams 17–14 in what would be head coach George Allen's final game with the team. * October 25, 1981 – the Redskins narrowly beat the New England Patriots 24–22 to earn head coach Joe Gibbs his first win at RFK Stadium. * January 22, 1983 – the stadium physically shakes as a capacity crowd of 54,000 chant "We Want Dallas" taunting the hated Cowboys in the NFC Championship game. The Redskins go on to defeat the Cowboys 31–17 to earn a trip to Super Bowl XVII where they beat the Miami Dolphins 27–17 to claim the franchise's first Super Bowl win. * September 5, 1983 – Redskins' rookie cornerback Darrell Green chases down Cowboys' running back Tony Dorsett from behind to prevent him from scoring. The Redskins go on to lose the game 31–30. * November 18, 1985 – Giants' linebacker Lawrence Taylor sacks Redskins' quarterback Joe Theismann severely breaking his leg and ending his NFL career. Backup quarterback Jay Schroeder comes in and leads the Redskins to a 23–21 victory on Monday Night Football. * January 17, 1988 – Cornerback Darrell Green knocks down a Wade Wilson pass at the goal line to clinch a victory over the Minnesota Vikings in the NFC Championship game. The Redskins go on to defeat the Denver Broncos 42–10 in Super Bowl XXII. * January 4, 1992 – In a pouring rain, the Redskins beat the Atlanta Falcons 24–7 in the Divisional round of the playoffs. After a touchdown scored by Redskins fullback Gerald Riggs with 6:32 remaining in the fourth quarter, the fans shower the field with the free yellow seat cushions given to them when they entered the stadium. * January 12, 1992 – the Redskins beat the Detroit Lions 41–10 in the NFC Championship game earning a trip to Super Bowl XXVI where they beat the Buffalo Bills 37–24. * December 13, 1992 – Redskins' head coach Joe Gibbs coaches what would be his last win at RFK Stadium. The Redskins defeat the Cowboys 20–17. * December 22, 1996 – The Redskins win their last game in the stadium, defeating their arch-rivals, the Dallas Cowboys, 37–10. In a halftime ceremony, several past Redskins greats were introduced, wearing replicas of the jerseys of their time. After the game, fans storm the field and rip up chunks of grass as souvenirs. In the parking lot, fans are seen walking away with the stadium's maroon and yellow seats. * December 20, 2008 – Wake Forest defeats Navy 29–19 in the inaugural EagleBank Bowl, before a crowd of 28,777, in the first bowl game to be played in Washington, D.C. * December 29, 2009 – UCLA defeats Temple 30–21, before a crowd of 23,072, in the second annual EagleBank Bowl. * December 29, 2010 – Maryland defeats East Carolina 51–20, before a crowd of 38,062, in the 2010 Military Bowl, formerly the EagleBank Bowl. Great fan turnout from both universities set a bowl attendance record in Maryland coach Ralph Friedgen's final game.
Baseball: * In the Washington Senators' final home game, on September 30, 1971, the Senators led the New York Yankees 7–5 with two outs in the top of the ninth. After an obese teenager runs onto the field, picks up first base, and runs off, fans storm the field and tear up bases, grass patches, and anything else they can find for souvenirs. The Senators forfeit the game, 9–0. * April 14, 2005 – Washington Nationals defeat the Arizona Diamondbacks 5–3, before a crowd of 45,596, to win their first home opener in Washington, D.C. They go on to sweep the 4-game series. * June 17, 2006 – The Washington Nationals overcome the deficit of seven runs against the New York Yankees and beat the Yankees by blowing Yankees closing pitcher Mariano Rivera's save in the bottom of the eighth inning with Alfonso Soriano's steals and José Guillén's triple and Ryan Zimmerman's single in front of a sellout crowd of 45,085 fans. * June 18, 2006 – The Washington Nationals defeat the New York Yankees on Ryan Zimmerman's walk-off home run off Yankees ace starter Chien Ming Wang in front of a sellout crowd of 45,157 fans. The Nationals win the three-game series against the Yankees. * September 16, 2006 – Washington Nationals' Alfonso Soriano steals second base in the first inning of the game against the Milwaukee Brewers to become the fourth player in the Major League Baseball history to hit 40 home runs and steal 40 bases in a season. (At Shea Stadium in New York City six days later, Soriano becomes the first person ever to reach 40 home runs, 40 stolen bases, and 40 doubles in one season, making him the only member of the 40–40–40 club. ) * July 4, 2007 – Washington Nationals 1st baseman Dmitri Young hits a Grand Slam enroute to a 6–0 Nationals win over the Chicago Cubs before almost 40,000 fans. * September 23, 2007 – Washington Nationals defeat the Philadelphia Phillies 5–3, before a crowd of 40,519, in the final baseball game scheduled to be played at RFK Stadium. The win gives the Nationals an overall record of 122–121 in three seasons at the stadium. * Soccer * September 21, 1980 – In the 1980 Soccer Bowl, before a crowd of 56,768, the New York Cosmos defeated the Fort Lauderdale Strikers 3–0. * August 21, 1993 – A.C. Milan defeats Torino F.C. 1–0 to win their second consecutive Supercoppa Italiana. * July 2, 1994 – The 1994 FIFA World Cup concludes its play in RFK as Spain defeats Switzerland 3–0 in the Round of Sixteen (RFK had earlier hosted four group-play games). * June 18, 1995 – The Nike U.S. Cup witnesses a historic score when the United States defeats a powerful Mexico team. The score of that afternoon was that of a 4–0 victory for the US. The goals were scored as early as the 3rd minute of the first half made by Roy Wegerle (3' min), Thomas Dooley (25' min), John Harkes (36' min) and Claudio Reyna (67' min of 2nd half), making this their first official blow-out over Mexico. * July 24, 1996 – Soccer at the 1996 Summer Olympics includes the final match for the US side, which needed a win against Portugal to advance out of group play, but tied 1–1 (five other Olympic matches were played in RFK as part of the Atlanta Olympics). Attendance for the U.S. match versus Portugal was 58,012 – the largest crowd ever for a sporting event at RFK Stadium. * October 30, 1996 – Ten days after winning the first Major League Soccer title, D.C. United defeats the Rochester Raging Rhinos 3–1 in the U.S. Open Cup final, achieving the first "double" in American soccer history. * October 26, 1997 – D.C. United defeats the Colorado Rapids 2–1 to win their second consecutive MLS Cup. * August 16, 1998 – D.C. United defeats CD Toluca of Mexico 1–0 to win the CONCACAF Champions' Cup, becoming the first American team to do so and marking their first victory in an international tournament. * October 15, 2000 – the Kansas City Wizards defeat the Chicago Fire 1–0 to win their first MLS Cup. * April 14, 2001 – the Washington Freedom defeat the Bay Area CyberRays 1–0 in the inaugural match of the Women's United Soccer Association. * August 3, 2002 – In the MLS All-Star Game, a team of MLS players defeat the U.S. Men's National Team 3–2. D.C. United midfielder Marco Etcheverry is named MVP. * July 30, 2003 – Ronaldinho makes his debut for FC Barcelona against AC Milan in a pre-season tour of the United States. Ronaldinho had a goal and an assist as Barcelona defeated defending European champion Milan 2–0 in an exhibition game that drew 45,864 to RFK Stadium. * April 3, 2004 – Freddy Adu debuted with D.C. United at RFK with a sell-out soccer crowd of 24,603. * November 6, 2004 – D.C. United win the Eastern Conference final by tying the New England Revolution 3–3 and advancing on penalty kicks in what is generally regarded as one of the greatest games in MLS history. They would go on to defeat the Kansas City Wizards 3–2 in the MLS Cup. * August 9, 2007 – David Beckham debuts for the MLS LA Galaxy, losing to home team D.C. United before a sellout crowd of 46,686 fans, the 4th largest to watch MLS at RFK Stadium. * October 23, 2010 – Jaime Moreno scores on a penalty kick in his final game as a D.C. United player to retire as the all-time leading scorer in MLS history. United would lose the match, 3–2, to Toronto FC. * June 19, 2011 – Quarter-Final of 2011 CONCACAF Gold Cup US MNT vs. Jamaica. US defeats Jamaica 2–0 and moves onto the Semi-Final. In the second game of the double header El Salvador played Panama to a 1–1 tie Panama would win in a shoot out in front of 46,000 people.
1994 FIFA World Cup matches:
2003 FIFA Women's World Cup matches:
United States Men's National Team matches: The United States Men's National Soccer Team has played more games at RFK Stadium than any other stadium in the world. Some have suggested that due to the nature of RFK and its quirkiness that it would be a suitable national stadium if US Soccer were ever to seek one out. Several prominent members of the national team have scored at RFK including: Brian McBride, Cobi Jones, Eric Wynalda, Joe-Max Moore, Clint Dempsey, Michael Bradley, and Landon Donovan. Winners are listed first and all games are friendlies unless otherwise noted.
Boxing: * May 22, 1993 – Riddick Bowe records a second round knockout over Jesse Ferguson to retain his WBA heavyweight title; Roy Jones records a unanimous decision over Bernard Hopkins to capture the vacant IBF middleweight title. Attendance: 9,000
Concerts: * The Beatles – August 15, 1966 (performed in front of 32,164 fans, two weeks later, they would play their last-ever concert at San Francisco's Candlestick Park. ) * The Allman Brothers Band – September 20, 1970 and June 9–10, 1973, with The Grateful Dead * The Rolling Stones – July 4, 1972, with Stevie Wonder, September 24–25, 1989 and August 1 and 3, 1994 * The Jackson 5 – May 13, 1974 and September 21–22, 1984 * Leon Russell – May 19, 1974, with The New Riders of the Purple Sage * Aerosmith, Lynyrd Skynyrd, Nazareth and Ted Nugent – May 30, 1976 * Yes – June 13, 1976 * The Beach Boys – June 12, 1983 * Bruce Springsteen & The E Street Band – August 5, 1985 * The Grateful Dead – July 6–7, 1986, with Bob Dylan, July 12–13, 1989, July 12, 1990, June 14, 1991, June 20, 1992, with The Steve Miller Band, June 25–26, 1993, with Sting, July 16–17, 1994 and June 24–25, 1995 * Genesis – May 26, 1987 and May 19, 1992 * Bob Dylan – July 6–7, 1986, with Tom Petty and The Heartbreakers and June 24–25, 1995 * Madonna – July 2, 1987, with Level 42 * U2 – September 20, 1987, August 15–16, 1992, with Primus and The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy and May 26, 1997, with Fun Lovin' Criminals * Pink Floyd – June 1, 1988 and July 9–10, 1994 * The Monsters of Rock Festival – June 10, 1988 * The Who – July 6–7, 1989 * Paul McCartney – July 4 and 6, 1990 * Metallica and Guns N' Roses – July 17, 1992, with Faith No More * HFStival – July 3, 1993, May 14, 1994, June 3, 1995, June 1, 1996, May 31, 1997, May 16, 1998, September 25, 1999, May 27–28, 2001, May 25–26, 2002, May 24, 2003 and May 22, 2004 * Elton John and Billy Joel – July 20, 1994 * The Eagles – September 13, 1994, with Sheryl Crow * The Tibetan Freedom Concert – June 13–14, 1998 (The first day is cut short, after several fans were struck by lightning, during Herbie Hancock's set. ) * Blink-182 – June 15, 1998 * The Vans Warped Tour – July 31, 1998 * The LGBT Millennium March on Washington Equality Rocks Concert – April 30, 2000 * 'N Sync – July 10, 2000, with Sisqó and P!nk and August 13, 2001 * The Dave Matthews Band – July 19, 2000, with Ben Harper & The Innocent Criminals and Ozomatli and June 9, 2001, with Angélique Kidjo and Macy Gray * The Concert – October 21, 2001 (hosted by Michael Jackson, as a memorial to the victims of the September 11 attacks.) * DC101 Chili Cook-Off Concerts – May 16, 2009, May 22, 2010 and May 21, 2011
Motor sports: * On July 21, 2002, the American Le Mans Series held its first event in Washington, DC. The National Grand Prix was run on a temporary circuit laid out in the RFK stadium parking lot, and was the first major motor sports event held in the District of Columbia in 80 years. Originally a ten-year agreement was signed to host the race on a yearly basis. However, due to noise complaints from local residents the contract was canceled after the first edition and the event has not been run since.
Volunteer service: * On January 19, 2009, the day before the Presidential Inauguration, A Day Of Service for Our Military was held at RFK Stadium as a part of the Martin Luther King Jr. National Day of Service. This was a joint operation by Serve DC and Operation Gratitude. At this event, 12,000 volunteers made over 80,000 care packages for American Troops overseas.
Washington Hall of Stars: During the Redskins' tenure, the Washington Hall of Stars was displayed on a series of white-and-red signs hung in a ring around the stadium's mezzanine, honoring D.C. sports greats from various sports. With the reconfiguration of the stadium, it was replaced by a series of dark-green banners over the center-field and right-field fences in order to make room for out-of-town scoreboards and advertising signage. There are 15 separate panels honoring 82 figures. Nationals Park also hosts a smaller version of the display. * Panel 1 (furthest to the left when viewed from home plate, names read here from left to right are listed from top of display to bottom): Redskins football players Cliff Battles, Charley Taylor, Bobby Mitchell, Chris Hanburger, Jerry Smith, Len Hauss, Sammy Baugh and Pat Fischer. * Panel 2: Redskins Brig Owens, Larry Brown, Sonny Jurgensen, team founder-owner George Marshall, Vince Lombardi (who coached them for one season before his death), Dave Butz, Art Monk and Dick James. * Panel 3: Redskins Vince Promuto, Russ Grimm, Joe Jacoby, Mark Moseley, Doug Williams, John Riggins, coach George Allen and Ken Houston. * Panel 4: Redskins Joe Theismann, Billy Kilmer, Wayne Millner, Sam Huff, Gene Brito, Eddie LeBaron, Charlie Justice and Bill Dudley. * Panel 5: Edward Bennett Williams, Arthur "Dutch" Bergman and Jack Kent Cooke. Williams and Cooke were Redskins owners. Bergman coached in D.C. at The Catholic University of America, and then ran the corporation that lobbied for the building of RFK Stadium. * Panel 6: "New Senators" manager Gil Hodges, "Old Senators" player and manager Joe Cronin, New Senator Frank Howard, Old Senator owner Clark Griffith, and Old Senators Goose Goslin and George Case. * Panel 7: Josh Gibson, Bucky Harris, Walter Johnson, Chuck Hinton, Eddie Yost and George Selkirk. Gibson played for the Homestead Grays of the Negro Leagues. Harris, Johnson and Yost played for the Old Senators. Harris also managed the Old Senators. Hinton played for the New Senators. Selkirk, who played for the Yankees, was the general manager of the New Senators. * Panel 8: "Old Senators" Mickey Vernon, Roy Sievers, Cecil Travis, Early Wynn, Joe Judge, Harmon Killebrew, Ossie Bluege and Grays star Walter "Buck" Leonard. Vernon also managed the New Senators. * Panel 9: Basketball figures Bones McKinney, Arnold "Red" Auerbach, Abe Pollin, Bob Ferry, Phil Chenier, Wes Unseld and Elvin Hayes. McKinney played for the NBA's Washington Capitols. Auerbach played in D.C. for George Washington University and coached the Capitols. Pollin owned the Baltimore Bullets and moved them to Washington, where they became the "Capital Bullets," "Washington Bullets" and now the "Washington Wizards." He also founded the NHL's Washington Capitals and built two area arenas: The Capital Centre in Landover, Maryland and the MCI Center (now the Verizon Center) in downtown Washington. Ferry played for the Bullets in Baltimore and was their general manager in Washington. Chenier, Unseld and Hayes played for the Bullets in both cities. Unseld later coached them. * Panel 10: Olympic swimming gold medalist Melissa Belote, broadcaster Jim Gibbons, and golf figures Lee Elder and Deane Beman. * Panel 11: Capitals hockey star Rod Langway, tennis players Pauline Betz Addie and Donald Dell, and jockey Sonny Workman. * Panel 12: Boxers Bobby Foster, Marty Gallagher, Holly Mims, Sugar Ray Leonard and Steve Mamakos. * Panel 13: Soccer player Theodore "Ted" Chambers, soccer player and coach Gordon Bradley, sportswriters Morris "Mo" Siegel and Shirley Povich, and Griffith Stadium and RFK Stadium public-address announcer Charles Brotman. * Panel 14: "Heroes of Sept. 11th."
To the right of Panel 15 are four banners honoring D.C. United's MLS Cup wins: 1996, 1997, 1999 and 2004. To the right of these banners is D.C. United's "Tradition of Excellence" banner, which honors John Harkes and Marco Etcheverry. To the left of those banners are four banners honoring D.C. United's MLS Supporters Shield wins: 1997, 1999, 2006 and 2007.
Public transportation: RFK Stadium is within a half-mile and easily accessible from the Stadium-Armory station of the Washington Metro. The station is served by the Blue and Orange Lines, and will add the Silver Line in the future. It is also served directly by Metrobus lines B2, D6, E32 (at Eastern High School), 96 and 97.
Food vendors: RFK Stadium is home to such eateries as: * Forescore Grill * The Diamond Club * Burrito Brothers * Dominic's of New York * Stars and Stripes Brew * Red, Hot & Blue BBQ * AR Seafood * Cantina Marina
Tenants: Current: * D.C. United (1996–present) * Military Bowl (2008–present)
Former: * Washington Redskins (1961–1996) * Washington Federals (1983–1984) * Washington Senators (1962–1971) * Washington Diplomats (1974–1981), (1991) * Washington Darts (1971) * Washington Freedom (2001–2003, 2009–2010‡) * Washington Whips (1968) * Washington Nationals (2005–2007) * United States Congressional Baseball Game * The George Washington University football team played there until it was disbanded in 1966.
‡ Part-time * Gallery
* References
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Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium
Stade américain de soccer | Stade de la Coupe du monde de football 1994 | Site des Jeux olympiques d'été de 1996 | Équipement sportif à Washington | Ancien stade de la MLB | Ancien stade de la NFL | Nationals de Washington
Football américain et Soccer:
Le Robert F. Kennedy Memorial Stadium ou RFK Stadium (auparavant D.C. Stadium ou District of Columbia Stadium) est un stade omnisports qui sert principalement pour le baseball, le football américain et le soccer (football). Il est situé au bord de la rivière Anacostia à l'est du centre de Washington dans le District de Columbia aux États-Unis.
Depuis 2005 il est le domicile d'une équipe de baseball MLB évoluant dans la division Est de la Ligue nationale, les Nationals de Washington. En 1996, la MLS arrive à Washington D.C. et le stade devient l'antre de D.C. United.
Le RFK Stadium avait également accueilli une autre équipe de la MLB entre 1962 et 1971, les Senators de Washington, qui depuis ont déménagé au Texas. Les Redskins de Washington de la NFL y ont aussi joué plus de trente années entre 1961 et 1996 avant que le FedEx Field soit construit. L'enceinte a une capacité de places pour le soccer et pour le baseball et elle est entourée de places de parking. * Histoire
Pendant plus de cinq décennies les Senators de Washington (MLB) ont joué au Griffith Stadium mais se sont déplacés à Minneapolis et sont devenus les Twins du Minnesota après la saison 1960. La même année, un nouveau stade multisports était construit le long de la rivière Anacostia. Alors que Clark Griffith déplaçait les Senators à Minneapolis après la saison 1960, la MLB a attribué une nouvelle franchise à la ville de Washington, de nouveau connue sous le nom de Washington Senators. L'équipe a joué un an au Griffith Stadium avant d'entrée dans leur nouvelle enceinte.
Le stade est inauguré le 1er octobre: 1961 avec une défaite 24 à 21 des Redskins de Washington contre les Giants de New York devant spectateurs. Il a été construit pour un coût de $24 millions USD et fut conçu par George A. Dahl (Dallas), Osborn Engineering (Cleveland) et Ewin Engineering Associates (Washington DC). Le bâtiment a été appelé D.C. Stadium (District of Columbia Stadium) et les Senators ont joué leur match au stade le 9 avril 1962. Le D.C. Stadium est devenu le premier "Cookie cutter stadium" (stade multi-surface pouvant accueillir plusieurs sports : baseball, football américain...).
Il été retitré RFK Stadium (Robert Francis Kennedy) le 18 janvier 1969, peu après la mort de celui-ci. Le baseball a été joué seulement neuf ans au RFK Stadium, le dernier match eu lieu le 30 septembre 1971. Les Senators de Washington se sont déplacés à Arlington après la saison 1971 et sont devenus les Rangers du Texas. Bien que le stade ait un locataire en moins après la saison 1971, c'était le domicile des Redskins de Washington (NFL) jusqu'en 1996. En 1997 la construction d'un nouveau stade moderne pour les Redskins à Landover (Maryland) est terminé, c'est le FedEx Field. Les Redskins de Washington ont joué leur dernier match au RFK Stadium le 22 décembre 1996 avec une victoire sur les Cowboys de Dallas (score 37 à 10).
Après une absence de 33 ans, la Major League Baseball est revenu au RFK Stadium le 14 avril 2005. Avant 2005, il y avait eu des années d'entretien et de débat pour qu'une équipe soit relocalisée dans la ville. De 1995 à 2004 les Expos de Montréal se sont efforcés d'attirer le plus de fans au Stade Olympique de Montréal et ont eu de nombreux problèmes financiers. En 2001, la MLB a commencé à étudier l'idée de replacer les Expos, prenant finalement une décision pour déplacer l'équipe à Washington le 29 septembre 2004. En novembre 2004, les Expos sont renommés Nationals de Washington. Afin accueillir la nouvelle équipe dans la ville, le stade fut rénové et amélioré pour un coût approximatif de $18,5 millions. L'installation d'un nouveau tableau d'affichage, d'une tribune de presse, et la transformation des places de la plate-forme inférieure en sièges escamotables pour permettre le changement de configuration afin que D.C. United (MLS) continue à jouer au stade.
La configuration actuelle de baseball au RFK Stadium est presque identique à celle des années 1970. La grande plate-forme inférieure, se composant de trois sections de sièges orange. Une petite section de sièges blancs entoure le terrain au-dessous de la plate-forme supérieure. La plate-forme supérieure entoure le terrain entier. Le tableau d'affichage video principal est suspendu sur le toit au-dessus des sièges de la plate-forme supérieure dans le champ droit. Une reconfiguration du stade est nécessaire (pour un coût de $40.000 à chaque fois) afin de convertir le terrain d'une configuration football en baseball et inverse. En 2005, la conversion a été faite 20 fois.
Le RFK Stadium est le 4e: stade le plus ancien de la Major League Baseball encore en activité, les trois plus vieux sont : Wrigley Field, Fenway Park et Yankee Stadium. En partie à cause de son âge et de sa vétusté, les "Nats" (Nationals) envisagent de déménager dans un nouveau stade plus moderne d'ici 2008. Le dernier match des Nationals de Washington au RFK Stadium est prévu pour le 23 septembre 2007 contre les Phillies de Philadelphie. * Nouveau stade
En 2008, les Nationals de Washington joueront dans une nouvelle enceinte de 611 millions de dollars située le long de l'Anacostia qui se nommera le Nationals Park. Les travaux de ce dernier ont commencé le 4 mai 2006 et il pourra accueillir spectateurs avec 66 suites de luxe. * Les locataires * Actuellement
Soccer * D.C. United (1996-) * Anciens
Football américain * Redskins de Washington (NFL) (1961-1996) * Washington Federals (USFL) (1983-1984)
Baseball * Senators de Washington (1962-1971) * Nationals de Washington (2005-2008)
Soccer * Washington Freedom (WUSA) (2001-2003) * Washington Diplomats (NASL) (1974-1981), (1991). * Washington Darts (1971) * Team America (NASL), (1983) * Washington Whips (É.-U.) (1968) * Les restaurants
Le RFK Stadium comprend plusieurs restaurants: * Forescore Grill * The Diamond Club * Burrito Brothers * Dominic's of New York * Stars and Stripes Brew * Red, Hot and Blue Barbecue (Red, Hot & Blue BBQ) * Course des Présidents
Pendant chaque match des Nationals, le RFK Stadium accueille une course avec des mascottes qui représentent d'anciens Présidents des États-Unis. La promotion a commencé en 2005 comme animation sur le tableau d'affichage video. Mais à partir 2006 la course a eu lieu sur le terrain avec quatre mascottes qui sont les caricatures de George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln et Theodore Roosevelt. Très probablement, ceci est inspiré de la Sausage Race des Milwaukee Brewers ou des Pierogie Races de Pittsburgh. * Événements * 1e Match des étoiles de la Ligue majeure de baseball 1962, 10 juillet 1962 * Match des étoiles de la Ligue majeure de baseball 1969, 23 juillet 1969 * 5 matchs de la Coupe du monde de football de 1994 * 6 matchs de la Coupe du monde de football féminin 2003 * Coupe des champions de la CONCACAF, 1998 * MLS Cup, 26 octobre 1997 * MLS Cup, 15 octobre 2000 * MLS Cup, 18 novembre 2007 * Major League Soccer All-Star Game, 2002 et 2004 * Finale de la Coupe des États-Unis de football, 30 octobre 1996 * Soccer Bowl, 21 septembre 1980 * concert Grateful Dead, 10 juin 1973 * concert de Michael Jackson, 21 et 22 septembre 1984 * concert United We Stand , 20 octobre 2001, concert caritatif organisé par Michael Jackson pour les victimes des attentats du 11 septembre 2001 avec Michael Jackson, Mariah Carey, Usher, James Brown, Al Green, Rod Stewart ,Janet Jackson , Destiny's Child, P. Diddy, Backstreet Boys, Pink, Justin Timberlake et son groupe N Sync ou encore Aerosmith * HFStival (festival de rock), 1993 à 1999 et 2001 à 2004 * Dimensions * Champ gauche: (335 pieds) * Champ centre-gauche: (380 pi) * Champ centre: (410 pi) * Champ centre-droit: (380 pi) * Champ droit: (335 pi) * Dégagement derrière le marbre: (54 pi) * Galerie==
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محور (عنصر آلات)
قوالب بذور نقل ووسائل مواصلات | نقل بري
تاريخمايو_2011: المحور هو عبارة عن عمود مركزي لازم لدوران المسننات (التروس) أو الإطارات (العجلات) كما في العربات القديمة والسيارات.
في المركبات ذات الإطارات يثبت المحور بالعجلات ويكون حرا للدوران داخل محامل مثبتة في المركبة ,أو أن يثبت المحور بالمركبة وتدور العجلات حول المحور.
في الحالة الأولى توضع المحامل البسيطة أو الدحروجية في كراسي التحميل المثبتة في المركبة ويدور فيها المحور, وفي الحالة الثانية توضع هذه المحامل داخل العجلات أو التروس ذاتها لتسمح للترس أو العجلة بالدوران حول المحور المثبت في المركبة ومثال ذلك : محاور الدراجات الهوائية. * محاور السيارات * خصائص الهيكل الأساسي * المحاور القائدة * المحاور المقودة
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Axle
Automotive suspension technologies | Vehicle parts
Other uses:
An axle is a central shaft for a rotating wheel or gear. On wheeled vehicles, the axle may be fixed to the wheels, rotating with them, or fixed to its surroundings, with the wheels rotating around the axle. In the former case, bearings or bushings are provided at the mounting points where the axle is supported. In the latter case, a bearing or bushing sits inside the hole in the wheel to allow the wheel or gear to rotate around the axle. Sometimes, especially on bicycles, the latter type is referred to as a spindle.
On cars and trucks, several senses of the word "axle" co-occur in casual usage, referring to the shaft itself, its housing, or simply any transverse pair of wheels. The shaft itself rotates with the wheel, being either bolted or splined in fixed relation to it, and is called an "axle" or "axle shaft". However, it is equally true that the housing around it (typically a casting) is also called an "axle" (or "axle housing"). An even broader (somewhat figurative) sense of the word refers to every transverse pair of wheels, whether they are connected to each other or not. Thus even transverse pairs of wheels in an independent suspension are usually called "an axle".
Vehicle axles: Axles are an integral component of a wheeled vehicle. In a live-axle suspension system, the axles serve to transmit driving torque to the wheel, as well as to maintain the position of the wheels relative to each other and to the vehicle body. The axles in this system must also bear the weight of the vehicle plus any cargo. A non-driving axle, such as the front beam axle in Heavy duty trucks and some 2 wheel drive light trucks and vans, will have no shaft. It serves only as a suspension and steering component. Conversely, many front wheel drive cars have a solid rear beam axle.
In other types of suspension systems, the axles serve only to transmit driving torque to the wheels; The position and angle of the wheel hubs is a function of the suspension system. This is typical of the independent suspension found on most newer cars and SUV's, and on the front of many light trucks. These systems still have a differential, but it will not have attached axle housing tubes. It may be attached to the vehicle frame or body, or integral in a transaxle. The axle shafts (usually C.V. type) then transmit driving torque to the wheels. Like a full floating axle system, the shafts in an independent suspension system do not support and vehicle weight.
"Axle" in reference to a vehicle also has a more ambiguous definition, meaning parallel wheels on opposing sides of the vehicle, regardless of their mechanical connection type to each other and the vehicle frame or body.
Structural features: A straight axle is a single rigid shaft connecting a wheel on the left side of the vehicle to a wheel on the right side. The axis of rotation fixed by the axle is common to both wheels. Such a design can keep the wheel positions steady under heavy stress, and can therefore support heavy loads. Straight axles are used on trains, for the rear axles of commercial trucks, and on heavy duty off-road vehicles. The axle can be protected and further reinforced by enclosing the length of the axle in a housing.
In split-axle designs, the wheel on each side is attached to a separate shaft. Modern passenger cars have split drive axles. In some designs, this allows independent suspension of the left and right wheels, and therefore a smoother ride. Even when the suspension is not independent, split axles permit the use of a differential, allowing the left and right drive wheels to be driven at different speeds as the automobile turns, improving traction and extending tire life.
A tandem axle is a group of two or more axles situated close together. Trucks designs will use such a configuration to provide a greater weight capacity than a single axle. Semi trailers usually have a tandem axle at the rear.
Drive axles:
Driving wheel: An axle that is driven by the engine is called a drive axle.
Modern front wheel drive cars typically combine the transmission and front axle into a single unit called a transaxle. The drive axle is a split axle with a differential and universal joints between the two half axles. Each half axle connects to the wheel by use of a constant velocity (CV) joint which allows the wheel assembly to move freely vertically as well as to pivot when making turns.
In rear wheel drive cars and trucks, the engine turns a driveshaft which transmits rotational force to a drive axle at the rear of the vehicle. The drive axle may be a live axle, but modern automobiles generally use a split axle with a differential.
Some simple vehicle designs, such as lesiure go-karts, may have a single driven wheel where the drive axle is a split axle with only one of the two shafts driven by the engine, or else have both wheels connected to one shaft without a differential (kart racing).
Dead axles/lazy axles: Federal Bridge Gross Weight Formula: A dead axle, also called lazy axle, is not part of the drivetrain but is instead free-rotating. The rear axle of a front-wheel drive car may be considered a dead axle. Many trucks and trailers use dead axles for strictly load-bearing purposes. A dead axle located immediately in front of a drive axle is called a pusher axle. A tag axle is a dead axle situated behind a drive axle. On some vehicles (such as motorcoaches), the tag axle may be steerable.
Some dump trucks and trailers are configured with lift axles (also known as airlift axles or drop axles), which may be mechanically raised or lowered. The axle is lowered to increase the weight capacity, or to distribute the weight of the cargo over more wheels, for example to cross a weight restricted bridge. When not needed, the axle is lifted off the ground to save wear on the tires and axle and to increase traction in the remaining wheels. Lifting an axle also alleviates lateral scrubbing of the additional axle in very tight turns, allowing the vehicle to turn more readily. In some situations removal of pressure from the additional axle is necessary for the vehicle to complete a turn at all.
Several manufacturers offer computer-controlled airlift, so that the dead axles are automatically lowered when the main axle reaches its weight limit. The dead axles can still be lifted by the press of a button if needed.
Full-floating vs semi-floating vs Non-floating: date=March 2010: The full-floating design is typically used in most 3/4 and 1-ton light trucks, medium duty trucks and heavy-duty trucks, as well as most agricultural applications, such as large tractors and combines. There are a few exceptions, such as many Land-Rover vehicles. A full-floating axle can be identified by a protruding hub to which the axle shaft flange is bolted. These axles can carry more weight than a semi-floating or non-floating axle assembly because the hubs have two bearings riding on a fixed spindle. The axle shafts themselves do not carry any weight; they serve only to transmit torque from the differential to the wheels. Full-floating axle shafts are retained by the aforementioned flange bolted to the hub, while the hub and bearings are retained on the spindle by a large nut.
The semi-floating and non-floating design carry the weight of the vehicle on the axle shaft itself; there is a single bearing at the end of the axle housing that carries the load from the axle and that the axle rotates through. With a semi-floating axle, the axles themselves serve as the inner bearing race and are retained by c-clips that are in the differential carrier. Non-floating axles have the bearings (with inner races) pressed onto the axle shaft (usually accompanied by a snap-ring), and are retained by a plate that bolts to a flange on the axle housing. Both of these designs are found under most 1/2 ton and lighter trucks and SUV's, and rear or all-wheel drive cars with live axle suspension, though the non-floating type all but disappeared in American cars and trucks during the late 1970s.
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Essieu
Technologie du transport | Technologie automobile
Un essieu est un arbre placé transversalement sous la caisse d'un véhicule à roues. Il supporte par l’intermédiaire des fusées les roues situées à ses extrémités. Un essieu peut être simplement porteur, ou moteur et/ou directeur.
Essieux ferroviaires : En terme ferroviaire, l’essieu désigne généralement l’ensemble solidaire de l'axe et des roues. Lorsqu’il y a réunion de deux ou plusieurs essieux sur un châssis, on parle alors de bogie. Ainsi on retrouve ces deux essieux couples dans les machines express, trains qui peuvent aller à une vitesse jugée rapide pour l’époque.
La distance séparant l’essieu avant: de l’essieu arrière: d’un véhicule constitue l’empattement.
Types : L'essieu rigide est un type d'essieu composé d'une barre ou d'un axe reliant rigidement les deux roues entre elles.
Fusée : La fusée est l’extrémité effilée de l’essieu sur lequel s’engage le moyeu (automobile, cycles) ou la boîte d’essieu.
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جوزيف لويس فرونسوا بيرتراند
مواليد 1822 | وفيات 1900 | رياضياتيو القرن التاسع عشر | رياضياتيون فرنسيون | عاملون في الهندسة التفاضلية | عاملون في نظرية الأعداد | عاملون في الاحتمالات | أعضاء في الأكاديمية الفرنسية للعلوم | أعضاء في الأكاديمية السويدية الملكية للعلوم | خريجو المدرسة المتعددة التقنيات
ازداد جوزيف لويس فرونسوا بيرتراند في الحادي عشر من مارس عام 1822 و توفي في الخامس من أبريل عام 1900. ولد بباريس و توفي فيها.
هو عالم رياضيات فرنسي عمل في نظرية الأعداد والهندسة التفاضلية و نظرية الاحتمالات والاقتصاد والديناميكا الحرارية.
حدس عام 1845 أن هناك على الأقل عددا أوليا واحدا محصورا بين n و 2n-2 إذا كان n أكبر قطعا من 3. و لقد برهن تشيبيشيف على هاته الحدسية في عام 1850 حيث تسمى الآن مسلمة بيرتراند.
أعماله :
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Joseph Louis François Bertrand
1822 births | 1900 deaths | People from Paris | 19th-century mathematicians | French economists | French mathematicians | Differential geometers | Number theorists | Probability theorists | Members of the Académie française | Members of the French Academy of Sciences | Alumni of the École Polytechnique | Collège de France faculty | Foreign Members of the Royal Society | Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences | Lycée Saint-Louis alumni
Joseph Louis François Bertrand (March 11, 1822 – April 5, 1900, born and died in Paris) was a French mathematician who worked in the fields of number theory, differential geometry, probability theory, economics and thermodynamics.
Bertrand was a professor at the École Polytechnique and Collège de France. He was a member of the Paris Academy of Sciences and was its permanent secretary for twenty-six years. He was the son of physician Alexandre Jacques François Bertrand and the brother of archaeologist Alexandre Bertrand. His father died when Joseph was only nine years old, but that did not stand in his way of learning and understanding algebraic and elementary geometric concepts, and he also could speak Latin fluently, all when he was of the same age of nine.
He conjectured, in 1845, that there is at least one prime between n and 2n − 2 for every n > 3. Chebyshev proved this conjecture, now called Bertrand's postulate, in 1850. He is also famous for a paradox in the field of probability, now known as Bertrand's Paradox. There is another paradox in game theory that is named for him, called the Bertrand Paradox.
Bertrand translated into French Carl Friedrich Gauss's work on the theory of errors and the method of least squares.
In the field of economics he reviewed the work on oligopoly theory, specifically Cournot competition model produced by the French mathematician and economist Augustin Cournot. The model of Bertrand competition argued that Cournot had reached a very misleading conclusion; he reworked Cournot's duopoly model using prices rather than quantities as the strategic variables thus showing that the equilibrium price was simply the competitive price.
In 1858, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
Works by Bertrand: * (Paris : Gauthier-Villars, 1864-1870) (2 volumes treatise on calculus) * (Paris: Imprimerie Impériale, 1867) (report on recent progress in mathematical analysis) * (L. Hachette, 1849) (arithmetics) * (Paris : Gauthier-Villars, 1887) * (Mallet-Bachelier, 1855) (translation of Gauss's work on least squares) * (Paris : Gauthier-Villars et fils, 1890) * (Paris : Gauthier-Villars et fils, 1889) * (Paris : J. Hetzel, 1865) (biography of Arago) * (Paris : C. Lévy, 1891) (biography) * (Paris: J. Hetzel, 1865) (biographies)
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Joseph Bertrand
Mathématicien français | Professeur au Collège de France | Élève de l'École polytechnique (France) | Membre de l'Académie française | Membre de l'Académie des sciences (France) | Membre étranger de la Royal Society | Membre de la Société philomathique de Paris | Professeur de l'École polytechnique (France) | Famille Bertrand - Hermite | Économiste français | Grand officier de la Légion d'honneur | Naissance en 1822 | Naissance à Paris | Décès en 1900 | Ingénieur du corps des mines
Joseph Louis François Bertrand, né le à Paris au 52 rue Saint-André-des-Arts, et mort le à Paris, est un mathématicien, économiste et historien des sciences français. * Carrière
Enfant prodige, il suit à onze ans les cours de l'École Polytechnique en auditeur libre. Entre onze et dix-sept ans, il obtient deux baccalauréats, une licence et le doctorat ès sciences avec une thèse sur la théorie mathématique de l'électricité, puis est admis premier au concours d'entrée 1839 de l'École Polytechnique. Il est ensuite reçu au concours d'agrégation de mathématiques des facultés et premier au premier concours d'agrégation de mathématiques des lycées avec Charles Briot, ainsi qu'à l'École des mines. Il fut professeur de mathématiques au lycée Saint-Louis, répétiteur, examinateur puis professeur d'analyse en 1852 à l'École polytechnique, maître de conférences de calcul différentiel et intégral à l'École normale supérieure et professeur titulaire de la chaire de physique et mathématiques au Collège de France en 1862 en remplacement de Jean-Baptiste Biot.
Il entre à l'Académie des sciences en 1856, où il succède à Charles Sturm. Il en devient secrétaire perpétuel en 1874 (section mathématiques), à la mort d'Élie de Beaumont.
Il s'intéresse alors à l'histoire des sciences, on lui doit en 1865 un mémoire sur Arago et la vie scientifique et la même année une publication sur Les fondateurs de l’astronomie moderne, des recherches sur L’Académie des Sciences et les académiciens de 1666 à 1793 (1868), et La théorie de la lune d’Aboul Wefa (1872) ; il illustre l'histoire des mathématiques par un ouvrage sur D’Alembert (1889) et un autre sur Blaise Pascal (1890) . En 1897, il donne à la Sorbonne une conférence sur François Viète .
Joseph Bertrand était le fils du docteur Alexandre Bertrand (1795-1831), le frère cadet de l'archéologue Alexandre Bertrand (1820-1902), le beau-frère du mathématicien Charles Hermite, et le père du géologue Marcel Bertrand. * Œuvres
En 1845, en analysant une table de nombres premiers jusqu'à , il fait la conjecture qu'il y a toujours au moins un nombre premier entre n et 2n pour tout n entier positif supérieur ou égal à 2. Pafnouti Tchebychev a démontré cette conjecture, le postulat de Bertrand, en 1850.
Pour l'étude de la convergence des series numériques, il mit au point un critère de comparaison plus fin que le critère de Riemann.
En sciences économiques, il s'est intéressé au problème de duopole. * Principaux ouvrages * (Paris : Gauthier-Villars, 1864-1870) (2 volumes) * (Paris: Imprimerie Impériale, 1867) * (L. Hachette, 1849) * (Paris : Gauthier-Villars, 1887) * (Mallet-Bachelier, 1855) * (Paris : Gauthier-Villars et fils, 1890) * ( Paris : Gauthier-Villars et fils, 1889) * (Paris : J. Hetzel, 1865) * (Paris : C. Lévy, 1891) * (Paris: J. Hetzel, 1865) * Distinctions * Membre étranger de la Royal Society (1875) * Membre de l'Académie française (1884), il succède à Jean-Baptiste Dumas * Décorations * Grand officier de la Légion d'honneur
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مهبط ضوئي
كهروضوئيات
المهبط الضوئي يقوم بتحويل الضوء إلى كهرباء, فعند سقوط فوتون واحد على المهبط الضوئي, يتحرر إلكترون من المهبط, بناء على ما اكتشفه أينشتاين في الظاهرة الكهروضوئية.
الظاهرة الكهروضوئية: ظاهرة كهروضوئية: حينما يسقط فوتون واحد على مهبط ضوئي مصنوع على سبيل المثال من مادة زرنيخيد الغاليوم, فإذا امتلك هذا الفوتون طاقة > فجوة الطاقة لزرنيخيد الغاليوم, فإنه بالتالي سيحرر إلكترونا واحدا من إلكترونات المهبط.
الوظيفة: المهبط الضوئي هو مهبط كهربائي يستعمل في الأجهزة الضوئية مثل الصمام الضوئي وصمام التضخيم الضوئي وأجهزة التصوير مثل مشدد الصورة وأنبوبة كاميرا الفيديو. شحنة المهبط سالبة, لانجذاب الإلكترونات إليه, لكن اصطلح العلماء على جعل إشارته موجبة. لإن الشحنات المتنافرة هي التي تتجاذب بينما المتشابهة تتنافر. يتم صنع المهبط الكهربائي من مادة النحاس, لكن المهبط الضوئي يتم تغطيته بمواد حساسة للضوء بدرجة أكبر من النحاس, ومن هذه المواد الفلزات القلوية النشطة كيمائيا.
مواد المهبط الضوئي: بناء على الحاجة ونوع التطبيق, يتم اختيار مادة المهبط الضوئي. ويرتكز الاختيار على معيارين, الأول هو كمية الإلكترونات المحررة لعدد الفوتونات الساقطة أو كفاءة التحرير. والثاني هو الاستقرار الكيمائي للمادة. وبناء على ذلك يتم الاختيار.
من مواد المهبط الضوئي: * الذهب * زرنيخيد الغاليوم * نتريد الغاليوم * يوديد السيزيوم * تيليوريد السيزيوم * زرنيخيد إنديوم غاليوم
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Photocathode
Electrochemistry
A photocathode is a negatively charged electrode in a light detection device such as a photomultiplier or phototube that is coated with a photosensitive compound. When this is struck by a quantum of light (photon), the absorbed energy causes electron emission due to the photoelectric effect.
Coatings: Although a plain metallic cathode will exhibit photoelectric properties, the specialized coating greatly increases the effect. A photocathode usually consists of alkali metals with very low work functions.
The coating releases electrons much more readily than the underlying metal, allowing it to detect the low-energy photons in infrared radiation. The lens transmits the radiation from the object being viewed to a layer of coated glass. The photons strike the metal surface and transfer electrons to its rear side. The freed electrons are then collected to produce the final image.
Photocathode materials: dateOctober 2008: #Ag-O-Cs, also called S-1. This was the first compound photocathode material, developed in 1929. Sensitivity from 300 nm to 1200 nm. Since Ag-O-Cs has a higher dark current than more modern materials photomultiplier tubes with this photocathode material are nowadays used only in the infrared region with cooling. * Sb-Cs (antimony-caesium) has a spectral response from UV to visible and is mainly used in reflection-mode photocathodes. * Bialkali (antimony-rubidium-caesium Sb-Rb-Cs, antimony-potassium-caesium Sb-K-Cs). Spectral response range similar to the Sb-Cs photocathode, but with higher sensitivity and lower dark current than Sb-Cs. They have sensitivity well matched to the most common scintillator materials and so are frequently used for ionizing radiation measurement in scintillation counters. * High temperature bialkali or low noise bialkali (sodium-potassium-antimony, Na-K-Sb). This material is often used in oil well logging since it can withstand temperatures up to 175 °C. At room temperatures, this photocathode operates with very low dark current, making it ideal for use in photon counting applications. * Multialkali (sodium-potassium-antimony-caesium, Na-K-Sb-Cs). The multialkali photocathode has a wide spectral response from the ultraviolet to near infrared region. It is widely used for broad-band spectrophotometers and photon counting applications. The long wavelength response can be extended to 930 nm by a special photocathode activation processing. * GaAs (gallium(II) arsenide). This photocathode material covers a wider spectral response range than multialkali, from ultraviolet to 930 nm. * InGaAs (indium gallium arsenide). Extended sensitivity in the infrared range compared to GaAs. Moreover, in the range between 900 nm and 1000 nm, InGaAs has a much better signal to noise ratio than Ag-O-Cs. With special manufacturing techniques this photocathode can operate up to 1700 nm. * Cs-Te, Cs-I (caesium-telluride, caesium-iodide). These materials are sensitive to vacuum UV and UV rays but not to visible light and are therefore referred to as solar blind. Cs-Te is insensitive to wavelengths longer than 320 nm, and Cs-I to those longer than 200 nm. * References
date: October 2008: Reflist:
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Photocathode
Opto-électronique
Une Photocathode est un matériau capable de convertir un rayonnement en électron par émission secondaire, le plus souvent afin de permettre sa détection.
Présentation: Une photocathode est principalement caractérisée par son rendement quantique d'émission, qui dépend fortement de l'énergie du rayonnement incident sur la photocathode. D'autres paramètres tels que sa stabilité chimique, ou sa robustesse à la pollution par des impuretés issus de son milieu, sont aussi des éléments de choix.
On trouve de nombreux matériaux susceptibles de servir de base à des photocathodes. Parmi les plus communs on trouve notamment l'or, le CsI, GaN... Ces matériaux ne présentent pas tous les mêmes caractéristiques et sont choisis en fonction des besoins.
Utilisation : Les photocathodes sont principalement utilisées au sein de Photomultiplicateurs. Elles sont aussi utilisées dans les tubes de vision nocturne, streak tubes, bref dans tous les détécteurs qui transforment la lumière en électrons.
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مسييه 100
فهرس مسييه | بقايا مستعر أعظم | سديم | أجسام الفهرس العام الجديد
مسييه 100 أو م100 (بالإنجليزية : Messier 100) هي مجرة حلزونية تشبه مجرة درب التبانة ويرمز لها طبقا للفهرس الفلكي الجديد NGC 4321. وهي تبعد عن الأرض بنحو 5و52 مليون سنة ضوئية في كوكبة الهلبة. وتوجد هذه المجرة في مجموعة مجرات فيرجو وهي من أشد مجرات هذا التجمع لمعانا. وقد اكتشفت في المجرة مسييه 100 خمسة من المستعرات وتسمى بالإنجليزية : SN 1901B و- SN 1914A و- SN 1959E و- SN 1979C و- SN 2006X.
كما يوجد للمجرة مسييه 100 مجرة صغير تابعة وتسمي NGC 4323.
بعض الصور : HUBBLE SPACE TELESCOPE IMAGES OF M100
اقرأ أيضا : * قائمة أكبر النجوم * مجرة راديوية * مجرة مظلمة * مجرة حلزونية * نجم * مجرة * قزم أبيض * عملاق أحمر * الانفجار العظيم * خط زمني للانفجار العظيم * نجم نيوتروني * ثقب أسود * انفجار GRB 080319B * انفجار GRB 090423 * نجم ولف-رايت
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Messier 100
Spiral galaxies | Intermediate spiral galaxies | Virgo Cluster | Coma Berenices constellation | Messier objects | NGC objects
Messier 100 (also known as NGC 4321) is an example of a grand design spiral galaxy located within the southern part of constellation Coma Berenices. It is one of the brightest galaxies in the Virgo cluster, approximately 55 million light-years distant from Earth and has a diameter of 160,000 light years. It was discovered by Pierre Méchain on March 15, 1781 and was subsequently entered in Messier’s catalogue of nebulae and star clusters after Charles Messier made observations of his own on April 13, 1781. The galaxy was one of the first spirals discovered, and was listed as 1 of 14 spiral nebulae by Lord William Parsons of Rosse in 1850. A satellite galaxy named NGC 4323 is present within M100.
Early observations: After the discovery of M100 by Méchain, Charles Messier made observations of the galaxy depicting it as a nebula without a star. He pointed out that it was difficult to recognize the nebula because of its faintness. William Herschel was able to identify a bright cluster of stars within the nebula during observations he did before John Herschel expanded the findings in 1833. With the advent of better telescopes, John Herschel was able to see a round, brighter galaxy; however, he also mentioned that it was barely visible through clouds but he still indicated that it was faint. William Henry Smyth extended the studies of M100, detailing it as a pearly white nebula and pointing out diffuse spots. * Supernovae
Five supernovae have been identified in the M100 galaxy. In March 1901 the first supernova of M100 was found, SN 1901B, a type I supernova found when magnitude 15.6 at a distance from its nucleus. SN 1914A was then discovered in February to March 1914; its type was undeterminable but was found when magnitude 15.7 at some distance from the center. Observations of M100 from February 21, 1960 to June 17, 1960 led to the discovery of SN 1959E, another type I supernova, with the faintest magnitude, 17.5, among the five found, at 58"E and 21"S from its nucleus. On April 15, 1979, the first type II supernova found in the M100 galaxy was discovered; however the star SN 1979C faded quickly; later observations from x-ray to radio wavelengths revealed its remnant. The latest supernova was discovered February 7, 2006; the star SN 2006X had a magnitude of 15.3 when discovered two weeks before fading to magnitude +17. * Images
* References==
2:
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M100
Constellation de la Chevelure de Bérénice | Galaxie spirale intermédiaire | Objet de Messier | Objet du catalogue NGC
M100 est une galaxie spirale, vue exactement de dessus, située dans la Chevelure de Bérénice. Elle fut découverte en 1781 par Pierre Méchain puis intégrée par son ami Charles Messier dans son catalogue quelques semaines plus tard. * Caractéristiques
Grâce à la découverte en 1993 de 20 céphéides par le télescope spatial Hubble, la distance de la galaxie a pu être estimée à 56 millions d'années-lumière. C'est d'ailleurs M100 qui servit de test au télescope spatial et qui en montra les défauts optiques au début de la mission. La galaxie est située dans l'amas de la Vierge dont elle est l'une des principales composantes avec M87. Ses bras spiraux les plus brillants sont peuplés d'étoiles bleues issues de l'interaction de la galaxie avec des galaxies voisines. Le diamètre de la galaxie est plus élevé que celui de la Voie lactée puisqu'il est d'environ 120 000 années-lumière.
Durant le XXe siècle: , pas moins de quatre supernovas ont été recensées dans la galaxie : 1901B, 1914A, 1959E et 1979C dont la magnitude atteignit 11,6 en avril 1979, ce qui est rare pour une galaxie aussi éloignée.
En 2006, fut détectée SN 2006X, supernova de type Ia. * Observation ==
La galaxie a une magnitude assez faible de 9,4 et est donc impossible à observer aux jumelles. Une lunette astronomique permet cependant d'en observer le noyau sous l'apparence d'une tache floue. Un télescope d'au moins 200 mm est requis pour observer les régions périphériques du noyau sous la forme d'un halo pâle. Un télescope de 400 mm est nécessaire pour distinguer les bras spiraux.
Ces bras spiraux peuvent cependant être discernés plus facilement grâce à une photographie à longue pose sur un télescope de 200 mm.
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ساسكيا فان يولنبرج
مواليد 1612 | وفيات 1642 | وفيات بالدرن | رامبرانت
ساسكيا فان يولنبرج (هولندية: : Saskia van Uylenburgh، عاشت 2 أغسطس 1612 - 14 يونيو 1642 م) ابنة العمدة الفريزي والتي أصبحت فيما بعد زوجة للرسام الهولندي رامبرانت وموضوعا لبعض رسوماته.
حياتها : ولدت ساسكيا، وهي الأصغر بين أبناء محام كبير وعمدة وأحد مؤسسي جامعة فرانكير وهو رومبرتس فان يولنبرج، في ليواردن. تيتمت ساسكيا في الثانية عشر بعد وفاة والدتها، سجوكجي أوزينجا، ووالدها بعدها بخمس سنوات.
التقت ساسكيا برامبرانت عن طريق ابن عمها هندريك فان يولنبرج. هندريك هذا هاجر مع والديه إلى كراكوف في بولندا لكنه قرر أن يرحل إلى أمستردام في 1625 م. ومنذ عام 1631 م قام رامبرانت بإنتاج لوحات لزبائن هندريك، والذي كان رساما وتاجرا فنيا، في أمستردام ومن المينونيت. تزوج رامبرانت بساسكيا في 22 يونيو 1634 م في هت بلت حيث تعيش مع أختها هيسكجي وزوجها جيرار فان لو -وهو محام وموظف في المدينة-. وكانت ساسكيا قد عاشت لفترة في فرانكير حيث ماتت أختها أنتجي. بعد دفنها، ساعدت ساسكيا زوج أختها يوهانس ماكويس، الأستاذ البولندي، الذي كان مشغولا في تدريس اللاهوت.
من عام 1635 م عمل رامبرانت تدريب الطلاب في معهده، ومن أشهر هؤلاء غوفرت فلنكر وغيربرانت فان دين إيكهاوت وفرديناند بول. حقق رامبرانت نجاحا ماديا من أعماله الفنية مكنّه، في عام 1639 م، من الرحيل مع زوجه إلى بيت مميز في شارع جودنبريسترات إلى جانب معرض ابن عمها في الحي اليهودي، وهو الآن متحف بيت رامبرانت. أنجبت ساسكيا لرامبرانت أربعة أبناء توفي ثلاث منهم. ابنهم الرابع عمّد في 22 سبتمبر 1641 م وأسموه تيتس نسبة لخالته تيتا. بعد عام من ولادة تيتس توفيت ساسكيا بالدرن على ما يعتقد، ودفنت في الكنيسة القديمة في أمستردام.
بعد وفاتها : أعطى رامبرانت حلي وخواتم ساسكيا بعد فترة من وفاتها للمرضعة غيرتج ديركس، مما أثار استياء عائلة يولنبرج. وبعد بضع سنوات توقعت غيرتج أن تتزوج من رامبرانت ولكنها خافت أن ذلك سيؤدي إلى فقدانها لتركة ساسكيا، فغادرت وحاولت بيع الحلي، إلا أن رامبرانت ذهب إلى المحكمة واستطاع أن يزج بها في بيت للمجانين في غودا.
وفي سنواته الأخيرة قام تيتس مع عشيقة والده، وخادمتهم السابقة، هندريكه ستوفيلس باستئجار رامبرانت لرسم اللوحات. وكان ذلك ليمكن رامبرانت من رسم المزيد من اللوحات من دون مسائلته من قبل الدائنين. وفي 27 أكتوبر 1662 م، باع رامبرانت قبر ساسكيا ليوفر المصاريف اللازمة لدفن هندريكه.
المصدر : * ساسكيا فان يولنبرج من ويكبيديا الإنجليزية
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Saskia van Uylenburgh
1612 births | 1642 deaths | People from Leeuwarden | Dutch artists' models | Deaths from tuberculosis | Rembrandt | Infectious disease deaths in the Netherlands
Saskia van Uylenburgh (August 2, 1612, Leeuwarden, Friesland – June 14, 1642 in Amsterdam) was the daughter of a Frisian mayor. She did not marry an academic, but became the wife of painter Rembrandt van Rijn, who was the son of a wealthy miller from Leiden. In the course of her life she was his model for some of his paintings, drawings and etchings.
Asteroid 461 Saskia is named in her honour.
Life: Saskia was born in Leeuwarden, the youngest of the 8 children of Sjoukje Ozinga and Rombertus van Uylenburgh, a top lawyer, a town burgomaster, and one of the founders of the University of Franeker. Saskia (called Saske in Friesland) was orphaned by age 12, as her mother died in 1619 and her father 5 years later. Supposedly she met Rembrandt at the home of her uncle, Hendrick van Uylenburgh, a painter and art dealer who had emigrated from Friesland to Kraków in Poland with his parents but decided in 1625 to move to the Dutch Republic, where there was growing tolerance after the death of Maurice of Orange.
Saskia was raised by her sister Hiskje and her husband, Gerard van Loo, a lawyer and secretary in the grietenij Het Bildt. For a while she lived in Franeker when her sister Antje was ill. After Antje's burial, Saskia assisted her brother-in-law, the Polish theology professor Johannes Maccovius, until she married Rembrandt in 1634.
In 1631 and in the company of the Mennonite painters Govert Flinck and Jacob Backer, Saskia traveled to Amsterdam. There she met Rembrandt, who produced paintings and portraits for Uylenburgh's Amsterdam clients.
In turn Rembrandt travelled to Leeuwarden, where he was received by the painter Wybrand de Geest, who had married Saskia's niece.
Saskia and Rembrandt were engaged in 1633, and on 10 June 1634 Rembrandt asked permission to marry in Sint Annaparochie. He showed his mother's written consent to the schepen. On 2 July the couple married. The preacher was Saskia's cousin, but evidently none of Rembrandt's family attended the marriage. In 1635 the couple moved to one of the posh streets in Amsterdam, the Nieuwe Doelenstraat, with prominent neighbors and a view of the river Amstel.
Rembrandt gained financial success through his artwork, and decided in 1639 to buy to a house in the Jodenbreestraat, next to the place where he worked. A year before, by July 16, 1638, Saskia's Friesian relatives complained that Saskia was spoiling her inheritance. Rembrandt asked his brother-in-law Ulricus van Uylenburgh, also a lawyer, to help them out, confirming he was successful and able to pay for the house.
Three of their children died shortly after birth and were buried in the nearby Zuiderkerk. The sole survivor was Titus, who was named after his mother's sister Titia (Tietje) van Uylenburgh. Saskia died the year after he was born, aged 29, probably from tuberculosis. She was buried in the Oude Kerk. For ten years Rembrandt focused on drawings and etchings.
Saskia allowed Rembrandt to use their son's inheritance as long as he did not remarry. If Titus died without issue, Rembrandt would be the heir of the moveable property. Rembrandt hired Geertje Dircx as a wetnurse; in 1649 she expected him to marry her. The next year Rembrandt had her locked up in a house of correction when Hendrickje Stoffels had become his new housekeeper and mistress. In 1662 Rembrandt, for several years being in financial trouble, sold Saskia's grave. Hendrickje died the following year.
References:
Source: * Graaff, A. & M. Roscam Abbing (2006) Rembrandt voor Dummies. Addison Wesley.
Saskia van Uylenburgh:
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Saskia van Uylenburgh
Personnalité néerlandaise du XVIIe siècle | Rembrandt | Siècle d'or néerlandais | Naissance en 1612 | Décès en 1642 | Naissance à Leeuwarden
Saskia van Uylenburgh ( - ) fut la femme du peintre hollandais Rembrandt, ainsi que la modèle représentée dans plusieurs de ses peintures et dessins.
La vie : Née à Leeuwarden, Saskia était la plus jeune des huit enfants de Rombertus van Uylenburgh, un célèbre avocat, bourgmestre de la ville ainsi que un de fondateurs de l'Université de Franeker. La jeune fille resta orpheline à l'âge de douze ans, après la mort de sa mère, Sjoukje Ozinga, et de son père cinq ans après.
Saskia rencontra Rembrandt grâce à son cousin, Hendrick van Uylenburgh, peintre et marchand d'art, qui s'était établit à Amsterdam de la Pologne en 1625 et qui était devenu un des marchands à qui l'artiste confiait ses œuvres pour la vente.
La couple se maria le 22 juin 1634 à Het Bildt, où Saskia avait été élevée par sa sœur Hiskje et son beau-frère Gerard van Loo. Une autre sœur, Antje, est morte jeune. Après son enterrement Saskia est allée au service d'un autre beau-frère, le professeur polonais Johannes Maccovius, qui apprendait la théologie à Franeker.
Rembrandt réussit à atteindre une certaine aisance grâce à la reconnaissance de sa valeur comme peintre et, en 1639, avec Saskia, ils s'établirent dans une élégante maison dans la Jodenbreestraat. La maison se trouvait aux alentours de la galerie du cousin d'elle dans le quartier juif et a été actuellement transformée dans le Rembrandthuis museum. Trois des enfants du couple sont morts peu après la naissance. Le 22 septembre 1641 ils eurent enfin leur fils Titus, ainsi appelé en l'honneur de la tante maternelle Titia (Tietje) van Uylenburgh. Saskia mourut l'année suivante, probablement de tuberculose, et fut enterrée à l'intérieur de la Oude Kerk.
Après la mort de Saskia : Après un certain temps, Rembrandt donna les bijoux et les bagues ayant appartenu à Saskia à la nourrice Geertje Dircx, un geste peu apprécié par la famille Uylenburgh. Quelques années plus tard Geertje désirant que le peintre l'épouse, devait en cela l'obliger à renoncer à l'héritage de Saskia, et le mariage ne se fit pas. Geertje s'en alla et essaya de vendre les bijoux, Rembrandt s'adressa au tribunal et fit enfermer Geertje dans un asile à Gouda.
Titus et la nouvelle compagne de son père, leur ex-bonne Hendrickje Stoffels, s'occupèrent de donner du travail à Rembrandt dans ses dernières années : une solution astucieuse pour lui permettre de peindre sans être assiégé par les créanciers. Le 27 octobre 1662 Rembrandt vend la tombe de Saskia pour pouvoir payer l'enterrement de Hendrickje.
Notes et références : Références: Bibliographie : * Graaff, A. & M. Roscam Abbing (2006). Rembrandt voor Dummies. Addison Wesley.
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لعبة متصفح
ألعاب المتصفح
ألعاب المتصفح هي ألعاب إلكترونية تمارس من خلال شبكة الإنترنت. تتميز ألعاب المتصفح عن ألعاب الفيديو وألعاب الحاسوب من حيث أنها لا تطلب تنزيل برامج على جهاز العميل المستخدم. يمكن للمستخدم ممارسة هذه الألعاب من خلال متصفح الويب. بعض هذه الألعاب تعتمد على ملحقات يتم تثبيتها على جهاز المتسخدم مثل الفلاش والجافا.
الانتشار : تلقى ألعاب الفلاش انتشارا واسعا على صفحات الإنترنت، وتتميز بخفتها وسهولة اللعب فيها وبساطتها وهناك مئات آلاف ألعاب الفلاش المنتشرة على الإنترنت، وتلقي ألعاب الفلاش رواجًا كبيرًا في الأسواق في الفترة الحالية باعتبارها ألعاب للأطفال.
أماكن تواجد ألعاب المتصفح: في الغالب تتواجد ألعاب المتصفح في ما يسمى موقع ألعاب
اقرأ أيضا : * لعبة إنترنت
بذرة ألعاب فيديو:
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Browser game
Browser-based games | Video game genres
A browser game is a computer game that is played over the Internet using a web browser. Browser games can be created and run using standard web technologies or browser plug-ins. Browser games include all video game genres and can be single-player or multiplayer. Browser games are also portable and can be played on multiple different devices or web browsers.
Browser games come in many genres and themes that appeal to both core players and casual players. * Characteristics
Browser games are often free-to-play and do not require any client software to be installed apart from a web browser. Multiplayer browser games have an additional focus on social interaction, often on a massive scale. Due to the accessibility of browser games, they are often played in more frequent, shorter sessions compared to traditional computer games.
Since browser games run isolated from hardware in a web browser, they can run on many different operating systems without having to be ported to each platform. * Technologies
Browser games can take advantage of different technologies in order to function. * Web standards
Standard web technologies such as HTML, CSS, and JavaScript can be used to make browser games, but these have had limited success because of issues with browser compatibility and quality. These technologies, collectively termed dynamic HTML, allow for games that can be run in all standards-compliant browsers. In addition, dedicated graphics technologies such as SVG and canvas allow for the fast rendering of vector and raster graphics respectively. In addition, WebGL allows for hardware-accelerated 3D support in the browser.
Plug-in : Browser plug-ins can be used to provide game technologies after being installed by the user.
* Criticisms ==
Browser games can be a distraction in work environments, causing lost productivity. A noteworthy example occurred in May, 2010, when Google replaced their normal logo with a playable rendition of Pac-Man. Research concluded that Google's playable logo caused users to spend an extra 36 seconds on Google's homepage, causing workplaces an estimated total of 4.82 million hours of lost productivity at an estimated cost of over $120 million USD.
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Jeu sur navigateur internet
Jeu par navigateur
Le jeu par navigateur ou jeu sur navigateur est un type de jeu en ligne qui se joue par l'intermédiaire d'un navigateur, directement à partir du Web, sans qu'aucun téléchargement ni installation ne soit nécessaire.
On peut le nommer selon la technologie employée : jeu flash, jeu java, jeu PHP, jeu par forum, etc.
Des distinctions peuvent être faites entre les jeux monojoueurs et les jeux multijoueurs, les jeux en temps réel (généralement des jeux d'action en Flash) et les jeux asynchrones à monde persistant, les jeux textuels (par forum) et les jeux automatisés. Cette grande diversité de types de jeux fait que le terme est très vague et sujet à confusion.
Ces jeux bénéficient de soins particuliers quant à leurs productions du fait des contraintes évidentes d'internet. La gestions des données, la taille et le poids des images et/ou animations font de cette catégorie de jeu une alternative à l'utilisation primaire du Web qui est la simple consultation d'information.
Ces jeux sont la plupart du temps gratuits mais peuvent offrir des possibilités plus développées aux joueurs souscrivant à un abonnement ou en utilisant une boutique en ligne (appelée item-shop). Les objectifs de ces jeux sont variés, retraçant dans la majorité des cas une forme de simulation de gestion (élevage, contrôle monétaire d'une ville, gestion sportive, etc...), mais aussi des jeux de stratégie et des jeux de rôle. Certains d'entre eux sont multijoueurs et permettent d'affronter des adversaires réels. Cependant, le jeu en temps réel par navigateur n'est que peu développé, et la plupart des jeux fonctionnent donc en mode asynchrone, reprenant les principes du jeu par correspondance. C'est pourquoi les joueurs doivent surveiller au jour le jour l'évolution de leur partie (nourrir un personnage afin de lui éviter la maladie ou la mort, par exemple).
Les nouvelles possibilités des réseaux sociaux du web 2.0 commencent également à attirer la création de jeux par navigateur dans ces environnements particuliers, donnant naissance aux "social games", terme encore non francisé.
Jeux basés sur des scripts serveurs : Un nombre important de jeux sont créés en utilisant des scripts fonctionnant sur des serveurs distants équipés de technologie PHP ou ASP qui sont les plus répandues. Beaucoup intègrent en plus des technologies Ajax pour une plus grand interactivité.
Parmi ces scripts, on note les tâches cron. Les crons sont des scripts automatisées associés à l'horloge du serveur, et programmées pour se lancer à une certaine fréquence (toutes les heures par exemple) ou bien à heure fixe chaque jour (à minuit tous les personnages gagnent leur salaire journalier). Les Crons permettent un allègement de la programmation des sites de jeu par navigateur, et offrent une plus grande liberté aux programmeurs.
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عسلة يابانية
خمانية | نباتات زينة
العسلة اليابانية أو الياسمين العراتلي أو الياسمين العراقي Lonicera japonica: نبات زينة متسلق، موطنه اليابان وينتشر في المشرق العربي. ينتمي النبات إلى جنس العسلة من الفصيلة الخمانية.
الوصف النباتي : نبات معمر ومتسلق ودائم الخضرة بالتفاف الأفرع ويرتفع حتى 6 أمتار.
الورقة جميلة نادرا ما تتساقط، بيضوية الشكل متقابلة متصالبة مغطاة بأوبار على سطحها السفلي. النبات سريع النمو يزهر في الربيع والصيف وموسم أزهاره طويل قد يمتد إلى موسم الخريف. زهرته أنبوبية الشكل بيضاء سمنية تتحول إلى الأصفر وتتدلى ولها رائحة عطرية زكية وشديدة. للزهرة خمس بتلات متصلة عند قاعدتها ومنفصلة عند القمة، ولها خمسة مئابر. يتكاثر النبات بالعقل بالترقيد وبالخلفات وتنصح زراعته في المناطق المعرضة للشمس.
يزرع عادة قرب الاسوار والأسيجة.
مصادر : ثبت المراجع: بذرة نبات:
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Lonicera japonica
Lonicera | Flora of Japan | Garden plants of Asia | Vines | Drought-tolerant plants | Invasive plant species | Invasive plant species in the United States | Invasive plant species in Hawaii | Dietary supplements | Medicinal plants | Plants used in Traditional Chinese medicine
italictitle:
The Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica; Suikazura in Japanese; Jinyinhua in Chinese; in Chinese and Japanese) is a species of honeysuckle native to eastern Asia including China (northern and eastern P.R.China and Taiwan), Japan, and Korea. It is a twining vine able to climb up to high or more in trees, with opposite, simple oval leaves long and broad. The flowers are double-tongued, opening white and fading to yellow, and sweetly vanilla scented. The fruit is a globose dark blue berry diameter containing numerous seeds.
It is an invasive species in a number of countries.
Taxonomy, nomenclature & codification : dateMay 2010: : Cultivation and uses
This species is sold by American nurseries, often as the cultivar 'Hall's Prolific' (Lonicera Japonica var. Halliana). It is an effective groundcover, and has pleasant, strong-smelling flowers. It can be cultivated by seed, cuttings, or layering. In addition, it will spread itself via shoots if given enough space to grow.
In both its native and introduced range, Japanese Honeysuckle can be a significant source of food for deer, rabbits, hummingbirds and other wildlife. * Invasive species
Japanese Honeysuckle has become naturalized in Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Mexico, New Zealand and much of the United States, including Hawaii, as well as a number of Pacific and Caribbean islands.
In the United States Japanese Honeysuckle is classified as a noxious weed in Texas , Illinois, and Virginia, and is banned in New Hampshire. It grows extremely rapidly in parts of America such as southwestern Ohio and is virtually impossible to control in naturalized woodland edge zones due to its rapid spread via tiny fruit seeds. It forms a tall dense woody shrub layer that aggressively displaces native plants. It's also very difficult to manage in semi-wild areas, such as in large rural yards.
It is listed on the New Zealand National Pest Plant Accord as an unwanted organism.
It can be controlled to some degree via labor-intensive methods such as cutting or burning the plant to root level and repeating at two-week intervals until nutrient reserves in the roots are depleted. It can also be controlled through annual applications of glyphosate, or through grubbing if high labor and soil destruction are not of concern. Cutting the honeysuckle to within 5–10 cm of the ground and then applying glyphosate has proven to be more effectivedateMay 2010: , provided that the mixture is rather concentrated (20–25%) and is applied immediately after making the cut. * Chinese medicine
date: March 2011: The Japanese Honeysuckle flower is of high medicinal value in traditional Chinese medicine, where it is called rěn dōng téng (c忍冬藤: ; literally "winter enduring vine" date: May 2010: ) or jīn yín huā (c: ; literally "gold silver flower"). Alternate Chinese names include Er Hua and Shuang Hua. It has antibacterial and anti-inflammatory propertiesdate: May 2010: , and is used (often in combination with Forsythia suspensa) to dispel heat and remove toxins, including carbuncles, fevers, influenza and ulcers. In Korean, it is called geumeunhwa. The dried leaves are also used in traditional Chinese medicine.
Jin Yin Hua (Japanese Honeysuckle, Flos Lonicerae Japonicae) is notable for its inclusion in the traditional Chinese medicine herbal formula Honeysuckle and Forsythia Powder. In pinyin, this formula is called Yin Qiao San. Traditional indications for use of this formula include fever, headache, cough, thirst, and sore throat. For indications such as this, it is common to find Japanese Honeysuckle paired in Chinese medicine herbal formulations with Forsythia (Lian Qiao, Fructus Forsythiae Suspensae). According to Chinese medicine, these herbs, when combined, have a synergistic medicinal effect to address indications such as fever with headache and sore throat. This is why these two herbs are considered "paired herbs."
In Chinese medicine, Jin Yin Hua is classfied with a temperature property of cold. The cold designation specifically refers to, in this case, to Jin Yin Hua's antitoxin, anti-bacterial, antipyretic, and anti-inflammatory properties. Also, according to traditional Chinese medicine, Jin Yin Hua is contraindicated for patients with medical conditions that are diagnosed as deficient and cold in nature unless combined with other herbs to balance the temperature nature of Jin Yin Hua. In layperson terms, Jin Yin Hua is used in Chinese medicine to address what are called excess heat conditions such as fevers, skin rashes, and sore throat. Excess heat conditions are essentially inflammatory processes involving heat, redness, pain, and swelling often due to external pathogenic factors such as bacteria and viruses. The cold nature of Jin Yin Hua is considered to cool the heat nature of the heat related conditions. For example, Jin Yin Hua's antibacterial properties can help to cool a fever. In this case, the cold herb treats the heat condition. However, should a patient present with what is termed as a cold condition such as aversion to cold with cold limbs, cold and pain in the abdomen, and abdominal pain relieved by warmth, then Jin Yin Hua's cold nature is said to be contraindicated for treating the pre-existing cold condition. Should an herbalist choose to use Jin Yin Hua in an herbal formula for a patient with a cold condition, he/she would then choose to balance the temperature of Jin Yin Hua with another herb that is warming in nature.
References: 2:
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Chèvrefeuille du Japon
Flore (nom vernaculaire) | Caprifoliaceae (Cronquist) | Caprifoliaceae | Plante grimpante | Plante envahissante | Espèce invasive en Belgique
végétal :
Taxobox fin: Le chèvrefeuille du Japon (Lonicera japonica) Suikazura ou スイカズラ en japonais), Japanese Honeysuckle en Anglais est une liane arbustive de la famille des Caprifoliacées originaire de l'Asie du Sud-Est.
Variétés : Japanese Honeysuckle chinensis
Japanese Honeysuckle repens
Habitat : Originaire de l'Est de l'Asie il est maintenant subspontané et même naturalisé en France .
C'est aujourd'hui une plante invasive en Amérique et en Nouvelle-Zélande depuis qu'elle y a été introduite comme plante décorative par le commerce horticole.
Elle semble notamment profiter des lisières artificielles pour se propager le long des routes et pistes forestières.
Synonymes : * Caprifolium hallianum Hort. * Lonicera brachypoda DC. * Lonicera flexuosa Thun. * Lonicera japonica var. chinensis (P.W. Wats.) Baker * Moonlord * Nintooa japonica (Thunb.) Sweet
Description : C'est une liane double capable de monter à plusieurs mètres de hauteur en s'accrochant aux arbres. Elles peuvent ainsi l'étouffer en masquant ses feuilles, ce qui bloque la photosynthèse.
Ses feuilles simples ovales opposées mesurent 3 à 8 cm de long sur 2 à 3 cm de larges.
Ses fleurs blanches virant au jaune sont parfumées.
Le fruit est une baie globuleuse de 5 à 8 mm de diamètre contenant de nombreuses graines.
Utilisation : Le Chèvrefeuille du Japon est utilisé par la médecine traditionnelle chinoise
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هومو (جنس)
رئيسيات
الهومو، إنسان (جنس)، Homo: هو جنس من فصيلة الرئيسيات يضم الإنسان الحديث. لم يتبق من هذا الجنس سوى الإنسان الحالي المعروف علميًا باسم الإنسان العاقل العاقل أما باقي أنواع هذا الجنس فقد انقرضت. تعود أقدم بقايا هذا الجنس إلى ما قبل 2.5 مليون عام.
هناك عدة مميزات لجنس الهومو لا توجد في باقي الرئيسيات، وبعض هذه الصفات متواجدة لدى بعض الرئيسيات ولكن بصورة أقل بكثير مثل: * حجم جمجمة كبير ويشمل حيزا كبيرا للمخ إذ يعتقد أنه نما بسبب ضعف وضيق عضلة اللثة * المشي على اثنين وهي صفة يشترك في الإنسان مع الإنسان الحديث * قدرة استيعاب واسعة وفهم للروابط والعلاقات بين الأشياء والتفأثيرات المميزة للحركات والتغيرات المختلفة * بناء أدوات معقدة واستخدام الادوات لصنع أدوات * قدرة على الاتصال ولغة معقدة وميل طبيعي لتطوير لغة مشتركة مع بني جنسه وإن كانوا لا يشتركون في نفس اللغة.
تم حتى الآن اكتشاف عدد من الأنواع وإدراجها في تصنيف الإنسان كجنس وهي:
الإنسان الماهر، إنسان بحيرة رودولف، إنسان جيورجيا، الإنسان العامل، الإنسان المنتصب
إنسان سيبرانو، الإنسان السالف، إنسان هايدلبيرغ، إنسان نياندرتال، إنسان روديسيا، إنسان فلوريس، الإنسان العاقل القديم، الإنسان الحديث تشريحيًا: (الإنسان العاقل الأول، الإنسان العاقل العاقل).
بذرة أحياء: بذرة تطور:
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Homo
Human evolution | Hominina
Homo (disambiguation): Pliocene–present
Homo is the genus that includes modern humans and species closely related to them. The genus is estimated to be about 2.3 to 2.4 million years old, evolving from australopithecine ancestors with the appearance of Homo habilis.
Specifically, H. habilis is assumed to be the direct descendant of Australopithecus garhi which lived about 2.5 million years ago. However in May 2010, H. gautengensis was discovered, a species believed to be even older than H. habilis.
The most salient physiological development between the two species is the increase in cranial capacity, from about in A. garhi to in H. habilis. Within the Homo genus, cranial capacity again doubled from H. habilis through H. Ergaster or H. Erectus to H. heidelbergensis by 0.6 million years ago. The cranial capacity of H. heidelbergensis overlaps with the range found in modern humans.
The advent of Homo was thought to coincide with the first evidence of stone tools (the Oldowan industry), and thus by definition with the beginning of the Lower Palaeolithic; however, recent evidence from Ethiopia now places the earliest evidence of stone tool usage at before 3.39 million years ago . The emergence of Homo coincides roughly with the onset of Quaternary glaciation, the beginning of the current ice age.
All species of the genus except Homo sapiens (modern humans) are extinct. Homo neanderthalensis, traditionally considered the last surviving relative, died out about 24,000 years ago, though a recent discovery suggests that another species, Homo floresiensis, discovered in 2003, may have lived as recently as 12,000 years ago. The other extant Homininae—the chimpanzees and gorillas—have a limited geographic range. In contrast, the evolution of humans is a history of migrations and admixture. Humans repeatedly left Africa to populate Eurasia and finally the Americas, Oceania, and the rest of the world. * Naming
List of alternative names for the human species: In biological sciences, particularly anthropology and palaeontology, the common name for all members of the genus Homo is "human".
The word homo is Latin, in the original sense of "human being", or "man" (in the gender-neutral sense). The word "human" itself is from Latin humanus, an adjective cognate to homo, both thought to derive from a Proto-Indo-European word for "earth" reconstructed as * dhǵhem-: .
The binominal name Homo sapiens is due to Carl Linnaeus (1758).
Names for other species were coined beginning in the second half of the 19th century (H. neanderthalensis 1864, H. erectus 1892). * Species
Species status of Homo rudolfensis, H. ergaster, H. georgicus, H. antecessor, H. cepranensis, H. rhodesiensis and H. floresiensis remains under debate. H. heidelbergensis and H. neanderthalensis are closely related to each other and have been considered to be subspecies of H. sapiens. Recently, nuclear DNA from a Neanderthal specimen from Vindija Cave has been sequenced as well, using two different methods that yield similar results regarding Neanderthal and H. sapiens lineages, with both analyses suggesting a date for the split between 460,000 and 700,000 years ago, though a population split of around 370,000 years is inferred. The nuclear DNA results indicate that about 30% of derived alleles in H. sapiens are also in the Neanderthal lineage. This high frequency may suggest some gene flow between ancestral humans and Neanderthal populations.
Homo: : Migration and admixture==
Homo habilis, which is considered the first member of the genus Homo, gave rise to Homo ergaster. Some of the H. ergaster migrated to Asia, where they are named Homo erectus, and to Europe with Homo georgicus. H. ergaster in Africa and H. erectus in Eurasia evolved separately for almost two million years and presumably separated into two different species. Homo rhodesiensis, who were descended from H. ergaster, migrated from Africa to Europe and became Homo heidelbergensis and later (about 250,000 years ago) Homo sapiens neanderthalensis and the Denisova hominin in Asia. The first Homo sapiens sapiens, descendants of H. rhodesiensis, appeared in Africa about 250,000 years ago. About 100,000 years ago, some H. sapiens sapiens migrated from Africa to the Levant and met with resident Neanderthals, with some admixture. Later, about 70,000 years ago, perhaps after the Toba catastrophe, a small group left the Levant to populate Eurasia, Australia and later the Americas. A sub-group among them met the Denisovans^ Reich D, Green RE, Kircher M, et al. (December 2010). "Genetic history of an archaic hominin group from Denisova Cave in Siberia". Nature 468 (7327): 1053–60. doi:10.1038/nature09710. PMID 21179161. and, after further admixture, migrated to populate Melanesia. In this scenario, non-African people living today are mostly of African origin ("Out of Africa model"). However there was also some admixture with Neanderthals and Denisovans, who had evolved locally (the "multiregional hypothesis"). Recent genomic results from the group of Svante Pääbo also show that 30,000 years ago at least three major subspecies co-existed: Denisovans, Neanderthals and Cro-magnons. Today, only H. sapiens sapiens remains, with no other extant species or subspecies.
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Homo
Hominidé
:Cet article porte sur lHomme en tant que genre.
Taxobox fin: Homo est le genre qui réunit l'Homme moderne et les espèces apparentées. Le genre apparaît entre environ 2,5 et 2 MA : . Toutes les espèces sont éteintes sauf Homo sapiens ; les dernières espèces apparentées, Homo floresiensis et Homo neanderthalensis, ont disparu respectivement il y a 18 000 et 28 000 ans, bien que des éléments récemment découverts suggèrent que Homo floresiensis ait pu survivre jusqu'à il y a 12 000 ans, et qu'un métissage ancien entre les hommes de Néandertal et les humains anatomiquement modernes aurait été découvert ,: .
Étymologie : Homo, en latin, signifie homme, être humain: , au sens générique, tandis que vir désigne l'homme : au sens de mâle de l'espèce humaine: , opposé à femina, femme: . Le mot dérive lui-même du latin archaïque hĕmo, lui-même de l'indo-européen * dʰǵʰm̥mō (« [chose / fils] de la terre »).
C'est Carl von Linné qui nomma ce genre en 1758.
Noms d'espèces tombés en désuétude : * Homo sapiens sapiens et Homo sapiens neanderthalensis, deux noms de sous-espèces remplacées aujourd'hui par deux noms d'espèces distinctes Homo sapiens et Homo neanderthalensis. * Homme de Cro-Magnon * Homme de Piltdown (supercherie)
Classification phylogénétique : Certains zoologistes, minoritaires, considèrent que les deux espèces de chimpanzés et les gorilles (habituellement classés respectivement dans les genres Pan et Gorilla) doivent également être inclus dans le genre Homo. La classification phylogénétique permet aujourd'hui de positionner de façon très précise le genre Homo au sein des huit genres (non-éteints) de Singes qui forment la super-famille des Hominoïdés : * le regroupement des diverses espèces d'hommes (genre Homo, à 46 chromosomes) avec les diverses espèces d'australopithèques forme la tribu des Hominines ; * le regroupement de la tribu des Homininés avec celle des Paninés (genre Pan, à 48 chromosomes) forme la sous-famille des Homininés ; * le regroupement de la sous-famille des Homininés avec celle des Gorillinés (genre Gorilla, à 48 chromosomes) forme la famille des Hominidés ; * le regroupement de la famille des Hominidés avec celles des Pongidés (famille maintenant limitée au seul genre Pongo, à 48 chromosomes, comprenant l'espèce orang-outan) — le groupement de ces deux familles, qui possèdent cinq chromosomes {6, 19, 21, 22, X} pratiquement identiques, étant parfois appelé Hominoïdés — et des Hylobatidés (quatre genres : le genre Hylobates, à 44 chromosomes, qui comprend les espèces de gibbons, le genre Hoolock, à 38 chromosomes, le genre Nomascus, à 52 chromosomes, et le genre Symphalangus, à 50 chromosomes) forme la super-famille des Hominoïdés ; * au delà, le regroupement de la super-famille des Hominoïdés avec celle des Cercopithécoïdes forme le groupe zoologique des Catarhiniens (Singes du Vieux-Monde) ; * le regroupement du groupe zoologique des Catarhiniens avec celui des Platyrhiniens (Singes du Nouveau-Monde) forme l'infra-ordre des Simiiformes (Singes), etc.
La découverte récente d'un crâne attribué à Sahelanthropus tchadensis, un hominoïdé dont l'âge est estimé à 7 millions d'années environ et dont certaines caractéristiques diffèrent sensiblement de celles des Paninés (Gorilla et Pan), suggère cependant une séparation antérieure des deux lignées. Chronologiquement, la séparation des différents genres d'Hominoïdés, dont le genre Homo, s'est faite par des successions d'embranchements binaires (bifurcations), le dernier en date pour les Hominoïdés ("Grands Singes") ayant été la bifurcation entre Homininés et Paninés (par fusion des deux paires de chromosomes {2p, 2q} de l'ancêtre commun aux humains, aux chimpanzés et aux bonobos en la paire de chromosomes {2} du genre Homo qui a par suite 46 chromosomes, le genre Pan ayant conservé les deux paires de chromosomes {2p, 2q} de l'ancêtre commun et donc 48 chromosomes), il y a moins de 6,3 millions d'années .
Toutefois, ces travaux indiquent également que cette séparation ne semble pas avoir été brutale mais au contraire progressive. Cependant au niveau du phénotype les études menées dans le cadre du paradigme Evo-Devo avec les gènes homéotiques (gènes architectes nécessaires à l'embryogenèse) montrent que certaines modalités évolutives ont été saltationnistes, même si la comparaison des chromosomes X de l'Homo sapiens et du chimpanzé montre des similitudes qui semblent refléter une longue "ré-hybridation" entre des Homininés et des Paninés ; par suite, bien qu'un métissage entre l'Homo sapiens et le chimpanzé soit impossible (en plus des chromosomes sexuels {X, Y} qui sont très voisins, il subsiste 13 autres paires de chromosomes {3, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 16, 19, 20, 21, 22} qui semblent pratiquement identiques entre les deux espèces, ainsi que 6 paires qui sont restées proches à la suite d'insertions {1}, d'inversions {4, 5, 17} et de délétions {13, 18} relativement simples et facilement identifiables, mais deux paires de chromosomes {9, 15} ont été plus profondément différenciées à la suite de mutations complexes probablement échelonnées dans le temps au sein des tribus Homininés et/ou Paninés), un métissage significatif entre au moins une espèce de chimpanzé d'une part, des espèces d'australopithèques et probablement des espèces d'hommes d'autre part, conduisant à des échanges de gènes entre les deux tribus (98,8 % des gènes sont communs entre les humains et les chimpanzés), a dû exister pendant peut-être 4 millions d'années selon les auteurs de ces travaux.
Espèces connues du genre Homo : * Homo antecessor (1,2 et 0,7 million d’années) * Homo cepranensis * Homo erectus : Afrique australe (1,8 Ma). Il est relativement grand par rapport à ses prédécesseurs. Son volume crânien est compris entre 800 et 1200 cm³. Il y a réduction de l'appareil masticateur. Il présente un bourrelet sus-orbitaire bien marqué, mais la face est moins prognathe qu'auparavant. Les outils se perfectionnent. Il est présent en Asie et en Europe, notamment en France vers -600 000 ans. * Homo ergaster (2,2 millions d’années et 1 million d’années) * Homo floresiensis (Homme de Florès — découvert en 2003 — disparu il y aurait 18 000 ans.) * Homo rudolfensis (2,4 millions d'années) * Homo georgicus (-1,8 million d'années) il est le premier représentant du genre Homo attesté hors d'Afrique avec Homo erectus si l'âge de l'enfant de Modokerto (Java) est de 1,8 million d'années. * Homo habilis : premier fossile découvert en Tanzanie dans les gorges d'Olduvai. Des fossiles dH. habilis sont connus de 2,45 à 1,5 Ma. Sa capacité crânienne est de 700 cm³. * Homo heidelbergensis (600 000 ans et 200 000 ans) * Homo erectus reilingensis (plus exactement Pithecanthropus erectus reilingensis) : découverte récente (1991) d'un fragment de crâne d'un hominidé archaïque dans le Sud-Ouest de l'Allemagne . * Homo neanderthalensis : il a un crâne allongé, large, peu élevé, des bourrelets sus-orbitaires marqués. La constriction rétro-orbitaire diminue encore. Le crâne s'élargit. Le volume crânien est relativement développé (1600 cm³) mais le crâne présente un chignon occipital. La mandibule n'a pas de menton. Il mesurait de 1,50 m à 1,70 m. Il avait des rites funéraires, des outils très variés. Il était localisé uniquement en Eurasie. La branche est éteinte. * Homo rhodesiensis (125 000 et 300 000 ans). * Homo sapiens, l'homme de Cro-Magnon. C'est l'homme moderne. Le crâne est arrondi, présente un menton. Le volume crânien peut aller jusqu'à 1 800 — 2 000 cm³. La face est réduite. La base du crâne se redresse. Il mesure en moyenne 1,67 m pour les hommes et 1,50 m pour les femmes. On note un dimorphisme sexuel relativement réduit ; il est connu depuis -200 000 ans. Il développe l'industrie : les outils se perfectionnent.On le trouve en Afrique, en Europe, en Europe centrale, au Proche-Orient et en Asie du Sud-Est avec très peu de variations. Il est l'auteur des premières œuvres d'art préhistorique connues.L'homme de Néandertal et lHomo sapiens ont occupé l'Europe et le Proche-Orient à la même époque et se sont sans doute côtoyés. Les derniers hommes de Néandertal connus ont été découverts vers l'extrémité sud de l'Espagne et au Portugal. * L'hominidé de Denisova est un représentant du genre Homo défini en 2010 à partir de matériel génétique fossile. Il aurait été contemporain d': Homo neanderthalensis, d': Homo sapiens et d': Homo floresiensis.
Table comparative des espèces du genre Homo : :Les espèces notées en gras indiquent l'existence d'un nombre important de fossiles découverts.
Caractères du genre Homo : Il y a trois critères fondamentaux de la lignée humaine :
Bipédie permanente : * 4 courbures au niveau de la colonne vertébrale. * Un trou occipital avancé à la base du crâne, ce qui est en relation avec une position verticale. * Bassin large et évasé qui permet une meilleure stabilité debout. * Fémurs obliques par rapport à la verticale, ce qui permet aux pieds d'être à l'aplomb du centre de gravité. * Un pouce parallèle aux orteils et l'existence d'une voûte plantaire. * Des membres antérieurs raccourcis.
À noter que des études récentes y rajoutent l'aptitude à la course, à partir de l'analyse chez les fossiles des os du pied.
L'évolution crânienne : * Grande capacité crânienne (> 600 cm³), supérieure aux australopithèques ainsi qu'aux autres primates, avec une tendance à augmenter avec le temps (>1500 cm³ pour l'Homme de Néandertal et l'Homme moderne), sauf dans le cas particulier de l'Homme de Florès (réduction des dimensions corporelles dues à un isolement insulaire). * Arrondissement du crâne. * Aplatissement de la face (plus de « museau ») : ** réduction du front fuyant, ** réduction jusqu'à absence de bourrelet sus-orbitaire chez Homo sapiens. ** disparition du prognathisme (mâchoire avancée) chez Homo sapiens. L'Homme de Néandertal ne possédait pas de menton.
Activités culturelles : * Vie sociale. * Outils avec le perfectionnement de la taille de la pierre, et diversification de l'outillage (bifaces, grattoirs, etc). * Utilisation du feu (Homo erectus?), puis maîtrise du feu en foyer (attesté à partir dHomo neanderthalensis). * Rites funéraires (attesté à partir dHomo neanderthalensis). * Arts comme la peinture ou la sculptures (attesté à partir dHomo sapiens). * Morales discursives .
Notes et références : colonnes=2:
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لينك (ذا ليجند أوف زيلدا)
شخصيات ذا ليجند أوف زيلدا | شخصيات ألعاب فيديو ذكور
لينك リンク, Rinku: هو شخصية خيالية، وهو الشخصية الرئيسية في سلسلة « ذا ليجند أوف زيلدا ».
أبتكر وصمم من شيجيرو مياموتو,ويعتبر ذا ليجند أوف زيلدا من أشهر الألعاب في شركة نينتندو,وبيعت أكثر من 47 نسخة في عام 2007. ومن شعبية لينك في ذا ليجند أوف زيلدا استمر حتى الآن في تصميمه؛وكان أول ظهور له في الجزء الأول من اللعبة. وقد برز لينك في ألعاب أخرى من ألعاب نينتندو، وخاصتةً في سوبر سماش بروس براول. وأصبح نجم في جائزة والك أوف جيم في 2005,مع سونيك وماريو
الإستقبال : حصل لينك على مراتب عالية في موقع جيم فاجس"في ألعاب القتال".
وحصل على لقب "بطل المواجهات" في موقع آي جي إن,وكان منافسا في التصويت للعبة فاينل فانتسي VII.
وكان لينك في المرتبة الأولى من عشرة في لعبة سوبر سماش بروس براول في موقع جيم دايلي,من قائمة الشخصيات. * المراجع ==
ثبت_المراجع: fr: ca:
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Link (The Legend of Zelda)
Fictional characters introduced in 1986 | The Legend of Zelda series characters | Super Smash Bros. fighters | Soul series characters | Child characters in television | Child characters in video games | Fictional archers | Fictional knights | Fictional orphans | Fictional sword fighters | Male video game characters | Nintendo protagonists | Fictional musicians
"Link (character)" and "Link (fictional character)" redirect here. For other uses, see Link (disambiguation).:
is the main protagonist in Nintendo's The Legend of Zelda series of video games. Link has been featured in other video games from Nintendo, including its merchandising, comic books, and an animated television program. Link was awarded with a star on the Walk of Game in 2005, alongside Mario and Sonic the Hedgehog.
Link is commonly depicted as a child or young teenager of the pointy-eared Hylian race, originating in the fictional land of Hyrule. Link often travels through Hyrule, defeating creatures, evil forces and the series' primary antagonist, Ganon, while attempting to save Princess Zelda and her kingdom. To defeat him, Link usually requires the mystic Master Sword and Light Arrows, or a similar legendary weapon, obtained after many trials and battles gathering magical objects or using other items such as musical instruments and weaponry. Several different Incarnations of Link have been introduced throughout "The Legend of Zelda" series. * Concept and creation
Link has almost no spoken dialogue in the game series outside the CD-i series of games from The Legend of Zelda. Facial expression has only been visible since the series appeared on the Nintendo 64. Miyamoto has said in interviews that his conceptualization of The Legend of Zelda, and of Link, was based on his childhood memories of books, movies, stories and personal experiences. He tried to make people identify with Link and have the opportunity to be heroes like the character. Although at the end of some games Link becomes vastly talented in physical and magical arts, he usually starts off the game as a regular boy.
Character development : There have been several iterations of Link in the history of Hyrule. The existence of multiple Links is made obvious on many occasions in the games; for example, the introduction sequence of refers to an ancient, legendary champion who is identical in appearance to Link, and directly mentions the "Hero of Time" (a title given to Link in Ocarina of Time) as a historical entity. Miyamoto has stated, "For every Zelda game we tell a new story, but we actually have an enormous document that explains how the game relates to the others, and bind them together. But to be honest, they are not that important to us. We care more about developing the game system ... give the player new challenges for every chapter that is born."dateJune 2010: However, the exact chronology of the Zelda series and the lineage of the various Links, though written down by Miyamoto and his team, has never been released in detail. In lieu of an official history, some major fansites have attempted to construct a coherent Zelda timeline based on available data. After the release of Ocarina of Time, Miyamoto stated it was the first story in the timeline, then The Legend of Zelda, , and finally , with occurring sometime after A Link to the Past. However, in late 2011 Miyamoto confirmed that his new game to be released, Skyward Sword, would come before Ocarina of Time in the series's timeline.
On the design of Link in The Wind Waker, Miyamoto explained, "Link was a young boy and trying to create a very active and very energetic young boy and trying to choose the right style for portraying the young boy in a game like that we tried many different experiments. The ultimate decision we came to was that the cel-shading in The Wind Waker was the best option for expressing that." The Wind Waker takes place with a new Link centuries after the victory of Link in Ocarina of Time. does not incorporate the idea of young Link growing up to a teenage Link.
Actor portrayal : In the 3D games, beginning with Ocarina of Time, Link was voiced by five actors: Nobuyuki Hiyama as adult Link; Fujiko Takimoto as young Link; Sachi Matsumoto as Link in The Wind Waker; Akira Sasanuma in Twilight Princess; and Yūki Kodaira in Spirit Tracks. As no Zelda game to date has contained substantial spoken dialogue, the part consists only of short phrases, grunts, battle cries, and other sounds. In The Wind Waker, however, Link has been heard saying the phrase, "Come on!". Voice acting in the series has been deliberately limited, so as not to "contradict players' individual interpretations of the character".
Link was portrayed by actor JR Killigrew in the live action Zelda trailer produced by Rainfall films, an elaborate April Fool's joke by IGN.com. Although the trailer portrayed Link as faithful as possible by not giving him any dialogue, fans still noticed that the live action Link was right handed. Director Sam Balcomb defended in an interview with IGN.com that Link was right-handed in Twilight Princess and that Killigrew didn't have time to train left-handed Although in the Wii version of Twilight Princess Link is right-handed, this is because the Wii version is a mirrored copy of the Gamecube version because most people are right-handed, thus the game character would match the real-world hand movements for a larger number of players.
Characteristics : Link is humble but brave, attributes consistent with his role as the rightful bearer of the Triforce of Courage. He is known as the "Legendary Hero" in A Link to the Past, "Hero of Time" in Ocarina of Time and Majora's Mask, "Hero of Winds" in The Wind Waker and Phantom Hourglass and "Hero chosen by the gods" in Twilight Princess.date: March 2009: Link is the chosen bearer of the Master Sword, a powerful magical sword that can be used against evil. As a child, he challenges Ganondorf in order to protect Zelda before he inadvertently helps Ganondorf find the Triforce in Ocarina of Time, forcing Link to undo the damage he had caused. Link has several family members, including an uncle in A Link to the Past; an unseen mother in Ocarina of Time, who dies fleeing a war when Link is a baby; a grandmother, who raises him, and a sister, Aryll, in The Wind Waker; and a grandfather in The Minish Cap. date: February 2010: His mother and father appear as spirits in the official manga.
Link is a young Hylian boy who is renowned for his swordsmanship and fighting skill, such as his boomerang accuracy. Every iteration of Link wears a green tunic and a long green Phrygian cap and has long, pointed ears, a distinctive trait of the Hylian race and their descendants.date: March 2009: In the Zelda trading cards released by Nintendo early in the series, it is stated that pointed ears are a sign of the Hylian royal family.dateMarch 2009: In episode 4 of the Adult Saga in the official Ocarina of Time manga series, "Link Vs. Link", Impa gives Link earrings, describing it as a "rite of passage for young Sheikah men".date: February 2010: He has a Triforce mark on his left hand, marking him as the one who will find the Triforce of Courage. He uses many weapons and items, such as Bombs, the Hookshot, the Boomerang and the Bow and arrow. When he transforms into a wolf in the Twilight Realm in Twilight Princess, he reflects the mystical aspects of the transformation and his heroism.date: February 2010:
Canonicallydate: December 2010: , Link is left-handed, although this detail has changed over time, with his sword hand being different between games. The Adventure of Link': s instruction booklet describes Link setting off "with a magical sword in his left hand and a magical shield in his right". In A Link to the Past, he alternates hands, but this is due to sprite mirroring. The reason for this is explained in the official Nintendo Player's guide as a Hyrulian superstition that requires the shield to always face Death Mountain (located to the North) to protect oneself from the evil powers originating within the mountain. Starting with Link's Awakening, Link holds his sword in his left hand and his shield in his right, no matter what direction he is facing. In The Minish Cap, however, Link returns to alternately holding his weapon in the right or the left hand, depending on his orientation. At the beginning of the Four Swords Plus (Four Swords Adventures) manga, Link is referred to as the "left-handed hero" after defeating pirates that were raiding a Hylian town. In addition, Link's figurine description in The Wind Waker lists his "manual preference" as left. However, in the animated TV series and the Wii version of Twilight Princess, Link is right-handed, but the latter was done to better mirror the game's control scheme. In the game's official artwork he is shown holding his sword in his left hand. In the GameCube version, Link remains left-handed, as the game uses a traditional control scheme. Skyward Sword will thus be the first game in the series to feature a definite right-handed Link, with even the concept art reflecting the fact. * Appearances * Video games * 1986–1997
Link debuted on February 21, 1986, with the release of the video game The Legend of Zelda in Japan. Described as a "young lad" who saved Princess Zelda's elderly nursemaid Impa from Ganon's henchmen, Link assumes the role of the hero attempting to rescue Princess Zelda (and the kingdom of Hyrule) from the evil wizard Ganon, who has stolen the Triforce of Power.
In , Link goes on a quest to place a crystal in each of six palaces in Hyrule, so that he can later penetrate unhindered into the magically protected Great Palace, Kill the shadow link, claim the Triforce of Courage, reunite the three pieces of the Triforce, and awaken the sleeping Zelda.
In , a new Link must intercept the wizard Agahnim before he breaks the seal on the Dark World and unleash Ganon's fury upon Hyrule. Along the way, Link must collect three magical Pendants of Virtue and claim the legendary Master Sword before facing Agahnim.
In , which takes place sometime after A Link to the Past, Link decides to travel the world so he might be prepared if a threat like Ganon ever comes to Hyrule again. While returning to Hyrule, Link's ship is caught in a storm and wrecked. He washes up on the shore of a mysterious island called Koholint. Link is taken to the house of a kind man named and his daughter . A talking owl tells him that the only way he can escape Koholint Island is by awakening the "Wind Fish", a giant creature slumbering in a colossal egg in the center of the island. When the game finishes, Link awakens in the middle of the ocean, along with the dreamer. * 1998–2001
In , a new Link must constantly travel to the past and to the future using the Ocarina of Time in order to stop Ganondorf's takeover of Hyrule and imprison him into the Sacred Realm with the help of the seven sages and the Master Sword. During the game, Link is accompanied by the fairy Navi, which is a new addition to the series. Ocarina of Time is also the first 3D game in the Zelda series.
occurs after Link defeats Ganon and is sent back in time to his childhood. While searching for a friend (Supposedly Navi who had previously flown away) Link runs into Skull Kid - a character briefly featured in Ocarina of Time, and ends up in the land of Termina. He must save this land from the evil of Majora's Mask, which has drawn the moon into a decaying orbit, threatening to crash into Termina's primary town, Clock Town, in three days. Link uses the Ocarina of Time to play the Song of Time, which he can use to travel back in time when he plays it, to relive these three days repeatedly so he can prevent the disaster. Along the way, Link finds many magical masks of his own, some of which allow him to transform. Those masks can turn him into a Goron, Deku Scrub, Zora or "The Fierce Deity", a powerful, adult-like form. Miyamoto mentioned that "we wanted Link to get inside of a wonderland, to experience the adventures and think hard about what he should do."date: April 2009: In , which occur between A Link to the Past and Link's Awakening, the Triforce sends Link on a mission to foreign lands, Holodrum and Labrynna, to stop the disruption of the seasons by the General of Darkness, , and the disruption of time by the Sorceress of Shadows, Veran. After playing both games, it is revealed that the events of both games are part of a sinister plot by Twinrova to light the flames of Destruction (lit by the actions of Onox), Sorrow (lit by the actions of Veran), and Despair (lit when Zelda is kidnapped) as part of a ritual to resurrect Ganon. In the end, Link must save Zelda and defeat the Twinrova before Ganon is resurrected.
2002–present : . His graphical change was met with controversy and petitions directed at Nintendo to make Link more realistic.]]
In , Zelda goes to the Sanctuary of the Four Sword with her friend, Link, to check on the seal containing the evil Wind Mage, Vaati. The seal has weakened, however, and Vaati emerges, kidnaps Zelda, and defeats Link. Later, Link finds three fairies, who instruct him to draw the Four Sword. The magical Four Sword divides him into four identical Links. The first Link wears his traditional green outfit; the second, a red version; the third, blue; and the fourth, purple. In , released later, it is revealed that these colors reflect the four elements with which the sword is imbued: earth, fire, water, and wind. The Links must cooperate to overcome obstacles, collect keys, and storm Vaati's Palace so they can rescue Zelda and seal the mage away again.
In , set hundreds of years after Ocarina of Time, the gods have flooded Hyrule, creating the Great Sea, encompassing the highest mountaintops of Hyrule. At the beginning of the game, Link's younger sister is captured by the Helmaroc King, a giant masked bird controlled by the game's primary antagonist Ganondorf, the latter of whom is searching for Princess Zelda. Link travels the Great Sea to rescue his sister and defeat the Helmaroc King; his quest intertwining with that of , who reveals, after many trials, that Link is the "Hero of Winds". Using the Wind Waker, a magical conductor's baton, he borrows the power of the gods to aid him in his quest. The wand's user interface is similar to that of the Ocarina of Time, but uses tempo and pitch to form tunes. Link must eventually reassemble the Triforce of Courage to give him the power to fight Ganondorf.dateDecember 2010: In , set at some point after Twilight Princess (see below), Zelda and the six other mystical maidens, who are worried about the seal on the Four Sword, go to check on the Sanctuary of the Four Sword, with Link accompanying them. However, a dark, shadowy copy of Link attacks. Link is forced to draw the Four Sword to fight this Shadow Link, but when he does, he once again splits into copies of himself, and Vaati escapes.
In , set about a century or two before Four Swords, Link is a young boy living with his grandfather, the Master Smith of Hyrule. Link is a childhood friend of Princess Zelda, and on the day of Hyrule's yearly fair to celebrate the coming of the Picori, they go to join in the festivities. A mysterious stranger, Vaati, shows up and wins the sword-fighting competition; each year the victor of this tournament has the honor of touching the sacred Picori Blade. This sword was a gift to the Hylians from the tiny Picori and was used long ago by a legendary hero to defeat the forces of darkness and seal them away in the Bound Chest. Vaati destroys the blade and curses Zelda, and it is up to Link to repair the sword, defeat Vaati and save the princess. By the end of the game, Link has collected four elemental crystals, and infuses them in the White Sword, an incarnation of the Picori Blade. After the infusion, the White Sword becomes the Four Sword, which Link seals Vaati in, setting the scene for the previously released Four Swords games.
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, released in November 2006 for the Nintendo GameCube and a month later for the Wii, is set around a century after the events of Ocarina of Time and Majora's Mask, in an alternate timeline to The Wind Waker. In the game, Link is a teenage farm boy leading a fairly normal life in a pastoral village until two of his friends, Colin and Ilia, are kidnapped by monsters. During his journey to rescue them, Link discovers that the entire kingdom of Hyrule has been covered by a dark twilight, in which most people are reduced to nothing more than spirits. However, Link is transformed into a feral wolf upon entering the twilight. While in this form, he is aided by Midna, an imp-like creature, and eventually cleanses the land from the twilight. Yet, in his attempt to save his friends, Link discovers an even greater evil only he can stop. During the game, Link travels in the normal world in his human form and when exposed to twilight, reverts to his wolf form. Link's Crossbow Training, a spin-off of the series, features Link attempting to become more proficient with the crossbow in the Twilight Princess setting.
was released in June 2007 in Japan and October 2007 in North America. It revives the use of a fairy companion as in Ocarina of Time and Majora's Mask. A direct sequel to The Wind Waker, it stars the same Link in a quest to reunite with Tetra after she is lost to the Ghost Ship.
was released in 2009. It is a sequel to Phantom Hourglass set 100 years in the future. In this game, Link is able to travel across the main world using a train accompanied by Zelda's spirit. Link and Zelda have to restore the Spirit Tracks to Hyrule and recover Zelda's body.
was introduced at E3 2010, released in 2011 and is the latest Zelda game to feature Link. Link is born and raised in a land called Skyloft, a land floating above the clouds. Link is a childhood friend of Zelda. A land beneath the clouds ruled by evil is discovered, and Link is forced to go there after Zelda is kidnapped. He must travel between the two lands in this adventure. The Skyward Sword is his driving force behind his traveling between lands. The mysterious figure shown at Game Developers Conference (GDC) 2009 in the concept art alongside Link is the Goddess Sword, which becomes the Master Sword at some point in the game.
Other : , released in 1993 for Philips' CD-i video game console, is the only one of the three Zelda games for the CD-i in which Link is the protagonist. At the beginning of the game, Link is visited by a wizard who tells him that Ganon and his servants have seized the peaceful island of Koridai and captured Zelda. After being informed that only he can defeat Ganon, Link travels to Koridai to find the magical artifact known as the Book of Koridai. Using the book, he defeats Ganon and frees Zelda. Although it features Zelda characters, the game was not produced or supervised by Nintendo, which does not officially recognize the game as part of the Zelda series.
There were two other The Legend of Zelda games released for the CD-i: and Zelda's Adventure. In both games, Princess Zelda is the protagonist, as the plots involve Link's kidnapping.
Link is one of eight characters initially playable in Nintendo's 1999 fighting game, Super Smash Bros.. He wears his traditional green Kokiri tunic, although the player can choose from several other tunic colors. He uses some weapons featured in the Zelda series, including bombs, boomerang and a hookshot. Link is one of the fifteen playable characters initially playable in Super Smash Bros. Melee, the 2001 sequel to Super Smash Bros.. In Melee, he uses a bow as well as the Zelda items featured in Super Smash Bros.. Also playable in the game, as a secret unlockable character, is "Young Link", based on the Ocarina of Time version of Link as a child. Young Link is more agile but weaker than the older Link in the game. Link was one of the first confirmed characters in Super Smash Bros. Brawl for the Wii. His appearance was influenced by his character model from Twilight Princess, and uses items from Twilight Princess, such as the Hero's Bow and Gale Boomerang. "Toon Link", a version of Link based on his cel-shaded appearance in The Wind Waker, is also a playable character in Brawl.
In the GameCube version of Namco's Soulcalibur II, Link is a featured character. Little is revealed about this incarnation, but it is known that after saving Hyrule from an evil wizard who was controlled by a fragment of Soul Edge, he went on a quest to destroy an evil sword. Quickly pulling the Master Sword out of its pedestal, he set out to travel to this world to destroy Soul Edge on a secret mission arranged by Princess Zelda. Miyamoto did not see a problem with Link appearing in what some had thought to be a "violent fighting game", as he had already been established as a fighter in the Super Smash Bros. games. Link is the only character in Soulcalibur II to use ranged weapons and the only guest character to have his own music theme and more than two costumes. He uses several items from the Zelda series.
Link was together with Samus Aran planned to appear in , but was later removed.
Among SNES games, Link makes a cameo in where he is seen sleeping in a bed at an inn. Another reference to Link is in the Japanese version of the NES game Final Fantasy; in Elftown there is a grave marked "Here Lies Link". It was changed to a grave for Erdrick from Dragon Warrior when translated to English; however, this grave was changed back to Link in the Game Boy Advance and PlayStation and iPod touch/iPhone versions. He appears in and , with a reference to Link's collection of seashells from Link's Awakening. Some of Link's weapons and items have appeared in several games, such as the Master Sword in Final Fantasy Tactics Advance and Animal Crossing, and the warp whistle in Super Mario Bros. 3.
In the Zelda animated series, Link, voiced by Jonathan Potts, was featured in a set of cartoons which aired from 1989–1990 as a part of DIC's The Super Mario Bros. Super Show!. Based loosely on the first game, the cartoons presented Link as a rude, lovesick teenager. Constantly pursuing Zelda and pursued by the fairy princess Spryte, he begged kisses from Zelda, and exclaimed "Well excuuuuuse me, Princess!" when tired with her attitude. Thirteen episodes were produced before the cancellation of The Super Mario Bros. Super Show. The complete series was released on October 18, 2005. A slightly altered version of this Link (and Zelda) appeared during the second season of .
A serial comic was created for Nintendo Power magazine by acclaimed author Shotaro Ishinomori, and later collected in graphic novel form. This told an alternate version of the events from A Link to the Past. Though Link starts out a hapless, bumbling boy, he displays great courage and proves himself a determined and competent adventurer. He has a fairy companion, Epheremelda, long before this concept was introduced to the video games. This telling portrays Link's parents as Knights of Hyrule, lost to the Dark World. It includes an original character, Roam, a descendant of the Knights of Hyrule who fought in the Imprisoning War. At the end of the story, Zelda has become Queen, and Link is head of the Royal Guard and the Knights of Hyrule. This success is bittersweet, as their duties keep them apart, even though they were once close, sharing an adventure and even coming together in dreams. There have been manga based on The Legend of Zelda, Ocarina of Time, Majora's Mask, Oracle of Ages, Oracle of Seasons, Four Swords Adventures, A Link to the Past and The Minish Cap.
Reception : The character Link has been overall well received by critics and fans. In the 1988 and 1989 Nintendo Power Awards, readers voted him as the best character. He was voted by readers as the number one and three "Best Hero" in the 1993 and 1994 Nintendo Power Awards respectively. Nintendo Power listed Link as their second favorite hero, commenting that his courage always wins out over evil. Link was also awarded a star on the Walk of Game in 2005 along with Miyamoto, the creator of the character. Game Informer listed Link as the number one "Hero of 2006". Link has also appeared in multiple GameFAQs "Character Battle" contests and is the only character to have won more than once. In one of IGN's 2007 "Hero Showdowns", Link was voted the favorite over Cloud Strife. They also listed his appearances on the CD-i as some of his worst moments, describing this incarnation of him as feminine. GamesRadar stated that while he does not talk, "Link has shouted the same "Hyea! Hyea! Hyeaaaaa!" since 1998", and they expressed a concern for Nintendo to record a new shout. CNET listed him second on their list of the "Top 5 video game characters". In the Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition from 2011, Link was voted as the second best video game character.
Notes and references : 2:
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Link (The Legend of Zelda)
Personnage de The Legend of Zelda | Chevalier de fiction | Personnage jouable de Super Smash Bros. | Archer de fiction | Musicien de fiction | Épéiste de fiction | Super-héros enfant | Orphelin de fiction | Loup-garou dans la fiction
Link (The Legend of Zelda): Link: (Rinku)
est un personnage imaginaire et le principal protagoniste de la série de jeux vidéo The Legend of Zelda de Nintendo. Créé par Shigeru Miyamoto, The Legend of Zelda est un des noyaux durs de Nintendo. En 2007, plus de 47 millions d’exemplaires ont été vendus à travers le monde . La popularité persistante de la série a conduit à de nombreuses incarnations de l’histoire de Zelda et de Link lui-même, sa première apparition étant dans le jeu The Legend of Zelda. Le personnage a été représenté dans d’autres jeux vidéo de Nintendo, mais également dans d’autres produits commerciaux dérivés comme des mangas ou encore dans un programme d’animation à la télévision. Link a été récompensé d’une étoile lors du Walk of Game en 2005, aux côtés de Mario et de Sonic le hérisson .
Link est dépeint comme un garçon hylien du pays imaginaire nommé Hyrule. À l’origine jeune épéiste, son identité, apparence et rôle change d’un jeu à l’autre. Son âge varie suivant chaque jeu, se situant généralement entre dix et vingt ans. Toutefois, certaines choses restent immuables : son équipement de base est toujours constitué d’une tunique et d’un bonnet vert, d’une paire de bottes, d’une épée et d’un bouclier.
Par la suite, Link acquiert au cours du jeu un arsenal important et hétéroclite : grappin, boomerang, bombes, arc avec plusieurs types de flèches, ocarina, masques, tuniques, bottes, masse, épées plus puissantes (dont Excalibur ou l’épée de légende, aussi connue sous son nom anglais Master Sword), parfois un fouet, un vireventetc: Le but récurrent de la plupart des jeux de la série est pour Link de combattre les forces du mal, Ganondorf ou Vaati, sauver la Princesse Zelda et le royaume d’Hyrule. Pour cela, il peut compter sur l’aide de plusieurs personnages (le plus souvent des Sages) qui peuvent lui confier leurs pouvoirs, et aussi sur le pouvoir de la Triforce du Courage qu’il possède. Dans d'autres volets, des créatures du mal font office de vilains, bien que parfois étranges… Pour vaincre le personnage maléfique, il doit parcourir des donjons bourrés de pièges et d'ennemis coriaces, avec, cerise sur le gâteau, un boss assez difficile à vaincre. * Création
Shigeru Miyamoto a expliqué que le personnage de Link avait été imaginé en parallèle du jeu Super Mario Bros. Regrettant un peu que le joueur ne puisse aller que devant lui, il songeait à créer un jeu complètement différent, dans lequel le joueur aurait une certaine liberté. Link correspondait au personnage qu’il imaginait pour un tel type de jeu .
L’atmosphère , où l’on trouve monstres, elfes, trolls et autres sorcières, n’est pas sans rappeler , et notamment l’apparence de Link qui est proche de celle d’un elfe .
Link apparaît pour la première fois en février 1986 dans , le premier opus de la série. * Caractéristiques * De multiples Link
Il y a plusieurs apparitions de Link dans l’histoire d’Hyrule. L’existence de multiples Link est mise en évidence à plusieurs occasions dans le jeu. Par exemple, la séquence introductive de (ainsi que certains passages au sein de ) font référence à un héros légendaire qui est identique à Link en apparence, et mentionne directement le « Héros du Temps » (un titre donné à Link dans ) comme une entité historique. Link et la princesse Zelda sont des descendants des deux personnes qui leur sont identiques. Toutefois, Ganondorf, leur principal ennemi, est toujours la même personne. Miyamoto a déclaré que « pour chaque jeu de Zelda nous racontons une nouvelle histoire, mais nous avons en réalité un énorme document qui explique comment les jeux sont liés les uns aux autres. Mais pour être honnête cela n’est pas très important pour nous. Nous prêtons plus d’attention à développer le système de jeu… à donner au joueur de nouveau challenges » ,: . Cependant, la chronologie exacte de la série et la généalogie des différents Link, bien qu’écrit par Miyamoto et son équipe, n’ont jamais été dévoilées en détail. Des sites web de fans ont essayé de construire une frise de le série cohérente avec les données disponibles, mais sans grand succès . Après la sortie de , Miyamoto déclara qu’il s’agissait de la première histoire dans la chronologie, puis que , et finalement , avec , prenaient place quelque part après Ocarina of Time .
Caractéristiques physiques : Il est difficile de cerner l’apparence de Link car elle varie selon les jeux. Tantôt il ressemble à un enfant, tantôt à un adulte, et alterne parfois entre les deux (Ocarina of time). Dans , il se change en Mojo, en Goron ou en Zora.
Description : L’âge de Link varie suivant les jeux. Toutefois, on remarque qu’il n’est jamais très âgé, il s’agit soit d’un enfant soit d’un jeune homme. Trois jeux donnent quelques indications sur son âge : Link approche de ses seize ans dans , sept ans séparent Link enfant et Link adulte dans et Link a douze ans au début de son aventure dans .
La couleur de ses cheveux varie d’un jeu à l’autre, allant du châtain, notamment pour les deux premiers épisodes, au blond plus ou moins clair par la suite. Dans le jeu , Link a les cheveux roses après plusieurs évolutions. Toutefois, sa coiffure reste sensiblement identique : cheveux mi-longs et en bataille. Ses yeux sont bleus, à l’exception notable de ceux du Link de la saga , trois titres se suivant chronologiquement et avec le même style graphique en cel-shading, comprenant , et , dans lesquels ils y sont noirs.
Link a de longues oreilles pointues, un trait distinctif de la race des Hyliens et de leurs descendants, qui est censé leur permettre d’écouter les messages divins. Dans les cartes de commerce Zelda proposées par Nintendo tôt dans la série, il est dit que les oreilles pointues sont une marque de la famille royale.
Il porte la marque de la Triforce du courage sur sa main gauche, indiquant qu’il est l’élu de Farore, la déesse du courage.
L’état de santé de Link est représenté par une jauge de vie généralement symbolisée par des cœurs. Ses cœurs se vident lorsque Link est blessé, jusqu’à sa mort lorsque tous les cœurs sont vidés. Mais il peut également recouvrir de la vie en récoltant des cœurs, en buvant diverses potions ou rencontrant une fée. Le nombre de cœurs augmente tout au long de l’aventure, au fur et à mesure que le héros récolte des réceptacles.
Main : Traditionnellement, Link est gaucher , bien que ce détail ait changé au cours du temps, sa main qui porte l’épée étant différente d’un jeu à l’autre.
Le manuel d’instruction de décrit Link comme équipé « d’une épée magique dans sa main gauche et un bouclier magique dans sa droite ». Dans , il alterne de main, mais cela est dû à un effet de miroir. Au début de , Link porte l’épée de sa main gauche et son bouclier de la droite, quelle que soit la direction dans laquelle il regarde. Toutefois, dans , Link recommence à changer son épée de main suivant son orientation. Au début du manga , Link est décrit comme le « héros gaucher » après avoir vaincu les pirates qui lançaient des raids sur une ville hylienne. De plus, la figurine de Link dans décrit ses préférences manuelles comme celles d’un gaucher. Toutefois, dans la série télévisée animée, Link est droitier. Dans la version Wii de , Link est droitier, mais cela est lié au fait que les joueurs utilisent préférentiellement la wiimote de la main droite : le jeu a été adapté dans ce sens pour reproduire les gestes de l’épée en inversant entièrement l’environnement en mode « miroir » par rapport à la version d’origine sur GameCube, dans laquelle Link reste gaucher, le jeu utilisant un système de contrôle traditionnel . Dans les illustrations officielles du jeu, versions GameCube et Wii confondues, il est montré portant son épée dans sa main gauche. * Aptitudes et techniques
On ne sait pas exactement quand Link développe son habileté à manier l’épée et les différentes armes dans les jeux. Il semble être naturellement doué d’une grande dextérité pour l’usage des armes, comme sa précision avec un boomerang .
Toutefois dans certains jeux, des personnages qu’il rencontre sur son chemin lui apprennent de nouvelles techniques (, , , , , et (pouvoirs magiques notamment).
Dans certains jeux, Link sait monter à cheval. Sa monture, Epona, lui permet de se déplacer plus rapidement qu’il ne le ferait à pied, mais elle peut également franchir des clôtures et des fossés. Link est capable de décocher des flèches avec son arc lorsqu’il est à cheval (et d'utiliser l'épée ainsi que certains objets tel le boomerang tornade dans ).
Les facultés de Link pour la nage varient énormément d’un jeu à l’autre. Il est parfois totalement incapable de nager au début du jeu. Pour atteindre ses pleines capacités en nage et plongée, il doit généralement acquérir un objet magique comme les palmes Zora ou une écaille Zora enchantée. Il arrive aussi, dans Majora's Mask, qu'il utilise le masque Zora pour augmenter ses aptitudes de nage.
Enfin, Link peut utiliser des objets magiques, qui lui permettent de se protéger, se téléporter, également contrôler des objets, tels que le Bâton Anima ou encore attaquer directement ses adversaires (comme pour le feu de Din dans Ocarina of Time).
Une des plus anciennes techniques de combat utilisée par Link est la projection de rayons d’énergie avec son épée. La nature exacte de ces rayons est mal connue. Cette technique permet d’atteindre des ennemis situés à de longues distances, mais souvent avec moins d’intensité qu’un coup direct. Dans la plupart des jeux, Link doit être en pleine santé pour utiliser cette technique. Après The Legend of Zelda et dans lesquels elle était possible avec l’épée de départ, Link ne pourra recourir à cette technique qu’avec une épée plus puissante que son épée de base.
Une autre technique caractéristique de Link est l’attaque de l’épée tournoyante, durant laquelle il effectue une rotation de 360° ou plus avec son épée, pouvant atteindre plusieurs opposants d’un seul coup et provoquant des dommages supérieurs à ceux d’un coup simple. Cette technique se retrouve dans tous les opus à partir de .
L’esquive apparaît pour la première fois dans . Cette technique permet à Link d’éviter une attaque et de la contrer, en sautant de côté ou par des saltos arrière, pouvant gêner l'attaque de l'ennemietc: Vêtements : Chaque Link porte une tunique, généralement verte, une sous-chemise (généralement marron, blanche ou verte, et dans Twillight Princess, il porte ce qui paraît être une cotte de maille à son extrémité), et un long chapeau vert, au moins pour une partie de l’aventure (la grande majorité généralement), bien que les tons de vert varient. On le voit souvent portant des guêtres claires (généralement blanches, marron ou halées), bien qu’il apparaisse jambes nues dans d’autres jeux, principalement au début de la série .
Mais dans quelques épisodes récents, on peut voir Link arborer des tenues très différentes. Par exemple, dans The Wind Waker, il débute l’aventure dans une tenue bleue décontractée représentant un homard, jusqu’à ce qu’il reçoive la traditionnelle tunique verte. De plus, quand on termine le jeu une première fois, on peut commencer une deuxième partie où vous garderez la tenue bleue avec un homard durant tout le jeu. Dans Twilight Princess, il porte un costume assez rural avant d’acquérir la tenue du héros de légende après avoir restauré la lumière dans la région de Firone, mais aussi durant sa quête il aura une tenue Zora permettant de nager et de respirer sous l’eau. En outre, au bout d’une quête annexe on obtient une armure magique soit rouge et or (qui protège) lorsque la bourse est remplie, soit grise et encombrante (plus lourde et qui ne protège pas) lorsque la bourse est vide. Dans Ocarina of Time, Link peut porter (uniquement quand il est adulte) la tunique Goron (qui est rouge et le protège de la chaleur) ou la tunique Zora (qui est bleue et lui permet de respirer sous l'eau). Enfin dans Spirit Tracks, il arbore d'abord une tenue de cheminot puis une tenue d'apprenti soldat (la fameuse tenue verte) et au cours d'une quête annexe, il obtient une tenue de cheminot qu'il peut échanger contre la tenue verte quand il veut (il pourra donc varier les plaisirs). Mais dans Four Sword Adventure, il y a quatre Link donc quatre couleurs: vert, rouge, violet et bleu.
Les Link plus âgés portent généralement des petits anneaux bleus comme boucles d’oreilles. Toutefois, dans le chapitre 4 de la saga adulte dans la série du manga officiel "Ocarina of Time", Impa (nourrice de Zelda) donne à Link ses boucles d’oreilles en décrivant cela comme le passage à l'âge adulte des "Sheikah", un peuple d'Hyrule. * Équipement
Objets de la série The Legend of Zelda: Dans tous les jeux de la série, Link porte un bouclier et une épée qui est sa principale arme. Au cours de son périple, il acquiert des versions plus puissantes de ces deux éléments. L’épée la plus connue que le héros peut utiliser est l’épée de légende, également connue sous le nom d’Excalibur ou sous son nom anglais de . Dans les deux premiers jeux Link ne manie pas l’épée de légende et c’est une épée magique qui prend sa place. Bien d’autres épées à une ou deux mains peuvent être portées par Link dans les différents jeux. De même, il peut acquérir des boucliers plus grands et plus résistants que son bouclier en bois de départ, et parfois même des boucliers avec des propriétés magiques comme le bouclier miroir de capable de refléter la lumière et de renvoyer les sorts des Twinrovas.
L’arc et les flèches sont également des armes récurrentes dans la série. Ils permettent d’atteindre les ennemis à de longues distances. Au cours de l’aventure Link a la possibilité d’obtenir divers types de flèches comme les flèches de feu et de glace permettant de brûler et de geler ses adversaires ainsi que des flèches de lumière qui ont des effets supérieurs. Le boomerang permet d’atteindre des ennemis éloignés. Il est surtout utilisé pour étourdir les ennemis. Les bombes peuvent permettre de combattre les ennemis mais aussi de révéler des passages bloqués par un rocher par exemple. Le grappin permet d’atteindre des endroits normalement inaccessibles.
Link dispose d’un carquois pour ses flèches, d’un ou plusieurs sacs pour ranger ses bombes et d’une bourse pour mettre ses rubis, la monnaie d’Hyrule. Il peut obtenir des modèles de capacité supérieure au cours du jeu.
Voix : Dans les jeux utilisant la 3D, initiée avec , quatre acteurs ont prêté leur voix à Link : Nobuyuki Hiyama pour Link adulte, Fujiko Takimoto pour Link enfant, Sachi Matsumoto pour Link dans et Akira Sasanuma dans . Aucun jeu ne contient de dialogue de Link, et le doublage consiste essentiellement en de petites phrases, des grognements, des cris de bataille et autres onomatopées ,: . Toutefois, dans , on peut entendre Link disant }}.
Qualités morales : La psychologie et le caractère de Link sont très peu montrés. est le seul jeu avec dans lequel on voit Link exprimer des émotions à travers les expressions faciales , mais celles-ci restent rares et ne caractérisent pas le personnage. Il y en a très peu dans Ocarina of Time.
Toutefois, Link se caractérise sans conteste par son courage, faisant de lui le détenteur légitime de la triforce du courage.
Il est le légitime porteur de l’épée légendaire, une puissante épée magique qu’il manie afin de défaire les forces diaboliques. Link montre à de rares moments une audace trop zélée, comme lorsqu’il essaie deux fois de combattre Ganon dans alors qu’il est très mal équipé pour le vaincre, ou quand il manque de chuter d’une falaise en essayant de sauver sa sœur des griffes d’un oiseau géant au début du jeu. Il s’oppose à Ganondorf alors qu’il n’est qu’un enfant avant de malencontreusement l'aider à trouver la triforce dans , forçant de ce fait Link à réparer les dommages qu’il a causés .
Cependant certains jeux symbolisent certains aspects de la personnalité de Link par son affrontement avec le Dark Link, sa propre ombre, qui apparaît d'abord dans 'The Adventure of Link' puis revient dans Ocarina of Time. De même, dans , la vision d'un Link au visage tordu par un rictus qui a tout pour être maléfique apparaît au héros. Bien que résolument dualistes, et bien que le héros soit évidemment du côté du bien, les jeux Zelda ne manquent pas de mettre quelquefois en scène une facette sombre du personnage. Voire des alter-ego de Link.
Autres apparences de Link : Link possède trois alter-égo. Le premier apparaît dans : lorsque Link se rend dans le Monde des Ténèbres sans la protection de la perle de lune ou bien lorsqu'il est frappé par un esprit malin, il se change en petit lapin rose vulnérable qui se trouve être l'image de son âme profonde. Le second, dans et est plutôt une image contrôlée par des intentions plus mauvaises — sa propre ombre, Dark-Link. Le troisième apparaîtra dans et a cette fois l'apparence d'un loup aux yeux saphirs et sera alors aidé par un petit être des ombres du nom de Midona. Certaines rumeurs considèrent qu'il s'agit du même phénomène et que le loup est encore une fois l'image de l'âme du héros. Quand il se métamorphose en loup dans le royaume du crépuscule de il reflète les aspects mystiques de la transformation et son héroïsme.
Une autre transformation mineure, dans The Minish Cap, pour pénétrer dans certains endroits, il rétrécit pour prendre la taille des Minish et pouvoir interagir avec eux et leur environnement.
Dans , il peut également prendre d’autres apparences en revêtant des masques magiques. Il peut ainsi prendre l’apparence d’une peste Mojo, d’un Goron, d’un Zora ou encore d’un dieu vengeur. Ce jeu, empreint d'une mélancolie profonde plus que nul autre, n'hésite pas à torturer moralement le héros (qui est le même Link que celui d'Ocarina of Time), en le mettant face à sa condition de héros devenu inutile dans les débuts du jeu, puis en le forçant à se transformer en toute sorte de monstres, dont la peste Mojo au tout début. * Entourage
Bien que les jeux de Zelda fassent figurer plus d’interactions avec des personnages amicaux ou neutres que dans certains jeux d’aventure comme la série Metroid, ces personnages prennent rarement une part active dans la quête de Link qu’il accomplit seul. Parallèlement, certains ennemis sont récurrents dans la série. * Famille
Le premier membre de la famille de Link à apparaître dans la série est un oncle non nommé qui rencontre un destin tragique au début de . Prenant son épée et son bouclier, Link part le venger et finit sa mission : sauver la princesse Zelda et Hyrule de Agahnim puis de Ganon. À la fin du jeu, il est mentionné dans une cinématique qu'il est "enfin guéri" ce qui suggère qu'il n'était que blessé au début du jeu. Dans , Link a une mère qui est juste mentionnée dans le jeu comme fuyant les ravages d’une guerre féroce et confiant son bébé au vénérable arbre Mojo alors qu’elle était mortellement blessée. Dans la grand-mère de Link se démène pour élever ses petits-enfants en l’absence inexpliquée de leurs parents. Lors de l’anniversaire de Link au début du jeu, elle lui offre une nouvelle tenue similaire à celle du héros légendaire. C’est également dans cet épisode de la série que l’on trouve le membre de la famille de Link le plus abouti, sa sœur Arielle. Link part à l’aventure pour la sauver après qu’elle a été enlevée par un oiseau géant, et après sa libération elle continue à aider Link dans sa quête. Dans , Link vit avec son grand-père, le forgeron d’Hyrule et un ami du roi. Quand Zelda est transformée en pierre par le sorcier Vaati, il recommande qu’on envoie Link chercher les légendaires Minish et demander leur aide. Son père et sa mère apparaissent sous la forme d’esprits dans le mangade . Dans , lorsque Link parvient à trouver tous les loups dorés, le chevalier squelette qui lui apparait alors prétend que Link est son fils. Et dans The Legend of Zelda: Spirit Tracks, il vit avec Nico, mais rien ne prouve que se dernier est son grand père.
Alliés : Le principal ami de Link dans la série est la princesse Zelda qui apparaît dans la très grande majorité des épisodes, son absence étant notable uniquement dans Majora's Mask où elle n'est même pas mentionnée, juste apparaissant dans un flashblack de Link au début du jeu, sous diverses formes, comme le capitaine pirate Tétra dans et . Impa, la nourrice de Zelda, apparaît également à plusieurs reprises dans la série et aide Link dans ses aventures.
Au cours de ces divers périples il se fait de nombreux amis qui l’aiguillent dans sa quête. Parmi eux figurent par exemple Marine dans , Saria et Darunia dans , Midona dans avec laquelle il devient progressivement ami après un premier contact difficile .
Les fées sont courantes dans les jeux Legend of Zelda. Dans tous les opus, Link peut trouver de petites fées qui l’aident en lui remplissant plusieurs cœurs avant de disparaître. Dans certains jeux, elles peuvent être enfermées dans des bouteilles pour être utilisées plus tard. Les Grandes Fées sont plus rares. Cachées dans des fontaines des fées, elles peuvent, outre permettre à Link de recouvrer sa pleine santé, lui offrir des objets, de nouvelles techniques ou de nouveaux sortilèges. Dans , la petite fée Navi accompagne et guide Link dans son périple et l’aide à chaque fois qu’elle le peut. Dans ce rôle est repris par Taya, puis par Ciela dans .
Ennemis : L’adversaire héréditaire de Link est Ganondorf ou Ganon. Ganondorf fait partie du peuple Gerudo, un peuple de voleurs ou plutôt de voleuses. Il est par ailleurs leur roi de par sa naissance ; en effet, chez les Gerudos un seul homme naît tous les cent ans et est destiné à devenir leur roi. Que ce soit sous sa forme humaine ou bestiale, il est présent dans de très nombreux épisodes en tant que boss final. C’est un sorcier puissant et il détient la Triforce de la force. C’est le même Ganondorf qui revient dans les différents épisodes de la série, se distinguant de Link et de Zelda. Ganondorf est l’un des rares méchants de Nintendo à être entièrement maléfique. Il n'a d'affection pour personne, est sans foi ni loi et considère ses hommes de main comme de vulgaires pions qu’il n’hésite pas à sacrifier pour sa cause.
Le second ennemi récurrent de Link est Vaati, un sorcier au grand pouvoir qui peut prendre diverses formes et posséder les gens. Link le bat à l’aide de l’épée de Quatre.
On peut citer d'autres grands ennemis faisant face à Link, en l'absence de Ganon ou avant son apparitions. Dans Twilight Princess, celui-ci s'appelle Xanto et a reçu une partie des pouvoirs de Ganondorf afin de devenir roi du crépuscule. Il est vaincu par Midona qui utilise les cristaux d'ombre. Dans Phantom Hourglass, Bellum est le principal ennemi du jeu, Ganondorf n'apparaissant pas, car vaincu dans Wind Waker, il a le pouvoir de posséder les êtres vivants et d'aspirer l'énergie vitale ainsi que la mémoire. Le Roi des Mers est parvenu à l'enfermer dans les profondeurs du Temple. Dans Spirit Tracks, il s'agit de Mallard, le Roi-Démon, autrefois enfermé au sommet de la Tour des Dieux par des divinités, mais de sombres malfrats cherchent à le libérer pour leur propre cause.
Relation avec la princesse Zelda : Dans la plupart des opus de la série, Link a pour but de sauver la princesse Zelda. Plusieurs moments dans la série font implicitement augurer une relation amoureuse entre Link et la princesse. La première allusion de la sorte apparaît à la fin de , quand Zelda, une fois éveillée, embrasse Link sous le rideau tombant. De même, la fin ultime des jeux Oracles montre Zelda embrasser la joue de Link, provoquant son évanouissement au milieu de cœurs flottant au-dessus de sa tête.
Dans , certaines scènes représentant Link et Zelda peuvent être interprétées comme les signes d’une romance naissante, éveillant la jalousie de Navi . Dans la scène finale, Link et Zelda flottent dans le ciel et semble partager un moment romantique. Dans le flashback durant lequel Link réapprend le Chant du Temps dans , Zelda dit à Link qu’il lui semble qu’elle le connaît depuis toujours, et qu’elle a foi en son retour à Hyrule. Dans , une forte relation est pressentie entre eux à la fin lorsqu’ils flottent au-dessus de l’eau en se donnant la main. Ganondorf appelle également fréquemment Zelda « ta précieuse Zelda » devant Link. Mais c'est dans où l'on trouve la preuve la plus flagrante : Juste avant de disparaître, Zelda tente de dire a Link "Je t'aime" mais ne prononce que le "JE". Plus tard dans le jeu, Link semble prêt à pleurer quand Zelda plonge dans un sommeil millénaire pour protéger le monde. Par ailleurs, juste avant de s'endormir, elle lui dit "Je suis toujours ta Zelda". Lorsqu'elle revient à la vie, elle s'évanouit dans les bras du Héros et ils restent longtemps dans les bras l'un de l'autre avant de se relever et de se diriger vers leurs amis en se tenant la main.
La relation est nettement plus affichée dans les mangas, comme ceux d’ par exemple. Ainsi, Zelda embrasse Link durant les chapitres de l’enfance, provoquant l’excitation de Link, et la scène qui précède la capture de Zelda par Ganondorf dans les chapitres de l’âge adulte montre un moment de tendresse entre les deux. À la dernière page, Link va rencontrer Zelda dans la cour du château et elle pleure de joie en le voyant. Les dialogues dans le manga et l’incapacité de Link d’arrêter de penser à Zelda tout au long du manga donnent des preuves supplémentaires. Un autre exemple de cette romance apparaît dans le manga officiel de , à la fin duquel Link et Zelda sont représentés se tenant la main. À la fin de , Link et Zelda se tiennent la main une fois que les Lokomos soient retournés auprès des dieux et au tout début quand Link reçoit son diplôme, il rougit quand il voit la princesse.
Dans le dessin animé, il est bien montré que Link est amoureux de la princesse Zelda, ayant accepté de garder la Triforce de la Sagesse uniquement pour être près d'elle. Il essaie par tous les moyens d'obtenir un baiser de Zelda, mais celle-ci refuse toujours catégoriquement. Dans l'épisode 12, Link se fait tuer par Ganondorf, et Zelda est la seule à voir son esprit. Ganondorf explique à ses sbires plus tard que si Zelda est la seule à le voir, c'est parce qu'elle est amoureuse de lui. Ce qui provoque l'euphorie de Link qui, toujours sous sa forme de fantôme, saute sur le rebord d'un balcon de la Forteresse de Ganondorf, et se met à chanter "Zelda m'aime ! Zelda m'aime !". I ls partagent aussi plusieurs moments romantiques durant les épisodes. * Représentation graphique
À propos de la manière de représenter Link dans , Miyamoto a expliqué que « Link était un jeune garçon et pour créer un jeune garçon très actif et énergique et pour choisir le bon style pour représenter le jeune garçon dans un jeu comme ça nous avons fait différents essais. L’ultime décision à laquelle nous sommes parvenus était que la version dans était la meilleure option pour exprimer cela » . s’appuie sur un nouveau Link, des siècles après la victoire de Link dans . * Apparitions * Jeux vidéo * De 1986 à 1997
Chronologie de la série The Legend of Zelda: Link fait sa première apparition le 21 février 1986, avec la sortie du jeu vidéo The Legend of Zelda au Japon. Dès ce premier épisode et pour tout le reste de la série, Link est le personnage contrôlé par le joueur. Bien que le joueur puisse le renommer comme il le veut, c’est le nom original du héros qui est utilisé dans la séquence introductive. Le personnage de Link n’est pas encore très détaillé. Décrit comme un jeune épéiste qui sauva la nourrice de Zelda, Impa, des hommes de main de Ganon , il joue le rôle du héros essayant de sauver la princesse Zelda (et le royaume d’Hyrule) des mains du diabolique sorcier Ganondorf, détenteur de la triforce du pouvoir. Il commence le jeu comme un petit garçon vêtu de vert avec un bouclier mais aucune arme, et va progressivement récupérer des équipements et des fragments de la triforce du courage, jusqu’à devenir suffisamment puissant pour affronter Ganondorf et sauver la princesse.
Dans , Link approche de son seizième anniversaire. Impa l’emmène au Château du nord à Hyrule, alarmée par la soudaine apparition d’un cachet de la triforce sur la main gauche du garçon. Elle lui montre la vraie héritière d’Hyrule, une vieille incarnation de la Princesse Zelda, piégée dans un sommeil éternel, gisant sur un autel dans le château. La vieille femme raconte à Link la légende de Zelda, un ancien conte sur la division de la triforce et la malédiction qui a été jetée sur la princesse. Impa donne ensuite à Link six cristaux, et un manuscrit écrit dans un ancien langage hylien, que Link comprend sans ne l’avoir jamais appris. Il y apprend que la marque sur sa main est le signe qu’il a été choisi pour chercher la troisième triforce, la triforce du courage, dans le grand palais de la vallée de la mort. Link commence alors une quête pour placer un cristal dans chacun des six palais d’Hyrule, pour qu’il puisse plus tard pénétrer sans être gêné dans le grand palais, protégé par magie, et y obtenir la triforce du courage et ainsi réunir les trois pièces de la triforce et réveiller Zelda .
raconte comment, des siècles avant les évènements de The Legend of Zelda, Ganondorf et son armée démoniaque furent bannis dans la terre sacrée, le royaume de la triforce, par les hyliens, au prix d’innombrables vies. Le portail de ce monde fut scellé par magie par sept sages, et les terres derrière ce sceau, que les hyliens espéraient ne plus jamais être brisé, devinrent connues sous le nom de monde des ténèbres, comme elles étaient corrompues par Ganon. La lutte pour sceller Ganon dans la terre sacrée devint connue comme la guerre d’emprisonnement. Un jour, alors que la guerre était oubliée depuis longtemps, le pays est touché par un soudain désastre, jusqu’à ce que le sorcier Agahnim apparaisse à la cour du roi d’Hyrule et étouffe le bouleversement. Nommé chef conseiller du trône, il saisit rapidement les pouvoirs du roi et enlève six jeunes filles, descendantes des sages qui avaient scellé l’entrée du monde des ténèbres. Les jeunes filles sont gardées dans la tour du château, et ne sont plus jamais revues. Agahnim commence ensuite un sombre rituel pour briser le sceau sur le monde des ténèbres et relâcher la furie de Ganondorf sur Hyrule. La princesse Zelda, elle-même descendante du septième sage, décide d’envoyer un message télépathique pour demander de l’aide avant d’être enlevée. L’oncle de Link se dirige vers le château le premier mais est rapidement défait. Il laisse son épée à Link et dans son dernier souffle lui apprend la technique de l’épée tournoyante. Le jeune héros commence ensuite un voyage pour collecter trois médaillons magiques de la vertu, et récupérer l’épée de maître avant de s’opposer à Agahnim.
Dans , qui a lieu après A Link to the Past , Link décide de voyager dans le monde pour être prêt si une menace comme Ganondorf s’abat à nouveau sur Hyrule. Alors qu’il retourne vers Hyrule, le bateau de Link est pris dans une tempête et s’échoue. Il est rejeté sur la rive d’une mystérieuse île nommée Koholint. Link est recueilli dans la maison d’un gentil homme nommé Tarin et de sa fille Marine. Un hibou parlant lui raconte que le seul moyen pour s’échapper de Koholint est de réveiller le « poisson-rêve », une créature géante dormant paisiblement dans un gigantesque œuf au centre de l’île . * De 1998 à 2001
Dans , un jeune Link a été élevé comme un Kokiri, une race d’enfants vivant dans la forêt. Le Vénérable Arbre Mojo, auprès duquel il est convoqué, raconte à Link qu’une malédiction lancée par un sombre cavalier du désert, nommé Ganondorf, est en train de le tuer. L’arbre Mojo raconte à Link l’histoire de la triforce et l’envoie au château d’Hyrule, où il rencontre la princesse Zelda. Celle-ci lui dit de collecter les Trois Pierres Spirituelles et de sauver Hyrule. Link accomplit cette tâche se rend au où il acquiert l’Épée de Légende. Mais en tirant l'épée de son socle, Link ouvre une brèche vers le Saint-Royaume dans laquelle Ganondorf s'engouffre et qui lui permet d'acquérir la Triforce de la Force alors que l'esprit de Link sommeille pendant sept ans au cœur du Temple de la Lumière. À son réveil, Link est désormais prêt à être le Héros du Temps, comme le lui annonce Rauru, Sage de la Lumière. Afin de sauver Hyrule et de défaire Ganondorf, Link doit éveiller les Sept Sages qui, grâce à leurs pouvoirs, peuvent emprisonner Ganondorf dans ce qui fut le Saint-Royaume. En retournant à la forêt Kokiri ainf d’éveiller le Sage de la Forêt, il s’aperçoit qu’aucun de ses amis n’a grandi, contrairement à Link qui a désormais un physique de jeune adulte, et qu’ils ne le reconnaissent pas. Après avoir brisé la malédiction du Temple de la Forêt, le successeur de l’arbre Mojo, le Bourgeon Mojo, que la malédiction empêchait de croître, révèle à Link son passé. Les Kokiri ne grandissent jamais ; la raison pour laquelle Link a grandi est qu’il est en réalité un Hylien, rescapé de la grande guerre qui déchira Hyrule alors qu’il n’était encore qu’un bébé . Sa mère s’enfuit avec lui dans la forêt Kokiri et, mortellement blessée, le laisse sous la protection de l’Arbre Mojo. Il est élevé comme un Kokiri, et n’est pas connu pour être différent . À travers le reste du jeu, Link voyage dans le temps entre les deux époques durant lesquelles se déroule l’aventure grâce à l’Épée de Légende. Il apparaît que les deux Triforces restantes ont pour détenteurs Link et à la Princesse Zelda En effet, comme le cœur de Ganondorf n’était pas pur et équilibré, la Triforce s’est brisée en trois et il n’a pu conserver que celle qui se rapporchait le plus de son ambition. À la fin du jeu, il est renvoyé à l’époque de sa jeunesse par la princesse et Navi le quitte .
a lieu après que Link a défait Ganon et a été renvoyé à l’époque de son enfance. Link quitte Hyrule pour chercher un ami perdu (qui est selon le manga son amie la fée Navi). Alors qu’il circule à cheval dans les Bois Perdus, il est piégé par un Skull Kid qui possède un masque maléfique, le Masque de Majora, et son cheval, Epona, est dérobé. Pourchassant le Skull Kid, Link tombe dans une crevasse et arrive dans une contrée appelée Termina. Il doit sauver ce pays du Masque de Majora, qui a modifié l’orbite de la lune qui menace de s’écraser sur la principale ville de Termina, Bourg-clocher, dans trois jours. Link utilise l’Ocarina du Temps pour jouer la chanson du temps qui le renvoie à un temps antérieur, de façon à revivre ces trois jours de manière répétée et prévenir le désastre. Au cours de son aventure, Link trouve plusieurs masques magiques, dont une poignée d’entre eux lui permettent de se transformer. Ces masques peuvent le changer en Goron, en peste Mojo, en Zora ou en « dieu vengeur ». Dans ce jeu, Link ne grandit jamais dans le sens traditionnel, mais le pouvoir du masque de Puissance des fées lui permet de revêtir une apparence d’adulte. Cette forme est similaire au Link adulte d’Ocarina of Time. Miyamoto et son équipe mentionnèrent leur souhait « que Link arrive dans un monde merveilleux, pour avoir des aventures et réfléchir sur ce qu’il devait faire » .
Dans , la Triforce envoie Link en mission dans un autre pays, Holodrun, pour stopper l’interruption des saisons par le Général des Ténèbres, Onox. Son devoir est de protéger l’Oracle des Saisons, une danseuse nommée Din. Après qu’Onox l’a capturée par la force et que les saisons sont jetées dans le chaos, Link arrive à son secours avec l’aide de la baguette des Saisons, un outil magique qui lui permet de contrôler les quatre saisons.
Dans , Link se réveille dans un autre pays, Labrynna, où il a été envoyé par la magie de la triforce. À son arrivée, il est piégé par Veran, la sorcière des Ombres, en ouvrant le sceau qui protégeait l’Oracle des Âges, une chanteuse nommée Nayru. Veran, possédant le corps de Nayru et des pouvoirs pour voyager dans le temps, fait des va et vient dans le temps, modifiant le passé et dirigeant le présent. Link se précipite pour la suivre dans le passé et sauver Nayru en utilisant les pouvoirs de la Harpe des Ages, qui, quand on en joue correctement, offre à son utilisateur le pouvoir de faire des allers-retours dans le temps. Après avoir chassé l’esprit de Veran du corps de Nayru, Link gravit sa citadelle pour défaire Véran.
Après avoir joué à ces deux derniers jeux (quel que soit l’ordre), en utilisant un code obtenu à la fin du premier jeu joué, il est révélé que les évènements des deux jeux font partie d’un sinistre complot mené par les Twinrova, deux sorcières, pour allumer les flammes de la Destruction (allumées par les actions d’Onox), de la tristesse (allumées par les actions de Veran), et du Désespoir (allumées quand Zelda est enlevée), un rituel pour ressusciter Ganon. Pour compléter le rituel, le sacrifice d’un individu au cœur pur est requis. À la fin, Link doit sauver Zelda de ce destin. Link vainc les Twinrova et sauve Zelda, mais les Twinrova se sacrifient elles-mêmes pour ressusciter Ganon et Link doit le combattre une fois de plus. * De 2002 à aujourd’hui
Dans , Zelda va au sanctuaire des quatre épées avec son ami Link, pour vérifier le sceau contenant le diabolique mage des vents, Vaati. Cependant le sceau se brisa et Vaati émerge, enlève Zelda et assomme Link. Link se réveille pour trouver trois fées qui lui expliquent qu’il doit retirer de son piédestal l’épée de Quatre. Cette épée magique le divise en 2 à 4 Link identiques (cela dépend du nombre de joueurs). Le premier Link porte son habituel tenue verte, le second une version rouge, le troisième bleue et le quatrième violet. Dans The Legend of Zelda: The Minish Cap sorti plus tard il est révélé que ces couleurs reflètent les quatre éléments avec lesquelles l’épée est forgée : la terre, le feu, l’eau et le vent. Les Link doivent coopérer pour passer les obstacles, collecter des clés et pénétrer dans la palais de Vaati pour qu’ils puissent secourir Zelda et sceller le mage .
Dans , qui a lieu des siècles après Ocarina of Time, les dieux ont inondé Hyrule, créant la grande mer, et ne laissant que les plus hautes montagnes d’Hyrule. Au début du jeu, la petite sœur de Link, Arielle, est capturée par le roi Cuirassé, un oiseau géant contrôlé par Ganondorf, à la recherche de la princesse Zelda. Link voyage sur la Grande Mer pour secourir sa sœur et défaire le roi Cuirassé ; sa quête se jumelant à celle du lion rouge qui révèle finalement, après plusieurs essais, que Link est le « héros du vent ». Utilisant la Baguette du vent, un bâton magique, il emprunte le pouvoir des dieux pour l’aider dans sa quête. L’interface d’utilisation de la baguette est similaire à celle de l’Ocarina du Temps, mais utilise des mesures et des temps pour former les accords musicaux, jouant ainsi des mélodies comme la Mélodie du vent, qui contrôle la direction du vent. Link doit finalement rassembler la triforce du courage pour rendre le pouvoir a Excalibur, afin de vaincre Ganondorf.
Dans , Zelda, qui s’inquiète une fois encore pour le sceau de Vaati, va avec six autres jeunes filles mystiques pour vérifier le sanctuaire de l’épée de Quatre, Link les accompagnant. Cependant, une sombre copie de Link attaque. Link est forcé de retirer l’épée de Quatre pour combattre ce Link, mais quand il fait cela il est encore une fois partagé en copies de lui-même, et Vaati s’échappe .
Dans , qui se situe avant Four Swords et Four Swords Adventures, Link est un jeune garçon qui vit avec son grand-père, le maître forgeron d’Hyrule. Link est un ami d’enfance de la princesse Zelda, et le jour de la fête annuelle d’Hyrule pour célébrer le venu du Picori, ils vont se joindre aux festivités. Un mystérieux étranger, Vaati, se montre et remporte le tournoi de combat à l’épée ; chaque année le gagnant du tournoi a l’honneur de toucher la lame sacré de Picori. Cette épée est un cadeau du nain Picori aux hyliens et a été utilisé longtemps auparavant par un héros légendaire pour défaire les forces des ténèbres et les sceller dans le coffre. Vaati détruit la lame et lance une malédiction sur Zelda, et c’est à Link de réparer l’épée, défaire Vaati et sauver Zelda . À la fin du jeu, la lame Picori devient l’épée de quatre dans laquelle Link scelle Vaati, préparant le terrain pour les jeux Four Swords précédemment sortis.
, sorti en novembre 2006 sur Wii et un mois plus tard sur GameCube, se déroule des décennies après les évènements d’Ocarina of Time, dans une chronologie alternative à The Wind Waker ,: . Link est un garçon de ferme d’une seizaine d’années vivant une vie normale jusqu’à ce que deux de ses amis, Colin et Iria, soient enlevés par des monstres. Link tente de secourir ses amis, ce qui le mène dans le royaume du crépuscule, un endroit sombre où il se métamorphose en loup. Alors qu’il est sous cette forme, il est aidé par Midona, une créature ressemblant à un lutin, et il apprend pourquoi le crépuscule envahit ce monde. Cependant, dans son essai de sauver ses amis, Link découvre un mal encore plus grand qu’il est le seul à pouvoir arrêter. Durant le jeu, Link voyage dans le monde normal sous sa forme humaine et dans le royaume du crépuscule sous forme de loup.En utilisant ces deux formes Link doit parvenir à vaicre Xanto l'ursurpateur, roi auto-proclamé du crépuscule, qui sème la terreur dans Hyrule.
Dans l'épisode , on retrouve le Link de The Wind Waker puisque cet opus en est la suite logique. Le jeu se déroule quelques mois après The Wind Waker. Link embarque avec Tetra, la pirate rencontrée dans The Wind Waker, et part à la découverte de nouveaux rivages. Alors que Tetra explore le Bateau fantôme, Link passe par dessus bord et arrive sur une île mystérieuse, où il rencontre une petite fée, Ciela, et Linebeck, un marin, qui l'aideront à retrouver ses amis et à poursuivre son voyage pour sauver Tetra et vaincre Bellum, un monstre assoiffé d’énergie pour donner ainsi au Roi des mers sa véritable apparence, une baleine blanche.
Dans , on retrouve une nouvelle fois Link Cartoon, cet épisode se déroulant un siècle après Phantom Hourglass. Link est alors un conducteur de train qui doit aller chercher son diplôme de conducteur auprès de la princesse Zelda. Or le ministre du royaume qui inquiétait la princesse s'avère être le serviteur du démon Mallard, enfermé dans la Tour des Dieux, scellée grâce aux puissances du royaume arrivant par les voies ferrées. Mallard fait disparaître les voies ferrées sacrées pour s'échapper de sa prison, et la mission de Link est de les restaurer, aidé de l'esprit de la princesse Zelda, son corps ayant été volé par Mallard.
Apparitions en dehors de la série : Link est présent dans un certain nombre de jeux en dehors de la série des Zelda. Aucun de ces jeux n’apporte d’élément intégré à la série.
, sorti en 1993 pour le système CD-i de Philips, est le seul des trois jeux Zelda pour le système CD-i dans lequel Link est le principal protagoniste. Au début du jeu, un magicien nommé Gwonam rend visite à Link pour lui annoncer que Ganon et ses fidèles ont envahi la paisible île de Koridai et capturé Zelda. Après avoir été informé qu’il était le seul à pouvoir vaincre Ganon, Link s’en va à Koridai pour trouver le Livre de Koridai, un livre magique. En utilisant le livre, il vainc Ganon et libère Zelda. Bien qu’il fait intervenir les personnages de Zelda, ce jeu n’est pas produit, ni supervisé par Nintendo, qui n’a pas officiellement reconnu le jeu comme faisant partie de la série des Zelda.
Il y a deux autres jeux parus pour CD-I : et . Cependant, dans ces deux jeux c’est la princesse Zelda qui est le personnage jouable, puisque la trame de ces deux jeux comporte l'enlèvement de Link.
Link est un des huit personnages jouables du jeu de combat , publié en 1999 sur Nintendo 64. Link porte par défaut son habituelle tunique Kokiri verte, et le joueur peut choisir entre différentes couleurs de tunique. Il dispose d’une partie de son arsenal des jeux Zelda, incluant des bombes, un boomerang et un grappin. Link est un des quinze personnages jouables de , la suite de sortie en 2001 sur . Dans cet opus, il a un arc en plus de son équipement de . Link enfant est également un personnage jouable après avoir été débloqué. Modélisé à partir de la version d’ du héros, Link enfant est plus agile mais moins fort que son aîné. Link est l’un des premiers combattants confirmés pour , publié en 2005 sur Wii. Son apparence est influencée par le personnage modèle de . « Toon Link » ou « Link Cartoon », une version de Link basée sur le Link de , remplace le personnage de Link enfant dans ce jeu .
Link adulte est le personnage exclusif de la version de de Namco. Peu de choses sont révélées à propos de Link dans ce jeu, mais il est connu qu’après avoir sauvé Hyrule d’un sorcier maléfique qui avait été contrôlé par un fragment de , il entra dans une quête pour détruire l’épée maléfique. Retirant rapidement la Master Sword de son piédestal, il entreprit de voyager dans le monde pour détruire , dans une mission secrète organisée par la princesse Zelda. Miyamoto ne voyait aucun problème à ce que Link apparaisse dans ce qui peut être vu comme un violent jeu de combat, comme il avait déjà été établi comme combattant dans les jeux . Le modèle plus réaliste de Link de ce jeu fut utilisé pour le développement du Link de Twilight Princess . Link est le seul personnage de SoulCalibur II à utiliser des armes variées et le seul personnage invité à avoir son propre thème musical et plus de deux costumes. Il utilise un certain nombre d’items de la série des Zelda. Un aspect notable de Link dans ce jeu est qu'il est le seul personnage pouvant attaquer en se servant de véritables projectiles (ses armes étant sensiblement les mêmes que dans , soit son arc, son boomerang et ses bombes) — seul Spawn, le personnage exclusif à la version Xbox du jeu, peut en faire autant. Link possède un style de combat unique, comparé aux autres personnages « réguliers » du jeu, et possède même quelques attaques provenant de jeux de la série (la charge et l’attaque cyclone entre autres).
Au total, Link possède quatre costumes, ce qui est plus que n'importe quel autre personnage régulier. Ses couleurs disponibles sont le vert, le rouge, le bleu et couleur lavande. Outre son épée et son bouclier Hylien, Link peut porter plusieurs armes du passé, comme sa Canne de Byrna provenant de , et l'épée et le bouclier magiques de . Son arme ultime est la de , et son arme comique est un filet à papillons, celui provenant de . Même si la a le plus petit marché des trois consoles de la sixième génération, cette version de a été plus populaire que celles pour PlayStation 2 et Xbox. La version s’est vendue à exemplaires, contre et pour la PlayStation 2 et la Xbox, respectivement . De nombreux journalistes et observateurs attribuent ceci à la présence de Link dans le jeu en tant que personnage exclusif à la version pour .
Link devait également apparaître dans mais cela n’eut jamais lieu .
Link est aussi présent dans les Fungli-heroes de la Funglisoft, une société de production semi-professionnelle française. On y croise aussi dans un épisode le frère maléfique de Link et dans un autre, le héros Méta prend l'apparence de Link enfant et est conseillé par la princesse Zelda.
Apparitions mineures : Link fait une brève apparition dans sur Super Nintendo, où il est vu endormi dans un lit dans une auberge. Une autre référence est faite à Link dans la version japonaise du jeu de NES : à Elftown il y a une tombe sur laquelle est marquée « Ci-gît Link ». Le nom indiqué sur cette tombe est devenu Erdick, personnage de , lors de la traduction en anglais. Cependant cette tombe est revenue à l’original dans la version sur Game Boy Advance. Il apparaît dans sur le podium des héros de Cranky Kong, et dans où il est fait référence à la collection de coquillage de Link dans Link’s Awakening .
Certaines armes et objets de Link sont apparus dans plusieurs jeux, tels que l’épée de légende dans Final Fantasy Tactics Advance et Animal Crossing, et le sifflet pervertissant dans Super Mario Bros. 3.
Par ailleurs, dans le jeu de rôle en ligne massivement multijoueur World of Warcraft, un personnage non-joueur gnome nommé Linken fait une apparition. Il est habillé de la même façon que Link et propose aux joueurs des quêtes qui, une fois complétées, permettent d’obtenir le « boomerang de Linken » et « l’épée de légende de Linken ». Le joueur reçoit également une photographie de Linken se tenant aux côtés d’une gnome ressemblant remarquablement à la princesse Zelda .
Il est également cité dans le jeu vidéo "Animal Crossing : Wild World", sur Nintendo DS. Un personnage peut dire qu'il "est allé dans une ville lointaine et qu'il y a croisé un garçon habillé tout en vert et qui attrapait des objets dans le ciel avec son boomerang magique." * Dans d’autres médias
Dans la série animée Zelda, Link, doublé par Jonathan Potts, est représenté dans un ensemble de cartoons entre 1989 et 1990 dans le The Super Mario Bros. Super Show! du DCI. Basés vaguement sur le premier jeu, les cartoons représentent Link comme un adolescent impoli. Poursuivant constamment Zelda et poursuivi par la princesse des fées Spryte, il mendie des baisers de Zelda. Treize épisodes furent produits avant la suppression de . La série complète est sortie le 18 octobre 2005 . Une version légèrement modifiée de ce Link apparut pendant la seconde saison de .
Une série de bandes dessinées fut créée pour le magzine par le célèbre auteur Shotaro Ishimori, et plus tard rassemblée sous la forme d’une bande dessinée. L’histoire reprend des éléments de . Bien que Link commence comme un malheureux garçon, il montre un grand courage et prouve lui-même qu’il est un aventurier déterminé et compétent. Il a une fée qui l’accompagne, Epheremelda, alors que ce concept n’est pas encore introduit dans les jeux vidéo. Ce conte décrit les parents de Link comme des chevaliers d’Hyrule, perdus dans le monde des ténèbres. Il inclut un personnage inédit, Roam, un descendant des Chevaliers d’Hyrule qui combattirent durant une ancienne guerre. À la fin de l’histoire, Zelda est devenue reine, et Link est à la tête de la Garde Royale et des Chevaliers d’Hyrule. Toutefois cette victoire est un peu amère, leurs devoirs respectifs les tiennent séparés l’un de l’autre, alors qu’ils furent très proches auparavant .
Il y a eu des mangas basés sur , , , , , et .
Les références à Link sont relativement fréquentes, et on peut entrevoir un personnage lui ressemblant dans l’épisode 11 de la saison 11 de , ainsi que dans la bande dessinée Spirou et Fantasio à Tokyo . * Link auprès du public * Lien entre le joueur et le héros
Lors de l’élaboration du personnage de Link, le but de Miyamoto était de tout mettre en œuvre pour que les gens s’identifient à Link et aient l’opportunité d’être des héros comme le personnage. Bien qu’à la fin des jeux, Link devient particulièrement talentueux du point de vue physique et magique, il commence généralement le jeu comme un garçon ordinaire. Par exemple, dans , il commence comme un orphelin, et à la fin il est le légendaire « Héros du temps ». Autre particularité, bien que l’épée soit l’arme de base dans tous les Zelda, le joueur commence toujours l’aventure sans elle. Là encore on observe une volonté évidente d’accentuer l’immersion du joueur qui devra trouver par lui-même ce qui le conduira à l’aventure. Eiji Aonuma, successeur de Miyamoto dans le développement des jeux de la série , a déclaré que le look « adolescent » de Link dans The Wind Waker poursuivait également le but d’améliorer le contact naturel des joueurs avec le héros et faciliter l’identification .
Par ailleurs Link n’a pratiquement pas de dialogue dans la série de jeux. L’expression faciale n’est seulement visible que lorsque la série apparaît sur Nintendo 64. La raison communément admise de cette absence de paroles est une volonté de la part de Nintendo de ne pas « entrer en contradiction avec l’interprétation du personnage par le joueur » .
Accueil par le public : Le personnage de Link a été globalement bien accueilli par les critiques et les fans. Aux Nintendo Power Awards de 1988 et 1989, les lecteurs l’élisent meilleur personnage ,: .
Il est classé par les lecteurs au premier et troisième rang du « meilleur héros » respectivement aux Nintendo Power Awards de 1993 et 1994 ,: .
Link est également récompensé d’une étoile au en 2005 aux côtés de Miyamoto, le créateur du personnage.
Game Informer classe Link au premier rang des « héros de 2006 » .
Link est également apparu dans de multiples concours « batailles de personnages » de GameFAQs et c’est le seul personnage à avoir gagné plus d’une fois ,: ,: ,: ,: . Dans un des « affrontements de héros » de 2007 de IGN.com, Link est élu favori devant le héros de Final Fantasy VII: , Clad Strife .
Clr: Notes et références : Références : colonnes = 2 *
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عاشوراء
ثقافة إسلامية | تاريخ إسلامي | مناسبات شيعية
تدقيق:
ثقافة إسلامية: شيعة: عاشوراء هو اليوم العاشر من شهر محرم في التقويم الهجري ويسمى عند المسلمين بيوم عاشوراء ويصادف اليوم الذي قتل فيه الحسين بن علي حفيد النبي محمد في معركة كربلاء لذلك يعتبره الشيعة يوم عزاء وحزن. كما وقعت العديد من الاحداث التاريخية الأخرى في نفس اليوم. وقد اختلف المسلمون حول صيام ذلك اليوم. ويعتبر يوم عاشوراء عطلة رسمية في بعض الدول مثل إيران، باكستان، لبنان، البحرين، الهند والعراق.
أصل التسمية : يوم عاشوراء هو عاشر المحرم، وهو اسم إسلامي، وجاء عشوراء بالمد مع حذف الألف التي بعد العين، كلمة عاشوراء تعني العاشر في اللغة العربية، ومن هنا من تأتي التسمية، واذا ما تم ترجمة الكلمة ترجمة حرفية فهي تعني "في اليوم العاشر". أي اليوم الواقع في العاشر من هذا الشهر "محرم"، وعلى الرغم من أن بعض علماء المسلمين لديهم عرض مختلف لسبب تسمية هذا اليوم بعاشوراء إلا انهم يتفقون في أهمية هذا اليوم.
عاشوراء عند الشيعة : شعائر حسينية: يوم عاشوراء عند الشيعة هو يوم ذكرى حزينه وآليمة لمقتل الحسين بن علي بن أبي طالب وكل من معه، ظلما، في العاشر من محرم 61 للهجرة من قبل جيش يزيد ابن معاوية. وللذكرى عند الشيعة عموما، والإثني عشرة خصوصا، شعائر مميزة يقومون بها طيلة الايام الآوائل من محرم التي تعزز ايمانهم من خلال التفكر بالحدث المآسوي العظيم. ومن الشعائر التي يقومون بها الشيعة الاثني عشرية، وخاصة في كربلاء، هي زيارة ضريح الحسين وإضاءة الشموع وقراءة قصة الامام الحسين والبكاء عند سماعها واللطم تعبيراً عن حزنهم على الواقعة. وتوزيع الماء للتذكير بعطش الحسين في صحراء كربلاء واشعال النار للدلالة على حرارة الصحراء. ويقوم البعض بتمثيل الواقعة وماجرى بها من أحداث أدت إلى مقتل الحسين بن علي فيتم حمل السيوف والدروع. كما يقومون بتمثيل حادثة مقتل الحسين جماهيريا فيما يعرف بموكب الحسين. ويقوم البعض بالتطبير أي إسالة الدم مواساة للحسين. كما يقوم البعض بضرب انفسهم بالسلاسل وخمش خدودهم . * عاشوراء في المغرب
عاشوراء بالمغرب: المغاربة يسمون يوم عاشوراء، بيوم زمزم. وفي هذا اليوم، يقومون برش الماء على بعضهم البعض وعلى مقتنياتهم تبركا. ويحاول التجار بيع كل بضائعهم. ويعقب عاشوراء "ليلة الشعالة" حيث يجتمعون حول نار وهم يرددون أهازيج، بعضها يحكي قصة مقتل الحسن والحسين، دون أن يشير إليهما بالاسم، بل يسميهما في كل المقاطع باسم "عاشور"، وتتخللها نياحة واهازيج أخرى . وتقدم الأسر الزكاة أو عشر أموالها التي دار عليها الحول للفقراء. * صيام يوم عاشوراء
صوم: اختلف المسلمون حول صيام يوم عاشوراء. اما رأي فقهاء الشيعة الاثني عشر، ومنهم آية الله العظمى السيد علي السيستاني هو أن صوم يوم عاشوراء مكروه ويمكن الاكتفاء بالصوم عن الماء تشبها بعطش الحسين وعائلته في ذلك اليوم المآساوي. . اما عند السنة هو يوم صوم مستحب. وأختلفت الروايات في أصل صوم عاشوراء عندهم. فمنهم من قال انه كان يوم صوم عند قريش قبل الجاهلية ولما فرض صوم رمضان أصبح اختياريا.ووفقاً للحديث النبوي فقد روى البخاري ومسلم عن عائشة قالت: كان يوم عاشوراء يوما تصومه قريش في الجاهلية، وكان النبي محمد يصومه. فلمّا قدِم المدينة صامَه، وأمرَ الناس بصيامِه فلمّا فُرِض رمضانُ قال "مَنْ شَاءَ صامَه ومَنْ شَاءَ تَرَكَه": . وتنقل بعض كتب أهل السنة والجماعة ان النبي محمد صامه عندما علم أن يهود المدينة يصومونه . ورفض البعض هذه الرواية لاختلاف عاشوراء اليهود عن عاشوراء المسلمين . كما يروي أتباع المذهب السني أنّ صوم يوم عاشوراء بَقِيَ مندوبًا كسائر الأيام التي يُنْدَب فيها الصِّيام، ولم يكن يَأْبَهُ له أحدٌ من المسلمين بأكثرَ من أنّ الصِّيام فيه له فضله الذي وَرد فيه قول النبي كما رواه مسلم "يُكَفِّر السَّنة الماضيةَ" وجرى الأمر على ذلك في عهد الخُلفاء الراشدين، حتى كان يومُ الجمعة العاشِر من المحرّم سنة إحدى وستي من الهجرة، وهو اليوم الذي قتل فيه الحسينُ بن علي في كَرْبِلاءبحاجة لمصدر: . * احداث حصلت في العاشر من محرم
وتحدث بعض المؤرخون، وبالأخص العلماء السنة: عن العديد من الآحداث التي حصلت في العاشر من محرم مثل أن الكعبة كانت تُكسى قبل الإسلام في يوم عاشوراء ثم صارت تُكسى في يوم النحر. وهو اليوم الذي تاب الله فيه على آدم، وهو اليوم الذي نجى الله فيه نوحا وأنزله من السفينة، وفيه أنقذ الله نبيه إبراهيم من نمرود، وفيه رد الله يوسف إلى يعقوب، وهو اليوم الذي أغرق الله فيه فرعون وجنوده ونجى موسى وبني إسرائيل، وفيه غفر الله لنبيه داود، وفيه وهب سليمان ملكه، وفيه أخرج نبي الله يونس من بطن الحوت، وفيه رفع الله عن أيوب البلاء، وهذه الأحداث كلها أنكرها بعض علماء أهل السنة كالشيخ محمد بن صالح المنجد إذ بين في صفحته على موقع تويتر أنه لا تصح أي من هذه الروايات سوى فضل الصوم في هذا اليوم وأن إظهار الفرح في هذا اليوم هو مذهب النواصب أما إظهار الحزن فيه فهو مذهب الراوفض وكلاهما غلو في هذه اليوم. وهو اليوم الذي قتل فيه حفيد النبي وثالث ائمة آهل البيت الامام حسين بن علي في كربلاء ظلما.
أنظر أيضا : * معركة عاشوراء * شعائر حسينية * مواكب عاشوراء في النجف الاشرف * عاشوراء بالمغرب
صور حول شعائر عاشوراء : * المصادر والمراجع ==
ثبت المراجع: معركة كربلاء:
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Day of Ashura
Shi'a days of remembrance | Islamic holy days | Hussein ibn Ali
Husayn: The Day of Ashura (عاشوراء: , Ashura, Ashoura, and other spellings; Turkish: Aşure Günü) is on the 10th day of Muharram in the Islamic calendar and marks the climax of the Remembrance of Muharram.
It is commemorated by Shi'a Muslims as a day of mourning for the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad at the Battle of Karbala on 10 Muharram in the year 61 AH (October 10, 680 AD). According to Sunni Muslim tradition, Muhammad fasted on this day and asked other people to fast.
In some Shi'a regions of Muslim countries such as Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Pakistan, Lebanon, and Bahrain, the Commemoration of Husayn ibn Ali has become a national holiday and most ethnic and religious communities participate in it. Even in predominantly Hindu country like India, Ashura (10th day in the month of Muharram) is a public holiday. * Etymology of Ashura
The root for the word ashura has the meaning of tenth in Semitic languages; hence the name of the remembrance, literally translated, means "the tenth day". According to the orientalist A.J. Wensinck, the name is derived from the Hebrew ʿāsōr, with the Aramaic determinative ending. The day is indeed the tenth day of the month, although some Islamic scholars offer up different etymologies.
In his book Ghuniyatut Talibin, Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani writes that the Islamic scholars have a difference of opinion as to why this day is known as Ashura, with some scholars suggesting that this day is the tenth most important day that God has blessed Muslims with.date: December 2010: Commemoration of the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali: Mourning of Muharram: Commemoration of Husayn ibn Ali: History of the commemoration by Shi'a: Battle of Karbala: This day is well-known because of mourning for the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali, the grandson of Muhammad and the third Shia Imam, along with members of his family and close friends at the Battle of Karbala in the year 61 AH (680 AD). Yazid I was in power then and wanted the Bay'ah (allegiance) of Husayn ibn Ali. Muslims believe Yazid was openly going against the teachings of Islam in public and changing the sunnah of Muhammad.
Husayn in his path toward Kufa encountered the army of Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad, the governor of Kufa. On October 10, 680 (Muharram 10, 61 AH), he and his small group of companions and family members (in total who were around 72 men and few ladies and children) fought with a large army of perhaps more than 100,000 men under the command of Umar ibn Sa'ad, son of the founder of Kufa. Husayn and all of his men were killed while being thirsty. The nearby river (Forat) was also blocked by Ubayd-Allah ibn Ziyad men and Husayn and his companions were not allowed to get any water from it. Before being killed, Husayn said "if the religion of Mohammad was not going to live on except with me dead, let the swords tear me to pieces."dateAugust 2010: . Some of the bodies of the dead, including that of Husayn, were then mutilated.
Commemoration for Husayn ibn Ali began after the Battle of Karbala. After the massacre, the Umayyad army looted Husayn's camp and set off with his women and children for the court of Ibn Ziyad. A moving oration delivered by Zaynab in Kufa is recorded in some sources. The prisoners were next sent to the court of Yazid, Umayyad caliph, in Damascus, where one of his Syrian followers asked for Husayn's daughter Faṭimah al-Kubra, and once again it was Zaynab who came to the rescue and protected her honour. The family remained in Yazid's prison for a time. The first assembly (majlis) of Commemoration of Husayn ibn Ali is said to have been held by Zaynab in prison. In Damascus, too, she is reported to have delivered a poignant oration. The prison sentence ended when Husayn's 3 year old daughter, Janabe Rukaiyya, died in captivity, unaware of her father's martyrdom. She often cried in prison to be allowed to see her father. She is believed to have passed away when she saw her fathers mutilated head. Her death caused an uproar in the city, and Yazid, fearful of a potential resulting revolution, freed the captives.
Husayn's grave became a pilgrimage site among Shi'a only a few years after his death. A tradition of pilgrimage to the Imam Husayn Shrine and the other Karbala martyrs quickly developed, which is known as Ziarat Ashura. The Umayyad and Abbasid caliphs tried to prevent construction of the shrines and discouraged pilgrimage to the sites. The tomb and its annexes were destroyed by the Abbasid caliph Al-Mutawakkil in 850-851 and Shi'a pilgrimage was prohibited, but shrines in Karbala and Najaf were built by the Buwayhid emir 'Adud al-Daula in 979-80.
Public rites of remembrance for Husayn's martyrdom developed from the early pilgrimagesdate: December 2010: . Under the Buyid dynasty, Mu'izz ad-Dawla officiated at public commemoration of Ashura in BaghdaddateDecember 2010: . These commemorations were also encouraged in Egypt by the Fatimid caliph al-'Azizdate: December 2010: . From Seljuq timesdateDecember 2010: , Ashura rituals began to attract participants from a variety of backgrounds, including Sunnisdate: December 2010: . With the recognition of Twelvers as the official religion by the Safavids, Mourning of Muharram extended throughout the first ten days of Muharram. * Significance of Ashura for Shi'a Muslims
This day is of particular significance to Shi'a and Alawite Muslims, who consider Husayn (the grandson of Muhamad) Ahl al-Bayt the third Imam and the rightful successor of Muhammad. Shi'as make pilgrimages on Ashura, as they do forty days later on Arba'een, to the Mashhad al-Husayn, the shrine in Karbala, Iraq that is traditionally held to be Husayn's tomb. On this day Shi'a are in remembrance, and mourning attire is worn. They refrain from music, since Arabic culture generally considers music impolite during death rituals. It is a time for sorrow and respect of the person's passing, and it is also a time for self-reflection, when one commits oneself to the mourning of the Husayn completely. Weddings and parties are also never planned on this date by Shi'as. Shi'as also express mourning by crying and listening to poems about the tragedy and sermons on how Husayn and his family were martyred. This is intended to connect them with Husayn's suffering and martyrdom, and the sacrifices he made to keep Islam alive. Husayn's martyrdom is widely interpreted by Shi'a as a symbol of the struggle against injustice, tyranny, and oppression.
Shi'as believe the Battle of Karbala was between the forces of good and evil with Husayn representing good while Yazid represented evil. Shi'as also believe the Battle of Karbala was fought to keep the Muslim religion untainted of any corruptions and they believed the path that Yazid was directing Islam was definitely for his own personal greed.date: January 2008: Shia Imams strongly insist that the day of Ashura should not be taken as a day of joy and festivity. According to a hadith which is reported from Ali claiming it was on that day the God forgave Adam, Noah's Ark rested on dry land, The Israelites were saved from Pharaoh's army, etc. The day of Ashura, according to Eighth Shia Imam, Ali al-Rida, must be observed as a day of inactivity, sorrow and total disregard of worldly cares.
Some of the events associated with Ashura are held in special congregation halls known as "Imambargah" and Hussainia.dateJanuary 2008: As suffering and cutting the body with knives or chains (matam) have been prohibited by Shi'a marjas like Ali Khamenei, Supreme Leader of Iran, some Shi'a observe mourning with blood donation which is called "Qame Zani" and flailing. Yet some Shi'ite men and boys, considered heretics by some Muslim scholars, slash themselves with chains(zanjeer) or swords (talwar) and allow their blood to run freely.
Certain rituals like the traditional flagellation ritual called Talwar zani (talwar ka matam or sometimes tatbir) using a sword or zanjeer zani or zanjeer matam, involving the use of a zanjeer (a chain with blades) are also performed. These are religious customs that show solidarity with Husayn and his family. People mourn the fact that they were not present at the battle to fight and save Husayn and his family.
Shia commonly believe that taking part in Ashura is to be absolved of sindate: December 2010: . A popular Shia saying has it that, `a single tear shed for Husayn washes away a hundred sins.`
Popular customs: For Shi'as, commemoration of Ashura is not a festival, but rather a sad event, while Sunni Muslims view it as a victory God has given to his prophet, Moses . This victory is the very reason, as Sunni Muslims believe, Muhammad mentioned when recommending fasting on this day.Sunnis also commemorate this day as the day of victory for Islam. The martyrdom of Hussain, gave new life to the message of Islam. Sunnis gather at the mosques, to remember the noble sacrifice made by Hussain and his companions, hold seminars and take out procession in the remembrance of this great martyr of Islam. For Shi'as, it is a period of intense grief and mourning. Mourners, congregate at a Mosque for sorrowful, poetic recitations such as marsiya, noha, latmiya and soaz performed in memory of the martyrdom of Husayn, lamenting and grieving to the tune of beating drums and chants of "Ya Hussain." Also Ulamas give sermons with themes of Husayn's personality and position in Islam, and the history of his uprising. The Sheikh of the mosque retells the Battle of Karbala to allow the listeners to relive the pain and sorrow endured by Husayn and his family. In Arab countries like Iraq and Lebanon they read Maqtal Al-Husayn. In some places, such as Iran, Iraq and the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, Ta'zieh, passion plays, are also performed reenacting the Battle of Karbala and the suffering and martyrdom of Husayn at the hands of Yazid. dateJanuary 2008: For the duration of the remembrance, it is customary for mosques and some people to provide free meals (Niazz) on certain nights of the month to all peopledate: December 2010: . People donate food and Middle Eastern sweets to the mosquedateDecember 2010: . These meals are viewed as being special and holy, as they have been consecrated in the name of Husayn, and thus partaking of them is considered an act of communion with God, Hussain, and humanity. date: January 2008: Participants congregate in public processions for ceremonial chest beating (matham/latmiya) as a display of their devotion to Husayn, in remembrance of his suffering and to preach that oppression will not last in the face of truth and justice. Others pay tribute to the time period by holding a Majilis, Surahs from the Quran and Maqtal Al-Husayn are read.
Today in Indonesia, the event is known as Tabuik (Minangkabau language) or Tabut (Indonesian). Tabuik is the local manifestation of the Shi'a Muslim Remembrance of Muharram among the Minangkabau people in the coastal regions of West Sumatra, particularly in the city of Pariaman. The festival includes reenactments of the Battle of Karbala, and the playing of tassa and dhol drums.dateJanuary 2008: In countries like Turkey, there is the custom of eating Noah's Pudding (Ashure) as this day in Turkish is known as Aşure. * Commemoration of Husayn ibn Ali by non-Muslims
In some countries other religious communities commemorate this event.
In Trinidad and Tobago and Jamaica all ethnic and religious communities participate in this event, locally known as "Hosay" or "Hussay", from "Husayn". * Significance of Ashura for Sunni Muslims
Not related to Ashura and Karbala, some Sunni Muslims fast on this day of Ashura based on narrations attributed to Prophet Muhammad. The fasting is to commemorate the day when Moses and his followers were saved from Pharaoh by Allah by creating a path in the Red Sea. According to Muslim tradition, the Jews used to fast on the 10th day. So Muhammad recommended to be different from the Jews and recommended fasting two days instead of one. 9th and 10th or the 10th and 11th day of Muharram.
According to Hadith record in Sahih Bukhari, Ashura was already known as a commemorative day during which some Meccans used to observe customary fasting. Prophet used to fast on the day of Ashra,10th Muharram,in Mecca.When fasting the month of Ramadhan,became obligatory,the fast of Ashura was made non compulsory.This has been narrated by Aisha,Sahih Muslim,Hadith-2499. In hijrah event when Muhammad led his followers to Medina, he found the Jews of that area likewise observing fasts on the day of Ashura. At this, Muhammad affirmed the Islamic claim to the fast, and from then the Muslims have fasted on combinations of two or three consecutive days including the 10th of Muharram (e.g. 9th and 10th or 10th and 11th).
A companion of Muhammed, Ibn Abas reports Muhammed went to Medina and found the Jews fasting on the tenth of Muharram. Muhammed inquired of them, "What is the significance of this day on which you fast?" They replied, "This is a good day, the day on which God rescued the children of Israel from their enemy. So, Moses fasted this day." Muhammed said, "We have more claim over Moses than you." Muhammed then fasted on that day and ordered Muslims too.
Not all of the above incidents are confirmed to have taken place on Ashura in the Quran, nor by any strong Hadith. These have been reported in the weaker Hadith, but are nevertheless regarded possible by some of the Sunni Muslims. However some Islamic scholars like Mufti Taqi Uthmanidate: January 2010: rebuke such beliefs saying that "there are some legends and misconceptions with regard to 'Ashura' that have managed to find their way into the minds of the ignorant, but have no support of authentic Islamic sources".
The narrations of Muhammad mentioning the Children of Israel being saved from Pharaoh are indeed confimed by authentic hadith in Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim.
Sunnis regard fasting during Ashura as recommended, though not obligatory, having been superseded by the Ramadan fast.Sahih Muslim,Hadith-2499
Sunnis in Egypt customarily eat a pudding (also known as Ashura) after dinner on the Day of Ashura; it is a wheat pudding with nuts, raisins, and rose water, and it is also known in Turkish as Aşure. * Socio-political aspects
Commemoration of Ashura has great socio-political value for the Shi'a, who have been a minority throughout their history. "Al-Amd" asserts that the Shi'a transference of Al-Husayn and Karbala ' from the framework of history to the domain of ideology and everlasting legend reflects their marginal and dissenting status in Arab-Islamic society.date: September 2007: dateFebruary 2007: According to the prevailing conditions at the time of the commemoration, such reminiscences may become a framework for implicit dissent or explicit protest. It was, for instance, used during the Islamic Revolution of Iran , the Lebanese Civil War, the Lebanese resistance against the Israeli occupation and in the 1990s Uprising in Bahrain. Sometimes the `Ashura' celebrations associate the memory of Al-Husayn's martyrdom with the conditions of Islam and Muslims in reference to Husayn's famous quote on the day of Ashura: "Every day is Ashura, every land is Karbala".
From the period of the Iranian Constitutional Revolution (1905–11) onward, mourning gatherings increasingly assumed a political aspect. Following an old established tradition, preachers compared the oppressors of the time with Imam Hosayn's enemies, the umayyads.
The political function of commemoration was very marked in the years leading up to the Islamic Revolution of 1978-79, as well as during the revolution itself. In addition, the implicit self-identification of the Muslim revolutionaries with Imam Hosayn led to a blossoming of the cult of the martyr, expressed most vividly, perhaps, in the vast cemetery of Behesht-e Zahra, to the south of Tehran, where the martyrs of the revolution and the war against Iraq are buried.
On the other hand some governments have banned this commemoration. In 1930s Reza Shah forbade it in Iran. The regime of Saddam Hussein saw this as a potential threat and banned Ashura commemorations for many years. In the 1884 Hosay Massacre, 22 people were killed in Trinidad and Tobago when civilians attempted to carry out the Ashura rites, locally known as Hosay, in defiance of the British colonial authorities. * Violence during Ashura
The Sunni and Shi'a schism is highlighted by the difference in observance by Sunni and Shi'a Muslims. The violence is perpetrated by extremists. In countries that have significant populations of both sects, there is often violence during the holiday.
On June 20, 1994 the explosion of a bomb in a prayer hall of Imam Reza shrine in Mashhad killed at least 25 people. The Iranian government officially blamed Mujahedin-e-Khalq for the incident to avoid sectarian conflict between Shias and Sunnis. However, the Pakistani daily The News International reported on March 27, 1995, "Pakistani investigators have identified a 24-year-old religious fanatic Abdul Shakoor residing in Lyari in Karachi, as an important Pakistani associate of Ramzi Yousef. Abdul Shakoor had intimate contacts with Ramzi Ahmed Yousef and was responsible for the June 20, 1994, massive bomb explosion at the shrine Imam Ali Reza in Mashhad."
The 2004 (1425 AH) Shi'a pilgrimage to Karbala, the first since Saddam Hussein was removed from power in Iraq, was marred by bomb attacks, which killed and wounded hundreds despite tight security.
On January 19, 2008, 7 million Iraqi Shia pilgrims marched through Karbala city, Iraq to commemorate Ashura. 20,000 Iraqi troops and police guarded the event amid tensions due to clashes between Iraqi troops and members of a Shia cult, the Soldiers of Heaven, which left around 263 people dead (in Basra and Nasiriya).
On December 27, 2009, tens of thousands of opposition protesters in Iran demonstrated in conjunction with the day of Ashura. Clashes between anti-riot forces and demonstrators occurred in several Iranian cities. Among others, the nephew of the opposition leader Mir-Hossein Mousavi was killed.
On December 28, 2009, dozens of people were killed and hundreds injured (including both Shia and Sunni commemorators) during the Ashura procession when a massive bomb exploded at the procession in Karachi, Pakistan (See: 2009 Karachi bombing). Reuters
On December 15, 2010, 200 Shia followers were detained by the Selangor Islamic Department (JAIS) in a raid at a shop house in Sri Gombak known as Hauzah Imam Ali ar-Ridha (Hauzah ArRidha). This was because of a fatwa by a Salafi Selangor mufti, who had declared the Shias to be heritics. Khusrin said all the Shias mourners who were detained were to be charged under Section 12 © of the Selangor Syariah Criminal Enactment 1995 which are insulting, rejecting, or dispute the violation of the instructions set out and given a fatwa by the Salafi religious authorities. ABNA
On December 5, 2011, thirty Shia pilgrims participating in Ashura processions were killed by a series of bomb attacks in Hilla and Baghdad, Iraq.
On December 6, 2011, a suicide attack killed 63 people and critically wounded 160 at a shrine in Kabul, Afghanistan where a crowd of hundreds had gathered for the day of Ashura observation. * Ashura in the Gregorian calendar==
Islamic calendar: While Ashura is always on the same day of the Islamic calendar, the date on the Gregorian calendar varies from year to year due to differences between the two calendars, since the Islamic calendar is a lunar calendar and the Gregorian calendar is a solar calendar. Furthermore, the crescent appearance to determine when each Islamic month begins varies from country to country due to obvious geographical reasons. * 1430 AH ** 2009 January 6, in Middle East and Iran ** 2009 January 7, in South Asia (i.e. Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, etc.) * 1431 AH ** 2009 December 28, in India, Pakistan, Iran, N.America, Europe and Middle East and December ** 2009 December 29, in Far-East * 1432 AH ** 2010 December 16, in part of Middle East and Iran ** 2010 December 17, in Iraq and South Asia (i.e. Afghanistan, Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, etc.) * 1433 AH ** 2011 December 5, in part of Middle East and Asia ** 2011 December 6, in Lebanon, Iraq, and North America
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Achoura
Chiisme | Fête religieuse musulmane
islam: Unicode arabe:
LAchoura (arabe : ʿašara, , dix, d'où ʿāšūrāʾ, , le dix (du mois de muharram)) est un évènement religieux des pays musulmans. Il est appelé Tamkharit au Sénégal. * Signification d'Achoura pour les musulmans sunnites
Instituée par Mahomet, avant l'introduction du jeûne du ramadan, il s'agit d'une période de jeûne de deux jours, dont le second, le 10 de mouharram, a donné le nom à l'événement : le nombre 10 se disant ʿašara en arabe. Ce jeûne était calqué: sur le jeûne juif de Yom Kippour, institué au dixième jour du septième mois.
Mahomet, l'année de son décès, a conseillé a ses fidèles d'étendre le jeûne au jour précédant (9ème), pour éviter que soient confondues les fêtes musulmane et juive.
Voyant les juifs s'adonner à un jour de jeûne, Mahomet leur en demanda la signification (selon la version la plus répandue du hadith) ; ceux-ci répondirent qu'ils commémoraient ainsi la sortie d'Égypte des Hébreux sous la conduite de Moïse ; se réclamant des anciens prophètes bibliques, Mahomet affirma être plus en droit de jeûner ce jour. Ce dernier point est certainement un amalgame entre le jour du Yom Kippour et la pâque juive puisque le jour de Yom Kippour est un jeûne qui expie les péchés de l'année précédente alors que la pâque juive célèbre la sortie d’Égypte et la délivrance du peuple des Hébreux.refnec: Selon le hadith d'Abû Qatâda, Mahomet a dit : « Ce jeûne efface les péchés de l'année précédente. » (rapporté par Mouslim)
Ce que commémore l'Achoura est variable, selon les hadiths pris en compte : l'accostage de l'Arche de Noé ou Adam quittant le paradis céleste. Depuis l'introduction du jeûne du ramadan, quelques années après, ce jeûne est devenu facultatif et l'évènement est aujourd'hui l'occasion de deux jours de jeûne purificateurs dans le monde musulman.
Aujourd'hui dans certains pays officiellement musulman, l'Achoura a pris des sens différents, comme au Maroc où elle dure deux jours et est plutôt célébrée comme la fête de la Jeunesse et de la Famille. * Signification d'Achoura pour les musulmans chiites
À cette signification initiale, le chiisme ajoute la commémoration du massacre de l'imam Husayn et de 72 membres de sa famille et partisans par le califat omeyyade à Kerbala en Irak. L'achoura symbolise la lutte contre l'oppression et les injustices dans le chiisme par référence à cet événement historique: . la célébration a lieu le 10e: jour du mois musulman de mouharram et le deuil se poursuit pendant 40 jours jusqu'à l'Arbaïn. Les pleurs sont également perçus comme un moyen de soulager sa colère face aux injustices: .
C'est à Kerbala en Irak qu'a lieu le pèlerinage principal.
En Iran, l'Achoura est commémorée par le Tazieh (ta’azīyah), un genre théâtral qui rejoue le massacre de l'imam Husayn. * Notes et références ==
Références:
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ملحق:قائمة منتجات سوني إريكسون
سوني إريكسون | هواتف سوني إريكسون
التالي هي قائمة منتجات جزئية مصنعة تحت العلامة التجارية: سوني إريكسون. قد تم إطلاق العديد من الموديلات تحت أسماء متعددة, اعتماداً على المكان الذي تحررت منه، حالياً يوضع حرف في نهاية رقم الموديل دالاً على المكان الذي يعود له الموديل. ('i' للعالمية، 'a' لأمريكا الشمالية، و'c' للصين. عادة ما يكون هناك نسخة واحدة لأمريكا الشمالية وأوروبا ونسخة مختلفة للسوق الآسيوية.) لكن لبعض الموديلات نسخ أخرى. تم أيضا تحرير العديد من موديلات الاسم التجاري" والك مان" تحت اسم آخر غير والك مان. وتختلف هذه الموديلات عن موديل والك مان بقليل.
هواتف عالمية : هواتف الـ Candybar : * سوني إريكسون D750i (نسخة خاصة من K750i إلى T-Mobile) * سوني إريكسون F500i (نسخة خاصة من K500i إلى Vodafone) * سوني إريكسون J100i/J100c/J100a * سوني إريكسون J110i/J110c/J110a * سوني إريكسون J120i/J120c * سوني إريكسون J200i/J200c * سوني إريكسون J210i/J210c * سوني إريكسون J220i/J220c/J220a * سوني إريكسون J230i/J230c/J230a * سوني إريكسون J300i/J300c/J300a * سوني إريكسون K200i/K200c/K200a * سوني إريكسون K220i/K220c * سوني إريكسون K300i/K300c/K300a * سوني إريكسون K310i/K310c/K310a * سوني إريكسون K320i * سوني إريكسون K500i/K500c * سوني إريكسون K506c * سوني إريكسون K508i/K508c * سوني إريكسون K510i/K510c/K510a * سوني إريكسون K550i/K550c * سوني إريكسون K550im (نسخة i-mode) * سوني إريكسون K600 (هاتف 3G) * سوني إريكسون K608 (هاتف 3G) * سوني إريكسون K610i/K610c/K618i (هاتف 3G) * سوني إريكسون K610im (i-mode) * سوني إريكسون K700i/K700c * سوني إريكسون K750i/K750c/K758c * سوني إريكسون K790i/K790c/K790a * سوني إريكسون K800i/K800c (هاتف 3G) * سوني إريكسون K810i/K818c (هاتف 3G) * سوني إريكسون T61d/T61ds/T61LX * سوني إريكسون T62u * سوني إريكسون T66 * سوني إريكسون T68/T68i/T68ie * سوني إريكسون T100/T105 * سوني إريكسون T200/T202 * سوني إريكسون T206 * سوني إريكسون T226/T226s * سوني إريكسون T230/T226m/T237/T238 * سوني إريكسون T290i/T290c/T290a * سوني إريكسون T300 * سوني إريكسون T310/T312/T316 * سوني إريكسون T600 * سوني إريكسون T606 - هاتف سوني إريكسون واحد من اثنان فقط للـ CDMA (بعكس الـ GSM) في أمريكا الشمالية. * سوني إريكسون T608 - هاتف سوني إريكسون واحد من اثنان فقط للـ CDMA (بعكس الـ GSM) في أمريكا الشمالية. * سوني إريكسون T610/T616/T618 * سوني إريكسون T610 NZ * سوني إريكسون T628/T630/T637 * سوني إريكسون V600i (هاتف 3G) (نسخة خاصة من K600i إلى Vodafone) * سوني إريكسون V630i (هاتف 3G) (خاص لـ Vodafone) * سوني إريكسون W200i/W200c/W200a * سوني إريكسون W610i/W610c * سوني إريكسون W660i * سوني إريكسون W700i/W700c * سوني إريكسون W800i/W800c * سوني إريكسون W810i/W810c * سوني إريكسون W880i/W888c (هاتف 3G)
هواتف الـ Clamshell : هواتف الـ Clamshell (أيضاً تسمى flip phones) * سوني إريكسون T39m/T39mc * سوني إريكسون V800/Vodafone 802SE (هاتف 3G) (نسخة خاصة من Z800i إلى Vodafone) * سوني إريكسون W300i/W300c * سوني إريكسون W710i/W710c * سوني إريكسون Z200/Z208 * سوني إريكسون Z300i/Z300c/Z300a * سوني إريكسون Z310i/Z310a * سوني إريكسون Z500a * سوني إريكسون Z520i/Z520c/Z520a * سوني إريكسون Z525a * سوني إريكسون Z530i/Z530c * سوني إريكسون Z550i/Z550c/Z550a * سوني إريكسون Z558i/Z558c * سوني إريكسون Z600/Z608 * سوني إريكسون Z610i (هاتف 3G) * سوني إريكسون Z710i/Z710c * سوني إريكسون Z750 (هاتف 3G) * سوني إريكسون Z800i (هاتف 3G) * سوني إريكسون Z1010 (هاتف 3G)
هواتف Jackknife : تصميم محوري * سوني إريكسون S700i/S700c * سوني إريكسون S710a * سوني إريكسون W550c/W550i/W600c/W600i * سوني إريكسون W900i (هاتف 3G)
هواتف Slider : * سوني إريكسون W580i/W580c * سوني إريكسون W830i/W830c * سوني إريكسون W850i (هاتف 3G) * سونى اريكسون u10i
الهواتف الذكية : تصميم يشبه الحاسوب المحمول * سوني إريكسون M600i/M608c (هاتف 3G) * سوني إريكسون P800/P802 * سوني إريكسون P900/P908 * سوني إريكسون P910i/P910c/P910a * سوني إريكسون P990i/P990c (هاتف 3G) * سوني إريكسون W950i/W958c (هاتف 3G) * سوني اريكسون SATIO (هاتف G3)
هواتف السوق اليابانية : au : * سوني إريكسون W41S * سوني إريكسون W42S * سوني إريكسون W43S * سوني إريكسون W44S * سوني إريكسون W51S
NTT DoCoMo : * سوني إريكسون SO505i * سوني إريكسون SO505iS * سوني إريكسون SO702i * سوني إريكسون SO902i * سوني إريكسون SO902iWP+ * سوني إريكسون SO903i * سوني إريكسون SO903iTV * سوني إريكسون RADIDEN * سوني إريكسون premini-II
خاص لـ أو مودم USB نقال : * سوني إريكسون GC75e GPRS بطاقة حاسوب مودة * سوني إريكسون GC79 GPRS/802.11b شبكة لاسلكية بطاقة حاسوب * سوني إريكسون GC82 EDGE/GPRS بطاقة حاسوب * سوني إريكسون GC83 EDGE/GPRS بطاقة حاسوب * سوني إريكسون GC85 EDGE/GPRS بطاقة حاسوب * سوني إريكسون GC89 EDGE/GPRS/802.11g شبكة لاسلكية بطاقة حاسوب * سوني إريكسون GC95 UMTS/EDGE/GPRS بطاقة حاسوب * سوني إريكسون GC99 UMTS/EDGE/GPRS/802.11g شبكة لاسلكية بطاقة حاسوب
بلوتوث : * سوني إريكسون Akono HBH-300 * سوني إريكسون HBH-GV435 * سوني إريكسون Akono HBH-600 * سوني إريكسون Akono HBH-602 * سوني إريكسون Akono HBH-608 * سوني إريكسون HBH-610a * سوني إريكسون Akono HBH-660 * سوني إريكسون Akono HBH-662 * سوني إريكسون HBH-PV705 * سوني إريكسون HBH-DS970 (Stereo)
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List of Sony Ericsson products
Sony Ericsson | Sony Ericsson mobile phones
dateFebruary 2011: The following is a list of products manufactured under the Sony Ericsson brand. Most of the models have been released under multiple names, depending on region of release, currently usually indicated by a letter added to the end of the model number ('i' for international, 'a' for North America, and 'c' for mainland China), but indicated on some (mostly older) models by a slightly differing model number. Typically, there is one version for the European and US market, and another for the Asian market. However, some models have yet more versions.
Most "Walkman" branded models are also released as a non-Walkman version; such as the Sony Ericsson w580 and the s500. These versions usually differ only slightly. * International phones
Phones in boldface indicates that the phone is a smartphone.
S : Status, where P indicates under production, D is discontinued and U indicates upcoming .
C Series: Cyber-shot : * C902
The Sony Ericsson C902 was released during the second quarter of 2008. It is a java based feature device running on Sony Ericsson's proprietary A200 platform. The camera technology includes face detection and the music player is similar to the system used on the company's "Walkman" series handsets. The phone is the first in Sony Ericsson's new 'Cyber-shot' C-series of phones, designed to be a successor to the popular K800i and the K850. The C902 is featured in the James Bond film, Quantum of Solace, and has been praised for its user interface design and its build quality. Although the device received favourable reviews, analysts do not expect it to reach the same level of popularity or sales as its predecessor, the K800i, because it's not intended to be a "flagship model". * D Series: Deutsche Telekom
F Series: Fun phones : * G Series: Generation Web phones
G700: The Sony Ericsson G700 was announced at the Mobile World Congress (formerly 3GSM congress) February 2008 and is based on the Symbian OS 9.1 UIQ 3.0 platform. The handset has had below average reviews, with a lot of reviewers criticizing the phone for being priced too high as the better equipped G900 is in the same price bracket while others have lamented the fact that Sony Ericsson chose to implement the same technology that had been presented in late 2006 in the P1.
G900: Mobile World Congress (formerly 3GSM congress) in February 2008, is a mid-to-high end smartphone based on the Symbian OS 9.1 UIQ 3.0 platform. The phone sports high quality sound, 3G, wi-fi and a clear 5.0 megapixel camera.
K Series: Kamera phones : Some phones have Cyber-shot branding.
₭ * M Series: Messaging phones
P Series: PDA phones : * R Series: Radio phones
S Series: Style / Slider / Swivel phones : * T Series: Tela phones
V Series: Vodafone phones : * W Series: Walkman phones
X Series: Xperia phones : Xperia: * Z Series: Clamshell phones
Entertainment Unlimited Series: Entertainment phones : The first Entertainment Unlimited Phones were announced and launched in 2009, creating a new category where the benefits of Audio and Images were combined in smart, good-looking and high-performing devices. Apart from first-rate Audio-Visual strength, what these products have in common are differentiating factors in the User Interface, borrowing from the wider Sony Group UI-developments. Aino is the first product that connects into the world of the Sony PlayStation remotely via remote media play. Vivaz is the first Sony Ericsson phone supporting High Definition (HD) video capture.
* Greenheart Phones: environmental innovation
Sony Ericsson's legacy in corporate social responsibility has been a trademark ever since the inception of the Joint Venture and even before then, with its history within the wider Ericsson group. In 2009, the Greenheart Initiative was launched in a publicized event and web-cast, where the first Greenheart products were unveiled. Greenheart is in the heart of all Sony Ericsson development although for this sub-category of every-day-life tools, environmental innovation is highlighted, such as ultra-efficient chargers, recycled plastics, water-born paints and environmental applications.
Overview: Note: These lists are not intended to be all inclusive. Some information may be missing, or out of date.
Features:
Sony Ericsson mobile phones for Japan market : au by KDDI (previously as IDO and DDI Cellular) : * CDMA 1X WIN models (CDMA2000 1xEV-DO)
col-begin: ** Cyber-shot Keitai S006 - The world's first 16.2 Megapixel cameraphone with advanced functions. It features CMOS 'Exmor R' sensor, dual LED flash, ISO 12800, WIN HIGH SPEED service, and waterproof design. It also supports GLOBAL PASSPORT GSM & CDMA. ** BRAVIA Phone S005 - Its design is similar to S004. It supports WIN HIGH SPEED service. ** URBANO MOND - Designed for active elderly with updated functions and waterproof design. ** BRAVIA Phone S004 - High-speed waterproof phone from Sony Ericsson BRAVIA lineup using 1 GHz Qualcomm Snapdragon processor. It features OneSeg TV tuner, Motion Flow Lite 60 frame, 8.11 Megapixel CMOS camera and supports GLOBAL PASSPORT GSM & CDMA. ** Cyber-shot Keitai S003 - The first 12.09 Megapixel 'Exmor' CMOS cameraphone from Sony Ericsson Cyber-shot lineup with Dual-LED 'PLASMA' Flash and waterproof body. It supports GLOBAL PASSPORT GSM & CDMA. ** URBANO BARONE - Designed for active elderly with large keypad function. It supports GLOBAL PASSPORT CDMA. ** BRAVIA Phone U1 - The first BRAVIA phone for au's lineup with waterproof body. It supports GLOBAL PASSPORT CDMA. ** Global Keitai S002 - Compact, simple phone with GLOBAL PASSPORT GSM support and Talkman Flash feature. ** Cyber-shot Keitai S001 - Cyber-shot phone with 'First-Class' theme and it is the first Sony Ericsson phone using AMOLED display. It features 8.11 Megapixel 'Exmor' CMOS sensor, GLOBAL PASSPORT GSM & CDMA, and premium design. ** Walkman Phone, Premier³ - Walkman phone which able to rip music directly from CD Player via connector. It features Clear Bass, Clear Stereo, and Sony's DSEE (Digital Sound Enhancement Engine) Technology. It supports GLOBAL PASSPORT CDMA. ** Walkman Phone, Xmini (W65S) - The smallest Walkman phone with illumination music control. It features Clear Bass, Clear Stereo, and Sony's DSEE (Digital Sound Enhancement Engine) Technology. ** Global Keitai W64S - Global and elegance design with GLOBAL PASSPORT GSM support and Talkman Flash feature. ** Full Change Keitai re (W63S) - The first Sony Ericsson phone with full-customization support both cover, keypad, antenna, and user-interface. ** Global Keitai W62S - Global design with GLOBAL PASSPORT GSM support and Talkman Flash feature. ** Cyber-shot Keitai W61S - The first Cyber-shot phone for au's lineup. It features 5.11 Megapixel 'Exmor' CMOS sensor, Smile Shutter Lite, Kaokime Lite, and OneSeg TV Tuner. ** W54S - Stylish and elegance phone with OneSeg TV Tuner and Bluetooth support. ** W53S - Stylish phone with selected 100 Style-Up Panel cover. ** Walkman Keitai W52S - Walkman phone with visual music sensation. ** W51S - Stylish phone with backlight illumination panel. ** W44S - 2-way flip multimedia phone with OneSeg TV Tuner support. ** W43S - Stylish phone with elegance and beauty design. ** Walkman Keitai W42S - Walkman phone with music style design and illumination music control. ** W41S - Music-style phone which able to connect to LISMO! ** W32S - Style-phone with Osaifu-Keitai support. ** W31S - Multimedia phone designed for music. ** W21S - The first CDMA 1X WIN model from Sony Ericsson.
col-end: * CDMA2000 1x models
col-begin: col-break: ** A1404S II ** A1404S ** A1402S II ** A1402S ** A5404S
col-break: ** A5402S ** A1301S ** A1101S ** A3014S
col-end: * cdmaOne models
col-begin: col-break: ** C1002S ** C413S (Sony) ** C406S (Sony)
col-break: ** C404S DIVA / DIVA lite (Sony) ** C305S (Sony) ** C101S (Sony)
col-end: * PDC model ** Digital Minimo 511G (Sony)
NTT DoCoMo : * FOMA models
col-begin: col-break: ** Xperia SO-01B - Sony Ericsson Xperia X10 for Japanese market. It features additional functions like Sony's music store mora touch. ** Global Keitai SO706i - Global elegance phone with illumination panel. It uses Linux MOAP(L) operating system and supports WORLD WING 3G. ** BRAVIA Keitai SO906i - Second BRAVIA(R) phone for Docomo's lineup. ** SO705i - Smart elegance phone with illumination panel. It uses Linux MOAP(L) operating system. ** Cyber-shot Keitai SO905iCS - The first Cyber-shot phone for Docomo's lineup. It features 5.11 Megapixel 'Exmor' CMOS camera, Smile Shutter Lite, Kaokime Lite, and Xenon Flash. ** SO905i - Multimedia phone with touchscreen function. ** SO704i - Stylish phone with illumination panel on the cover. ** BRAVIA Keitai SO903iTV - The first Sony Ericsson phone with BRAVIA branded. ** Aroma Keitai SO703i - Beauty and elegance phone with replaceable aroma sheet in the front cover. ** SO903i - Premium AV multimedia phone from Sony Ericsson for Docomo's lineup. ** FOMASTICK SO902iWP+ - Waterproof phone from Sony Ericsson for Docomo's lineup. ** SO702i - Stylish phone with selected Style-Up Panel cover. ** FOMASTICK SO902i - Candybar model with 3.2 Megapixel CMOS camera.
col-end: * mova models
col-begin: col-break: ** RADIDEN (SO213iWR) - The first Sony Ericsson radiophone with AM/FM/TV band and dual-design. ** premini-IIS (SO506iS) - One of premini series with improved features and fresh design. ** premini-II (SO506i) - One of premini series with Memory Stick Duo support. ** premini-S (SO213iS) - One of premini series with sporty design. It doesn't have external memory slot. ** SO506iC - The first Sony Ericsson phone for Docomo's mova lineup with electronic payment Osaifu-Keitai function using Sony FeliCa chip. ** premini (SO213i) - The first and smallest, compact premini model from Sony Ericsson. It doesn't have external memory slot. ** SO505iS - Swivel music phone from Sony Ericsson for Docomo's mova lineup ** SO505i - Swivel multimedia phone from Sony Ericsson for Docomo's mova lineup. It is almost similar to global model S700i. ** SO212i ** SO504i ** SO211i ** SO503iS (Sony) ** SO210i (Sony) ** SO503i (Sony) ** ER209i (Ericsson) ** SO502iWM (Sony) ** SO502i (Sony) ** SO601ps (Sony) ** ER207 (Ericsson) ** SO207 (Sony) ** ER205 (Ericsson) ** SO206 (Sony) ** SO201 (Sony) ** SO101 (Sony)
col-end: SoftBank Mobile (previously as Vodafone and J-Phone) : * UMTS model ** Vodafone 802SE - Vodafone Japan version of the V800 * PDC model ** J-SY01 (Sony)
TU-KA : * PDC models
col-begin: col-break: ** TH291 (Sony) ** TH281 (Sony)
col-break: ** TH271 (Sony)
col-end: Sony Ericsson Japan Phones : * PC Cards or USB mobile modems
col-begin: col-break: * Sony Ericsson GC75e GPRS PC card Modem * Sony Ericsson GC79 GPRS/802.11b Wireless LAN PC card * Sony Ericsson GC82 EDGE/GPRS PC card * Sony Ericsson GC83 EDGE/GPRS PC card * Sony Ericsson GC85 EDGE/GPRS PC card
col-break: * Sony Ericsson GC89 EDGE/GPRS/802.11g Wireless LAN PC card * Sony Ericsson GC95 UMTS/EDGE/GPRS PC card * Sony Ericsson GC99 UMTS/EDGE/GPRS/802.11g Wireless LAN PC card * Sony Ericsson MD300 Mobile Broadband USB Modem HSDPA/UMTS/EDGE/GPRS
col-end: : Bluetooth handsfree
col-begin: col-break: * Sony Ericsson Akono HBH-300 * Sony Ericsson HBH-GV435 * Sony Ericsson Akono HBH-600 * Sony Ericsson Akono HBH-602 * Sony Ericsson Akono HBH-608 * Sony Ericsson HBH-610a * Sony Ericsson Akono HBH-660
col-break: * Sony Ericsson Akono HBH-662 * Sony Ericsson HBH-PV705 * Sony Ericsson HBH-DS970 (Stereo) * Sony Ericsson HBH-DS200 (Stereo) * Sony Ericsson HBH-DS220 (Stereo) * Sony Ericsson HBH-DS980 (Stereo) * Sony Ericsson HBH-DS205 (Stereo) * Sony Ericsson MW600
col-end: : Bluetooth watches
col-begin: col-break: * Sony Ericsson MBW-100 * Sony Ericsson MBW-150 Music Edition * Sony Ericsson MBW-150 Executive Edition * Sony Ericsson MBW-150 Classic Edition
col-break: * Sony Ericsson MBW-200 Contemporary Elegance * Sony Ericsson MBW-200 Evening Classic * Sony Ericsson MBW-200 Sparkling Allure
col-end: : Notes
This list is complete as per JUNE 2010. Some of the early models listed here might also have been released under the Sony or Ericsson brands respectively. * Other products * HPM-10 stereo headset that includes an mmc card slot to allow the playback of mp3 music files. * HPM-64 stereo headset included with some of the company phones, including a few walkman branded ones. This walkman branded version of this headset is also branded with BassReflex, which is a technology that improves the Bass quality. * stereo handsfree telephone headset is bundled with many of the company's phones. A microphone, call answer key and 3.5 mm jack to swap headphones are all built-in. * HPM-80 stereo handsfree with built-in radio receiver, music controls and an lcd screen used to display current fm radio frequency. (compatible with W900i only). * HPM-82 stereo handsfree with built-in music controls that is bundled with some of the walkman branded mobile phones. * HPM-83 stereo handsfree with neckband. * HPM-85 full size stereo headphones for Sony ericsson mobile phones. * HPM-88 stereo handsfree with noise cancelling function * HPM-90 stereo handsfree with display and music navigation. * MCA-25 Cell Phone Digital Camera (also known as the Communicam). * MPS-75 Portable stereo speaker that attaches to the fast port of Sony Ericsson mobile phones to allow loud music playback. * MXE-60 Add-on Xenon flash for various older Sony Ericsson mobile phones like, for example, the W810i
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Liste des produits Sony Ericsson
Sony Ericsson | Périphérique (informatique)
La liste suivante est une liste non-exhaustive des produits Sony Ericsson.
Téléphones mobiles : Gamme C : * C702 * C703 * C902 * C905i * C510 (commercialisé en avril 2009) : un des premiers téléphones intégrant la fonction Smile Shutter™
Gamme D : * D750i
Gamme F : * F300i * F500i
Gamme G : * G502i * G700i * G705 * G900i
Gamme J : * J100i * J132i * J200i * J210i * J220i * J230i * J300i
Gamme K (Photophone) : Conseillé pour la photographie * K200i * K220i * K300i * K310i * K320i * K500i * K508i * K510i * K530i * K550i * K550im * K600i * K608i * K610i * K618im * K610im * K630i * K660i * K700i * K770i * K750i * K790i * K800i * K810i * K818i * K850i * K1000i dit "black diamond" * Satio
Gamme M : * M600i
Gamme P (Smartphone) : * P800 * P900 * P910i * P990i * P1i * Satio * Vivaz
Gamme R (Radio) : * R300i * R306i
Gamme S : * S1i * S500i * S600i * S700i * S710i
Gamme Tchimmy : * T68i * T100 * T230 * T250i * T270i (a été annulé) * T280i * T290i * T303i * T610 * T630 * T650i
Gamme V (Vodafone) : * V600i * V630i * V640i * V800i
Gamme W (Walkman) : * W200i * W205 * W300i * W350i * W380i * W395i * W508i * W550i * W550s * W580i * W595i * W600i * W610i * W660i * W700i * W705i * W710i * W715i * W760i * W800i * W810i * W850i * W880i * W888i * W890i * W900i * W902i * W910i * W950i * W960i * W980i * W995i
Gamme X (Xperia) : * X1i * X2 * X8 * X10 * X10 Mini * X10 Mini Pro * Arc * Neo * Neo Pro * Play
Gamme Z (clapet) : * Z200i * Z250i * Z300i * Z310i * Z320i * Z520i * Z530i * Z550i * Z555i * Z600i * Z610i * Z710i * Z750i * Z770i * Z780i * Z800i * Z1010i
Cartes PC : * GC75 * GC79 * GC85 * GC89 * GC95
Références :
Télécommunications:
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ميليسوس من ساموس
فلاسفة إغريق
ميليسوس من ساموس (القرن الخامس ق.م) كان ثالث وآخر عضو في المدرسة الإيلية الفلسفية القديمة، والتي انتمى إليها زينو وبارمنيدس، ولا نعرف الكثير عن حياته، سوى أنه قاد أسطول مدينة ساموس قبل حرب البلوبونيز بقليل، وكانت مساهمته الفلسفية عبارة عن محاورات تدعم فكر المدرسة الإيلية، وبالرغم من أنه اتّبع بارمنيدس في آرائه، إلا أن ميليسوس كانت له اضافات أصيلة في الفلسفة، وقد زعم أن الحقيقة هي شيء أصيل، غير قابل للتدمير، أو التجزئة، لا يتغير ولا يتحرك. وقد أراد أن يثبت أن الحقيقة غير محدودة، وأنها تتمدد في كل الاتجاهات على الدوام، وبما أن الوجود ليس له حدود، اذن لابد وأن يكون واحد.
حياته: تاريخ مولده الدقيق غير معروف، لكن يعتقد أنه كان في وقت ما من القرن الخامس ق.م، وتاريخ وفاته مجهول، وما نعرفه عن حياته مصدره فقرة صغيرة من كتاب بلوتارك :حياة بيريكلس، كان قائداً لأسطول مدينة ساموس، كما أنه هزم بيريكلس والأسطول الأثيني عام ٤٤١ ق.م، ويقال أن ميليسوس كان تلميذاً لبارمنيدس، ومعلّماً لليوكيبوس، ولكن هذه المعلومات مشكوك في صحتها.
ما تبقى من فلسفة ميليسوس وصل إلينا عن طريق تعليقات سيمبليكيوس على كتابيّ أرسطو، الطبيعة، و عن السماوات، وخلاف بارمنيدس، كتب ميليسوس نظرياته نثراً، وليس شعراً، مما جعلها أسهل فهماً من نظريات معلّمه، ومثل بارمنيدس، يفترض ميليسوس أن الوجود هو واحد، أصيل، غير قابل للتدمير أو التجزئة أو التغيير أو الحركة، وبينما يدعي بارمنيدس أن الوجود محدود، يخالفه ميليسوس ويقول العكس، فالوجود غير محدود كلياً، ويقول بارمنيدس أن الوجود يحدث في حاضر بلا زمان، بينما يفترض ميليسوس أن الوجود هو أبدي، أي الزمان كله.
فلاسفة ما قبل سقراط:
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Melissus of Samos
5th-century BC Greek people | 5th-century BC philosophers | Ancient Samians | Presocratic philosophers | Year of death unknown | Metaphysicians
Melissus of Samos (Μέλισσος: ; 5th century BC) was the third and last member of the ancient school of Eleatic philosophy, whose other members included Zeno and Parmenides. Little is known about his life except that he was the commander of the Samian fleet shortly before the Peloponnesian War. Melissus’ contribution to philosophy was a treatise of systematic arguments supporting Eleatic philosophy. Like Parmenides, he argued that reality is ungenerated, indestructible, indivisible, changeless, and motionless. In addition, he sought to show that reality is wholly unlimited, and infinitely extended in all directions; and since existence is unlimited, it must also be one.
Life: Not much information remains regarding the life of Melissus. He may have been born around 500 BC; the date of his death is unknown. The little which is known about him is mostly gleaned from a small passage in Plutarch’s Life of Pericles. He was the commander of the Samian fleet not long before the Peloponnesian War, and defeated Pericles and the Athenian fleet in 441 BC. Plutarch claims that Aristotle says that Melissus had also defeated Pericles in an earlier battle. In his Life of Themistocles, Plutarch denies Stesimbrotus’ claim that Melissus was held in high regard by Themistocles, claiming that he is confusing Themistocles and Pericles. Melissus was reputed to have been the pupil of Parmenides, and the teacher of Leucippus, though one must regard such claims with a fair amount of skepticism.
Overview: Much of what remains of Melissus’ philosophical treatise, On Nature, has been preserved by Simplicius in his commentaries on Aristotle’s Physics and On the Heavens, and several summaries of his philosophy have come down to us. Most of the remaining fragments can be found in Diels-Kranz. Unlike Parmenides, Melissus wrote his treatise in prose, not poetry, consequently making it easier to follow than that of his teacher. Like Parmenides, he claims that Being is one, ungenerated, indestructible, indivisible, changeless, motionless and the same. Melissus’ philosophy differs from that of Parmenides in two respects: (1) Parmenides claims that Being is limited, while Melissus claims that it is wholly unlimited; and (2) for Parmenides, Being existed in a timeless Present, while for Melissus Being is eternal. McKirahan claims that Parmenides argues for Being as spatially limited, but this is a contentious point.
Philosophy: Eternal: Melissus argues that since The One. neither came to be nor is subject to destruction, it is therefore eternal. While fragment 1 is merely a summary of Parmenides’ arguments against coming to be and perishing (8.5-21), fragment 2 provides Melissus’ argument. Melissus’ argument is twofold, addressing the temporal aspect of The One somewhat as a timeline: granting the reality of the present moment, he argues that The One has existed eternally into the past and will exist eternally into the present.
His argument is as follows: * Whatever comes to be must have a beginning. * According to fragment 1, The One did not come to be. * Therefore, The One does not have a beginning. * Therefore, The One is eternal (has always existed in the past).
in addition: * Whatever has a beginning must also end. * According to fragment 1, The One did not have a beginning. * Therefore, The One will not end. * Therefore, The One is eternal (will always exist in the future).
He restates his argument for The One as eternal in fragments 6 and 9.1.
It is in this respect that Melissus differs from Parmenides, although some argue that the difference is not as important as it might seem. Parmenides’ view is that there is only one moment (the eternal present), while Melissus argues for an infinite number of moments. The existence of a changeless, motionless, eternal present is an arguable position (after all, change and motion depend on time); however, the existence of a changeless, motionless, infinite succession of moments is a much more difficult position to defend (after all, if there is no other change, there is still temporal change, the change from one moment to the next).
There are several problems with Melissus’ reasoning. His second argument is based on a faulty premise (i.e., that whatever comes to be must also end at some point). Furthermore, both arguments, which can be reduced to “If A, then B; but not-A, therefore not-B”, are logically flawed.
Unlimited: Melissus also contends that The One is unlimited. Fragments 7 and 8 clearly indicate that Melissus is speaking in terms of spatial infinity, although regarding fragment 3, which first argues this point, Simplicius explicitly denies this: “But by ‘magnitude’ he does not mean what is extended in space.” Although Simplicius undoubtedly had more of Melissus’ treatise at his disposal, as well as other commentaries and notes which have not survived to the present day, fragments 7 and 8 clearly indicate that Melissus has spatial infinity in mind.
In any case, Melissus’ argument for this claim is unclear, and it is possible that it has not been preserved for us. Alternatively, he may intend for this argument to follow from the arguments of fragments 1 and 2, either directly or indirectly. In the former case, unless the argument is based on a now lost theory on the relationship between time and space, it is, as McKirahan says, “grossly fallacious”. In the latter case, granting the “beginning” and “end” of fragment 2 spatial as well as temporal qualities leaves Melissus open to the charge of equivocation.
In fragment 6 Melissus connects an eternal existence and the quality of being unlimited. Melissus may have argued for this quality due to certain issues arising in Parmenides’ thesis (8.42-9). The argument is as follows: * Whatever has a beginning and end is neither eternal nor unlimited. * Being has no beginning or end. * Therefore, it is eternal and unlimited.
This argument, as fragment 3, is logically flawed, being basically: “If not-A, then not-B”.
One: Melissus’ argument for the oneness of what-is, given mainly in fragments 7 and 8, is undoubtedly his best. His argument is clearer and more concise than the one provided by Parmenides. Melissus argues that, because what-is is unlimited, it must also be one, because if it were more than one it would have limits (namely, the boundaries between what-is and the other existing objects). His argument is founded on the premises that what-is is both spatially and temporally unlimited and is as follows: * What-is is temporally unlimited. * Therefore, nothing else spatially unlimited could exist at a different time. * What-is is spatially unlimited. * Therefore, nothing else temporally unlimited could exist at the same time. * Therefore, what-is is one.
The same: In On Melissus, Xenophanes and Gorgias, Pseudo-Aristotle states that Melissus made a claim that The One is qualitatively the same. The validity of the argument depends on the nature of unity intended by Melissus. It is possible for one, single thing to have different parts: a human has a head, a body, two arms and two legs, but it is still one human. In most respects, Melissus is following in Parmenides’ footsteps, and so it is likely that Melissus is arguing for the same type of unity as Parmenides, namely, that The One is completely unified, with no parts to subdivide it. His argument is as follows: * If what-is has qualitative differences, it is plural. * What-is is one. * What-is is whole in and of itself. * Therefore, what-is has no qualitative differences (i.e., is the same).
This is not provided in the second-hand report by Pseudo-Aristotle; however, the quality of wholeness is a major claim in Parmenides’ thesis, and it is likely that Melissus either made the argument for this point in a fragment that has not come down to us or expected it to be understood or inferred from his other arguments.
Changeless: Melissus argues that The One cannot undergo any change. He specifically states that The One cannot be rearranged, become greater or smaller, or undergo any kind of distress, but we may safely expand his argument to include all kinds of change. If The One underwent any kind of change whatsoever, it would become different and thus no long unified or whole. His argument is as follows: * Whatever undergoes change is altered. * Whatever is altered is not unified or whole. * The One is unified and whole. * Therefore, The One does not undergo any type of change.
Motionless: In fragment 9.7-10 Melissus makes the argument for motionless with the qualities of full and empty. He states that The One is full, because if it were empty it would be nothing, and what is nothing doesn’t exist. He then states that because The One is full, it can’t move. The argument is as follows: * To be empty is to be nothing. * What is nothing does not exist. * The One exists. * Therefore, The One is not empty. * What is not empty must be full. * Therefore, The One is full.
and further: * Whatever has motion is not full. * Whatever is full (i.e., has no empty spaces) must be motionless. * The One is full. * Therefore, The One is motionless.
Incorporeal: In fragment 5, Melissus makes the remarkable claim that The One is incorporeal. Just as his insistence that The One is unlimited, this claim may also be his attempt to address a potential problem inherent in Parmenides’ philosophy (8.42-9). His argument is as follows: * The One is whole in and of itself. * Therefore, The One has no parts. * Therefore, The One has no thickness. * Therefore, The One does not have a body.
This argument, on the surface, does not coincide with Melissus’ claim that The One is extended and full. After all, why can something that is extended not have any parts, and how can something that is full have no thickness? McKirahan offers an interesting interpretation for what Melissus may have been arguing. A body not only has extension, but also limits, and something infinitely large, such as The One, is unlimited; an object, then, with no limits, is not a body. Furthermore, thickness is simply the measure of the distance between a body’s limits. Since The One is unlimited, it cannot have thickness.
Influence and reactions: While not as influential as his fellow Eleatics, Melissus' treatise did have an important impact on philosophy. Whether or not Leucippus was his student, it is clear that his treatise was as influential on atomism as were those of the other Eleatics. Furthermore, because of its clear and concise nature, Melissus' version of Eleatic philosophy was the chief source for its presentation in the works of Plato and Aristotle.
Aristotle never hesitated to insult Melissus, whom he viewed as quite inferior to his predecessors, stating that his work was "a bit crude" and that he made "invalid arguments starting from false assumptions". Aristocles, as well, had little admiration for Melissus, calling several of his arguments "absurd".
Melissus has fared somewhat better in the eyes of modern philosophers. He was an inventive philosopher and had the good quality of offering clear and direct arguments. Although he follows Parmenides in his general views and the framework of Eleaticism, he made original contributions and innovations to the substance of Eleatic philosophy.
Notes: 2: Sources: Primary: * Aetius, Fragments * Aristocles, Fragments * Diogenes Laërtius, , translated by Robert Drew Hicks (1925): * John Philoponus, Commentary on Aristotle’s Physics * Tzetzes, Chiliades * Plutarch, Life of Pericles * Plutarch, Life of Themistocles * Pseudo-Aristotle, On Melissus, Xenophanes and Gorgias * Simplicius, Commentary on Aristotle's On Heaven * Simplicius, Commentary on Aristotle’s Physics
Secondary: * Baird, Forrest E. and Walter Kaufmann, Ancient Philosophy, 4th Ed., Philosophic Classics, Volume I. Prentice Hall, 2003. * Barnes, Jonathan, The Presocratic Philosophers. Routledge, New York, 1982. * Diels, Hermann and Walter Kranz, Die Fragmente Der Vorsokratiker, 3rd Ed, 7th Ed. Berlin: Weidmann, 1954. * Kirk, G.S., J.E. Raven and M. Schofield, The Presocratic Philosophers, 2nd Ed. Cambridge University Press, 2004. * Makin, Stephen, "Melissus and his opponents : the argument of DK 30 B 8", Phronesis 2005 50 (4), pp. 263–288. * McKirahan, Richard D., Philosophy before Socrates, Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 1994. * Rapp, Christof, "Zeno and the Eleatic anti-pluralism", La costruzione del discorso filosofico, pp. 161–182.
Presocratics:
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Mélissos
Philosophe présocratique | Date de naissance inconnue (Ve siècle av. J.-C.) | Date de décès inconnue (Ve siècle av. J.-C.) | Naissance à Samos
Mélissos de Samos (en grec ancien Μέλισσος ὁ Σάμιος: / ) est un philosophe présocratique, un homme politique et un amiral ionien de Grèce antique, dernier représentant de l'école éléatique.
Biographie : Mélissos est le fils de Ithagénès, philosophe et général de Samos).
Il est né vers 470 av. J.-C. , mais la date de sa mort nous reste inconnue. Son acmé est fixée à la quatre-vingt-quatrième Olympiade (444 av. J.-C. – 441 av. J.-C.) selon Diogène , Mélissos n'est l'auteur que d'un seul ouvrage, écrit en prose, dont il ne nous reste que des fragments que nous connaissons par le truchement de Simplicius de Cilicie. Aristote fait aussi référence à Mélissos dans un traité intitulé Contre les doctrines de Mélissos , rapporté dans la bibliographie de ses œuvres que nous livre Diogène. Timon décrit Mélissos comme le « Vainqueur de beaucoup d'illusions, vaincu par peu d'entre elles. » * Philosophie
Contemporain de Zénon d'Élée, Mélissos a pu être disciple de Parménide car il partage avec lui une pensée de l'être. Au sein des 10 fragments qui nous restent de son opus, il développe une conception de l'être comme ce qui est pleinement. L'être de Mélissos a pour attributs nécessaires: immutabilité (ne change pas), immobilité, infinité, éternité, unité. Ces attributs sont nécessaires au sens étymologique: necessarius (latin), ce qui est inévitable, ce qui ne peut pas être autrement.
Mélissos fait découler les qualités de l'être de manière logique. Ainsi, parce que l'être est infini, qu'il n'a donc ni commencement ni fin, il ne peut pas se mouvoir, car il n'y a pas de vide. Par conséquent, l'être joue un rôle axiomatique dans la définition de ses attributs. C'est justement sur la notion d'infinité que Mélissos marque sa différence avec Parménide, ce dernier jugeant que l'être n'est pas infini mais « continu, fini, sphérique. »
C'est cette séparation entre l'être de Parménide et l'être de Mélissos qui explique que seul le premier ait reçu l'approbation d'Aristote , tandis que Platon perçoit Mélissos plus favorablement . En effet, si pour Parménide aussi bien que pour Mélissos, l'être est un intelligible, pour Mélissos, ce n'est pas une réalité physique: * « Si en effet ce sont des êtres que la terre, l'air, le feu, si ceci est vivant, cela mort, ceci blanc, cela noir, si toutes les autres choses que les hommes disent être vraies sont en effet, si nous voyons et si nous entendons juste, il faut que chaque chose reste telle qu'elle nous a paru d'abord, sans changer ni s'altérer, qu'elle soit toujours ce qu'elle est. [...] tout ce que nous voyons partout semble s'altérer et se transformer. Il est donc clair que nous ne voyons pas juste, mais aussi que c'est à tort que toutes ces choses nous paraissent être. »
Mélissos s'est aussi exprimé sur les dieux, à la manière des sceptiques, car dans son propos transparaît une épochè: * « Mais il disait aussi, à propos des dieux, qu'il ne fallait pas se prononcer; car il n'y en a pas de connaissance. »
Homme politique : En 441/40, il affronta victorieusement la flotte athénienne et tint la mer sous contrôle durant deux semaines, élu navarque
Citations : * « Ce qui a été a toujours été et sera toujours. » * « Si l'Être est, il faut qu'il soit un ; étant un, il faut qu'il n'ait pas de corps ; car s'il avait de l'épaisseur, il aurait des parties et ne serait plus un. »
Bibliographie : Sources : * Aristote, Métaphysique * Diogène Laërce, Vies et doctrines des philosophes illustres * Plutarque, La Vie des hommes illustres
Fragments et témoignages : * Jean Voilquin, Les Penseurs grecs avant Socrate
Etudes : * Eduard Zeller, La Philosophie des Grecs (1844-1852), vol. I et II, trad. Émile Boutroux, Paris, 1882
Notes : colonnes=2: Présocratiques:
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بابيتي
عواصم | بولينيزيا الفرنسية
بابيتي Papeete: هي عاصمة بولينيزيا الفرنسية التي هي من ضمن أقاليم ما وراء البحار التابعة لفرنسا في المحيط الهادئ.
التاريخ : المنطقة التي تقع فيها بابيتي الآن احتلت عام 1818 من قبل الجيش البريطاني.
الديموغرافيا (السكان) : المنطقة المتمدنة من بابيت تحتوي على عدد من السكان يفوق 131,695 نسمة.
المنطقة المأهولة للسكان تتكون من 7 تجمعات : * فا. * بوناويا. * بيراي. * ماهينا. * بايا. * أروي.
السفر و السياحة : يصل السياح و المسافرون إلى بابيت عبر السفن البحرية التي ترسى في ميناء بابيتي. أو عبر الطائرات التي تهبط و تصعد من مطار فا الدولي الذي تم افتتاحه عام 1962.
المناخ : المصادر : * Kay, Robert F. Hidden Tahiti, Ulysses Press, Berkeley, California, 2001. ISBN 1-56975-222-2.
أنظر أيضاً : * جزر ويندوارد * جزر المجتمع
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Papeete
Papeete | Capitals in Oceania | Port cities in Oceania | Communes of French Polynesia | Towns and villages in Tahiti | Populated places established in 1818
Papeete (pronounced ) is the capital of French Polynesia, an overseas collectivity of France in the Pacific Ocean. The commune (municipality) of Papeete is located on the island of Tahiti, in the administrative subdivision of the Windward Islands, of which Papeete is the administrative capital. The French High Commissioner also resides in Papeete. It is the primary center of Tahitian and French Polynesian public and private governmental, commercial, industrial and financial services, the hub of French Polynesian tourism and a commonly used Port of call. The Windward Islands are themselves part of the Society Islands. The name Papeete means "water from a basket".
The urban area of Papeete had a total population of 131,695 inhabitants at the August 2007 census, 26,017 of whom lived in the commune of Papeete proper. * History
The growth of the city was boosted by the decision to move the nuclear weapon test range from Algeria to the atolls of Mururoa and Fangataufa, some at the east of Tahiti; this originated in particular in the construction of the Faa'a airport next to Pape'ete, the only international airport in French Polynesia. In 1983, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints built the Papeete Tahiti Temple here because of the large number of members in the region. On 5 September 1995 the government of Jacques Chirac conducted the first of the last series of nuclear test detonations off the shores of Moruroa. A resulting riot in Papeete lasted for two days and damaged the international airport, injured 40 people, and scared away tourism for some time. (Similar rioting occurred after another French nuclear test in the same area in 1987.)
Transportation : There are very busy streets in the town center. Sometimes traffic can be a problem since the streets are too small. There is a freeway that starts close to the town center and it starts with a street named Pomare Boulevard after the settlers that came there. By air, the people would use the Faaa International Airport. From there they could either take Air Tahiti to go to another island of the territory or take a plane like Air Tahiti Nui to go international. By sea, they would either take Moorea ferries to go to Moorea or the Bora Bora cruisline to go to Bora Bora.
Demographics: The urban area of Papeete had a total population of 131,695 inhabitants at the August 2007 census, 26,017 of whom lived in the commune of Papeete. Faaa, the largest commune in French Polynesia, is located just to the south.
The commune of Papeete is subdivided into eleven quartiers (wards): * Manu Hoe – Fare Ute – Motu Uta * Patutoa * Taunoa * Fariipiti * Titioro * Tepapa * Faiere * Pic Rouge * Tipaerui * Paofai * Mamao
Travel and tourism: Traveling tourists arrive and depart Papeete via cruise ship at Papeete Harbor or domestic airline at Faa'a International Airport, which was completed and opened in 1962.
Climate: Papeete features a tropical monsoon climate with a wet season and dry season. However, precipitation is observed even during the city's dry season. The city dry season is short, covering only the months of August and September. The rest of the year is wet, with the heaviest precipitation falling in the months of December and January. Temperatures are relatively constant throughout the course of the year, averaging around 25 degrees celsius (77 degrees Fahrenheit).
Retrieved on November 24, 2011.
* Sights * Interactive Google map of Papeete, to discover the 30 major tourist attractions in Papeete downtown. * The waterfront esplanade * Bougainville Park (once named Albert Park, in honour of a former Belgian king and World War One hero, is now named for Louis Antoine de Bougainville, the first French explorer to circumnavigate the globe. * Cathedral of Notre Dame of Papeete * The Territorial Assembly is the heart of the Polynesian government and contains the Territorial Assembly building, the High Commissioner's residence and also a once popular clubhouse of Paul Gauguin. It was also once the site of the royal residence and palace of Queen Pomare IV of Tahiti, who ruled from 1827 to 1877. * Presidential palace * The Monument to Pouvanaa a Oopa (a decorated World War I hero, Tahitian nationalist, and deputy to Paris for the Tahitian Territorial Assembly) * The Mairie (town hall) * The papeete market
Gallery : Papeete Paofai Temple
Papeete in popular culture: * Papeete is mentioned in the song Southern Cross by Crosby, Stills & Nash. * Papeete is also mentioned in the song "A Warm Summer Night" by Chic. * Papeete is also mentioned in the Bruce Brown's groundbreaking surf film The Endless Summer as one of the surf sites visited by the two longboarders chasing the summer season around the world. The beach at Papeete is dubbed "Ins and outs" because the steep shore causes waves to break in both directions—toward the beach and out to sea. * Papeete is where Robert Louis Stevenson's "The Ebb Tide" begins. * Papeete, a schooner built by Matthew Turner, who had extensive business interests in Tahiti, was known for a fast passage from San Francisco to Tahiti of 17 days. * Economy
Air Tahiti Nui has its head office in the Immueble Dexter in Papeete. * Note
The name Papeete is sometimes spelled Pape’ete in Tahitian, using the apostrophe (in fact a variant of it hard to differentiate from the regular apostrophe when using small fonts) to represent the glottal stop, as promoted by the Académie Tahitienne and accepted by the territorial government. This apostrophe, however, is often omitted.
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Papeete
Commune de Polynésie française | Siège d'une Cour d'appel française | Tahiti
Polynésie française:
Papeete ou Papeokina: ete est une commune de Polynésie française, dont elle est la capitale administrative (ou chef-lieu). Elle est aussi la principale ville de l’île de Tahiti dans l'océan Pacifique.
En tant que capitale de la collectivité d'outre-mer de Polynésie, elle regroupe ses principales institutions telles que : le Haut-commissariat, la Présidence du gouvernement, l'Assemblée de la Polynésie française, ainsi que le Conseil économique, social et culturel. S'y trouvent également les grandes infrastructures de la Polynésie française telles que le Port autonome de Papeokina: ete, les dépôts de carburant, le centre hospitalier territorial, les cliniques privées et l'essentiel des infrastructures industrielles et économiques, ainsi que les institutions bancaires et financières (Trésorerie générale, Banque de Polynésie, Banque de Tahiti, Socredo, etc…).
Géographie : Situation : La commune est située au nord de Tahiti, l'île principale de l'archipel de la Société, dans l'Océan Pacifique.
Papeokina: ete est entourée par les communes de : * Pirae à l'est (remarquable par sa plage de sable noir) ; * Faaokina: a (siège de l'Aéroport international Tahiti Faa'a) à l'ouest. Elle fut incendiée en 1995 par des opposants à la reprise des essais nucléaires et reconstruite depuis.
Climat : Le climat y est de type tropical.
Voies de communication et transports : * Le Port autonome de Papeokina: ete; * L'aéroport international se trouve à Faa'a, une commune voisine.
Économie : Papeokina: ete possède un marché intérieur sur deux étages abritant, entre autres, des boutiques de négociants de perles.
Toponymie : Papeete (du tahitien pape : eau et okina: ete : corbeille) désigne à l'origine un des quartiers de la commune situé entre le quartier Paofai et la cathédrale. Il existe plusieurs traductions de ce toponyme dans différents ouvrages : l'« eau en forme de corbeille », l'« eau de la corbeille », la « corbeille d'eau » et le « panier à eau ».
L'usage impose aux francophones la prononciation tahitienne de ce nom qui distingue chaque voyelle : [papeʔete]: * .
Histoire : La rade de Papeokina: ete a été remarquée pour son mouillage dès la découverte de l'île par les Européens, qui ont cependant d'abord utilisé celle de Malava un peu à l'ouest. La ville de Papeete n'est fondée qu'en 1818 par le missionnaire anglais William Crook. La reine Pomare IV y établit sa cour en 1827. Elle devient officiellement capitale de Tahiti (et plus généralement du royaume de Tahiti) lors de l'instauration du protectorat français en 1842.
Papeete a été bombardée le 22 septembre 1914 par le Scharnhorst et le Gneisenau pendant la Première Guerre mondiale et des volontaires sont partis pour la métropole.
Papeete est dotée du statut de commune de plein exercice en 1890 ; jusqu'en 1945, c'est la seule existant dans les Etablissements français d'Océanie.
L'agglomération de Papeete connaît une croissance considérable à partir des années 1960, en raison de la construction de l'aéroport international et surtout de l'installation des organismes de direction et de nombreux personnels du Centre d'expérimentations du Pacifique ; cela occasionne aussi un afflux de travailleurs des autres îles et l'apparition de zones d'habitat précaire.
Sites exceptionnels : Le cœur de Papeete regroupe les principaux sites touristiques de la capitale : le marché, la cathédrale, la , l'assemblée, le Haussariat, la Présidence, , le temple Protestant, les jardins de Paofai.
* Politique et administration * Liste des maires
Titre: Liste des maires successifs: |-
ÉluDonnées: ÉluFin: Les dernières élections municipales : Aux élections municipales du 9 mars 2008, Michel Buillard se représente et remporte la ville dès le 1er: tour : * Michel Buillard (UMP) 57,9 % → 28 élus au conseil * James Salmon (UPLD) 31,1 % → 5 élus * Thomas Teriiteporouarai (DVD) 11 % → 2 élus
Jumelages : *
Démographie : La commune comptait habitants en août 2007 .
L'agglomération de Papeete est formée de 7 communes (Arue, Faaokina: a, Mahina, Paea, Papeete, Pirae, Punaauia) totalisant une population de habitants en 2007.
Santé : * Le centre hospitalier territorial mamao
hôpital du Taone
clinique Paofai
clinique Cardella
Culture et médias : Papeete est le lieu de publication des principaux journaux de Polynésie française. Le plus important est "la dépêche de Tahiti".
Elle compte aussi quelques unes des maisons d'édition spécifiques du territoire.
Manifestations et festivités : ...: Personnalités liées à la commune : * Joe Dassin, chanteur, décédé en août 1980 à Papeete, au restaurant Chez Michel et Eliane devenu tristement célèbre pour cette raison (aujourd'hui rebaptisé Le Retro). * Mareva Galanter, Miss France 1999
Galerie : Port autonome de Drapeaux des Le marché de Centre La Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Papeete
Notes et références : Références:
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باراباس
شخصيات من العهد الجديد | الإمبراطورية الرومانية
باراباس هو المجرم الذي طلبت الجموع من بيلاطس –في عيد الفصح وبتحريض من الكهنة والشيوخ– أن يطلق سراحه وأن يصلب يسوع الناصري (مت 27: 20، 21، مرقس 15: 15، لو 23: 18، يو 18: 40) ويقول مرقس إنه كان "موثقاً مع رفقائه في الفتنة، الذين في الفتنة فعلوا قتلاً". ويقول لوقا: "وذاك كان قد طرح في السجن لأجل فتنة حدثت في المدينة وقتل" (لو 23: 19 – انظر أ ع 3: 14). ويقول يوحنا: "وكان باراباس لصاً" أو قاطع طريق (يو 18: 40).
لاتوجد معلومات عن باراباس شيئاً أكثر من ذلك، ولا عن الفتنة التي أشترك فيها. ويزعم البعض أن تلك الفتنة كانت حركة سياسية ضد السلطات الرومانية، وهو أمر بعيد الاحتمال جداً، إذ لا يعقل أن الكهنة (وكانوا من الحزب المؤيد لروما) يحرضون الجموع علي أن يطلبوا إطلاق سراح سجين سياسي من أعداء روما، ويجيبهم بيلاطس إلي طلبهم، بينما هم يقدمون يسوع المسيح للموت بعلة مقاومة روما وقيصر (لو 23: 2)، فالأرجح أن الفتنة كانت عملاً من أعمال عصابات قطع الطريق. أما الزعم بأن اليهود لم يكن يعنيهم إطلاق سراح مجرد لص أو قاطع طريق، ففيه تجاهل لما يمكن أن تنساق إليه جموع الرعاع الهائجة.
ولايعلم شيئاً عن عادة إطلاق سجين في كل عيد، أكثر مما جاء في الأناجيل، ولكن عادة إطلاق سراح الأسري والسجناء في المناسبات المختلفة كنت – أمراً مألوفاً.
شخصيات من العهد الجديد: بذرة مسيحية:
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Barabbas
New Testament people
the biblical character Barabbas: Barabbas or Jesus Barabbas (son of the father and Jesus, son of the father respectively) is a figure in the Christian narrative of the Passion of Jesus, in which he is the insurrectionary whom Pontius Pilate freed at the Passover feast in Jerusalem.
The penalty for Barabbas' crime was death by crucifixion, but according to the four canonical gospels and the non-canonical Gospel of Peter there was a prevailing Passover custom in Jerusalem that allowed or required Pilate, the praefectus or governor of Judaea, to commute one prisoner's death sentence by popular acclaim, and the "crowd" (ochlos) — which has become "the Jews" and "the multitude" in some translations — were offered a choice of whether to have Barabbas or Jesus Christ released from Roman custody. According to the closely parallel gospels of Matthew,
Mark,
and Luke,
and the accounts in John
and the Gospel of Peter, the crowd chose Barabbas to be released and Jesus of Nazareth to be crucified. A passage found only in the Gospel of Matthew has the crowd saying, "Let his blood be upon us and upon our children".
The story of Barabbas has special social significances, because it has historically dateNovember 2011: been used to lay the blame for the crucifixion of Jesus on the Jews, and to justify date: November 2011: anti-Semitism—an interpretation dismissed by Pope Benedict XVI in his 2011 book, in which he also questions the historicity of the passage in Matthew. * Biblical record
Matthew refers to Barabbas only as a "notorious prisoner." Mark and Luke further refer to Barabbas as one involved in a stasis, a riot. John 18:40 refers to Barabbas as a lēstēs ("bandit"), "the word Josephus always employs when talking about Revolutionaries", Robert Eisenman observes.
Three gospels state that there was a custom at Passover during which the Roman governor would release a prisoner of the crowd's choice: Mark 15:6; Matthew 27:15; and John 18:39. Later copies of Luke contain a corresponding verse (Luke 23:17), though it is not present in the earliest manuscripts, and may be a later gloss to bring Luke into conformity. The gospels differ on whether the custom was a Roman one or a Jewish one, as part of the Jubilee.
No custom of releasing prisoners in Jerusalem is recorded in any historical document other than the gospels. An Ancient Roman celebration called Lectisternium involved feasting and sometimes included a temporary removal of the chains from all prisoners. However, J. Blinzler associates Barabas release with a passage in the Mishna Peshahim 8,6 which says that the Passover lamb may be offered 'for one whom they have promised to bring out of prison'. (J. Blinzler, The Trial of Jesus, 1959, pp218ff.)
Name: Barabbas' name appears as bar-Abbas in the Greek texts. It is derived ultimately from the Aramaic בר-אבא, Bar-abbâ, "son of the father". According to early Greek texts, Barabbas' full name was Jesus Barabbas. Later texts shorten his name to just Barabbas.
Abba has been found as a personal name in a 1st-century burial at Giv'at ja-Mivtar, and Abba also appears as a personal name frequently in the Gemara section of the Talmud, dating from AD 200–400. These findings support "Barabbas" being used to indicate the son of a person named Abba or Abbas (a patronymic).
Abba means "father" in Aramaic, and appears both translated and untranslated in the Gospels. A translation of Bar-Abbas would be son of the father. Jesus often referred to God as "father", and Jesus' use of the Aramaic word Abba survives untranslated in Mark 14:36 (in most English translations). This has led some authors (named below) to speculate that "bar-Abbâ" could actually be a reference to Jesus himself as "son of the father".
In his novel All Who Came Before, Biblical Scholar, Simon Perry, takes Bar-Abbas as a title meaning 'son of the father'. The central character is also the son of a rabbi (leading to a word-play with "Bar-Rabbas"). Bar-Abbas is a well intentioned believer whose actions in a Jewish resistance movement make him a kind of Dietrich Bonhoeffer figure. His heroics, and the type of resistance he sought, are what led the crowds to call for his release over the more passive resistance offered by Yeshua of Nazareth. * Other interpretations
Scholar Hyam Maccoby argues that Jesus was known as "bar-Abba", because of his custom of addressing God as 'Abba' in prayer, and referring to God as Abba in his preaching. It follows that when the Jewish crowd clamored before Pontius Pilate to "free Bar Abba" they could have meant Jesus. According to Maccoby, anti-Semitic elements in the Christian church may have altered the narrative to make it appear that the demand was for the freedom of somebody else (a brigand or insurrectionist) named "Barabbas". For Maccoby, this may have been part of the tendency to shift the blame for the crucifixion of Jesus towards the Jews and away from the Romans.
Benjamin Urrutia, co-author of The Logia of Yeshua: The Sayings of Jesus, agrees with Maccoby and others who say that Yeshua Bar Abba or Jesus Barabbas must be none other than Jesus of Nazareth, and that the choice between two prisoners is a fiction. However, Urrutia opposes the notion that Jesus may have either led or planned a violent insurrection. Jesus was a strong advocate of "turning the other cheek" – which means not submission but strong and courageous, though nonviolent, defiance and resistance. Jesus, in this view, must have been the planner and leader of the Jewish nonviolent resistance to Pilate's plan to set up Roman Eagle standards on Jerusalem's Temple Mount. The story of this successful resistance is told by Josephus — who does not say who the leader was, but does tell of Pilate's crucifixion of Jesus just two paragraphs later in a passage whose authenticity is heavily disputed. * Possible parable
This practice of releasing a prisoner is said by Magee and others to be an element in a literary creation of Mark, who needed to have a contrast to the true "son of the father" in order to set up an edifying contest, in a form of parable.
Dennis R. MacDonald, in The Homeric Epics and the Gospel of Mark, notes that a similar episode to the one that occurs in Mark—of a crowd picking one figure over another figure similar to the other—occurred in The Odyssey, where Odysseus entered the palace disguised as a beggar and defeated his wife's suitors to reclaim his throne.dateJuly 2010: MacDonald suggests Mark borrowed from this section of The Odyssey and used it to pen the Barabbas tale, only this time Jesus- the protagonist- loses to highlight the cruelty of Jesus' persecutors. However, this theory too is rejected by other scholars.
Richard Carrier, argues that Barabbas is a scapegoat.dateFebruary 2011: Though there is little evidence for a custom of releasing a prisoner, there is a well known custom of releasing one goat and sacrificing its twin as a sin offering. He argues that this section is a literary parallel to that custom.date: February 2011:
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Barabbas
Personnage du Nouveau Testament
voir homonymes: Barabbas est un personnage du Nouveau Testament. Il est présenté dans les Évangiles comme un prisonnier dont la foule a réclamé la libération plutôt que celle de Jésus.
Le personnage d'après les Évangiles : Le nom de Barabbas apparaît plusieurs fois dans les Évangiles. Notamment dans Matthieu (chapitre 27), Marc (chapitre 15) et Luc (chapitres 23 et 18).
Accusé de sédition, il aurait été le meneur d'une révolte contre l'autorité romaine. Deux évangiles sur les quatre retenus par l'Église le présentent en ce sens, c’est-à-dire comme un résistant. Selon Marc 15, Barabbas était détenu « pour un meurtre commis dans une sédition » et selon Luc 23, Barabbas était « en prison pour une sédition qui avait eu lieu dans la ville ». Un troisième évangile le cite comme un « prisonnier fameux » (Mathieu, 27). Seul le quatrième évangile, celui de Jean, 18, en fait un « brigand », encore que, en cette époque de résistance intense à l'occupation romaine, le mot « brigand » ait souvent servi à désigner les patriotes insurgés.
Barabbas est jugé par le gouverneur romain Ponce Pilate, au milieu d'insurrections juives répétées et de répressions romaines sans merci. Pendant sa procurature, Ponce Pilate, comme ses prédécesseurs, a pressuré les Juifs et fait crucifier par centaines les insoumis capturés, quand il ne les envoyait pas aux arènes.
Or, durant le procès de Barabbas, qui connaît plusieurs étapes, Pilate doit également décider du sort du prévenu Jésus-Christ, sur la requête d'autorités religieuses juives selon lesquelles il aurait enfreint la Loi, c'est-à-dire la Torah, en proposant des réformes. Ces autorités souhaitent sa perte, selon le Nouveau Testament. Pilate interroge Jésus et ne trouve aucun motif de condamnation. Devant la foule remontée, le procurateur rappelle que la coutume juive veut que l'on libère un prisonnier lors de la fête de la Pâque. Pilate prétend s'en laver les mains afin d'exprimer son détachement. De fait, Pilate a le pouvoir de gracier qui bon lui semble, en tant que préfet, c’est-à-dire représentant direct de l'empereur. Il a le droit de vie et de mort en Judée sur toute personne sauf les citoyens romains.
C'est alors qu'il demande au public hébreu présent dans la cour du Temple de choisir celui qui échappera à l'exécution.
Signification du récit : Le sens étymologique du nom de Barabbas est « fils du père » (de bar, en araméen : fils de, et abba, père). Le "s" final est une marque génitive grecque.
Pilate donne au peuple rassemblé le choix de sauver Barabbas ou Jésus et la foule lui crie de libérer Barabbas. Ce récit du Nouveau Testament, reportant sur les Juifs la responsabilité de la crucifixion, a été utilisé à des fins antisémites en servant de base aux accusations de peuple déicide. Ces accusations sont démenties par le catéchisme du concile de Trente (1566), pour lequel l'unique responsable de la crucifixion est l'ensemble des péchés de l'humanité, depuis le péché originel jusqu'à la fin des temps .
Interprétations diverses : Le personnage dans l'art : Musique : * Jesus oder Barabbas? d'Antal Dorati, mélodrame pour récitant, chœur et orchestre sur un livret de Frigyes Karinthy, commande créée à Budapest le (durée environ 15 min.). * "Barabbas" est aussi le nom d'une chanson de Georges Chelon * "Up Through The Ashes" du groupe Kamelot fait référence au choix que le gouverneur romain Ponce Pilate donna au public hébreu ainsi qu'à la libération de Barabbas.
Roman : * 1950 : Barabbas de Pär Lagerkvist (Prix Nobel de littérature 1951) * 1957 : Jour de feu de René Barjavel * Filmographie * 1919 : Barrabas , ciné-feuilleton de Louis Feuillade * Années 1950 : René Barjavel essaya d'adapter la pièce de Michel de Ghelderode au cinéma. Le tournage commença dans le Château royal de Collioure avec Jean Le Poulain mais s'arrêta après une semaine faute d'argent. * 1961 : Barabbas : film italo-américain de Richard Fleischer avec Anthony Quinn dans le rôle de Barabbas, d'après le roman précédent.
Théâtre : * 1927 : Barabbas de Michel de Ghelderode, écrivain et dramaturge belge. * 2008 : Barabbas dans la Passion de Martin Giguère, pièce de théâtre en 7 tableaux créée par le Théâtre du Faux Coffre (Chicoutimi (Québec, Canada)).
Culture populaire : * Au Québec, l'histoire de Barabbas a donné naissance à l'expression « connu comme Barabbas dans la Passion » .
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ويل روجرز
ممثلون أمريكيون | مواليد 1879 | وفيات 1935 | كتاب ومؤلفون أمريكيون | ضحايا حوادث الطيران
* هذه الصفحة عن الفنان الأمريكي، أما عن السياسي أنظر وليام روجرز.
ويل روجرز (1879 – 1935) واسمه بالكامل وليام بين أدير روجرز هو ممثل كوميدي أمريكي اشتهر بتعليقاته وأسلوب لف الحبل على طريقة الغرب الأمريكي.
ولد روجرز في 4 نوفمبر 1879 في أولاغاه في مقاطعة هندية قرب أوكلاهوما، تعلم لف الحبل في مزرعة مواشي أبيه وشارفي مسابقات لف الحبل وإلقائه في عروض الغرب المتوحش والفودفيل وكان أول ظهور له في نيويورك عام 1905 في مسرحية مرح منتصف الليل لفلورنز زيغفيلد فادخل التعليقات السياسية الضاحكة إلى عروضه التي تطورت إلى عمود بإحدى الصحف بشكل أسبوعي من عام 1922 وبشكل يومي من عام 1926 حيث تميز بطيبته وفكاهته وتعليقاته الحادة.
مات في تحطم طائرة مع الطيار وايلي بوست يوم 15 أغسطس 1935 قرب بوينت بارو في مقاطعة ألاسكا.
ألف عدة كتب منها: * الفيلسوف راعي البقر حول منع الخمور، 1919. * ملخص الجاهل، 1924. * لا توجد بذلة سباحة في روسيا، 1927.
من أفلامه: * يانكي من كونكتكت، 1931. * معرض الولاية، 1933. * دافيد هاروم، 1934.
مصادر : * 1978 Encyclopedia Britannica
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Will Rogers
1879 births | 1935 deaths | American actors | American comedians | American film actors | American silent film actors | Actors from Oklahoma | Western (genre) film actors | Native American actors | Vaudeville performers | Musical theatre characters | American humorists | American columnists | Native American journalists | Native American writers | Cherokee people | California Democrats | Mayors of Beverly Hills, California | Oklahoma Democrats | People from Rogers County, Oklahoma | Cherokee Nation (19th century) | United States presidential candidates, 1932 | Museum of Polo and Hall of Fame inductees | Oklahoma Hall of Fame inductees | Vann family (Georgia) | Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in the United States | Accidental deaths in Alaska
William Rogers:
Will Rogers (November 4, 1879 – August 15, 1935) was an American cowboy, vaudeville performer, humorist, social commentator and motion picture actor. He was one of the world's best-known celebrities in the 1920s and 1930s.
Known as Oklahoma's favorite son, Rogers was born to a prominent Cherokee Nation family in Indian Territory (now part of Oklahoma). He traveled around the world three times, made 71 movies (50 silent films and 21 "talkies"), wrote more than 4,000 nationally-syndicated newspaper columns, and became a world-famous figure. By the mid-1930s, Rogers was adored by the American people. He was the leading political wit of the Progressive Era, and was the top-paid Hollywood movie star at the time. Rogers died in 1935 with aviator Wiley Post, when their small airplane crashed in Alaska.
His vaudeville rope act led to success in the Ziegfeld Follies, which in turn led to the first of his many movie contracts. His 1920s syndicated newspaper column and his radio appearances increased his visibility and popularity. Rogers crusaded for aviation expansion, and provided Americans with first-hand accounts of his world travels. His earthy anecdotes and folksy style allowed him to poke fun at gangsters, prohibition, politicians, government programs, and a host of other controversial topics in a way that was readily appreciated by a national audience, with no one offended. His aphorisms, couched in humorous terms, were widely quoted: "I am not a member of an organized political party. I am a Democrat."
Rogers even provided an epigram on his most famous epigram: * When I die, my epitaph, or whatever you call those signs on gravestones, is going to read: "I joked about every prominent man of my time, but I never met a man I dident like." I am so proud of that, I can hardly wait to die so it can be carved.
Early years: He was born William Penn Adair Rogers on the Dog Iron Ranch in Indian Territory, near present-day Oologah, Oklahoma. The house he was born in had been built in 1875 and was known as the "White House on the Verdigris River." His parents, Clement Vann Rogers (1839–1911) and Mary America Schrimsher (1838–1890), were both Cherokee, and Rogers himself was 9/32 (just over 1/4) Cherokee. Rogers quipped that his ancestors didn't come over on the Mayflower but they "met the boat." Mary Rogers was quarter-Cherokee and a hereditary member of the Paint Clan. She died when Will was 11, and his father remarried less than two years after her death.
Rogers was the youngest of eight children. He was named for the Cherokee leader Col. William Penn Adair. Only three of his siblings, sisters Sallie Clementine, Maude Ethel, and May (Mary), survived into adulthood.
His father, Clement, was a leader within Cherokee society. A Cherokee judge, he was a Confederate veteran and served as a delegate to the Oklahoma Constitutional Convention. Rogers County, Oklahoma is named in honor of Clement Rogers. He served several terms on the Cherokee Senate. Clement Rogers achieved financial success as a rancher and used his influence to help soften the negative effects of white acculturation on the tribe. Roach (1980) presents a sociological-psychological assessment of the relationship between Will and his father during the formative boyhood and teenage years. Clement had high expectations for his son and desired him to be more responsible and business-minded. Will was more easygoing and oriented toward the loving affection offered by his mother, Mary, rather than the harshness of his father. The personality clash increased after his mother's death, and young Will went from one venture to another with little success. Only after Will won acclaim in vaudeville did the rift begin to heal, but Clement's untimely death in 1911 precluded a full reconciliation.
Rogers was a good student and an avid reader of The New York Times, but he dropped out after the 10th grade. He later claimed he was a poor student, saying that he "studied the Fourth Reader for ten years." He was much more interested in cowboys and horses, and learned to rope and use a lariat. * First jobs
Rogers worked the Dog Iron Ranch for a few years. Near the end of 1901, he and a friend left home with aspirations to work as gauchos in Argentina. They arrived in Argentina in May 1902, and spent five months trying to make it as ranch owners in the pampas. Rogers and his partner lost all their money, and in his words, "I was ashamed to send home for more," so the two friends separated and Rogers sailed for South Africa. It is often claimed he took a job breaking in horses for the British Army, but the Boer War had ended three months earlier. Rogers actually got work at Piccione's ranch in Mooi River Station.
He began his show business career as a trick roper in "Texas Jack's Wild West Circus":
He (Texas Jack) had a little Wild West aggregation that visited the camps and did a tremendous business. I did some roping and riding, and Jack, who was one of the smartest showmen I ever knew, took a great interest in me. It was he who gave me the idea for my original stage act with my pony. I learned a lot about the show business from him. He could do a bum act with a rope that an ordinary man couldn't get away with, and make the audience think it was great, so I used to study him by the hour, and from him I learned the great secret of the show business—knowing when to get off. It's the fellow who knows when to quit that the audience wants more of.
Grateful for the guidance but anxious to move on, Rogers quit the circus and went to Australia. Texas Jack gave him a reference letter for the Wirth Brothers Circus there, and Rogers continued to perform as a rider and trick roper, and worked on his pony act. He returned to the United States in 1904, and began to try his roping skills on the American vaudeville circuits.
Vaudeville: On a trip to New York City, Rogers was at Madison Square Garden when a wild steer broke out of the arena and began to climb into the viewing stands. Rogers quickly roped the steer to the delight of the crowd. The feat got front page attention from the newspapers, giving him valuable publicity and an audience eager to see more. William Hammerstein came to see his vaudeville act, and quickly signed Rogers to appear on the Victoria Roof—which was literally on a rooftop—with his pony. For the next decade, Rogers estimated he worked for fifty weeks a year at the Roof and at the city's myriad vaudeville theaters.
Rogers described these early years at the Fifteenth Anniversary of the Columbia Theater in New York City. "I got a job on Hammerstein's Roof at $140 a week for myself, my horse, and the man who looked after it. I remained on the roof for eight weeks, always getting another two week extension when Willie Hammerstein would say to me after the Monday matinee, 'you're good for two weeks more'... Marty Shea, the booking agent for the Columbia, came to me and asked if I wanted to play burlesque. They could use an extra attraction... I told him I would think about it, but 'Burlesque' sounded to me then as something funny." Shea and Sam A. Scribner, the general manager of the Columbia Amusement Company, approached Rogers a few days later; Shea told Scribner Rogers was getting $150 and would take $175. "'What's he carrying?' Scribner asked Shea. 'Himself, a horse, and a man'. answered Shea." Scribner replied "'Give him eight weeks at $250'".
In 1908, Rogers married Betty Blake (1879–1944), and the couple had four children: Will Rogers, Jr. (Bill), Mary Amelia (Mary), James Blake (Jim), and Fred Stone. Bill became a World War II hero, played his father in two films, and became a member of Congress. Mary became a Broadway actress, and Jim was a newspaperman and rancher; Fred died of diphtheria at age two. The family lived in New York, but they managed to make it home to Oklahoma during the summers. In 1911, Rogers bought a ranch near Claremore, Oklahoma, which he intended to use as his retirement home, for US$500 per acre.
In the fall of 1915, Rogers began to appear in Florenz Ziegfeld's Midnight Frolic. The variety revue began at midnight in the top-floor night club of Ziegfeld's New Amsterdam Theatre, and drew many influential—and regular—customers. By this time, Rogers had refined his act to a science. His monologues on the news of the day followed a similar routine every night. He appeared on stage in his cowboy outfit, nonchalantly twirling his lasso, and said, "Well, what shall I talk about? I ain't got anything funny to say. All I know is what I read in the papers." He then made jokes about what he had read in that day's newspapers. The line "All I know is what I read in the papers" is often incorrectly described as Rogers's most famous punch line, when it was in fact his opening line.
His run at the New Amsterdam ran on into 1916, and Rogers's obvious popularity led to an engagement on the more famous Ziegfeld Follies. At this stage Rogers' act was strictly physical, a display of daring riding and clever tricks with his lariat. He discovered that audiences identified the cowboy as the archetypical American — doubtless aided by Theodore Roosevelt's image as a cowboy. Rogers' cowboy showed an unfettered man free of institutional restraints, with no bureaucrats to order his life. When he came back to the United States and worked in Wild West shows, he noticed that audiences were just as fascinated by his frontier, Oklahoma twang. By 1916, a featured star in Ziegfeld's Follies on Broadway, he moved into satire by transforming the "Ropin' Fool" to the "Talkin' Fool". At one performance, with President Woodrow Wilson in the audience, he improvised a "roast" of presidential policies that had Wilson, and the entire audience, in stitches and proved his remarkable skill at off-the-cuff, witty commentary on current events. The rest of his career he built around that skill.
An editorial in The New York Times said that "Will Rogers in the Follies is carrying on the tradition of Aristophanes, and not unworthily." Rogers branched into silent films too, for Samuel Goldwyn's company Goldwyn Pictures. He made his first silent movie, Laughing Bill Hyde, filmed in Fort Lee, New Jersey, in 1918. Many early films were made near the major New York performing market, so Rogers could make the film, yet still rehearse and perform in the Follies. He eventually appeared in most of the Follies, from 1916 to 1925. * Movies
Hollywood1921: Hollywood discovered Rogers in 1918, as Samuel Goldwyn gave him the title role in Laughing Bill Hyde. A three-year contract with Goldwyn, at triple the Broadway salary, moved Rogers west. He bought a ranch in Santa Monica and set up his own production company. While Rogers enjoyed film acting, his appearances in silent movies suffered from the obvious restrictions of silence—not the strongest medium for him, having gained his fame as a commentator on stage. It helped somewhat that he wrote a good many of the title cards appearing in his films. In 1923, he began a one-year stint for Hal Roach and made 12 pictures. Among the films he made for Roach in 1924 were three directed by Rob Wagner: Two Wagons Both Covered, Going to Congress and Our Congressman. He made two other feature silents and a travelogue series in 1927, and did not return to the screen until his time in the 'talkies' began in 1929.
He made 48 silent movies, but with the arrival of sound in 1929 he became a top star in that medium. His first sound film, They Had to See Paris (1929), finally gave him the chance to exercise his verbal magic. He played a homespun farmer (State Fair) in 1933, an old-fashioned doctor (Dr. Bull) in 1933, a small town banker (David Harum ) in 1934, and a rustic politician (Judge Priest) in 1934. He was also in County Chairman (1935), Steamboat 'Round the Bend (1935), and In Old Kentucky (1935). His favorite director was John Ford.
Rogers appeared in 21 feature films alongside such noted performers as Lew Ayres, Billie Burke, Richard Cromwell, Jane Darwell, Andy Devine, Janet Gaynor, Rochelle Hudson, Boris Karloff, Myrna Loy, Joel McCrea, Hattie McDaniel, Ray Milland, Maureen O'Sullivan, ZaSu Pitts, Dick Powell, Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, Mickey Rooney, and Peggy Wood. He was directed three times by John Ford. He appeared in three films with his friend Stepin Fetchit (aka Lincoln T. Perry): David Harum (1934), Judge Priest (1934) and The County Chairman (1935).
With his voice becoming increasingly familiar to audiences, he was able to basically play himself, without normal makeup, in each film, managing to ad-lib and even work in his familiar commentaries on politics at times. The clean moral tone of his films led to various public schools taking their classes, during the school day, to attend special showings of some of them. His most unusual role may have been in the first talking version of Mark Twain's novel A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court. His popularity soared to new heights with films including Young As You Feel, Judge Priest, and Life Begins at 40 with Richard Cromwell and Rochelle Hudson.
-: Newspapers and magazines: Rogers demonstrated multiple skills, and was an indefatigable worker. He toured the lecture circuit. The New York Times syndicated his weekly newspaper column, 1922-35. Going daily in 1926 his short "Will Rogers Says" reached forty million newspaper readers. He wrote frequently for the mass-circulation upscale magazine, The Saturday Evening Post, where Rogers advised Americans to embrace the frontier values of neighborliness and democracy on the domestic front while remaining clear of foreign entanglements. He took a strong, highly popular stand in favor of aviation, including a military air force of the sort his flying buddy, General Billy Mitchell, advocated.
Rogers began a weekly column, titled "Slipping the Lariat Over," at the end of 1922. He had already published a book of wisecracks and had begun a steady stream of humor books. Through the continuing series of columns for the McNaught Syndicate between 1922 and 1935, as well as in his personal appearances and radio broadcasts, he won the loving admiration of the American people, poking jibes in witty ways at the issues of the day and prominent people—often politicians. He wrote from a non-partisan point of view and became a friend of presidents and a confidant of the great. Loved for his cool mind and warm heart, he was often considered the successor to such greats as Artemus Ward and Mark Twain. Rogers was not the first entertainer to use political humor before his audience. Others, such as Broadway comedian Raymond Hitchcock and Britain's Sir Harry Lauder, preceded him by several years. The legendary Bob Hope is the best known political humorist to follow Rogers's example.
Travel: From about 1925 to 1928, Rogers traveled the length and breadth of the United States in a "lecture tour". (He began his lectures by pointing out that "A humorist entertains, and a lecturer annoys.") During this time he became the first civilian to fly from coast to coast with pilots flying the mail in early air mail flights. The National Press Club dubbed him "Ambassador at Large of the United States." He visited Mexico City, along with Charles Lindbergh, as a guest of U.S. Ambassador Dwight Morrow. (Morrow's daughter Anne later married Lindbergh.) Rogers gave numerous after-dinner speeches, became a popular convention speaker, and gave dozens of benefits for victims of floods, droughts, or earthquakes.
He made a trip to the Orient in 1931 and to Central and South America the following year. In 1934, he made a globe-girdling tour and returned to play the lead in Eugene O'Neill's stage play Ah, Wilderness! He had tentatively agreed to go on loan from Fox to MGM to star in the 1935 movie version of the play; however, his concern over a fan's reaction to the 'facts-of-life' talk between his character and its son caused him to decline the role—and that freed up his schedule allowing him to fly with Wiley Post that summer.
Radio: Radio was the exciting new medium, and Rogers became a star there as well, recycling his newspaper pieces. From 1930 to 1935, he made radio broadcasts for the Gulf Oil Company. This weekly Sunday evening show, The Gulf Headliners, ranked among the top radio programs in the country. Since he easily rambled from one subject to another, reacting to his studio audience, he often lost track of the half-hour time limit in his earliest broadcasts, and was cut off in mid-sentence. To correct this, he brought in a wind-up alarm clock, and its on-air buzzing alerted him to begin wrapping up his comments. By 1935, his show was being announced as "Will Rogers and his famous Alarm Clock."
In January 1934, Rogers used a taboo word that led the NAACP to protest. He used the word “nigger” in a radio skit, referring to a song as a “nigger spiritual” Rogers had used the word in print in his syndicated newspaper columns on a few occasions, but this was evidently the first time he used it on the radio.
Politics: Rogers was a staunch Democrat, but he also supported Republican Calvin Coolidge. Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt was his favorite. Although he supported Roosevelt's New Deal, he could just as easily joke about it: * Lord, the money we do spend on Government and it’s not one bit better than the government we got for one-third the money twenty years ago.
Rogers served as a goodwill ambassador to Mexico, and a brief stint as mayor of Beverly Hills. During the depths of the Great Depression, angered by Washington's inability to feed the people, he embarked on a cross country fund raising tour for the Red Cross.
Presidential campaign, 1928: Rogers thought all campaigning was bunk. To prove the point he mounted a mock campaign in 1928 for the presidency. His only vehicle was the pages of Life, a weekly humor magazine. Rogers ran as the "bunkless candidate" of the Anti-Bunk Party. His only campaign promise was that, if elected, he would resign. Every week, from Memorial Day through Election Day, Rogers caricatured the farcical humors of grave campaign politics. On election day he declared victory and resigned.
Philosophy and style: After Rogers gained recognition as a humorist-philosopher in vaudeville, he gained a national audience in acting and literary careers from 1915 to 1935. In these years, Rogers increasingly expressed the views of the "common man" in America. He downplayed academic credentials, noting, "Everybody is ignorant, only on different subjects." Americans of all walks admired his individualism, his appreciation for democratic ideas, and his liberal philosophies on most issues. Moreover, Rogers extolled hard work and long hours of toil in order to succeed, and such expressions upheld theories of many Americans on how best to realize their own dreams of success. He symbolized the self-made man, the common man, who believed in America, in progress, in the American Dream of upward mobility, and whose humor never offended even those who were the targets of it.
America in the 1920s was disenchanted and alienated from the outside world. Rogers seemed to many an anchor of stability; his conventional home life and "old fashioned" morality reminded people of an innocent past. His newspaper column, which ran from 1922 to 1935, stressed both "old" morality and the belief that political problems were not as serious as they sounded. In his films, Rogers began by playing a simple cowboy; his characters evolved to explore the meaning of innocence in film. In his last movies, Rogers explores a society fracturing into competing classes from economic pressures. Throughout his career, Will Rogers was a link to a better, more comprehensible past.
In 1926, the high-circulation weekly magazine The Saturday Evening Post financed a European tour for Rogers in return for the publication of his articles. Rogers made whirlwind visits to numerous European capitals and met with both international figures and common people. His articles reflected a fear that Europeans would again go to war, and thus he recommended that the United States should assume an isolationist posture. He reasoned that for the moment American needs could best be served by concentrating on domestic questions and avoiding foreign entanglements. He commented: * America has a unique record. We never lost a war and we never won a conference in our lives. I believe that we could without any degree of egotism, single-handed lick any nation in the world. But we can’t confer with Costa Rica and come home with our shirts on.
Rogers was famous for his use of language. He effectively utilized up-to-date slang and invented new words to fit his needs. He also made frequent use of puns and terms which closely linked him to the cowboy tradition, as well as speech patterns using a southern dialect.
Brown (1979) argues that Rogers held up a "magic mirror" that reflected iconic American values. Rogers was the archetypical "American Democrat" thanks to his knack of moving freely among all social classes, his stance above political parties, and his passion for fair play. He represented the "American Adam" with his independence and self-made record. Rogers furthermore represented the "American Prometheus" through his commitment to utilitarian methods and his ever-optimistic faith in future progress.
Quotes and one-liners: * One of Will Rogers' most famous lines, "I have never yet met a man that I dident like," was part of a longer quotation and in its original form was in reference to Leon Trotsky:"I bet you if I had met him and had a chat with him, I would have found him a very interesting and human fellow, for I never yet met a man that I dident like. When you meet people, no matter what opinion you might have formed about them beforehand, why, after you meet them and see their angle and their personality, why, you can see a lot of good in all of them. Note that "dident" was a spelling choice that Rogers used repeatedly. * "The average citizen knows only too well that it makes no difference to him which side wins. He realizes that the Republican elephant and the Democratic donkey have come to resemble each other so closely that it is practically impossible to tell them apart; both of them make the same braying noise, and neither of them ever says anything. The only perceptible difference is that the elephant is somewhat the larger of the two. * "Every guy just looks in his own pocket and then votes. And the funny part of it is that it's the last year of an administration that counts. [A president] can have three bad ones and then wind up with everybody having money in the fourth, and the incumbent will win so far he needn't even stay up to hear the returns. Conditions win elections, not speeches. * "I bet any Sunday could be made as popular at church as Easter is, if you made 'em fashion shows too. The audience is so busy looking at each other that the preacher might as well recite "Gunga Din". * "Be thankful we're not getting all the government we're paying for." * "Mother's Day, it's beautiful thought, but it's somebody's hurtin' conscience that thought of the idea. It was someone who had neglected their mother for years, and then they figured out: I got to do something about Momma. And knowing Momma was that easy, they figured, “we'll give her a day, and it will be all right with Momma.” Give her a day, and then in return Momma gives you the other 364. See? * "One sure certainty about our Memorial Days is that as fast as the ranks from one war thin out, the ranks from another take their place. Prominent men may run out of Decoration Day speeches, but the world never runs out of wars. People talk peace, but men give up their life's work to war. * "Thanksgiving Day! In the days of our founders, they were willing to give thanks for mighty little, for mighty little was all they expected. … Those old boys in the Fall of the year, if they could gather a few pumpkins, potatoes and some corn for the Winter, they was in a thanking mood. But if we can't gather in a new car, a new radio, a new tuxedo and some Government relief, we feel like the world is agin' us. * "Everything is changing. People are taking the comedians seriously and the politicians as a joke." * "Americans will feed anyone that's not close to them." * "Our foreign policy is an open book - a checkbook." * "I belong to no organized party, I'm a Democrat." * "Lettin' the cat out of the bag is a lot easier than puttin' it back in." * "People who fly into a rage always make a bad landing." * "The income tax has made more liars out of Americans than golf." * "If stupidity got us in this mess, why can't it get us out?" * "Everybody says this here thing we're involved in ain't a real war. Congress says it ain't a war. The President says it ain't a war. 'Course the guys over here getting shot at say it's the best damned imitation they ever saw." * "A senator got up today in Congress and called his fellow senators sons of wild jackasses. Now, if you think the senators were hot, imagine how the jackasses must feel." * "Even if you are on the right track, you'll get run over if you just sit there." * 'The only problem with Boy Scouts is, there aren't enough of them."
Aviation and death: Rogers became an advocate for the aviation industry after noticing advancements in Europe and befriending Charles Lindbergh, the most famous aviator of the era. During his 1926 European trip he witnessed the European advances in commercial air service and compared them to the almost nonexistent facilities in the United States. Rogers' newspaper columns frequently emphasized the safety record, speed, and convenience of this means of transportation, and he helped shape public opinion on the subject.
In 1935 the famed aviator Wiley Post, an Oklahoman, became interested in surveying a mail-and-passenger air route from the West Coast to Russia. He attached a Lockheed Explorer wing to a Lockheed Orion fuselage, fitting floats for landing in the lakes of Alaska and Siberia. Rogers visited Post often at the airport in Burbank, California while he was modifying the aircraft, and asked Post to fly him through Alaska in search of new material for his newspaper column. When the floats Post had ordered did not arrive at Seattle in time, he used a set that was designed for a larger type, making the already nose-heavy hybrid aircraft still more nose-heavy. However, according to the research of Bryan Sterling, the floats were the correct type for the aircraft.
After making a test flight in July, Post and Rogers left Seattle in the Lockheed Orion-Explorer in early August and then made several stops in Alaska. While Post piloted the aircraft, Rogers wrote his columns on his typewriter. Before they left Fairbanks they signed and mailed a burgee belonging to the South Coast Corinthian Yacht Club. The signed burgee is on display at South Coast Corinthian Yacht Club in Marina del Rey, California. On August 15, they left Fairbanks, Alaska for Point Barrow. They were a few miles from Point Barrow when they became uncertain of their position in bad weather and landed in a lagoon to ask directions. On takeoff, the engine failed at low altitude, and the aircraft, uncontrollably nose-heavy at low speed, plunged into the lagoon, shearing off the right wing and ending inverted in the shallow water of the lagoon. Both men died instantly.
Legacy: Oklahoma honors: One of Oklahoma's two statues in the National Statuary Hall Collection, housed in the United States Capitol, is of Rogers. The work was paid for by a state appropriation and was sculpted in clay by Jo Davidson, a close friend of Rogers whom he nicknamed the "headhunter" because Davidson was always looking for heads to sculpt, then cast in bronze in Brussels, Belgium. Dedicated on June 6, 1939 before a crowd of more than 2,000 people, the statue faces the floor entrance of the House of Representatives Chamber next to National Statuary Hall. The Architect of the Capitol, David Lynn, said there had never been such a large ceremony or crowd in the Capitol.
Oklahoma leaders asked Rogers to represent the state as one of their two statues in the Capitol, and Rogers agreed on the condition that his image would be placed facing the House Chamber, supposedly so he could "keep an eye on Congress." Of the statues in this part of the Capitol, the Rogers sculpture is the only one facing the Chamber entrance. According to guides at the Capitol, each President rubs the left shoe of the Rogers statue for good luck before entering the House Chamber to give the State of the Union Address.
Oklahoma has named many places and buildings for Rogers. His birthplace is located two miles east of Oologah, Oklahoma. The house was moved about ¾ mile (1.2 km) to its present location overlooking its original site when the Verdigris River valley was flooded to create Oologah Lake. The family tomb is at the Will Rogers Memorial Museum in nearby Claremore, which stands on the site purchased by Rogers in 1911 for his retirement home. In 1944, Rogers' body was moved from a holding vault in California to the tomb; his wife Betty was interred beside him later that year upon her death. A casting of the Davidson sculpture that stands in National Statuary Hall, paid for by Davidson personally, resides at the museum. Both the birthplace and the museum are open to the public.
Will Rogers World Airport in Oklahoma City was named for him, as was the Will Rogers Turnpike, also known as the section of Interstate 44 between Tulsa and Joplin, Missouri. Near Vinita, Oklahoma, a statue of Rogers stands outside the west anchor of the McDonald's that spans both lanes of the interstate. A recent expansion and renovation of the Will Rogers World Airport includes a statue of Will Rogers on horseback in front of the terminal.
There are 13 public schools in Oklahoma named Will Rogers, including Will Rogers High School in Tulsa. The University of Oklahoma named the large Will Rogers Room in the student union for him, as did the Boy Scouts of America with the Will Rogers Council and the Will Rogers Scout Reservation near Cleveland.
In 1947, a college football bowl game was named in his honor, but the event folded after the first year. * California memorials
Rogers's home, stables, and polo fields are preserved today for public enjoyment as Will Rogers State Historic Park in Pacific Palisades. His widow, Betty, willed the property to the state of California upon her death in 1944, under the condition that polo be played on the field every year. Will Rogers Elementary School in Santa Monica is named for Rogers, as is Will Rogers Elementary School in Ventura. There are two Middle Schools named Will Rogers (one in Long Beach and the other in Fair Oaks). A United States Navy submarine USS Will Rogers is also named in his honor. A small park on Sunset Boulevard and Beverly Drive in Beverly Hills was named Will Rogers Memorial Park after him. Also, a beach in Malibu was named Will Rogers Beach.
U.S. Route 66 is known as the Will Rogers Highway; a plaque dedicating the highway to the humorist is located opposite the western terminus of Route 66 in Santa Monica.
The California Theatre in San Bernardino is the site of the humorist's final show. He always performed in front of special jewelled curtains of which he had two.
While he was using one, he would send the other to the site of his next performance. Due to his untimely death, the curtain before which he performed last remained with the California Theatre where the artifact stays to this day, and two memorial murals by Ken Twitchell grace the exterior of the fly loft. The California Theatre also named one of its reception spaces the Will Rogers Room. * Texas memorials
The Will Rogers Memorial Center was built in Fort Worth, Texas, in 1936 with a mural, a bust and a life-size statue of Rogers on Soapsuds, titled Into the Sunset and sculpted by Electra Waggoner Biggs.
A casting of Into the Sunset stands in the entrance to the main campus quad at Texas Tech University in Lubbock, Texas. This memorial was dedicated on February 16, 1950, by Rogers' longtime friend, Amon G. Carter. Another casting resides at the Will Rogers Memorial in Claremore, Oklahoma. * National tributes
In 1936, the NVA Hospital located in Saranac Lake, New York was renamed to the Will Rogers Memorial Hospital in his honor by the National Vaudeville Artists association.
Rogers's eldest son, Bill, starred as his father in the 1952 biopic The Story of Will Rogers. Rogers also came to life for modern audiences in the Tony Award-winning musical The Will Rogers Follies, with Keith Carradine in the lead role, and he was also portrayed by James Whitmore in the one-man show Will Rogers' U.S.A.
On November 4, 1948, the United States Post Office commemorated Rogers with a first day cover of a 3-cent stamp with his image—the inscription reads, "In honor of Will Rogers, Humorist, Claremore, Oklahoma." He was also later honored on the centennial of his birth, in 1979, with the issue of a United States Postal Service 15-cent stamp as part of the "Performing Arts" series.
The Barrow, Alaska airport (BRW), located about 16 miles (26 km) from the location of their fatal airplane crash, is known as the Wiley Post–Will Rogers Memorial Airport.
The final boat of the Benjamin Franklin class ballistic missile submarines USS Will Rogers is named in his honor.
The Will Rogers Theatre, an Art Deco movie house designed by Rapp and Rapp, opened in Chicago's Belmont-Central shopping district in 1936. It operated until 1986 and was razed in 1987.
The Will Rogers Theater in Charleston, Illinois, also an Art Deco movie house was opened in 1938 and designed by Roy M. Kennedy. It had 1,000 seats in its single auditorium. The theatre was placed on the Register of Historic Places in 1984. It was later twinned and then closed by AMC in 2010.
Film portrayals: Rogers was portrayed by A.A. Trimble in cameos in both the 1936 film, The Great Ziegfeld, and the 1937 film, You're a Sweetheart.
Rogers was portrayed by his son, Will Rogers, Jr., in a cameo in the 1949 film, Look for the Silver Lining, and as the star of the 1952 film, The Story of Will Rogers.
Rogers was portrayed by actor Keith Carradine in the 1994 film Mrs. Parker and the Vicious Circle. Carradine had played Rogers three years earlier on Broadway, in the stage musical, The Will Rogers Follies.
Filmography: Silent films: MultiCol: * Laughing Bill Hyde (1918) * Almost A Husband (1919) * Jubilo (1919) * Water, Water Everywhere (1919) * The Strange Boarder (1920) * Jes' Call Me Jim (1920) * Cupid The Cowpuncher (1920) * Honest Hutch (1920) * Guile Of Women (1920) * Boys Will Be Boys (1921) * An Unwilling Hero (1921) * Doubling For Romeo (1921) * A Poor Relation (1921) * The Illiterate Digest (1920) * One Glorious Day (1922) * The Headless Horseman (1922) * The Ropin' Fool (1922) * Fruits Of Faith (1922)
ColBreak: * One Day in 365 (1922) (unreleased) * Hollywood (1923) cameo * Hustling Hank (1923) * Two Wagons Both Covered (1923) * Jus' Passin' Through (1923) * Uncensored Movies (1923) * The Cake Eater (1924) * The Cowboy Sheik (1924) * Big Moments From Little Pictures (1924) * High Brow Stuff (1924) * Going to Congress (1924) * Don't Park There(1924) * Jubilo, Jr. (1924) (part of the Our Gang series) * Our Congressman (1924) * A Truthful Liar (1924) * Gee Whiz Genevieve (1924) * Tip Toes (1927) * A Texas Steer (1927)
ColBreak: Travelog Series * In Dublin (1927) * In Paris (1927) * Hiking Through Holland (1927) * Roaming The Emerald Isle (1927) * Through Switzerland And Bavaria (1927) * In London (1927) * Hunting For Germans In Berlin (1927) * Prowling Around France (1927) * Winging Round Europe (1927) * Exploring England (1927) * Reeling Down The Rhine (1927) * Over The Bounding Blue (1928)
EndMultiCol: Sound films: MultiCol: * They Had To See Paris (1929) * Happy Days (1929) * So This Is London (1930) * Lightnin (1930) * Young As You Feel (1930) * Ambassador Bill (1930) * Business and Pleasure (1930)
ColBreak: * A Connecticut Yankee (1931) * Down To Earth (1932) * Too Busy To Work (1932) * State Fair (1933) * Doctor Bull (1933) * Mr. Skitch (1933) * David Harum (1934)
ColBreak: * Handy Andy (1934) * Judge Priest (1934) * The County Chairman * Life Begins At Forty (1935) * Doubting Thomas (1935) * Steamboat Round the Bend (1935) * In Old Kentucky (1935)
EndMultiCol: References and further reading: Biographies: * Anderson, Gary Clayton Will Rogers and "His" America (2010). * Ketchum, Richard M. Will Rogers: His Life and Times (1973) * O'Brien, P. J. Will Rogers, Ambassador of Good Will Prince of Wit and Wisdom. (1935) * Robinson, Ray. American Original: A Life of Will Rogers. (1996). 288 pp. * Rollins, Peter C. Will Rogers: A Bio-Bibliography. Greenwood, 1984. 282 pp. * Sterling, Bryan B., and Frances N. Sterling, Will Rogers' World (1989), * Yagoda, Ben. Will Rogers: A Biography (1993)
Scholarly studies: * Brown, William R. "Will Rogers and His Magic Mirror." Chronicles of Oklahoma 1979 57(3): 300-325. * Coleman, Timothy S. "All We Know of Nation Is What We See in the Pictures: Will Rogers and the National Imaginary in 1920's and 1930's America." PhD dissertation, Wayne State U. 2003. 183 pp. DAI 2004 64(12): 4245-A. DA3116488 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses * Jenkins, Ronald Scott. "Representative Clowns: Comedy and Democracy in America." PhD dissertation Harvard U. 1984. 208 pp. DAI 1984 45(4): 1187-A. DA8416931 Fulltext: ProQuest Dissertations & Theses * Johnson, Bobby H. and R. Stanley Mohler. Washington: Smithsonian Institution, 1971. * Roach, Fred, Jr. "Will Rogers' Youthful Relationship with His Father, Clem Rogers: a Story of Love and Tension." Chronicles of Oklahoma 1980 58(3): 325-342. Issn: 0009-6024 * Roach, Fred, Jr. "Vision of the Future: Will Rogers' Support of Commercial Aviation." Chronicles of Oklahoma 1979 57(3): 340-364. * Rollins, Peter C. "Will Rogers: Symbolic Man, Journalist, and Film Image." Journal of Popular Culture 1976 9(4): 851-877. Issn: 0022-3840 * Rollins, Peter C. "Will Rogers, Ambassador sans Portfolio: Letters from a Self-made Diplomat to His President." Chronicles of Oklahoma 1979 57(3): 326-339. * Smallwood, James M. "Will Rogers of Oklahoma: Spokesman for the 'Common Man.'" Journal of the West 1988 27(2): 45-49. Issn: 0022-5169 * Southard, Bruce. "Will Rogers and the Language of the Southwest: a Centennial Perspective." Chronicles of Oklahoma 1979 57(3): 365-375.
Books by Rogers: * Rogers, Will. Letters of a Self-Made Diplomat to His President (1926) * Rogers, Will, and Joseph H. Carter. Never Met a Man I Didn't Like (1991) * Rogers, Will. Will Rogers at the Ziegfeld Follies. ed. by Arthur Frank Wertheim, (1992). 288 pp. * Rogers, Will. Will Rogers' Weekly Articles. Vol. 1, The Harding/Coolidge Years, 1922-1925. ed. by James M. Smallwood, (1980). 431 pp. * Rogers, Will. Will Rogers' Weekly Articles. Vol. 2: The Coolidge Years, 1925-1927. ed. by Steven K. Gragert, (1980). 368 pp. * Rogers, Will. Will Rogers' Weekly Articles. Vol. 3: The Coolidge Years, 1927-1929. ed. by Steven K. Gragert, (1981). 304 pp. * Rogers, Will. Will Rogers' Weekly Articles. Vol. 4: The Hoover Years, 1929-1931. ed. by Steven K. Gragert, (1981). 278 pp. * Rogers, Will. Will Rogers's Daily Telegrams. Vol. l, The Coolidge Years, 1926-1929. ed. by James M. Smallwood, 1978. 453 pp. * Rogers, Will. Will Rogers' Daily Telegrams. Vol. 4, The Roosevelt Years, 1933-1935. ed. by James M. Smallwood, (1979). 457 pp. * Rogers, Will. Convention Articles of Will Rogers. ed. by Joseph A. Stout, 1976. 174 pp. * Rogers, Will. The Writings of Will Rogers. Volume 3: Illiterate Digest. ed. by Joseph A. Stout, Jr., 1974. 230 pp. * Rogers, Will. Autobiography (1948), ed. by Donald Day; 410pp; * Rogers, Will. Rogers-isms: the Cowboy Philosopher on the Peace Conference, (1919). * Sterling, Bryan B., and Frances N. Sterling, eds. Will Rogers Speaks: Over 1,000 Timeless Quotations for Public Speakers (And Writers, Politicians Comedians, Browsers) (1995). * The Papers of Will Rogers **
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Will Rogers
Naissance en Oklahoma | Personnalité américaine d'origine amérindienne | Acteur américain | Acteur du muet | Scénariste américain | Producteur américain | Naissance en 1879 | Décès en 1935 | Mort dans un accident aérien
Rogers: acteur américain:
Will Rogers, né à (Oklahoma) le et mort à Point Barrow (Alaska) le , est un acteur, scénariste et producteur américain.
Filmographie : comme acteur : * 1918 : Laughing Bill Hyde : Bill Hyde * 1919 : Almost a Husband : Sam Lyman * 1919 : Jubilo : Jubilo * 1920 : Water, Water Everywhere : Billy Fortune * 1920 : The Strange Boarder : Sam Gardner * 1920 : Jes' Call Me Jim : Jim Fenton * 1920 : Cupid the Cowpuncher : Alec Lloyd * 1920 : Honest Hutch : Hutch * 1920 : Guile of Women : Hjalmar Maartens * 1921 : Boys Will Be Boys : Peep O'Day * 1921 : An Unwilling Hero : Dick * 1921 : Doubling for Romeo : Sam Cody / Romeo * 1921 : A Poor Relation : Noah Vale * 1922 : One Glorious Day : Professor Ezra Botts * 1922 : The Ropin' Fool : Ropes' Reilly (the ropin' fool) * 1922 : The Headless Horseman : Ichabod Crane * 1922 : Fruits of Faith * 1923 : Jus' Passin' Through : The Hobo * 1923 : Hustlin' Hank : Hank * 1923 : Uncensored Movies : Lem Skagwillow * 1924 : Two Wagons Both Covered : William Banion / Bill Jackson * 1924 : The Cowboy Sheik : Two Straw' Bill * 1924 : The Cake Eater * 1924 : Big Moments from Little Pictures * 1924 : High Brow Stuff * 1924 : Going to Congress : Alfalfa Doolittle * 1924 : Don't Park There * 1924 : Jubilo, Jr. : Jubilo * 1924 : Our Congressman : Alfalfa Doolittle * 1924 : A Truthful Liar : Ambassador Alfalfa Doolittle * 1924 : Gee Whiz, Genevieve * 1927 : : Uncle Hen Kaye * 1927 : A Texas Steer : Cattle Brander * 1929 : They Had to See Paris : Pike Peters * 1930 : : Hiram Draper * 1930 : Lightnin : Lightnin' Bill Jones * 1931 : : Hank Martin * 1931 : Young as You Feel : Lemuel Morehouse * 1931 : Ambassador Bill : Bill Harper * 1932 : : Earl Tinker * 1932 : Down to Earth : Pike Peters * 1932 : Too Busy to Work : Jubilo * 1933 : La Foire aux illusions : Abel Frake * 1933 : Doctor Bull : Dr: . George 'Doc' Bull * 1933 : Mr. Skitch : Mr. Ira Skitch * 1934 : David Harum : David Harum * 1934 : Handy Andy : Andrew Yates * 1934 : Judge Priest : Judge William 'Billy' Priest * 1935 : : Jim Hackler * 1935 : Life Begins at Forty : Kenesaw H. Clark * 1935 : Doubting Thomas : Thomas Brown * 1935 : Steamboat Round the Bend : Doctor John Pearly * 1935 : In Old Kentucky : Steve Tapley
comme scénariste : * 1916 : Roaring Camp * 1921 : Doubling for Romeo * 1924 : Two Wagons Both Covered
comme producteur : * 1922 : The Ropin' Fool
Récompenses et nominations : Récompenses : Nominations : Anecdotes :
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قرد الأسد الذهبي
أنواع مهددة بالانقراض حسب القائمة الحمراء للاتحاد العالمي للحفاظ على الطبيعة ومواردها | ثدييات أمريكا الجنوبية
قرد الأسد الذهبي بالإنجليزية "Golden Lion Tamarin" قرد جديد مكتشف، موطنه الأصلي الغابات الساحلية الأطلنطية بالبرازيل، وهو أحد الحيوانات المهددة بالانقراض حيث يقدر عدد القردة من نفس النوع بحوالي ألف وخمسمائة قرد.
مواصفاته : لونه برتقالي يميل إلى الحمرة وتتدرج إلى الذهبي والبني، شعره كثيف ومظلم حول الوجه له مخالب حادة. ويعتمد في غذائه على الشجيرات، وبالرغم من صغر طوله إلا أن ذيله الطويل معد للإمساك بأفرع الأشجار.
الخصائص الفيزيائية
والأسد الذهبي تامارين family.As اسمها يوحي، وهذا هو أسد تامارين البرتقالي المحمر إلى اللون الذهبي. الشعر منه هو أطول وأكثر قتامة حول الوجه، وتشكيل لبدة على قمة الرأس وعلى الخدين والحلق. أطرافه ومرهف قادرة حتى الآن مع مسامير حادة لشق مثل (وتسمى tegulae)، يليق به الحياة شجري بدقة. على الرغم من فترة طويلة جدا، وذيله غير قادر على الإمساك بشئ. قد الذيل والأرجل الأمامية لهذا القرد تلوين أسود لها. قد الجسم لها أن تصل إلى 335 ملم (13.2 في) لفترة طويلة وذيله ما يصل إلى 400 ملليمترا (16). الذكور تصل إلى الحد الأقصى لوزن 700 غرام فقط (25 أوقية) في البرية على الرغم من ويمكن الاطلاع على أعلى الأوزان في الاسر. الأنثى الحامل قد يصل وزنه إلى 790 غرام (28 أوقية) ولكن امرأة غير يختمر يزن عادة أقرب إلى 550 غرام (19 أوقية).
الخصائص الفيزيائية :
والأسد الذهبي تامارين family.As اسمها يوحي، وهذا هو أسد تامارين البرتقالي المحمر إلى اللون الذهبي. الشعر منه هو أطول وأكثر قتامة حول الوجه، وتشكيل لبدة على قمة الرأس وعلى الخدين والحلق. أطرافه ومرهف قادرة حتى الآن مع مسامير حادة لشق مثل (وتسمى tegulae)، يليق به الحياة شجري بدقة. على الرغم من فترة طويلة جدا، وذيله غير قادر على الإمساك بشئ. قد الذيل والأرجل الأمامية لهذا القرد تلوين أسود لها. قد الجسم لها أن تصل إلى 335 ملم (13.2 في) لفترة طويلة وذيله ما يصل إلى 400 ملليمترا (16). الذكور تصل إلى الحد الأقصى لوزن 700 غرام فقط (25 أوقية) في البرية على الرغم من ويمكن الاطلاع على أعلى الأوزان في الاسر. الأنثى الحامل قد يصل وزنه إلى 790 غرام (28 أوقية) ولكن امرأة غير يختمر يزن عادة أقرب إلى 550 غرام (19 أوقية).
والأسد الالخصائص الفيزيائية
الأسد الذهبي تامارين، وهذا هو أسد تامارين البرتقالي المحمر إلى اللون الذهبي. الشعر منه هو أطول وأكثر قتامة حول الوجه، وتشكيل لبدة على قمة الرأس وعلى الخدين والحلق. أطرافه ومرهف قادرة حتى الآن مع مسامير حادة لشق مثل (وتسمى tegulae)، يليق به الحياة شجري بدقة. على الرغم من فترة طويلة جدا، وذيله غير قادر على الإمساك بشئ. قد الذيل والأرجل الأمامية لهذا القرد تلوين أسود لها. قد الجسم لها أن تصل إلى 335 ملم (13.2 في) لفترة طويلة وذيله ما يصل إلى 400 ملليمترا (16). الذكور تصل إلى الحد الأقصى لوزن 700 غرام فقط (25 أوقية) في البرية على الرغم من ويمكن الاطلاع على أعلى الأوزان في الاسر. الأنثى الحامل قد يصل وزنه إلى 790 غرام (28 أوقية) ولكن امرأة غير يختمر يزن عادة أقرب إلى 550 غرام (19 أوقية).
السلوك والإنجاب : الأم توفر وسائل النقل في المراحل الأولى من حيات الرضيع قرد الأسد الذهبي هو نهاري وشجري في المقام الأول، وتشكيل مجموعات صغيرة من دوريات إقليم ثابت من حوالي 400،000 متر مربع (100 فدانا) ؛ القتال بين الجماعات تجنبها عن طريق رائحة وضع العلامات وطقوس " لقاءات ". ليلا، والنوم في القردة ثقوب التعشيش المهجورة في الأشجار.
في المجموعة التعاونية في تربية الشباب، ولكن فقط من الإناث عادة السلالات السائدة. الذكور هي المسؤولة عن الجزء الأكبر من تربية الواجبات، مع الأم المرضعة، وتوفير وسائل النقل للطفل خلال الأسبوع الأول من الحياة. ويجري تقاسم الموارد بين المجموعة، وكذلك واجبات مراقبة المفترس. وحسن الرعاية والشباب لمرحلة المراهقة حتى. وخلافا للقرود أخرى، من الذكور والإناث على حد سواء ترك الجماعة، ومعدل البقاء على قيد الحياة ضئيلة، وأقل من ربع الاندماج بنجاح في مجموعة جديدة أو إثبات وجودها في أرض غير مأهولة.
ناضجة تماما في 56-75 يوما، والأسد الذهبي تامارين قادرة على تولد في 18 شهرا من العمر. موسم التكاثر هو من سبتمبر.-مارس.. الحمل يستمر لمدة 126-136 يوما، تنتهي عادة في ولادة التوأم، قد يكون هناك ما يصل إلى اثنين من الفضلات سنويا. مفطوم والقردة الصغار بعد 90 يوما فقط، أقل من نصف الأطفال على البقاء أحياء السنة الأولى من الحياة. إذا، يمكن توقع عمر حوالي 8 سنوات. توفي أقدم تامارين مسجل في سن ال 31 في حديقة حيوان سان انطونيو (تكساس) في عام 1999
المصدر : ترجمة ويكيبديا الإنجليزية
حيوانات مهددة بالانقراض:
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Golden lion tamarin
Mammals of South America | Callitrichidae | Animals described in 1766
The golden lion tamarin (Leontopithecus rosalia, Portuguese: Mico-leão Dourado) also known as the golden marmoset, is a small New World monkey of the family Callitrichidae. Native to the Atlantic coastal forests of Brazil, the golden lion tamarin is an endangered species with an estimated wild population of "more than 1,000 individuals" and a captive population maintained at approximately 490 individuals.
Physical characteristics : The golden lion tamarin gets its name from its fiery orange or red pelage and the extra long hairs that form along its cheek, throat and ears, giving it a distinctive mane. Its face is dark and hairless. It is believed that the hair color of the tamarin is due to exposure to sunlight or the carotenoids in its diet. The golden lion tamarin is the largest of the callitrichines. It is 261 mm (10.3 in) tall on average and has an average weight of 620 g (1.37 lb). There is almost no size difference between males and females. As with all callitrichines, the golden lion tamarin has tegulae, which are claw-like nails, instead of ungulae or flat nails found in all other primates, including humans. Tegulaes enable tamarins to cling to the side of tree trunks. They may also move quadrupedally along the smaller branches, whether through walking, running, leaping or bounding. This gives it a locomotion more similar to squirrels than primates.
Ecology and activities: The golden lion tamarin has a very limited distribution range. It is found only in Brazil where it lives in 14 highly fragmented forests remnants totaling 154 km square (59.5 mi square). Tamarins live along the far southeastern border of the country in the municipalities of Silva Jardim, Cabo Frio, Saquarema, and Araruama. However, that have been successfully reintroduced to the municipalities of Rio das Ostras, Rio Bonito, and Casimiro de Abreu. Tamarins live in coastal lowland forests below 300 m (984 ft) above sea level. They can be found in hilltop forests and swamp forests.
Golden lion tamarins are active 12 hours a day. They leave their nesting sites shortly around dawn and establish new nighttime dens before dusk. The early morning is spent traveling and feeding on fruits. As the afternoon nears, tamarins focus more on insects and spend much of the early afternoon feeding on them. The late afternoon is spent traveling to their nighttime dens. Tamarin groups sleep in hollow tree cavities or in dense vines or epiphytes. They do not sleep in the same spot on consecutive nights, but use site within their home range. Sites that are between 11 and 15 m (36.1 and 49.2 ft) off the ground are preferred. Tamarins tend to start their activities earlier and cease later in warmer, wetter times of the years as the days are longer. During drier times, tamarins forage for insects longer as they become more scarce.
The golden lion tamarin has a diverse, omnivorous diet consisting of fruits, flowers, nectar, bird eggs, insects and small vertebrates. Microhabitats are important for foraging and other daily activities and tamarins will use bromeliads, palm crowns, palm leaf sheaths, woody crevices, lianas, vine tangles, tree bark, rotten logs, and leaf litters. Tamarins use their fingers to catch prey hiding in crevices, under leaves, and in dense growth. It is made possible by elongated hands and fingers. Insects make up to 10-15% of their diet. Much of the rest is made of small, sweet, pulpy fruits. During the rainy season, fruit makes up to 80% of the golden lion tamarin’s diet, however during drier times, it must supplant its diet with other foods like nectar and gums. Small vertebrates are also consumed more at these times as insects become more scarce.
Behaviour and reproduction : Golden lion tamarins live in groups that range from 2-11 members. These groups usually consist of one adult male and female but may also have two or three males and one female or one male and two females. Other members include subadults, juveniles and infants of both sexes who are usually offspring of the breeding individuals. When there is more than one breeding adult in a group, one is usually dominant over the other and this is maintained through aggressive behavior. The dominance relationship between males and females depend on how long an individual has been in the group. A newly immigrated male is subordinate to the resident adult female who inherited her rank from her mother. Both males and females may leave their natal group at the age of four, however if a breeding female dies or disappears before the dispersal of the offspring, her daughter may inherit her position and the breeding male who is supposedly her father will leave. Young males usually do not inherit their fathers’ rank and when dispersing from their natal groups, they enter single sex roaming groups until they find an opportunity to immigrate to a new group. 85% of immigrants to groups are males. A male may find an opportunity to enter into a group when the resident male dies or disappears. A male may also eject resident males from this group aggressively, this is usually done by two immigrant males who are likely brothers. When this happens, only one of the new males will be the breeder and will suppress the other with dominance interactions. A resident male may also leave a vacancy when his daughter becomes the breeding female and he must disperse to avoid inbreeding. Golden lion tamarins are highly territorial and groups will defend their home range boundaries from other groups that may exploit their resources.
The mating system of the golden lion tamarin is largely monogamous. When there are two adult males in a group only one of them will mate with the female. There are cases of a male mating with two females, usually a mother and daughter. Tamarins are seasonal breeders with reproduction and parturition being timed with seasonal variation in rainfall. Reproductive activity peaks at the end of the rainy season from late March to mid-June and most births occur during the rainy season between September and February. Female tamarin reach sexual maturity at the age of 15–20 months but they do not reproduce until they are 30 months old. The dominant female of a group will physiologically repress the reproductive capabilities of the other females and a female will not be able to reproduce until they reach dominant status. Copulations can occur throughout ovulation. Gestation lasts around four months. Golden lion tamarin groups exhibit cooperative rearing of the infants. It is due to the fact that tamarins commonly give birth to twins and to a lesser extent, triplets and quadruplets. A mother is not able to provide for her litter and needs the help of the other members of the group. The younger members of the groups may lose breeding opportunities but they gain parental experience in helping rear their younger siblings. In their first 4 weeks, the infants are complete dependent on their mother for nursing and carrying. By week five, the infant spend less time on their mother’s back and begin to explore their surroundings. Young reach their juvenile stage at 17 weeks and will play with other group members. The subadult phase is reached at 14 months and a tamarin first exhibits adult behaviors.
Tamarins emit "whine" and "peep" calls for alarm and affiliations respectively. "Clucks" are made during foraging trips or during aggressive encounters, whether mobbing conspecifics or predators. "Trills" are used to communicate over long distances to give away an individaul’s position. "Rasps" or "screeches" are made during play. Tamarins also use chemical to communicate by making scent marks throughout their territories. Reproductive males and females do most of the scent marking and their non-reproductive counterparts rarely do so. Dominant males use scent marking to signify their social status and this behavior may suppress the reproductive abilities of the other males. * Conservation status
Threats to the golden lion tamarin population include illegal logging, poaching, mining, urbanization and infrastructure development and the introduction of alien species. This species was first listed as endangered in 1982, rising to critically endangered in 1996. By 2003 the successful establishment of a new population at União Biological Reserve enabled downgrading the species to endangered, but the IUCN warns that extreme habitat fragmentation from deforestation means the wild population has little potential for any further expansion. In an attempt to curb the golden lion tamarin's precipitous decline, several conservation programmes have been undertaken. The intent is to strengthen the wild population and maintain a secure captive population in zoos worldwide. The survival rate of re-introduced animals has been encouraging, but destruction of unprotected habitat continues.
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Tamarin lion doré
Primate (nom vernaculaire) | Platyrrhini | CITES annexe I
Leontopithecus_rosalia: Leontopithecus_rosalia: Taxobox fin: Le Tamarin lion doré ou Petit singe-lion doré (Leontopithecus rosalia) est une espèce de primate de la famille des Callitrichidae.
Autres noms : Golden lion tamarin. Mico-leão-dourado au Brésil.
Distribution : On le trouve dans l'est du Brésil, au centre et au sud du littoral de l’État de Rio de Janeiro. Sur une aire totale à peine supérieure à 100km² recouvrant seulement quelques municipalités [essentiellement Saquarema, Araruama (Macaé de Cima), São Pedro da Aldeia et Cabo Frio sur le littoral, et juste au nord Silva Jardim, Aldea Velha, Casimiro de Abreu et Rio das Ostras dans le bassin du Rio São João. En 2006, il a été trouvé dans le PM de Taquara (municipalité de Duque de Caxias), qui constitue à ce jour la limite australe de l’espèce. Au XIXe: siècle, cette espèce occupait aussi l’état d’Espírito Santo (au sud du Rio Dôce) sur une aire totale de 14 000km².
Habitat : Il vit dans la forêt tropicale côtière de la Mata Atlântica riche en broméliacées à une altitude comprise entre le niveau de la mer et 300 m d’altitude (une micropopulation a été observée à 550 m d’altitude dans la Serra do Mar) où la saison sèche de mai à juillet-août. Il affectionne la forêt primaire, s’accommode tant bien que mal de la forêt secondaire (comme à Poço das Antas) et ne survit pas dans les zones cultivées. Il doit subsister dans des forêts toujours plus dégradées et morcelées.
Sympathie et association : en hiver dans la fazenda Rio Vermelho, il s’associe 65 % du temps avec l’ouistiti du Nordeste (Callithrix jacchus).
Description : Sa fourrure est dorée, orangée, rougeâtre ou chamois. D’ordinaire, seules la face et les mains sont nues et sombres. Toutefois, certains spécimens présentent une croupe sombre ou une tache sombre sur le flanc ou un appendice caudal sombre (totalement ou bien seulement une ou deux sections de la queue nettement délimitées). En captivité, si la nourriture est pauvre en caroténoïdes, le pelage devient sombre. Les doigts sont fins et longs adaptés à la récolte d’insectes dans les anfractuosités ou sous l’humus (micromanipulation).
Les nouveau-nés ont un pelage doré pâle, plus clair que celui de l’adulte.
Mensurations : Corps 26 cm (de 20 à 33,6 cm). Queue 37 cm (de 31 à 40cm). Poids 437 à 710 g (M) et 361 à 794 g (F). Le poids du mâle augmente en mai et décroît de 12 % en juin. Cerveau : 12,9 g. Rapport longueur bras/jambes (x100) : 86,7.
Domaine : Le territoire mesure de 36 à 67 ha (d’après Dietz et al.). Il est défendu activement par des marquages olfactifs, des cris et des démonstrations visuelles.
Densité : 12/km² (Poço das Antas). 6/km² (fazenda Rio Vermelho).
Locomotion : Quadrupède.
Comportements basiques : C'est un animal diurne. Arboricole, il descend parfois à terre.
Comportements divers : Dans le parc zoologique de Sainte-Augustine (Floride), on l’a observé épouiller le dos d’un papegeai maillé (Deroptyus accipitrinus).
Activités : Il parcourt chaque jour 1,339 à 1,533 km (d’après Dietz et al.). Voyage entre 10 et 30 m au-dessus du sol et cherche les insectes plus bas entre 5 et 10 m. Tout juste éveillé, le mâle adulte grimpe à la cime pour y prendre un bain de soleil, bientôt suivi par le reste de la famille. Repas matinal. Après la sieste de midi sur un tronc oblique, les jeunes batifolent, multipliant les poursuites et les parties de catch. La mère repart alors en quête de nourriture, laissant à son compagnon la garde des jumeaux nouveau-nés. À la nuit tombante, après la rituelle séance d’épouillage, toute la famille réintègre son antre, le mâle rentrant en dernier tout en surveillant les environs. Le groupe dispose d’une vingtaine d’abris, mais seuls deux ou trois troncs sont régulièrement habités. Les trous doivent avoir au moins 10 cm de diamètre, souvent ceux de vieux arbres en décomposition, à l’abri des trombes d’eau et des prédateurs. Les grandes broméliacées de plus de 70 cm de large constituent d’autres sites nocturnes prisés.
Alimentation : C'est un animal frugivore, faunivore et exsudativore. Il n'hésite pas à descendre de son perchoir pour chasser aussi bien à terre que dans les arbres avec une prédilection pour les broméliacées, la couronne des palmiers et les feuilles de palmiers morts. Les proies sont localisées au toucher plutôt qu’à la vue (c'est l'inverse chez les ouistitis). Il fouille la litière de feuilles des palmiers, gratte l'écorce pourrie, inspecte les crevasses. Il se nourrit d'insectes (blattes, orthoptères, lépidoptères, larves de coléoptères), araignées (araignées-loups et mygales), vers de terres, escargots, lézards, grenouilles arboricoles, crapauds, œufs d'oiseau. L'alimentation végétale reste prédominante. Dans la RB d'União, il consomme cinquant-sept espèces de fruits d'au moins dix-sept familles, davantage de couleur jaune (40,3 %) que noire ou violette (28,1 %) ou rouge (14 %), avec une prédilection pour les graines oblongues, notamment des espèces des genres Cecropia, Tapirira, Rollinia, Pouteria, Passiflora, Miconia et Henriettea. À Poço das Ontas, une quarantaine d'espèces de plantes d’une vingtaine de familles différentes entrent dans son régime, les fruits (trente-huit espèces) venant loin devant les fleurs (trois espèces) et les exsudats (trois espèces). Pendant la saison sèche (mai à août), il absorbe ici des exsudats végétaux. On le voit mordre la base des lianes Machaerium pour provoquer un écoulement de sève. Boit dans le creux d'une branche en mettant la main à la bouche ou en lapant directement au cœur d'une broméliacée (plante-abreuvoir universelle pour les mammifères arboricoles de la forêt).
En captivité, il utilise des rameaux et l'antenne de son collier-émetteur pour extraire des insectes sous l'écorce et pour se toiletter mutuellement ou personnellement.
Taille du groupe : Il vit généralement en groupe de 5 à 6 individus (de 2 à 16).
Structure sociale et système de reproduction : La structure sociale est variable. Groupe unimâle ou groupe multimâle-multifemelle. À Poço das Antas, la grande majorité des groupes inclut soit plusieurs mâles adultes, soit plusieurs femelles adultes. Polygynie ou polyandrie. Monogamie rare. Polygynie stable avérée. Polyandrie peut-être conjoncturelle (correspondant à une période de transition au sein du groupe). Globalement, 40 % des groupes comprennent deux mâles adultes non apparentés à la femelle reproductrice et 70 % des mâles adultes participent à la reproduction mais le dominant à tendance à monopoliser sa partenaire. De même, quelques femelles subordonnées se reproduisent (dans 10,6 % des 211 groupes étudiés), seulement en l’absence d’agression de la part des femelles dominantes, et la chance de survie de leur progéniture est deux fois plus faible que celle dominantes.
Hiérarchie : Équilibre des sexes. Il semblerait toutefois que le sexe qui fonde le groupe établirait une dominance s’exprimant par la préséance alimentaire.
Dispersion : Les individus des deux sexes émigrent: les jeunes femelles partent les premières, à l’inverse de ce que l’on observe chez la plupart des autres primates, en raison de la compétition intrasexuelle, tandis que les mâles se dispersent pour éviter la consanguinité. Seules un quart des femelles immigrantes parviendront à intégrer un nouveau clan.
Reproduction : La parade sexuelle inclut des reniflements, de l’épouillage mutuel et des mouvements rapides de la langue. La copulation se déroule en position dorsoventrale. La période de reproduction commence en mai. La femelle met bas pour la première fois autour de 29 mois et connaît un œstrus post-partum 3 à 10 jours après la mise bas. Une ou deux fois par an, des jumeaux viennent au monde après une gestation variant entre 125 et 132 jours. La saison des naissances s’étale entre septembre et mars, qui est la période la plus chaude et la plus humide de l’année, avec un pic à la fin octobre.
Développement : La mère transporte seule ses jumeaux durant les deux premières semaines, plus longtemps encore en cas de naissance unique, leur donnant plusieurs fois par jours un lait très riche en protéines. Puis, elle les transfert au père. Chez les autres callitrichidés, la prise en charge est bien plus précoce, parfois dès le premier ou deuxième jour. Tous les membres du groupe participent à l’élevage des jeunes (transport, toilettage, partage de la nourriture). Les individus mâles ont tendance à transporter plus souvent les jeunes mâles que les jeunes femelles. Dès 3 semaines, commence à ingérer des aliments solides, à 5 semaines explore seul son environnement, à 3 mois peut voyager seul et exhibe ses premiers comportements sexuels (marquage circumgénital et sternal, monte simulée). Maturité sexuelle vers 2 ans.
Longévité : Il vit jusqu’à 14-15 ans (en captivité).
Communication : Communication orale : 17 vocalisations différentes, notamment trilles, gémissements ultrasoniques, gloussements et cris de vigilance. Répertoire similaire à celui du petit singe-lion à tête dorée (Leontopithecus chrysomelas). Il existe un certain dimorphisme sexuel dans ces appels. Pour avertir de la présence d’un prédateur, il pousse une série de gloussements anxieux. Si le danger vient du ciel (rapace), il change de registre et émet des pépiements caractéristiques. L’appel typique est un appel long de 3 phrases (cri de départ, gémissements et gloussements), produit à fin territoriale ou pour raffermir les liens du couple. L’une de ces trois phrases peut être émise individuellement et véhiculer un sens différent (cri de départ pour marquer sa position, gloussements contre les prédateurs terrestres). Les deux premières phrases sont parfois seules émises (cri de cohésion). Cri suraigu de détresse (enfant).
Communication visuelle : Au nombre des démonstrations visuelles agressives de cette espèce, citons les regards fixes, les dents révélées, le dos arqué, le hérissement des poils (piloérection) et les battements de queue.
Communication olfactive : Le marquage olfactif s’avère plus fréquent que chez les autres callitrichidés et il utilise davantage les glandes sternales que circumgénitales.
Communication tactile : Pelotonnage.
Prédateurs : Aigles. Ocelot. Boa constrictor.
Menaces : Déforestation, pâturage, agriculture et charbonnage. 40 % de l’habitat où il survit n’est pas protégé.
Effectifs : 1000 (en 2002). 250 dans la RB de Poço das Antas et 200 (30 groupes) dans la RB d’União
Conservation : RB de Poço das Antas (comté de Silva Jardim), RB d’União (entre Casimiro de Abreu et Rio das Ostras) et PM de Taquara, dans l’État de Rio de Janeiro (Brésil). Conservé dans 27 fazendas, les principales étant : Rio Vermelho (62 individus) - ville de Rio Bonito juste à l’ouest de Silva Jardim -, Dos Irmãos (38), São Francisco (28), Coqueiro (28), Santa Helena (26), Iguape (26), Igarape (18), Maratua (16), Estreito (11) + Sanctuaire de Bom Retiro (8) - ville d’Aldeia Velha juste à l’ouest de Casimiro de Abreu.
Statut : En grand danger.
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مستقبل كيميائي
حواس | فيزيولوجيا تنفسية | فيزيولوجيا خلوية
المستقبلات الكيميائية Chemoreceptor: أو المستشعرات الكيميائية Chemoresensor: هي خلايا حيوية حسية متخصصة باستشعار المواد الكيميائية في البيئة المحيطة بالكائن الحي، والإبلاغ عن هذه المواد الكيميائية من خلال توليد كمون فعل ينتقل عبر الأعصاب إلى الدماغ.
تقوم بعض المستقبلات الكيميائية باستشعار المركبات الكيميائية المتطايرة في الهواء، كما هو الحال في خلايا حاسة الشم، بينما تقوم أُخرى باستشعار المركبات المُذابة كما هو الحال في التذوق وفي المستقبلات الكيميائية في الأوعية الدموية والدماغ. * الآلية الوظيفية
تحوي خلايا المستقبلات الكيميائية مركبات بروتينية تُدعى مستقبلات، تكون مزروعة في الغشاء الخلوي. هذه المستقبلات تتفاعل مع المحيط الكيميائي للخلية، حيث ترتبط مع المركبات الكيميائية المحيطة بها، مما يسبب تغيراً في شكل المستقبِل، يُحدث تفاعلات في داخل الخلية تنتهي بإصدار الشارة الحيوية تنتقل إلى الدماغ على شكل سيال عصبي ناقل للمعلومات.
المستقبلات الكيميائية المتواجدة في الأنف جزء من حاسة الشم، ويتم الحديث عنها عند تناول جهاز الشم، وتناول العصب الشمي، وهي تقوم بالتعرف على المواد الكيميائية المتطايرة في الهواء شم: . أما مصطلح المستقبلات الكيميائية فيستخدم بشكل خاص لوصف مستقبلات الغازات المُذابة في الدم مثل الأكسجين وثاني أكسيد الكربون، وفي تحديد نسبة الهيدروجين المُذاب في الدم (أي نسبة الحموضة). لهذه المستقبلات دور في تنظيم عملية التنفس وفي تنظيم الدورة الدموية، وتتواجد هذه المستقبلات الخاصة بتنظيم عملية التنفس في الكبة السباتية، وفي مركز التنفس في الدماغ (التَّشَكُّلُ الشَّبَكِيُّ للبَصَلَة Formatio reticularis medullae oblongatae: ) .
تعتمد مراقبة مستوى الأكسجين في الدم على قنوات شاردية لأيونات البوتاسيوم متواجدة في الغشاء الخلوي لخلايات المستقبلات الكيميائية، هذه القنوات لها حالتان؛ إما أن تكون مفتوحة لأيونات البوتاسيوم، أو أن تكون مغلقة أمام تلك الأيونات. الاختلاف بين الوضعين يعتمد على مستوى الأكسجين في الدم، وهناك نظريتان تفسران آلية هذا التأثر:- * في النظرية الأولى تتبين بأن هذه البروتينات ترتبط مباشرة مع جزيئات الأكسجين 2O المُذابة فيزيائياً في الدم، حيث تكون القناة الشاردية المرتبطة بجزيء الأكجسين مغلقة، وحين ينخفض مستوى الأكسجين في الدم ينفك جزيء الأكسجين عن بروتين القناة، فيتغير شكل القناة وتنفتح لأيونات البوتاسيوم، مما يُطلق سلسلة من التفاعلات داخل الخلية تنتهي بإرسال إشارة حيوية، تنتقل عبر الأعصاب إلى الدماغ، مؤشرة على انخفاض مستوى الأكسجين في الدم. * أما الثانية فتقترح بأن هناك مركبات داخل الخلية، تشبه مركب الهيم، تتأثر بمستوى الأكسجين داخل الخلية، وتؤدي في حالة عدم اشباعها بالأكسجين إلى إطلاق سلسلة التفاعلات التي تنتهي باصدار الشارة الحيوية الدالة على نقص الأكسجين المتوفر للخلايا.
وظيفة المستقبلات الكيميائية : تقوم المستقبلات الكيميائية بالمساهمة في تنظيم عملية التنفس من خلال قياس مستوى تشبع الدم بالأكسيجين، ومستوى تراكم ثاني أكسيد الكربون في الدم، ومن خلال قياس حموضة الدم. تتوزع المستقبلات في عدة مناطق في الجسم أهمها الشرايين مثل شريان الأبهر ووالشريان السباتي، ويكون دورها قياس نسبة الأكسجين في الدم الشرياني (القادم من الرئة والمُشبع بالأكسجين). كما تتواجد مستقبلات كيميائية في الدماغ وبخاصة في مركز التنفس نفسه، حيث تقوم بقياس نسبة الأكسجين الواصل للدماغ، كأهم عضو حساس لنقص الأكسجين في الجسم.
تؤدي المستقبلات دورها بقياس الضغط الجزئي للأكسجين pO2: وقياس الضغط الجزئي لثاني أكسيد الكربون في الدم pCO2: . من خلال ذلك تتم رقابة مستوى تشبّع الدم بالأكسجين، وإبلاغ ذلك لمركز التنفس في التشكل الشبكي للبصلة في الدماغ. وهذا بدوره يقوم بالتحكم في آلية التنفس، مثل تغيير وتيرة التنفس أو توليد شعور بضيق النفس، والتحكم بجهاز الدوران من خلال التحكم بعمل القلب وضغط الدم، كما يساهم في التعويد على الارتفاعات (مثل الجبال العالية أو الطائرات) حيث ينخفض الضغط الجزئي للأكسجين في الهواء مع زيادة الارتفاع عن سطح البحر. وللمستقبلات الكيميائية دور في التأقلم على الحاجة المتزايدة للجسم للأكسجين أثناء ممارسة الرياضة أو بذل جهد بدني متزايد .
تكون استجابة المستقبلات الكيميائية للتغيرات في مستوى الأكسجين في الدم سريعة جداً، فهي تحدث بعد ثوانٍ قليلة من انخفاض مستوى الأكسجين في الدم، وذلك لتحقيق مستوى ثابت للأكسجين في الدم، وهذا ما يفسر زيادة وتيرة التنفس السريعة عند تأدية التمارين الرياضية.
هناك أمراض يرافقها نقص في تأكسج الدم hypoxemic diseases: مثل أمراض القلب والرئة، والتي تؤدي إلى انخفاض في تشبع الدم بالأكسجين، تقوم المستقبلات الكيميائية هنا بملاحظة التغير الطارئ على مستوى الأكسجين في الدم وإبلاغ الدماغ بهذا النقص عبر مركز التنفس، حيث يقوم مركز التنفس من ناحية بمحاولة تعديل الخلل بالتأثير على القلب والرئتين (زيادة نبض القلب وزيادة وتيرة التنفس)، وإبلاغ قشرة الدماغ أي الوعي بهذا النقص وذلك بتوليد شعور بضيق النفس، حتى يقوم الإنسان بالتصرف لتحسين مستوى الأكسجين (الابتعاد عن مناطق نقص الأكسجين مثل الخروج من الأماكن المغلقة، أو فتح النوافذ لإدخال الهواء الطلق)، أو من خلال التوجه إلى المشافي والأطباء لعلاج ضيق النفس.
انظر أيضاً : * مستقبل (كيمياء حيوية). * تنفس. * ضيق النفس. * ضغط جزئي. * كمون الفعل. * حاسة. * جهاز الدوران.
المراجع : ثبت_المراجع: بوابة علم الأحياء: بوابة طب:
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Chemoreceptor
Sensory receptors | Gas sensors | Analytical chemistry | Respiratory physiology | Vomiting
dateJuly 2010: A chemoreceptor, also known as chemosensor, is a sensory receptor that transduces a chemical signal into an action potential. In more general terms, a chemosensor detects certain chemical stimuli in the environment. * Classes
There are two main classes of the chemosensor: direct and distance.date: July 2010: * Examples of distance chemoreceptors are: ** olfactory receptor neurons in the olfactory system ** neurons in the vomeronasal organ that detect pheromones * Examples of direct chemoreceptors include ** Taste buds in the gustatory system ** Carotid bodies and aortic bodies detect changes primarily in oxygen. They also sense increases in CO2 partial pressure and decreases in arterial pH, but to a lesser degree than for O2. * The chemoreceptor trigger zone is an area of the medulla in the brain that receives inputs from blood-borne drugs or hormones, and communicates with the vomiting center to induce vomiting.dateJuly 2010: : Cellular antennae
Within the biological and medical disciplines, recent discoveries have noted that primary cilia in many types of cells within eukaryotes serve as cellular antennae. These cilia play important roles in chemosensation. The current scientific understanding of primary cilia organelles views them as "sensory cellular antennae that coordinate a large number of cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the signaling to ciliary motility or alternatively to cell division and differentiation."
Systems affected : Breathing rate : Chemoreceptors detect the levels of carbon dioxide in the blood. To do this, they monitor the concentration of hydrogen ions in the blood, which decrease the pH of the blood. This is a direct consequence of an increase in carbon dioxide concentration, because carbon dioxide becomes carbonic acid in an aqueous environment.
The response is that the respiratory centre (in the medulla), sends nervous impulses to the external intercostal muscles and the diaphragm, via the intercostal nerve and the phrenic nerve, respectively, to increase breathing rate and the volume of the lungs during inhalation.
Chemoreceptors that affect breathing rate are broken down into two categories.dateJuly 2010: * central chemoreceptors are located on the ventrolateral surface of medulla oblongata and detect changes in pH of cerebrospinal fluid. They have also been shown experimentally to respond to hypercapnic hypoxia (elevated CO2, decreased O2), and eventually desensitize. * peripheral chemoreceptors: Aortic body detects changes in blood oxygen and carbon dioxide, but not pH, while carotid body detects all three. They do not desensitize. Their effect on breathing rate is less than that of the central chemoreceptors. * Heart rate
The response to stimulation of chemoreceptors on the heart rate is complicated. Stimulation of peripheral chemoreceptors directly activates the medullary vagal center and slows the heart rate. However, a number of other factors are usually at play in this situation which obscure this response. These factors include activation of stretch receptors due to increased ventilation and the release of circulating catecholamines. Hence, although the stimulation of peripheral chemoreceptors causes bradycardia, this may not be the net result. * Sensory organs
In taste sensation, the tongue is composed of 5 different taste buds: salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and savory. The salty and sour tastes work directly through the ion channels, the sweet and bitter taste work through G protein-coupled receptors, and the savory sensation is activated by glutamate.
Noses in vertebrates and antennae in many invertebrates act as distance chemoreceptors. Molecules are diffused through the air and bind to specific receptors on olfactory sensory neurons, activating an opening ion channel via G-proteins.date: July 2010: When inputs from the environment are significant to the survival of the organism, the input must be detected. As all life processes are ultimately based on chemistry it is natural that detection and passing on of the external input will involve chemical events. The chemistry of the environment is, of course, relevant to survival, and detection of chemical input from the outside may well articulate directly with cell chemicals.
For example: The emissions of a predator's food source, such as odors or pheromones, may be in the air or on a surface where the food source has been. Cells in the head, usually the air passages or mouth, have chemical receptors on their surface that change when in contact with the emissions. The change does not stop there. It passes in either chemical or electrochemical form to the central processor, the brain or spinal cord. The resulting output from the CNS (central nervous system) makes body actions that will engage the food and enhance survival.
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Chémorécepteur
Récepteur
neuroscience: Un chémorécepteur (ou chimiorécepteur, ou encore chimicorécepteur) est une cellule nerveuse capable de détecter des substances chimiques et de relayer cette information vers le système nerveux central. Ils peuvent détecter des stimuli externes (odorat et goût) ou internes (pression partielle de dioxyde de carbone ou de dioxygène, acidité via la mesure du pH...)
On retrouve ainsi un grand nombre de chémorécepteurs sur la surface de la langue et des muqueuses de la bouche, dans l'épithélium olfactif de la cavité nasale, mais aussi dans la crosse aortique et les sinus carotidiens où ils recueillent des informations sur les substances chimiques en circulation dans le sang.
Cas de la respiration humaine (automatique) : Chémorécepteurs centraux : Ils sont situés dans le bulbe rachidien (ou médulla) au niveau du système nerveux central.
Mécanisme : Les chémorécepteurs centraux, situés sur la face antérieure du bulbe cérébral,près de la sortie des IXème et Xème paires de nerfs crâniens, mesurent le pH du liquide céphalo-rachidien (LCR).
Cependant la barrière entre le sang et le LCR est très perméable au CO2, et peu perméable au H+ et HCO3. Ainsi le stimulus initial est généralement le CO2.
Le CO2 se trouve dans les liquides sous forme dissoute, mais aussi sous forme d'acide : H_2O + CO_2 \rightleftharpoons H_2CO_3 \rightleftharpoons H^+ + HCO_3^-.
Lorsque la tension en CO2 (PCO2) du sang augmente, le gaz se diffuse des vaisseaux cérébraux dans le LCR, libérant des protons (H+) qui stimulent les chémorécepteurs.
Réaction : * Le CO2 agit pour des pressions partielles supérieures à 30 mm Hg. Il en résulte une hyperventilation réactionnelle * L'organisme réagit lentement, en quelques minutes.
Chémorécepteurs périphériques : Mécanisme : Ils sont situés dans les corpuscules carotidiens (reliés par le nerf glossopharyngien au cerveau) et dans les corpuscules aortiques (reliés par le nerf vague au cerveau). Les corpuscules carotidiens sont situés à la bifurcation des artères carotides communes ; les corpuscules aortiques au-dessus et en dessous de la crosse de l’aorte.
Ils répondent à la diminution de la PO2 et à l’augmentation de la PCO2 du sang artériel. Ils sont à l'origine de la totalité de l’augmentation ventilatoire en réponse à une hypoxémie artérielle.
Réaction : * La réponse est relativement faible jusqu’à PaO2 2 2 agit pour PaCO2 > 40 mm Hg. Cette réponse est rapide mais elle est bloquée par PaO2 > 200 mm Hg.
Résumé : La PCO2 du sang artériel est le facteur le plus important dans le contrôle de la ventilation. Un abaissement de la PCO2 artérielle permet de réduire le stimulus de ventilation (voir hyperventilation).
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علم الاحتكاك
علم المواد | علم الفلزات | علم الاحتكاك
علم الاحتكاك Tribology: هو العلم الذي يهتم بدراسة السطوح المتلامسة في حركتها النسبية والمواضيع المتعلقة بهذا الاحتكاك، من تآكل وعمليات تزييت وتشحيم. كلمة Tribology تم صياغتها للمرة الأولى عام 1966 من الكلمة اليونانية Tribos وتعني "الفرك" أو "الحك"، وعليه فإن المعنى الحرفي للكلمة قد يكون "علم الفرك".
تاريخ علم الاحتكاك : من المعروف أن الأدوات التي كانت تستخدم في العصر الحجري من أجل حفر الحفر أو توليد النار كانت تزود بنوع من المدحرجات التي كانت تصنع من عظام أو قرون الحيوانات وكانت تشبه إلى حد ما المدحرجات المستخدمة اليوم .
تظهر الوثائق تاريخ استخدام العجلات إلى الفترة حوالي 3500 قبل الميلاد، مما يظهر اهتمام الناس في الماضي إلى تقليل الاحتكاك في حركة النقل. لقد تطلب نقل حجارة البناء الضخمة معرفة في الاحتكاك واستخدام السكك المنزلقة بالماء. تظهر أحد الصور استخدام الزلاقات عند قدماء المصريين في فترة 1880 قبل الميلاد، حيث تظهر الصورة 172 عبداً يجرون تمثالاً كبيراً يزن 600 كيلو نيوتن على طول سكة خشبية. . كما تظهر الصورة أحد الرجال الواقفين على السكة يصب سائل على طول خط الحركة، ويعتبر هذا الرجل أحد أقدم مهندسي التزييت في العالم.
تم تقدير أن كل عامل يسحب بقوة حوالي 800 نيوتن، وعلى هذا الأساس فإن القوة الإجمالية للجر تعادل 172 مضروبة بـ 800 نيوتن، وعليه من الممكن حساب معامل الاحتكاك بقيمة 0.23..
أثناء عهد انتصارات الإمبراطورية الرومانية، قام المهندسين الحربيين بتزييت الآلات العسكرية المستخدمة أثناء عمليات الحصار. وكان أول من وضع الأسس العلمية لعلم الاحتكاك هم علماء النهضة وعلى رأسهم ليوناردو دافنشي الذي عرف لأول مرة مفهوم معامل الاحتكاك كقيمة لقوة الاحتكاك بالنسبة للحمل الشاقولي. في عام 1699 وجد Guillaume Amontons أن قوة الاحتكاك تكون متناسبة مع الحمل الشاقولي ولا تتعلق بمساحة سطح الاحتكاك. قام كولومب بصياغة هذه الملاحظات في عام 1781 وقام بالتمييز بشكل واضح بين الاحتكاك الستاتيكي والاحتكاك الحركي.
الكثير من التطورات اللاحقة نشأت نتيجة تطور الصناعة في أواخر القرن التاسع عشر، حيث بدأت أوائل ثورة النفط في اسكوتلندا وكندا والولايات المتحدة في منتصف القرن التاسع عشر..
وعلى الرغم من أن القوانين الأساسية في الموائع تم نشرها من قبل نيوتن، إلا أن الفهم العلمي للمتدحرجات الزلقة لم يتم حتى نهاية القرن التاسع عشر. وبشكل تام فإن الفهم لمبادئ التزييت الهيدروديناميكية أصبح ممكناً مع تجارب أبحاث Tower Tower . بالإضافة إلى الأسس النظرية التي وضعها Reynolds . ومنذ ذلك الوقت فإن التطورات في نظرية المتدحرجات الهيدروديناميكية وتطبيقاتها تطورت بشكل كبير من أجل الوفاء بمتطلبات المتدحرجات في صناعة الآلات.
تعريف الاحتكاك : احتكاك: الاحتكاك هو مقاومة الحركة التي تحدث لحركة عند احتكاك جسم صلب بآخر. يطلق على القوة التي تكون موازية ومعاكسة لاتجاه الحركة اسم قوة الاحتكاك. إذا تم تطبيق قوة (F) على جسم من أجل تحريكه، ينتج نوعين من قوى الاحتكاك، القوة الأولى تمانع حركة الجسم لعدة أجزاء من المليلي ثانية قبل بدئه بالحركة وتسمى قوة الاحتكاك الساكن (Fstatic)، والقوة الأخرى هي القوة التي تبقى ممانعة لحركة الجسم أثناء حركته وتسمى قوة الاحتكاك الحركي (Fkinetic). تكون قوة الاحتكاك الحركي أقل أو تساوي قوة الاحتكاك الستاتيكي.
يوجد قانونان معروفان بشكل كبير في مجال الاحتكاك. يقول القانون الأول أن قوة الاحتكاك لا تتعلق بسطح التماس بين الأجسام، والقانون الثاني يقول أن قوة الاحتكاك تتناسب مع القوة الناظمية W المتولدة بين الأجسام المتلامسة. يطلق على هذه القوانين اسم قوانين أمونتون "Amontons laws" نسب إلى المهندس الفرنسي أمونتون الذي قدم هذه القوانين عام 1699..
يتيح القانون الثاني في الاحتكاك تعريف معامل الاحتكاك على الشكل:
F : \mu W
حيث \mu هو ثابت يعرف باسم ثابت الاحتكاك، ويتعلق بنوع الجسمين المتماسين وتحت ظروف عمل (درجة حرارة – رطوبة – ضغط – سرعة انزلاق) معينة.
انظر أيضاً : * علم السطوح * احتكاك
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Tribology
Tribology | Friction | Engineering mechanics | Materials science | Materials degradation | Metallurgy | Mechanical engineering
Tribology is the science and engineering of interacting surfaces in relative motion. It includes the study and application of the principles of friction, lubrication and wear. Tribology is a branch of mechanical engineering.
Fundamentals: The tribological interactions of a solid surface's exposed face with interfacing materials and environment may result in loss of material from the surface. The process leading to loss of material is known as "wear". Major types of wear include abrasion, friction (adhesion and cohesion), erosion, and corrosion. Wear can be minimized by modifying the surface properties of solids by one or more of "surface engineering" processes (also called surface finishing) or by use of lubricants (for frictional or adhesive wear).
Estimated direct and consequential annual loss to industries in the USA due to wear is approximately 1-2% of GDP. (Heinz, 1987). Engineered surfaces extend the working life of both original and recycled and resurfaced equipments, thus saving large sums of money and leading to conservation of material, energy and the environment. Methodologies to minimize wear include systematic approaches to diagnose the wear and to prescribe appropriate solutions. Important methods include: * Terotechnology, where multidisciplinary engineering and management techniques are used to protect equipment and machinery from degradation (Peter Jost, 1972) * Horst Czichos's systems approach, where appropriate material is selected by checking properties against tribological requirements under operating environment (H. Czichos,1978) * Asset Management by Material Prognosis - a concept similar to terotechnology which has been introduced by the US Military (DARPA) for upkeep of equipment in good health and start-ready condition for 24 hours. Good health monitoring systems combined with appropriate remedies at maintenance and repair stages have led to improved performance, reliability and extended life cycle of the assets, such as advanced military hardware and civil aircraft.
In recent years, micro- and nanotribology have been gaining ground. Frictional interactions in microscopically small components are becoming increasingly important for the development of new products in electronics, life sciences, chemistry, sensors and by extension for all modern technology.
Friction regimes: Friction regimes for sliding lubricated surfaces have been broadly categorized into: * Solid/boundary friction * Fluid friction * Mixed friction
on the basis of the “Stribeck curve”. These curves clearly show the minimum value of friction as the demarcation between full fluid-film lubrication and some solid asperity interactions.
Stribeck and others systematically studied the variation of friction between two liquid lubricated surfaces as a function of a dimensionless lubrication parameter ηN/P, where η is the dynamic viscosity, N the speed (e.g. revolutions per minute of a bearing) and P the load projected on to the geometrical surface.
The “Stribeck-curve” has been a classic teaching element in tribology classes.
History: dateFebruary 2007: Historically, Leonardo da Vinci (1452–1519) was the first to enunciate two laws of friction. According to da Vinci, the frictional resistance was the same for two different objects of the same weight but making contacts over different widths and lengths. He also observed that the force needed to overcome friction is doubled when the weight is doubled. Similar observations were made by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb (1736–1806). The first reliable test on frictional wear was carried out by Charles Hatchett (1760–1820) using a simple reciprocating machine to evaluate wear on gold coins. He found that compared to self-mated coins, coins with grits between them wore at a faster rate. The deciphering of da Vinci's work took several centuries, before the development of this branch of science, today called "tribology".
The "Stribeck curve" or "Stribeck–Hersey curve" (named after Richard Stribeck and Mayo D. Hersey ), used to categorize the friction properties between two surfaces, was developed in the first half of the 20th century. The research of Professor Richard Stribeck (1861–1950) was performed in Berlin at the Royal Prussian Technical Testing Institute (MPA, now BAM). Similar work was previously performed around 1885 by Prof. Adolf Martens (1850–1914) at the same Institute and in the mid 1870s by Dr. Robert H. Thurston at the Stevens Institute of Technology in the U.S. Prof. Dr. Thurston was therefore close to establishing the “Stribeck curve”, but he presented no “Stribeck”-like graphs, as he evidently did not fully believe in the relevance of this dependency. Since that time the “Stribeck-curve” has been a classic teaching element in tribology classes.
The graphs of friction force reported by Stribeck stem from a carefully conducted, wide-ranging series of experiments on journal bearings. Stribeck systematically studied the variation of friction between two liquid lubricated surfaces. His results were presented on 5 December 1901 during a public session of the railway society and published on 6 September 1902. They clearly showed the minimum value of friction as the demarcation between full fluid-film lubrication and some solid asperity interactions. Stribeck studied different bearing materials and aspect ratios D/L from 1:1 to 1:2. The maximum sliding speed was 4 m/s and the geometrical contact pressure was limited to 5 MPa. (These operating conditions were related to railway wagon journal bearings.)
The reason why the form of the friction curve for liquid lubricated surfaces was later attributed to Stribeck, although both Thurston and Martens achieved their results considerably earlier, (Martens even in the same organization roughly 15 years before), may be because Stribeck published in the most important technical journal in Germany at that time, Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI, Journal of German Mechanical Engineers). Martens published his results “only” in the official journal of the Royal Prussian Technical Testing Institute, which has now become BAM. The VDI journal, as one of the most important journals for engineers, provided wide access to these data and later colleagues rationalized the results into the three classical friction regimes. Thurston however, did not have the experimental means to record a continuous graph of the coefficient of friction but only measured the friction at discrete points; this may be the reason why the minimum in the coefficient of friction was not discovered by him. Instead, Thurston's data did not indicate such a pronounced minimum of friction for a liquid lubricated journal bearing as was demonstrated by the graphs of Martens and Stribeck.
The term tribology became widely used following The Jost Report in 1966, in which huge sums of money were reported to have been lost in the UK annually due to the consequences of friction, wear and corrosion. As a result several national centres for tribology were created in the UK. Since then the term has diffused into the international engineering field and many specialists now claim to be tribologists.
There are now numerous national and international societies, such as the Society for Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers in the USA and the Institution of Mechanical Engineers' Tribology Group in the UK or the German Society for Tribology (Gesellschaft für Tribologie, www.gft-ev.de).
Most technical universities have a group working on tribology, often as part of their mechanical engineering departments. The limitations in tribological interactions are however no longer mainly determined by mechanical designs, but rather by material limitations so the discipline of tribology now counts at least as many materials engineers, physicists and chemists as it does mechanical engineers.
Etymology: The word 'tribology' derives from the Greek root τριβ- of the verb - tribo "Ι rub", and the suffix -logy.
Applications: The study of tribology is commonly applied in bearing design but extends into almost all other aspects of modern technology, even to such unlikely areas as hair conditioners and cosmetics such as lipstick, powders and lipgloss.
Any product where one material slides or rubs over another is affected by complex tribological interactions, whether lubricated like hip implants and other artificial prostheses, or unlubricated as in high temperature sliding wear in which conventional lubricants cannot be used but in which the formation of compacted oxide layer glazes have been observed to protect against wear.
Tribology plays an important role in manufacturing. In metal-forming operations, friction increases tool wear and the power required to work a piece. This results in increased costs due to more frequent tool replacement, loss of tolerance as tool dimensions shift, and greater forces required to shape a piece. A layer of lubricant which eliminates surface contact virtually eliminates tool wear and decreases needed power by one third.date=March 2011:
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Tribologie
Tribologie | Méthode liée à l'archéologie
physique: Le mot tribologie, construit à partir des racines grecques tribein (frotter) et logos (discours, étude), a été proposé en 1968 par G. Salomon pour désigner la science qui étudie les phénomènes susceptibles de se produire entre deux systèmes matériels en contact, immobiles ou animés de mouvements relatifs. Il recouvre, entre autres, tous les domaines du frottement, de l’usure et de la lubrification.
Types d'usure : On distingue plusieurs types d’usure , auxquels la tribologie s'intéresse : * usure par adhésion (arrachement de matériaux adhérents l'un à l'autre) * usure par abrasion ou érosion, où des particules extérieures, par frottements ou chocs, ôtent de la matière en surface * usure par fatigue, due à l’action répétée de contraintes à la surface, typiquement des pressions ou chocs * usure par tribocorrosion
Quelques aspects : Les manifestations du frottement sont intégrées à nos comportements quotidiens. Dans un monde qui ne connaîtrait ni frottement ni adhérence, nos gestes les plus simples deviendraient pour la plupart inopérants : tenir un crayon, lacer ses chaussures, serrer une vis, appuyer une échelle au mur ou tout simplement marcher. Nous n'aurions ni bicyclettes, ni automobiles, ni trains, du moins sous la forme qui nous est familière…
À l'inverse, nous sommes en général conscients des inconvénients du frottement, source d'usure ou d'efforts supplémentaires à fournir pour un même travail, donc de gaspillage d'énergie et de matières premières.
Voici quelques exemples : * À masse roulante égale, pour vaincre les frottements, « le transport routier consomme environ 5 fois plus d'énergie que le transport ferroviaire »: . * L'usure des revêtements routiers varie comme la quatrième puissance de la charge à l'essieu. Ainsi le passage d'un camion de 13 tonnes dégrade autant la route que le passage de 100 000 automobiles. Le calcul des revêtements autoroutiers tient compte presque uniquement des poids lourds, les automobiles intervenant très peu ou pas du tout. Au Canada, conscient de ce fait, le gouvernement a récemment modifié la répartition du produit des taxes sur les carburants en considérant que « le gazole est utilisé principalement par les véhicules lourds responsables de la majeure partie de l'usure des routes »: . * Les composants des machines et des équipements sont beaucoup plus souvent détruits par l'endommagement de leur surface que par la dislocation de leur volume. D'un côté, c'est heureux, car la rupture brutale d'une pièce peut provoquer de graves accidents, alors que la dégradation lente provoquée par l'usure laisse le temps d'intervenir. La maîtrise de l'usure est une arme économique redoutable : dans un objet technique, toutes les composantes ne s'usent pas au même rythme et il est important d'éviter les « sur-qualités » (composante en parfait état alors que l'ensemble est hors d'usage suite à la défaillance d'une autre partie) voire, plus cyniquement, d'organiser la nécessité pour l'utilisateur de faire appel à un service après-vente tout en limitant le coût de l'intervention (accessibilité et prix des « pièces d'usure »). * Références
* Bibliographie * Persson, Bo N.J.: Sliding Friction. Physical Principles and Applications. Springer, 2002, ISBN 3-540-67192-7. (In diesem Buch werden viele Reibungsinstabilitäten in geschmierten und trockenen Reipaarungen untersucht). * Rabinowicz, Ernest: Friction and Wear of Materials. Wiley-Interscience, 1995, ISBN 0-471-83084-4. * Popov, Valentin L.: Kontaktmechanik und Reibung. Ein Lehr- und Anwendungsbuch von der Nanotribologie bis zur numerischen Simulation, Springer-Verlag, 2009, 328 S., ISBN 978-3-540-88836-9. * Mechanical Tribology: Materials, Characterization, and Applications, compilation, 2004, ISBN 978-0824748739
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تاتوم أونيل
ممثلات أمريكيات | ممثلات حائزات على جائزة أوسكار لأفضل ممثلة مساعدة | مواليد 1963 | أشخاص على قيد الحياة | ممثلون أمريكيون أطفال
تاتوم أونيل (بالإنجليزية: Tatum O’Neal) (ولدت في 5 تشرين الثاني / نوفمبر 1963) ممثلة أمريكية حاصلة على جائزة الأوسكار كأحسن ممثلة مساعدة وقد كان عمرها 10 أعوام عندما فازت بالجائزة عن فيلم (Paper Moon) عام 1973 وما زالت أصغر ممثلة سنّا فازت بالجائزة.
ولدت أونيل في 5 تشرين الثاني / نوفمبر 1963 في لوس انجلس، كاليفورنيا في اسرة الممثل ريان اونيل والممثله جوانا كوك مور.ولد شقيقها، غريفين، في 1964. في 1967 طلق والديها. بعد زواج والدها من الممثلة فرح فاوست وجدت تاتوم ان عليها ان تخوض معارك الحياة بمفردها.
لم تكن تاتوم قد بلغت العشرين من عمرها عندما بلغ رصيد أفلامها التي مثلتها عشرين فيلماً. وقبل عيد ميلادها الحادي والعشرين قابلت جون ماكنرو الذي تزوجته وأنجبت منه كيفن وشين وايملين، وهو الزواج الذي عانت منه كثيراً وانتهى بالطلاق. وكان قد آلمها شعور فادح بأنها بلا عائلة تلجأ إليها في أوقات الأزمات * مراجع ==
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Tatum O'Neal
1963 births | Actors from Los Angeles, California | American child actors | American film actors | American people of Irish descent | American people of Russian descent | American television actors | Best Supporting Actress Academy Award winners | Living people | Participants in American reality television series | New Star of the Year (Actress) Golden Globe winners
Tatum Beatrice O'Neal (born November 5, 1963) is an American actress best known for her film work as a child actress in the 1970s. She is the youngest to win a competitive Academy Award, at the age of 10, which she won for her performance as Addie Loggins in Paper Moon (1973) opposite her father Ryan O'Neal. She then starred in The Bad News Bears in 1976, followed by Nickelodeon (1976), International Velvet (1978) and Little Darlings (1980).
In 1986, she married tennis player John McEnroe, with whom she had three children. The couple separated in 1992 and were divorced in 1994.
Family background: O'Neal was born in Los Angeles, California, the daughter of actors Ryan O'Neal and Joanna Moore, who had appeared in various motion pictures and television shows. Her brother, Griffin, was born in 1964. In 1967, her parents divorced and her father quickly remarried. Her father's marriage to actress Leigh Taylor-Young produced Tatum's half-brother, Patrick, but the union ended in divorce in 1973. Tatum has another half-brother, Redmond, from Ryan O'Neal's relationship with actress Farrah Fawcett. O'Neal's mother died in 1997 of lung cancer at age 63, after a career in which she had appeared in such movies as Walk on the Wild Side and Follow That Dream.
Career: Child actress: In 1974, Tatum O'Neal became the youngest person ever to win a competitive Academy Award. She won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and the Golden Globe Award for New Star Of The Year - Actress for her performance in Paper Moon. O'Neal played the role of Addie Loggins, a child con artist being tutored by a Depression-era grifter played by her father, Ryan. She was 10 years old at the time she won the award.
During her childhood and teenage years, O'Neal dated Michael Jackson in 1977, but after a half year relationship, the two separated. O'Neal also starred in notable films such as The Bad News Bears (1976) with Walter Matthau, International Velvet (1978) with Christopher Plummer and Anthony Hopkins, and Little Darlings (1980) with Kristy McNichol. She also appeared in the less-successful film Nickelodeon (1976) with her father Ryan, and in Circle of Two (1980) with Richard Burton. She appeared as the title character in the Faerie Tale Theatre episode Goldilocks and the Three Bears (1984).
Adult career: O'Neal's acting career took a backseat to her 1986 marriage to John McEnroe, a professional tennis player, for many years. Their relationship began in 1984 during which time she moved into his Central Park West condo in New York City. She would appear in only five films during the next 15 years. One notable role of hers was in Basquiat (1996).
In the early 2000s, O'Neal began acting again and made guest appearances on Sex and the City, 8 Simple Rules for Dating My Teenage Daughter, and . In 2005, O'Neal began a recurring role as Maggie Gavin on the firehouse drama series Rescue Me, portraying the unbalanced and lively sister of Tommy Gavin, played by Denis Leary.
In January 2006, she participated in the second season of ABC's reality series Dancing with the Stars but was eliminated in the second round. She went on to do commentary for the series on Entertainment Tonight.
From 2006 to 2007, she portrayed the vindictive and psychotic Blythe Hunter in the My Network TV drama Wicked Wicked Games. She appears opposite Nashawn Kearse and Vanessa L. Williams in the film My Brother (2007).
In 2011, Tatum and her father, Ryan began to restore their broken father/daughter relationship after 25 years. Their reunion and reconciliation process was captured in the Oprah Winfrey Network series, .
Personal life: Family and relationships: One of O'Neal's first public boyfriends was pop star Michael Jackson, whom she dated in the late 1970s to early '80s. In 1986, O'Neal married tennis player John McEnroe. She invited no one from her family to attend the ceremony. The couple have three children: Kevin (born 1986), Sean (born 1987) and Emily (born 1991). They separated in December 1992 and were divorced in 1994. Following the divorce, O'Neal's drug problems reemerged and she developed an addiction to heroin. As a result of her drug problems, McEnroe obtained custody of the children in 1998.
O'Neal was estranged from her father for 25 years until a reconciliation process was begun in 2011 in the television series, .
* Arrest
On June 1, 2008, she was arrested for buying crack cocaine near her Manhattan apartment building. When police searched her, they found two bags of drugs — one of crack cocaine, one of powder cocaine — and an unused crack pipe. She was charged with a misdemeanor criminal possession of a controlled substance. Authorities released her without bail. On July 2, 2008, O'Neal pleaded guilty to disorderly conduct in connection with the arrest and agreed to spend two half-day sessions in a drug treatment program.
Autobiography claims: In her autobiography, A Paper Life, O'Neal alleged that she had been molested by a male friend of her father. She also alleges physical and emotional abuse from her father, much of which she attributed to drug use. She also detailed her own heroin addiction and its effects on her relationship with her children. Her father, Ryan, denied these allegations. In a prepared statement, Ryan O'Neal said: "It is a sad day when malicious lies are told in order to become a 'best-seller'."
O'Neal writes in her autobiography that when she was 12, her father took her and her friend Melanie Griffith (18 at the time ) on a trip to Europe, where she caught him having sex with Griffith in their hotel room. O'Neal also alleged that she and Griffith participated in an opium-filled orgy in a Paris hotel room.
In 2011, O'Neal wrote a new collections of memoirs titled Found: A Daughter's Journey Home, which dealt with her tempestuous relationship with her father, tempestuous marriage to John McEnroe, and her recent drug arrest. * Filmography
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Tatum O'Neal
Actrice américaine | Oscar de la meilleure actrice dans un second rôle | Naissance à Los Angeles | Naissance en 1963
O'Neal: acteur américain:
Tatum O'Neal est une actrice américaine née le 5 novembre 1963 à Los Angeles aux États-Unis.
Biographie : Elle est la fille des acteurs Ryan O'Neal et Joanna Moore.
Elle fut également l'épouse du célèbre joueur de tennis John McEnroe, avec lequel elle eut trois enfants.
Elle a entretenu une relation amoureuse avec le chanteur Michael Jackson dans le courant des années 1970, ce dernier déclarera en 2003 dans le documentaire living with Michael Jackson "la première petite amie que j'ai vraiment aimée est Tatum O'Neal" .
Elle a participé à l'émission américaine, Dancing with the Stars.
Filmographie : ...: * La Barbe à papa (1973) * The Bad News Bears (1976) * Nickelodeon (1976) * International Velvet (1978) * Circle of Two (1980) * Little Darlings (1980) * Prisoners (1981) * Certain Fury (1985) * Little Noises (1991) * Basquiat (1996) * The Scoundrel's Wife (2002) * The Technical Writer (2003) * Wicked Wicked Games (2006) * (2008) (TV) * Les Runaways (2010)
Récompenses : * Oscar de meilleure actrice dans un second rôle en 1973 pour La Barbe à papa.
Fin dynastie:
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فريدريك لست
مواليد 1789 | وفيات 1846 | اقتصاديون ألمان
فريدريك لِسْت هو كاتب اقتصادي ألماني ولد عام 1789م، وكان يعتبر من أنصار مذهب التدخل وهو مذهب وسط بين الاشتراكية العلمية والمذهب الحر.
انتقد لست المذهب التقليدي في كتابه الذي نشره عام 1841م، عن النظام القومي للاقتصاد السياسي، وقال بإن هذا المذهب إنما ينظر إلى المبادلة من طرف واحد كما لو كانت ظروف كل الدول متفقة مع بعضها ومن رأيه أن تنظم المبادلة الخارجية بحيث تعمل كل دولة على توسيع قواها الأنتاجية.
وبين بأن الأمم تمر بمراحل تطور متعددة تبدأ بدور الهمجية ثم دور الرعي والزراعة ثم دور الزراعة والصناعة والتجارة، ومتى وصلت الأمة إلى المرحلة الأخيرة أعتبرت في عداد الأمم العادية.
وأقترح أن تعمل الدول على جهدها للوصول إلى هذه المرحلة وأن تتبع نظام الحماية الكمركية في فترة الأنتقال لتحقيق هذا الغرض.
توفي فريدريك لست عام 1846م.
بذرة أعلام ألمانيا: de:
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Friedrich List
1789 births | 1846 deaths | People from Reutlingen | German economists | German emigrants to the United States | Economists who committed suicide | Members of the Württembergian Chamber of Deputies
Georg Friedrich List (August 6, 1789 – November 30, 1846) was a leading 19th century German economist who developed the "National System" or what some would call today the National System of Innovation. He was a forefather of the German historical school of economics, and considered the original European unity theorist whose ideas were the basis for the European Economic Community. * Biography
He was born in Reutlingen, Württemberg. Unwilling to follow the occupation of his father, who was a prosperous tanner, he became a clerk in the public service, and by 1816 had risen to the post of ministerial under-secretary. In 1817, he was appointed professor of administration and politics at the University of Tübingen, but the fall of the ministry in 1819 compelled him to resign. As a deputy to the Württemberg chamber, he was active in advocating administrative reforms. He was eventually expelled from the chamber and in April 1822 sentenced to ten months' imprisonment with hard labor in the fortress of Asperg. He escaped to Alsace, and after visiting France and England returned in 1824 to finish his sentence, and was released on undertaking to emigrate to America.
Arriving in the United States in 1825, he settled in Pennsylvania, where he became an extensive landholder. He first engaged in farming, but soon switched to journalism and edited a German paper in Reading. He was active in the establishment of railroads.
It was in America that he gathered from a study of Alexander Hamilton's work the inspiration which made him an economist of his pronounced “National System” views which found realization in Henry Clay's American System. In 1827 he published a pamphlet entitled Outlines of a New System of Political Economy, in which he defended the doctrine of protection. The discovery of coal on some land which he had acquired made him financially independent.
In 1830, he was appointed United States consul at Hamburg, but on his arrival in Europe in he found that the Senate had failed to confirm his appointment. After residing for some time in Paris, he returned to Pennsylvania. He next settled in Leipzig in 1833, where for some time he was U. S. consul. He was a journalist in Paris from 1837 to 1843. He wrote several letters for the Augsburg Allgemeine Zeitung, which were published in 1841 in a volume under the title of Das nationale System der politischen Oekonomie.
In 1843 he established the Zollvereinsblatt in Augsburg, a newspaper in which he advocated the enlargement of the custom's union (Zollverein: ), and the organization of a national commercial system. He strongly advocated the extension of the railway system in Germany. The development of the Zollverein to where it unified Germany economically was due largely to his enthusiasm and ardour.
In 1841, his ill health had led him to decline an offer to edit the Rheinische Zeitung, a new Cologne paper of liberal views, and Karl Marx took the post. He visited Austria and Hungary in 1844.
In 1846, he visited England with a view to forming a commercial alliance between that country and Germany, but was unsuccessful. His latter days were darkened by many misfortunes; he lost much of his American property in a financial crisis, ill-health also overtook him, and killed himself on 30 November 1846.
Influences : Though List's practical conclusions were different from those of Adam Müller (1779–1829), he was largely influenced by Alexander Hamilton and the American School rooted in Hamilton's economic principles, including Daniel Raymond, but also by the general mode of thinking of America's first Treasury Secretary, and by his strictures on the doctrine of Adam Smith. He opposed the cosmopolitan principle in the contemporary economical system and the absolute doctrine of free trade which was in harmony with that principle, and instead developed the infant industry argument, to which he had been exposed by Hamilton and Raymond. He gave prominence to the national idea and insisted on the special requirements of each nation according to its circumstances and especially to the degree of its development. He famously doubted the sincerity of calls to free trade from developed nations, in particular Britain:
Any nation which by means of protective duties and restrictions on navigation has raised her manufacturing power and her navigation to such a degree of development that no other nation can sustain free competition with her, can do nothing wiser than to throw away these ladders of her greatness, to preach to other nations the benefits of free trade, and to declare in penitent tones that she has hitherto wandered in the paths of error, and has now for the first time succeeded in discovering the truth.
Economics based on nations: List's theory of "national economics" differed from the doctrines of "individual economics" and "cosmopolitan economics" by Adam Smith and J.B. Say. List contrasted the economic behaviour of an individual with that of a nation. An individual promotes only his own personal interests but a state fosters the welfare of all its citizens. An individual may prosper from activities which harm the interests of a nation. "Slavery may be a public calamity for a country, nevertheless some people may do very well in carrying on the slave trade and in holding slaves." Likewise, activities beneficial to society may injure the interests of certain individuals. "Canals and railroads may do great good to a nation, but all waggoners will complain of this improvement. Every new invention has some inconvenience for a number of individuals, and is nevertheless a public blessing". List argued that although some government action was essential to stimulate the economy, an overzealous government might do more harm than good. "It is bad policy to regulate everything and to promote everything by employing social powers, where things may better regulate themselves and can be better promoted by private exertions; but it is no less bad policy to let those things alone which can only be promoted by interfering social power."
Due to the "universal union" that nations have with their populace, List stated that "from this political union originates their commercial union, and it is in consequence of the perpetual peace thus maintained that commercial union has become so beneficial to them. … The result of a general free trade would not be a universal republic, but, on the contrary, a universal subjection of the less advanced nations to the predominant manufacturing, commercial and naval power, is a conclusion for which the reasons are very strong. … A universal republic …, i.e. a union of the nations of the earth whereby they recognise the same conditions of right among themselves and renounce self-redress, can only be realised if a large number of nationalities attain to as nearly the same degree as possible of industry and civilisation, political cultivation and power. Only with the gradual formation of this union can free trade be developed, only as a result of this union can it confer on all nations the same great advantages which are now experienced by those provinces and states which are politically united. The system of protection, inasmuch as it forms the only means of placing those nations which are far behind in civilisation on equal terms with the one predominating nation", appears to be the most efficient means of furthering the final union of nations, and hence also of promoting true freedom of trade."
In his seventh letter List repeated his assertion that economists should realise that since the human race is divided into independent states, "a nation would act unwisely to endeavour to promote the welfare of the whole human race at the expense of its particular strength, welfare, and independence. It is a dictate of the law of self-preservation to make its particular advancement in power and strength the first principles of its policy". A country should not count the cost of defending the overseas trade of its merchants. And "the manufacturing and agricultural interest must be promoted and protected even by sacrifices of the majority of the individuals, if it can be proved that the nation would never acquire the necessary perfection … without such protective measures."
Disagreements with Adam Smith's ideas: List argued that statesmen had two responsibilities: "one to contemporary society and one to future generations". Normally, most of leaders' attention is occupied by urgent matters, leaving little time to consider future problems. But when a country had reached a turning point in its development, its leaders were morally obliged to deal with issues that would affect the next generation. "On the threshold of a new phase in the development of their country, statesmen should be prepared to take the long view, despite the need to deal also with matters of immediate urgency." List's fundamental doctrine was that a nation's true wealth is the full and many-sided development of its productive power, rather than its current exchange values. For example, its economic education should be more important than immediate production of value, and it might be right that one generation should sacrifice its gain and enjoyment to secure the strength and skill of the future. Under normal conditions, an economically mature nation should also develop agriculture, manufacture and commerce. But the two latter factors were more important because they better influenced the nation's culture and independence. These factors were especially connected to navigation, railways and high technology, while a purely agricultural state tended to stagnate. But, List claims, only countries in temperate regions were adapted to grow higher forms of industry. On the other hand, tropical regions had a natural monopoly in the production of certain raw materials. Thus, there was a spontaneous division of labor and confederation of powers between these two groups of countries.
List contended that Smith's economic system is not an industrial system but a mercantile system, and called it "the exchange-value system". Contrary to Smith, he argued that the immediate private interest of individuals would not lead to the highest good of society. The nation stood between the individual and humanity, and was defined by its language, manners, historical development, culture and constitution. This unity must be the first condition of the security, well-being, progress and civilization of the individual. Private economic interests, like all others, must be subordinated to the maintenance, completion and strengthening of the nation.
Stages of economic development: List theorised that nations of the temperate zone (which are furnished with all the necessary conditions) naturally pass through stages of economic development in advancing to their normal economic state. These are: * pastoral life * agriculture * agriculture united with manufactures * agriculture, manufactures and commerce are combined
The progress of the nation through these stages is the task of the state, which must create the required conditions for the progress by using legislation and administrative action. This view leads to List's scheme of industrial politics. Every nation should begin with free trade, stimulating and improving its agriculture by trade with richer and more cultivated nations, importing foreign manufactures and exporting raw products. When it is economically so far advanced that it can manufacture for itself, then protection should be used to allow the home industries to develop, and save them from being overpowered by the competition of stronger foreign industries in the home market. When the national industries have grown strong enough that this competition is not a threat, then the highest stage of progress has been reached; free trade should again become the rule, and the nation be thus thoroughly incorporated with the universal industrial union. What a nation loses in exchange during the protective period, it more than gains in the long run in productive power. The temporary expenditure is analogous to the cost of the industrial education of the individual.
"In a thousand cases the power of the State is compelled to impose restrictions on private industry. It prevents the ship owner from taking on board slaves on the west coast of Africa, and taking them over to America. It imposes regulations as to the building of steamers and the rules of navigation at sea, in order that passengers and sailors may not be sacrificed to the avarice and caprice of the captains. …Everywhere does the State consider it to be its duty to guard the public against danger and loss, as in the sale of the necessaries of life, so also in the sale of medicines, &c."
View of Britain and world trade: While List once had urged Germany to join other 'manufacturing nations of the second rank' to check Britain's 'insular supremacy', by 1841 he considered that the United States and Russia would become the most powerful countries—a view expressed by Alexis de Tocqueville the previous year. List hoped to persuade political leaders in England to co-operate with Germany to ward off this danger. His proposal was perhaps not so far-fetched as might appear at first sight. In 1844, the writer of an article in a leading review had declared that 'in every point of view, whether politically or commercially, we can have no better alliance than that of the German nation, spreading as it does, its 42 millions of souls without interruption over the surface of central Europe'
The practical conclusion which List drew for Germany was that it needed for its economic progress an extended and conveniently bounded territory reaching to the seacoast both on north and south, and a vigorous expansion of manufacture and trade, and that the way to the latter lay through judicious protective legislation with a customs union comprising all German lands, and a German marine with a Navigation Act. The national German spirit, striving after independence and power through union, and the national industry, awaking from its lethargy and eager to recover lost ground, were favorable to the success of List's book, and it produced a great sensation. He ably represented the tendencies and demands of his time in his own country; his work had the effect of fixing the attention, not merely of the speculative and official classes, but of practical men generally, on questions of political economy; and his ideas were undoubtedly the economic foundation of modern Germany as applied by the practical genius of Bismarck.
List considered that Napoleon's 'Continental System', aimed just at damaging Britain during a bitter long-term war, had in fact been quite good for German industry. This was the direct opposite of what was believed by the followers of Adam Smith. As List put it:
I perceived that the popular theory took no account of nations, but simply of the entire human race on the one hand, or of the single individual on the other. I saw clearly that free competition between two nations which are highly civilised can only be mutually beneficial in case both of them are in a nearly equal position of industrial development, and that any nation which owing to misfortunes is behind others in industry, commerce, and navigation… must first of all strengthen her own individual powers, in order to fit herself to enter into free competition with more advanced nations. In a word, I perceived the distinction between cosmopolitical and political economy.
List's argument was that Germany should follow actual English practice rather than the abstractions of Smith's doctrines:
Had the English left everything to itself—'Laissez faire, laissez aller', as the popular economical school recommends—the [German] merchants of the Steelyard would be still carrying on their trade in London, the Belgians would be still manufacturing cloth for the English, England would have still continued to be the sheep-farm of the Hansards, just as Portugal became the vineyard of England, and has remained so till our days, owing to the stratagem of a cunning diplomatist. Indeed, it is more than probable that without her [highly protectionist] commercial policy England would never have attained to such a large measure of municipal and individual freedom as she now possesses, for such freedom is the daughter of industry and wealth.
Railways : List was the leading promoter of railways in Germany. His proposals on how to start up a system were widely adopted. He summed up the advantages to be derived from the development of the railway system in 1841: * It is a means of national defence: it facilitates the concentration, distribution and direction of the army. * It is a means to the improvement of the culture of the nation…. It brings talent, knowledge and skill of every kind readily to market. * It secures the community against dearth and famine, and against excessive fluctuation in the prices of the necessaries of life. * It promotes the spirit of the nation, as it has a tendency to destroy the Philistine spirit arising from isolation and provincial prejudice and vanity. It binds nations by ligaments, and promotes an interchange of food and of commodities, thus making it feel to be a unit. The iron rails become a nerve system, which, on the one hand, strengthens public opinion, and, on the other hand, strengthens the power of the state for police and governmental purposes.
Legacy : List's principal work is entitled Das Nationale System der Politischen Ökonomie (1841) and was translated into English as The National System of Political Economy.
Before 1914, List and Marx were the two best-known German economists and theorists of development.
"This book has been more frequently translated than the works of any other German economist, except Karl Marx."
He is credited with influencing National Socialism in Germany, and his ideas are credited as forming the basis of the European Economic Community.
His influence among developing nations has been considerable. Japan has followed his model. It has also been argued that Deng Xiaoping's post-Mao policies were inspired by List.
As Marx was not interested in the survival of the capitalist system, he was not really concerned with economic policy, except in so far as the labour movement was involved. There, his argument was concentrated on measures to limit the length of the working day, and to strengthen trade union bargaining power. His analysis was also largely confined to the situation in the leading capitalist country of his day—the UK—and he did not consider the policy problems of other Western countries in catching up with the lead country (as Friedrich List did). In so far as Marx was concerned with other countries, it was mainly with poor countries which were victims of Western imperialism in the merchant capitalist era.
Heterodox economists, such as Ha-Joon Chang and Erik Reinert, refer to List often explicitly when writing about suitable economic policies for developing countries.
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Friedrich List
Naissance en 1789 | Naissance à Reutlingen | Économiste du XIXe siècle | Décès en 1846 | Économiste allemand | Protectionnisme
List:
Friedrich List (, Reutlingen – , Kufstein) fut un économiste allemand, partisan et théoricien du protectionnisme éducateur.
Biographie: Né à Reutlingen dans le Bade-Wurtemberg de Johannes List, mégissier en grand, il quitte l'école latine (Lateinschule) à quatorze ans avec une très bonne connaissance de l'allemand. Destiné à exercer le métier de son père, il délaisse celui-ci et quitte Reutlingen à dix-sept ans pour suivre une carrière d'employé, où il gravit peu à peu les échelons de l'administration. Il reçoit en 1817 une chaire dans la nouvelle Faculté de sciences politiques de Tübingen. En 1819, il participe à Francfort-sur-le-Main à la fondation de la Société allemande d'industrie et de commerce, d'où naîtra le Zollverein, sensibilisé par la recherche de solutions afin de préserver l'industrie allemande de la concurrence anglaise. Il écrit diverses pétitions destinées à promouvoir la suppression des barrières douanières.
« En vérité, tandis que les autres nations cultivent les sciences et les arts par où le commerce et l'industrie prennent leur essor, le négociant et le fabricant allemands doivent aujourd'hui consacrer une grande partie de leur temps à l'étude des tarifs de douane et des péages. » (Pétition adressée à la réunion des princes allemands à Vienne en 1820)
De retour dans son pays à la fin de l'année 1820, la ville de Reutlingen lui confie un mandat politique. Il entre enfin à la Diète de l'État de Wurtemberg le 6 décembre. Il établit quelques mois plus tard un projet de pétition critiquant en termes vifs la bureaucratie de son pays. Cet exemplaire, tombé entre les mains du gouvernement, provoque son exclusion en février 1821. Il est condamné à dix mois de travaux forcés pour outrage et calomnie envers le gouvernement par les tribunaux du Wurtemberg. Il trouve alors refuge à Strasbourg, puis dans l'État de Bade, puis en Suisse.
Il retourne en Wurtemberg, comptant sur la clémence royale, mais il est emprisonné dans la forteresse d'Asperg jusqu'en janvier 1825.
Invité par Lafayette, qui lui promet un accueil digne de son talent, il trouve asile aux États-Unis en juin 1825. Il aura l'occasion de rencontrer Henry Clay, James Madison et Andrew Jackson et d'étudier de près la politique d'Alexander Hamilton qui assurera, par les mêmes principes protectionnistes qui avaient assuré la croissance de l'Angleterre, le développement industriel du pays.
Invité à participer à une campagne de la Société de Philadelphie pour l'encouragement de l'industrie nationale, société fondée par Hamilton, et présidée par Mathew Carey, il écrit Esquisses d'un nouveau système d'économie politique (1827). Il publie cet ouvrage sous la forme de douze lettres adressées à Charles Ingersoll dans la National Gazette de Philadelphie. Dans ces lettres, il cite avec éloges les deux auteurs français Dupin et Chaptal. Il déclare également avoir été frappé par le succès matériel des protectionnismes américains et allemands, bien qu'il ait été auparavant le disciple de Smith et de Say.
« Ma destinée m’ayant ensuite conduit aux États-Unis, je laissai là tous les livres ; ils n’auraient pu que m’égarer. Le meilleur livre sur l’économie politique qu’on puisse lire dans cette contrée nouvelle, c’est la vie. On y voit des solitudes se changer en riches et puissants États. C’est là seulement que je me suis fait une idée nette du développement graduel de l’économie des peuples. Un progrès qui, en Europe, a exigé une suite de siècles, s’accomplit là sous nos yeux. » (Préface au Système national d'économie politique)
Il s'installe à Philadelphie et entreprend l'exploitation d'un gîte houiller qu'il découvre au hasard d'une promenade. L'exploitation de la mine, et la construction d'un chemin de fer reliant celle-ci au canal de Schuylkill, lui assure d'importants revenus.
Après avoir acquis la citoyenneté américaine, List revient en Allemagne en l'été 1833 pour servir en tant que consul des États-Unis à Leipzig. Rentré en Allemagne, il sera un des théoriciens et initiateurs du Zollverein de 1834 et de la construction des chemins de fer, qui sera un des facteurs de la victoire de la Prusse contre la France en 1870. Il entreprend la construction d'une ligne de chemin de fer entre Leipzig et Dresde en 1837. Malgré son succès, cette entreprise ne répond pas à ses attentes personnelles et financières, et il décide de retourner en France. C'est là qu'il écrit la majeure partie du Système national d'économie politique. De retour en Allemagne, il se voit décerné en novembre 1840 le titre de docteur par l'université d'Iéna, pour ses services dans la cause de la Société de commerce et dans celle des chemins de fer allemands. Il fonde le Zollvereinsblatt en 1843, un journal défendant le système protecteur, puis visite la Belgique, l'Autriche, la Hongrie. Il séjourne à Londres en juin 1846, il y rencontre ses adversaires d'antan : John Bowring, Richard Cobden, mais retourne dès l'automne en Bavière, puis au Tyrol. Ses difficultés financières à répétition, couplées à d'autres problèmes, le conduisent au suicide en novembre 1846.
Le protectionnisme éducateur: D'après List, les entreprises nationales ne peuvent se développer si le marché est déjà occupé par les entreprises de pays étrangers économiquement plus avancés. Le « protectionnisme éducateur » a pour objectif de protéger sur le moyen terme le marché national afin de permettre sur le long terme un libre-échange qui ne soit pas à sens unique. Son but est léducation industrielle d'une nation. Sa théorie concerne donc particulièrement les pays en voie de développement.
List estime que les pays de la zone tempérée sont spécialement propres au développement de l'industrie manufacturière. D'un autre côté, les pays de la zone torride ont un monopole naturel à la production de matières premières. C'est pourquoi il existe une division du travail spontanée et une coopération des forces productives entre ces deux groupes de pays. Cette théorie, d'ailleurs partagée par les Anglais (notamment concernant les Indes), sera critiquée par Karl Marx dans son Discours sur le libre-échange.
D'après lui, les manufactures développent au suprême degré les forces morales de la nation. Elles permettent l'exploitation de toutes les ressources naturelles d'un pays : eau, vent, minéraux et combustibles. De plus, elles donnent une forte impulsion à l'agriculture, provoquant la hausse de la rente territoriale, des profits et des salaires agricoles. Enfin les manufactures constituent un marché constant pour l'agriculture, que ne peuvent empêcher la guerre ni les prohibitions. Ainsi la protection de l'industrie profite indirectement à l'agriculture. Cependant un renchérissement des produits bruts nuirait à l'industrie, c'est pourquoi il rejette l'idée d'une protection sur l'agriculture.
Il fut également l’un des premiers auteurs à diviser l’histoire économique en étapes . Le développement économique d'un peuple est divisé en plusieurs phases : état sauvage, état pastoral, état agricole, état agricole-manufacturier, état agricole-manufacturier-commercial.
Léconomie politique: Dans la lettre V des Esquisses d'un nouveau système d'économie politique, List distingue nettement sa propre économie politique des économies individuelle et cosmopolite. Il déclare que chaque nation a son économie particulière, à laquelle des circonstances générales peuvent profiter ou faire obstacle. Il se demande si des éléments particuliers (population, travail, restrictions, moyens de communication, machines, consommation, parcimonie, arts et sciences, importation de capitaux) peuvent améliorer les forces productives.
Il démontre que chaque élément procure avantages et inconvénients dans une circonstance donnée. Il déclare par exemple qu'une nation jeune comme les États-Unis doit protéger uniquement les articles demandant beaucoup de main d'œuvre et de produits agricoles, plutôt que les articles fins. C'est pourquoi chaque nation doit selon lui suivre son propre procès pour développer ses forces productives.
Critique des idées d'Adam Smith: List reproche à Adam Smith de fonder sa théorie sur un cosmopolitisme imaginaire, délaissant, malgré les leçons de l'histoire, les intérêts et les passions nationales. List distingue alors cette économie cosmopolite de sa propre économie politique, qui demeure la seule actuellement réalisable. Il ne renonce cependant pas à une association du genre humain, qui permettrait d'opérer, par le commerce international, le bonheur et la prospérité de l'humanité.
Il estime que le système de Smith n'est pas un système industriel mais un système mercantile, et l'appelle « système de la valeur échangeable. » Il reproche également au système de Smith d'être seulement une théorie de la valeur échangeable, et de ne pas tenir compte des forces productives du pays. Ainsi, l'éducation économique d'un pays est plus importante que la simple production de valeurs, et les sacrifices d'une génération permettent de favoriser la capacité et la puissance productive des générations futures.
« Les causes de la richesse sont tout autre chose que la richesse elle-même. Un individu peut posséder de la richesse, c’est-à-dire des valeurs échangeables ; mais s’il n’est pas capable de produire plus de valeurs qu’il n’en consomme, il s’appauvrira. Un individu peut être pauvre, mais, s’il est en état de produire au delà de sa consommation, il deviendra riche. / Le pouvoir de créer des richesses est donc infiniment plus important que la richesse elle-même ; il garantit non-seulement la possession et l’accroissement du bien déjà acquis, mais encore le rétablissement de celui qu’on a perdu. » (l. c., livre II, chap. II)
List a mis également en lumière la stratégie anglo-saxonne du « retrait de l'échelle. » Cette ruse consiste à prôner le libre-échange aux pays européens, cela afin d'écouler plus facilement la production de leur industrie construite à l'abri du système protectionniste.
Dans ses Esquisses d'un nouveau système d'économie politique, il décrit le procédé du dumping, dont il accuse les trusts, les cartels et les comptoirs de vente de faire usage, et qui consiste à vendre à bas prix à l'étranger, tout en maintenant des prix élevés sur le marché intérieur.
Promotion des chemins de fer : List fut le plus important promoteur des chemins de fer en Allemagne et ses propositions furent largement adoptées . Il résuma ainsi les différents avantages procurés par le développement du système ferroviaire : * Il est un moyen de défense nationale, facilitant la concentration, la distribution et le commandement de l'armée. * Il est l'instrument du développement culturel de la nation, apportant talent, connaissance et savoir-faire au marché. * Il protège la communauté de la famine, et de la fluctuation excessive des prix des produits de première nécessité. * Il améliore l'hygiène de la communauté, et réduit la distance entre le souffrant et ses moyens de guérison. * Il renforce le tissu social, rapproche les amis entre eux, et les connaissances entre elles. * Il améliore l'esprit de la nation, et provoque la fin de l'esprit philistin qui nait naturellement de l'isolation et de la vanité provinciale. Il relie les régions par des lignes de communication, et permet l'échange de nourriture et de biens, lui donnant ainsi le sentiment d'unité. Le système ferroviaire devient un système nerveux, qui, d'une part, renforce l'opinion publique, et d'autre part, renforce le pouvoir de l'État .
Sources: C'est le baron Dupin qui le premier dans Situation progressive des forces de la France (Paris, 1827) fait mention des « forces productives. » (« J'appelle ainsi les forces combinées de l'homme, des animaux et de la nature, appliquées aux travaux de l'agriculture, de l'industrie et du commerce. ») Quant à l'idée du protectionnisme appliquée à l'industrie naissante, elle est de Chaptal (De l'industrie française, 1819). D'après Marx , List aurait copié l'œuvre de François-Louis-Auguste Ferrier (Du gouvernement considéré dans ses rapports avec le commerce, Paris, 1805), commissaire aux douanes sous Napoléon.
Postérité: Avant 1914, Friedrich List était l'un des deux économistes allemands les plus réputés, avec Karl Marx . Ce dernier écrira, en 1845, une analyse critique du Système national d'économie politique . List influencera profondément les œuvres de Henry Charles Carey et Eugen Dühring. Le Système national d'économie politique fut également le livre de chevet du chancelier Bismarck. Et d'après Jules Domergue, tout le système économique et politique du chancelier tient dans ce livre . List était l'un des économistes les plus considérés dans l'Allemagne des années 1930, et faisait l'objet d'une véritable « List-Renaissance ,: . » De même, le Japon a trouvé dans List son inspirateur .
Sa méthode, l'emploi systématique de l'histoire comme instrument de démonstration, en fait un précurseur de l'« école historique » en matière d'économie politique. * Liste des œuvres * Avis sur la création d'une Faculté de sciences politiques, 1817. * Écrits pour la Société de commerce de 1818 à 1820. * Esquisses d'un nouveau système d'économie politique, 1827. * La Liberté et les Restrictions en matière de commerce extérieur, envisagées du point de vue historique, 1839. * De l'Importance d'une industrie manufacturière nationale, 1839. * Système national d'économie politique, Stuttgart/Tübingen, 1841. * L'organisation rurale, les extrêmes de la petite culture et l'émigration, Stuttgart/Tübingen, 1842. * Des Chemins de fer allemands, 1844. * Des Rapports de l'Agriculture avec l'Industrie et le Commerce, 1844. * De la Réforme économique du royaume de Hongrie, 1845. * L'Unité économique et politique de l'Allemagne, 1846. * De l'Importance et des Conditions d'une alliance entre l'Angleterre et l'Allemagne, 1846. * Références
* Bibliographie * Friedrich List, Système national d'économie politique, édition de Henri Richelot, Paris, 1857, , et * Friedrich List, Système national d'économie politique, préface d'Emmanuel Todd, collection Tel, Gallimard, 1998. ISBN 2070753409 * Friedrich List, « Idées sur les réformes économiques, commerciale et financières applicables à la France », Paris, 1831, Revue encyclopédique (mars et avril 1831). * Charles Gide & Charles Rist, Histoire des doctrines économiques depuis les Physiocrates jusqu'à nos jours, Paris, 1922 * Biographie de Friedrich List dans le Dictionnaire de l'économie politique, Paris, 1854 * Margaret Hirst, Life of Friedrich List and selections from his writings, Londres, 1909 * Maurice Bouvier-Ajam, Frédéric List : sa vie, son œuvre, son influence, préface de Gaëtan Pirou, Recueil Sirey, 1938. * Monique Anson-Meyer, Un économiste du développement au , préface de Gérard Destanne de Bernis, Presses Universitaires de Grenoble, 1982.
Liens internes: * Protectionnisme éducateur * Mercantilisme * Patriotisme économique
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سي-124 جلوب ماستر الثانية
طائرات شحن عسكري | طائرات دوجلاس | طائرات عسكرية 1950-1959
الدوجلاس سي-124 جلوب ماستر الثانية (إنجليزية: C-124 Globemaster II)، تلقب ب"شاكي العجوز"، هي طائرة شحن ثقيلة صنعت بواسطة شركة دوجلاس للطائرات.
كانت السي-124 هي طائرة الشحن الثقيل الأساسية للقوات الجوية الأمريكية طوال فترة الخمسينات والستينات حتى دخول السي-141 الخدمة. ظلت في الاحتياط في القوات الجوية وفي الخدمة في القوات الجوية للحرس الوطني لأمريكي حتى عام 1974.
التطوير : طورت السي-124 بين عامي 1947 و1949 بواسطة شركة دوجلاس من نموذج أولي صنع من طائرة مصممة في الحرب العالمية الثانية هي الدوجلاس سي-74 جلوب ماستر والتي صممت طبقا للدروس المستفادة خلال حصار برلين. كان للطائرة أربع محركات من طراز برات أند ويتني أر-4360 يصدر كلا منهم 3.800 حصان (2,800 كيلو واط). كان للسي-124 القدرة على حمل 31,000 كجم من الشحنات. كانت تستطيع حمل الدبابات والمدافع والمعدات الثقيلة الأخرى. أو في حالة نقل الجنود كانت تستطيع حمل 200 جندي بكامل عدتهم أو 127 مريضا بمرافقيهم. كانت السي-124 الطائرة الوحيدة التي تستطيع حمل المعدات الثقيلة كالدبابات والجرافات بدون أن يتم تفكيكهم مسبقا.
طارت السي-124 لأول مرة في 27 نوفمبر 1949. تم تسليم أول طائرة سي-124 إيه في مايو 1950. تلتها السي-124 سي والتي تضمنت محركات أكثر قوة وراداراً جويا مثبتا في أنف الطائرة وعدة تعديلات أخرى أضيفت فيما بعد للسي-124 إيه أيضا.
التاريخ القتالي : بدأ تسليم أولى الوحدات في شهر مايو 1950 واستمر حتى 1955. شاركت السي-124 في حرب كوريا كما شاعتدت في مهمات استكشاف القارة القطبية المتجمدة عبر نقل المواد والمعدات. قامت السي-124 بعمليات الشحن الثقيل للقوات الأمريكية في جميع أنحاء العالم با فيها رحلات لجنوب شرق أسيا وإفريقيا وغيرهم. بين عامي 1959 و1961 قامت الطائرات بنقل صواريخ "ثور الباليستية عبر المحيط الأطلنطي إلى بريطانيا.
استخدمت السي-124 بكثافة خلال حرب فييتنام في نقل المواد والمعدات من الولايات المتحدة إلى فييتنام. حتى ظهور السي-5 إيه، كانت السي-124 الطائرة الوحيدة القادرة على حمل شحنات كبيرة جدا.
كان من ضمن مهام السي-124 أيضا هو نقل الرؤوس النووية بين القواعد الجوية المختلفة. كما شاركت في نقل الأفراد والمعدات خلال المناورات العسكرية. خرجت أخر الطائرات من الخدمة في سبتمبر 1974.
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Douglas C-124 Globemaster II
United States military transport aircraft 1940–1949 | Military aircraft of the Korean War | Military aircraft of the Vietnam War | Douglas aircraft
The Douglas C-124 Globemaster II, nicknamed "Old Shaky", was a heavy-lift cargo aircraft built by the Douglas Aircraft Company in Long Beach, California.
The C-124 was the primary heavy-lift transport for United States Air Force Military Air Transport Service (MATS) during the 1950s and early 1960s until the C-141 Starlifter entered service. It served in MATS, later Military Airlift Command (MAC), gained units of the Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard until 1974.
Design and development: The C-124 was developed from 1947 to 1949 by Douglas Aircraft from a prototype created from World War II-design Douglas C-74 Globemaster and based on lessons learned in the Berlin Airlift. The aircraft was powered by four large Pratt & Whitney R-4360 piston engines producing each. The C-124's design featured two large clamshell doors and a hydraulically-actuated ramp in the nose as well as a cargo elevator under the aft fuselage. The C-124 was capable of carrying of cargo, and the cargo bay featured two overhead hoists, each capable of lifting . As a cargo hauler, it could carry tanks, guns, trucks and other heavy equipment, while in its passenger-carrying role it could carry 200 fully equipped troops on its double decks or 127 litter patients and their attendants. It was the only aircraft of its time capable of transporting heavy equipment such as tanks and bulldozers without disassembly.
The C-124 first flew on 27 November 1949, with the C-124A being delivered from May 1950. The C-124C was next, featuring more powerful engines, and an APS-42 weather radar fitted in a "thimble"-like structure on the nose. Wingtip-mounted combustion heaters were added to heat the cabin, and enable wing and tail surface deicing. The C-124As were later equipped with these improvements.
One C-124C, 52-1069, c/n 43978, was used as a JC-124C , for testing the Pratt & Whitney XT57 (PT5) turboprop, which was installed in the nose. * Operational history
First deliveries of the 448 production aircraft began in May 1950 and continued until 1955. The C-124 was operational during the Korean War, and was also used to assist supply operations for Operation Deep Freeze in Antarctica. They performed heavy lift cargo operations for the US military worldwide, including flights to Southeast Asia, Africa and elsewhere. From 1959 to 1961 they transported Thor missiles across the Atlantic to England. The C-124 was also used extensively during the Vietnam War transporting materiel from the U.S. to Vietnam. Until the C-5A became operational, the C-124, and its sister C-133 were the only aircraft available that could transport very large loads.
The United States Air Force Strategic Air Command (SAC) was the initial operator of the C-124 Globemaster, with 50 in service from 1950 through 1962. Four squadrons operated the type, consisting of the 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th Strategic Support Squadrons. Their primary duty was to transport nuclear weapons between air bases and to provide airlift of personnel and equipment during exercises and overseas deployments.
The Military Air Transport Service (MATS) was the primary operator until January 1966, when the organization was retitled Military Airlift Command (MAC). Within a few years following the formation of MAC, the last remaining examples were transferred to the Air Force Reserve (AFRES) and the Air National Guard (ANG), said transfers being complete by 1970. The first ANG unit to receive the C-124C, the 165th Tactical Airlift Group (now known as the 165th Airlift Wing) of the Georgia Air National Guard was the last Air Force unit to retire their aircraft (AF Serial No. 52-1066 and 53-0044) in September 1974.
Variants: ;YC-124 * Prototype re-built from a C-74 with a new fuselage and powered by four 3,500 hp R-4360-39 engines, it was later re-engined and re-designated YC-124A.
;YC-124A * Prototype YC-124 re-engined with four 3,800 hp R-4360-35A engines.
;C-124A * Douglas Model 1129A, production version with four 3,500 hp R-4360-20WA engines; 204-built, most retrofitted later with nose-radar and combustion heaters in wingtip fairings.
;YC-124B * Douglas Model 1182E was a turboprop variant of the C-124A with four Pratt & Whitney YT34-P-6 turboprops, originally proposed as a tanker it was used for trials on the operation of turboprop aircraft.
;C-124C * Douglas Model 1317, same as C-124A but with four 3,800 hp R-4360-63A engines, nose radar, wingtip combustion heaters and increased fuel capacity; 243 built.
Operators: ;USA: |- * United States Air Force * Air Force Logistics Command ** 3079th Aviation Depot Wing - Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio *** 7th Logistic Support Squadron - Robins Air Force Base, Warner Robins, Georgia *** 28th Logistic Support Squadron - Hill Air Force Base, Ogden, Utah *** 19th Logistic Support Squadron - Kelly Air Force Base, San Antonio, Texas
|- * Strategic Air Command ** Geographically Separated Units - *** 1st Strategic Support Squadron - Fort Worth AFB, Texas Later: Biggs AFB, Texas *** 2d Strategic Support Squadron - Biggs AFB, Texas Later: Walker AFB, New Mexico, Castle AFB, California, Pinecastle AFB, Florida *** 3d Strategic Support Squadron - Hunter AFB, Georgia Later: Barksdale AFB, Louisiana *** 4th Strategic Support Squadron - Rapid City AFB, South Dakota Later: Dyess AFB, Texas
|- * Military Air Transport Service / Military Airlift Command ** 60th Military Airlift Wing - Travis AFB, California *** 28th Military Airlift Squadron Geographically Separated Unit - Hill Air Force Base, Ogden, Utah Deactivated 1968(?) ** 62nd Military Airlift Wing - Larson AFB Later: McChord AFB, Washington *** 4th Military Airlift Squadron *** 7th Military Airlift Squadron *** 8th Military Airlift Squadron *** 15th Troop Carrier Squadron 1952-1954 *** 19th Military Airlift Squadron (Geographically Separated Unit) - Kelly AFB, Texas, Deactivated 22 December 1969 ** 63d Military Airlift Wing - Donaldson AFB, South Carolina; Hunter AFB, Georgia; Norton AFB, California *** 3d Troop Carrier Squadron 1953 - 1960 *** 7th Air Transport Squadron (Geographically Separated Unit) - Robins Air Force Base, Warner Robins, Georgia *** 9th Troop Carrier Squadron 1953 - 1963 *** 14th Military Airlift Squadron *** 15th Military Airlift Squadron *** 52d Troop Carrier squadron *** 53d Troop Carrier Squadron *** 58th Military Airlift Squadron, Special (Geographically Separated Unit) - Robins Air Force Base, Warner Robins, Georgia (Replaced 7th Air Transport Squadron ) ** 65th Military Airlift Wing - Tachikawa Air Base, Japan *** 22nd Military Airlift Squadron ** 374th Troop Carrier Group - Tachikawa Air Base, Japan *** 22nd Troop Carrier Squadron, Heavy ** 435th Troop Carrier Wing, Heavy - Homestead AFB, Florida *** 78th Troop Carrier Squadron ** 436th Military Airlift Wing - Dover AFB, Delaware *** 9th Military Airlift Squadron *** 20th Military Airlift Squadron *** 31st Military Airlift Squadron *** 52d Military Airlift Squadron (Geographically Separated Unit) - Rhine-Main AB, Germany *** 58th Military Airlift Squadron, Special (Geographically Separated Unit) - Robins Air Force Base, Warner Robins, Georgia ** 437th Military Airlift Wing - Charleston AFB, South Carolina *** 14th Military Airlift Squadron *** 17th Military Airlift Squadron ** 1501st Air Transport Wing, Heavy - Travis AFB, California *** 75th Air Transport Squadron, Heavy ** 1502d Air Transport Wing (Hickam AFB) (Hawaii) Later 61st Military Airlift Wing at same Location *** 48th Air Transport Squadron Later: 48th Military Airlift Squadron *** 49th Air Transport Squadron Later: 49th Military Airlift Squadron *** 50th Air Transport Squadron Later: 50th Military Airlift Squadron ** 1503d Air Transport Wing, Heavy - Tachikawa Air Base, Japan *** 6th Troop Carrier Squadron 1952 - *** 22nd Military Airlift Squadron 1952 - 1957 1959 - *** 15th Troop Carrier Squadron 1952 ** 1607th Air Transport Wing, Heavy - Dover AFB, Delaware *** 1st Air Transport Squadron *** 15th Air Transport Squadron *** 20th Air Transport Squadron *** 31st Air Transport Squadron *** 31st Air Transport Squadron *** 40th Air Transport Squadron *** 45th Air Transport Squadron ** 1707th Air Transport Wing, Heavy - Palm Beach AFB , Florida Later: Tinker AFB, Oklahoma "University of MATS",
|- * Air National Guard ** 118th Military Airlift Group - Nashville International Airport/ANGB, Tennessee (1967–1971) *** 105th Military Airlift Squadron ** 137th Military Airlift Group - Will Rogers World Airport/ANGS, Oklahoma (1967–1971) *** 185th Military Airlift Squadron *** 125th Military Airlift Squadron (Tulsa International Airport/ANGB, Oklahoma) (1967–1971) ** 145th Air Transport Group (Heavy)/145th Tactical Airlift Group - Charlotte Douglas International Airport/ANGB, North Carolina (1967–1971) ** 151st Military Airlift Group - Salt Lake City International Airport/ANGB, Utah (1969–1972) *** 191st Military Airlift Squadron ** 164th Military Airlift Group - Memphis International Airport/ANGB, Tennessee (1967–1974) ** 165th Military Airlift Group - Savannah International Airport/ANGB, Georgia (1967–1974) *** 158th Military Airlift Squadron ** 172d Military Airlift Group - Jackson International Airport/ANGB], Mississippi (1953–1972) *** 183rd Military Airlift Squadron
|- * Air Force Reserve ** 94th Military Airlift Wing - L.G. Hanscon Field, Massachusetts *** 901st Military Airlift Group - L.G. Hanscon Field, Massachusetts **** 731st Airlift Squadron *** 904th Military Airlift Group - Stewart AFB, New York **** 336th Military Airlift Squadron *** 905th Military Airlift Group - Westover AFB, Massachusetts **** 337th Military Airlift Squadron ** 459th Military Airlift Group - Andrews AFB, Maryland *** 909th Military Airlift Group - Andrews AFB, Maryland **** 756th Military Airlift Squadron ** 349th Troop Carrier Wing - Hamilton AFB, California (1966–1969) ** 445th Military Airlift Wing - Dobbins AFB, Georgia (1965–1971) ** 512th Military Airlift Wing - Carswell AFB, Texas (1965–71) ** 911th Military Airlift Group - Pittsburgh International Airport/ARS, Pennsylvania (1966–72) ** 915th Military Airlift Group - Homestead AFB, Florida (1964–69) ** 932d Military Airlift Group - Scott AFB, Illinois (1966–1971) ** 917th Military Airlift Group - Barksdale AFB, Louisiana (1963–1972)
Accidents and incidents: * 20 December 1952: A C-124 flying out of Moses Lake Washington (Larson AFB) and taking Airmen home to Texas for the holidays as part of "Operation Sleigh Ride" crashed not long after takeoff. A total of 87 airmen were killed. * 18 June 1953: A C-124 took off from Tachikawa Air Base in Japan. Shortly after takeoff, one of the engines failed, forcing the pilot to make an emergency landing. Due to a loss of airspeed, the pilot lost control and crashed into a rice field, killing all seven crew and 122 passengers. It is the worst accident involving a C-124. * 4 September 1957, C-124A 51-5173 enroute from Larson AFB, Washington crashed while attempting a landing at Binghamton Airport, Binghamton, New York. The C-124A was delivering 20 tons of equipment for Link Aviation. The crew of nine survived. * 2 January 1964: 52-0968, a C-124C flying from Wake Island Airfield to Hickam Air Force Base, Honolulu disappeared over the ocean, 1,200 km west of Hawaii. Eight crew and one passenger were lost in the accident. * 28 July 1968: a United States Air Force Douglas C-124C Globemaster II registration 51-5178 flying from Paramaribo-Zanderij to Recife, while on approach to land at Recife, flew into a 1,890 ft high hill, 50 miles (80 km) away from Recife. The 10 occupants died.
Survivors: * C-124 (AF Ser. No. 49-0258) has been restored at the Air Mobility Command Museum located at Dover Air Force Base near Dover, Delaware. This is the oldest surviving C-124. In July 2005, museum volunteers reattached the aircraft's wings and clamshell doors. * C-124C (AF Ser. No. 51-0089) is on display at the Museum of Aviation located at Robins Air Force Base in Georgia. * C-124 (AF Ser. No. 52-0943) is on display at the Seoul Military Academy Museum at Sacheon Air Force Base in Seoul, South Korea. * C-124 (AF Ser. No. 52-0994) is on display at the McChord Air Museum located at McChord Air Force Base in Tacoma, Washington. This aircraft was formerly under civilian registration N86599 and located for many years at the Detroit Institute of Aeronautics. On 9 October 1986 the aircraft was flown non-stop from Selfridge Air National Guard Base near Detroit, Michigan to McChord Air Force Base. While flying over Washington State the aircraft was joined by a Lockheed C-130 Hercules and Lockheed C-141 Starlifter of McChord's elite 62nd Military Airlift Wing. This is the last recorded flight of a C-124. The museum has been subject to restricted access since 11 September 2001. * C-124 (AF Ser. No. 52-1000) is on display at the Jimmy Doolittle Air & Space Museum, at Travis Air Force Base in Fairfield, California. The museum was given the C-124 in August 1982. The aircraft had been stored for many years outside at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland where it was used as a storage shed. Transporting the aircraft by ground to California would have been prohibitively expensive so the decision was made to fly the aircraft to the museum. Volunteers joined with members of the Air National Guard's 116th Tactical Fighter Wing from Dobbins Air Force Base to restore the C-124 to an airworthy and ferryable condition. The aircraft was then ferried from Aberdeen to Dobbins AFB in Georgia where members of the 116th TFW completed the aircraft's restoration. The aircraft was then flown cross country to Norton Air Force Base in California. After a photo session over the Golden Gate Bridge the C-124 arrived at the Jimmy Doolittle Air & Space Museum at exactly 1400 on 10 June 1984. This was the first recorded flight of a C-124 in nearly a decade. * C-124 (AF Ser. No. 52-1004) is displayed at the Pima Air and Space Museum adjacent to Davis Monthan Air Force Base in Tucson, Arizona. * C-124 (AF Ser. No. 52-1066) is located at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base near Dayton, Ohio. This aircraft is stored indoors with the clamshell doors open, allowing visitors to go inside. This was one of the last two Air National Guard C-124s to be retired in 1974. The aircraft is displayed as AF Ser. No. 51-0135. * C-124 (AF Ser. No. 52-1072) is on display at the Charleston Air Force Base airpark located in Charleston, South Carolina. * C-124 (AF Ser. No. 53-0044), one of the last two Air National Guard C-124s to be retired in 1974, was located for many years on the corner of Koval Lane and Reno Avenue near McCarran International Airport in Paradise, Nevada. Numerous plans were made to use the aircraft for advertising, display, and even as a restaurant, but nothing came of this and over the years the aircraft's condition deteriorated. * C-124 (AF Ser. No. 53-0050) has undergone restoration at the Hill Aerospace Museum located at Hill Air Force Base, Utah. The aircraft was rescued from Aberdeen Proving Ground in Maryland in 1992 where it was planned to be used for ballistics testing.
Specifications (C-124 Globemaster II):
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Douglas C-124 Globemaster II
Douglas Aircraft Company | Avion militaire américain | Avion de transport militaire | Avion militaire de la Guerre froide
aéronef:
Le Douglas C-124 Globemaster II est un avion de transport lourd de l'armée de l'air américaine, l'United States Air Force.
Développement : Le C-124 est une évolution du C-74 Globemaster réalisée avec l'expérience acquise lors du pont aérien de Berlin. Il dispose d'une grande porte de chargement à l'avant munie d'une rampe hydraulique et d'un monte-charge à l'arrière. Dans l'espace de stockage de de long, il y a deux grues qui peuvent soulever une charge de sept tonnes. L'avion peut transporter des chars, des camions et des canons sans que ceux-ci n'aient à être démontés.
Dans sa version de transport de troupes, il peut accueillir soit 200 soldats avec leur équipement complet, soit 127 blessés allongés et une équipe médicale.
Après son premier vol, le , la livraison des modèles de série débute en 1950. Jusqu'en 1955, l'armée de l'air américaine en réceptionne 448 exemplaires.
Le C-124 est employé aux quatre coins de la planète, également durant la guerre du Viêt Nam. En 1970, il est remis à la réserve, la Air National Guard avant d'être retiré du service en 1974.
Notes et références : Références:
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حسن الصباح
مواليد 340 هـ | مواليد 1037 | وفيات 518 هـ | وفيات 1124 | إسماعيلية | تاريخ إيران
حسن الصباح أو حسن بن على بن محمد الصباح الحميري ، ولد(430هـ 1037م) إيران وفاة (518هـ/1124م) إيران، والملقب بالسيد أو شيخ الجبل هو مؤسس مايعرف بـ الدعوة الجديدة أو الطائفة الإسماعيلة النزارية المشرقية أو الباطنية أو الحشاشون حسب التسمية الأوروبية.
النشئة : ولد بالري عام 430هـ 1037م، بعض المؤرخين ذكروا انه ولد في قم معقل الشيعة الإثنى عشرية حيث نشأ في بيئة شيعية اثني عشرية ثم انتقلت عائلته إلى الري مركز لنشاطات طائفة الإسماعيلية فاتخذ الطريقة الإسماعيلية الفاطمية وعمره 17 سنة، وقال في مذكراته عن تلك الفترة: "ظللت حتى السابعة عشرة دارساً وباحثاً في المعرفة ولكني ظللت على عقيدة أجدادي الاثنى عشرية. وذات يوم التقيت برجل، أحد الرفاق (وهو تعبير يطلقه الإسماعيليون على أنفسهم) يدعى عميره زاراب كان من وقت لآخر يدعو إلى نظرية الخلفاء قي مصر " وقال حسن الصباح أيضا: " وكان عميره زاراب ذا شخصية قوية، وعندما ناقشني لأول مرة قال ان " الإسماعيلية يقولون كذا وكيت ". وكان عميرة يقول لى " عندما تخلو إلى التأمل في سريرك أثناء الليل سوف تعرف أن ماأقوله لك مقنع " " . وفي عام 471هـ/1078م ذهب إلى مصر في زمن المستنصر بالله الفاطمي، وعاد بعد ذلك لينشر الدعوة في فارس.
اعتناقه للمذهب الإسماعيلى : استمر حسن في قراءة كتب الإسماعيلية، وبعد ذلك لقى معلم إسماعيلى آخر، فلقنه التعاليم الإسماعيلية حتى اقتنع، ولم يبق أمامه سوى أداء يمين الولاء للامام الفاطمى. لكنه أدى تلك اليمين أمام مبشر إسماعيلى نائب عن عبد الملك بن عطاش كبير الدعاة الإسماعيليين في غرب إيران والعراق، وفى أوائل صيف 1072 وصل عبد الملك بن عطاش لمدينة الرى، فلقيه حسن الصباح، ثم وافق على انضمامه، وحدد له مهمة معينة في الدعوة، وطلب منه السفر إلى مصر لكي يسجل اسمه في بلاط الخليفه الفاطمى بالقاهرة.
ترك حسن مدينة الرى سنة 1076 ورحل إلى أصفهان ثم اتجه صوب أذربيجان ومنها عرج على ميافارقين فبقي فيها إلى أن طرده قاضى المدينة بعدما أنكر حسن سلطة علماء السنة وأصر على إن الإمام وحده هو الذي لديه الحق في تفسير الدين، فأكمل رحلته إلى فلسطين عن طريق أرض الجزيرة وسوريا وبيروت ومن هناك رحل بحرا إلى مصر في 19 صفر 471هـ / 30 اغسطس 1078.
بقي حسن في مصر حوالي ثلاث سنوات ما بين القاهرة وإسكندرية، ثم قيل بأنه اختلف مع أمير الجيوش بدر الدين الجمالي، فسجنه ثم طرده من مصر على متن مركب للأفرنج إلى شمال أفريقيا، لكن المركب غرقت في الطريق فنجى حسن فنقلوه إلى سوريا ثم تركها ورحل إلى بغداد ومنها عاد إلى أصفهان فوصلها 29 ذوالحجة 473هـ / 10 يونية 1081.
نشر الدعوة الإسماعيلية : تنقل حسن الصباح داخل إيران مستكشفا لها لمدة تسعة سنوات، حتى بدأ دعوته في إقليم الديلم ومازندران وقد كان لها بعض النجاح، وقد كان حسن يتفادى المدن في تنقلاته ويفضل أن ينتقل عبر الصحراء، حتى استقر في دامغان وحولها قاعدة له يبعث منها الدعاة إلى المناطق الجبلية لجذب السكان من هناك، واستمر بذلك لمدة 3 سنوات حتى انكشف امره وأمر الوزير نظام الملك باعتقاله، ولكنه فلت وهرب إلى قزوين.
تأسيس قاعدته قي قلعة الموت : لم يكن كل هم حسن الصباح في تنقلاته هو نشر دعوته وكسب الأنصار فحسب، بل أيضاً للعثور على مكان مناسب يحميه من مطاردة السلاجقة ويحوله إلى قاعدة لنشر دعاته وأفكاره، وقد عزف عن المدن لانكشافها، لذا لم يجد أفضل من قلعة الموت المنيعة. فهي حصن قديم فوق صخرة عالية وسط الجبال على ارتفاع . وبنيت بطريقة أن لا يكون لها إلا طريق واحد يصل إليها ويلف على المنحدر مصطنع (المنحدر الطبيعي صخوره شديدة الانحدار وخطرة), لذلك أي غزو للحصن يجب أن يحسب له لخطورة الإقدام لهذا العمل.
لم يعرف الباني الأساسي للقلعة، ويقال أن من بناها هو أحد ملوك الديلم القدماء واسماها (ألوه أموت) ومعناها عش النسر، ثم جددها حاكم علوي عام 860، وبقيت في ايديهم حتى دخلها طائفة من الإسماعيلية ويسمون الباطنية بواسطة أميرهم حسن الصباح بتاريخ 7 رجب 483 هـ / 4 سبتمبر 1090 فطرد الحاكم منها. وقصة دخول حسن الصباح هي كما ذكرها ابن الأثير:أن الحسن الصباح كان يطوف على الأقوام يضلهم فلما رأى قلعة الموت واختبر أهل تلك النواحي، أقام عندهم وطمع في اغوائهم ودعاهم في السر واظهر الزهد ولبس المسح فتبعه أكثرهم والعلوي صاحب القلعة حسن الظن فيه يجلس إليه يتبرك به فلما أحكم الحسن امره دخل يومًا على العلوي بالقلعة فقال له ابن الصباح: اخرج من هذه القلعة فتبسم العلوي وظنه يمزح فأمر ابن الصباح بعض اصحابه بإخراج العلوي فأخرجوه إلى دامغان واعطاه ماله وملك القلعة.. وقيل أنه اشتراها منه ب 3000 دينار ذهب.
وقد بقي فيها بقية حياته ولم يخرج من القلعة مدة 35 سنة حتى وفاته. حيث كان جل وقته يقضيه في القراءة ومراسلة الدعاة وتجهيز الخطط. وكان همه كسب أنصار جدد والسيطرة على قلاع أخرى. لذلك استمر بارسال الدعاة إلى القرى المحيطة برودبار المجاورة، ويرسل المليشيات لأخذ القلاع عن طريق الخدع الدعائية، وإن فشلوا بذلك فإنهم يقتلون الناس ويرتكبوا المجازر، وقد أخذوا الكثير من القلاع والأماكن الصالحة لبناء القلاع الحصينة، وقد تمكن حسن الصباح من الاستيلاء على قلعة لمبسر عن طريق هجمات مليشياته عليها ما بين عامي 1096 و 1102 بقيادة عامله "كيا بزرجميد" وحكمها عشرين عاما، وقد كانت قلعة استراتيجية مهمة وقائمة على صخرة مدورة تطل على شاه رود، وعن طريقها تمكن حسن الصباح من الاستيلاء على كل منطقة رودبار.
في سنة484هـ/1091م بعث حسن الصباح دعاته إلى منطقة كوهستان الجبليه على الحدود الحالية بين إيران وأفغانستان. وكانت تلك المنطقة في بداية الإسلام يعيش فيها المجوس الزرادشتيين ومن ثم أضحت معقل للشيعة وغيرهم من المنشقين الدينيين. قدر حسن الصباح أن يضم سكان تلك المنطقة عن طريق استغلال حالة التذمر التي كانت هناك ضد السلاجقة فصارت تابعة للإسماعيليين. فاستغل حسن الصباح تذمر الناس من السلاجقة واستغل كذلك تراثهم الموالى للشيعة والإسماعيليين حتى تمكن أن يسيطر على أقاليم وقلاع كتيرة. ومنها قلعة وسنمكوه ملكوها وهي بقرب أبهر سنة 484هـ/1091م وتأذى بهم الناس لاسيما أهل أبهر فاستغاثوا بالسلطان بركيارق فجعل عليها من يحاصرها فحوصرت ثمانية أشهر، حتى أخذت منهم سنة 489هـ/1096م وتم قتل من كان بها عن آخرهم. * استخدام العنف والاغتيالات
كان توزيع حسن الصباح لدعاته بحيث جزء منهم يذهب إلى المناطق النائية لنشر الأفكار، والجزء الآخر يكون موجودا بالمدن الكبرى. فأول ما عرف من أحوال الدعوة التي اشتهرت بالباطنية أو الإسماعيلية في أيام السلطان ملكشاه فانه اجتمع منهم ثمانية عشر رجلًا فصلوا صلاة العيد في ساوة ففطن بهم رئيس الشرطة فأخذهم وحبسهم ثم سئل فيهم فأطلقهم فهذا أول اجتماع عام كان لهم.
ثم انهم دعوا مؤذنًا من اهل ساوة كان مقيمًا بأصبهان فلم يجبهم إلى دعوتهم فخافوه ان ينم عليهم فقتلوه فهو أول قتيل لهم فبلغ خبره إلى نظام الملك فأمر باخذ من يتهم بقتله فوقعت التهمة على نجار اسمه طاهر فقتل ومُثل به وجروا برجله في الاسواق فهو أول قتيل من طائفة حسن الصباح وكان والد النجار واعظًا وقدم إلى بغداد مع السلطان بركيارق سنة 486هـ فحظي منه ثم قصد البصرة فولي القضاء بها ثم توجه في رسالة إلى كرمان فقتله العامة في الفتنة التي جرت وذكروا انه باطني.
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في سنة 1092 بدأ السلاجقة في مواجهة حسن الصباح عسكرياً، فبعث سلطانهم ملكشاه حملتين، واحدة على قلعة ألموت، والثانية على قهستان لكن ميليشيات حسن الصباح تصدت للسلاجقة وبمساعدة الاهالى المتعاطفين معهم في روبارد وقزوين فانسحبت القوات من قهستان بعد وفاة السلطان ملكشاه سنة 1092.
بعدها ضرب حسن الصباح ضربته باغتيال الوزير نظام الملك نفسه في 16 ديسمبر 1092 (485 هـ)، في منطقة ساهنا في إقليم نهاوند، عن طريق فدائى (تسمية الباطنيين لمن يقوم بعمليات الاغتيال) متنكر في زى رجل صوفى. حسن الصباح خطط اغتيال نظام الملك بعناية. يقول المؤرخ رشيد الدين إن السيد حسن الصباح نصب شباكه وفخاخه لاصطياد هدف كبير مثل نظام الملك لكي يشتهر ويذيع صيته وهو من أرسى أسس الفدائية، وبعدما نجحت العملية قال حسن الصباح: " قتل هذا الشيطان هو بداية البركة ". اغتيال نظام الملك كان من أولى عمليات الاغتيال الكبرى التي قام بها الحشاشون (الباطنية) ، وكانت بداية لسلسلة طويلة من الاغتيالات التى قاموا بها ضد ملوك وأمراء وقادة جيوش ورجال دين، استمرت حتى احتل هولاكو قلعة ألموت عام 1256 وقضى على فتنتهم بالشرق والتي استمرت حوالي القرنين من الزمان.
الانشقاق عن الفاطميين وتأسيس المذهب النزاري : بعد موت المستنصر بالله 487هـ/1094م, قام الوزير بدر الدين الجمالي بالدعوة لامامة المستعلي الابن الاصغر للمستنصر (ابن أخت الوزير)وإزاحة الابن الأكبر "نزار" ولي العهد. وبذلك انشقت الفاطمية إلى نزارية مشرقية، ومستعلية مغربية.انشق الصباح عن الفاطميين ليدعو إلى إمامة نزار بن المستنصر بالله ومن جاء مِن نسله، حسن الصباح كان في النظام مجرد عميل للزعماء الفاطميين في مصر ونائب لعبد الملك بن عطاش وخليفته. وقد اتخذ من قلعة ألموت في مدينة رودبار بالقرب من نهر «شاه ورد» في فارس مركزًا لنشر دعوته وترسيخ أركان دولته.
واجه الإسماعيليون مشكلة عويصة بخصوص شخصية الإمام الذي يعتبر الشخصية المركزية في نظامهم الدينى والسياسى. فقد اعتبروا نزار هو الامام الشرعى بعد المستنصر، لكن موت نزار في سجن في الإسكندرية. جعل النزاريون يدعون بعدم موته وإنما اختفى وسيعود مرة أخرى على هيئة المهدى المنتظر وهذا معناه ان خط الائمة انتهى. لم يعرف بالضبط موقف حسن الصباح في تلك المعضلة، لكن ظهرت نظريات تقول بأن الإمامة انتقلت لحفيد نزار الذي انتقل في السر لقلعة ألموت، ونظرية أخرى قالت بوجود محظية حامل من نزار نقلوها لقلعة ألموت وولدت فيها الامام الجديد. من بعدها صار إسماعيلية إيران وحكام قلعة ألموت أعداء للخليفة الفاطمى مثلما هم أعداء للخليفة العباسى في العراق وسلطان السلاجقة. في عام 1121 إغتيل الوزير الأفضل قائد الجيوش في القاهرة، وقد ادعى الباطنية بأنهم قتلوه ولكن المؤكد هو أن الآمر بأحكام الله هو من قتله ليتخلص منه، وقد احتفل حسن الصباح في قلعة ألموت مدة سبعة أيام بالمناسبة تلك. ثم بعث الخليفة الامر بأحكام الله برسالة كتبها المأمون كاتم اسرار الدولة من القاهرة لحسن الصباح، يطلب منه انه يرجع للحق وينبذ اعتقاده في إمامة نزار. وتدهورت العلاقات أكثر بين حسن الصباح والحكام الفاطميين في مصر.
وفاته وأثره : توفي الصباح عام 518هـ/1124م في قلعته، واختلفت المصادر عن مصير ذريته (المصادر الغربية وبعض العربية تذكر انه قتل أولاده في حياته) إلا أن المصادر كلها اجمعت على انه مات من غير جناية. وخلفه بزرك أميد (برزجميد)، وكلف ناس بشئون الدعوة والإدارة وقيادة القوات، وطلب منهم التعاون مع بعض حتى ظهور الامام المستتر ويتولى شئون الطائفة. توفى شيخ الجبل، السيد حسن الصباح في 7 ربيع الثاني 518 هـ / 23 مايو 1124 في قلعة ألموت.
استمرت الصراعات المسلحة بين الإسماعيلية الباطنية والسلاجقة وتوسعت مناطق حسن الصباح وتمكن الفدائيون الباطنية من الاستيلاء على قلاع جديدة لكن السلاجقة استطاعوا احتوائهم عام 500هـ/1106م عندما استولى السلطان محمد على قلعة شاه دز بالقرب من أصبهان وقتل عدد كبير منهم من ضمنهم ابن العطاش وولده، ولكن لم يتمكنوا من القضاء عليهم أو يستولوا على قلعة ألموت.
حسن الصباح كان مفكر وكاتب وله نصين واحد عن قصة حياته والثاني في اللاهوت. وصفه ابن الأثير بإنه كان راجل حاد الذهن عالم بالهندسه والحساب والفلك والسحر.
نال حسن الصباح باحترام كبير عند الإسماعيليين باعتباره محرك "للدعوة الجديدة"، أي النظرية الإسماعيلية المعدلة التي ظهرت بعد الانشقاق عن القاهرة والمسماة بالنزارية، لم يدعي حسن الصباح بأنه الامام ولكن ممثل الامام فقط، وبعد اختفاء الامام ظل هو زعيم الدعوة والحجة أو البرهان ونبع المعرفة للامام المستتر، والرابط الحي بين خط الائمة الظاهرين وفى المستقبل.
الأراء حول الصباح : عاش الصباح في فترة سادت فيها الحروب بين مختلف الطوائف, السلاجقة, العباسيون,الايوبيون, الصليبيين وغيرهم من الطوائف, إلا أن كلها اجمعت على ان الصباح كان قوي الشكيمة, ودائم حضور الذهن, ويقاتل كل من يحاول الاقتراب من دولته بغض النظر عن طائفته وان تابعيه أو فدائيه يتمتعون بالحرص الشديد والطاعة والمقدرة على تنفيذ المهمات الموكلة لهم. واختلفت على كيفة ذلك وفيما يلي بعض الاراء عنه: * الغرب هم الذين اطلقوا اسم الحشاشون (بالإنجليزية: Hashshashin) على هذه الطائفة ومنها اتت كلمة (Assassin- اغتيال)وخصوصاً ماكتبه الرحالة الإيطالي ماركو بولو الذي ادعى زيارة قلعة آلموت.والقصص والروايات عن هذه الطائفة كثيرة عند الغرب حيث وصفت كيفية سيطرة الصباح على اتباعه باستخدام الحشيشة وترغيبهم بجوائز وغنام لتنفيذ عملياتهم والى اخره. * العباسيين والايوبيين اعتبروا الصباح عدو وقاتل, حيث تذكر المصادر انهم حاولوا اغتيال الناصر صلاح الدين الأيوبي أكثر من مرة وكذلك الخليفة العباسي المسترشد بالله. * السلاجقة أيضا اعتبروا الصباح الد اعدائهم خصوصا بعد اغتيال نظام الملك وزير السلطان ملكشاه، وفخر الملك ابنه، وزير السلطان سنجر. * الإسماعيلون الصباح قائد وامام وان انصياع اتباعه التام وطاعتهم العمياء لأوامر رؤسائهم ما كان إلا من تبادل الثقة بين الرئيس والمرؤوس والإيمان القوي المطلق بعقيدتهم المثلى وبإمامهم الذي يبذلون أرواحهم رخيصة في سبيله لأنهم يعتبرون أنفسهم جزءاً من النفس الكلية.
بعد وفاة حسن الصباح حكم النزارية سبع حكام كان أخرهم ركن الدين خورشاه بن علاء الدين. ظلت قلعة ألموت قائمة كمركز للباطنية النزارية في إيران حتى اقتحمها المغول بقيادة هولاكو وقضوا عليهم في إيران سنة 1256، ثم أجهز عليهم الظاهر بيبرس في الشام سنة 1273.
المصادر : ثبت_المراجع: * ماركو بولو كتاب The Book of Ser Marco Polo, volume 1 * Toynbee, Arnold J.، Mankind and Mother Earth, Oxford University Press, 1976 أرنولد توينبي * Lewis, Bernard. The Assassins. A Radical Sect in Islam. New York: Basic Books, 1968.2. * د. محمد عثمان الخشت، حركة الحشاشين: تاريخ وعقائد أخطر فرقة سرية في العالم الإسلامي.القاهرة، مكتبة ابن سينا، 1988. * الحشاشون، فرقة ثورية في تاريخ الإسلام، تأليف برنارد لويس - تعريب محمد العزب موسى، دار المشرق العربي الكبير، بيروت، طـ1، 1400هـ/1980م. * الإسماعيلية تاريخ وعقائد، إحسان إلهي ظهير. * مشكاة الأنوار، يحيى بن حمزة العلوي. * طائفة الإسماعيلية: تاريخها، نظمها، عقائدها، د. محمد كامل حسين. * Stark, Freya (2001). The Valleys of the Assassins and Other Persian Travels. New York وصلات داخلية * الحشاشون.
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Hassan-i Sabbah
1030s births | 1124 deaths | Medieval legends | People from Qom | Iranian missionaries | Iranian Ismailis | Iranian Muslims
Ismailism: Nizari: Hassan-i Sabbāh (حسن الصباح: ; حسن صباح: ; Hasan-e Sabbāh, 1050s–1124) was a Persian-Arab Nizārī Shi'a Ismā'īlī Muslim missionary who converted a community in the late 11th century in the heart of the Alborz Mountains of northern Iran. The place was called Alamut and was attributed to an ancient king of Daylam. He founded a group whose members are sometimes referred to as the Hashshashin or "Soldiers" to protect from attackers outside of Iran.
Sources: Hassan is thought to have written an autobiography, which does not survive but seems to underlie the first part of an anonymous Isma'ili biography entitled Sargudhasht-i Sayyidnā. The latter is known only from quotations made by later Persian authors. Hassan also wrote a Persian treatise on the doctrine of ta'līm, i.e. the teachings of the imam. The text is no longer extant, but fragments are cited or paraphrased by al-Shahrastānī and several Persian historians.
He is the original Grand Master creating many of its main principles and foundations. * Early life and conversion * Qom and Rayy
The possibly autobiographical information found in Sargudhasht-i Sayyidnā is the main source for Hassan's background and early life. According to this, Hassan-i Sabbāh was born in the city of Qom (modern Iran) in Persia in the 1050s to a family of Twelver Shī‘ah. His father was an Arab claiming Yemeni descent, who left the Sawād of Kufa hej (modern Iraq) to settle in the (predominantly Shi'a) town of Qom.
Early in his life, his family moved to Rayy. Rayy (Modern Tehran) was a city that had seen a lot of radical thought since the 9th century and it had seen Hamdan Qarmaṭ as one of its voices. It had also seen a lot of missionary work by various sects, each as impassioned as the next.
It was in this centre of religious matrices that Hassan developed a keen interest in metaphysical matters and adhered to the Twelver code of instruction. From 7 to 17, he studied at home, and mastered perfectly palmistry, languages, philosophy, astronomy and mathematics (especially geometry).
Rayy was also home to the activities of Ismā‘īlī missionaries in the Jibal. At the time, Isma'ilism was a growing movement in Persia and other lands east of Egypt. The Persian Isma'ilis supported the da'wa ("mission") directed by the Fatimid caliphate of Cairo and recognised the authority of the Imam-Caliph al-Mustanṣir (d. 1094), though since some time, Isfahan rather than Cairo may have functioned as their principal headquarters. The Ismā'īlī mission worked on three layers: the lowest was the foot soldier or fidā'ī, followed by the rafīk or "comrade", and finally the Dā‘ī or "missionary". It has been suggested that its popularity in Persia owed something to dissatisfaction with their Seljuk rulers, who had recently removed local rulers.
In Rayy, young Hassan came in touch with Amira Darrab, a comrade, who introduced him to Ismā'īlī doctrine. Hassan was initially unimpressed. As he met Darrab, participating in many passionate debates that discussed the merits of Ismā‘īl over Mūsā, Hassan's respect grew. Impressed with the conviction of Darrab, Hassan decided to delve deeper into Ismā'īlī doctrines and beliefs. Hassan began to see merit in switching to Ismā‘īlī.
Conversion to Ismailism and training in Cairo: At the age of 17, Hassan converted and swore allegiance to the Fatimid Caliph in Cairo. Hassan's studies did not end with his crossing over. He further studied under two other dā‘iyyayn, and as he proceeded on his path, he was looked upon with eyes of respect.
Hassan's austere and devoted commitment to the da'wa brought him in audience with the chief missionary of the region: ‘Abdu l-Malik ibn Attash. Ibn Attash, suitably impressed with the young seventeen year old Hassan, made him Deputy Missionary and advised him to go to Cairo to further his studies.
However, Hassan did not go to Cairo. Some historians have postulated that Hassan, following his conversion, was playing host to some members of the Fatimid caliphate, and this was leaked to the anti-Fatimid and anti-Shī‘a Nizam al-Mulk. This prompted his abandoning Rayy and heading to Cairo in 1076.
Hassan took about 2 years to reach Cairo. Along the way he toured many other regions that did not fall in the general direction of Egypt. Isfahan was the first city that he visited. He was hosted by one of the Missionaries of his youth, a man who had taught the youthful Hassan in Rayy. His name was Resi Abufasl and he further instructed Hassan.
From here he went to Azerbaijan, hundreds of miles to the north, and from there to Turkey. Here he attracted the ire of priests following a heated discussion, and Hassan was thrown out of the town he was in.
He then turned south and traveled through Iraq, reached Damascus in Syria. He left for Egypt from Palestine. Records exist, some in the fragmentary remains of his autobiography, and from another biography written by Rashid-al-Din Hamadani in 1310, to date his arrival in Egypt at 30 August 1078.
It is unclear how long Hassan stayed in Egypt: about 3 years is the usually accepted amount of time. He continued his studies here, and became a full missionary.
Return to Persia: Whilst he was in Cairo, studying and preaching, he upset the highly excitable Chief of the Army, Badr al-Jamalī. It is also said by later sources that the Ismaili Imam-Caliph al-Mustanṣir informed Hassan that his elder son Nizar would be the next Imam. Hassan was briefly imprisoned by Badr al-Jamali. The collapse of a minaret of the jail was taken to be an omen in the favor of Hassan and he was promptly released and deported. The ship that he was traveling on was wrecked. He was rescued and taken to Syria. Traveling via Aleppo and Baghdad, he terminated his journey at Isfahan in 1081.
Hassan’s life now was totally devoted to the mission. Hassan toured extensively throughout Iran. To the north of Iran, and touching the south shore of the Caspian Sea, are the mountains of Alborz. These mountains were home to a people who had traditionally resisted all attempts at subjugation; this place was also of Shī‘a leaning. Within these mountains, in the region of Daylam, Hassan chose to pursue his missionary activities. Hassan became the Chief Missionary of that area and sent his personally trained missionaries into the rest of the region.
The news of this Ismā'īlī's activities reached Nizam al-Mulk, who dispatched his soldiers with the orders for Hassan's capture. Hassan evaded them, and went deeper into the mountains.
Capture of Alamut: His search for a base from where to guide his mission ended when he found the castle of Alamut in the Rudbar area in 1088. It was a fort that stood guard to a valley that was about fifty kilometers long and five kilometers wide. The fort had been built about the year 865; legend has it that it was built by a king who saw his eagle fly up to and perch upon a rock, of which the king, Wah Sudan ibn Marzuban, understood the importance. Likening the perching of the eagle to a lesson given by it, he called the fort Aluh Amut: the "Eagles Teaching".
Hassan’s takeover of the fort was one of silent surrender in the face of defeated odds. To effect this takeover Hassan employed an ingenious strategy: it took the better part of two years to effect. First Hassan sent his Daʻiyyīn and Rafīks to win the villages in the valley over. Next, key people were converted and in 1090 Hassan took over the fort. It is said that Hassan offered 3000 gold dinars to the fort owner for the amount of land that would fit a buffalo’s hide. The term having been agreed upon, Hassan cut the hide in to strips and link the strips around the perimeter of the fort. The owner was defeated. (This story bears striking resemblance to Virgil's account of Dido's founding of Carthage.) Hassan gave him a draft on the name of a wealthy landlord and told him to take the money from him. Legend further has it that when the landlord saw the draft with Hassan’s signature, he immediately paid the amount to the fort owner, astonishing him.
With Alamut as his, Hassan devoted himself so faithfully to study, that it is said that in all the years that he was there – almost 35, he never left his quarters, except the two times when he went up to the roof. He was studying, translating, praying, fasting, and directing the activities of the Daʻwa: the propagation of the Nizarī doctrine was headquartered at Alamut. He knew the Qur'ān by heart, could quote extensively from the texts of most Muslim sects, and apart from philosophy, he was well versed in mathematics, astronomy, alchemy, medicine, architecture, and the major science fields of his time. Hassan was one who found solace in austerity and frugality. A pious life was one of prayer and devotion. Hassan was a charismatic revolutionary; it was said that by the sheer gravity of his conviction he could pierce the hardest and most orthodox of hearts and win them over to his side.
From this point on his community and its branches spread throughout Iran and Syria and came to be called Hashshashin or Assassins, a mystery cult.
Hassan was extremely strict and disciplined. The event of the Great Resurrection (al-qiyāmat al-kubrā) occurred under the later Ismaili Imam Hasan ala-dhikrihi as-salaam in 1164.
Legacy: Most of his life sketch and early Hashashin is obtained through the historical accounts written in the Islamic world and a few accounts were also written on the orders of Halagu Khan, who before destroying everything, gave order to his Chief Minister to write a complete history of the Assassins (based on the records in the Alamut library) and this is where most of the historical data about the order comes from. They either stem from Sunni polemicists who were motivated to discredit the Nizari Isma'ili on political and religious grounds, or Crusaders returning to Europe. Marco Polo also claimed to have visited Alamut, although the timeframe he gives makes his assertion dubious at best.
His support and involvement with the series of killings of famous scholars, Imams and other noble personalities has given him title of one of the very first terrorist organization in the world. Some of the famous killings and events in those medieval centuries by Hashashin included the following; * 1092: The famous Seljuq vizier Nizam al-Mulk is murdered by an Assassin in Baghdad. He becomes their first victim. * 1094: Al-Mustansir dies, and Hassan does not recognize the new caliph, al-Musta'li. He and his followers transferred their allegiance to his brother Nizar. The followers of Hassan soon even came at odds with the caliph in Baghdad too. * 1113: Following the death of Aleppo's ruler, Ridwan, the Assassins are driven out of the city by the troops of Ibn al-Khashab. * 1110's: The Assassins in Syria changes their strategy, and start undercover work and builds cells in all cities around the region. * 1123: Ibn al-Khashab is killed by an Assassin killer. * 1124: Hassan dies in Alamut, but the organization lives on stronger than ever. — The leading qadi Abu Saad al-Harawi is killed by an Assassin killer.
It is believed that almost thousands of scholars were killed by Hashashin in that eradateDecember 2011: . After the death of Hassan, some notable events included the following; * 1126 November 26: Emir Porsuki of Aleppo and Mosul is killed by an Assassin killer. * 12th century: The Assassins extend their activities into Syria, where they could get much support from the local Shi'i minority as the Seljuq sultanate had captured this territory. * The Assassins captures a group of castles in the Nusayriyya Mountains (modern Syria). The most important of these castles were the Masyaf, from which the "The Old Man of Mountain", Rashideddin Sinan ruled practically independent from the main leaders of the Assassins. * 1173: The Assassins of Syria enter negotiations with the king of Jerusalem, with the aim of converting to Christianity. But as the Assassins by now were numerous and often worked as peasants, they paid high taxes to local Christian landlords, that Christian peasants were exempted from. Their conversion was opposed by them, and this year the Assassin negotiators were murdered by Christian knights. After this, there was no more talk of conversion. * 1175: Rashideddin's men make two attempts on the life of Saladin, the leader of the Ayyubids. The second time, the Assassin came so close that wounds were inflicted upon Saladin. * 1256: Alamut fortress falls to the Mongols under the leadership of Hülegü. Before this happened, several other fortresses had been captured, and finally Alamut was weak and with little support. * 1257: The Mongol warlord Hülegü attacks and destroys the fortress at Alamut. The Assassin library is fully razed, hence destroying a crucial source of information about the Assassins. * Around 1265: The Assassin strongholds in Syria fall to the Mamluk Sultan Baibars.
According to polemical accounts which would evolve into popular legend, a future assassin was subjected to rites very similar to those of other mystery cults in which the subject was made to believe that he was in imminent danger of death. But the twist of the assassins was that they drugged the person to simulate a "dying" to later have them awaken in a garden flowing with wine and served a sumptuous feast by virgins. The supplicant was then convinced he was in Heaven and that Sabbah was a representative of the divinity and that all of his orders should be followed, even to death. This legend derives from Marco Polo's account on visiting Alamut just after it fell to the Mongols in the thirteenth century.
Other accounts of the indoctrination attest that the future assassins were brought to Alamut at a young age and, while they matured, inhabited the aforementioned paradisical gardens and were kept drugged with hashish; as in the previous version, Hassan occupied this garden as a divine emissary. At a certain point (when their initiation could be said to have begun) the drug was withdrawn from them, and they were removed from the gardens and flung into a dungeon. There they were informed that, if they wished to return to the paradise they had so recently enjoyed it would be at Sabbah's discretion, and that they must therefore follow his directions exactly, up to and including murder and self-sacrifice.
Notes: Reflist:
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Hassan ibn al-Sabbah
Personnalité chiite | Décès en 1124 | Nizârites
Hasan-i Sabbâh (1036 ? - 1124), parfois surnommé « le Vieux de la Montagne », était le fondateur de l’État d’Alamût et l’initiateur d’une nouvelle prédication (al-da`wa al-jadîda), il était un Ismaélien qui a fréquenté le Dar al-Hikma (Maison de la sagesse) du Caire pour acquérir les connaissances religieuses sur le chiisme ismaélien.
Sa vie : Son nom est transcrit parfois Hasan-i Sabbâh , ) ou al-Hasan b. al-Sabbâh (arabe : al-ḥasan ben aṣ-ṣabbāḥ, ). Hasan-i Sabbâh est né vers 1036 dans une famille chiite à Qom (en Perse). Son père, `Alî b. Muhammad b. Ja`far b. al-Husayn b. Muhammad b. al-Sabbâh al-Himyarî, était un érudit de Kûfa d'origine yéménite. Quand il était enfant, il a reçu une éducation conventionnelle de son père qui déménagea plus tard à Rayy, près de l’actuelle ville de Téhéran. C'était là que Hasan-i Sabbâh a poursuivi son éducation religieuse. L’historien Rachîd ad-Dîn Tabîb a écrit une biographie sur Hasan-i Sabbâh intitulée Sargudhasht-i Sayyidnâ (Les incidents dans la vie de notre Sayyid), dans laquelle il raconte que Hasan était duodécimain comme son père et que dès l'âge de sept ans, il était attiré par l'étude de diverses branches et souhaitait devenir un savant dans l’Islam.
Sa date de naissance est inconnue, mais il était encore un jeune homme quand il alla rendre visite au calife Fâtimide Al-Mustansir Billâh. Hasan-i Sabbâh était intelligent et compétent en géométrie et en astronomie. Vers l'âge de 17 ans, il rencontra pour la première fois un prédicateur (dâ`î) Fâtimide, Amîra Darrâb, qui l'a initié à la théosophie. Malgré tous ses efforts, il ne réussit pas à convaincre Hasan de la véracité de l'ismaélisme. Plus tard, il est allé visiter un dâ`î ismaélien pour avoir davantage de clarification sur cette gnose abstruse. Convaincu que l'ismaélisme est la voie à suivre, il devient un Ismaélien vers l'âge de 35 ans en 1071 et par la suite, il entre en contact avec le dâ`î `Abd al-Malik b. Attâsh à Isfahan.
Dans la biographie Rashîd raconte qu’en 464/1071 `Abd al-Malik b. Attâsh, le prédicateur (dâ`î) en Iraq, était venu à Rayy. Grâce à son aide Hasan est devenu un dâ`î puis il est allé en Égypte pour parfaire ses connaissances et rendre visite à l’Imâm. Au début de son voyage en 469/1077, il est passé par Isfahan avant d’aller en Égypte. Il est finalement arrivé en Égypte en 471/1078 où il a eu la chance de rencontrer l’Imâm Al-Mustansir Billah. On rapporte qu'il est resté 18 mois au Caire, appréciant ce prestigieux centre religieux. Il a également suivi des cours au Dar al-Hikma qui était le plus grand centre d’étude de l'Islam du monde musulman. Hasan a beaucoup profité de son voyage en Égypte. Comme l’indiquait Laurence Lockhart , Hasan-i Sabbâh a été bien reçu au Caire, et a été traité avec beaucoup de faveur par le calife Fâtimide Mustansir Billâh. En retournant à Isfahân, il visita plusieurs villes où il a étudié les conditions économiques, sociales et religieuses. Il a atteint Ispahân en 473/1081 et a commencé à propager la foi ismaélienne dans la région de Yazd et de Kerman pendant quelque temps. Il a passé trois mois au Khûzistân avant d’aller à Dâmghân, où il est resté environ trois ans.
Le travail ne manquait pas pour aider le dâ`î `Abd al-Malik b. Attâsh qui s’occupait de diffuser l’ismaélisme en Perse. Vers 480/1088, Hasan-i Sabbâh choisit un château à Alamût dans le Daylam comme siège de la da`wa (convocation). Il a envoyé à Dâmghân, et plus tard, à Shahriyârkûh (Mâzandarân), des Ismaéliens qualifiés dans différents endroits autour de la vallée d'Alamût pour convertir les habitants locaux. Hasan a longtemps été le dâ`î principal du Daylam .
Entre temps, le vizir Nizâm al-Mulk (408-485/1018-1092), un ennemi implacable, avait demandé à Abû Muslim le gouverneur du Rayy d’arrêter Hasan. Ce dernier a réussi cependant à se cacher au Daylam. Par la suite il a pris possession de la forteresse d'Alamût en 483/1090 et a établi un État indépendant ismaélien nizârien.
Quand Hasan-i Sabbâh est revenu d'Égypte, la forteresse d'Alamût était en possession d'un chef shî‘ite appelée Mahdî, qui l'avait eu comme fief du sultan Malikshâh. Mahdî était un descendant de Hasan b. `Alî al-Utrûsh (m. 304/916), un des chefs du Tabaristân, également connu sous le nom d’al-Nâsir li’l-Haqq, qui avait établi une communauté zaydite de Nâsiriyya sur les bords de la Mer Caspienne .
Hasan-i Sabbâh, le 4 septembre 483/1090, entra dans le château d'Alamût. Il a logé là pendant un moment comme un étranger sans s’identifier au chef zaydite Mahdî, mais après quelques jours, ce dernier a remarqué qu'il n'était plus obéi, qu'il y avait un autre maître à Alamût. La partie de la garnison d'Alamût et un grand nombre d'habitants avaient embrassé l’ismaélisme, rendant Mahdî impuissant et par la suite ce dernier quitta la forteresse. Ainsi, Alamût a été occupé sans massacre et devint Dar al-Hijra (endroit de refuge) pour les Ismaéliens. Hasan mourut de maladie en 1124 à Alamut .
Alamût : `Atâ Malik Juvaynî (1226-1283) avait vu la forteresse d'Alamût quand elle avait été démolie en 654/1256. Il écrit dans Ta’rîkh-i jahân-gushây (traduit en anglais par John A. Boyle, 1958, p. 719) qu’« Alamût est une montagne qui ressemble à un chameau agenouillé avec son cou posé par terre. » Elle était située dans le Daylam à environ 35 kilomètres au nord-ouest de Qazwîn dans la région de Rudhbâr. C'était physiquement une grande colline très haute, avec les pentes raides de presque tous les côtés, mais avec une étendue considérable au-dessus où on pouvait s’établir. Alamût se trouve à environ 100 kilomètres au nord-ouest de Téhéran et est situé dans la crête élevée de la chaîne de montagnes d'Elburz. Les soucis immédiats de Hasan-i Sabbâh étaient d’approvisionner régulièrement le fort d’Alamût en nourriture et eau, ainsi les Ismaéliens construisirent des réservoirs d’eau afin d’irriguer les champs dans la vallée. Ils acquièrent les châteaux adjacents et érigèrent des forts aux points stratégiques. Les Ismaéliens instituèrent des réformes économiques et sociales, et s’unissaient par des liens fraternels.
Comme l'aigle, il avait construit son nid à cet endroit. Selon « Sargudhasht-i Sayyidnâ », le terme « Alamût » est originaire de deux mots : « âluh » « âmût » c.-à-d., le nid de l'aigle. Ibn Athîr (m. 630/1234) relie la signification à une autre tradition dans son « Kâmil fî al-Ta’rîkh » (Beyrouth, 1975, tome 10, p.: 110) selon laquelle l'aigle aurait enseigné et guidé Hasan à cet endroit qui était aussi appelé « ta`lim al-aqab » (La connaissance de l’aigle), dans le dialecte daylamî est « âluh âmût ». Le mot « âluh » signifie « aigle » alors que « âmût » dériverait de « âmûkht » signifiant « initiation ». Les historiens iraniens ont attiré l'attention sur le fait curieux que, si on donne à chaque lettre du mot composé de « Âluh Âmût », sa valeur numérique en arabe s’élève à 483, qui représente l'année où Hasan-i Sabbâh prit possession d'Alamût.
Les Ismaéliens nizarites d'Alamût : Les Ismaéliens nizarites étaient des croyants d’origine persane qui ont donné allégeance à l’Imâm Nizâr dont Hasan-i Sabbâh en était le grand supporter. Comme plusieurs sociétés secrètes, l'histoire réelle a été mélangée avec des éléments folkloriques et mythiques. L'histoire des Ismaéliens à Alamût ne fait pas exception à la règle. La majeure partie du mythe occidental entourant Alamût vient des voyages de Marco Polo. Ces histoires fantastiques sur Alamût et l’ordre des assassins lui ont été racontées par des personnes interposées (voir article Nizârites pour plus de détail). Quand l’Imâm Nizâr a été emprisonné et supplanté par son plus jeune frère (Musta'lî), Hasan-i Sabbâh rompit avec Musta`lî et Badr Jamâlî (le vizir Fâtimide) et il donna allégeance au successeur légitime de Nizâr. Il créa à Alamût en 1090 une nouvelle da`wa où il établit une communauté à l’abri de la puissance politique sunnite.
La bibliothèque d'Alamût : La bibliothèque d’Alamût contenait de nombreux livres sur divers sujets comme les sciences, la philosophie, la religion, etc. Quand les Mongols ont envahi Alamût, ils ont été surpris du nombre de livres et d'instruments scientifiques qu'ils ont trouvé. Shahrastânî et Nasir ad-Din at-Tusi ont fréquenté régulièrement cette bibliothèque. Tûsî a sauvegardé de nombreux livres scientifiques avant que les Mongols ne mettent le feu dans le bâtiment.
La légende des trois condisciples : L’historien Rashîd al-Dîn al-Thabîb rapporte cette légende dans ses Sar Gudhasht-i Sayyidnâ. Hasan aurait fréquenté l'université de Nichapur avec Omar Khayyam, le poète-astronome perse, tous deux étaient dans un cercle d’astrologues à la cour princière, mais Hasan dût quitter à cause d'un scandale commis par un rival jaloux. Un autre de ses camarades de classe fut Nizam al-Mulk qui devint premier ministre. Ces trois là firent un pacte, selon l'autobiographie de Nizâm, si l'un d'eux, n'importe lequel, montait haut dans la hiérarchie, il aiderait les autres à y parvenir aussi. Plusieurs chercheurs ont des doutes sur l’authenticité de cette légende sur le pacte d’amitié et d’entraide de ces célèbres condisciples.
Ceci est très sûrement une légende, car Nizam al-Mulk, Omar Khayyam et Hassan Sabbah avaient des écarts d'âge conséquents : le vizir al-Mulk ayant environ 30 ans de plus que Khayyam et 40 de plus que Sabbah. De plus Nizam al-Mulk, grand vizir des sultans Seldjoukides, faisait en toute logique preuve d'une grande méfiance à l'égard des Ismaéliens, dont Sabbah sera très vite un très grand représentant.
Références littéraires : Hassan ibn al-Sabbah est évidemment un personnage central du roman Alamut de Vladimir Bartol. Bien qu'il n'apparaisse jamais, c'est également l'un des personnages du Pendule de Foucault d'Umberto Eco.
Hassan ibn al-Sabbah joue également un rôle central dans le roman Samarcande d'Amin Maalouf. Hassan ibn al-Sabbah et Alamut sont également longuement mentionnés dans Le Théorème du Perroquet de Denis Guedj.
Notes et références :
Bibliographie : * 1928 Laurence Lockhart. Hasan-i Sabbah and the Assassins BSOAS, tome V, 1928, p.: 677 * 1938 Wladimir Ivanow. Some Ismaili Strongholds in Persia Islamic Culture. Tome 12, p.: 383-396. * 1938 Wladimir Ivanow. Tombs of some Persian Ismaili Imams, Journal of Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, tome 14, p.: 63-72. * 1955 Marshall G.S. Hodgson. The Order of Assassins, La Haye. * 1958 J.A. Boyle. The History of the World Conqueror by Ala-ad-Dîn Ata-malik Juvaini, Manchester, 2 tomes. * 1960 Wladimir Ivanow. Alamût and Lamasar. Téhéran, Association ismaélienne. * 1973 Jean-Claude Frere, L'ordre des Assassins, Paris, Celt * 1974 (1964) Henry Corbin, Histoire de la philosophie Islamique, Paris, Gallimard * 1984 : Bernard Lewis Les Assassins, Terrorisme et politique dans l'islam médiéval] (Éditions Complexe) 2-87027-123-9: * 1986-1993 Gimaret, Daniel, Monnot, Guy et Jolivet, Jean, Livre des religions et des sectes. 2 tomes. Belgium (Peeters): UNESCO. * 1990 : Christian Jambet a écrit une étude complète La Grande Résurrection d'Alamût - Les formes de la liberté dans le Shî’isme ismaélien chez Lagrasse, Verdier. * 1990 Farhad Daftary. The Ismâ‘îlî: Their History and Doctrines. Cambridge University Press. * 1996 Nasîr al-dîn Tûsî. Rawdat al-taslîm, traduit par Christian Jambet dans La Convocation d’Alamût, Lagrasse, Verdier. * 2002 Diane Steigerwald. The Multiple Facets of Isma‘ilism. Sacred Web: A Journal of Tradition and Modernity. Tome 9, p.: 77-87. * J.de Hammer environ 1850 :histoire de l'ordre des assassins ;traduit de l'allemand par J.Hellert et PA de La Nourais, publié pa Le Club français de livre en 1961
Début dynastie:
Fin dynastie:
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نيشر
طائرات مقاتلة متعددة المهام | جيش الدفاع الإسرائيلي | طائرات عسكرية 1970-1979
نيشر (بالعبرية "נשר" أي نسر) طائرة مقاتلة متعددة الأدوار من صناعة شركة إسرائيل لصناعة الطائرات، وهى نسخة مطورة من الطائرة الفرنسية ميراج 5. قد بيعت مؤخرا إلى سلاح الجو الأرجنتينى باسم داجرز (بالإنجليزية:"Daggers")، ومن ثم طورت إلى فنجرز (بالإنجليزية:"Fingers").
التصميم والتطوير : قد طور داسو للطيران ميراج 5 بناء على طلب من إسرائيل، والتي كانت المستهلك الرئيسى لطائرة ميراج الثالثة. سلاح الجو الإسرائيلي طلبها أن تكون ذات قدرة أقل في الملاحة في جميع الأحوال الجوية وأن تزداد قدرتها على حمل الذخائر، وذلك لأن الأحوال الجوية صافية غالبا في الشرق الأوسط.
كانت الحكومة الفرنسية قد حذرت بيع أول 30 طائرة ميراج 5 والتي دفع ثمنها كاملا من قبل إسرائيل بالإضافة إلى 20 أخرى اختيارية ومنعت الدعم الفنى لطائرات ميراج الثالثة التي سبق بيعها إلى إسرائيل وذلك قبل وبعد حرب الأيام الستة. رسميا صنعت إسرائيل الطائرة ميراج 5 بعد استلائها على الرسومات الكاملة لكيفية تصنيعها. زعمت بعد المصادر أن إسرائيل إستلمت 50 طائرة ميراج 5 من سلاح الجو الفرنسى في صناديق مفككه.
إن نيشر مطابقه لميراج 5 في كل شيء باستثناء استخدام إسرائيل بعض التحديثات الإلكترونية الإسرائيلية وهى كالتالى : * المقعد القاذف مارتن بيكير صفر-صفر (Martin-Baker zero-zero ejector seat). * مجموعة متنوعة من صواريخ جو-جو إيه إيه إم (AAM). * صاروخ شافرير متتبع الحرارة الإسرائيلى (Shafrir). * محرك جينيرال إليكتريك جا تسعة وسبعون (صناعة إسرائيلية)، ذلك المحرك مستخدم في المقاتلة الأمريكية إف 104 (مقاتلة النجوم Star Fighter)، وأيضا إف 4 (فانتوم الثانية Phantom II).
تاريخ خدمتها : * النموذج التجريبى الأول من نيشر طار في ستمبر 1969. * تسلم سلاح الجو الإسرائيلى المنتج من الطائرة المقاتلة نيشر في بداية ماية 1971 حتى نهاية فبراير 1974. * شاركت في حرب أكتوبر وكانت السبب في استشهاد أكثر من مائة ضحية، ويقدر أن سلاح الجو الإسرائيلى فقد 15 قطعة منها أو أكثر في معارك حرب أكتوبر. * الطائرات التي نجت من حرب أكتوبر تم إصلاحها وبيعها إلى الأرجنتين على دفعتين كالتالى: ** 26 طائرة في عام 1978. ** 13 طائرة في عام 1980.
تحت اسم "داجر" والتي إنقسمت إلى نوعان هما : * 35 طائرة من نوع "داجر إيه (Dagger A)" ذات المقعد الواحد. * 4 طائرات من نوع "داجر بي (Dagger B)" ذات المقعدين للمتدربين.
و قد شكلت تلك الطائرات المعاد تجديدها الفرقة الجوية السادسة في سلاح الجو الأرجنتينى، والتي أسند لها على الفور مساعدة الفرقة الجوية الثامنة والقوات الجوية البيرويه خلال الأزمة مع دولة شيلى في تلك السنة. * شاركت تحت قيادة سلاح الجو الأرجنتينى في حرب جزر الفوكلاند ضد بريطانيا. ، وقد سقط 11 طائرة أثناء القتال كالتالى : ** 9 طائرات بسبب صاواريخ سايد وايندر التي أطلقت من طائرات هاريار التابعة القوات البحرية الملكية البريطانية. ** طائرتان بسسب صواريخ دفاع جوى أرضي.
طرازات : * نيشر إس (Nesher S) : طراز مطور لسلاح الجو الإسرائيلى ذو المقعد الواحد مخصص للهجوم على الأهداف الأرضية. * نيشر تى (Nesher T) : طراز مطور لسلاح الجو الإسرائيلى ذو المقعدان مخخص للتدريب. * داجر إيه (Dagger A) : معاد تجديدها لصالح سلاح الجو الأرجنتينى ذات المقعد الواحد. * داجر بى (Dagger B) : معاد تجديدها لصالح سلاح الجو الأرجنتينى ذات المقعدين ومخصصة للتدريب.
المستخدمين : ;ARG: * سلاح الجو الأرجنتينى.
;ISR: * سلاح الجو الإسرائيلى.
المواصفات : الصفات العامة * الطول: 15.56 متر. * المسافة بين الجناحين: 8.22متر. * الارتفاع : 5.40 متر. * مساحة الأجنحة: 34.80 متر². * الوزن فارغة: 6,600 كجم. * أقصى وزن محملة: 13,700 كجم. * المحرك: محرك من نوع (SNECMA Atar C turbojet). * الأداء * أقصى ارتفاع: 16,994 متر. * الحمل على الأجنحة: 393.68 كيلوجرام/متر². * النسبة دفع-وزن: 0.45 * التسليح * مدفعان 30mm. * 4000 كجم external ordinance. * المصادر * الصفحة الإنجليزية. * ثبت المراجع: بوابة الطيران:
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IAI Nesher
Delta-wing aircraft | Falklands War aircraft | IAI aircraft | Israeli fighter aircraft 1960–1969
The Israel Aircraft Industries Nesher (Hebrew: נשר, "Vulture" - often mistranslated as "Eagle") is the Israeli version of the Dassault Mirage 5 multi-role fighter aircraft. Most were later sold to the Argentine Air Force as Daggers, and later upgraded as Fingers.
Design and development: Israel had to replace more than 60 aircraft lost during the Six Day War and the War of attrition which followed. Begin the cooperation with Dassault to build the Mirage 5. The Mirage 5 was named Raam in Hebrew (thunder).
Dassault Aviation had developed the Mirage 5 at the request of the Israelis, who were the main foreign customers of the Mirage III. The Israeli Air Force (IAF) wanted the next version to have less all-weather capability in exchange for improved ordnance carrying capacity and range as the weather in the Middle East is mostly clear.
In January, 1969 the French government arms embargo on Israel (on the eve of the Six Day War and after the Israeli attack of the airport of Beirut, in 1969) prevented the first 30 Mirage 5 aircraft (which were already paid for by Israel) plus optional 20 from being delivered and cut off support for the existing Mirage IIICJ fleet.
It is one bad news for the Israeli Air Force, who need the new Mirage to compensate the losses of the Six Day War and was at the origin of this version derived of the Mirage III. Israel decides then to build itself the plane (Raam A and B project)>http://idfaf.110mb.com/Nesher/NesherMain.html although Israel does not obtain a license of manufacturing and does had necessary plans.
Officially, Israel built the aircraft after obtaining complete blueprints. However, some sources claim Israel received 50 Mirage 5s in crates from French Air Force (AdA), while the AdA took over the 50 aircraft originally intended for Israel.
The production began in 1969 with the first empty cell( no weapons,no elctronics, no seat, no engine) delivered directly from Dassault Aviation because spare parts were not subjected to the embargo. The first Ram A is delivered in May, 1971. In November, 1971 the plane changes name and becomes Nesher.
The Nesher was identical to the Mirage 5, except for the use of some Israeli avionics, a Martin-Baker zero-zero ejection seat, and provisions for a wider range of AAMs (Air-to-Air Missiles), including the Israeli Shafrir heat-seeking missile. Fifty-one Nesher fighters (Nesher S) and ten Nesher two-seat trainers (Nesher T) were built in all.
The Nesher had simpler avionics than the Mirage IIIC, and was found by Israeli pilots to be slightly less maneuverable. However, it had longer range and bigger payload. The reduced maneuverability did not prevent the Nesher from giving a good account of itself in air combat during the Yom Kippur war.
Nesher production was phased out from 1978 to make way for an improved Mirage derivative that had been in planned in parallel, in which the Atar engine was replaced by an Israeli-built General Electric J79 engine, the engine used on the American F-104 Starfighter and F-4 Phantom II fighters. The result was the IAI Kfir. * Operational history * Israel
The first Nesher prototype flew in September 1969, with production deliveries to the IAF beginning in May 1971, ending in February 1974. These aircraft performed well during the 1973 Yom Kippur War, claiming over a hundred kills. An estimated 15 Neshers were lost in combat or otherwise. * Argentina
Argentine air forces in the Falklands War: Survivors of Israeli aircraft were refurbished and exported to the Argentine Air Force in two batches, 26 in 1978 and 13 in 1980, under the name Dagger, comprising 35 Dagger A single-seat fighters and 4 Dagger B two-seat trainers.
They form a new unit, 6th Air Group, and they were immediately listed with the help of the 8th Air Group (Mirage IIIEA) and the Peruvian Air Force, already a user of the Mirage 5, due the escalating crisis with Chile of that year.
During the 1982 Falklands War, they were deployed to the southern naval airbase of Río Grande, Tierra del Fuego, and an airfield in Puerto San Julián and despite the distance to their targets and lack of aerial refueling capability, managed to make 153 sorties against both ground and naval targets on the 45 days of operations. In the last role they damaged HMS Antrim (D18), HMS Brilliant (F90), HMS Broadsword (F88), HMS Ardent (F184), HMS Arrow (F173) and HMS Plymouth (F126). Eleven Daggers were lost in combat (nine by AIM-9L Sidewinders fired from Sea Harriers and two by Surface to Air Missiles).
In the 1979 contract with IAI, the Argentine Air Force stipulated that the Daggers would be equipped with new avionics and HUD systems to take them to the Kfir C.2 (and beyond in some subsystems) standard. The program, named Finger, was underway in 1982 when the Falklands War broke out. With the war over, as some of these systems were made by the British Marconi Electronic Systems, they needed to be replaced after an arms embargo was imposed by the UK. The replacement of such systems took the planes to the final Finger IIIB standard mainly by replacing the British equipment with French-built Thomson-CSF. * Variants * Nesher S : Single-seat ground-attack fighter version for the Israeli Air Force. * Nesher T : Two-seat training version for the Israeli Air Force. * Dagger A : Refurbished single-seat fighter version for the Argentine Air Force. * Dagger B : Refurbished two-seat training version for the Argentine Air Force. * Finger I : * Finger II : * Finger III : * Operators
;ARG: * Argentine Air Force * Former operator
;ISR: * Israeli Air Force * Specifications==
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IAI Nesher
Avion militaire israélien | Avion militaire de la Guerre froide | Avion d'attaque au sol
Nesher:
Le Israel Aerospace Industries Nesher (« aigle » en hébreu) est une copie de l'avion d'attaque au sol Mirage 5 de Dassault Aviation, réalisée par Israël au tout début des années 1970. Il n'a été construit qu'à 61 exemplaires, dont une partie a été revendue à l'Argentine au début des années 1980.
Conception : Israël devait remplacer plus de 60 avions perdus pendant la Guerre de Six Jours et la Guerre d'usure qui a suivie. Commence la coopération avec Dassault afin de construire le Mirage 5. Les Mirages 5 reçoivent le nom de baptême « Raam » (Eclair).
Affaire Frauenknecht: En janvier 1969, suite à l'attaque israélienne de l'aéroport de Beyrouth, le gouvernement français décrète un embargo total sur les armes, bloquant ainsi la livraison des cinquante Mirage 5 commandés par Israël . C'est une mauvaise nouvelle pour l'armée de l'air de ce pays, qui avait besoin de nouveaux Mirage pour compenser les pertes de la guerre des Six Jours et était à l'origine de cette version dérivée du Mirage III. Israël décide alors de construire lui-même l'avion (Projet Raam A>http://idfaf.110mb.com/Nesher/NesherMain.html.) , bien qu'il ne dispose pas de licence de fabrication et encore moins des plans nécessaires.
Comment il arriva à ses fins reste encore un secret, mais il est généralement admis que Dassault apporta une aide discrète en fournissant quelques pièces et une partie des plans, les services secrets israéliens se chargeant de fournir le reste (notamment les plans du réacteur Atar). N'oublions pas également que l'armée de l'air israélienne avait acheté 72 Mirage IIIC quelques années plus tôt : le pays disposait donc d'un stock de pièces de rechanges ainsi que des manuels de maintenance, et rien n'empêchait les ingénieurs de démonter un Mirage III pour faire de la rétro-ingénierie.
La production commenca en 1969 avec les premières cellules livrées directement à partir de la France car les pièces détachées n'étaient soumises à l'embargo >http://idfaf.110mb.com/Nesher/NesherMain.html.
Le premier Ram A est livré en mai 1971. En novembre 1971 l'avion change de nom est devient le Nesher>http://idfaf.110mb.com/Nesher/NesherMain.html. C'est une copie conforme du Mirage 5 à l'exception du siège éjectable d'un modèle différent et de l'avionique de conception israélienne. Un premier escadron est constitué en septembre 1972, suivi d'un second en mars 1973. Seulement 61 exemplaires du Nesher sont construits. À partir de 1975, l'avion est progressivement remplacé par le plus performant Kfir et sera définitivement retiré du service en 1981.
Au total, une quinzaine d'exemplaires du Nesher auraient été perdus au combat ou lors d'accidents. Les avions restants ont été proposés à l'export. L'Argentine se porte acquéreur de 35 monoplaces et 4 biplaces, qui reçoivent la désignation de Dagger et sont livrés en deux lots. Cinq biplaces auraient été vendus à l'Afrique du Sud pour être convertis en Cheetah D.
Après la guerre des Malouines (1982), les Dagger argentins sont modernisés et reçoivent alors la désignation de Finger. Il semble que cette mise à jour ait consisté essentiellement en l'intégration d'une partie de l'avionique du Kfir et l'augmentation de la capacité en carburant. * Variantes et opérateurs * Israel: (de 1972 à 1981) ** Nesher S : version monoplace (51 exemplaires) ** Nesher T : version biplace (10 exemplaires) * Argentine: (depuis 1979) ** Dagger A : version monoplace (35 avions) ** Dagger B : version biplace (4 avions) ** Finger : version modernisée du Dagger
* Engagements ==
Israël dispose d'une quarantaine de Nesher en service lorsqu'éclate la guerre du Kippour en 1973. Bien que l'avion ait été conçu pour l'attaque au sol et soit dépourvu de radar de poursuite, il est affecté principalement à des missions de supériorité aérienne où il surpasse assez facilement ses adversaires : une des unités qui sont équipées de Nesher est ainsi créditée de 42 victoires sans aucune perte. Les Nesher effectuent également des missions d'attaques sur les hauteurs du Golan et sur le front sud. Lors de ce conflit, le Nesher a dû affronter en particulier les Mirage 5 égyptiens ; de ce fait, les Nesher et Mirage III israéliens reçurent des triangles jaunes sur les ailes, afin d'éviter toute confusion lors des combats, les modèles des deux belligérants étant d'aspect général identique.
Les Dagger argentins participent à la guerre des Malouines en 1982, pendant laquelle ils affrontent les Sea Harrier anglais et bombardent à plusieurs reprises la flotte britannique dans la baie de San-Carlos (22-27 mai 1982). Onze Dagger ont été perdus lors de ce conflit , dont 9 abattus par des Sea Harrier et 2 par des missiles anti-aériens.
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رمز شليفلي
متعددات الرؤوس | ترميز رياضي
رمز شليفلي في الهندسة الرياضية هو عبارة عن ترميز له الشكل {p,q,r,...} والذي يعرف رصف المضلعات أو المجسمات المنتظمة.
أطلق اسم رمز شليفلي على اسم الرياضياتي لودفيغ شليفلي الذي وضع بصمات هامة في الهندسة الرياضية ومجالات أخرى في القرن التاسع عشر.
وصف الترميز : يكون رمز شيلفلي لمتعدد أوجه له q وجه مضلع منتظم لكل منها p ضلع حول كل من رؤوسه على الشكل {p,q}. فمثلا يكون ترميز المكعب هو {4,3} لوجود ثلاث مربعات لكل منها أربع أضلاع حول كل من رؤوس المكعب.
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Schläfli symbol
Polytopes | Mathematical notation
In geometry, the Schläfli symbol is a notation of the form {p,q,r,...} that defines regular polytopes and tessellations.
The Schläfli symbol is named after the 19th-century mathematician Ludwig Schläfli who made important contributions in geometry and other areas.
Description : The Schläfli symbol is a recursive description, starting with a p-sided regular polygon as {p}. For example, {3} is an equilateral triangle, {4} is a square and so on.
A regular polyhedron which has q regular p-gon faces around each vertex is represented by {p,q}. For example, the cube has 3 squares around each vertex and is represented by {4,3}.
A regular 4-polytope with r {p,q} regular polyhedral cells around each edge is represented by {p,q,r}, and so on.
Regular polytopes can have star polygon elements, like the pentagram, with symbol {5/2}, represented by the vertices of a pentagon but connected alternately.
A facet of a regular polytope {p,q,r,...,y,z} is {p,q,r,...,y}.
A regular polytope has a regular vertex figure. The vertex figure of a regular polytope {p,q,r,...} is {q,r,...}.
The Schläfli symbol can represent a finite convex polyhedron, an infinite tessellation of Euclidean space, or an infinite tessellation of hyperbolic space, depending on the angle defect of the construction. A positive angle defect allows the vertex figure to fold into a higher dimension and loops back into itself as a polytope. A zero angle defect will tessellate space of the same dimension as the facets. A negative angle defect can't exist in ordinary space, but can be constructed in hyperbolic space.
Usually a vertex figure is assumed to be a finite polytope, but can sometimes be considered a tessellation itself.
A regular polytope also has a dual polytope, represented by the Schläfli symbol elements in reverse order. A self-dual regular polytope will have a symmetric Schläfli symbol.
Symmetry groups : A Schläfli symbol is closely related to reflection symmetry groups, also called Coxeter groups, given with the same indices, but square brackets instead [p,q,r,...]. Such groups are often named by the regular polytopes they generate. For example [3,3] is the Coxeter group for Tetrahedral symmetry, and [3,4] is octahedral symmetry, and [3,5] is icosahedral symmetry.
Regular polygons (plane) : The Schläfli symbol of a regular polygon with n edges is {n}.
For example, a regular pentagon is represented by {5}.
See the convex regular polygon and nonconvex star polygon.
For example, {5/2} is the pentagram.
Regular polyhedra (3-space) : The Schläfli symbol of a regular polyhedron is {p,q} if its faces are p-gons, and each vertex is surrounded by q faces (the vertex figure is a q-gon).
For example {5,3} is the regular dodecahedron. It has pentagonal faces, and 3 pentagons around each vertex.
See the 5 convex Platonic solids, the 4 nonconvex Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra.
Schläfli symbols may also be defined for regular tessellations of Euclidean or hyperbolic space in a similar way.
For example, the hexagonal tiling is represented by {6,3}.
Regular polychora (4-space) : The Schläfli symbol of a regular polychoron is of the form {p,q,r}. Its (two-dimensional) faces are regular p-gons ({p}), the cells are regular polyhedra of type {p,q}, the vertex figures are regular polyhedra of type {q,r}, and the edge figures are regular r-gons (type {r}).
See the six convex regular and 10 nonconvex polychora.
For example, the 120-cell is represented by {5,3,3}. It is made of dodecahedron cells {5,3}, and has 3 cells around each edge.
There is also one regular tessellation of Euclidean 3-space: the cubic honeycomb, with a Schläfli symbol of {4,3,4}, made of cubic cells, and 4 cubes around each edge.
There are also 4 regular hyperbolic tessellations including {5,3,4}, the Hyperbolic small dodecahedral honeycomb, which fills space with dodecahedron cells.
Higher dimensions : For higher dimensional polytopes, the Schläfli symbol is defined recursively as {p1, p2, ..., pn − 1} if the facets have Schläfli symbol {p1,p2, ..., pn − 2} and the
vertex figures have Schläfli symbol {p2,p3, ..., pn − 1}.
Notice that a vertex figure of a facet of a polytope and a facet of a vertex figure of the same polytope are the same: {p2,p3, ..., pn − 2}.
There are only 3 regular polytopes in 5 dimensions and above: the simplex, {3,3,3,...,3}; the cross-polytope, {3,3, ... ,3,4}; and the hypercube, {4,3,3,...,3}. There are no non-convex regular polytopes above 4 dimensions.
Dual polytopes : If a polytope of dimension ≥ 2 has Schläfli symbol {p1,p2, ..., pn − 1} then its dual has Schläfli symbol {pn − 1, ..., p2,p1}.
If the sequence is palindromic, i.e. the same forwards and backwards, the polytope is self-dual. Every regular polytope in 2 dimensions (polygon) is self-dual.
Uniform prismatic polytopes : Uniform prismatic polytopes can be defined and named as a Cartesian product of lower dimensional regular polytopes: * A p-gonal prism, with vertex figure p.4.4 as \begin{Bmatrix}\ \end{Bmatrix} \times \begin{Bmatrix} p \end{Bmatrix}. The symbol { } means a unit line. * A uniform {p,q}-hedral prism as \begin{Bmatrix}\ \end{Bmatrix} \times \begin{Bmatrix} p,q \end{Bmatrix}. * A uniform p-q duoprism as \begin{Bmatrix} p \end{Bmatrix} \times \begin{Bmatrix} q \end{Bmatrix}.
Extension of Schläfli symbols : Coxeter expanded his usage of the Schläfli symbol to quasiregular polyhedra by adding a vertical dimension to the symbol. It was a starting point toward the more general Coxeter-Dynkin diagram.
p , q \end{Bmatrix} p \\ q \end{Bmatrix} q , p \end{Bmatrix}
And for rectified 4-polytopes:
p, q , r \end{Bmatrix}
p \\ q , r \end{Bmatrix}
q , p \\ r \end{Bmatrix}
r, q , p \end{Bmatrix}
* References * Coxeter, H.S.M.; Regular Polytopes, (Methuen and Co., 1948). (pp. 14, 69, 149)
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Symbole de Schläfli
Polyèdre
En mathématiques, le symbole de Schläfli est une notation de la forme {p,q,r, …} qui permet de définir les polyèdres réguliers et les tessellations. Cette notation donne un résumé de certaines propriétés importantes d'un polytope régulier particulier.
Le symbole de Schläfli fut nommé ainsi en l'honneur du mathématicien du XIX: Ludwig Schläfli qui fit d'importantes contributions en géométrie et dans d'autres domaines.
Les polygones réguliers (plan) : Le symbole de Schläfli pour un polygone régulier convexe à n côtés est {n}. Par exemple, un pentagone régulier est représenté par {5}.
Pour représenter des polygones étoilés, les fractions sont utilisées. Ainsi le pentagramme, qui est le pentagone étoilé, est représenté par {5/2}, ce qui signifie que ce polyèdre possède 5 arêtes et que chacune de ces arêtes relie les sommets de numéro s et s + 2. Ainsi la première arête relie le premier et le troisième sommet, la deuxième le troisième et le cinquième…
Les polyèdres réguliers (3-espace) : Le symbole de Schläfli d'un polyèdre régulier est {p,q} si ses faces sont des p-gones, et chaque sommet est entouré par q faces (la figure de sommet est un q-gone).
Par exemple {5,3} est le dodécaèdre régulier. Il possède des faces pentagonales, et trois pentagones autour de chaque sommet.
Voir les 5 solides de Platon, les 4 solides de Kepler-Poinsot.
Les symboles de Schläfli peuvent aussi être définis pour les pavages réguliers des espaces euclidiens ou hyperboliques d'une manière similaire.
Par exemple, le pavage hexagonal est représenté par {6,3}. Il est en effet formé d'hexagones et chacun des sommets est entouré par trois autres.
Les polychores réguliers (4-espace) : Le symbole de Schläfli pour un polychore régulier est de la forme {p,q,r}. Il possède {p} faces polygonales régulières, {p,q} cellules, {q,r} figures de sommet polyèdriques régulières et {r} figures d'arêtes polygonales régulières.
Voir les six polychores réguliers convexes et les dix non convexes.
Par exemple, le 120-cellules est représenté par {5,3,3}. Il est construit par des cellules dodécaédriques {5,3}, et possède 3 cellules autour de chaque arêtes.
Il existe aussi un pavage régulier du 3-espace euclidien : le , avec un symbole de Schläfli de {4,3,4}, fait de cellules cubiques, et 4 cubes autour de chaque sommet.
Il existe aussi 4 pavages réguliers hyperboliques incluant {5,3,4}, le , qui remplit l'espace avec des cellules dodécaédriques.
Les dimensions plus élevées : Pour les polytopes de dimensions plus élevées, le symbole de Schläfli est défini par récurrence comme :
\{p_1, p_2,..., p_{n-1}\}
si les facettes ont un symbole de Schläfli \{p_1, p_2,..., p_{n-2}\}
et les figures de sommet :
\{p_2, p_3,..., p_{n-1}\}.
Il existe seulement 3 polytopes réguliers en 5 dimensions et au-dessus : le simplexe, {3, 3, 3, …, 3} ; le polytope croisé, {3, 3, … , 3, 4} ; et l'hypercube, {4, 3, 3, … , 3}. Il n'existe pas de polytopes réguliers non convexes au-dessus de 4 dimensions.
Les polytopes duaux : Pour la dimension 2 ou au-dessus, chaque polytope possède un dual.
Si un polytope possède un symbole de Schläfli \{p_1, p_2, p_3,..., p_{n-1}\} alors son dual possède un symbole de Schläfli \{p_{n-1},..., p_3, p_2, p_1\}.
Si la suite est la même vers la gauche et vers la droite, le polytope est auto-dual. Chaque polytope régulier en 2 dimensions (polygone) est auto-dual, chaque simplexe est autodual, chaque pyramide de dimension 3 est autoduale, et le 24-cellules est autodual.
Les formes prismatiques : Les polytopes prismatiques peuvent être définis et nommés comme un produit cartésien de polytopes de dimensions inférieures : * Un prisme p-gonal, avec une figure de sommet p.4.4 comme \begin{Bmatrix}\ \end{Bmatrix} \times \begin{Bmatrix} p \end{Bmatrix}. * Un hyperprisme uniforme {p,q}-èdrique comme \begin{Bmatrix}\ \end{Bmatrix} \times \begin{Bmatrix} p,q \end{Bmatrix}. * Un duoprisme uniforme p-q comme \begin{Bmatrix} p \end{Bmatrix} \times \begin{Bmatrix} q \end{Bmatrix}.
Un prisme peut aussi être représenté comme la troncature d'un comme t\begin{Bmatrix} 2,p \end{Bmatrix}.
Les symboles de Schläfli étendus pour les polytopes uniformes : Les , construits à partir d'une construction de Wythoff, sont représentés par une notation de troncature étendue à partir d'une forme régulière {p, q, …}. Il existe un quantité de formes parallèles symboliques qui référencent les éléments du symbole de Schläfli, discutées par dimensions ci-dessous.
Les polyèdres uniformes et les pavages : Pour les polyèdres, un symbole de Schläfli étendu est utilisé dans l'article énumératif de 1954 par Coxeter intitulé .
Chaque polyèdre régulier ou pavage {p, q} possède 7 formes, incluant la forme régulière et son dual, correspondant aux positions dans le triangle rectangle fondamental. Un huitième forme spéciale, les adoucis, correspondent à une de la forme omnitronquée.
Par exemple, t{3,3} signifie simplement un tétraèdre tronqué.
Une deuxième notation, plus générale, aussi utilisée par Coxeter, s'applique à toutes les dimensions, et est précisée par un t suivit d'une liste d'indices correspondant aux miroirs de construction de Wythoff (ils correspondent aussi aux nœuds annelés dans un diagramme de Coxeter-Dynkin).
Par exemple, le cube tronqué peut être représenté par t0,1{4,3} et il peut être regardé comme à mi-chemin entre le cube, t0{4,3} et le cuboctaèdre, t1{4,3}.
Dans chacun, un nom désignant l'opération de la construction de Wythoff est donné en premier lieu. En deuxième lieu, certains ont une terminologie alternative (donnée entre parenthèses) s'appliquant seulement pour une dimension donnée. Précisément, l' et le , les relations duales s'appliquant différemment dans chaque dimension.
p , q \end{Bmatrix}
p \\ q \end{Bmatrix}
q , p \end{Bmatrix}
p , q \end{Bmatrix}
q , p \end{Bmatrix}
p \\ q \end{Bmatrix}
p \\ q \end{Bmatrix}
p \\ q \end{Bmatrix}
* Les polychores uniformes et les nids d'abeille
Il existe au plus 15 formes tronquées pour les polychores et les nids d'abeille basés sur chaque forme régulière {p,q,r}.
Voir les articles polychore et .
La notation avec le t en indice est parallèle au diagramme de Coxeter-Dynkin graphique, dont chaque nœud graphique représente les 4 hyperplans des réflexions miroirs dans le domaine fondamental.
* Références * en: H. S. M. Coxeter, The Beauty of Geometry: Twelve Essays, Dover, 1999 978-0-486-40919-1: (Chapter 3: Wythoff's construction for uniform polytopes, p41-53) * en: H. S. M. Coxeter, , Methuen and Co., 1948 (pp. 14, 69, 149) * en: Coxeter, Longuet-Higgins, Miller, « Uniform polyhedra », Phil. Trans. 1954, 246 A, 401-50. (Extended Schläfli notation defined: Table 1: p 403) * en: N. W. Johnson, Uniform Polytopes, Manuscript, 1991 * en: N. W. Johnson, The Theory of Uniform Polytopes and Honeycombs, Ph.D. Dissertation, University of Toronto, 1966
Palette Solides géométriques: géométrie:
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مناة
ميثولوجيا عربية قديمة | آلهة شبه الجزيرة العربية
مناة إلهة من أقدم الإلهات العربيات التي عبدها العرب القدماء ممن سكن مكة والحجاز.
تعريف : مناة هي واحدة من الثالوث من أشهر أوثان الجاهلية. وقد اعتقد قسم من الجاهليين أنها ابنة العزى وأخت اللات. وقد كانت في نظر الجاهليين إلهة خيرة معطاءة مغيثة، إلا أن المفارقة العجيبة هي كونها إلهة المنايا والموت في نفس الوقت لأن اسمها مشتق من كلمة منان. وقد عرف مناة شعوب أخرى غير العرب: * عند البابليين: عرفوها باسم "ما مناتو" وبلهجة أخرى "مناتا" * عند العبرانيين: منا التي جمعها مانوت.
المظهر والاعتقاد : لم يذكر المؤرخون شيئا عن صفة مناة وشكلها بل ذكروا أنها كانت منصوبة على ساحل البحر بقرب موضع اسمه "وادي قديد"، ويستنتجون من ذلك أن لها صلة بالبحر والماء والريح والسحب، وقد كانوا يذبحون لها في أوقات القحط والجدب يستمطرون بذلك ويقدمون لها الشكر إذا هبت عليهم الرياح الرطبة. وكانوا أيضا يرونها إلهة خيّرة كريمة تنشر السعادة بإرسال السحائب الممطرة.
العبادة : كان لمناة بيتا في موضع يقال له "المشلل"، وكان العرب يحجون إليه ويلبون بقولهم: "لبيك اللهم لبيك، لولا أن بكراً دونك، يَبُرُّكَ الناس ويهجرونك، وما زال حج عثج يأتونك، إنا على عدوائهم من دونك". وكانوا يديمون الذبح عندها حتى إن بعضهم قال إنها ما سُمّيت بمناة إلا لأن الدماء "تُمنى" عندها.
و كانت مناة معظمة عند الأوس والخزرج بصفة خاصة وكل من كان مواليا لهاتين القبيلتين من الأزد وبني غسان مثل قريش وهذيل وخزاعة، فكانوا (أي الأوس والخزرج) إذا قضوا حجهم وأتموا جميع المناسك لا يحلقون رؤوسهم حتى يصلون عندها، فيحلقون رؤوسهم ويقيمون عندها وبذلك يرون أن حجهم قد تم.
و قد قال الشاعر:
إني حلفت يمين صدق برة
بمناة عند محل آل الخزرج
و المحل هو المكان الذي يقفون فيه أمام مناة ليحلفون عندها.
و قد تسمى بعض عرب الجاهلية بأسماء تعبدوا فيها لمناة مثل: "سعد مناة" و"عبد مناة" وأوس مناة".
و كانت سدانة مناة في الغطاريف من الأزد، وكانوا في غناء وثراء فاحش، وذلك بسبب الكم الكبير من الهدايا والنذور والقرابين التي كانت تهدى لمناة.
ما بعد الإسلام : لما فتح النبي محمد مكة، أرسل علياً بن أبي طالب إلى بيت مناة، فهدمه وأخذ ما فيه من الحلي والهدايا وكان من جملة ما أخذ سيفين كان الملك الغساني الحارث بن أبي شمر قد أهداهما للإلهة مناة، والسيفين هما "مخذم" و"رسوب". فلما رجع إلى النبي وأخبره بما وجده عندها وهبه النبي أحد السيفين ويقال إن ذو الفقار هو ذلك السيف.
و يذكر أن هذين السيفين لهما ذكر في شعر علقمة عندما قال:
مظاهر سربالي حديد عليهما
عقيلا سيوف مخذم ورسوب
و هناك قول آخر هو أن علي بن أبي طالب وجد هذين السيفين عند الإله الفَلْس، إله طيء.
و قد ورد ذكر مناة مع اللات والعزى في القرآن الكريم مهاجما إياها بالخرافات في سورة النجم:
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Manāt
Time and fate goddesses | Arabian goddesses
Fertile Crescent myth (Arabian): (مناة: ; also transliterated as ) was one of the three chief goddesses of Mecca. The pre-Islamic Arabs believed Manāt to be the goddess of fate. She was known by the cognate name Manawat to the Nabataeans of Petra, who equated her with the Graeco-Roman goddess Nemesis and she was considered the wife of Hubal. The Qur'an confirmed that the pre-Islamic Arabs believed that some female idols were daughters of God, like Allāt, Al-‘Uzzá, and Manāt. According to Grunebaum in Classical Islam, the Arabic name of Manat is the linguistic counterpart of the Hellenistic Tyche, Dahr, fateful 'Time' who snatches men away and robs their existence of purpose and value. There are also connections with Chronos of Mithraism and Zurvan mythology. The Book of Idols describes her:
The ruling tribes of al-Madinah, and other Arabs continued to worship Manat until the time of Muhammad.
The temple of Manat was raided and the idol was destroyed on the orders of Muhammad, in the Raid of Sa'd ibn Zaid al-Ashhali, in January 630 AD, 8AH, 9th month, of the Islamic Calendar. In the vicinity of al-Mushallal * Notes
reflist: : References== * Ibn al-Kalbī; (author) and Nabih Amin Faris (translator & commentary) (1952): The Book of Idols, Being a Translation from the Arabic of the Kitāb al-Asnām. Princeton University Press. US Library of Congress #52006741 * Grunebaum, G. E. von (1970). Classical Islam: A History 600 A.D. - 1258 A.D.. Aldine Publishing Company. ISBN 202-15016-X.
Time in religion and mythology:
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Manat
Vocabulaire de l'islam | Déesse pré-islamique arabe
Manat (homonymie):
ManatManat, en arabe manāt, , le destin ou Manāh était une déesse du destin vénérée en Arabie à l'époque pré-islamique. Manat est mentionnée dans le Coran avec les deux autres grandes déesses Allat et Uzza :
début citation: Que pensez-vous d'al-Lat et al-'Uzzâ
et de l'autre, Manât, la troisième
Aurez-vous le garçon et Dieu la fille
Quel inique partage ! fin citation: Ces versets sont à l'origine de l'histoire dite des versets sataniques.
Ce que l'on sait de Manat provient essentiellement du Livre des idoles de Hicham ibn al-Kalbi. Elle aurait été l'aînée des trois "filles de Dieu" à la Mecque : Allat, Manat et Uzza. Les Nabataéens lui rendaient également un culte sous le nom de Manawat ou Manawatu et l'identifiaient à Némésis, mais en faisaient, selon Julius Wellhausen, la mère d'Houbal.
Sa statue était érigée au bord de la mer aux environs de al-Mushallal à Qudayd, entre Médine et la Mecque. Les habitants de ces deux villes ainsi que les Aws et les Khazraj lui présentaient des offrandes et lui faisaient des sacrifices. Des enfants étaient prénommés Abd-Manāh and Zayd-Manāh.
Les Aws et les Khazraj, tribus arabes de Yathrib (actuelle Médine) avaient coutume de se rendre en pèlerinage dans des lieux déterminés où ils veillaient. À leur retour, ils visitaient le lieu de culte de Manat où ils se rasaient la tête avant de rentrer chez eux. Sans ce rite le pèlerinage n'était pas complet. Certains Arabes prenaient « Manat du lieu sacré de Khazraj » comme témoin de leurs serments.
La huitième année de l'Hégire, où il remporta la victoire définitive sur le reste des Quraysh, Mahomet, ayant quitté Médine depuis quatre ou cinq nuits, aurait envoyé Ali détruire l'idole et s'emparer de ses trésors, au nombre desquels se trouvaient deux épées (Mikhdham et Rasūb), offrandes de al-Harith ibn-Abi-Shamir al-Ghassāni, roi de Ghassān. Le Prophète les offrit à Ali. L'une d'elles serait donc peut-être sa célèbre épée Dhu'l Faqār.
Notes et références : Références: Annexes :
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قلعة بران
رومانيا | تاريخ رومانيا | قصور رومانيا | قلاع | قصور | مواقع أثرية
قلعة بران أو قصر بران (بالرومانية: Castelul Bran) Törzburg: أحد أهم المواقع التاريخية والمعمارية في رومانيا, يقع في منطقة بران في مقاطعة براشوف على بعد 30 كم جنوبي براشوف المدينة.
تاريخ القلعة : * بني القصر من قبل الساشيين عام 1211 وانتهي عام 1377 وقد وافق الملك لودوفيك الأول ملك هنغاريا على الاعتراف بالقلعة بمرسوم صادر عنه في 19 نوفمبر 1377 وتم استعماله كحصن عسكري وكمحطة تجارية هامة. * في اواخر القرن الثالث عشر انقلت ملكية القلعة للمملكة الرومانية. * عام 1407 انتقلت ملكية القلعة لميرتشا العجوز. * عام 1427 انتقلت لملكية الكرسي الملكي الهنغاري في براشوف. * عام 1920 تبرع مجلس مدينة براشوف القلعة لملكة رومانيا ماريا كهديه بمناسبه توحيد البلاد عام 1918. * عام 1948 دخل تحت حماية الدولة الرومانية بعد أن هجر وخرب. وفتح للعامة عام 1956. * عام 1987 تم ترميمه من قبل الدوله وانتهى العمل بالترميم عام 1993. * عام 2009 تم افتتاح القصر رسميا للعامة بعد صراعات قضائية بين الجكومة وورثة الملكة ماريا الذين يطالبون بالقلعة كإرث من أجدادهم. * الأسطورة والحقيقة
اشتهر القصر عالميا بأنه قصر دراكولا حيث صور فيلم مقابلة مع مصاص الدماء في القلعة, مما أدى إلى الاعتقاد بأن فلاد تسيبيش سكنها وهذا يخالف الحقائق حيث لم يسكنها قط. * معرض الصور الممر منظر للساحة
* مصادر ==
ثبت_المراجع:
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Bran Castle
Braşov County | Castles in Romania | Castles of the Teutonic Knights | Dracula
Bran Castle (Castelul Bran: ; Törzburg: ; Törcsvár: ), situated near Bran and in the immediate vicinity of Braşov, is a national monument and landmark in Romania. The fortress is situated on the border between Transylvania and Wallachia, on DN73. Commonly known as "Dracula's Castle" (although it is one among several locations linked to the Dracula legend, including Poenari Castle and Hunyad Castle), it is marketed as the home of the titular character in Bram Stoker's Dracula. There is, however, no evidence that Stoker knew anything about this castle, which has only tangential associations with Vlad III, voivode of Wallachia, the putative inspiration for Dracula.
The castle is now a museum open to tourists, displaying art and furniture collected by Queen Marie. Tourists can see the interior individually or by a guided tour. At the bottom of the hill is a small open air museum park exhibiting traditional Romanian peasant structures (cottages, barns, etc.) from across the country.
History: In 1212, Teutonic Knights built the wooden castle of Dietrichstein as a fortified position in the Burzenland at the entrance to a mountain valley through which traders had travelled for more than a millennium, but in 1242 it was destroyed by the Mongols. The first documented mentioning of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (Braşov) the privilege to build the stone citadel on their own expense and labor force; the settlement of Bran began to develop nearby. In 1438-1442, the castle was used in defense against the Ottoman Empire, and later became a customs post on the mountain pass between Transylvania and Wallachia. It is believed the castle was briefly held by Mircea the Elder of Wallachia during whose period the customs point was established. The Wallachian ruler Vlad Ţepeş (Vlad the Impaler) 1448-1476 does not seem to have had a significant role in the history of the fortress, although he passed several times through the Bran Gorge. Bran Castle belonged to the Magyar Kings but due to King Wladyslaw II’sdateNovember 2011: failure to repay loans, the city of Brasov gained possession of the fortress in 1533. Bran played a militarily strategic role up to the mid-18th century.
In 1920, the castle became a royal residence within the Kingdom of Romania. It became the favorite home and retreat of Queen Marie. The castle was inherited by her daughter Princess Ileana and was later seized by the communist regime with the expulsion of the royal family in 1948.
In 2005, the Romanian government passed a special law allowing restitution claims on properties illegally expropriated, such as Bran, and thus a year later the castle was awarded ownership to Dominic von Habsburg, the son and heir of Princess Ileana.
In September 2007, an investigation committee of the Romanian Parliament stated that the retrocession of the castle to Archduke Dominic was illegal, as it broke the Romanian law on property and succession. However, in October 2007 the Constitutional Court of Romania rejected the parliament's petition on the matter. In addition, an investigation commission of the Romanian government issued a decision in December 2007 reaffirming the validity and legality of the restitution procedures used and confirming that the restitution was made in full compliance with the law.
On May 18, 2009, the Bran Castle administration was transferred from the government to the administration of Archduke Dominic and his sisters Maria-Magdalena Holzhausen and Elisabet Sandhofer. On June 1st, the Habsburgs opened the refurbished castle to the public as the first private museum of the country and disclosed with Bran Village a joint strategic concept to maintain their domination in the Romanian tourist circuit and to safeguard the economic base in the region.
Photographs : Off the beaten View of the View from the main View from the upstairs balcony.
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Château de Bran
Château roumain
Le château de Bran (Castelul Bran en roumain) près de Brașov en Transylvanie non loin de la limite avec la Valachie est un monument national et un lieu touristique de Roumanie.
Le château est à présent la propriété des Habsbourgs, mais le premier château a été construit par les Chevaliers Teutoniques au début du XIIIe siècle: bien avant la dynastie habsbourgeoise. De nos jours, il est associé à Vlad III l'Empaleur (improprement car il n'y a probablement jamais séjourné) et au personnage de Dracula qu'il a en partie inspiré.
Histoire : Les origines : Le premier château a été construit par Chevaliers Teutoniques au début du XIIIe siècle: pour contrôler la passe Rucăr-Bran, une route commerciale stratégique importante. Ce château initial était en bois et la garde permanente était constituée de soldats locaux et de quelques chevaliers de la ville voisine de Christian, construite elle aussi par les Chevaliers Teutoniques. La tour de garde en bois fut assiégée et brûla totalement en 1242 lors de l'invasion des Mongols.
En 1377, le roi de Hongrie Louis Ier de Hongrie, missionne le bourg de Brașov pour construire une nouvelle forteresse de pierre au sommet du Rocher de Dietrich, en vue d'établir une position défensive sur la passe. À l'origine, la garnison est composée d'archers anglais. Il s'agit aussi de collecter les droits de douane des marchands qui l'empruntent. Une fois achevé, le château et ses environs sont gouvernés par un homme (nommé castellan) rétribué par la Chambre du Conseil de Brașov. Plus tard, c'est le roi de Hongrie Sigismond de Luxembourg qui possède le château. Durant cette période, un épisode voit le rapprochement de la Valachie et le royaume de Hongrie. En effet, Mircea Ier: l'Ancien (Mircea cel Bătrân) qui affronte Vlad Ier l'Usurpateur dans une guerre de succession fait alliance avec Sigismond. Un document datant de 1412 fait état d'un droit d'occupation et d'usage du château par Mircea Ier: .
Il est amélioré et des tours sont ajoutées pendant l'occupation valaque. En 1663, la Tour poudrière explose et endommage gravement le côté ouest du château, mais elle est reconstruite.
Période contemporaine : Le 1er décembre: 1920, les habitants de Brașov offrent le château à la famille royale de Roumanie par la voix de leur maire, Karl Schnell .
Celui-ci reste en possession de la famille royale durant vingt-sept ans. La reine Marie a été attirée par le lieu non seulement pour sa position mais aussi pour "son ambiance médiévale dans laquelle la souveraine s'est parfaitement intégrée" . Elle a fait donc de Bran sa résidence préférée, à côté de Baltchik .
Entre 1920 et 1930 le château est amélioré et transformé en résidence d'été. Les travaux sont conduits par l'architecte tchèque Karel Liman qui avait travaillé également aux châteaux de Peleș et Pelișor. Après la cession de la Dobroudja du sud à la Bulgarie, en 1940, le cœur de la reine Marie est déplacé de Baltchik, où il a été enterré et déposé dans la colline faisant face au château de Bran.
En 1927, pendant le règne de la reine Marie, on découvre le célèbre passage secret. Celui-ci relie deux étages du château et on suppose qu'il avait été installé pour espionner ou pour évacuer les lieux plus facilement. Un tunnel secret est aussi mis au jour, lorsqu'un enfant y tombe accidentellement : on découvre ainsi que la fontaine du jardin intérieur et la base du château communiquent.
Après l'abdication du roi Michel Ier en 1947, le château est confisqué par l'État roumain. La forteresse est transformée en musée national d'histoire et d'arts médiévaux et est ouverte aux visiteurs dans les années 1950 .
Le 26 mai 2006, le château de Bran a été restitué à son propriétaire, Dominique de Habsbourg, le petit-fils de la reine Marie, 58 ans après avoir été confisqué par les communistes. Cet architecte vivant aux États-Unis a conclu une entente assurant que le château restera un musée durant au moins trois années supplémentaires. L'avenir du château au-delà de ces trois années est incertain.
Le 10 janvier 2007, la famille Habsbourg décide de mettre en vente le château de Bran pour la somme de 60 millions d'euros. Suivant les sources, le château attire entre et visiteurs par an, à cause de son statut de « château de Dracula », et générerait environ 1 million d'euros de recette de ses visites. L'État roumain, intéressé par un éventuel rachat, déclare cependant que "le prix est indécent et exagéré par rapport à la valeur réelle du château", qui selon lui serait estimé à 25 millions d'euros.
Association à Dracula : Dans le roman homonyme de Bram Stoker, le château est placé dans une autre région de Transylvanie, au col de "Borgo" (Bârgău), au-delà de Bistritz, Bran n'y est jamais mentionné. Mais à Borgo (Bârgău-Tihuța), il n'y a aucun château, et Bran correspond assez à l'image que véhicule la mythologie de Dracula...
Selon un guide touristique de la région , Vlad III l'Empaleur (Vlad Țepeș), dit Dracula, après avoir perdu son trône, a reçu de Iancu de Hunedoara la tâche de défendre la frontière sud de la Transylvanie. Dans ce contexte, il "aurait pu faire halte dans le château ". Mais aucun document historique ne corrobore la présence de Vlad Țepeș à Bran,: . De plus, le château n’a jamais été propriété de la Valachie pendant le règne de Vlad . Selon l'historien roumain Mihnea Căpraru, l'histoire de la présence du prince à Bran ne serait qu'une "arnaque touristique", tout comme sa supposée naissance à Sighișoara . * Tourisme
Une grande partie du château peut être visitée, mais certaines pièces restent cachées. L'histoire de ce château et de ses habitants est racontée sur des panneaux en roumain et en anglais. Des vêtements de l'époque sont exposés, ainsi que des meubles, quelques armes et des tapis. À l'extérieur, on trouve des exemples de chaumières roumaines, où les visiteurs peuvent imaginer la vie des Roumains d'autrefois. Autour du château, un petit village touristique propose des produits locaux, ainsi que des produits en tous genres déclinés du fameux emblème de Dracula. * Galerie Le château de Bran
image:Castelo de Extérieur du Vue de l'intérieur * Annexes * Articles connexes * Églises fortifiées de Transylvanie * Liste des châteaux roumains * Liste de forts, fortifications, citadelles et places fortes en Roumanie
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جزر الأنتيل الصغرى
جزر الكاريبي | أرخبيلات
جزر الأنتيل الصغرى هي الجزء الجنوبي من جزر الأنتيل وجزر الهند الغربية. توجد في الجزء الشرقي من البحر الكاريبي وتطل على المحيط الأطلسي من الناحية الغربية.
من جزر الأنتيل الصغرى الرئيسية هي: * أنجويلا * أنتيجوا وباربادو * أروبا * باربيدوس * بونير * جزر العذراء البريطانية * جزر كايمان * دومينيكا * جرينادا * جواديلوبي * مارتينيك * مونتسيرات * جزر الأنتيل الهولندية * سابا * سانت كيتس ونيفيس اللتان تشكلان دولة سانت كيتس ونيفس * سانت لوسيا * سانت مارتن * سانت فنسنت وجرينادينز واللتان تشكلان دولة سانت فنسنت والجرينادينز * ترينداد وتوباغو * جزر العذراء الأمريكية والمكونة من جزيرة سانت توماس وجزيرة سانت جون وجزيرة سانت كرويكس.
تقسم جزر الأنتيل الصغرى إلى جزر وندوارد الواقعة في الجنوب وجزر ليوارد الواقعة في الشمال.
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Lesser Antilles
Lesser Antilles | Caribbean islands | Islands of the North Atlantic Ocean | Archipelagoes of the Caribbean Sea | Volcanic arc islands
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The Lesser Antilles (also known as the Caribbees) are a long, partly volcanic island arc in the Western Hemisphere. Most of its islands form the eastern boundary of the Caribbean Sea with the Atlantic Ocean, with the remainder located in the southern Caribbean just north of South America. The Lesser Antilles and the Greater Antilles compose the Antilles, which are in turn part of the West Indies along with the Bahamas, the Cayman Islands, and the Turks and Caicos Islands. * Regional terminology
The islands of the Lesser Antilles are divided into three groups. The two main groups are the Windward Islands in the south and the Leeward Islands in the north. The Windward Islands are called such because they were more windward to sailing ships arriving in the New World than the Leeward Islands, given that the prevailing trade winds blow east to west. The trans-Atlantic currents and winds that provided the fastest route across the ocean brought these ships to the rough dividing line between the Windward and Leeward Islands.
The third group is the Leeward Antilles in the west. These consist of the Dutch ABC islands just off the coast of Venezuela, plus a group of Venezuelan islands. * Geology
The Lesser Antilles more or less coincide with the outer edge of the Caribbean Plate. Many of the islands were formed as a result of the subduction of oceanic crust of the North American Plate under the Caribbean Plate in the Lesser Antilles subduction zone. This process is ongoing and is responsible not only for many of the islands, but also for volcanic and earthquake activity in the region. The islands along the South American coast are largely the result of the interaction of the South American Plate and the Caribbean Plate which is mainly strike-slip, but includes a component of compression. * Political divisions * Sovereign states
* Non-sovereign territories
* Islands
The main Lesser Antilles are (from north to south to west):
Leeward Islands: * Virgin Islands ** St. Thomas (USA) ** St. John (USA) ** St. Croix (USA) ** Water Island (USA) ** Tortola (UK) ** Virgin Gorda (UK) ** Anegada (UK) ** Jost Van Dyke (UK) * Anguilla (UK) * Saint Martin/Sint Maarten (France/Neth.) * Saint-Barthélemy (Fr.) * Saba (Neth.) * Sint Eustatius (Neth.) * Saint Kitts (St. Kitts and Nevis) * Nevis (St. Kitts and Nevis) * Barbuda (Antigua and Barbuda) * Antigua (Antigua and Barbuda) * Redonda (Antigua and Barbuda) * Montserrat (UK) * Guadeloupe (Fr.) * La Désirade (Fr.) * Marie-Galante (Fr.) * les Saintes archipelago (Fr.) * Dominica (Dominica)
Windward Islands: * Martinique (Fr.) * Saint Lucia (St. Lucia) * Saint Vincent (St. Vincent and the Grenadines) * Grenadines (St. Vincent and the Grenadines) * Barbados (Barbados is a Continental island found east of the Windward chain) * Grenada (Grenada) * Tobago * Trinidad (Sometimes considered part of the Windward Islands. They are the most southern islands of the Caribbean region. Islands of Trinidad and Tobago
Leeward Antilles – islands north of the Venezuelan coast (from west to east): * Aruba (Neth.) * Curaçao (Neth.) * Bonaire (Neth.) * Los Roques Archipelago (Ven) * La Orchila (Ven) * La Tortuga (Ven) * La Blanquilla (Ven) * Margarita Island (Ven) * Coche (Ven) * Cubagua (Ven) * Other islands (Ven)
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Petites Antilles
Petites Antilles
Les Petites Antilles sont un archipel composé des îles de la partie méridionale de l'arc antillais depuis la fosse d'Anegada au nord-ouest jusqu'au sous-continent sud-américain.
On définit généralement les Petites Antilles par opposition aux Grandes Antilles, elles constituent une longue chaîne d'îles séparant la mer des Caraïbes de l'océan Atlantique.
Définition géographique et différences linguistiques: Les sous-divisions de l'archipel des Antilles varient selon la discipline par laquelle on les aborde (géologie, biogéographie, histoire), néanmoins un consensus existe sur la limite nord des petites Antilles au niveau de la fosse d'Anegada. Cette fosse constitue un passage de près de 50 km de largeur à l'ouest duquel se trouvent les îles Vierges et les grandes Antilles. A ce titre la première et plus septentrionale île des petites Antilles est Sombrero, un îlet dépendant d'Anguilla.
Les petites Antilles sont à leur tour définies en deux sous-ensembles : les îles du Vent et les îles sous le Vent. Néanmoins, il existe une différence linguistique notable entre la langue anglaise et les autres langues occidentales (française, néerlandaise, espagnole, etc.) quant à la dénomination et le regroupement des Petites Antilles.
* Liste des îles des petites Antilles
Début d'illustration: * Les Îles du Vent
;(du nord au sud) * AIA-d: Sombrero (GB) * AIA-d: Scrub Island (GB) * AIA-d: Dog Island (GB) * AIA-d: Anguilla (GB) * Tintamarre (FR) * Saint-Martin / Sint-Maarten (FR) / (NL) * Saint Barthélemy (FR) * Saba (NL) * Saint-Eustache (NL) * Saint-Christophe * Niévès * Barbuda * Antigua * Redonda * Montserrat: (GB) * Guadeloupe (FR) * La Désirade et Petite-Terre (FR) * Marie-Galante (FR) * îles des Saintes (FR) * Isla de Aves (VZ ; revendiqué par la Dominique) * Dominique: * Martinique (FR) * Sainte-Lucie: * Barbade: * Saint-Vincent * Bequia * Moustique * Canouan * Mayreau * Union * Petit-Saint-Vincent * Petite Martinique * Carriacou * Ronde * Grenade: * Tobago * Trinidad * Les Îles Sous-le-Vent
;(de l'est à l'ouest) * Los Testigos (VZ) * Los Frailes (VZ) * Margarita (VZ) * Cubagua (VZ) * Coche (VZ) * La Blanquilla (VZ) * Tortuga (VZ) * La Orchila (VZ) * Los Roques (VZ) * Las Aves (VZ) * Bonaire (NL) * Klein Bonaire (NL) * Curaçao (NL) * Klein Curaçao (NL) * Aruba (NL) * Géographie * Le sommet le plus élevé est la Soufrière (1467 m) qui se trouve sur l'île de la Basse-Terre, en Guadeloupe. * La fosse océanique la plus profonde de l'Atlantique (-9210 m) est située en bordure nord des Îles Vierges américaines. * Répartie sur 14 307 km², la population totale des Petites Antilles serait proche des 3,97 millions d'habitants (2006) dont 1,36 million à Trinité-et-Tobago. * Géologie * Selon la tectonique des plaques, celle de l'Atlantique sud s'enfonçant, à raison de 2 à 4 centimètres par an, par subduction sous la plaque caraïbe produit le long de cette bordure une suite d'îles volcaniques formant un arc interne et un arc externe d'accrétion. Les matières minérales qui ont émergé de l'océan ont construit les îles des Petites Antilles. Il existe bien deux arcs antillais. Le plus ancien, à l'est, est issu d'un premier épisode volcanique, voici 55 millions d'années. Les îles qui sont nées ont été ensuite érodées puis recouvertes d'épaisses couches calcaires d'origine corallienne; c'est le cas de Saint-Martin, d'Antigua, de la Grande-Terre ou encore de la Barbade. Le second arc, plus à l'ouest, date de moins de 5 millions d'années et témoigne d'un volcanisme toujours actif, comme sur Montserrat, la Basse-Terre, la Dominique ou Sainte-Lucie. * Minerais : bien que recelant une grande variété de minerais (cuivre, soufre, fer, manganèse, etc.) les quantités extractibles seraient trop limitées pour en valoriser une exploitation. * Du volcanisme actif est observable sur certaines îles sous forme d'eaux chaudes ou de dégagement de gaz sulfureux tel sur Saba, Saint-Eustache, Basse-Terre, Dominique, Niévès, Martinique, etc.
De temps à autre, un des volcans entre en éruption. Cette éruption peut être éruption phréatique ou magmatique ce qui est beaucoup plus dangereux.
Le type de volcans des Antilles est dit péléen c’est-à-dire explosif qui peut produire des nuées ardentes capables de tout dévaster sur son passage. Tel fut le cas en 1902, la montagne Pelée détruisit la ville de Saint-Pierre en Martinique.
En 1995 le volcan de l'île Montserrat s'est fortement réveillé détruisant totalement la ville principale et son aéroport. La moitié de la population a dû être évacuée et à ce jour l'éruption n'est pas terminée.
Au nord de la Grenade, le volcan sous-marin Kick-'em-Jenny grandit peu à peu. Depuis sa dernière éruption, en 2001, son sommet ne se trouve plus qu'à 130 mètres de la surface de l'océan. * Ethnologie * Leur population est d'origine noire africaine plus ou moins métissée d'Européens et d'Amérindiens Caraïbes, de grosses communautés originaires d'Inde et Pakistan, du Liban, de Chine. * En général, les habitants se revendiquent d'une communauté culturelle inter îles dite « créole », mais chacun reste très marqué par sa culture coloniale d'origine. * Dû à l'histoire de la colonisation, les langues qui sont parlées dans ces îles sont : l'anglais, le français, le créole, le néerlandais, le papiamento et l'espagnol. * Les religions : christianisme (catholicisme, anglicanisme, méthodisme, adventisme, baptisme, évangélisme, etc.), judaisme, islam et hindouisme. * Climat
Le chaud climat tropical est agréablement adouci par les vents alizés assez constants tout au long de l'année. Ces vents sont uniquement interrompus par quelques tempêtes sur l'océan Atlantique.
A l'intérieur des terres, le climat est un peu plus chaud mais se rafraîchit avec l'altitude, tout comme l'humidité qui augmente aussi.
Cependant on y remarque deux types de saisons : * La saison sèche et fraîche, (décembre à juin) dite période du carême. * La saison humide et chaude, (juin à décembre) dite période cyclonique ou appelé plus communément l'hivernage. * Exportations
Depuis 1980, la banane connaît en Europe un regain de faveur qui a relancé sa production dans les Petites Antilles. Avec le sucre, le rhum et l'ananas, elle reste un des fleurons de l'économie des îles, ces produits représentant 90 % des exportations. * Recherches scientifiques
Depuis 2008, un financé par l'Agence nationale de la recherche (ANR) a pour finalité de compiler un corpus de sources rares et inédites sur les Petites Antilles (1493-1660) et ce, notamment pour faciliter l'étude des populations amérindiennes de cette région. Ce programme est porté par l'ANR, le (université de Reims Champagne-Ardenne), le Musée du quai Branly et l'Université de Leiden (Pays-Bas). * Notes et références
Références: : Annexes * Articles connexes * Antilles britanniques * Antilles françaises * Antilles néerlandaises/Îles BES * Antilles
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آراشي
فرق موسيقية يابانية
آراشي 嵐 تعني العاصفة: وهي فرقة يابانية مكونة من خمس شبان اونو ساتوشي، ساكوراي شو، آيبا ماساكي، نينوميا كازوناري، ماتسوموتو جون. تحت اسم وكالة جوني للمواهب. تكونت بتاريخ في جزيرة هونولولو في هاواي. تعتبر آراشي فرقة مشهورة جدا في اليابان حيث احتلت المركزين الأول والثاني سنه 2008 في أكثر السجلات مبيعا. وأيضا في نصف سنة احتلت المركزين الأول والثاني وكان كل سجل يفوق مبيعاتها النصف مليون.كما انها تعد من أكثر الفرق اليابانيه شهرة في أمريكا واسيا
وحاليا اراشي تقوم بالترويج للسياحة في اليابان فقد اختيرو من قبل وكالات السياحه ليكونو " وجوه اليابان "
مسيرة آراشي الفنية..
عــام 1999-2006.. : في 3 نوفمبر 1999 أطلقوا أول سينغل لهم وهو (A.RA.SH.I) حيث أصبحت هذه الاغنيه هي الاغنيه الرئيسيه لمباريات كأس العالم لكرة اليد
وقد تم بيع 557,430 نسخه في الأسبوع الواحد وقد وصلوا إلى المليون نسخه في نهايه الشهر.
في عام 2000 أطلقوا السينغل الثاني بعنوان (Sunrise Nippon) حيث احتلت هذه الاغنيه المركز الأول في تصفيات الأغاني للاسبوع
وفي اليوم التالي اقامت الفرقه أول حفله موسيقيه لهم في Osaka Hall وقد أصدروا أغنيتهم الأخرى (Typhon Generation) حيث احتلت المركز الثالث في تصفيات الاغاني للاسبوع
وقد أقاموا العديد من الحفلات وعلى نهاية عام 2000 أصدروا السينغل الأخير لهذه السنه (Kansha Kangki Ame Arashi) وقد احتل المركز الثاني في التصفيات وتم بيع 258,720 نسخه في الاسبوع الأول.
في عام 2001 أطلقوا أول ألبوم لهم (Arashi No:1 Ichigou Arashi Wa Arashi o Yabu) ولقد احتل المركز الأول في تصفيات الاغاني للاسبوع حيث تم بيع 267,220 نسخه
وفي نهايه عام 2001 أطلقوا سينغل بعنوان (Jidai) كآخر سينغل لهم تحت مسمى Pony Canyon وقد كانت هذه الاغنيه هي الاغنيه الرئيسيه لمسلسل العضو ماتسوموتو جون
فقد كانت أفضل اغنيه للدراما.
بدأت أراشي بإطلاق سينغل جديد في عام 2002 تحت مسمى J.Storm بعنوان (A Day in Our Life)
وقد كانت هي الاغنيه الرئيسيه لدراما العضو ساكوراي شو Kisarazu Cat's Eye وقد تم بيع 226,480 نسخه
وفي هذه السنه أيضا تم اصدار أغنيتين(Pikanchi و Nice na Kakoroki) حيث انهما كانتا الاغنيه الرئيسيه للانمي والاغنيه الرئيسيه لفلمهم Pikanchi Life.
مع بداية 2003 بدأت الفرقه بإطلاق أغنيتين في كل مره حتى نهاية 2007، والأغنيتان اللتان أصدرتا في 2003 هما (Tomadoi Nagara و Hadashi no mirai)
وقد احتلت المركز الثاني في تصفيات الاغاني للاسبوع.
عام 2004 كانت الذكرى السنويه الخامسه لــARASHI منذ أول ظهور لهم، وقد بدأوا هذا العام بإصدار السينغل الثاني عشر (Pikanchi Double)
وقد كانت الاغنيه لفلمهم الثاني Pikanchi life is hard وقد تم بيع 89,106 نسخه في الاسبوع الأول وقد كان من اقل المبيعات التي حصلوا عليها اراشي خلال تلك الأعوام..
وللاحتفال بسنتهم الخامسه أنتجت الفرقه الألبوم الثاني 5X5 The Best Selection of 2002-2004
بالانضمام مع السينغل الذي انتجوه في 2004 (Hero).
في عام 2005 في السنة الجديده أصدرت الفرقه أول DVD لحفلهم، وفي نوفمبر أصدرت أغنيه جديده للدراما Hana Yori Dango
بطل الدراما العضو ماتسوموتو جون وعنوان الاغنيه هو (Wish)، وتم بيع 178,000 نسخه في الاسبوع الأول، وعلى نهايه الاسبوع تم بيع 300,000 نسخه
حيث أصبح هذا الرقم هو أكبر عدد من النسخ التي تم بيعها خلال 3 سنوات منذ A Day in Our Life في 2002.
بحلول عام 2006 بدأت الفرقه باكتساح آسيا وتم بيع العديد من ألبوماتهم خارج اليابان وتم بيع ألبوم الاستوديو (ARASHIC) في هونغ كونغ، كوريا الجنوبيه، تايوان وتايلند
وقد حقق الالبوم نجاحا باهرا في كوريا حيث تم بيع أول 10,000 نسخه خارج اليابان لأول مره
وفي منتصف (حفل أراشي الصيفي) أقاموا حفلا موسيقيا آخر حول آسيا تحت مسمى Jet Storm Tour
وقد قاموا بزياره تايوان، تايلند وكوريا الجنوبيه، فأصبحت فرقة أراشي أول فرقه من شركة (جوني) تقيم حفلا في كوريا
وسبب هذا الحفل هم الفانز الذين اصطفوا لاستقبال اراشي في المطار أثناء Jet Storm Tour ومن خلال انتهاء تذاكر الحفل خلال ساعه واحده فقط
وبهذا عرفوا اراشي بأنهم قد نالوا الشهرة في كوريا الجنوبيه أيضا، عادت الفلرقه إلى اليابان حتى يصدروا
السينغل الأخير لعام 2006 (Azora Pedal) وقد كانت هي الاغنيه الرئيسيه لفلم العضو ساكوراي شو Honey & Clover
عــام 2007 -2009 : مع بداية عام 2007 أصدرت الفرقه السينغل الأول (Love So Sweet) وقد كانت هي الاغنيه الرئيسيه
للدراما المشهورة Hana Yori Dango الجزء الثاني، حيث أحتلت الاغنيه المركز الأول في تصفيات الاغاني للاسبوع واليوميه على التوالي
وقد تم بيع أكثر من 200,000 نسخه لأول مره في الاسبوع منذ 5 سنوات وأصدروا سينغلا آخر (We Can Make It) واحتل المركز الأول أيضا.
في الشهر الرابع من سنة 2007 أقاموا أراشي أضخم حفل لهم (Arashi Around Asia in Dome)
وقد تم في kyocera Dome، Tokyo Dome حيث كان أول حفل لهم هناك
وفي الشهر السابع من السنة أنتجت قناة TBS اليابانيه دراما جديده Yamada Taro وكانت من بطولة
العضوين نينوما كازوناري، ساكوراي شو وقد أصدروا الاغنيه الرئيسيه لهذه الدراما بعنوان (Happiness)
ولقد حققوا العديد من النجاحات في هذه السنة وكانت اغنيتهم Love So Sweet من المراتب العشر الأولى
في Japan Gold Disc Award لعام 2008.
مع بداية 2008 بسبب نجاحاتهم وشهرتهم اصدروا السينغل الأول لهذه السنة (Step & Go) وقد احتلت المراكز الأولى في تصفيات الاغانيللسبوع
وفي نفس الشهر أقاموا حفلا موسيقيا في خمسة أماكن Osaka ,Tokyo، Nagoya Fukuka & Sapporo
وقد كانت هي الفرقه الوحيده التي اقامت 5 احتفالات من شركة جوني من بعد عدة سنوات من بعد الفرقيتن
Tokio & SMAP.. أطلقت الفرقه البوم الاستوديو Dream "A" Live حيث حقق ضربه ناجحه عند الفانز الذكور لأول مره
وقاموا بشراء الالبوم وكانت اراشي أول فرقه من شركة جوني يباع لها العديد من النسخ للفانز الذكور.
أصدرت الفرقه سينغلا آخر بعنوان (One Love) وكانت الاغنيه الرئيسيه للفلمHana Yori Dango الشهير
وقد حقق نجاحا باهرا ومبيعات كثيره، وأقاموا حفلا موسيقيا في شنغهاي لأول مره مما جعل شركة
johnny & Associates تقيم أول حفلا لها في الصين.
بعد شهر تقريبا أصدروا سينغل جديد (Truth / Kaze no muko e)الأغنية الرئيسية لدراما "maou" والتي قام ببطولتها قائد الفرقة أونو ساتوشي وr] احتل المراكز الأولى في الاسبوع الأول وتم بيع 467,288 نسخه، قبل حفل الفرقه في شنغهاي أصدروا أغنيه جديده (Beautifil Days)
وقد كانت الاغنيه الرئيسيه للدراما الرائعه Ryusei no Kizuna من بطولة العضو نينوميا كازوناري.
تم بيع DVD لحفلهم الموسيقي Summer Tour 2007 Final Time وقد احتل المركز الثاني كأفضل DVD لعام 2008.
قامت آراشي بجولتها الثانية حول آسيا..في كوريا أقيم الحفل في يومين فقط..حضرة أكثر من 30.000 متفرج..وقد امتدت الجولة لتصل إلى تايلند والصين..
مع بداية عام 2009 أصدروا سينغلا مزدوجا (Believe / Kumorinochi Kaisei)
(Ashita no kioku / Crazy moon) وقد تم بيع أكثر من 500,000 للسينغلين معا في الاسبوع الأول
مما جعل اراشي أول فرقه موسيقيه يباع لها هذا العدد الهائل من النسخ للسينغل المزدوج.
مع نهاية الشهر السادس لسنة 2009 أقامت أراشي حفلا موسيقيا كبيرا احتفالا بالذكرى السنويه العاشره منذ تأسيسهم
تحت مسمى Arashi Anniversary 5X10، وفي الشهر السابع تم اصدرا (Everything)
وقد تم بيع ما يقارب 342,00 في الاسبوع الأول
وفي الشهر الثامن من سنة 2009 تم بيع ألبومهم الضخم والذي أقام ضجة كبيره
All The Best 1999-2009 وكان يحتوي على جميع أغانيهم منذ تأسيسهم إلى 2009
واغنيه واحدة تم كتابتها من قبل اعضاء الفرقه، وتم بيع أكثر من 753.000 نسخه في الاسبوع الأول
وفي اليوم الثالث عشر حطمت المبيعات المليون، وأصبح من تاريخ أراشي حيث أصبح البومهم هو أول ألبوم لعام 2009 يصل للمليون.
في الشهر الحادي عشر من 2009 أصدروا السينغل الأخير لهذه السنة (My Girl)
وكانت الاغنيه الرئيسيه للدراما My Girl من بطولة آيبا ماساكي، احتل المركز الأولى
حيث تم بيع 178,000 نسخه في اليوم الأول وتم بيع 432,000 في نهاية الاسبوع.
وفي تاريخ 20 من الشهر تم دعوة أراشي لإقامة حفله في Tokyo Disney Sea مدينة ديزني
وكانت لليله واحده وقاموا بغناء أغاني الكريسميس واغانيهم الخاصه كذلك مثل A.RA.SH.I، One Love والعديد منها
مما جعلهم أول فرقه غنائيه تقوم بغناء اغانيها الخاصه في مدينة ديزني ومع حلول السنه الجديده
أقاموا احتفالا في Kohaku وقد كانت أراشي أول فرقه من شركة جوني منذ 21 سنة من بعد الفرق SMAP & Tokio تقيم احتفالا فيه.
عـــام 2010.. : مع بداية سنة 2010 تم الطلب من اراشي أن يقومو بغناء أغنيه خاصه لألومبياد 2010 لقناة NTV
وعنوانها هو (Yurase، Ima O) وبعد أيام قليله قاموا بإصدرا أغنيه حديده (TroubleMaker)
وكانت هي الاغنيه الرئيسيه لدراما العضو ساكوراي شو Tokyujo Kabachi
وفي اليوم التالي أعلنت قناة Mezamashi TV عن الاغنيه الرئيسيه للدراما سبيشل Saigo no Yakusoku
من بطولة أعضاء أراشي جميعا وعنوان الاغنيه (Sora Takaku)
وفي تاريخ 24 من شهر فبراير تم تكريم أراشي في Japan Gold Disc Award كـ أفضل فرقه لهذه السنة
مع 9 جوائز أخرى، ونتيجة لذلك أصبحت أراشي هي الفرقه الوحيده التي تلقت 10 جوائز دفعه واحده
من Japan Gold Disc Award.
وفي شهر أبريل قاموا بإصدار الاغنيه الرئيسيه للدراما Kaibutsu-Kun من بطولة اونو ساتوشي
بعنوان (Monster) واحتلت المركز الأول في تصفيات الاغاني للسبوع وتم بيع 543,000 نسخه في الاسبوع الأول
مما جعل من اراشي أول فرقه تحتل المراكز الثلاث الأولى في تصفيات الاغاني للسبوع منذ تأسيسهم.
تم اصدار سينغل جديد بعنوان (Love Rainbow) وهي الاغنيه الرئيسيه للدراما الرومانسيه Natsu no Koi
من بطولة ماتسوموتو جون، (To Be Free) السينغل الثالث لسنة 2010 مع اصدرا اغنيه منفردة للقائد اونو بعنوان (Yukai Tsukai) من دراما Kaibutsu-Kun.
وأصدرت أراشي اغنيه رئيسيه أخرى بعنوان (Dear Snow) للفلم Ooku من بطولة نينوميا كازوناري
وبعدها اصدروا ألبوم استوديو بعنوان Boku no Miteriru Fukei واحتل المركز الأول في التصفيات
وتم بيع حوالي 731,00 نسخه مما جعل من هذا الالبوم هو الالبوم الأول الذي يحتل المراتب الأولى
في تصفيات الاغاني للسبوع على مدى اسبوعين متتاليين حيث تم بيع 125,000 نسخه أخرى
وبالمجموع فقد تم بيع 356,00 نسخه في شهر 9 فقط.
وتم اصدرا سينغل آخر جديد بعنوان (Hatenai Sora) وقد كانت هي الاغنيه الرئيسيه للدراما
Freeter من بطولة العضو نينوميا كازوناري.
شركة طيران اليابان Japan Air Line اختصارها (JAL) قاموا بطباعه صور أعضاء أراشي جميعهم على الطائرة حيث سيتم بيع نسخه ممصمه خصيصا لراكبين الطائره وبهذا حصل عدد النسخ التي تم بيعها
للالبوم المليون نسخه مما جعله أول ألبوم تباع نسخه فوق المليون.
وفي تاريخ 3 من شهر نوفمبر تم اختيار فرقه اراشي كمقدمين لحفلات Kohaku مما جعلهم
أول فرقه موسيقيه تقوم بعمل التقديم في الـKohaku
عـــام 2011.. : * قامت فرقة آراشي بالتعاون من شركة الهواتف au..بتحدي للدخول في موسوعة غينيس للأرقام القياسية...وقد سجلت الشركة رسميا في الموسوعه تحت 3 مسميات..* قامت الفرقة بإصدار فيديو غنائي لحفل "Arashi 10–11 Tour "Scene": Kimi to Boku no Miteiru Fūkei – Stadium"والذي باع في أول أسبوع أكثر من 618,000 نسخه... * أصدرت سنقل جديد بعنوان "lotus" وهي الأغنية الرسمية لدراما قناة آساهي "bartender" والتي يقوم بها عضو آراشي آيبا ماساكي.. * شاركت آراشي مع بقية فرق الجونيز في حملة marching j..التي نظمتها الوكالة..وهي حملة خيريه أقيمت بعد زلزال 11 مارس والتي تهدف لجمع التبرعات من أجل ضحايا الزلزال..وقد حضر الحدث أكثر من 369.000 في الثلاث الأيام الأولى فقط
الأفلام والأعمال الدرامية المشتركة : كان لأعضاء آراشي دور في الأعمال الدرامية أو المسرحية سواء فردية..أو مشتركة للخمسة معا..
أول أنشطتها كانت دراما قصيرة على قناة فوجي بعنوان V no Arashi كان بثه بعد شهر من ترسيم الفرقة في هاواي..
كما قاموا بعمل فلم من جزئين الأول عام 2002 والثاني سنه 2005..بعنوان pikanshi
في عام 2010 قامت قناة فوجي بالتعاون مرة أخرى مع الفرقة...لتخرج بحلقة درامية خاصة بثت في شهر يناير..بعنوان Saigo no Yakusoku التي حصلت على نسبة مشاهدة عاليه وأحتلت المركز التاسع في التصنيف السنوي لأكثر البرامج الدرامية مشاهدة...
البرامج المنوعة والإعلانات التجارية : لم يكتفوا اراشي بإصدار الاغاني فقط والاشتراك في الدرامات.. بل كان لديهم العديد من البرامج والمشاركات في الاعلانات التلفزيونيه
في السابق وإلى الآن ومن هذه البرامج : * Mayonaka no Arashi * G no ARASHI * C no ARASHI * D no ARASHI * Arashi no shukudai -kun * Mago Mago Arashi * Golden Rush Arashi * Himitsu no ARashi -chan * VS Arashi * Arashi ni Shiyagare
ومن الاعلانات التلفزيونيه : * شركتا coca cola، pepsi * شركة kirin * House Foods * pino * au KDDI * وفي هذه السنة استملو تقديم اعلانات عن لعبه Wii إضافة إلى الأعلان عن Nintendo 3Ds
أهم الألبومات التي أصدرتها الفرقة... : Studio albums
Compilation albums
الأغاني التي أصدرتها الفرقة منذ ترسيمها : * الفيديوهات الموسيقية..
أهم الجوائز التي نالتها الفرقة... : Japan Gold Disc Award
2008 * "Love So Sweet" كـ أفضل 10 اغاني.
2009 * "Truth/Kaze no Mukō e" كــ أفضل 10 اغاني وأفضل اغنيه لهذه السنة. * "One Love و Beautiful Days" كـــ أفضل 10 اغاني * Summer Tour 2007 Final Time كــ أفضل فيديو موسيقي.
2010 * حصلت آراشي على عشر جوائز وهي أكثر فرقة تحصل على هدا العدد من الجوائز في سنه واحده * جائزة كأفضل فنان...إضافة إلى كل من الإصدارات التالية.. * "Believe/Kumorinochi, Kaisei" و"Ashita no Kioku/Crazy Moon" و"Everything" و"My Girl"...كــ أفضل 5 اغاني. * All the Best! 1999–2009 كــ أفضل البوم لهذه السنة وكــ أفضل 5 البومات. * Arashi Around Asia 2008 in Tokyo كــ أفضل فيديو موسيقي. * 5x10 All the Best! Clips 1999–2009 كــ أفضل فيديو موسيقي.
2011 * حصلت آراشي على جائزة فنان السنه...إضافةإلى.. * "Boku no Miteiru Fūkei" حصل على جائزةألبوم السنه إضافة إلى جائزة أفضل 5 ألبومات * "Troublemaker" و"Monster" كأفضل 5 أغاني * "Arashi Anniversary Tour 5x10" كأفضل فيديو غنائي
Television Drama Academy Awards
الأغاني التي نالت الجائزة * "Jidai" عــام 2001 * Beautiful Days" عام 2008 * "Ashita no Kioku" عــام 2009 * "Monster"..عــام 2010
أما هذه الاغاني فقد كانت من ضمن الأوائل المرشحه للفوز :- * "A Day in Our Life" * "Kotoba Yori Taisetsu na Mono" * "Hitomi no Naka no Galaxy" * "We Can Make It!" * "Happiness" * "My Girl" * "Troublemaker"
Billboard Japan Music Awards
حصلت على جائزتين سنه 2011 لسنقل..."Troublemaker"
المصادر : * johnny's Entertainment.. http://www.johnnys-net.jp/j/artists/arashi/prof/prof.html * منتديات أنيدرا..http://www.an-dr.com/vb/showthread.php?t39212 * المراجع ==
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Arashi
Japanese boy bands | Japanese idol groups | Japanese dancers | Japanese-language singers | Japanese musical groups | Japanese pop music groups | Johnny's Entertainment | Musical groups established in 1999 | J Storm
Other uses:
is a popular Japanese boy band consists of five members formed under the Japanese talent agency Johnny & Associates, which announced the formation of the group on November 3, 1999 in Honolulu, Hawaii. The group was initially signed to Pony Canyon and released one studio album and six singles—beginning with their 1999 eponymous debut single—before moving to the Johnny's subsidiary label J Storm in 2001, which was initially set up for their succeeding releases. While their debut single debuted atop the Oricon weekly chart selling a little over half a million copies, the group subsequently faced slowly declining sales.
With the release of their eighteenth single "Love So Sweet", Arashi began gaining commercial success as "Love So Sweet" was used as the opening theme song for the high-rating drama Hana Yori Dango 2, making it one of the top five best-selling singles of 2007 in Japan and the group's first single to exceed 400,000 copies sold overall in nearly seven years. For the next two years, Arashi gained a number of achievements and records as they became the first artist to place the top two rankings on the Oricon singles yearly chart for two consecutive years with their singles "Truth/Kaze no Mukō e" and "One Love" in 2008 and "Believe/Kumorinochi, Kaisei" and "Ashita no Kioku/Crazy Moon (Kimi wa Muteki)" in 2009, simultaneously topped the 2009 Oricon singles, album and music DVD yearly charts, and became the third artist in Oricon history to monopolize the top three best-selling singles of the year. In 2010, all six of Arashi's singles ranked within the top ten of the Oricon singles yearly chart, and their million-selling studio album Boku no Miteiru Fūkei was named the best-selling album of the year in Japan. * History * 1999–2001: Debut and departure from Pony Canyon
Johnny & Associates announced the group's debut on November 3, 1999 through a press conference aboard a cruise ship off the coast of Honolulu, Hawaii. Then-president Johnny Kitagawa chose five trainees from the Johnny's Jr. division of the agency to become the members of Arashi, the Japanese word for Storm, and to represent the agency's thrust of "creating a storm throughout the world". On November 3, 1999, they made their CD debut by releasing the single "Arashi", which became the theme song for the Volleyball World Cup hosted by Japan in 1999. It went on to become a major hit, selling 557,430 copies in its first week and almost a million copies by the end of its chart run.
On April 5, 2000, Arashi released their second single "Sunrise Nippon/Horizon", which debuted at number-one on the Oricon weekly singles chart selling 304,340 copies. The next day, the group began their first concert tour at Osaka Hall. In July, the group released their next single "Typhoon Generation", which debuted at number three on the weekly singles chart with 256,510 copies sold and continued to chart for nine weeks before leaving the charts. After holding more concerts in August, the group released their last single of 2000, "Kansha Kangeki Ame Arashi". The single debuted at number two on the Oricon weekly singles chart and had first-week sales of 258,720.
In January 2001, Arashi released their first studio album . The album debuted at number-one on the Oricon weekly album chart with initial sales of 267,220 copies. Until the release of their tenth anniversary compilation album All the Best! 1999–2009, the album remained the group's best-selling album with overall sales of about 323,030 for nearly ten years. From March 25 to April 30, 2001, the group embarked on their first nationwide concert tour Arashi Spring Concert 2001. The tour took place in Sendai, Osaka, Nagoya, Hokkaidō, Fukuoka, Hiroshima, Kanazawa, Toyama, and Tokyo with an unprecedented twenty-six performances. Before moving to a private record label by the end of 2001, Arashi released "Jidai" as their final single under Pony Canyon. Used as the theme song for Matsumoto's drama Kindaichi Shōnen no Jikenbo 3, it was named Best Theme Song in the 30th Television Drama Academy Awards.
2002–2005: J Storm and decline in sales: Arashi began 2002 by releasing their first single under J Storm. "A Day in Our Life" was used as the theme song for Sakurai's comedy drama Kisarazu Cat's Eye and debuted atop of the Oricon weekly singles chart selling 226,480 copies. Their subsequent releases of the year, "Nice na Kokoroiki" and "Pikanchi", were used as the theme songs for the anime Kochira Katsushika-ku Kameari Kōen-mae Hashutsujo and Arashi's movie respectively.
Starting in 2003, the group would only release two singles every year until 2007. Both singles released in 2003, "Tomadoi Nagara" and "Hadashi no Mirai/Kotoba Yori Taisetsu na Mono", debuted at number two on the charts. The song "Kotoba Yori Taisetsu na Mono" marked the first time a member contributed to the penning of a single, as many of the group's songs are produced by other lyricists, composers, or musicians. Sakurai, who is the designated rapper of Arashi, has since written all the incorporated rap lyrics of the group's releases.
2004 was Arashi's fifth anniversary since debut. They began the year by releasing their twelfth single, "Pikanchi Double", in February as the theme song for their second movie . Selling 89,106 copies in the first week, it is Arashi's lowest-selling single to date. In celebration of their anniversary, the group released a greatest hits album 5x5 The Best Selection of 2002–2004, which included their second 2004 single "Hitomi no Naka no Galaxy/Hero".
In 2005, on New Year's Day, Arashi released their first concert DVD since How's It Going? in 2003 titled 2004 Arashi! Iza, Now Tour!!. From July 26 to August 24, they embarked on a summer tour titled One to support their album of the same name. One of the highlights of the tour included the live performance their first single of the year, "Sakura Sake", on top of , a transparent stage that travels over the top of the audience. Invented by Matsumoto, "Johnny's Moving Stage" has since been used in a majority of Arashi's concerts to allow them to move closer to the audience seated at a distance from the main stage. In November, Arashi released a theme song for the manga-based drama Hana Yori Dango, which starred Matsumoto as one of the lead actors. "Wish" went on to sell an estimated 178,000 copies in its first week and over 300,000 copies by the end of its chart run, making it their first single sell over 300,000 copies in total in nearly three years since "A Day in Our Life" in 2002.
2006: International activities in Asia: By 2006, the group's singles and albums were being released outside of Japan. Their studio album, Arashic, was released not only in Japan, but also in Hong Kong, South Korea, Taiwan, and Thailand. The album was successful in Korea as the first 10,000 copies of the album were sold out on the first day, and it even topped the non-Korean sales charts on the third week of July.
In the midst of Arashi's summer concert tour Arachic Arashic Arasick Cool and Soul, the group embarked on a publicity tour around Asia called Jet Storm Tour on July 31. The group visited Taiwan, Thailand and South Korea, countries which later became part of their 2006 Asia tour, all in one day to hold press conferences and promote their Arashic album. For two days, September 16 and September 17, Arashi held their first concerts in Taipei at the Taipei Arena.
Performing "Arashi", "Wish" and "Kitto Daijōbu", which was their first single release of the year, the group represented Japan in the 3rd annual Asia Song Festival in South Korea on September 22. Almost two months later, they became the first group from Johnny's to perform individual concerts in South Korea. According to The Korea Times, the concerts in Korea were decided because about 1,500 Korean fans gathered at the Incheon International Airport during the group's Jet Storm Tour. Arashi proved popular to Korean fans when their concert tickets were sold out in an hour, as some 150,000 people rushed to book tickets online.
The group returned to Japan to release their second and final the single of the year "Aozora Pedal", which was written and composed by Japanese musician Shikao Suga and used for Sakurai's movie Honey and Clover. Although Arashi had planned to return to Thailand to hold a concert on October 7, it was canceled due to a military coup d'état. * 2007: Returning to the Japanese market
On February 21, the group released their first single of the year, "Love So Sweet", the theme song for the high-rating drama Hana Yori Dango 2, which peaked at the number-one spot on the Oricon daily and weekly charts. It is also Arashi's first single to sell more than 200,000 copies in a week in almost five years. Their nineteenth single "We Can Make It!", released on May 2, also charted number-one on the Oricon daily and weekly charts.
In April, the group performed in one of their largest concerts: Arashi Around Asia in Dome, a continuation of their Triumphant Homecoming concert held in January, which was aimed to celebrate the successful Asia tour. Arashi Around Asia in Dome was held at the Kyocera Dome in Osaka and at Tokyo Dome, making it Arashi's first time performing there. On July 14, Arashi launched their summer tour titled Time – Kotoba no Chikara to support their seventh studio album Time. The album sold over 190,000 copies in its first week, not only extending the group's string of number-one releases but also propelling the album to reach Platinum status by Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ).
Also in July, the TBS drama production of the manga Yamada Tarō Monogatari, which starred Ninomiya and Sakurai, began. Arashi sang the theme song of the drama, titled "Happiness", and released it on September 5 as their third single of the year. The year proved successful for the group as all of their singles ranked within the Top 30 of the annual Oricon charts, with "Love So Sweet" ranking fourth in single sales overall, making it the group's first single to rank within the Top 10 on the annual charts. "Love So Sweet" was also named one of The Best 10 Singles in the 22nd Japan Gold Disc Awards in 2008. * 2008: Rising popularity in Japan
The group's success in 2007 sparked renewed public interest. In February, Arashi released their first single of the year, "Step and Go", which debuted at the top of the Oricon weekly chart for having sold 324,223 copies, making it as the group's first single to exceed 300,000 copies sold in the first week since "Sunrise Nippon/Horizon" in 2000. The same month, it was announced that the group would be doing a concert tour of the five major domes in Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka, Fukuoka, and Sapporo. The tour, titled Arashi Marks 2008 Dream-A-Live, consisted of ten performances, from May 16 in Osaka to July 6 in Sapporo. The only other Johnny's artists who have done a five dome tour were SMAP and KinKi Kids. The tour also coincided with their eighth studio album, Dream "A" Live, which was reported to be a hit with male buyers by Oricon despite the fact that most releases by Johnny's artists are geared towards female teens and young adults. In the midst of the tour, Arashi released their twenty-second single "One Love", the theme song for the last production of the Hana Yori Dango trilogy. Like "Step and Go", the single sold over 300,000 copies in its first week and charted at number-one of the weekly singles chart.
As the start of the group's second Asia tour, Arashi became the third musical group—after SMAP and Dreams Come True—to perform at the National Olympic Stadium in Tokyo as their first major outdoor concert on September 5. The first two legs of the tour included a return to Taipei and Seoul while the third leg was a first time trip to Shanghai. The concert in Shanghai also marked Johnny & Associates' first concert in China. Almost a month after the release of "One Love", their twenty-third single, "Truth/Kaze no Mukō e", was released. Debuting atop of the Oricon weekly charts, the double A-side single sold 467,288 copies. Before the group's concert in Shanghai on November 15, they released their fourth single of the year, "Beautiful Days", which was used as the theme song for Ninomiya's drama Ryūsei no Kizuna. Although "Beautiful Days" only had a little over a month to chart before the Oricon charting period for 2008 ended on December 11, the single managed to climb up to be the tenth best-selling single of the year. Their concert DVD Summer Tour 2007 Final Time - Kotoba no Chikara, released on April 16, also ranked as the second best-selling music DVD of 2008 and ranked sixth place in the general DVD category.
2009: 10th anniversary: The group released two double A-side singles, "Believe/Kumorinochi, Kaisei" and "Ashita no Kioku/Crazy Moon (Kimi wa Muteki)", on March 4 and May 27 respectively. Both singles sold over 500,000 copies in first week sales, making Arashi the first artist to have two consecutive singles exceed the 500,000 mark within a week in seven years seven months since Keisuke Kuwata.
At the end of June, Arashi announced their tenth anniversary tour Arashi Anniversary Tour 5x10, which included three consecutive shows at the National Olympic Stadium in Tokyo. They became the first artist to play at the stadium for three consecutive days. Their third single of the year, "Everything", was released on July 1 and sold nearly 342,000 copies in the first week. On August 19, Arashi released their greatest hits album All the Best! 1999–2009, which featured most of their singles since debut, a new song with lyrics written by the members themselves, and a limited edition third disc containing ten of the group's selections. The album sold over 753,000 copies in the first week. Thirteen days after the release, the album broke the one million mark, a first in Arashi's history. It became the first album of 2009 to break one million.
On November 11, Arashi released "My Girl" as their last single of the year. It debuted atop of the Oricon daily chart by selling about 178,000 copies on the first day and about 432,000 copies by the end of its first week. It was announced on November 17 that Arashi had thus monopolized the top four best first-week sales for singles of 2009.
On November 20, Arashi held an event organized by House Foods called Arashi in Tokyo DisneySea Premium Event. Reserving the entire theme park for one night, the group performed a special medley of Christmas songs and their own songs such as "Arashi" and "One Love", which made the Arashi the first celebrity to sing their own songs at Tokyo DisneySea.
Arashi attended the 60th NHK Kōhaku Uta Gassen on New Year's Eve, making it not only the group's first time performing on the show but also the first time in twenty-one years another group from Johnny's other than SMAP and Tokio, the two traditional participants, performed at Kōhaku. * 2010: Continued success
On January 5, it was announced that Arashi would provide the song "Yurase, Ima o" as the theme song for the 2010 Winter Olympics news coverage on NTV. On January 6, Sakurai announced that Arashi would provide the theme song "Troublemaker" for his then-upcoming comedy drama. The next day, Mezamashi TV aired the first preview of the theme song for the drama special Saigo no Yakusoku, the group's first drama together in nearly ten years. The theme song "Sora Takaku" was announced during the press conference for the drama special on December 15, 2009. Of the three newly recorded songs, only "Troublemaker" and "Yurase, Ima o" were included in the group's first single of the year released on March 3, with "Troublemaker" being the A-side song.
On February 24, the 24th Japan Gold Disc Awards awarded Arashi the "Artist of the Year" prize and nine other awards in various categories. As a result, they became the first artist to win ten awards at once.
It was announced on April 5 that Arashi would provide the theme song "Monster", which was released on May 19 as a single, for Ohno's fantasy comedy drama based on Fujiko Fujio's manga series Kaibutsu-kun. On May 24, "Monster" debuted at number-one on the Oricon weekly chart selling 543,000 copies in its first week, making Arashi the first act to have thirty consecutive singles rank in Oricon's weekly Top 3 since their debut.
On June 5, it was announced that the group was to release their first studio album in two years and four months since Dream "A" Live (April 2008) and hold a nationwide concert tour at the National Olympic Stadium in Tokyo for four days and the five major domes in Osaka, Sapporo, Tokyo, Nagoya and Fukuoka. Although the four days are not consecutive, Arashi became the first to hold four concerts at the National Olympic Stadium in the same tour.
The group's song "Love Rainbow" was used as the theme song for the romance drama starring Matsumoto and Yūko Takeuchi. "To Be Free", Arashi's third single of 2010, became the group's twentieth consecutive number-one single since "Pikanchi Double" (2004) on July 13. Together with Ohno's solo single , which was released on the same day as "To Be Free" and placed at number-two, Arashi and Ohno accomplished the rare feat of a group and a solo artist from the group simultaneously taking the top two spots for the first time in nearly ten years.
Arashi provided the theme song "Dear Snow" for the live-action movie adaptation of the award-winning manga starring Ninomiya and Kou Shibasaki. On August 10, Arashi's ninth studio album Boku no Miteiru Fūkei placed at number-one on the Oricon weekly album chart, selling around 731,000 copies. The album maintained its number-one spot in the second week, making it Arashi's first studio album to lead the Oricon weekly album chart for two consecutive weeks. By selling around another 125,000 copies, the album has sold a total of 856,000 copies. In September, Japan Airlines (JAL) launched a domestic Boeing 777-200 bearing both the images of the members of Arashi and the title of their Boku no Miteiru Fūkei album, which will be sold with a specially designed cover in-flight. Japan Airlines will use the Arashi Jet until January 2011.
The song "Love Rainbow" was released as a single on September 8. It debuted at number-one on the Oricon weekly singles chart and sold around 529,000 copies, making "Love Rainbow" the group's third 2010 single to surpass 500,000 copies sold in the first week. On October 12, Boku no Miteiru Fūkei sold a total of a million copies, making it the group's first studio album to sell over a million copies and the first album in Japan to reach a million copies sold in 2010. Additionally, "Dear Snow" was released as a single on October 6 and became Arashi's fourth 2010 single to sell over 500,000 copies in the first week.
The group released their sixth single of 2010, , on November 10. The single sold 572,000 copies in its first week, surpassing the group's old personal record of 557,000 copies sold in the first week set by their debut song "Arashi" in 1999. The group became the first male artist to achieve six number-one singles in a year. On December 31, 2010, Arashi co-hosted the 61st NHK Kōhaku Uta Gassen with Nao Matsushita, becoming the first group to host the show. * 2011–present
On January 5, 2011, the 25th Japan Gold Disc Awards awarded Arashi the "Artist of the Year" prize for the second year in a row. It was announced on January 15, 2011 that Arashi would release the song "Lotus" as a single on February 23, 2011. "Lotus" was also adopted as the theme song for Aiba's drama .
Released on January 26, 2011, Arashi's music DVD Arashi 10–11 Tour "Scene": Kimi to Boku no Miteiru Fūkei – Stadium sold 618,000 copies in its first week, making it the first music DVD in Oricon history to sell over 600,000 copies in the first week. The DVD sold another 59,000 copies, bringing the total to an estimate of 677,000 copies sold and pushing the group's overall music DVD sales to 4,014,000 copies. As a result, Arashi became the first artist in Oricon history to sell over four million DVDs.
In early May 2011, the group announced their new tour with concerts in July, September, and January 2012 called the "Beautiful World Concert Tour". The group then announced on May 19, 2011 that they will hold charity events at Tokyo Dome for three days starting June 24, 2011, release their tenth studio album titled Beautiful World on July 6, 2011, and start their nationwide concert tour on July 24, 2011. According to Matsumoto, the title was chosen to reflect on Arashi's thoughts on the future of Japan after the 2011 Tohoku earthquake. Their nationwide tour will be held at four of the five major domes and the National Olympic Stadium, making it the group's fourth consecutive year performing at the stadium.
On June 22, 2011, Oricon announced that the group's second music DVD Arashi 10–11 Tour "Scene": Kimi to Boku no Miteiru Fūkei – Dome+ sold 539,000 copies in its first week of sales, pushing their all-time DVD sales to 5.282 million, making them the first Japanese artist to sell over five million DVDs.
On October 19, 2011, NHK announced Arashi and actress Mao Inoue as the hosts for the 62nd NHK Kōhaku Uta Gassen. This will be the second year in a row for Arashi to be in charge of the White Team.
On November 2, 2011, the group released their 36th single "Meikyū Love Song". "Meikyū Love Song" was adapted as the ending theme song for Sakurai's drama Nazotoki wa Dinner no Ato de. The single sold over 240,000 copies on the first day and over 530,000 copies in the first week .
In December 2011, it was announced that Arashi topped four categories in the 2011 Oricon yearly rankings. Beautiful World sold a total of 908,000 copies, making it the top-selling album of 2011 in Japan. This marks the third consecutive year that Arashi has topped the Oricon yearly album chart, being the first artist to do so in twenty years. This year's ranking also marks the third consecutive year that Arashi has topped the music DVD charts as Arashi 10–11 Tour "Scene": Kimi to Boku no Miteiru Fūkei – Stadium sold 793,000 copies, making it the best selling music DVD in Oricon DVD ranking history. The second best selling music DVD for 2011 was Arashi's Arashi 10–11 Tour "Scene": Kimi to Boku no Miteiru Fūkei – Dome+, which sold 673,000 copies. . * Discography
Arashi discography: col-begin: col-2: Studio albums * 2001: * 2002: Here We Go! * 2003: How's It Going? * 2004: Iza, Now! * 2005: One * 2006: Arashic * 2007: Time * 2008: Dream "A" Live * 2010: Boku no Miteiru Fūkei * 2011: Beautiful World
col-2: Compilation albums * 2002: Arashi Single Collection 1999–2001 * 2004: 5x5 The Best Selection of 2002–2004 * 2009: All the Best! 1999–2009
col-end: : Filmography
Arashi filmography: Aside from their music careers, Arashi has also appeared in dramas and movies, done radio shows, and acted as the main hosts for events. A short Fuji TV drama called V no Arashi became one of the group's first activities together as it was broadcast just about a month after the announcement of their formation in Hawaii. Although it would not be until 2010 would the group act in another drama together titled Saigo no Yakusoku, they have worked together on movies in 2002, 2004, and 2007.
Since 2001, Arashi has hosted their own variety shows, starting with Mayonaka no Arashi on NTV. On NTV, the group was a regular late-night presence as they had a string of shows that aired around midnight: C no Arashi, D no Arashi, G no Arashi, and Arashi no Shukudai-kun. Before VS Arashi was moved from an afternoon timeslot to Golden Time in 2009, Arashi was also a regular afternoon presence on Fuji TV as they had a string of shows that aired around 1:00 p.m. (JST) since 2002: , Arashi no Waza-Ari, Mago Mago Arashi and Golden Rush Arashi.
Besides their NTV television specials that would air almost twice a year around 7:00 p.m. (JST), Arashi did not have any variety shows that aired during primetime until TBS gave the group their first primetime show titled Himitsu no Arashi-chan in 2008. In 2010, NTV began to broadcast another Arashi-hosted primetime show titled Arashi ni Shiyagare. * Endorsements
Nearly every year, the group endorses products for different companies such as Coca-Cola, House Foods, and au by KDDI. Since 2008, Arashi has been appearing in au by KDDI's exclusive mobile phone commercials. In 2010, Arashi began to endorse for Nintendo by appearing in Wii Party commercials to promote the game. Most of Arashi's singles have been used as theme songs for dramas such as Stand Up!! and Maō, movies such as Hana Yori Dango Final and Yatterman, and commercials.
In 2004, "Hero" was used as the theme song for the 2004 Summer Olympics news coverage on NTV. In 2008, "Kaze no Mukō e" was used for the 2008 Summer Olympics on NTV. In 2010, their song "Yurase, Ima o" was used as the theme song for the 2010 Winter Olympics news coverage on NTV.
On April 8, 2010, the Japan Tourism Agency appointed Arashi as the navigators for their "Japan Endless Discovery" national tourism campaign. Arashi appeared in commercials, which aired in East Asia, to encourage people from overseas to visit Japan.
Other activities: In 2004, the group was appointed to be the main personality supporters for NTV's 27th annual telethon 24-Hour Television. With the theme being , it was broadcast live for about twenty-four hours from August 21 to August 22. In 2008, Arashi was once again the main personality supporters for the telethon. The 31st annual 24-Hour Television focused on the theme of , and it was broadcast live from August 30 to August 31. The telethon raised 1,083,666,922 Japanese yen (approx. US$11,902,822.61) in donations, which is the second-highest amount of donations in 24-Hour Television history to date.
After the 2011 Tohoku earthquake in March, Arashi considered canceling their concerts scheduled from June 24 to June 26, 2011 at Tokyo Dome. However, in April, they decided that they will use those three days to hold charity events instead. Part of the proceeds from a possible total audience of 225,000 will be donated to charity. It was also announced on May 19, 2011 that Arashi will release a pocket-sized version of their book Nippon no Arashi, which originally distributed to 40,000 schools in 2010. All of the revenue will be given to charity.
On November 4, 2011, it was reported that Arashi donated approximately 300 million yen to the disaster-stricken regions in northern Japan. The group split their donations between the Iwate, Mitagi, and Fukushima prefectures, with each one receiving about 100 million yen. About 50 million yen comprises the members’ total royalties received from the sale of the pocket edition of their book Nippon no Arashi. The remaining amount comes from the publisher’s revenues on the book and from the sale of goods at their charity event at Tokyo Dome in June.
Awards and nominations: In 2009, Oricon declared Arashi the best-selling artist of the year and awarded them the "Artist Top Sales" (ATS) award with 14.46 billion yen (approx. US$172,875,357.81) worth of total sales in the singles, album, music DVD, and music Blu-ray categories. In 2010, Arashi became Japan's top-selling artist for the second year in a row, with more than 17.16 billion yen (approx. US$204,321,424) worth of sales in seven categories: total gross sales for an artist, total gross single sales for an artist, copies sold for an album, gross sales for an album, copies sold for a music DVD, gross sales for a music DVD, and total gross music DVD sales for an artist.
Billboard Japan Music Awards
The Billboard Japan Music Awards is an annual music awards ceremony established by Billboard. Arashi has received two awards.
awards table: |-
| rowspan"2"| 2010
| rowspan: "2"| "Troublemaker"
| Hot 100 of the Year
| won: |-
| Hot 100 Singles Sales of the Year
| won: end: Japan Gold Disc Awards
The Japan Gold Disc Awards is an annual music awards ceremony established by the Recording Industry Association of Japan in 1987. Arashi has received twenty-two awards.
awards table: |-
| 2008
| "Love So Sweet"
| The Best 10 Singles
| won: |-
| rowspan"5"| 2009
| rowspan: "2"| "Truth/Kaze no Mukō e"
| Single of the Year
| won: |-
| The Best 10 Singles
| won: |-
| "One Love"
| The Best 10 Singles
| won: |-
| "Beautiful Days"
| The Best 10 Singles
| won: |-
| Summer Tour 2007 Final Time
| The Best Music Videos
| won: |-
| rowspan"10"| 2010
| Arashi
| Artist of the Year
| won: |-
| rowspan: "2"| "Believe/Kumorinochi, Kaisei"
| Single of the Year
| won: |-
| The Best 5 Singles
| won: |-
| "Ashita no Kioku/Crazy Moon"
| The Best 5 Singles
| won: |-
| "Everything"
| The Best 5 Singles
| won: |-
| "My Girl"
| The Best 5 Singles
| won: |-
| rowspan"2"| All the Best! 1999–2009
| Album of the Year
| won: |-
| The Best 5 Albums
| won: |-
| Arashi Around Asia 2008 in Tokyo
| The Best Music Videos
| won: |-
| 5x10 All the Best! Clips 1999–2009
| The Best Music Videos
| won: |-
| rowspan: "6"| 2011
| Arashi
| Artist of the Year
| won: |-
| rowspan"2"| Boku no Miteiru Fūkei
| Album of the Year
| won: |-
| The Best 5 Albums
| won: |-
| "Troublemaker"
| The Best 5 Singles
| won: |-
| "Monster"
| The Best 5 Singles
| won: |-
| Arashi Anniversary Tour 5x10
| The Best Music Videos
| won: end: Television Drama Academy Awards
The Television Drama Academy Awards is a quarterly Japanese drama awards ceremony held by the magazine The Television. Arashi has received six awards from thirteen nominations.
awards table: |-
| 2001
| "Jidai"
|rowspan"13"| Best Theme Song
| won: |-
| 2002
| "A Day in Our Life"
| nom: |-
| 2003
| "Kotoba Yori Taisetsu na Mono"
| nom: |-
| 2004
| "Hitomi no Naka no Galaxy"
| nom: |-
| rowspan: "2"| 2007
| "We Can Make It!"
| nom: |-
| "Happiness"
| nom: |-
| 2008
| "Beautiful Days"
| won: |-
|rowspan"2"| 2009
| ""
| won: |-
| "My Girl"
| nom: |-
|rowspan: "3"| 2010
| "Troublemaker"
| nom: |-
| "Monster"
| won: |-
| "Love Rainbow"
| won: |-
| 2011
| "Hatenai Sora"
| won: end: Footnotes: groupfn: : References
2: : Further reading==
|
Arashi
Groupe pop masculin japonais
datejuin 2008:
}} est un groupe de chanteurs japonais. Il est composé de cinq membres : Aiba Masaki (Aiba-chan), Matsumoto Jun (MatsuJun), Ninomiya Kazunari (Nino), Ohno Satoshi (Riida) et Sakurai Sho (Sho). * Carrière musicale
Le groupe Arashi a fait ses débuts le 15 septembre 1999 à Hawaï où il a enregistré son premier single A.RA.SHI. Le groupe fait partie de Johnny's Entertainment dont font partie entre autres Tokio et V6 ...
Arashi couvre un large éventail de style musicaux incluant le R&B, le Hip Hop et autres formes de musique Pop. En plus d'être un groupe d'idoles populaire au Japon, Arashi est aussi largement connu à travers l'Asie et par les amateurs de J-pop du monde entier.
Johnny's & Associates (alias Johnny's) ont annoncé la création du groupe le 15 septembre 1999, par le biais d'une conférence de presse à bord d'un bateau de croisière aux large des côtes d'Honolulu à Hawaï. Arashi, qui veut dire « tempête » en français, a été choisi par Johnny's Entertainment pour représenter l'ambition du groupe de « créer une tempête dans le monde du divertissement ». Arashi est de nos jours le seul des groupe créés par Johnny's qui possède un nom écrit tout en kanjis.
Leur premier single, A.RA.SHI, est devenu la chanson thème de la 8e: Coupe du monde de volleyball, organisée par le Japon en 1999. Ils gagnèrent une grande popularité en chantant A.RA.SHI lors de la cérémonie d'ouverture le 2 novembre 1999. Le single devint un grand succès, se vendant à des millions de copies. Du 25 mars au 30 avril 2001, le groupe entama sa première tournée sur l'ensemble du territoire japonais, l’Arashi Spring Concert 2001. La tournée eut lieu à Sendai, Osaka, Nagoya, Hokkaidō, Fukuoka, Hiroshima, Kanazawa, Toyama et Tokyo, pour un total sans précédent de 26 concerts. En mars 2002, le groupe retourna à Hawaï avec une série de tournées "Stand Up Hawaï" pour les fans.
En 2006, les singles et albums du groupe sont sortis en dehors du Japon. Leur album Arashic est sorti à Hong Kong, en Corée du Sud, Taïwan et aussi en Thaïlande. Le 31 juillet 2006 le groupe s'est embarqué pour la tournée Jet Storm Tour, destinée à promouvoir leur album à Taïwan, en Corée du Sud et en Thaïlande, visitant des villes qui plus tard feront partie de leur tournée Asiatique. Le concert de Corée a eu lieu grâce à la présence des fans coréens qui s'étaient rassemblés à l'aéroport international d’Incheon durant la conférence de presse du groupe lors de leur tournée Jet Storm. Le concert qui eut lieu le 12 novembre 2006 fit d'Arashi le premier groupe de la Johnny's Entertainment à donner un concert en Corée du Sud. La vente des billets du concert s'est faite en une heure, et personnes ont acheté les leurs en ligne. Outre leurs tournées, le groupe a représenté le Japon lors de l’Asia Song Festival 2006, qui a eu lieu en Corée du Sud.
Depuis leurs débuts, Arashi a sorti neuf albums et vingt singles. Le 21 février 2007, le groupe sortit le single Love so sweet, thème musical du drame télévisé Hana Yori Dango Returns, classé numéro un dans l’Oricon daily et weekly (quotidien et hebdomadaire). Leur dix-neuvième single, We Can Make It!, sorti le 2 mai 2007, a aussi été classé numéro un la première semaine de sa sortie, pour tomber en dessous du top 10 la deuxième semaine et y remonter lors de la troisième semaine.
En avril 2007, le groupe a effectué des prestations dans les plus grandes salles à ce jour. La tournée Arashi Around Asia a eu lieu dans le Kyocera Dome à Osaka et au Tokyo Dome, salles pouvant atteindre une capacité totale de cent mille personnes, et en ayant accueilli plus de deux cent mille.
L'album d'Arashi Time est sorti en juillet 2007, et a aussi débuté numéro un dans les classements Oricon, et a été écoulé à exemplaires lors de la première semaine de sa sortie.
Le single du groupe Happiness a été le thème original du drame Le Fabuleux Destin de Taro Yamada (diffusé sur TBS) mettant en vedette deux membres du groupe Arashi, Kazunari Ninomiya (acteur principal du film Lettres d'Iwo Jima de Clint Eastwood) et Sakurai Sho. Ce single est le neuvième d'Arashi à se retrouver numéro un dès sa sortie et le 17e: à être numéro un.
Le 3 octobre 2007 sort en DVD le film Kiiroi Namida (Les Larmes jaunes). C'est le 3e: film dans lequel joue le groupe après Pika☆nchi Life is Hard Dakedo Happy en 2003 et Pika☆nchi Life is Hard Dakara Happy en 2004.
Le 20 février 2008 est sorti le single Step and Go, qui a été numéro un dès la première semaine (300 000 copies vendues en une semaine).
En février 2008 le groupe a annoncé qu'il ferait un concert dans les 5 dômes les plus importants du Japon (Tokyo, Nagoya, Osaka, Fukuoka et Sapporo). La tournée appelée ARASHI Marks 2008 Dream-A-live se fera en 10 concerts, du 16 mai à Osaka jusqu'au 6 juillet à Sapporo. Le seul autre groupe de la J.E. à avoir effectué une tournée de 5 dômes sont les SMAP et les KinKi Kids.
Il a aussi été annoncé que le groupe présenterait une émission de variétés traitant à la fois des sujets concernant la société et la culture. L'émission sera diffusée aux heures de grande écoute et sera produite par Saori Hirata. Elle s'appellera Himitsu no Arashi-chan soit « Le Secret d'Arashi-chan », elle sera diffusée à partir du 10 avril sur la chaîne TBS.
Le 16 avril est sorti le DVD de leur concert Arashi Summer Tour 2007 Final Time au dôme de Tokyo (Aujourd'hui placé 9e: au classement Oricon). Quelques jours plus tard, leur dernier album intitulé Dream "A" live est sorti dans les kiosques. Il est aujourd'hui nº1 du classement Oricon.
En 2008, ils sortent les singles Step and Go, One Love, Truth / Kaze no Mukou e et Beautiful Days, thèmes respectifs du film Hana Yori Dango Final et des drames Maou et Ryusei no Kizuna dans lesquels on retrouve pour protagonistes des membres du groupes. Ces singles obtiennent d'excellents ventes ce qui positionne Arashi comme les meilleurs vendeurs de cette année-là.
En avril 2010 Arashi rompre à nouveau avec leur anniversaire Tour DVDARASHI 5 ventes 10all × dossiers par le DVD vendus dans la première semaine déjà 477.000 fois et a atteint le top de l'Oricon. * Membres du groupe
Arashi est composé de: *
Aiba Masaki est le membre le plus grand du groupe, et a une voix singulière. Il a une fois été hospitalisé après s'être évanoui suite à un pneumothorax lors d'une répétition, il subit une opération qui le força à arrêter le saxophone. Aiba travaille avec de nombreux animaux en tant que co-présentateur du show télévisé Tensai! Shimura Doubutsuen. Il excelle en sport, spécialement en basket-ball. Il est connu pour avoir un temps de concentration assez limité et pour souvent changer de sujet lors des différentes entrevues et émissions télévisées, il est aussi connu par les fans comme étant le membre le plus attachant et le plus excentrique du groupe Arashi. Aiba a aussi des problèmes avec le japonais, plus particulièrement avec les kanjis. On peut le voir faire de nombreuses erreurs de lecture dans les émissions et performances en direct. Durant les premières années d'Arashi, Aiba avait été désigné par Johnny's pour être le meneur du groupe mais cela ne s'est jamais concrétisé.
Ninomiya Kazunari est le premier membre du groupe à avoir percé à Hollywood, car il est apparu dans le film de Clint Eastwood Lettres d'Iwo Jima. Avec Jun Matsumoto, un autre membre d'Arashi, il fait partie des jeunes acteurs japonais les plus reconnus et on dit de lui qu'il est capable de « jouer rien qu'avec son regard ». Ninomiya a déclaré être gaucher mais avoir été forcé par ses parents à écrire de la main droite depuis qu'il est tout petit. Il joue de la guitare, du piano, compose et écrit les paroles de chansons. Cependant il a souvent été vu avec une console de jeux à la main et a avoué dans une entrevue qu'il était un otaku. Durant les premières années d'Arashi, Johnny's l'a nommé meilleur interprète.
Jun Matsumoto est le plus jeune membre d'Arashi. Il est connu pour ses rôles dans des dramas comme Bambino!, Hana Yori Dango et Hana Yori Dango Returns, Kimi wa Petto et Gokusen. Il est le premier homme japonais à avoir fait la couverture de Marie Claire Japon. Ohno l'a surnommé le « maître des concerts » car il a tendance à prendre en charge tous les détails durant leurs concerts. Durant les premières années du groupe, il a été nommé par Johnny's comme étant le « membre le plus drôle ». Depuis, il a plus ou moins perdu cette image de comique et a même été surnommé Do-S par les autres membres du groupe (S voulant dire Sadique). Jun est l'une des trois idoles à être considérées comme l'élite dans les Johnny's car il a été appelé à faire partie de l'agence par Johnny Kitagawa (le directeur de Johnny's Entertainment) lui-même, sans avoir à passer d'auditions.
Ohno Satoshi est le membre le plus âgé du groupe. Il est devenu meneur du groupe après avoir gagné contre Sakurai Sho au jeu pierre-feuille-ciseaux lors d'une émission télévisée. Cette situation se répète depuis très souvent, lui l'involontaire et peu enthousiaste gagnant contre Sho. Étant le meneur et le plus âgé du groupe, il chante en général le plus souvent. Bien qu'il ait répété ne pas vouloir être le meneur du groupe, les membres d'Arashi le considèrent comme tel, l'ayant même dans une entrevue présenté comme une nouvelle génération d'idole, qui dirige sans diriger du tout. D'où son surnom de riida ( qui signifie leader).À part être le meneur en chant, il est aussi reconnu pour être le « meilleur danseur » d'Arashi. Il a chorégraphié plusieurs mouvements de danse que les autres membres trouvent difficiles à suivre. Quand les membres d'Arashi ont fait leur début et qu'il n'était pas encore le meneur, Ohno avait été surnommé par Johnny's comme « le meilleur danseur ». Il fait aussi partie du duo comique d'Arashi l’Ohmiya SK, avec Kazunari Ninomiya. De tous les membres, il est celui qui est le moins apparu dans des dramas, préférant le théâtre ou travailler son art. Son premier concert solo a eu lieu le 29 janvier 2006.
Sakurai Sho chante la plupart des parties rap des chansons d'Arashi, paroles qu'il écrit lui-même (les fans le surnomment Sakurap). Sho a été le premier membre du groupe à faire un concert solo, The Show le 14 janvier 2006. Il est en ce moment l'un des co-présentateurs de l'émission d'information News Zero (diffusée le lundi sur NTV), il est ainsi devenu la première idole à présenter une émission spéciale sur les élections. Sho est le membre le plus éduqué du groupe, étant diplômé de l'Université de Keio. Durant les premières années du groupe Arashi, Sho avait été surnommé par Johnny's le « meneur dans les études ». Bien qu'il ait perdu à pierre-feuille-ciseaux, lui évitant ainsi de devenir le meneur du groupe, les quatre autres membres d'Arashi ont en plusieurs occasions fait remarquer les qualités de meneur de Sho.
En dehors de leur carrière musicale, les membres d'Arashi sont aussi apparus dans des films, des dramas ( séries japonaises ), des pubs, des pièces de théâtre. En ce moment ils sont les présentateurs de différents programmes de variétés tels que Himitsu no Arashi-Chan, VS Arashi et Arashi ni shiyagare. * Discographie * Albums studio
* Singles
* Notes et références ==
Références:
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سقطرى
جزر اليمن | جزر أفريقيا | مواقع التراث العالمي في اليمن
سقطرى وتكتب أيضا سقطراء أو سقطرة هي أرخبيل يمني مكون من أربع جزر على المحيط الهندي قبالة سواحل القرن الأفريقي 350كم جنوب شبه الجزيرة العربية . إن انعزال الجزيرة الطويل عن أفريقيا وشبه الجزيرة العربية قد خلّف مستوى فريد وغير مألوف من الاستيطان الحيوي على الجزيرة، وكذلك في المستوى الاجتماعي لسكان الجزيرة .
تم تصنيف الجزيرة كأحد مواقع التراث العالمي في عام 2008 . ولقبت بأكثر المناطق غرابة في العالم. نظراً للتنوع الحيوي الفريد والأهمية البيئية لهذه الجزيرة وانعكاسها على العالم. * الموقــع
شرق خليج عدن بين خطي عرض (12.18ْ – 12.24ْ) شمال خط الاستواء وخطي طول (53.19ْ – 54.33ْ) شرق غرينتش وتبعد (480 كم) عن رأس فرتك في محافظة المهرة كأقرب نقطة في الساحل اليمني (300 ميلاً) كما تبـعـد عـن محافظة عدن بحـوالـي (553 ميلاً). * الجزر
يضم الأرخبيل جزر عبد الكوري وسمحة ودرسة. * الســكان
بلغ عدد سكان جزيرة سقطرى وفقاً لنتائج التعداد السكاني لعام 1994م حوالي (65.514) نسمة وبلغ 135020 عام 2004. .
تاريخ: يناير_2010: وتعود اصول سكان جزيرة سقطرى إلى مهرة بن حيدان كما جاء في كتاب لسان اليمن للهمداني وهناك بعض العشائر يعود اصلها إلى سلطنه عمان وسواحل الإمارات.
وكانت جزيرة سقطرى عاصمة للسلطنة المهريه إلى عام 1967 حيث سقطت بيد افراد من الجبهه القوميه القادمه من اليمن وانضمت إلى اليمن الجنوبي ثم إلى اليمن الموحد.
يعتمد سكان الجزيرة على اهلهم وذويهم المغتربيين في دولة الإمارات العربية المتحده ودولة قطر كما يعتمد بعض سكان بادية سقطرى على رعي المواشي الابل والابقار والاغنام ويعتمد سكان سواحل سقطرى على الصيد.
التضاريس : تتوزع تضاريس الجزيرة بين جبال وسهول وهضاب وأودية وخلجان وذلك كما يلي:
الهضبة الوسطى : تشغل هذه الهضبة معظم مساحة الجزيرة وتطل على السهول الساحلية بشكل متدرج في الانخفاض ويقسمها وادي (دي عزرو) إلى قسمين رئيسين هما: * الهضبة الشرقية * الهضبة الغربية.
السهول الساحلية الشمالية : (سهل حديبو) وتتوزع في مناطق متفرقة مثل : - سهول رأس مذهن – وسهول وادي درباعه ووادي طوعن. - سهول حديبو.
السهول الساحلية الجنوبية : (سهل نوجد) وتتوزع إلى الآتي: * سهول وادي ديفعرهو * سهل واادي ديعزرهو
السهل الساحلي الجنوبي لجبال قطرية : و هو ما يسمى بسهل نوجد وسهل قعرة، وتمتد هذه السهول من جنوب رأس مومي في شرق الجزيرة حتى رأس شوعب غرباً، وتغطي هذه السهول التربة الغنية الصالحة للزراعة بينما تنتشر الكثبان الرملية الناعمة قرب الساحل.
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الجبال : تتوزع الجبال في جهات متفرقة من سطح الهضبة الوسطى، وأهمها سلسلة جبال حجهر، وأعلى قمة فيها يبلغ ارتفاعها (1505 مترات)، وتمتد هذه السلسلة من الجبال من الشمال الشرقي إلى الجنوب الغربي لمسافة (24 كم) تقريباً، ويزداد ارتفاعها في الوسط والشرق وتضيق وتنخفض في الغرب، كما توجد عــدد من الجبال الأخرى أهمها جبال فالج إلى الشرق، أعلى قمة فيها (640 متراً)، وجبال قولهل إلى الجنوب الغربي أعلى قمة فيها (978 متراً)، وجبال كدح في الجنوب حيـث يـبـلغ ارتفاعها (699 متراً)، وجبال قطرية في الجنوب أيضـاً يبلـغ ارتفاعها (560 متراً)، وهناك أيضاً جبل طيد بعة الذي يرتفع (550 متراً)، وجبل زوله وجبل عيفة وجبل خيرها الذي يرتفع (1394 متراً)، بالإضافة إلى جبل قاطن الذي يرتفــع (800 متر)، وجـبـل فـادهن يعلو بارتفاع (778 متراً)، وجبل قيرخ بارتـفــاع (660 متراً)..
الوديان : يوجد في جزيرة سوقطرة عدد كبير من الأودية، وتتخذ مسارات واتجاهات عدة بحسب تأثيرات السطح وهي كما يلي: * الوديان التي تصب شمال الجزيرة في البحر الواقعة إلى الشرق من مدينة حديبو، وتتميز بأحواضها الصغيرة وقصر مجاريها حيث لا تتعدى مسافة (7 كم) تقريباً، وهي ذات تصريف كبير نظراً لاستمرار جريان المياه فيها على مدار العام مثل: وادي دانجهن، وادي حشرة، وادي دنية، وادي درابعة، وادي طوعق. * الوديان التي تصب في الشمال الغربي الواقعة إلى الشمال من جبل فادهن مطلو مثل: وادي دوعهر، وادي عامدهن، وادي جعلعل، وادي ديمجت وادي فرحة. * وديان الجنوب : التي تصب جنوب الجزيرة والواقعة إلى الشرق من جبل قرية وهي وديان ذات مجاري طويلة وأحواض متسعة وذات تصريف أكبر من الأودية الشمالية نظراً لغزارة الأمطار الصيفية التي تسقط على السفوح الجنوبية وخاصة في سهل نوجد مما أدى إلى توفر المياه فيها بالإضافة إلى عدم تعرض هذا السهل للرياح الشديدة حيث خلق ظروفاً مواتية لظهور نشاط زراعي محدودة، مثل: وادي ستريو، وادي تريفرز، وادي ريشي، وادي عسرة، شبهون، وادي فاقه. وتنتهي هذه الوديان عند حافة الهضبة، وتصب في السهل الساحلي الجنوبي، أما الوديان التي تصل مصباتها إلى البحر فهي وادي سهوب ووادي عسهم، هذا بالإضافة إلى الأودية الفرعية الواقعة بين مجموعة الجبال وتصب وسط الجزيرة.
الرؤوس والخلجان : * يوجد في الجزيرة عدد من الروؤس الصخرية حيث يمتد بعضها إلى مياه البحر مثل الروؤس الواقعة في الشمال والشرق أهمها: * رأس مومي * رأس ديدم * رأس مذهن * رأس بوركاتن * رأس عدهو * رأس دي حمري * رأس حولاف * رأس قرقمة * رأس عند * رأس بشارة * رأس سماري * رأس حموهر
بالإضافة إلى الروؤس الواقعة غرب الجزيرة مثل: رأس بادوهن رأس حمرهو، رأس شوعب، أما الروؤس الواقعة جنوب الجزيرة فهي رأس شحن، رأس مطيف، رأس زاحق، رأس قاش، رأس ينن. * توجد مجموعة قليلة من الخلجان في الجزيرة وأهميتها تكمن باستغلالها كموانئ طبيعية وبالذات أثناء تعرض أجزاء من الجزيرة للرياح القوية التي تضرب سهل حديبو والأجزاء الشرقية والغربية ابتدأ من مطلع شهر يونيو حتى أواخر سبتمبر؛ ولذلك تجد السفن ملاذاً آمناً لها في خلجان الجزيرة وهي: خليج بتدرفقه في الشرق بين رأس مومي ورأس ديدم، خليج عنبه تماريدا في الشمال بين رأس قرقمه ورأس عند، خليج بندر قلنسيه في الغرب بين رأس حمرهو ورأس بادوه، خليج شربرب في الغرب بين رأس بادوه ورأس شوعب، خليج أرسل في الجنوب بين رأس مومي ورأس شحن.
المناخ : تتميز الجزيرة بثلاثة مناخات وهي كالتالي: * يسـود الجـزيرة مـنـاخ بحري حار حيث درجة الحرارة العظمى تتراوح بين (26ْ-28ْ) مئوية ودرجات الحرارة الصغرى بين (19ْ - 23ْ) مئوية والمتوسط الحراري السنوي ما بين (29ْ – 27ْ) مئوية حيث يكون معدل درجات الحرارة لشهر كانون الثاني/يناير (24ْم) ولشهر يوليو (30مْ) ويعتبر شهرا حزيران/يونيو وتموز/يوليو أكثر ارتفاعاً لدرجة الحرارة وأقل الشهور حرارة هما شهري كانون الأول/ديسمبر، كانون الثاني/يناير، كما تقل معدلات درجة الحرارة كثيراُ في المناطق الجبلية. * المناطق الشرقية تتميز بالجود المعتدل بالبرودة في بعض الأشهر وفي بعضها تكون باردة. * المناطق الغربية أيضاً تتميز بالبرودة ومنها منطقة دكسم المرتفعة حيث تكون هذه المنطقة في الخريف باردة ويتكون فيها الضباب الكثيف. يتراوح معدل الرطوبة النسبية بين 55% في شهر آب/أغسطس و 70% في شهر كانون الثاني/يناير. * تتعرض الجزيرة لرياح شديدة جنوبية غربية تصل ذروتها في مطلع شهر يونيو حتى أواخر شهر آب/أغسطس ثم تبدأ بالانخفاض التدريجي لتصل في بداية تشرين الأول/أكتوبر إلى سرعة عادية عندما تتحول إلى رياح شمالية شرقية عندما تقل سرعتها إلى (10 عقد)، أمَّا الرياح الجنوبية الغربية في شهور يونيو، يوليو، أغسطس، فتكون سرعتها قوية تصل إلى (40 – 50 عقدة)، وقد تصل في بعض الأجزاء من الجزيرة إلى أكثر من (55 عقدة)، ويرافقها حالة اضطراب شديد للبحر.
التقسيم الإداري : تنقسم الجزيرة إدارياً إلى مديريتين هي: * مديرية حديبو. * مديرية قلنسية وعبد الكوري.
وهي تابعة لـ محافظة حضرموت كبرى محافظات الجمهورية اليمنية مساحة.
موقع تراث عالمي :
1263: : السياحة
تحظى جزيرة سقطرى باهتمام كبير من قبل الحكومة للاستفادة من مخزونها المتنوع ومن خصائصها الطبيعية المتنوعة ومزاياها الاقتصادية، وتشكل مقومات الجذب السياحي في الجزيرة جزءاً من هذا الإطار العام والتي تتحدد بصفة عامة باعتبار الجزيرة متحفاً للتاريخ الطبيعي بما تحتويه من تنوع حيوي نادر مع الاستفادة من جهود واهتمام عالميين بالحفاظ على جزيرة سقطرى كجوهرة طبيعية، ومن ذلك ما تحظى به من قبل منظمة اليونسكو والهيئات الدولية لحماية البيئة. * الاهتمام الأول ينحصر في برامج تنموية للحفاظ على الجزيرة كمحمية طبيعية في إطار برنامج الإنسان ومحيطه الحيوي وترشيح سوقطرة كمحمية طبيعية تحظى باهتمام إقليمي وعالمي لخدمة البشرية. * الاهتمام الثاني ينحصر في مشروع (حماية التنوع البيولوجي) في الجزيرة والأرخبيل التابع لها. * مقومات الجذب السياحي * الغطاء النباتي: تتميز جزيرة سقطرى بغطاءٍ نباتي وفير حيث تصل الأنواع النباتية فيها إلى حوالي (750 نوعاً) نباتياً بينها مجموعة من النباتات يستفاد منها في الطب الشعبي وعلاج الكثير من الأمراض، ومن هذه النباتات أشجار الصبر سقطرى وأشجار اللبان والمر ودم الأخوين بالإضافة إلى نباتات طبية أخرى شائعة الاستعمال في الجزيرة مثل الجراز والأيفوربيا وغيرها، كما يوجد في الجزيرة نباتات نادرة أخرى ومما يلفت نظر الزائر انتشار شجرة " الأمته " بالإضافة إلى غابات أشجار النخيل الكثيفة المنتشرة في أماكن كثيرة أهمها ضفاف الوديان الجارية فيها المياه على مدار العام حيث تشكل بساطاً سندسياً أخضر مع زرقة البحر المحيط بالجزيرة لوحة فنية رائعة.
وتستطيع الزيارة عبر الإنترنت عن طريق socotra.info لتجد كافة المعلومات والصور الجميلة والخارطة السياحية. * الطيور: طيور سقطرى متعددة الأنواع بحيث تشكل أحد معالم بيئة التنوع في الطبيعة ومشاهدة أنواع الطيور ليس بالأمر الصعب فهي تطير بالقرب من الزائر وفوق الأشجار وفي مياه البحر المحيطة بالجزيرة وفي الوديان ويسمع الزائر أصواتها الجميلة والمتنوعة أينما تحرك. وهناك نوع الطيور يحل بجانب الزائر إذا قرر الاستراحة في مكان ما وتناول الطعام ورمى بمخلفاته فإنه سرعان ما يلتهم تلك المخلفات ولذلك يطـلـق الأهـالـي عـلـى هـذا النـوع مـن الطـيور " بالمنظف " أو " البلدية "وبالتسمية السقطرية له يسمى سوعيده. ويعتقد أنه يوجد في الجزيرة (105 نوعاً) من أنواع الطيور و(30 نوعاً) منها تتكاثر في الجزيرة كما تحتوي الجزيرة على نسبة عالية من الطيور المستوطنة. وتعمل جمعية حماية الطيور باليمن إلى الإسراع بأجراء الدراسات والتغطية المسحية للجزيرة لتسهيل وضع الخرائط عن توزيع الطيور ومواقع تكاثرها بالعلاقة مع بيئاتها الطبيعية كما تعمل على تحديد المزيد من المواقع الهامة للطيور في الجزيرة من أجل حمايتها. * الكهوف والمغارات :تنتشر الكثير من الكهوف والمغارات الجبلية في مواقع عديدة من جزيرة سقطرى والجزر التابعة لها وتشكلت تلك المغارات بفعل عوامل التعرية الطبيعية وفي بعض منها تفاعلت عوامل " جيومائية " حيث عملت المياه على إذابة الكلس وشكلت أعمدة كلسية معلقة من أعلى سطوح الكهوف بالإضافة إلى أعمدة كلسية صاعدة من قاع الكهوف إلى الأعلى، ومعظم تلك الكهوف والمغارات مأهولة بالسكان، ومنها يمارسون حياتهم الطبيعية المعتادة، وأهمها عموماً مغارة " دي جب " في سهل نوجد حيث تعتبر أكبرها حجماً، ويتسع لعدد من الأسر، كما يمكن للسيارة التي تقل الزوار الوصول إلى جوف المغارة والتحرك بداخله دخولاً وخروجاً دون عناء، وتبعد مغارة دي جب عن مركز حديبو بمسافة (75 كيلو متراً).
هناك مفهوم خاطئ اخر لدى الكثير من الناس وخصوصا من لا يعرف سقطرى وطبيعة اهلها حيث يقال ان الكهوف أحد إنماط السكن للإنسان السقطري والحقيقة هي ان هنالك بعض من الناس الذين يبحثون عن العشب لانعامهم وخصوصا البقر والغنم في اوقات القحط أو يئون اغنامهم وابقارهم فيها في فترات نزول الأمطار الغزيره ويسكنون في هذه الكهوف لفترات مؤقته لا غير على حسب فترة القحط وبعدها يرجعون إلى سكنهم الاصلي اي مناطقهم أو قراهم ويشار أيضا ان الرعاه من سكان سقطرى يستخدمون الكهوف لنفس الغرض السابق. * الشواطئ: تمتد شواطئ الجزيرة مسافة (300 ميل) ولها خصائص فريدة من حيث كثبان رمالها البيضاء النقية حيث تبدو للزائر كأنها أكوام من محصول القطن ومعظمها مظللة بأشجار النخيل. تطل على مياه البحر الخالي من عوامل التلوث حيث تشاهد أنواع الأسماك تسبح فيها، وجميعها مواقع مثلى للاستجمام والغوص بعد توفر خدمات البنية الأساسية في الجزيرة وتهيئة تلك الشواطئ بالخدمات السياحية، كما تحتوي مياه الشواطئ على أحياء مائية عديدة ونادرة منها السلاحف المتنوعة الأشكال مثل السلاحف الخضراء الكبيرة الحجم. بالإضافة إلى الشعب المرجانية واللؤلؤ الذي اشتهرت به جزيرة سوقطرة منذ العصور التاريخية القديمة. خامساً : الشلالات : يوجد في جزيرة سوقطرة عدد من شلالات المياه الغزيرة تنتشر في مواقع مختلفة أهمها شلالات " دنجهن " في حديبو حيث يبعد عن المركز بمسافة (6 كم) فقط، وكذلك شلالات حالة، ومومي، وقعرة وعيهفت ومعظم تلك الشلالات تنبع من أعالي الجبال على مدار العام. وبصورة عامة : إن تنشيط الحركة السياحية إلى جزيرة سوقطرة بحاجة إلى توفير خدمات البنية الأساسية في عموم مناطق الجذب السياحي وبالتالي توفير الخدمات السياحية المساعدة في إطار الخطة المتكاملة لحماية مناطق المحميات الطبيعية.
يوجد في جزيرة سقطرى ثلاث فنادق فقط وهذا يدل على أن الحكومه لاتستثمرها ولايوجد مستثمرون يمنيون * صور من الجزيرة كهف كهف كهف كهف كهف كهف دكسم
* مراجع ==
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Socotra
Socotra Archipelago | Hadhramaut Governorate | Islands of Yemen | Islands of Africa | Gulf of Aden | Islands of the Indian Ocean | World Heritage Sites in Yemen | Biosphere reserves of Yemen | Archipelagoes of the Indian Ocean | Archaeological sites in Yemen
Socotra (سُقُطْرَى: ), also spelt Soqotra, is a small archipelago of four islands in the Indian Ocean. The largest island, also called Socotra, is about 95% of the landmass of the archipelago. It lies some east of the Horn of Africa and south of the Arabian Peninsula. The island is very isolated and through the process of speciation, a third of its plant life is found nowhere else on the planet. It has been described as the most alien-looking place on Earth.
Socotra is part of the Republic of Yemen. It had long been a part of the 'Adan Governorate, but in 2004 it became attached to the Hadhramaut Governorate, which is in much greater proximity to the island than 'Adan (although the nearest governorate is Al Mahrah).
History: There was initially an Oldoway (or Oldowan) culture in Socotra. Oldoway stone tools were found in the area around Hadibo by V.A. Zhukov, a member of the Russian Complex Expedition in 2008.
Socotra appears as Dioskouridou ("of Dioscurides") in the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a 1st century AD Greek navigation aid. In the notes to his translation of the Periplus, G.W.B. Huntingford remarks that the name Socotra is not Greek in origin, but derives from the Sanskrit dvipa sukhadhara ("island of bliss"). A recent discovery of texts in several languages, including a wooden tablet in Palmyrene dated to the 3rd century AD, indicate the diverse origins of those who used Socotra as a trading base in antiquity.
A local tradition holds that the inhabitants were converted to Christianity by Thomas the Apostle in AD 52. In the 10th century, the Arab geographer Abu Muhammad al-Hasan al-Hamdani stated that in his time most of the inhabitants were Christians.dateJuly 2008: Socotra is also mentioned in The Travels of Marco Polo, according to which "the inhabitants are baptised Christians and have an 'archbishop'" who, it is further explained, "has nothing to do with the Pope in Rome, but is subject to an archbishop who lives at Baghdad". They were Nestorians but also practised ancient magic rituals despite the warnings of their archbishop.
In 1507, a fleet commanded by Tristão da Cunha with Afonso de Albuquerque landed an occupying force at the then capital of Suq. Their objective was a Portuguese base to stop Arab commerce from the Red Sea to the Indian Ocean, and to liberate the presumed friendly Christians from Islamic rule. Here they started to build a fortress. However, they were not welcomed as enthusiastically as they had expected and abandoned the island four years later, as it was not advantageous as a base. The island was also come across by Somali sailors.date: January 2010: The islands passed under the control of the Mahra sultans in 1511. Later, in January 1876, it became a British protectorate along with the remainder of the Mahra State of Qishn and Socotra. For the British it was an important strategic stop-over.dateJanuary 2010: The P&O ship Aden sank after being wrecked on a reef near Socotra, in 1897, with the loss of 78 lives.
In October 1967, the Mahra sultanate was abolished. On 30 November 1967, Socotra became part of the People's Republic of South Yemen (later to become the People's Democratic Republic of Yemen). Today it is part of the Republic of Yemen.
Somali pirates have begun using Socotra as a refueling stop for hijacked maritime vessels. * Geography and climate
Socotra is one of the most isolated landforms on Earth of continental origin (i.e. not of volcanic origin).date: January 2010: The archipelago was once part of the supercontinent of Gondwana and detached during the Miocene, in the same set of rifting events that opened the Gulf of Aden to its northwest.
The archipelago consists of the main island of Socotra , the three smaller islands of Abd al Kuri, Samhah and Darsa and small rock outcrops like Ka'l Fir'awn and Sābūnīyah that are uninhabitable by humans but important for seabirds.
The main island has three geographical terrains: the narrow coastal plains, a limestone plateau permeated with karstic caves, and the Haghier Mountains. The mountains rise to . The island is about long and north to south.
The climate of Socotra is classified in the Köppen climate classification as BWh and BSh, meaning a tropical desert climate and semi-desert climate with a mean annual temperature over 18 °C (64 °F). Yearly rainfall is light, but is fairly spread throughout the year. Generally the higher inland areas receive more rain than the coastal lowlands, due to orographic lift provided by the interior mountains.dateJanuary 2010: The monsoon season brings strong winds and high seas. * Flora and fauna
List of spiders of Socotra: Socotra is considered the jewel of biodiversity in the Arabian Sea.
The long geological isolation of the Socotra archipelago and its fierce heat and drought have combined to create a unique and spectacular endemic flora. Botanical field surveys led by the Centre for Middle Eastern Plants (part of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh) indicate that 307 out of the 825 (37%) plant species on Socotra are endemic, i.e., they are found nowhere else on Earth. The entire flora of the Socotra Archipelago has been assessed for the IUCN Red List, with 3 Critically Endangered and 27 Endangered plant species currently recognised.
One of the most striking of Socotra's plants is the dragon's blood tree (Dracaena cinnabari), which is a strange-looking, umbrella-shaped tree. Its red sap was thought to be the dragon's blood of the ancients, sought after as a medicine and a dye,dateNovember 2009: and today used as paint and varnish. Also important in ancient times were Socotra's various endemic aloes, used medicinally, and for cosmetics. Other endemic plants include the giant succulent tree Dorstenia gigas, Moraceae, the cucumber tree Dendrosicyos socotranus, the rare Socotran pomegranate (Punica protopunica), Aloe perryi and Boswellia socotrana.
The island group also has a rich bird fauna, including several endemic species of birds, such as the Socotra Starling (Onychognathus frater), the Socotra Sunbird (Nectarinia balfouri), Socotra Bunting (Emberiza socotrana), Island Cisticola (Cisticola haesitatus), Socotra Sparrow (Passer insularis) and Socotra Grosbeak (Rhynchostruthus socotranus), many of which are endangered by non-native feral cats. There is even an endemic monotypic genus of birds, the Socotra Warbler (Incana incana).
As with many isolated island systems, bats are the only mammals native to Socotra. In contrast, the coral reefs of Socotra are diverse, with many endemic species. There is concern that introduced species, such as goats, may present a threat to the native flora of Socotra in the future.
UNESCO recognition: The island was recognised by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as a world natural heritage site in July 2008. The European Union has supported such a move, calling on both UNESCO and International Organisation of Protecting Environment to classify the island archipelago among the environmental heritages.
People and economy: The inhabitants are of Arab, Somali, and South Asian origins. They follow Islam and speak Soqotri, a Semitic language. Their primary occupations have been fishing, animal husbandry, and the cultivation of dates. Almost all inhabitants of Socotra, numbering nearly 50,000, live on the homonymous main island of the archipelago. The principal city, Hadibu (with a population of 8,545 at the census of 2004); the second largest town, Qulansiyah (population 3,862); and Qād̨ub (population 929)date: January 2010: are all located on the north coast of the island of Socotra. Only a few hundred people live on the islands of 'Abd-al-Kūrī and Samha; the island of Darsa and the islets of the archipelago are uninhabited.dateJanuary 2010: The archipelago forms two districts of the Hadhramaut Governorate: * the district of Hadibu (حديبو), with a population of 32,285 and a district seat at Hadibu, consists of the eastern two-thirds of the main island of Socotra; * the district of Qulansiyah wa 'Abd-al-Kūrī (قلنسيه وعبد الكوري), with a population of 10,557 and a district seat at Qulansiyah, consists of the minor islands (the island of 'Abd-al-Kūrī chief among them) and the western third of the main island.
Monsoons long made the archipelago inaccessible from June to September each year. However, in July 1999, a new airport opened Socotra to the outside world year round, with both Yemen Airways and Felix Airways providing flights once a week to Aden and everyday to Sana'a. All flights stop at Riyan-Mukalla Airport (ICAO code "RIY"). Socotra Island Airport ("OYSQ") is located about 12 km (8 mi) west of the main city, Hadibu, and close to the third largest town in the archipelago, Qād̨ub. Diesel generators make electricity widely available in Socotra, but even in Hadibu there is no electricity from 5:00 a.m. until 9:00 a.m. daily.date: January 2010: An excellent paved road runs along the north shore from Qulansiyah to Hadibu and then to the DiHamri area; and another paved road, from the northern coast to the southern through the Dixsam Plateau.dateJanuary 2010: Public transport is limited in Socotra; taxis are available only as a kind of rent-a-car service of four-wheel-drive vehicles with drivers.date: January 2010: The former capital is located to the east of Hadibu. A small Yemeni Army barracks lies at the western end of Hadibu, and the President of Yemen, Ali Abdullah Saleh, has a residence there.dateJanuary 2010: The Semitic language Soqotri, spoken originally only in Socotra, is related to such other Modern South Arabian languages on the Arabian mainland as Mehri, Harsusi, Bathari, Shehri, and Hobyot. Soqotri is also spoken by minority populations in the United Arab Emirates and other Gulf states.
Some residents raise cattle and goats. The chief export products of the island are dates, ghee, tobacco, and fish.
At the end of the 1990s, a United Nations Development Program was launched with the aim of providing a close survey of the island of Socotra.date: January 2010: The majority of male residents on Socotra are reported to be in the J* subclade of Y-DNA haplogroup J. Several of the female lineages on the island, notably those in mtDNA haplogroup N, are found nowhere else on earth.dateApril 2010: : Transport
date: December 2009: Public transport on Socotra is limited to infrequent minibuses to Qulansiyah and to the villages on northeastern coast, car hire usually means hiring a 4WD car with driver.
Ships connect the only Socotra port – 5 km (3 mi) east of Hadibu – with the Yemeni coastal city of Al Mukalla. According to information from the ports, the journey takes 2–3 days and the service is used mostly for cargo.
Yemenia and Felix Airways fly from Socotra Airport to Sana'a and Aden via Al Mukalla (RIY — Riyan Airport). The Sana'a service operates daily, while Aden flights are on Mondays, as of December 2009.
Gallery: Halah Halah Halah Halah Halah Halah Dixam
Notes: reflist: References: dateDecember 2009: Elie, Serge D. The Waning of a Pastoralist Community: An Ethnographic Exploration of Soqotra as a Transitional Social Formation. D.Phil Dissertation, University of Sussex, June 2007. http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver: Z39.88-2004&res_datxri:pqdiss&rft_val_fmt: info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&rft_dat=xri:pqdiss:3392556. * Miller, A.G. & Morris, M.(2004) Ethnoflora of the Socotra Archipelago. Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. * Naumkin, V. V. and A. V. Sedov (1993). "Monuments of Socotra." In: Athens, Aden, Arikamedu: Essays on the interrelations between India, Arabia and the Eastern Mediterranean, pp. 193–250. Edited by Marie-Françoise Boussac and Jean-François Salles. First published in 1995 in Topoi, vol. 3/2 (1993), Lyons, France, pp. 387–623. Reprint 2005, by Ajay Kumar Jain for Manohar, Publishers, Delhi. ISBN 81-7304-079-6. * RBGE Soqotra Bibliography: at RBGE and Friends of Soqotra websites. * Schoff, Wilfred H. 1912. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea. Longmans, Green, and Co., New York, Second Edition. Reprint: New Delhi, Oriental Books Reprint Corporation. 1974. (A new hardback edition is available from Coronet Books Inc. Also reprinted by South Asia Books, 1995, ISBN 81-215-0699-9)
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Socotra
Socotra | Géographie du Yémen
Archipel de Socotra:
Socotra ou Suqutra, en arabe , est une île du Yémen située en mer d'Oman, dans le Nord-Ouest de l'océan Indien, à l'entrée du golfe d'Aden. Elle se trouve à 250 kilomètres au large du cap Guardafui qui constitue l'extrémité Nord-Est de la corne de l'Afrique et à 350 kilomètres au sud-est des côtes du Yémen. Elle est la plus grande île de l'archipel de Socotra composé d'Abd al Kuri, Darsah, Samhah et les îlots rocheux de Sabuniyah et Ka'l Firawn. Socotra mesure environ 140 kilomètres de longueur, une quarantaine de kilomètres de largeur pour une superficie de . En raison de sa biodiversité et de la présence de quelque 700 espèces uniques au monde, elle est inscrite sur la liste du patrimoine mondial de l'Unesco au sein de l'archipel de Socotra.
Histoire : Socotra partage l'histoire de l'Arabie du Sud.
Dans le Le Périple de la mer Érythrée datant du Ier: siècle, l'île est nommée Dioscoride, signifiant île des Dioscures. Elle est décrite comme grande, déserte et marécageuse, et possèdant quelques rivières. La faune est composée de serpents, de grands lézards et de tortues. Ses habitants sont un mélange d'Arabes et d'Indiens, avec quelques Grecs qui y commercent ; ils sont peu nombreux et vivent sur la cote septentrionale.
Avant l'expansion de l'islam en 639, l'île, peuplée de chrétiens nestoriens, est un comptoir égypto-byzantin qui commerce avec les chrétiens de Kerala, en Inde.
Le Portugal, alors en expansion dans l'océan Indien et la mer Rouge, y fonde un comptoir commercial en 1505. Elle est sous protectorat britannique de 1886 à 1967, puis est intégrée à la République démocratique du Yémen du Sud de 1967 à 1990, période durant laquelle elle devient une base militaire soviétique. * Géographie
Socotra est une île d'origine continentale. L'île faisait partie de l'ancien continent Gondwana et se détacha au milieu du Pliocène il y a environ 6 millions d'années lors de la même distension continentale qui ouvrit le golfe d'Aden au nord-ouest
Elle est la plus grande île de l'archipel de Socotra composé d'Abd al Kuri, Darsah, Samhah et les îlots rocheux de Sabuniyah et Ka'l Firawn. Hormis Socotra, la plupart de ces petites îles sont inhabitées et abritent de nombreux oiseaux.
Socotra est constituée d'une étroite plaine côtière, d'un plateau de grès truffé de cavernes karstiques et de montagnes, les Haghier, s'élevant jusqu'à mètres d'altitude. L'île mesure environ 140 kilomètres de longueur, une quarantaine de kilomètres de largeur pour une superficie de . * Climat
Socotra possède un climat tropical désertique et semi-aride.
Le climat chaud de Socotra est fortement influencé par les moussons. Les zones basses sont très sèches, les côtes ainsi qu'un bassin intérieur situé au centre de l'île, tandis que les plateaux sont régulièrement arrosés.
La mousson d'été, qui dure de mai à septembre, n'apporte pas de pluies, mais des vents violents du sud-ouest qui atteignent des moyennes de 60 km/h à 100 km/h et rendent l'accès à l'île difficile par mer ou par air. Les vents sont alors chauds, secs et salés. Il ne pleut pas, mais les plateaux sont constamment humidifiées par la brume.
De novembre à mars, la mousson du nord-est apporte des pluies, parfois torrentielles, mais des vents moins violents. Les hauts plateaux sont dans la brume et bien arrosés. Les régions côtières connaissent de fortes averses sporadiques. Novembre et décembre sont les mois les plus frais de l'année, avant le retour de la chaleur dès janvier.
De fin mars à début mai, une saison de transition apporte des pluies bien réparties sur toute l'île. Ce sont les plus profitables de l'année pour la végétation. Les vents sont faibles et c'est paradoxalement la période la plus chaude. * Population
La plupart des habitants de l'archipel, au nombre de en 2004, vivent à Socotra. La ville principale est Hadiboh avec une population estimée en 2004 à habitants. Les autres villes sont Qulansiyah avec habitants et Qād̨ub avec 929 habitants. Toutes les trois sont situées sur la côte Nord. Les îles d'Abd-al-Kūrī et de Samhah ont une population de quelques centaines d'habitants, Darsa et les autres îles sont inhabitées.
La population est d'origine indienne, arabe et somalienne, de religion musulmane et parle le soqotri, une langue non écrite, qui fait partie de la famille des langues sémitiques. * Économie
Les activités principales sont la pêche et l'élevage de bovins et de chèvres. Le climat ne permet que la culture de dattes, d'aromates et d'un peu de tabac. Les principaux produits commerciaux sont le ghî, du beurre clarifié, l'aloès et l'encens (Boswellia sp.). Récemment, le tourisme a pris de l'importance. * Flore et faune
Socotra est considérée comme un exemple remarquable de biodiversité. Du fait du long isolement géologique de l'île, conjugué à la forte chaleur et sécheresse ont créé une spectaculaire flore endémique (mais qui est vulnérable aux espèces animales introduites telles que les chèvres, et aux changements climatiques). Des enquêtes ont révélé que plus d'un tiers des 800 et quelques espèces de plantes de Socotra ne se trouvent nulle part ailleurs. Les botanistes rangent la flore de Socotra parmi les dix flores îliennes les plus en danger dans le monde.
La formation végétale la plus étonnante de l'île est située sur les escarpements au pied des montagnes. La végétation y est dominée visuellement par Dendrosicyos socotrana, l'arbre concombre, une sous-espèce particulière de rose du désert, Adenium obesum subsp. socotranum et Euphorbia arbuscula. Plus haut dans les montagnes, domine le dragonnier de Socotra ou arbre au sang du dragon (Dracaena cinnabari), avec une forme de parapluie. Sa résine est utilisée comme colorant, le sang-dragon, depuis l'Antiquité. On y trouve également Dorstenia gigas, une Moraceae pachycaule.
Socotra est inscrite sur la liste du patrimoine mondial de l'Unesco au sein de l'archipel de Socotra depuis 2008 et est considérée comme un point chaud de biodiversité par l'association Conservation International. * Liste de plantes de Socotra * Adenium obesum subsp. socotranum * Aloe perryi * Aloe squarrosa * Boswellia nana * Boswellia bullata * Boswellia ameero * Caralluma socotrana * Commiphora kua * Dendrosicyos socotrana * Dorstenia gigas - figuier de Socotra * Dracaena cinnabari - dragonnier de Socotra * Euphorbia abdelkuri * Euphorbia arbuscula * Annexes * Liens internes * Hadramaout * Sultanat Mahri de Qishn et Socotra
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تاريخ الشرق الأوسط
تاريخ الشرق الأوسط
تاريخ الشرق الأوسط: الشرق الأوسط كمنطقة يشمل معظم دول جنوبي غرب آسيا إضافة لمنطقة كبيرة من شمالي إفريقيا ، بهذا المعنى فهي تشمل معظم الدول العربية الأسيوية ودول شمال أفريقيا الخمس مصر، تونس، ليبيا، المغرب، الجزائر، ولإيران وتركيا مشكلة بذلك قلب ما يدعى بالعالم القديم، تعتبر هذه المنطقة مهد معظم الحضارات القديمة وهي مسرح معظم الحروب والحملات العسكرية خلال التاريخ القديم والحديث. حاليا تحتل هذه المنطقة أهمية خاصة بسبب مخزونها الاستراتيجي من النفط، وبسبب قضية النزاع العربي الإسرائيلي.
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History of the Middle East
History of the Middle East
Timeline of Middle Eastern history: This article is a general overview of the history of the Middle East. For more detailed information, see articles on the histories of individual countries and regions. For discussion of the issues surrounding the definition of the area see the article on Middle East.
The ancient Near East: Ancient Near East: Short chronology timeline: Cradle of civilization: The earliest thats not treue hahha
r]]ians, Akkadians (later known as Babylonians and Assyrians) all flourished in this region. Soon after the Sumerian civilization began, the Nile River valley of ancient Egypt was unified under the Pharaohs in the 4th millennium BC, and civilization quickly spread through the Fertile Crescent to the west coast of the Mediterranean Sea and throughout the Levant. The Elamites, Hittites, Amorites, Phoenicians, Israelites and others later built important states in this region.
Assyrian empires: Mesopotamia was home to several powerful empires which came to rule almost the entire Middle East, particularly the Assyrian Empires of 1365-1076 BC and the Neo Assyrian Empire of 911- 605 BC. The Assyrian Empire at its peak was the largest the world had yet seen, and ruled all of what is now modern day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, Kuwait, Jordan, Egypt, Cyprus and Bahrain, together with large swathes of Iran, Turkey, Armenia, Georgia, Sudan and Arabia.
Iranian empires: From the early 6th century BC onwards, several Iranian states dominated the region, beginning with the Medes and non-Iranian Neo-Babylonian Empire, then their successor the Achaemenid Empire known as the first Persian Empire, conquered in the late 4th century B.C. by the very short-lived Macedonian Empire of Alexander the Great, and then successor kingdoms such as Ptolemaic Egypt and the Seleucid state in Western Asia.
After a century of hiatus the idea of the Persian Empire was revived by the Central Asian Iranian Parthians in the 3rd century B.C. and continued by their successors the Sassanids from the 3rd century AD. This empire would dominate sizable part of what is now considered the Asian part of the Middle East and continue to influence the rest of the Asiatic and African Middle East region, actually mostly under the Eastern Roman Empire-Byzantine Empire rule and influence, until the Arab Islamic conquest of Persia in the mid-7th century C.E. . Eastern Rite, Church of the East Christianity took hold in Persian ruled Mesopotamia, particularly in Assyria from the 1st Century AD onwards, and the region became a center of a flourishing Syriac-Assyrian literary tradition.
Roman Empire: In the 1st century BC, the expanding Roman Republic absorbed the whole Eastern Mediterranean area (which included much of the Near East) and under the Roman Empire the region was united with most of Europe and North Africa in a single political and economic unit. Even areas not directly annexed became strongly influenced by the Empire, which became the most powerful political and cultural entity for centuries. Although Latin culture spread across the region, the Greek culture and language first established in the region by the Macedonian Empire would continue to dominate throughout the Roman period. Cities in the Middle East, especially Alexandria, became major urban centers for the Empire and the region did became the Empire's "bread basket" as the key agricultural producer.
As the Christian religion spread throughout the Roman and Persian Empires it took root in the Middle East, and cities such as Alexandria and Edessa became important centers of Christian scholarship. By the 5th century, Christianity was the dominant religion in the Middle East with other faiths (gradually including heretical Christian sects) being actively repressed. The Middle East's ties to the city of Rome would gradually be severed as the Empire split into East and West with the Middle East becoming tied to the new Roman capital of Constantinople. The subsequent fall of Rome and the Western Roman Empire, therefore, had minimal direct impact on the region. The Eastern Roman Empire, today commonly known as the Byzantine Empire, ruling from the Balkans to the Euphrates, became increasingly defined by and dogmatic about Christianity gradually creating religious rifts between the doctrines dictated by the establishment in Constantinople and believers in many parts of the Middle East. At the time Greek had turned to the 'lingua franca' of the region, although ethnicities such as the Syriacs and the Hebrew continued to exist. Under Byzantine/Greek rule the area of the Levant met an era of stability and prosperity.
The medieval Middle East: Islamic caliphate: From the 7th century, a new power was rising in the Middle East, that of Islam, whilst the Byzantine Roman and Sassanid Persian empires were both weakened by centuries of stalemate warfare during the Roman-Persian Wars. In a series of rapid Muslim conquests, the Arab armies, motivated by Islam and led by the Caliphs and skilled military commanders such as Khalid ibn al-Walid, swept through most of the Middle East; reducing Byzantine lands by more than half and completely engulfing the Persian lands. In Anatolia, their expansion was blocked by the still capable Byzantines with the help of the Bulgarians. The Byzantine provinces of Roman Syria, North Africa, and Sicily, however, could not mount such a resistance, and the Muslim conquerors swept through those regions. At the far west, they crossed the sea taking Visigothic Hispania before being halted in southern France by the Franks. At its greatest extent, the Arab Empire was the first empire to control the entire Middle East, as well 3/4 of the Mediterranean region, the only other empire besides the Roman Empire to control most of the Mediterranean Sea. It would be the Arab Caliphates of the Middle Ages that would first unify the entire Middle East as a distinct region and create the dominant ethnic identity that persists today. The Seljuk Empire would also later dominate the region.
Much of North Africa became a peripheral area to the main Muslim centres in the Middle East, but Iberia (Al Andalus) and Morocco soon broke from this distant control and founded one of the world's most advanced societies at the time, along with Baghdad in the eastern Mediterranean.
Between 831 and 1071, the Emirate of Sicily was one of the major centres of Islamic culture in the Mediterranean. After its conquest by the Normans the island developed its own distinct culture with the fusion of Arab, Western and Byzantine influences. Palermo remained a leading artistic and commercial centre of the Mediterranean well into the Middle Ages.
Africa was reviving, however, as more organized and centralized states began to form in the later Middle Ages after the Renaissance of the 12th century. Motivated by religion and dreams of conquest, the kings of Europe launched a number of Crusades to try to roll back Muslim power and retake the holy land. The Crusades were unsuccessful in this goal, but they were far more effective in weakening the already tottering Byzantine Empire that began to lose increasing amounts of territory to the Ottoman Turks. They also rearranged the balance of power in the Muslim world as Egypt once again emerged as a major power in the eastern Mediterranean.
Turks, Crusaders and Mongols: The dominance of the Arabs came to a sudden end in the mid 11th century with the arrival of the Seljuk Turks, migrating south from the Turkic homelands in Central Asia, who conquered Persia, Iraq (capturing Baghdad in 1055), Syria, Palestine, and the Hejaz. Egypt held out under the Fatimid caliphs until 1169, when it too fell to the Turks.
Despite its massive territorial losses in the 7th century the Christian Byzantine Empire had continued to be a potent military and economic force in the Mediterranean preventing Arab expansion into much of Europe. The Seljuks' defeat of the Byzantine military in the 11th century and settling in Anatolia effectively marked the end of Byzantine influence in the region. The Seljuks ruled most of the Middle East region for the next 200 years, but their empire soon broke up into a number of smaller sultanates.
Christian Western Europe had staged a remarkable economic and demographic recovery in the 11th century since the nadir of its fortunes in the 7th century. The fragmentation of the Middle East allowed joined forces, mainly from England, France and the emerging Holy Roman Empire to enter the region. In 1095, Pope Urban II, had responded to pleas from the flagging Byzantine Empire, summoned the European aristocracy to recapture the Holy Land for Christianity, and in 1099 the knights of the First Crusade captured Jerusalem. They founded the Kingdom of Jerusalem, which survived until 1187, when Saladin retook the city. Smaller crusader fiefdoms survived until 1291.
In the early 13th century, a new wave of invaders, the Mongol armies of the Mongol Empire, swept through the region, sacking Baghdad in 1258 and advancing as far south as the border of Egypt. Mamluk Emir Baibars left Damascus to Cairo where he was welcomed by Sultan Qutuz. After taking Damascus, the Ilkhanate was established and Hulagu demanded that Sultan Qutuz surrender Egypt but Sultan Qutuz had Hulagu's envoys killed and, with the help of Baibars, mobilized his troops. Although Hulagu had to leave for the East when great Khan Möngke died in action against the Southern Song, he left his lieutenant, the Christian Kitbuqa, in charge. Sultan Qutuz drew the Mongol army into an ambush near the Orontes River, routed them at the Battle of Ain Jalut and captured and executed Kitbuqa. With this victory Mamluk Turks became Sultans of Egypt and the real power in the Middle East and gaining control of Palestine and Syria, while other Turkish sultans controlled Iraq and Anatolia until the arrival of the Ottomans.
The Ottoman era: Ottoman Empire: By the early 15th century, a new power had arisen in western Anatolia, the Ottoman emirs, who in 1453 captured the Christian Byzantine capitol of Constantinople and made themselves sultans. The Mameluks held the Ottomans out of the Middle East for a century, but in 1514 Selim the Grim began the systematic Ottoman conquest of the region. Syria was occupied in 1516 and Egypt in 1517, extinguishing the Mameluk line. The Ottomans united the whole region under one ruler for the first time since the reign of the Abbasid caliphs of the 10th century, and they kept control of it for 400 years.
The Ottomans also conquered Greece, the Balkans, and most of Hungary, setting the new frontier between east and west far to the north of the Danube. But in the west Europe was rapidly expanding, demographically, economically and culturally, with the new wealth of the Americas fuelling a boom that laid the foundations for the growth of capitalism and the industrial revolution. By the 17th century, Europe had overtaken the Muslim world in wealth, population and—most importantly—technology.
By 1700, the Ottomans had been driven out of Hungary and the balance of power along the frontier had shifted decisively in favour of the west. Although some areas of Ottoman Europe, such as Albania and Bosnia, saw many conversions to Islam, the area was never culturally absorbed into the Muslim world. From 1700 to 1918, the Ottomans steadily retreated, and the Middle East fell further and further behind Europe, becoming increasingly inward-looking and defensive. During the 19th century, Greece, Serbia, Romania, and Bulgaria asserted their independence, and in the Balkan Wars of 1912–13 the Ottomans were driven out of Europe altogether, except for the city of Constantinople and its hinterland.
By the 19th century, the Ottoman Empire was known as the "sick man of Europe", increasingly under the financial control of the European powers. Domination soon turned to outright conquest. The French annexed Algeria in 1830 and Tunisia in 1878. The British occupied Egypt in 1882, though it remained under nominal Ottoman sovereignty. The British also established effective control of the Persian Gulf, and the French extended their influence into Lebanon and Syria. In 1912, the Italians seized Libya and the Dodecanese islands, just off the coast of the Ottoman heartland of Anatolia. The Ottomans turned to Germany to protect them from the western powers, but the result was increasing financial and military dependence on Germany.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, Middle Eastern rulers tried to modernize their states to compete more effectively with the European powers. reformist rulers such as Mehemet Ali in Egypt, the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II and the authors of the 1906 revolution in Persia all sought to import versions of the western model of constitutional government, civil law, secular education and industrial development into their countries. Across the region railways and telegraphs lines were built, schools and universities were opened, and a new class of army officers, lawyers, teachers and administrators emerged, challenging the traditional leadership of Islamic scholars.
Unfortunately, in all these cases the money to pay for the reforms was borrowed from the west, and the crippling debt this entailed led to bankruptcy and even greater western domination, which tended to discredit the reformers. Egypt, for example, fell under British control because the ambitious projects of Muhammad Ali and his successors bankrupted the state. Additionally, the westernisation of the Islamic world created professional armies, led by officers who were both willing and able to seize power for themselves—a problem that has plagued the Middle East ever since. There was also the problem that affects all reforming absolute rulers: they are prepared to consider all reforms except giving up their own power. Abdul Hamid, for example, grew ever more autocratic as he tried to impose reforms on his reluctant empire. Reforming ministers in Persia also tried to impose modernisation on their subjects, provoking sharp resistance.
The most ambitious reformers were the Young Turks (officially called the Committee for Union and Progress), who seized power in the Ottoman Empire in 1908. Led by an ambitious pair of army officers, Ismail Enver (Enver Pasha) and Ahmed Cemal (Cemal Pasha), and a radical lawyer, Mehmed Talat (Talat Pasha), the Young Turks initially established a constitutional monarchy, but soon became a ruling junta, with Talat as Grand Vizier and Enver as War Minister, which tried to force a radical modernisation program onto the Ottoman Empire.
The plan had several flaws. First it entailed imposing the Turkish language and centralised government on what had hitherto been a multi-lingual and loosely governed empire, which alienated the Arabic-speaking regions of the empire and caused an upsurge in Arab nationalism. Secondly it drove the empire ever deeper into debt. And thirdly, when Enver Bey formed an alliance with Germany, which he saw as the most advanced military power in Europe, it cost the empire the support of Britain, which had protected the Ottomans against Russian encroachment all through the 19th century.
European domination: Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire: In 1914 Enver Bey's alliance with Germany led the Young Turks into the fatal step of joining Germany and Austria-Hungary in World War I, against Britain and France. The British saw the Ottomans as the weak link in the enemy alliance, and concentrated on knocking them out of the war. When a direct assault failed at Gallipoli in 1915, they turned to fomenting revolution in the Ottoman domains, exploiting the awakening force of Arab nationalism (and also that of the Armenians and Assyrians). The Arabs had lived more or less happily under Ottoman rule for 400 years, until the Young Turks had tried to "Turkicise" them and change their traditional system of government. The British found an ally in Sharif Hussein, the hereditary ruler of Mecca (and believed by Muslims to be a descendant of the family of the Prophet Muhammad), who led an Arab Revolt against Ottoman rule, having received a promise of Arab independence in exchange. Armenians and Assyrians, long persecuted Christian minorities were also allied to the British, and rose up in response to Ottoman masssacres of their populations.
But when the Ottoman Empire was defeated by British Empire forces after the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in 1918, the Arab population was met with what it perceived as betrayal by the British. The British and French governments concluded a secret treaty (the Sykes-Picot Agreement) to partition the Middle East between them and, additionally, the British promised via the Balfour Declaration the international Zionist movement their support in creating a Jewish homeland in Palestine. Historically known to be the site of the ancient Jewish Kingdom of Israel and successor Jewish nations for 1,200 years between approximately 1100BC-100AD, the region now had a large Arab population also from the 7th century AD. When the Ottomans departed, the Arabs proclaimed an independent state in Damascus, but were too weak, militarily and economically, to resist the European powers for long, and Britain and France soon established control and re-arranged the Middle East to suit themselves.
Syria became a French protectorate thinly disguised as a League of Nations Mandate. The Christian coastal areas were split off to become Lebanon, another French protectorate. Iraq and Palestine became British mandated territories. Iraq became the "Kingdom of Iraq" and one of Sharif Hussein's sons, Faisal, was installed as the King of Iraq. Iraq incorporated large populations of Kurds, Assyrians and Turcomans, many of whom had been promised independent states of their own. Palestine became the "British Mandate of Palestine" and was split in half. The eastern half of Palestine became the "Emirate of Transjordan" to provide a throne for another of Husayn's sons, Abdullah. The western half of Palestine was placed under direct British administration. The already substantial Jewish population was allowed to increase. Initially this increase was allowed under British protection. Most of the Arabian peninsula fell to another British ally, Ibn Saud. Saud created the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1932.
In 1878, as the result of the Cyprus Convention, the United Kingdom took over the government of Cyprus as a protectorate from the Ottoman Empire. While the Cypriots at first welcomed British rule, hoping that they would gradually achieve prosperity, democracy and national liberation, they soon became disillusioned. The British imposed heavy taxes to cover the compensation they paid to the Sultan for conceding Cyprus to them. Moreover, the people were not given the right to participate in the administration of the island, since all powers were reserved to the High Commissioner and to London. In 1931, the Government of Lord Liverpool created the Six Acts, which established press censorship, the banning of political parties (mainly the communist party), the dissolution of municipal elections, as well as the out-ruling of trade unions, meetings of more than five individuals, and the tolling of church bells outside services.
Meanwhile, the fall of the Ottomans had allowed Kemal Atatürk to seize power in Turkey and embark on a program of modernisation and secularisation. He abolished the caliphate, emancipated women, enforced western dress and the use of a new Turkish alphabet based on Latin alphabet in place of Arabic alphabet, and abolished the jurisdiction of the Islamic courts. In effect, Turkey, having given up rule over the Arab World, now determined to secede from the Middle East and become culturally part of Europe. Ever since, Turkey has insisted that it is a European country and not part of the Middle East.
Another turning point in the history of the Middle East came when oil was discovered, first in Persia in 1908 and later in Saudi Arabia (in 1938) and the other Persian Gulf states, and also in Libya and Algeria. The Middle East, it turned out, possessed the world's largest easily accessible reserves of crude oil, the most important commodity in the 20th century industrial world. Although western oil companies pumped and exported nearly all of the oil to fuel the rapidly expanding automobile industry and other western industrial developments, the kings and emirs of the oil states became immensely rich, enabling them to consolidate their hold on power and giving them a stake in preserving western hegemony over the region. Oil wealth also had the effect of stultifying whatever movement towards economic, political or social reform might have emerged in the Arab world under the influence of the Kemalist revolution in Turkey.
During the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, Syria and Egypt made moves towards independence. In 1919, Saad Zaghloul orchestrated mass demonstrations in Egypt known as the First Revolution. While Zaghloul would later become Prime Minister, the British repression of the anticolonial riots led to the death of some 800 people. In 1920, Syrian forces were defeated by the French in the Battle of Maysalun and Iraqi forces were defeated by the British when they revolted. In 1922, the (nominally) independent Kingdom of Egypt was created following the British government's issuance of the Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence. Although the Kingdom of Egypt was technically "neutral" during World War II, Cairo soon became a major military base for the British forces and the country was occupied. The British were able to do this because of a 1936 treaty by which the United Kingdom maintained that it had the right to station troops on Egyptian soil to protect the Suez Canal. In 1941, the Rashīd `Alī al-Gaylānī coup in Iraq led to the British invasion of the country during the Anglo-Iraqi War. The British invasion of Iraq was followed by the Allied invasion of Syria-Lebanon and the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran.
In Palestine, conflicting forces of Arab nationalism and Zionism created a situation the British could neither resolve nor extricate themselves from. The rise to power of German dictator Adolf Hitler in Germany had created a new urgency in the Zionist quest to immigrate to Palestine and create a Jewish state there. A Palestinian state was also an attractive alternative for Arab and Persian leaders to British, French, and perceived Jewish colonialism and imperialism under the logic of "the enemy of my enemy is my friend" (Lewis, 348–350).
The British, the French, and the Soviets departed many parts of the Middle East during and after World War II. Turkey, Saudi Arabia, and the Middle East states on the Arabian Peninsula generally remained unaffected by World war II. However, after the war, the following Middle states had independence restored or became independent: * 17 October 1941 – Iran (forces of the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union withdrawn) * 22 November 1943 – Lebanon * 1 January 1944 – Syria * 22 May 1946 – Jordan (British mandate ended) * 1947 – Iraq (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn) * 1947 – Egypt (forces of the United Kingdom withdrawn to the Suez Canal area) * August 16, 1960 – Cyprus
The struggle between the Arabs and the Jews in Palestine culminated in the 1947 United Nations plan to partition Palestine. This plan attempted to create an Arab state and a Jewish state in the narrow space between the Jordan River and the Mediterranean Sea. While the Jewish leaders accepted it, the Arab leaders rejected this plan.
On 14 May 1948, when the British Mandate expired, the Zionist leadership declared the State of Israel. In the 1948 Arab-Israeli War that immediately followed, the armies of Egypt, Syria, Transjordan, Lebanon, Iraq, and Saudi Arabia intervened and were defeated by Israel. About 800,000 Palestinians fled from areas annexed by Israel and became refugees in neighbouring countries, thus creating the "Palestinian problem," which has bedevilled the region ever since. Approximately two-thirds of 758,000—866,000 of the Jews expelled or who fled from Arab lands after 1948 were absorbed and naturalized by the State of Israel.
On August 16, 1960, Cyprus gained its independence from the United Kingdom. Archbishop Makarios III, a charismatic religious and political leader, was elected the first president of independent Cyprus, and in 1961 it became the 99th member of the United Nations.
A zone of conflict: List of conflicts in the Middle East: The departure of the European powers from direct control of the region, the establishment of Israel, and the increasing importance of the oil industry, marked the creation of the modern Middle East. These developments led to a growing presence of the United States in Middle East affairs. The U.S. was the ultimate guarantor of the stability of the region, and from the 1950s the dominant force in the oil industry. When republican revolutions brought radical anti-Western regimes to power in Egypt in 1954, in Syria in 1963, in Iraq in 1968 and in Libya in 1969, the Soviet Union, seeking to open a new arena of the Cold War in the Middle East, allied itself with Arab rulers such as Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Saddam Hussein of Iraq. These regimes gained popular support through their promises to destroy the state of Israel, defeat the U.S. and other "western imperialists," and to bring prosperity to the Arab masses. When they failed to deliver on their promises, they became increasingly despotic.
In response to this challenge to its interests in the region, the U.S. felt obliged to defend its remaining allies, the conservative monarchies of Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Iran and the Persian Gulf emirates, whose methods of rule were almost as unattractive to western eyes as those of the anti-western regimes. Iran in particular became a key U.S. ally, until a revolution led by the Shi'a clergy overthrew the monarchy in 1979 and established a theocratic regime that was even more anti-western than the secular regimes in Iraq or Syria. This forced the U.S. into a close alliance with Saudi Arabia. The list of Arab-Israeli wars includes a great number of major wars such as 1948 Arab-Israeli War, 1956 Suez War, 1967 Six Day War, 1970 War of Attrition, 1973 Yom Kippur War, 1982 Lebanon War, as well as a number of lesser conflicts.
Between 1963 and 1974, conflict arising between Greek Cypriots and Turkish Cypriots in British colonial Cyprus lead to Cypriot intercommunal violence and the Turkish invasion of Cyprus. The ongoing Cyprus dispute has yet to be resolved.
In the mid-to-late 1960s, the Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party led by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar took power in both Iraq and Syria. Iraq was first ruled by Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, but was succeeded by Saddam Hussein in 1979, and Syria was ruled first by a Military Committee led by Salah Jadid, and later Hafez al-Assad until 2000, when he was succeeded by his son, Bashar al-Assad.
In 1979, Egypt under Nasser's successor, Anwar Sadat, concluded a peace treaty with Israel, ending the prospects of a united Arab military front. From the 1970s the Palestinians, led by Yasser Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization, resorted to a prolonged campaign of violence against Israel and against American, Jewish and western targets generally, as a means of weakening Israeli resolve and undermining western support for Israel. The Palestinians were supported in this, to varying degrees, by the regimes in Syria, Libya, Iran and Iraq. The high point of this campaign came in the 1975 United Nations General Assembly Resolution 3379 condemning Zionism as a form of racism and the reception given to Arafat by the United Nations General Assembly. Resolution 3379 was revoked in 1991 by the United Nations General Assembly Resolution 4686.
The fall of the Soviet Union and the collapse of communism in the early 1990s had several consequences for the Middle East. It allowed large numbers of Soviet Jews to emigrate from Russia and Ukraine to Israel, further strengthening the Jewish state. It cut off the easiest source of credit, armaments and diplomatic support to the anti-western Arab regimes, weakening their position. It opened up the prospect of cheap oil from Russia, driving down the price of oil and reducing the west's dependence on oil from the Arab states. It discredited the model of development through authoritarian state socialism, which Egypt (under Nasser), Algeria, Syria and Iraq had followed since the 1960s, leaving these regimes politically and economically stranded. Rulers such as Saddam Hussein in Iraq increasingly turned to Arab nationalism as a substitute for socialism.
This led Iraq into its prolonged war with Iran in the 1980s, and then into its fateful invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Kuwait had been part of the Ottoman province of Basra before 1918, and thus in a sense part of Iraq, but Iraq had recognised its independence in the 1960s. The U.S. responded to the invasion by forming a coalition of allies that included Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Syria, gaining approval from the United Nations and then evicting Iraq from Kuwait by force in the Persian Gulf War. President George H. W. Bush did not, however, attempt to overthrow Saddam Hussein's regime, something the U.S. later came to regretdateApril 2011: . The Persian Gulf War and its aftermath brought about a permanent U.S. military presence in the Persian Gulf region, particularly in Saudi Arabia, something that offended many Muslims.
The conflicts continued in 2006 with the so-called 'July War' between Israel and Hezbollah militants. What had been a long-running, localized conflict between Israeli forces and Palestinian militants in the Gaza Strip flared up on July 12, 2006 when Hezbollah militants captured 2 Israeli soldiers patrolling along the Israeli-Lebanese border. This resulted in what is called the July War in Lebanon, which lasted just over a month, in which more than 1000 Lebanese civilians were killed, around 120 Israeli soldiers and 44 Israeli civilians were killed, both Israel and Lebanon were subjected to constant shelling and air strikes by Hezbollah and Israel, respectively. Air strikes and rocket attacks became commonplace between Israeli forces and the Hezbollah militia as the Israelis attempted to clear a security zone along the Israeli-Lebanese border free of Israeli forces and Hezbollah militants. A recent Report for Congress argued that indirect involvement of Iran and Syria, in that they allow and help the 'arming, training and financing' of Hezbollah, means that the month-long war was really a direct conflict between Israel and Iran-Syria by proxy. * The contemporary Middle East
date: September 2010: By the 1990s, many western commentators (and some Middle Eastern ones) saw the Middle East as not just a zone of conflict, but also a zone of backwardness. The rapid spread of political democracy and the development of market economies in Eastern Europe, Latin America, East Asia and parts of Africa passed the Middle East by boats. In the whole region, only Israel, Turkey and to some extent Lebanon and the Palestinian territories were democracies. Other countries had legislative bodies, but these had little power, and in the Persian Gulf states the majority of the population could not vote anyway, as they were guest workers and not citizens. Many Arab commentators counter-claim that, as a direct result of Western foreign policy, an overly strong Israel, double standards of occupation, and destroying a nation that was extremely prosperous in the 1980s under Saddam Hussein by form of sanctions, and interference was removed much progress would come naturally to these nations.
In most Middle Eastern countries, the growth of market economies was inhibited by political restrictions, corruption and cronyism, overspending on arms and prestige projects, and overdependence on oil revenues. Successful economies in the region were those that combined oil wealth with low populations, such as Qatar, Bahrain, and the United Arab Emirates. In these states, the ruling emirs allowed some political and social liberalization, but without giving up any of their own power. Lebanon, after a prolonged civil war in the 1980s, also rebuilt a fairly successful economy.
By the end of the 1990s, the Middle East as a whole was falling behind Europe, India, China, and other rapidly developing market economies, in terms of production, trade, education, communications and virtually every other criterion of economic and social progress. The assertion that, if oil was subtracted, the total exports of the whole Arab world were less than those of Finland was frequently quoted. The theories of authors such as David Pryce-Jones, that the Arabs were trapped in a "cycle of backwardness" from which their culture would not allow them to escape, were widely accepted in the west and east.
In the opening years of the 21st century all these factors combined to raise the Middle East conflict to a new height, and to spread its consequences across the globe. The failure of the attempt by Bill Clinton to broker a peace deal between Israel and the Palestinians at Camp David in 2000 (2000 Camp David Summit) led directly to the election of Ariel Sharon as Prime Minister of Israel and to the Al-Aqsa Intifada, characterised by suicide bombing of Israeli civilian targets. This was the first major outbreak of violence since the Oslo Peace Accords of 1993.
At the same time, the failures of most of the Arab regimes and the bankruptcy of secular Arab radicalism led a section of educated Arabs (and other Muslims) to embrace Islamism, promoted both by the Shi'a clerics of Iran and by the powerful Wahhabist sect of Saudi Arabia. Many of the militant Islamists gained military training while fighting against the forces of the Soviet Union in Afghanistan.
One of these was a wealthy Saudi Arabian, Osama bin Laden. After fighting against the Soviets in Afghanistan, he formed the al-Qaida organization, which was responsible for the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings, the USS Cole bombing and the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States.dateSeptember 2011: The September 11 attacks led the administration of U.S. President George W. Bush to launch an invasion of Afghanistan in 2001 to overthrow the Taliban regime, which was harbouring Bin Laden and his organisation. The U.S. and its allies described this operation as part of a global "War on Terrorism."
During 2002 the administration, led by Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld, developed a plan to invade Iraq, remove Saddam from power, and turn Iraq into a democratic state with a free-market economy, which, they hoped, would serve as a model for the rest of the Middle East. When the U.S. and its principal allies, Britain, Italy, Spain and Australia, could not secure United Nations approval for the execution of the numerous United Nations resolutions, they launched an invasion of Iraq, overthrowing Saddam with no great difficulty in April 2003.
The advent of a new western army of occupation in a Middle Eastern capital marked a turning point in the history of the region. Despite successful elections (although boycotted by large portions of Iraq's Sunni population) held in January 2005, Iraq has all but disintegrated due to a lack of infrastructure and security. A post-war insurgency has morphed into persistent ethnic violence the American army has been unable to quell. Many of Iraq's intellectual and business elite have fled the country, and total Iraqi refugees already outnumber the Palestinian exodus following the creation of Israel, further destabilizing the region. A responsive surge in US forces in Iraq has recently been largely successful in controlling the insurgency and stabilizing Iraq.
By 2005, also, George W. Bush's Road map for peace between Israel and the Palestinians has been stalled, although this situation began to change with Yasser Arafat's death in 2004. In response, Israel moved towards a unilateral solution, pushing ahead with the Israeli West Bank barrier to protect Israel from Palestinian suicide bombers and proposed unilateral withdrawal from Gaza. The barrier if completed would amount to a de facto annexation of areas of the West Bank by Israel. In 2006 a new conflict erupted between Israel and Hezbollah Shi’a militia in southern Lebanon, further setting back any "prospects for peace".
Starting in late 2010 to the present, a revolutionary wave popularly known as the Arab Spring has brought major protests, uprisings, and even revolutions to several Middle Eastern countries and appears to be in the process of significantly changing the social order of the Middle East. * References
Reflist: * Lewis, Bernard. The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2,000 Years. New York: Scribner, 1995. * Alfred Schlicht: Die Araber und Europa . Stuttgart 2008 * See Also== * History of Asia * History of Bahrain * History of Egypt * History of Iran * History of Iraq * History of Israel * History of Jordan * History of Kuwait * History of Lebanon * History of Oman * History of Qatar * History of Saudi Arabia * History of Syria * History of Turkey * History of the United Arab Emirates * History of Yemen * History of North Africa * Muslim conquests * Ottoman Empire * Middle Eastern Empires * Timeline of Middle Eastern History * Synoptic table of the principal old world prehistoric cultures
History of the Middle East:
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Histoire du Moyen-Orient
Histoire du Moyen-Orient
Lhistoire du Moyen-Orient remonte à l'antiquité où la première civilisation se serait sédentarisée à Sumer en Mésopotamie. L'établissement des sumériens remonterait à la période d'Uruk, soit au IVe millénaire av. J.-C.: . Durant plusieurs millénaires, le Moyen-Orient fut un des foyers de développement culturel et scientifique parmi les plus importants du monde, le contact avec les civilisations européennes, africaines et asiatiques conduisit au développement de l'échange de marchandises, de connaissances et à de multiples conflits pour le contrôle des richesses, des lieux saints, ou encore des voies de communication.
Antiquité : Bien avant que la civilisation sumérienne ne s'installe durablement, de petites poches de peuplement s'installèrent dans les vallées fertiles du Nil, de la Mésopotamie et sur les rivages côtiers . Cette période qui s’étale sur la période Natoufienne, le Néolithique précéramique et le Chalcolithique, vit se développer les premières formes d'agriculture, d'élevage, d'artisanat et d'urbanisation .
Parmi les nombreuses civilisations à s'établir entre l'Inde, l'Afrique et les Balkans, certaines domineront de vastes territoires pendant plusieurs siècles, les égyptiens qui occupèrent la vallée du Nil et une partie du Proche-Orient pendant plus de ; les perses, dirigés par les Achéménides, les Grec puis les Séleucides et les Parthes avant de tomber sous domination musulmane au Moyen Âge. D'autres Empires ou civilisations laissèrent également des traces de leur existence que les archéologues et historiens étudient de nos jours : les Akkadiens, les Arméniens, les Assyriens, les Babyloniens, les Israélites, les Hittites, les Élamites, les Sassanides, les Phéniciens ou les Sumériens. Les Romains laissèrent également leur trace sur tout le pourtour du Bassin Levantin, ce qui permit aux civilisations chrétiennes d'éclore en Europe
Moyen Âge : Croisades: Dès le début du Moyen Âge, la civilisation arabo-musulmane se développe et assimile progressivement les civilisations antérieures, les Abbassides s'étendent bien au delà du Moyen-Orient actuel et résistent aux croisades successives menées par les européens et les Ottomans pénètrent en Europe dès le . L'essor de l'islam et de la langue arabe est très rapide, et accompagne les conquêtes arabes ; le rayonnement culturel est également important dans les arts, les sciences, l'architecture ou encore la culture islamique .
Colonisation européenne : Mandat de la Société des Nations: Suite à la révolution industrielle, les pays européens comme les Pays-Bas, le Royaume-Uni et la France deviennent des puissances impérialistes cherchant à occuper militairement et politiquement des régions entières de l’Inde, de la Chine et de l'Afrique ; avec l'affaiblissement de l'Empire ottoman, l'opportunité de prendre le contrôle du Moyen-Orient s'offre aux occidentaux afin entre autres d'augmenter le commerce avec leurs colonies respectives . Les grecs gagnent leur indépendance en 1823, l'Égypte de Méhémet Ali en 1867. Considéré comme l’homme malade de l'Europe: , l'Empire ottoman n’est pas envahit par les puissances rivales du Royaume-Uni et de la France qui préfèrent s'en servir comme un tampon empêchant la Russie de prendre le contrôle l'accès des Balkans et de gagner direct à la mer Méditerranée.
Au cours du et du , l'Empire britannique occupe l'Égypte et une partie du sud de la péninsule arabique ; suite à la Première Guerre mondiale, et aux accords Sykes-Picot, Chypre et l'Irak tombent sous contrôle britannique et l'État du Grand Liban passe sous mandat de la Société des nations français . * Modernité et contestations des régimes féodaux
Printemps arabe: Les deux dernières décennies ont marquées par deux tendances antagonistes dont une totalement nouvelle, le développement à très grande vitesse de certains pays disposant d'importantes ressources pétrolifères : les Émirats arabes unis, le Qatar, le Koweït , le Bahreïn, Oman et dans une moindre mesure les grandes villes d'Arabie saoudite. Dubaï et Abou Dhabi rivalisent de projets ambitieux : développement urbain, système éducatif, complexes médicaux, centres commerciaux… Mais les deux villes misent également sur leur développement futur, l'après pétrole, les fonds investissements arabes sont parmi les plus importants au monde et tout est fait pour pouvoir accueillir de nombreux touristes fortunés : hôtels, loisirs, îles artificielles privées…
De nombreux projets de coopérations entre les différents pays arabes ou d'autres pays de la zone Moyen-Orient ont été mis en place par les différents gouvernements : * le , une zone de libre-échange entre certains pays de la Ligue arabe a été mise en place sous le nom de Greater Arab Free Trade Area * courant des 2000 et dans le cadre du partenariat Euromed, un accord commercial régional entre certains pays de l'Union européenne et du Moyen-Orient a été formulé suite au processus de Barcelone, la zone euro-méditerranéenne de libre-échange, suivi de l'Union pour la Méditerranée, à visée essentiellement économique et maritime * le Gulf Railway est un projet de ligne ferroviaire long de et longeant la côte occidentale du golfe Persique en allant de Koweït à Mascate et en reliant entre elles toutes les capitales et autres villes importantes de la région
D'un autre côté, les tensions et les conflits n'ont cessé depuis la fin de la seconde Guerre Mondiale, après la vague d'attentats dont les responsables d'Al-Qaïda ont pour la plupart été tués au cours de la décennie, les États-Unis, ainsi que leurs alliés occidentaux et arabes ont dès 2001 pris pieds à la frontière de l'Iran, en Afghanistan ; l'année d'après, sous couvert d'informations qui furent contestées , une coalition menée une nouvelle fois par les États-Unis envahit une nouvelle fois l'Irak afin de chasser Saddam Hussein et d'en faire un État démocratique avec une économie de marché .
Le conflit israélo-palestinien se poursuit tout au long des ; la poursuite de la colonisation israélienne en Cisjordanie et la volonté de reconnaissance internationale de l'État palestinien ont conduit à de nombreux affrontements entres militaires israéliens et forces gouvernementales ou terroristes palestiniennes. Durant l'été 2006, le conflit israélo-libanais oppose l'armée israélienne à la branche armée du Hezbollah soutenue par l'Iran.
La Turquie quant à elle, opère militairement sur son territoire et dans la partie irakienne du Kurdistan contre les partisans des travailleurs du Kurdistan (PKK) créant des dommages collatéraux parmi les populations civiles.
A partir de fin 2010, une vague révolutionnaire communément appelée Printemps arabe a apporté d'importantes manifestations et changement dans la région, des manifestations, des révoltes, et même une révolution ont eu lieu en une seule année afin de changer l'ordre social du Moyen-Orient. L’Égypte de Hosni Moubarak, et l'ex-dictateur est inculpé pour sa responsabilité dans la mort de 864 civils lors de la révolution égyptienne, ainsi que pour corruption . D'autres manifestations ayant entraîné la mort d'un nombre indéterminé de personnes se sont produites, notamment en Syrie et au Yémen, ainsi que de nombreuses manifestations contre le coût de la vie ou les systèmes politiques corrompus, comme en Israël ou en Jordanie.
Notes et références : Notes : groupeNote: : Références
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دربند
مدن داغستان
دربند أو ديربينت Дербент: هي إحدى مدن روسيا في الكيان الفدرالي الروسي داغستان، تقع مدينة دربند على الساحل الغربي لبحر قزوين بالقرب من مصب نهر سامور في البحر حيث المسافة بين البحر وجبال القوقاز لاتتجاوز 3 كيلومترات وهي ضمن الحدود الإدارية لجمهورية داغستان، وهي ثاني أكبر مدن الجمهورية وتبعد عن مدينة محج قلعة 121 كم. وعن العاصمة موسكو 2212 كم. بطريق سكك الحديد التي تمر بمدينتي فولغوغراد واستراخان.
التاريخ : يعود تاريخ المدينة إلى الالف الرابع قبل الميلاد اي ان عمرها يزيد عن 5000 سنة. وتعتبر المدينة أقدم مدن روسيا الاتحادية ومن مدن العالم القديمة. اسست المدينة بشكلها الحالي عام 438 في عهد السلالة الساسانية حيث حولها الشاه كوادا وابنه كسرى الأول إلى قلعة حجرية تغلق الممر بين البحر والسلسلة الجبلية بجدار طوله 40 كم. وشيدا حصن نارين وتم إنشاء المرفأ. لقد شيدت المدينة في الممر الفاصل بين بحر قزوين وسلسلة جبال القوقاز ولقد حاولت كافة الدول التي حكمت في المنطقة السيطرة على هذه المدينة الممر. فاليونانيون اطلقوا على هذا الممر اسم" الممر الالباني " والروم " بوابة الخزر " اما العرب فسموه " باب الأبواب ". ولايوجد اي مكان اخر على طول سلسلة جبال القوقاز قريب من البحر كموقع المدينة الفريد. لهذا فان اسم المدينة مشتق من كلمتين فارسيتين " دار " وتعني بوابة و" بيند " وتعني القفل او العقدة. ووصف اليكسندر ديوما في كتابه " رحلة في القوقاز " سور المدينة بانه حقا جدار ضخم يفصل بين أوروبا واسيا ويصد هجمات الاسكوثيون الخطرة.
في عام 654 احتل العرب المدينة وامتد صراعهم مع الخزر للسيطرة على المدينة حتى عام 735 حيث انتصروا نهائيا على الخزر وتحولت المدينة إلى مركز عسكري وإداري للخلافة العربية في داغستان إضافة إلى كونها مركزا تجاريا ضخما ومرفأ ومركز اساسي لنشر الدعوة الإسلامية في المنطقة. لقد تحولت المدينة خلال الحكم الإسلامي إلى مدينة كبيرة في القوقاز بالعصور الوسطى وظهرت فيها حرف وصناعات مثل صناعة الخزف والزجاج وصياغة الذهب والنسيج والسجاد والورق والحرير والصابون وغيرها كما تطورت الزراعة وخاصة زراعة الزعفران والقطن والكتان وغيرها. وكانت للمدينة علاقات تجارية مع الكثير من مناطق الشرقين الأوسط والادنى وشرق أوروبا. وبعد سقوط الخلافة العربية أصبحت المدينة امارة دربند حكمتها سلالة هاشم العربية. وفي عام 1071 احتلتها القوات السلجوقية وأصبحت المدينة ساحة حرب بين الاتراك والصفويين التي على اثرها انضمت المدينة إلى دولة فارس.
في بداية القرن 18 ظهرت بوادر الخطر بسبب الصراع بين إيران وتركيا من اجل السيطرة على المناطق الساحلية لبحر قزوين قام القيصر بطرس الأكبر بجولته المشهورة في اعوام 1722 – 1723 وكانت المدينة ضمن اهتمامات القيصر، لذلك قام بصحبة جيش كبير في 23 اغسطس/اب عام 1722 بدخول المدينة حيث استقبله سكان المدينة ومسؤوليها بحفاوة كبيرة. ولفت انتباه القيصر المعالم التاريخية للمدينة وامر العلماء الذين كانوا بصحبته اتخاذ الاجراءات اللازمة للحفاظ على الاثار وامر ببناء الميناء كما افتتحت مخازن للمواد الغذائية ومستوصفات ومعامل ومنحها القيصر حرية التجارة في عموم روسيا، وفي عام 1898 تم إنشاء خط سكة حديد بيتروفسك بورت- باكو عبر المدينة.
لقد زار المدينة في القرون الوسطى قادة عسكريون عرب امثال مسلمة بن عبد الملك ومروان بن محمد وقادة سلجوقيون وزملاء لجنكيز خان وغيرهم كما زارها السلطان العثماني سليم والشاه إسماعيل موسس الدولة الصفوية. كما زار المدينة عدد كبير من الكتاب والمؤرخين من عرب واتراك ويونانيون ورومان وعدد من الرحالة مثل العربي احمد بن فضلان وابو حميد الغرناطي وماركو بولو والروس افاناسي نيكيتين وفيدوت كوتوف وغيرهم من بلدان مختلفة. يعود هذا الاهتمام بالمدينة لموقعها الاستراتيجي الذي يربط سكان ماوراء القوقاز والشرق الادنى بجنوب شرق أوروبا.
كانت مدينة دربند في العصور الوسطى اضخم ميناء على بحر قزوين ومركز مهم للترانزيت والتجارة بين الشرق والغرب. فلقد قدمت إلى المدينة القوافل والسفن التجارية من الخظر وروس القديمة وطبرستان وخورسان والهند وغيرها. واول من يذكر اسم المدينة هو المؤرخ اليوناني هيغات من ميليتس في القرن السادس قبل الميلاد كما ذكرها هيروديت في كتاباته.
قلعة دربند كانت في الحقيقة جزء من النظام الدفاعي الذي كان يتضمن تحصينات متينة وحواجز صعبة الاجتياز التي كانت تشرف على كل الطرق الجبلية وهذه الحواجز تتكون من اسوار تتخللها ابراج وبوابات وقرى سكنية في الأماكن الاستراتيجية وامتد هذا السور إلى أكثر من 40 كم. ويمكن تسمية السور بسور القوقاز العظيم الذي ما زالت اجزاء كبيرة منه قائمة إلى هذه الايام.
ومدينة دربند اليوم مدينة كبيرة تشتهر بصناعاتها وزراعتها ومعالمها الأثرية الكبيرة. ويوجد في المدينة مصنع لإنتاج الجلاخات الالية ومعامل لإنتاج أجهزة الإشارات الكهربائية والسجاد اليدوي ومعامل الغزل الصوفي ومواد البناء والمواد الغذائية وغيرها.
وتوجد في المدينة مدرسة لتعليم صناعة السجاد اليدوي ومدارس ثانوية ومهنية عديدة إضافة إلى معهد دربند الحكومي للتربية ومعهد الفنون والثقافة وفروع لجامعات حكومية روسية. وتعمل في المدينة مسارح عديدة مثل المسرح الليزجهاني والمسرح الاذربيجاني ودار الثقافة ومدرسة تعليم الموسيقى للاطفال والمسرح القومي. كما توجد في المدينة مجموعة من المكتبات العامة. كما يوجد في المدينة عدد من دور العرض السينمائية ومنتزهات عامة. وتشتهر المدينة منذ القدم بزراعة الاعناب والفواكه وفي السنوات الأخيرة اشتهرت بزراعة الحمضيات أيضا. كما تشتهر المدينة بمتاحفها العديدة وفنها المعماري القديم.
وتزداد اليوم الاهمية الجيوسياسية للمدينة باعتبارها البوابة الجنوبية لروسيا. واليوم كما في السابق تعيش بتآخي ومحبة في المدينة قوميات وطوائف عديدة وهي كالسابق تفتح أبوابها لكل شغوف وطموح لمعرفة المزيد من تاريخ المدينة. لقد اضيفت مدينة دربند إلى قائمة التراث العالمي لليونسكو.
المعالم التاريخية للمدينة : ان مدينة دربند ليست فقط متحف طبيعي بل هي أيضا مكتبة في الهواء الطلق فريدة من نوعها تتضمن مئات العبارات المقتبسة باللغات العربية والفارسية. وفي عام 2002 مضت 280 سنة منذ بداية دراسة هذه الكتابات. وكانت هذه الدراسة بدأت في عهد الامير كنتيمير عام 1722 الذي رافق القيصر بطرس الأكبر في جولته بالمنطقة وما زالت هذه العملية جارية إلى الآن.
ومن أهم المعالم الأثرية في المدينة:
بوابات القلعة : أجمل البوابات في الجدار الجنوبي للقلعة هي البوابة الثالثة وتسمى " البوابة الوسطى " ويعتقد اعيد تعميرها في القرن 11 ويعود السبب لوجود حجر مكتوب عليه تاريخ 435 هجري اي في القرن 11 الميلادي. وتدعم البوابة ببرجين مربعين والمسافة بينهما مقطوعة بجدار مسطح فيه قوس كبير وقوسين صغيرين على الجانبين تستند على دعائم دائرية.
البوابة الثانية في الجدار الجنوبي هي بوابة " بايات – كابي " بنيت في القرن 6 ويسميها العرب "
باب المكتوب " وتختلف عن بقية البوابات لوجود فيها قوس داخلي وآخر خارجي الذي بينهم ممر. واعيد تعمير البوابة عام 1811 مع المحافظة على الشكل القديم لها وعلى جانبي البوابة برجان مستديران من الحجر مركبة بشكل هندسي جميل وتوجد على حجر منتصف القوس كتابة باللغة الروسية " الزمن هدمني والطاعة عمرتني في عام 1811 ".
بوابة الاربعين – هي البوابة الثانية في الجدار الشمالي وسماها العرب " باب الجهاد " بسبب أهميتها الاستراتيجية السياسية والحربية. وهي من أقدم بوابات المدينة وتشير الاحجار في قاعدتها إلى قدم
طريقة وضعها وكانت البوابة في السابق المدخل الشمالي الرئيسي للمدينة ولهذا اهتم كثيرا بزينتها. ولقد كتب ابن الفقيه في القرن 10 بانه هناك دعامتان في الجدار فوق البوابة على كل منها نحت اسد من الحجر الأبيض وفي الاسفل نحتت لبوءات من الحجر الأبيض، وبالقرب من البوابة نحت لإنسان من الحجر بين قدميه تمثال لثعلب في فمه عنقود عنب. كما توجد على كل جانب من البوابة تمثال لاسد ارتفاعه 70 سم. وتفيد الدراسات الأثرية ان هذه البوابة كانت موجودة في القرن 10 بنفس الشكل الذي هي عليه حاليا. كما يوجد بالقرب من البوابة برج كبير بقطر 24 متر كان يستخدم لمراقبة منطقة انحناء الجدار وحتى البوابة.
البوابة الرابعة التي ما زالت قائمة إلى يومنا هي بوابة " دوباري " التي شيدت في القرنين 10 -11 وتشبه كثيرا البوابة الوسطى في هندستها المعمارية. ويعتقد بانه اعيد تعميرها في القرن 18.
البوابات الغربية للقلعة : أول البوابات في السور الشمالي للقلعة تسمى بوابة دجارتشي كابا " بوابة الرسل " حيث كان ممثل الخان يعطي التوجيهات بالقرب منها. انشأت البوابة في عام 1811 وكانت فتحتها على شكل نصف دائرة، الجزء العلوي مبني بالحجر العادي يعلوه صف من الحجر المسنن.
قصر الخان : يقع القصر في قلعة المدينة وبناه فيت علي خان الاقطاعي الكبير مالك شرق القوقاز عام 1768. وكتب الاكاديمي بوتكوف الذي زار القلعة عام 1796 " زرت قصر الخان المتكون من طابقين والمبني من الحجر على مرتفع يشرف على المدينة بكاملها".
مبنى إدارة الخانية : يقع مبنى الإدارة أعلى البوابة الرئيسية للقلعة وعلى الجانب الايسر هناك غرفة للحرس، والمبنى من دورين يتضمن قاعة استقبال وأخرى
للخدمات ومكتب الخان وكانت في عهد فيت علي تتضمن قاعة للمحاكمات في الدور الأول.
حمامات الخانية : حمامات القلعة مبنية في العمق على شكل قبب تنار بضوء الشمس بواسطة فتحات خاصة في القبب. واستخدم في بناء الحمامات حجر الكلس.
مبنى السجن العسكري : شيد مبنى السجن العسكري عام 1828 فوق ارض مستوية على شكل مستطيل مع اقواس في الواجهة
الرئيسية المواجهة للبحر. ويؤدي المدخل الرئيسي إلى بهو فيه 3 أبواب احدهما يؤدي إلى قاعة كبيرة والاخران إلى غرف أخرى. والواجهة الشرقية للمبنى تتكون من 5 اقواس نصف دائرية تستند إلى دعائم مربعة الشكل.
كنيسة على شكل الصليب مغطى بقبة : تقع في الجزء الشمالي الغربي من القلعة. وهي من المعالم التاريخية للمدينة التي بقيت لغزا لفترة طولية. الكنيسة بناء ضخم شيد تحت الأرض ذكرت في العديد من الكتب والمؤلفات التاريخية على انها " صهريج لحفظ المياه" محفور في الصخور. ولكن التنقيبات الأثرية في السنوات الأخيرة اثبتت ان المبنى موجه بدقة نحو الاتجاهات الاربعة وهي كنيسة مبنية في القرن 4 الميلادي على شكل صليب مغطى بقبة كبيرة.
سجن زيندان : هي زنزانات مبنية تحت سطح الأرض في الزاوية الشمالية الشرقية للقلعة. والسجن من المعالم الأثرية الفريدة لفن العمارة في القرون الوسطى. ويبلغ عمق الزنزانات 11 متر ومساحتها الداخلية 25 متر مربع وفيها فتحات لدخول الهواء والضوء. وكان السجن مخصصا للمحكومين بالموت حيث كانوا يقضون نحبهم جوعا. والمبنى مشيد على شكل دورق هرمي لكي لايتمكن المسجون من الهرب منه.
مسجد الجمعة : بدأ بناء المساجد في مدينة دربند منذ القرن 8 وأقدم هذه المساجد هو مسجد الجمعة المبني على شكل مستطيل مع
بروز في واجهته الجنوبية، ويقسم المسجد في الداخل إلى قسمين الأول مستطيل يمتد من الشرق نحو الغرب واخر مربع عليه القبة، في الجانب الشمالي للمسجد 4 مداخل احدها رئيسي يقع على المحور العرضي للمبنى. ويبلغ طول المبنى من الداخل 67 متر وعرضه 17 مترا وعرض الصحن الوسطي 6.3 متر والجانبية 4 متر. ويبلغ قطر القبة 9.3 متر تستند على 8 دعائم. وكان هذا المكان موقع لكنيسة قديمة.
وفي المدينة مجموعة من المساجد والجوامع القديمة والأثرية مثل مسجد بوابة الاربعين. كما هناك اضرحة لحكام المدينة مثل ضريح جوم جوم المقدس الواقع عند الجدار الجنوبي للمدينة بين البوابتين الوسطى وبايات كابي يعود تاريخه إلى القرن 11 ويتضمن الضريح 10 توابيت حجرية يقال انها تعود إلى عائلة الحاكم جوم جوم.
الكنيسة الارمنية
من الاثار المعمارية في المدينة شيد عام 1860 ولكنه لم يستخدم كثيرا كمكان للعبادة وتمت صيانته بشكل كامل عام 1982 وحول إلى متحف للفنون التشكيلية.
نافورات دربند القديمة : بنيت هذه النافورات منذ زمن بعيد كنظام لامدادات المياه وكانت أهميتها للمدينة تضاهي اهمية اسوار
القلعة وبقي منها القليل فقط مثل نافورة الشاه صالح الواقعة على مسافة 130 م. من الجنوب الشرقي للبوابة الوسطى وهي من النافورات القديمة ان لم تكن أقدمها وما زالت تعمل إلى هذه الايام. وهناك أيضا نافورات أخرى عاملة مثل نافورة بينيك بولاخ ونافورة خان بولاخ.
وهناك اثار ومعالم كثيرة وعديدة مثل مباني القلعة والسور الجبلي وغيرها.
روسيا اليوم: مدن وبلدات داغستان:
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Derbent
Cities and towns in Dagestan | Archaeological sites in Russia | Populated coastal places in Russia | Forts in Russia | Sassanid castles | Caucasus | World Heritage Sites in Russia | Wine regions of Russia | Populated places on the Caspian Sea | Persian words and phrases
Derbent (Дербе́нт: ; Dərbənd: ; Lezgian: Кьвевар; Avar: Дербенд; Lak: Чурул, Churul; Persian: دربند; Judæo-Tat: דארבּאנד/Дэрбэнд/Dərbənd ) is a city in the Republic of Dagestan, Russia, close to the Azerbaijani border. It is the southernmost city in Russia, and it is the second most important city of Dagestan. Population: The main ethnic groups are: Lezgins (32,6%), Azeris(31,7%), and Tabasarans(15%)(2002 census).
Often identified with the legendary Gates of Alexander, Derbent claims to be the oldest city in Russia . Since antiquity the value of the area as the gate to the Caucasus has been understood and Derbent has archaeological structures over 5,000 years old. As a result of this geographic particularity the city developed between two walls, stretching from the mountains to the sea. These fortifications were continuously employed for a millennium and a half, longer than any other extant fortress in the world. Over the years different nations gave the city different names, but all connected to the word 'gate'.
Geography: The modern city is built near the western shores of the Caspian Sea, south of the Rubas River, on the slopes of the Tabasaran Mountains (part of the Bigger Caucasus range). Derbent is well served by public transport, with its own harbor, a railway going south to Baku, and the Baku to Rostov-on-Don road.
To the north of the town is the monument of the Kirk-lar, or forty heroes, who fell defending Dagestan against the Arabs in 728. To the south lies the seaward extremity of the Caucasian wall (fifty metres long), otherwise known as Alexander's Wall, blocking the narrow pass of the Iron Gate or Caspian Gates (Portae Athanae or Portae Caspiae). This, when entire, had a height of 29 ft (9 m) and a thickness of about 10 ft (3 m), and with its iron gates and numerous watch-towers formed a valuable defence of the Persian frontier.
History: Derbent has an important strategic location in the Caucasus: the city is situated on a narrow, three-kilometer strip of land between the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus mountains. Historically, this position allowed the rulers of Derbent to control land traffic between the Eurasian Steppe and the Middle East. The only other practicable crossing of the Caucasus ridge was over the Darial Gorge.
The first intensive settlement in the Derbent area dates from the 8th century BCE; the site was intermittently controlled by the Persian monarchs, starting from the 6th century BCE. Until the 4th century CE it was part of Caucasian Albania, and is traditionally identified with Albana, the capital. The modern name is a Persian word (دربند Darband) meaning "closed gates", which came into use in the end of the 5th or the beginning of the 6th century AD, when the city was refounded by Kavadh I of the Sassanid dynasty of Persia.
The twenty-meter-high walls with thirty north-looking towers are believed to belong to the time of Kavadh's son, Khosrau I of Persia. The chronicler Movses Kagankatvatsi wrote about "the wondrous walls, for whose construction the Persian kings exhausted our country, recruiting architects and collecting building materials with a view of constructing a great edifice stretching between the Caucasus Mountains and the Great Eastern Sea." Derbent became a strong military outpost and harbour of the Sassanid empire. During the 5th and 6th centuries Derbent becomes also an important center for spreading the Christian faith in the Caucasus.
Movses Kagankatvatsi left a graphic description of the sack of Derbent by the hordes of Tong Yabghu of the Western Turkic Khaganate in 627. His successordateJuly 2010: , Böri Shad, proved unable to consolidate Tong Yabghu's conquests, and the city was retaken by the Persians. In 654, Derbent was captured by the Arabs, who transformed it in an important administrative center and introduced Islam to the area. Because of its strategic position on the northern branch of the Silk Route, the fortress was contested by the Khazars in the course of the Khazar-Arab Wars. The Sassanids had also brought Armenians from Syunik' to help protect the pass from invaders; as Arab rule weakened in the region at the end of the ninth century, the Armenians living there were able to establish a kingdom of their own, which lasted until the early years of the thirteenth century.
Excavations on the eastern side of the Caspian Sea, opposite to Derbent, revealed the Great Wall of Gorgan, the eastern counterpart to the wall and fortifications of Derbent. Similar Sasanian defensive fortifications there—massive forts, garrison towns, long walls— also run from the sea to the mountains.
The Caliph Harun al-Rashid spent time living in Derbent, and brought it into great repute as a seat of the arts and commerce. According to Arab historians, Derbent, with population exceeding 50,000, was the largest city of the 9th century Caucasus. In the 10th century, with the collapse of the Arab Caliphate, Derbent became the capital of an emirate. This emirate often fought losing wars with the neighboring Christian state of Sarir, allowing Sarir to occasionally manipulate Derbent politics. Despite that, the emirate outlived its rival and continued to flourish at the time of the Mongol invasion in 1239.
In the 14th century Derbent was occupied by Tamerlane's armies. In 1437, it fell under the control of the Shirvanshahs of Azerbaijan. During the 16th century Derbent was the arena for wars between Turkey and Persia ruled by the Iranian Safavid dynasty. Ottoman Empire gained control of the city following the Battle of the Torches in 1583 and Ottoman ownership was secured with the Treaty of Istanbul of 1590.
By the 1735 Ganja treaty Derbent fell within the Persian state. In 1722, during the Russo-Persian War, Peter the Great of Russia wrested the town from the Persians, but in 1736 the supremacy of Nadir Shah was again recognized. In 1747, Derbent became the capital of the khanate of the same name.
During the Persian Expedition of 1796, Derbent was stormed by Russian forces under Valerian Zubov. As a consequence of the Treaty of Gulistan of 1813—between Russian and Persia—Derbent became part of the Russian Empire.
A large portion of the walls and several watchtowers have been preserved in reasonable shape till our days. The walls, reaching to the sea, date from the 6th century, Sassanid dynasty period. The city has a well preserved citadel (Narin-kala), comprising an area of 45,000 m², enclosed by strong walls. Historical attractions include the baths, the cisterns, the old cemeteries, the caravanserai, the 18th century Khan's mausoleum, as well as several mosques. The oldest mosque is the Juma Mosque, built over a 6th century Christian basilica; it has a 15th century madrassa. Other shrines include the 17th century Kyrhlyar mosque, the Bala mosque and the 18th century Chertebe mosque. * International relations
List of twin towns and sister cities in Russia: : Twin towns/sister cities
Derbent is twinned with: * Azerbaijan: Ganja, Azerbaijan * USA: Yakima, Washington, United States * Israel: Hadera, Israel * Economy and culture
The city is home to machine building, food, textile, fishing and fishery supplies, construction materials and wood industries. It is the production center of Russian brandy. The education infrastructure is fairly extensive; there is a university as well as several technical schools. On the cultural front, there is a Lezgin drama theater (named after S. Stalsky). About two kilometers from the city is the vacation colony of Chayka (Seagull).
Derbent being in practice a huge museum and with magnificent mountains and shore nearby, a great potential for development of the tourism industry exists, further increased by UNESCO's classification of the Citadel, Ancient City and Fortress as a World Heritage Site in 2003; however, instability in the region has not allowed further development.
* Notes
Reflist: : References== * 1911: * Some text used with permission from . The original text can be found .
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Derbent
Patrimoine mondial en Russie
Derbent (homonymie): ville de Russie:
Derbent (en Дербент: ) est une ville de la république du Daguestan, en Russie et le centre administratif du raïon Derbentski. Elle est située entre la mer Caspienne et les contreforts du Caucase, à au sud-est de Makhatchkala. Sa population s'élève à habitants en 2008.
Histoire : Derbent est la ville la plus ancienne de Russie. Les premières colonies y apparurent à l'Âge du bronze, à la fin du , c'est-à-dire il y a ans. La première mention des Portes Caspiennes — le nom le plus ancien de Derbent — est cité au , rapporté par le célèbre géographe de la Grèce antique Hécatée de Milet . Elle est appelée au Moyen Âge, Bab al-Abwâb (en arabe : bāb al-ʾabwāb, , la porte des portes) par les Arabes.
La ville était une citadelle, qui possédait deux murailles parallèles fromant une barrière de la mer à la montagne. Ces fortifications ont été construites par les Sassanides au , puis contrôlée successivement par les Perses, les Arabes, l'Empire mongol et les Timourides.
Elle était ainsi très importante car elle constituait le principal point de passage pour aller du nord au sud de la mer Caspienne à pied.
Elle est occupée par la Russie à partir .
Population : * Patrimoine
L'ensemble de la Citadelle, vieille ville et forteresse de Derbent fait partie des sites du patrimoine mondial de l'UNESCO. * Jumelages ==
Derbent est jumelée avec :
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بورته
مواليد 1162 | وفيات القرن 13 | مغول
بورته (ولدت في حدود سنة 1162) زوجة تيموجين (أو جنكيز خان) مؤسس الإمبراطورية المغولية وكان قد خطبها له والده وهو في سن 14تاريخ=يناير 2009: وفي ذلك الوقت تم اغتيال والده من قبل التتار فاضطر للعودة إلى قبيلته لترتيب الأمور وعندما عاد ليأخذ زوجته وجدها قد خطبت لصديقه فأراد الذهاب ولكن حب صديقه له ارتأى أن يخير بورته بينه وبين تيموجين فاختارت تيموجين لأنها كانت قد أحبته.
أنجبت بورته العديد من الأبناء لعبوا دورا -هم وأحفادهم- في توسع الإمبراطورية المغولية، وأحد أبنائها هو جوتشي.
بذرة تاريخ:
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Börte
People of the Mongol Empire | Genghis Khan | Medieval women | 13th-century deaths | Year of birth unknown | 1161 births
dateApril 2009:
Börte (simply Borte, also Börte Üjin; Cyrillic: Бөртэ үжин; 1161–1230) was the first wife of Genghis Khan, the founder of the Mongol Empire. Börte became the head of the first Court of Genghis Khan, and Grand Empress of his Empire. Little is known about the details of her early life, but she was betrothed to him at a young age, married at 17, and then kidnapped by a rival tribe. The decision by her husband to rescue her may have been one of the key decisions that started him on his path to conquer the world. She gave birth to four sons and five daughters, who, along with their own descendants, were the key bloodline which further expanded the Mongol Empire. * Early life
Few historical facts are known about her life, but Mongolians have many legends about her. What little is known is generally from The Secret History of the Mongols.
Börte was born around 1161 into the Olkhunut of Onggirat, where her father, Dei Seichen, was a chieftain. Her mother's name was Tacchotan. This tribe was friendly to the Khiyad tribe, into which Temüjin was born. Much is known about the details of her meeting with Temüjin, although it is probable their marriage was set up by Yesükhei, Genghis' father, to solidify relations between their two tribes. It was decided, perhaps by others, that Börte was to marry Temüjin at the marriageable age of 17.date: January 2009: Abduction: After she married Temüjin, she was abducted in a dawn raid by the Three Mergids. Several months later, Temüjin, with his allies Wang Khan and Jamuha, rescued her from her captors. Some scholars describe this event as one of the key crossroads in his life, which moved him along the path towards becoming a conqueror.
Börte had been held captive for eight months, and she gave birth to Jochi after she was rescued, leaving doubt as to who the father of the child was as her captors possibly raped her. However, Genghis let Jochi remain with his family and claimed him as his own son. He was supposed to be Genghis' successor but because of his doubt of being Jochi's real father, his brothers would not accept him as ruler and Genghis had to choose another son realizing they would not accept Jochi. Jochi then became leader of the Golden Horde.
Grand Empress: She was revered by the Mongols after Temüjin became the Great Khan, and was crowned the Grand Empress. As Genghis Khan continued to expand his influence and empire, Börte remained behind and assisted Genghis' brother Temüge in ruling the Mongol homeland.
Börte is often portrayed as a beautiful woman dressed in a white silken gown, with gold coins in her hair, holding a white lamb, and riding a white steed.dateJuly 2008: : Children
Family tree of Genghis Khan: Börte's sons: * Jochi, may not be Genghis Khan's biological offspring (mother was captured by Merkit people) * Chagatai * Ögedei * Tolui
Daughters: * Khochen Beki, the eldest, was betrothed to Tusakha, son of Senggum, and grandson of Wang Khan, ruler of the Kerait tribe; she eventually married Botu, of the Ikires tribe, and widower of her paternal aunt Temulun. * Alakhai Beki, married first to Alaqush Digit Quri, chieftain of the Ongüt tribe; then to his nephew and heir Jingue; and finally to her stepson Boyaohe * Tümelün, married to Chigu, son of Anchen, son of Dei Seichen, Börte's father * Alaltün, married first to Olar, chieftain of the Olkhunut tribe; then to her stepson Taichu, and later to the Uyghur idiqut. * Checheyikhen, married to Törölchi, son of Quduka beki, of the Oirat tribe.
Although several of Genghis Khan's children by other wives or concubines received some form of recognition in the empire, including land or military commands, including troops, only Börte's children were recognized as potential Great Khans. She, together with his mother Hoelun, was counted as one of his most trusted advisors. * References ==
reflist: * René Grousset. Conqueror of the World: The Life of Chingis-khan (New York: The Viking Press, 1944) ISBN 0-670-00343-3. * Ratchnevsky, Paul. Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy. (Blackwell Publishing 1991) ISBN 0-631-16785-4. * Man, John. Genghis Khan: Life, Death and Resurrection (London; New York : Bantam Press, 2004) ISBN 0-593-05044-4.
For other relevant sources, see Genghis Khan.
Mongol Empire:
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Börte
Personnalité mongole | Date de naissance inconnue (XIIe siècle) | Date de décès inconnue (XIIIe siècle) | Gengis Khan
Mongolie: Börte, « la Céruléennerefnec: », née vers 1160, morte avant 1227, est l'épouse principale de Gengis Khan et la mère de ses quatre fils Djötchi, Djaghataï, Ögödei et Tolui.
Biographie : Börte Ujin est la fille de Dei Sechen, chef de la tribu des Khongirats, et d'une femme nommée Tchotan. Elle a trois frères, Anchen, Huohu et Che.
À l'âge de neuf ans, elle est promise par son père à Temüdjin (le futur Gengis Khan), fils aîné de Yesügei, chef du clan des Qiyat de la tribu Bordjigin. Le père de Temüdjin est assassiné par les Tatars, une tribu ennemie, alors qu’il revient chez lui après avoir fiancé son fils. La famille de Yesügei est alors écarté du pouvoir et Temüdjin connaît plusieurs années d’errance, reconstituant petit à petit un patrimoine.
Vers 1181, a lieu le mariage de Temüdjin et de Börte. En 1182, elle est enlevée par les Merkit et reste entre leurs mains pendant huit mois. Temüdjin réussit finalement à la libérer avec l’aide de Toghrul, khan des Kerait, et de Djamuqa, chef des Djadjirat. Elle est alors enceinte de huit mois, ce qui suscite des doutes sur la paternité de son enfant. Temüdjin reconnaît cependant le fils qu’elle met au monde, Djötchi. Par la suite, naîtront trois autres fils et cinq filles. Börte restera toute sa vie l’épouse principale et ses fils seront les seuls héritiers officiels de Gengis Khan.
En 1206, Temüdjin, après une série de guerres et d'alliances mouvantes, est nommé par le qüriltaï (assemblée plénière), Tchingis Khagan , elle reçoit le titre de Grande Impératricerefnec: . Lorsque son époux est en campagne, elle assiste son beau-frère Temüge chargé de gouverner la Mongolie.
Elle meurt avant Gengis Khan.
Descendance : Börte donne naissance à un fils dont la paternité est douteuse, mais qui est reconnu par Temüdjin : * Djötchi (1182-1227),
Du mariage de Temüdjin et Börte, naissent trois fils : * Djaghataï (1184-1241) * Ögödei (1186-1241), deuxième khan des Mongols * Tolui (1190-1232), père de Möngke, quatrième khan, et de Kubilai, cinquième khan.
Ils ont aussi eu cinq filles : * Khojen Beki, également appelée Fujin Beki ; d’après Rashid al-Din, elle était l’aînée des enfants de Gengis Khan et de Börte, et serait donc née en 1181 (ou 1185); fiancée en 1202 à Tusakha, fils de Senggum, fils de Toghrul, Ong Khan: des Kerait ; mariée avant 1206 à Botu, fils de Nekün, Ikire: , veuf de Temülün, sœur de Gengis Khan * Alaqai Beki, née vers 1188/1191, mariée en 1207 à Alaqush Digit Quri, chef des Ongüt (mort en 1211) ; remariée en 1211 à Jingue, neveu de Alaqush Digit Quri (mort en 1221) ; remariée vers 1225 à Boyaohe, fils d'Alaqush Digit Quri ; de son second mari, elle eut un fils : ** Naküdai, marié à Dümügan, fille de Tolui * Tümelün, née en 1192 ; mariée avant 1206 à Chigu, fils d’Anchen, fils de Dei Sechen, chef des Onggirat * Altalun, née en 1193 ; mariée avant 1206 à Olar, chef Olqunu’ut ; remariée à Taichu, fils d’Olar, chef des Olqunu’ut ; remariée après 1227 à Barshuq Art Tegin, chef des Uighurs ; morte peu après 1227 * Checheyigen, née en 1194 ; mariée en 1207 à Törölchi, fils de Quduka beki, chef des Oirat, dont elle a eu trois fils et cinq filles: ** Buqa Timur ** Burtua ** Pars Buqa, marié à Eli Timur, fille de Tolui ** Eli Chiqmish Khatun, épouse principale d'Ariq Böke, fils de Tolui ; remariée à Nairaqu Buqa, fils d'Ariq Bökarefbec: ** Kubak Khatun, épouse de Hülegü, fils de Tolui ** Orqïna Khatun, épouse de Qara Hülegü, fils de Muatugan, fils de Djaghatai ; remariée à Alghu, fils de Baidar, fils de Djaghatai ** Oljei Khatun, épouse de Hülegü, fils de Tolui ; remariée en 1265 à Abaqa, fils de Hülegü ** Küchü Khatun, épouse de Toqoqan, fils de Batu, second fils de Djötchi.
Bibliographie : ...:
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داسو ميراج 5
طائرات داسو
داسولت ميراج 5 طائرة فوق صوتية هجومية صممتها شركة داسو أفياسيون الفرنسية. تعتير الطائرة من أشهر مقاتلات القرن العشرين فقد ساهمت في الكثير من النزاعات ابرزها الحروب العربية الإسرائيلية حيث كانت تشكل عماد سلاح الجو الإسرائيلي سنة 1967 ثم شكلت أيضا عماد سلاح الجو الليبي في بداية السبعينات ثم دخلت الخدمة في سلاح الجو المصري والباكستاني.
صنعت بموجب رخصة في إسرائيل وجنوب أفريقيا كما خدمت أيضا في سلاح الجو التشيلي والهندي
جاءت كتطوير للشهيرة ميراج 3 التي تعد أول طائرة اوروربية تفوق سرعتها سرعة الصوت حققت سرعة قصوى قدرها 2,2 ماخ معدل تسلق 83 متر ثانية مع سقف أقصى للتحليق 17000 متر.
Dassault Mirage 5: بوابة طيران: بذرة طائرة:
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Dassault Mirage 5
Delta-wing aircraft | Dassault aircraft | Falklands War aircraft | French fighter aircraft 1950–1959
dateOctober 2009:
The Dassault Mirage 5 is a supersonic attack aircraft designed in France by Dassault Aviation during the 1960s, and manufactured in France and a number of other countries. It was derived from Dassault's popular Mirage III fighter, and spawned several variants of its own. * Design and development * Early development
The Mirage 5 grew out of a request to Dassault from the Israeli Air Force. Since the weather over the Middle East is clear and sunny most of the time, the Israelis suggested removing avionics, normally located behind the cockpit, from the standard Mirage IIIE to reduce cost and maintenance, and replacing them with more fuel storage for attack missions. In September 1966, the Israelis placed an order for 50 units of the new aircraft.
Mirage 5: The first Mirage 5 flew on 19 May 1967. It looked much like the Mirage III, except it had a long slender nose that extended the aircraft's length by about half a metre. A pitot tube was distinctively moved from the tip of the nose to below the nose in the majority of Mirage 5 variants.
The Mirage 5 retained the IIIE's twin DEFA guns, but added two additional pylons, for a total of seven. Maximum warload was 4,000 kg (8,800 lb). Provision for the SEPR rocket engine was deleted.
Rising tensions in the Middle East led French President Charles de Gaulle to embargo the Israeli Mirage 5s on 3 June 1967. The Mirages continued to roll off the production line, even though they were embargoed, and by 1968 the batch was complete and the Israelis had provided final payments.
In late 1969, the Israelis, who had pilots in France testing the aircraft, requested that the aircraft be transferred to Corsica, in theory to allow them to continue flight training during the winter. The French government became suspicious when the Israelis also tried to obtain long-range fuel tanks and cancelled the move.
The Israelis finally gave up trying to get the aircraft and accepted a refund. Later however, cooperation with France resumed outside the public's eye and Israel received 50 Mirage 5s in crates from AdA, while Ada took over the 50 aircraft originally intended for Israel, as Mirage 5Fs.date: March 2011: The aircraft were delivered between May 1971 and February 1974 and assembled by Israeli technicians.dateMarch 2011: Officially, Israel claimed to have built the aircraft after obtaining complete blueprints, naming them IAI Nesher. date: June 2011: dateJune 2011: Like the Mirage IIIE, the Mirage 5 was popular with export customers, with different export variants fitted with a wide range of different avionics. While the Mirage 5 had been originally oriented to the clear-weather attack role, with some avionic fits it was refocused to the air-combat mission. As electronic systems became more compact and powerful, it was possible to provide the Mirage 5 with increased capability, even though the rear avionics bay had been deleted, therefore in some sub-versions, Dassault finished up with a "reinvented" Mirage IIIE.
Reconnaissance and two-seat versions of the Mirage 5 were sold, with the designation Mirage 5R, and Mirage 5D respectively. However, a little consideration of the differences between a Mirage III and a Mirage 5 quickly shows that these designations were simply for marketing purposes. There was no clear dividing line between the configuration of a Mirage III reconnaissance or trainer version and that of a Mirage 5 equivalent, and were one and the same in many cases.
The Mirage 5 was sold to Abu Dhabi, Belgium, Colombia, Egypt, Gabon, Libya, Pakistan, Peru, Venezuela, and Zaire, with the usual list of subvariant designations and variations in kit. The Belgian aircraft were fitted with mostly US avionics, and Egyptian aircraft fitted with the MS2 attack avionics system from the Dassault-Dornier Alpha Jet.
In 1978 and 1980 Israel sold a total of 35 of their Neshers plus 4 Nesher trainer aircraft (Nesher Ts) to Argentina where they were locally known first as Daggers and after their last upgrade as Fingers. The Argentines lost two IIIEA and 11 Daggers during the Falklands War in 1982, and as a measure of solidarity the Peruvians transferred 10 of their Mirage 5s to Argentina, under the name Mirage Mara to help make good their losses.
Chile incorporated some Mirage 5s under name Mirage Elkan.
A total of 582 Mirage 5s were built, including 51 Israeli Neshers. * Mirage 50
The Atar 09K-50 engine, however, was still a good idea, and fit of this engine led to the next Mirage variant, the Mirage 50, during the 1970s. The uprated engine gave the Mirage 50 better take-off and climb characteristics than its predecessors. While the Mirage 50 also incorporated new avionics, such as a Cyrano IV radar system, it did not prove popular in export sales, as the first-generation Mirage series was becoming obsolete.
Chile ordered a quantity of Mirage 50s, receiving both new production as well as updated Armee de l'Air Mirage 5s. The Chilean aircraft were later modernized along the lines of the IAI Kfir as the ENAER Pantera. The Pantera incorporates fixed canards and other aerodynamic improvements, as well as advanced avionics. These aircraft have an extended nose to accommodate some of the new systems.
In 1990, Dassault upgraded a batch of Venezuelan Mirage IIIEs and 5s to the Mirage 50 spec, with the upgrades designated Mirage 50M. * Mirage 5 ROSE
Project ROSE: Project ROSE (Retrofit Of Strike Element) was an upgrade programme launched by the Pakistan Air Force to upgrade old Dassault Mirage III and Mirage 5 aircraft with modern avionics. In the first phases of the project, 33 ex-Australian Mirage III fighters were upgraded and designated ROSE I. The PAF then procured surplus Mirage 5F fighters in the late 1990s from the French Air Force in two batches. 20 fighters from the first batch were upgraded with new cockpits, navigation/attack suites, defensive aids systems and a forward-looking infra-red (FLIR) sensor under the aircraft's nose/cockpit, being designated ROSE II. The cockpits included new MFDs, HUDs, HOTAS controls, radar altimeters and RWRs. 14 Mirage 5F fighters from the second batch were upgraded similarly but with newer systems and designated ROSE III. The FLIR sensors allow the Mirage 5 ROSE fighters to specialise in the night-time attack role. * Variants * Mirage 5 : Single-seat radarless ground-attack fighter aircraft. ** Mirage 5AD : Export version of Mirage 5 for Abu Dhabi, UAE; 12 built. ** Mirage 5EAD : Single-seat radar-equipped fighter-bomber version for Abu Dhabi, UAE. 14 built. ** Mirage 5BA : Single-seat version of the Mirage 5 for Belgium, fitted with mainly US avionics; 63 built, 62 under license by SABCA. ** Mirage 5COA : Export version of the Mirage 5 for Colombia. 14 built. Remaining aircraft upgraged by IAI with canards and new avionics. ** Mirage 5D : Export single-seat ground attack aircraft of the Mirage 5 for Libya; 53 built. ** Mirage 5DE : Single-seat radar-equipped fighter-bomber version for Libya. ** Mirage 5F : Single-seat ground-attack fighter aircraft for the French Air Force. 50 ex-Israeli Mirage 5Js. Eight aircraft withdrawn for conversion to Mirage 50C for Chile, with eight new-build 5Fs built as replacements. ** Mirage 5G : Export version of the Mirage 5 for Gabon. Three built. ** Mirage 5G-2 : Four upgraded aircraft for Gabon, two of which were upgraded 5G and two undelivered ex-Zaire 5M. ** Mirage 5J : 50 aircraft were ordered by Israel, but the order was later embargoed by the French government. They were delivered instead to the French Air Force as the Mirage 5F. ** Mirage 5M : Export version of the Mirage 5 for Zaire; 14 built, of which only 8 delivered to Zaire owing to funding shortages. ** Mirage 5MA Elkan : Upgraded Mirage 5BA aircraft sold to Chile. ** Mirage 5P : Export version of the Mirage 5 for Peru; 22 built. ** Mirage 5P Mara : Upgraded Mirage 5P aircraft for Argentina. ** Mirage 5P3 : Upgraded aircraft for Peru; 10 built. ** Mirage 5P4 : Upgraded aircraft for Peru; two built new plus upgraded older aircraft. ** Mirage 5PA : Single seat radarless version of the Mirage 5 for Pakistan. 28 built. ** Mirage 5PA2 : New build radar equipped aircraft for Pakistan, fitted with Cyrano IV radar. 28 built. ** Mirage 5PA3 : New build radar-equipped anti-shipping aircraft for Pakistan, fitted with an Agave radar for compatibility with Exocet anti-ship missile. ** Mirage 5SDE : Single-seat radar-equipped fighter-bomber version for Egypt, equivalent to Mirage IIIE; 54 built. ** Mirage 5E2 : Upgraded radarless attack version for Egypt. 16 built. ** Mirage 5V : Single seat ground attack aircraft 5 for Venezuela; six built. Survivors rebuilt to Mirage 50EV standard. * Mirage 5R : Single-seat reconnaissance aircraft. ** Mirage 5BR : Reconnaissance version of 5BA for Belgium; 27 built, 23 in Belgium. ** Mirage 5COR : Export version of the Mirage 5R for Colombia; two built. ** Mirage 5DR : Export version of the Mirage 5R for Libya; 10 built. ** Mirage 5RAD : Export version of the Mirage 5R for Abu Dhabi, UAE; three built. ** Mirage 5SDR : Export version of the Mirage 5R for Egypt; six built. * Mirage 5Dx : Two-seat training version. ** Mirage 5BD : Two-seat trainer version of 5BA for Belgium; 16 built, 15 built locally. ** Mirage 5COD : Two seat trainer for Colombia. Two built. Ugraded with canards and new avionics. ** Mirage 5DAD : Two-seat trainer for Abu Dhabi, UAE. Three built. ** Mirage 5DD : Two seat trainer for Libya; 15 built. ** Mirage 5DG : Two-seat trainer for Gabon; four built, two delivered 1978 and two in 1984. ** Mirage 5DM : Two seat trainer for Zaire; three built, all of which were delivered. ** Mirage 5DP : Two seat trainer for Peru; four delivered. ** Mirage 5DP3 : Updated trainer for Peru. Two new build plus upgrade of remaining 5DPs. ** Mirage 5DPA2 : Two seat trainer version of 5 for Pakistan; two built. ** Mirage 5MD Elkan : Upgraded Mirage 5BD aircraft sold to Chile. ** Mirage 5SDD : Two seat trainer for Egypt; six built. * Mirage 50 : Single-seat multi-role fighter-bomber, ground-attack aircraft, powered by more powerful 49.2 kN (11,055 lbf) dry, 70.6 kN (15,870 lbf) with reheat Atar 9K-50 engine. Available with or without radar. ** Mirage 50C : New build radar equipped Mirage 50 for Chile; six built. ** Mirage 50FC : Eight re-engined Mirage 5F aircraft sold to Chile. ** Mirage 50DC : Two-seat training version for Chile. Three built, two with lower powered Atar 9C-3 engine. ** Mirage 50CN Pantera : Mirage 50C and 50FC aircraft upgraded by ENAER with help from the Israeli company IAI for Chile with canards, revised, Kfir style nose and new avionics; 13 50C and FC upgraded plus two 50DC trainers. ** Mirage 50EV : Upgraded Mirage 5V aircraft for Venezuela, with Atar 9K-50 engine, canards and updated avionics (including radar). Six new-build aircraft, three upgraded ex-Zaire 5M, plus six upgraded remaining IIIEV and 5Vs. ** Mirage 50DV : Upgraded Mirage IIIDV/5DV aircraft for Venezuela, similar standard to 50EV. One new build plus two upgrades. * Operators
List of Dassault Mirage III operators: * ARE: (Abu Dhabi, retired and sold to Pakistan) * ARG: (from Peru and IAI Nesher from Israel) * BEL: (retired in 1993, 25 Mirage 5M Elkans sold to Chile ) * CHI: (retired in 2006-2007) * COL: (retired) * ECU: (donated by Venezuela) * EGY: * FRA: (retired) * GAB: * ISR: (IAI Nesher, retired, some sold to Argentina) * LBY: (retired, sold to Pakistan) * PAK: (scheduled to be replaced with JF-17 in 2015) * PER: (12 remaining aircraft retired from inventory on 14 June 2008) * VEN: (retired) * ZAI: (retired) * Specifications (Mirage 5F)==
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Dassault Mirage 5
Avion militaire de la Guerre froide | Avion militaire français | Avion utilisé par l'armée de l'air française | Avion multirôle | Avion Dassault | Avion de chasse
Le Dassault Mirage 5 (parfois désigné à tort Mirage V) est un avion militaire construit par le constructeur aéronautique français Dassault Aviation. Apparu en 1967 en tant que dérivé du Mirage III destiné à l'attaque au sol par temps clair, le Mirage 5 a rapidement évolué en avion multirôle capable également de missions de reconnaissance ou de chasse/interception, suivant les versions. Les avions de la famille du Mirage 5 (qui comprend également le Mirage 50 et le IAI Nesher) ont été construits à 530 exemplaires mis en service par 11 pays différents, dont certains l'utilisent toujours actuellement.
Conception : Mirage 5 : La quasi-totalité des sources s'accordent pour considérer que le Mirage 5 est né d'une demande de l'armée de l'air israélienne, qui souhaitait un dérivé simplifié du Mirage III destiné à l'attaque au sol par temps clair. Pour répondre à ce besoin, les ingénieurs de Dassault partent du Mirage IIIC dont ils suppriment le radar de poursuite Cyrano, et le remplacent par un simple radar télémétrique Aïda nettement plus petit. Le nez est redessiné (plus fin) et reçoit d'autres équipements électroniques, ce qui libère de la place dans le fuselage, derrière le poste de pilotage, permettant de placer un nouveau réservoir : le Mirage 5 emporte ainsi de carburant de plus que le Mirage III. Enfin, le réacteur Atar 9C du Mirage IIIE est installé et des points d'emport de charge sont ajoutés, la capacité en armement externe restant de .
Israël passe une commande de 50 exemplaires le . Désigné initialement Mirage V, le prototype fait son vol inaugural le . Cependant, suite à l'attaque de l'aéroport de Beyrouth par l'armée israélienne (Opération Gift, ), le gouvernement français instaure un embargo sur toutes les livraisons de matériel militaire vers ce pays dès le . Comme la construction en série est déjà lancée, c'est finalement l'armée de l'air française qui reçoit les avions initialement destinés à Israël, à partir de 1971. Entre temps, la désignation a été changée en Mirage 5.
En , la Belgique choisit le Mirage 5 pour remplacer ses vénérables F-84F Thundestreak et RF-84F Thunderflash. Un accord est officiellement signé en 1969 pour 106 avions, dont 103 seront construits sous licence par les sociétés SABCA et SONACA pour les cellules, et FN pour les réacteurs. Quatre escadrilles sont progressivement équipée à partir de 1970. Les Mirage 5 belges ont la particularité d'être équipés d'une crosse d'arrêt.
Dans les années 1970, Dassault enregistre de nombreuses autres commandes à l'export. Grâce à l'absence du radar de poursuite Cyrano, le Mirage 5 est en effet moins cher que le Mirage III. De plus, le constructeur a en effet compris que s'il acceptait de s'adapter aux exigences des différents utilisateurs en intégrant des équipements sur mesure, il pourrait mieux remplir son carnet de commande. Les Mirage 5 sont donc déclinés en version biplace pour l'entraînement, en version de reconnaissance (recevant alors le nez du Mirage III R), voire en version de chasse/interception. Certaines versions se retrouvent ainsi équipées du radar de poursuite Cyrano et du radar de navigation, ce qui les rend équivalentes à un Mirage III E.
Signalons que l'Égypte a été largement équipée par des commandes payées par d'autres pays : * la Libye, qui signe un contrat pour pas moins de 110 Mirage 5 en , transfère immédiatement les premiers avions qu'elle reçoit à l'Égypte. Au total, une quarantaine de Mirage 5 seront ainsi fournis. * un second lot de 32 Mirage 5 sera livré en 1974, avec un financement de l'Arabie saoudite dont les avions porteront brièvement les cocardes.
Mirage 50 : À la fin des années 1970, Dassault met au point une version améliorée du Mirage 5 : désignée Mirage 50, elle reçoit le réacteur Atar 9K50 du Mirage F1 (environ plus puissant) et une avionique plus récente comprenant une centrale à inertie. Au choix des clients, l'avion peut recevoir soit le radar Cyrano IV du Mirage F1, soit le radar Agave du Super Étendard. Un prototype est réalisé par modification d'un Mirage III R et fait son premier vol le .
Le Mirage 50 ne rencontra pas beaucoup du succès : le Chili acheta 16 exemplaires en 1979, et le Venezuela commanda quelques années plus tard une poignée d'avions neufs ainsi que la conversion de quelques Mirage III/Mirage 5 qu'il possédait déjà.
Le prototype du Mirage 50 sera modifié par Dassault en 1981. Il recevra des plans canards pour valider les études devant aboutir au Mirage III NG.
Le IAI Nesher : Suite à l'embargo français, Israël construira localement un équivalent du Mirage 5.
IAI Nesher: Programmes de modernisation : Au début des années 1980, le Pérou modernise ses Mirage 5 en installant en particulier une perche fixe de ravitaillement en vol et un système de désignation laser. D'autres modifications comme l'ajout d'un détecteur d'alerte radar ont été probablement effectuées.
En 1986, avec l'aide de la compagnie israélienne IAI, le Chili lance un programme de modernisation de ses Mirage 50 : ajout d'un radar Elta 2001B, de plans canards et de diverses antennes, capacité à lancer des bombes guidées par laser, optimisation du réacteur. Le premier exemplaire modernisé fait son vol inaugural en octobre 1988, les avions concernés recevant alors la désignation de Pantera.
En 1988, une dizaine de Mirage 5 colombiens ont été modernisés avec l'aide de la compagnie israélienne IAI : ajout d'un radar Elta 2001B, d'une perche de ravitaillement en vol, de plans canard et de lance-leurres, modernisation du poste de pilotage, et installation d'un réacteur Atar 9C-3. Désignés Mirage 5 COAM, ils sont désormais proches des Kfir également utilisés par la Colombie.
Au début des années 1980, les Mirage 5 belges sont équipés d'un nouveau système de protection incluant un brouilleur et des lance-leurres. En 1988, la Belgique, par l'intermédiaire de son avionneur SABCA Charleroi, lance un programme désigné MIRSIP (Mirage Safety Improvement Program) qui consiste à remplacer le siège éjectable, à ajouter des plans canard fixes pour améliorer la manœuvrabilité à basse vitesse, et surtout à moderniser profondément l'avionique sous maitrise d'œuvre SAGEM. Les Mirage 5 reçoivent ainsi un télémètre laser Thomson TMV630, une centrale à inertie SAGEM UNA91 remplissant également la fonction de nouveau calculateur de navigation et d'attaque, et un nouveau viseur tête haute Thomson. Pour des raisons budgétaires, seuls 20 avions sont mis à jour (quinze Mirage 5 BA et cinq Mirage 5 BD). Le premier exemplaire modernisé est livré en 1993, quelques mois à peine avant que le gouvernement ne décide du retrait de tous les Mirage de l'armée de l'air belge, de sorte qu'aucun de ces avions ne sera utilisé par la Belgique.
En 1994, le Chili se porte acquéreur des 20 Mirage 5 au standard MIRSIP complétés par SAGEM d'équipements de radio-navigation, accompagnés de 4 Mirage 5BR et un Mirage 5BD non modernisés destinés à servir de réserve en pièces de rechange. Les Mirage 5 reçoivent la désignation locale de Elkan et resteront en service jusqu'à fin . Cette vente a fait l'objet de soupçons de corruption et une enquête a été menée à ce titre par la justice chilienne .
Le Venezuela a modernisé ses Mirage 5 pour les rapprocher des Mirage 50 qu'il possédait également : installation du réacteur ATAR 9K50, ajout d'une perche de ravitaillement en vol et de plans canards, modernisation du système d'attaque et de tir ainsi que du poste de pilotage.
Le Pakistan a modernisé ses Mirage 5 dans le cadre d'un programme nommé ROSE (Retrofit Of Strike Element) confié à la société française SAGEM. Signé début 1996, le contrat comprenait la fourniture de 34 Mirage 5 F d'occasion et 6 avions biplace (ex-armée de l'air française) dont 20 portés au standard ROSE-II - les 14 restants ayant été ultérieurement portés au standard ROSE-III - en plus des avions pakistanais modifiés. Le Pakistan a également signé un contrat de remise à niveau (maintenance) d'environ 70 Mirage 5 égyptien en 2000 et a racheté 50 Mirage 5 libyens en 2004 , uniquement pour servir de pièces de rechange. * Variantes et opérateurs
Remarque : le nombre d'exemplaires correspond aux avions livrés, il ne tient pas compte des pertes au combat ou lors d'accidents, ni des avions revendus ou stockés. * Émirats arabes unis: (Abou Dabi) ** Mirage 5 AD : version d'attaque (12 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5 EAD : version de chasse (14 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5 DAD : version biplace d'entraînement (3 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5 RAD : version de reconnaissance (3 exemplaires) * ARG: (depuis 1982) ** 8 Mirage 5P achetés d'occasion au Pérou * Belgique: (de 1970 à 1993) ** Mirage 5BA : version d'attaque (63 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5BD : version biplace d'entraînement (16 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5BR : version de reconnaissance (27 exemplaires) * CHI: (de 1980 à 2006) ** Mirage 50 FC : 8 exemplaires obtenus par modification d'anciens Mirage 5F français ** Mirage 50 CH : 6 exemplaires ** 20 Mirage 5 Elkan (avions au standard MIRSIP achetés d'occasion à la Belgique en 1994) * COL: (depuis 1972) ** Mirage 5 COA : version d'attaque (14 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5 COD : version biplace d'entraînement (2 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5 COR : version de reconnaissance (2 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5 COAM : désignation des 10 avions modernisés * EGY: (depuis 1972) ** Mirage 5DE : fournis par la Libye (20 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5DD : fournis par la Libye (5 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5D : fournis par la Libye (20 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5 SDE : version de chasse avec radar Cyrano (32 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5 SDR : version de reconnaissance (6 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5E2 : Version d'attaque au sol (24 exemplaires) * France: (de 1972 à 1994) ** Mirage 5F : version d'attaque (50 exemplaires) 8 cellules de la série seront utilisées pour honorer une commande de Mirage 50 Chiliens. Par la suite, 8 nouveaux Mirage 5F seront construits en remplacement, ce qui nous ramène à 58 exemplaires. Après leur retrait, de nombreux exemplaires furent revendus au Pakistan, dont le numéro 44 qui s'est écrasé lors du vol de réception en 2000. * GAB: (Armée de l'air gabonaise, de 1977 à 1993) ** Mirage 5 G : 3 exemplaires ** Mirage 5 G2 : 4 exemplaires ** Mirage 5 DG : version biplace d'entraînement (4 exemplaires) * LBA: (de 1971 à 2003) ** Mirage 5DE : version de chasse avec radar Cyrano (32 exemplaires, dont 20 pour l'Égypte) ** Mirage 5DD : version biplace d'entraînement (15 exemplaires, dont 5 pour l'Égypte) ** Mirage 5DR : version de reconnaissance (10 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5D : version d'attaque (53 exemplaires, dont 20 pour l'Égypte) * PAK: (depuis 1973) ** Mirage 5 PA : version d'attaque (28 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5 DPA : version d'entraînement (4 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5 PA2 et PA3 : versions équipées d'un radar Cyrano ou Agave : (30 exemplaires) * PER: (de 1970? à 2002) ** Mirage 5 PA : version d'attaque (28 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5 DP : version biplace d'entraînement (6 exemplaires) * VEN: (depuis 1973 ?) ** Mirage 5 V : version d'attaque (10 exemplaires) ** Mirage 5 DV : version biplace d'entraînement (2 exemplaires) ** Mirage 50 EV : version de chasse avec radar Cyrano (6 exemplaires + 10 Mirage III/5 modifiés) ** Mirage 50 DV : version biplace d'entraînement (1 exemplaires) * ZAR: ** Mirage 5 M : 14 exemplaires ** Mirage 5 DM : version biplace d'entraînement (3 exemplaires) * Engagements
L'Égypte engage ses Mirage 5 lors de la Guerre du Kippour en 1973, où ils effectuent plusieurs missions d'attaque réussies sur des positions israéliennes. Il semble qu'une quinzaine d'appareils égyptiens aient été perdus lors de ce conflit, dont une bonne partie abattus en vol.
En , durant la guerre égypto-libyenne, les Mirage 5 des deux pays sont engagés. Les avions libyens ont effectué à la fois des missions d'attaque et des missions d'interception.
Dans les années 1980, la Libye a engagé ses Mirage 5 à chacune de ses tentatives de conquête du Tchad. Au moins deux avions auraient été perdus lors de ces opérations. * Notes et références
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مهرجان الألوان
مهرجانات | الهند | سورينام
مهرجان الألوان أو هولي فاغوا أو هولي هو المهرجان الشعبي الهندوسي بالربيع يحتفى به في الهند، نيبال، بنغلاديش، سريلانكا، باكستان و البلدان التي بها جالية هندوسية كبيرة، مثل سورينام، قويانا، جنوب أفريقيا، المملكة المتحدة، الولايات المتحدة الأمريكية، ترينيداد، موريشيوس و فيجي. في بنغلاديش و البنغال الغربية الهندية يسمى المهرجان دولياترا أو باسانتا أوتساب. و أكثر مهرجانات الربيع شهرةً هو ذلك الذي يقام في منطقة براج، في أماكن مرتبطة بالاٍله كريشنا: ماتورا، فريندافان، نانداغاون و بارسانا. هذه الأماكن تستقطب السياح خلال فصل مهرجان الألوان، و الذي يستمر هنا لفترة تتجاوز 16 يوما.
بذرة الهند:
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Holi
Holi
dateMarch 2011:
Hinduism: Holi (होली), is a religious spring festival celebrated by Hindus. Holi is also known as festival of Colours. It is primarily observed in India, Nepal, Pakistan, and countries with large Indic diaspora populations following Hinduism, such as Suriname, Malaysia, Guyana, South Africa, Trinidad, United Kingdom, United States, Mauritius, and Fiji. In some states of India such as West Bengal and Orissa, it is known as Dolyatra (Doul Jatra) (দোলযাত্রা: ), or Basanta-Utsav ("spring festival")(বসন্তোৎসব: ). The most celebrated Holi is in the Braj region, in locations connected to the Lord Krishna: Mathura, Vrindavan, Nandagaon, and Barsana. These places have become tourist destinations during the festive season of Holi.
The main day, Holi, also known as Dhuli in Sanskrit, also Dhulheti, Dhulandi or Dhulendi, is celebrated by people throwing coloured powder and coloured water at each other. Bonfires are lit on the eve of the festival, also known as Holika Dahan (burning of Holika) or Chhoti Holi (little Holi). After doing holika dalhan prayers are said and praise is offered. The bonfires are lit in memory of the miraculous escape that young Prahlad accomplished when Demoness Holika, sister of Hiranyakashipu, carried him into the fire. Holika was burnt but Prahlad, a staunch devotee of god Vishnu, escaped without any injuries due to his unshakable devotion. Holika Dahan is referred to as Kama Dahanam in South India.
Holi is celebrated at the end of the winter season on the last full moon day of the lunar month Phalguna (February/March), (Phalgun Purnima), which usually falls in the later part of February or March. In 2009, Holi (Dhulandi) was on March 11 and Holika Dahan was on March 10. In 2010, Holi was on March 1 and Holika Dahan was on February 28. In 2011, Holi was on March 20 and Holika Dahan was on March 19.
In most areas, Holi lasts about two days. One of Holi’s biggest customs is the loosening strictness of social structures, which normally include age, sex, status, and caste. Holi closes the wide gaps between social classes and brings Hindus together. Together, the rich and poor, women and men, enjoy each other’s presence on this joyous day. Additionally, Holi lowers the strictness of social norms. No one expects polite behavior; as a result, the atmosphere is filled with excitement and joy.
Every year, thousands of Hindus participate in the festival Holi. Waiting for the day after the full moon in the month of Phalguna, or early March, These men and women are ready to spread the joy. Holi has many purposes. First and foremost, it celebrates the beginning of the new season, spring. It also has a religious purpose, commemorating many events that are present in Hindu mythology. Although it is the least religious holiday, it is probably one of the most exhilarating ones in existence. During this event, participants hold a bonfire, throw colored powder at each other, and go absolutely crazy.
Originally, it was a festival that commemorated good harvests and the fertile land. In addition to celebrating the coming of spring, Holi has even greater purposes. Hindus believe it is a time of enjoying spring's abundant colors and saying farewell to winter. Furthermore, Holi celebrates many religious myths and legends.
Rangapanchami occurs a few days later on a Panchami (fifth day of the full moon), marking the end of festivities involving colours. * Significance
In Vaishnavism, Hiranyakashipu is the great king of demons, and he had been granted a boon by Brahma, which made it almost impossible for him to be killed. The boon was due to his long penance, after which he had demanded that he not be killed "during day or night; inside the home or outside, not on earth or in the sky; neither by a man nor an animal; neither by astra nor by shastra". Consequently, he grew arrogant and attacked the Heavens and the Earth. He demanded that people stop worshipping Gods and start praising him.
According to this belief, Hiranyakashipu's own son, Prahlada, was a devotee of Lord Vishnu. In spite of several threats from Hiranyakashipu, Prahlada continued offering prayers to Lord Vishnu. He was poisoned by Hiranyakashipu, but the poison turned to nectar in his mouth. He was ordered to be trampled by elephants yet remained unharmed. He was put in a room with hungry, poisonous snakes and survived. All of Hiranyakashipu's attempts to kill his son failed. Finally, he ordered young Prahlada to sit on a pyre on the lap of his demoness sister, Holika, who could not die because she also had a boon which would prevent fire from burning her. Prahlada readily accepted his father's orders, and prayed to Vishnu to keep him safe. When the fire started, everyone watched in amazement as Holika burnt to death, while Prahlada survived unharmed, the burning of Holika is celebrated as Holi.
Later Lord Vishnu came in the form of a Narasimha (who is half-man and half-lion) and killed Hiranyakashipu at dusk (which was neither day nor night), on the steps of the porch of his house (which was neither inside the house nor outside) by restraining him on his lap (which is neither in the sky nor on the earth) and mauling him with his claws (which are neither astra nor shastra).
In Vrindavan and Mathura, where Lord Krishna grew up, the festival is celebrated for 16 days (until Rangpanchmi) in commemoration of the divine love of Radha for Krishna. Lord Krishna is believed to have popularized the festival by playing pranks on the gopis here. Krishna is believed to have complained to his mother about the contrast between his dark skin complexion and Radha's (Shakti or energy that drives the world) fair skin complexion. Krishna's mother decided to apply colour to Radha's face. The celebrations officially usher in spring, the celebrated season of love.
There is alternative story detailing the origin of Holi. This story is about Kamadeva, a god of love. Kama's body was destroyed when he shot his weapon at Shiva in order to disrupt his meditation and help Parvati to marry Shiva. Shiva then opened his third eye, the gaze of which was so powerful that Kama's body was reduced to ashes. For the sake of Kama's wife Rati (passion), Shiva restored him, but only as a mental image, representing the true emotional and spiritual state of love rather than physical lust. The Holi bonfire is believed to be celebrated in commemoration of this event. * Origin
Though there have been references to a festival like this in Sanskrit texts like ratnavali where people sprayed coloured waters using bamboo syringes,the origin of the modern Holi festival has been traced to ancient Bengal. It was a Gaudiya Vaishnav festival, in accordance to Vaishnaviya Tantra. People went to Krishna temples, applied red colour to the icon and then distributed the red coloured powder or Abir along with malpua prasad to family and friends. Red signified the colour of passion and Lord Krishna is the king of desires. The ritual signified that all our desires should be diverted for the attainment of Krishna and for the well being of society.
In some cultures though,the ritual of burning wood and leaves on the full moon night already existed. This ritual was to signify the end of winter and full advent of spring. Old wood and leaves that had fallen were burnt to signify that it is time for new leaves and flowers.People later smeared their bodies with ash. Later, however, the story of Holika Dahan has been associated with this ritual.
The legend on King Hiranyakashipu is one of the explanations Hindus look back to. The King condemned his son, Prahlad, from worshipping the god Vishnu. However, he continued to pray to him. Filled with anger, the King made a challenge to his son. He was to sit on a pyre along with his aunt Holika, believed to be unharmed by fire.
The son accepted the challenge, praying to Vishnu to protect him. As the fire began, Holika was burnt to a crisp but Prahlad lived and was unharmed. This burning of Holika is the reason why Holi exists. * Rituals
The earliest textual reference to the celebration of Holi is found in the 7th century Sanskrit drama, Ratnavali. Certainly there are perennial rituals attached to Holi: the first is smearing of coloured powder on each other, and throwing coloured and scented water at each time.
On the first day of this festival, Hindus participate in a public bonfire. Prior to the event, men prepare for this by collecting extra wood. The fire itself is lit near midnight, as the moon rises. The main custom of Holi is the use of the colored powders and water on others. This is why Holi is given the name “Festival of Colors.”
Regional rituals and celebrations: India: ;Uttar Pradesh
Lath mar Holi: Barsana is the place to be at the time of Holi. Here the famous Lath mar Holi is played in the sprawling compound of the Radha Rani temple. Thousands gather to witness the Lath Mar holi when women beat up men with sticks as those on the sidelines become hysterical, sing Holi Songs and shout Sri Radhey or Sri Krishna. The Holi songs of Braj mandal are sung in pure Braj Bhasha.
Holi played at Barsana is unique in the sense that here women chase men away with sticks. Males also sing provocative songs in a bid to invite the attention of women. Women then go on the offensive and use long staves called lathis to beat men folk who protect themselves with shields.
In Mathura, the birth place of Lord Krishna, and in Vrindavan this day is celebrated with special puja and the traditional custom of worshipping Lord Krishna, here the festival lasts for sixteen days. All over the Braj region and its nearby places like Hathras, Aligarh, Agra the Holi is celebrated in more or less same way as in Mathura, Vrindavan and Barsana.
In Gorakhpur, the northeast district of Uttar Pradesh, this day is celebrated with special puja in the morning of Holi day. This day is considered to be the happiest and most colorful day of the year promoting the brotherhood among the people. This is known as "Holi Milan" in which people visit every house and sing holi song and express their gratitude by applying colored powder (Abeer). Holi is also considered as the end of the year as it occurs on the last day of last Hindu calendar month Phalgun. People also kickoff for the next year planning with new year Hindu calendar (Panchang) at the evening of Holi.
;Kumaon, (Uttarakhand)
Kumauni Holi: The uniqueness of the Kumaoni Holi of the Kumaon region in Uttarakhand lies in its being a musical affair, whichever may be its form, be it the Baithki Holi, the Khari Holi and the Mahila Holi which starts from Basant Panchmi. The Baithki Holi and Khari Holi are unique in that the songs on which they are based have a touch of melody, fun and spiritualism. These songs are essentially based on classical ragas. No wonder then the Baithki Holi is also known as Nirvan Ki Holi.
The Baithki Holi (बैठकी होली) begins from the premises of temples, where Holiyars (होल्यार), (the singers of Holi songs) as also the people gather to sing songs to the accompaniment of classical music.
Kumaonis are very particular about the time when the songs based on ragas should be sung. For instance, at noon the songs based on Peelu, Bhimpalasi and Sarang ragas are sung while evening is reserved for the songs based on the ragas like Kalyan, Shyamkalyan and Yaman etc.
The Khari Holi (खड़ी होली), is mostly celebrated in the rural areas of Kumaon. The songs of the Khari Holi are sung by the people, who sporting traditional white churidar payajama and kurta, dance in groups to the tune of ethnic musical instruments like the Dhol and Hurka.
The Holika made is known as Cheer (चीर) which is ceremonically made in a ceremony known as Cheer Bandhan (चीर बंधन) fifteen days before Dulhendi. The Cheer is a bonfire with a green Paiya tree branch in the middle. The Cheer of every village and mohalla is rigorously guarded as rival mohallas try to steal the others cheer.
Dulhendi known as Charadi (छरड़ी), in Kumaoni (from Chharad (छरड़), or natural colours made from flower extracts, ash and water) is celebrated with great gusto much in the same way as all across North India.
;Bihar
Holi is celebrated with the same fervour and charm in Bihar as in rest of north India. It is known as Phagwa in the local Bhojpuri dialect. Here too, the legend of Holika is prevalent. On the eve of Phalgun Poornima, people light bonfires. They put dung cakes, wood of Araad or Redi tree and Holika tree, grains from the fresh harvest and unwanted wood leaves in the bonfire. Following the tradition people also clean their houses for the day.
At the time of Holika people assemble near the fire. The eldest member or a purohit initiates the lighting. He then smears others with colour as a mark of greeting. Next day the festival is celebrated with colours and lot of frolic.
Children and youths take extreme delight in the festival. Though the festival is usually played with colours at some places people also enjoy playing holi with mud. Folk songs are sung at high pitch and people dance to the tune of dholak and the spirit of Holi.
Intoxicating bhang is consumed with a variety of mouth watering delicacies such as pakoras and thandai to enhance the mood of the festival. Vast quantities of liquor are consumed alongside ganja and bhang, which is sometimes added to foodstuffs.
;Bengal
On the Dol Purnima day in the early morning, the students dress up in saffron-coloured or pure white clothes and wear garlands of fragrant flowers. They sing and dance to the accompaniment of musical instruments like ektara, dubri, veena, etc.
Holi is known by the name of 'Dol Jatra', 'Dol Purnima' or the 'Swing Festival'. The festival is celebrated in a dignified manner by placing the icons of Krishna and Radha on a picturesquely decorated palanquin which is then taken round the main streets of the city or the village. The devotees take turns to swing them while women dance around the swing and sing devotional songs. During these activities, the men keep spraying coloured water and coloured powder, abir, at them.
The head of the family, observes fast and prays to Lord Krishna and Agnidev. After all the traditional rituals are over, he smears Krishna's icon with gulal and offers "bhog" to both Krishna and Agnidev.
In Shantiniketan, Holi has a special musical flavor.
Traditional dishes include malpoa, kheer sandesh, basanti sandesh (saffron), saffron milk, payash, and related foods.
;Orissa
The people of Orissa celebrate Holi in a similar manner but here the icons of Jagannath, the deity of the Jagannath Temple of Puri, replace the icons of Krishna and Radha.
;Goa
Holi is a part of Goan or Konkani spring festival known as Śigmo or शिगमो in Koṅkaṇī. One of the most prominent festivals of the Konkani community in Goa, and the Konkani diaspora in the state of Karnataka, Maharashtra and Kerala. Śigmo is also known as Śiśirotsava and lasts for about a month. The color festival or Holi is a part of entire spring festival celebrations.
Holi festivities(but not Śigmo festivities), include:Holika Puja and Dahan,Dhulvad or Dhuli vandan,Haldune or offering yellow and saffron colour or Gulal to the deity.
Shigmo: ;Gujarat
Holi is celebrated with great fanfare in the Indian state of Gujarat. Falling on the full moon day in the month of Phalguna, Holi is a major Hindu festival and marks the agricultural season of the Rabi crop.
A bonfire is lit in the main squares of the villages and colonies. People gather around the bonfire and celebrate the event with singing and dancing, which is symbolic of the victory of good over evil. Tribals of Gujarat celebrate Holi with great enthusiasm and also dance around the fire.
In Western India, Ahmedabad in Gujarat, a pot of buttermilk is hung high on the streets and young boys try to reach it and break it by making human pyramids. The girls try to stop them by throwing colored water on them to commemorate the pranks of Krishna and cowherd boys to steal butter and 'gopis' while trying to stop the girls. The boy who finally manages to break the pot is crowned the Holi King. Afterwards, the men, who are now very colorful men, go out in a large procession to "alert" people of the Krishna's possible appearance to steal butter from their homes.
In some places, there is a custom in the undivided Hindu families that the women of the families beat their brother-in-law with her sari rolled up into a rope in a mock rage as they try to drench them with colours, and in turn, the brothers-in-law bring sweetmeats to her in the evening.
;Maharashtra
In Maharashtra, Holi is mainly associated with the burning of Holika. Holi Paurnima is also celebrated as Shimga. A week before the festival, youngsters go around the community, collecting firewood and money. On the day of Holi, the firewood is arranged in a huge pile at a clearing in the locality. In the evening, the fire is lit. Every household makes an offering of a meal and dessert to the fire god. Puran Poli is the main delicacy and children shout "Holi re Holi puranachi poli". Shimga is associated with the elimination of all evil. The color celebrations here traditionally take place on the day of Rangapanchami, 5 days after Holi, unlike in North India where it is done on the second day itself. During this festival, people are supposed to forget about any rivalries and start new healthy relations with all.
;Manipur
Manipuris celebrate Holi for six days. Here, this holiday merges with the centuries-old festival of Yaosang. Traditionally, the festival commences with the burning of a thatched hut of hay and twigs. Young children go from house to house to collect money, locally known as nakadeng (or nakatheng), as gifts on the first two days. The youths at night perform a group folk dance called 'thaabal chongba' on the full moon night of Lamta (Phalgun) along with folk songs and rhythmic beats of the indigenous drum. However, this moonlight party now has modern bands and fluorescent lamps. In Krishna temples, devotees sing devotional songs, perform dances and play with aber (gulal) wearing traditional white and yellow turbans. On the last day of the festival, large processions are taken out to the main Krishna temple near Imphal where several cultural activities are held. Since the past few decades Yaoshang, a type of Indian sport, has become common in many places of the valley, where people of all ages come out to participate in a number of sports that are somewhat altered for the holiday.
;Kerala
In the Mattancherry area of Kochi, there are 22 different communities living together in harmony. The Gaud Sarawat Brahmins (GSB) who speak Konkani also celebrate Holi in Cherlai area of West Kochi instead of in theior own community. It is locally called Ukkuli in Konkani or Manjal Kuli in Malayalam. It is celebrated around the Konkani temple called Gosripuram Thirumala temple. Holi is also celebrated at some colleges in south.
;Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
Holi is celebrated with much fervor here. Unlike in the other Indian communities, it is also here a school holiday. There is also a tradition followed in rural Karnataka where children collect money and wood for weeks prior to Holi, and on Kamadhana night all the wood is put together and lit. The festival is celebrated for two days. People in north Karnataka prepare special food on this day. In Andhra Pradesh Holi is celebrated along with Basnata Panchami. In the Telangana region,especially the capital city of Hyderabad, Holi is a major festival, and the festivities and color starts appearing at least a day before the actual holiday.
;Jammu & Kashmir
In Kashmir, Muslims and Hindus alike celebrate Holi. Holi celebrations here pretty much fit the general definition of Holi celebrations: a high-spirited festival to mark the beginning of the harvesting of the summer crop, is marked by the throwing of colored water and powder and singing and dancing. Holi is also celebrated in great fervor in Jammu.
;Western Madhya Pradesh
In western Madhya Pradesh, Bhil tribesmen who have held on to many of the pre-Hindu customs celebrate it in a special way.
;Rural Maharashtra State
Known as Rangapanchami in rural Maharashtra State, it is celebrated with singing and dancing.
;Jaisalmer, Rajasthan
In Jaisalmer, a town in Rajasthan, music is played as clouds of different colored powders fill the air.
;Haryana & Western Uttar Pradesh
This region has its own variety of Holi. The festival is celebrated with great zest and enthusiasm. Dhampur is a city and a municipal board in the Bijnor district in the state of Uttar Pradesh of India. The Holi celebration in Dhampur is famous throughout the whole of Western UP.
;Punjab
There is a Sikh festival of Hola Mohalla, simply Hola takes place on the first of the lunar month of Chet which usually falls in March. This, by a tradition was established by the tenth Sikh Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, follows the Hindu festival of Holi by one day; Hola is the masculine form of the feminine sounding Holi.
The word "Mohalla" is derived from the Arabic root hal (alighting, descending) and is a Punjabi word that implies an organized procession in the form of an army column.
But unlike Holi, when people playfully sprinkle colored powder, dry or mixed in water, on each other, the Guru made Hola Mohalla an occasion for the Sikhs to demonstrate their martial skills in simulated battles. During this time Sikhs in large number assemble at their holy cities and Gurdwaras, particularly in the town of Anandpur Sahib , in the foothills of Himalayas, from where the tradition began. The celebrations includes a glorious display of Sikh martial arts, swordmanship, horse riding, falconery among others.
;Dhampur
In Dhampur holi—holi hawan jaloos have been organized for the last 60 years. The festival involves almost 10,000 people, including lots of bands and Jhakhi, which represent the cultural values of Holi and India.
Indian diaspora: Over the years, Holi has become an important festival in many regions wherever Indian diaspora had found its roots, be it in Africa, North America, Europe or closer to home in South Asia.
Nepal: In Nepal, Holi is celebrated in the month of Falgun and is also called as the "Fagu" and is celebrated on the Full moon day in the month of February. The word "Fagu" (Devanagari:फागु) represents the month of Falgun and the day is called the "Fagu Poornima" (Devanagari:फागु पुर्णीमा) which means (full moon day in the Falgun).
In Nepal Holi is regarded as one of the greatest festivals as important as Dashain (also known as Dussehra in India) and Tihar or Dipawali (also known as Diwali in India). Since more than 80% of people in Nepal are Hindus, Holi, along with many other Hindu festivals, is celebrated in Nepal as a national festival and almost everyone celebrates it regardless of their religion, e.g., even Muslims celebrate it. Christians may also join in, although since Holi falls during Lent, many would not join in the festivities. The day of Holi is also a national holiday in Nepal.
People walk down their neighbourhoods to celebrate Holi by exchanging colours and spraying coloured water on one another. A popular activity is the throwing of water balloons at one another, sometimes called lola (meaning water balloon). Also a lot of people mix bhang in their drinks and food, as also done during Shivaratri. It is believed that the combination of different colours played at this festival take all the sorrow away and make life itself more colourful.
Traditional Holi: The spring season, during which the weather changes, is believed to cause viral fever and cold. The playful throwing of natural coloured powders has a medicinal significance: the colours are traditionally made of Neem, Kumkum, Haldi, Bilva, and other medicinal herbs prescribed by Āyurvedic doctors.
A special drink called thandai is prepared (commonly made of almonds, pistachios, rose petals, etc.), sometimes containing bhang (Cannabis indica). For wet colours, traditional flowers of Palash are boiled and soaked in water over night to produced yellow coloured water, which also had medicinal properties. Unfortunately the commercial aspect of celebration has led to an increase in the use of synthetic colours which, in some cases, may be toxic.
Modern issues: Synthetic colors: As the spring-blossoming trees that once supplied the colors used to celebrate Holi have become more rare, chemically produced industrial dyes have been used to take their place in almost all of urban India. In 2001, a fact sheet was published by the groups Toxics link and Vatavaran based in Delhi on the chemical dyes used in the festival. They found safety issues with all three forms in which the Holi colors are produced: pastes, dry colors and water colors.
Their investigation found some toxic chemicals with some potentially severe health impacts. The black powders were found to contain lead oxide which can result in renal failure. Two colors were found to be carcinogenic: silver, with aluminium bromide, and red, with mercury sulphide. The prussian blue used in the blue powder has been associated with contact dermatitis, while the copper sulphate in the green has been documented to cause eye allergies, puffiness of the eyes, or temporary blindness.
The colorant used in the dry colors, also called gulals, was found to be toxic, with heavy metals causing asthma, skin diseases and temporary blindness. Both of the commonly used bases—asbestos or silica—are associated with health issues.
They reported that the wet colors might lead to skin discolouration and dermatitis due to their use of color concentrate gentian violet.
Lack of control over the quality and content of these colours is a problem, as they are frequently sold by vendors who do not know their origin.
The report galvanized a number of groups into promoting more natural celebrations of Holi. Development Alternatives, Delhi and Kalpavriksh, Pune, The CLEAN India campaign and Society for Child Development, through its Avacayam Cooperative Campaign have both launched campaigns to help children learn to make their own colours for Holi from safer, natural ingredients. Meanwhile, some commercial companies such as the National Botanical Research Institute have begun to market "herbal" dyes, though these are substantially more expensive than the dangerous alternatives. However, it may be noted that many parts of rural India have always resorted to natural colours (and other parts of festivities more than colours) due to availability reasons. * Environmental impact
An alleged environmental issue related to the celebration of Holi is the traditional Holika Dahan bonfire, which is believed to contribute to deforestation. A local tabloid had a view published that 30,000 bonfires each burning approximately 100 kg of wood are lit in one season. Several methods of preventing this consumption of wood have been proposed, including the replacement of wood with waste material or lighting of a single fire per community, rather than multiple smaller fires. However, the idea of lighting waste material antagonizes large sections of a certain community who take it as a Western attack to their cultures and traditions citing several examples of similar festivities elsewhere.
There is also concern about the large scale wastage of water and water-pollution due to synthetic colors during Holi celebration. * Influence on popular culture
In the music video for their song "The Catalyst.", American rock band Linkin Park incorporated scenes of band members throwing powdered color at one another. The videos director, band turntablist Joe Hahn, identifies Holi as a direct influence on the visual style of the video.
Hahn states that "The irony of making the video was that the inspiration for the colors came from the Color Festival in India called Holi." Mr Hahn further elaborates on the religious significance of the colors, "People collect these pigments throughout the year to release them in this festival as a celebration of life and tribute to Vishnu."
The holi festival was featured as a RoadBlock challenge in the popular CBS reality television show The Amazing Race 13, episode 7.
The Ke$ha music video for the song "Take It Off" features powdered colored dyes similar to those used to celebrate Holi.
On May 31, 2007, the independent film, Outsourced, premiered at the Seattle International Film Festival. The plot of the film details the story of Todd Anderson, an American call center novelty products salesman (Josh Hamilton) as he heads to India to train his replacement after his entire department is outsourced to a new, much cheaper call center in Gharapuri, India. Todd soon discovers that in order to successfully train his new charges, he must first learn about the culture of the workers. A Holi celebration is the catalyst for this change in his attitude.
The March 17th, 2011 episode of the NBC series based on the film of the same name, Outsourced, entitled "Todd's Holi War", takes a more sitcom-oriented approach to the holiday, marking Holi's first appearance on American network television.
The music video "Behind the Cow", which appears to be set in India, by the band Scooter features a final scene with everyone throwing colored powder at one another.
In the British TV show, An Idiot Abroad, Episode #2 has host Karl Pilkington take a trip through Dehli, India where he experiences Holi as locals cover him with colored powder and paint .
Episode 4.6 of the TV show Psych, "Bollywood Homicide", climaxes at a color festival, where Shawn is distracted by someone throwing red powder at him.
Keith Olbermann shows clips from Holi festivals every year on the "Time Marches On" portion of his nightly Countdown news show.
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Holî
Fête hindoue | Fête indienne | Fête de février | Fête de mars
Holî (होली) - parfois appelée fête des couleurs ou Phâlgunotsava - est la fête hindoue de l'équinoxe de printemps. Elle trouve son origine dans la Vasantotsava, à la fois un sacre du printemps et célébration de la fertilité. Il est fêté dans toute l'Inde durant deux jours au cours de la pleine lune du mois de Phâlguna qui se situe en février-mars. La Holî est dédiée à Krishna dans le nord de l'Inde et à Kâma dans le sud.
Holî est fêtée avec une ferveur particulière en Orissa et dans la région de Mathura, la ville de naissance de Krishna.
La nuit du premier jour de la fête, un feu est allumé pour rappeler la crémation de Holîka. Le deuxième jour, connu sous le nom de Rangapanchami, les gens, habillés en blanc, circulent avec des pigments de couleurs qu'ils se jettent l'un à l'autre, il est alors d'usage de s'excuser, après avoir sacrifié au rite coloré, par « Bura na mano, Holî hai » (« Ne soyez pas fâché, c'est la Holî » en hindî). C'est aussi l'occasion pour s'inviter à partager des mets préparés spécialement pour cette occasion.
Les pigments qu'ils se jettent ont une signification bien précise : le vert pour l'harmonie, l'orange pour l'optimisme, le bleu pour la vitalité et le rouge pour la joie et l'amour.
Selon l'écrivain indianiste Alain Daniélou, la fête de Holi c'est "le jour où toutes les castes se mêlent, où les inférieurs ont le droit d'insulter tous ceux devant qui ils ont dû s'incliner pendant toute l'année".
Évocations dans la fiction : Dans le film d'action indien Sholay (Ramesh Sippy, 1975), la chanson « Holi Ke Din » montre une célébration de la Holî.
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عرة
عادات | أعراض | متلازمة توريت
تاريخأكتوبر_2010: tic (disambiguation):
عرة أو التشنجات اللاإرادية هي حركة مفاجئة متكررة وغير ايقاعية ونمطية, أو هي تشكل مجموعة من العضلات المنفصلة.[2] ^ Leckman جي، ام اتش بلوخ، أرمينيا الملك، Scahill ل ".من ظواهر العرات والتاريخ الطبيعي لاضطرابات العرة ". ADV Neurol. 2006 ؛ 99:1-16. PIMD 16536348[3] ^ الجمعية الأميركية للطب النفسي (2000). دليل التشخيصي والإحصائي للاضطرابات العقلية ، 4 الطبعه، النسخة النصية (معايير الدليل التشخيصي الإحصائي للاضطرابات النفسية)، الرقم الدولي المعياري للكتاب 0-89042-025-4. متوفرة في BehaveNet.com مستردة في 10 أغسطس 2009. التشنجات اللاإرادية يمكن تكون غير مرئية للمراقب، مثل التوتر الداخلي أو تأزم اصبع القدم. التشنجات اللاإرادية والعرات الصوتية، على التوالي ،هي ومضة العين وتطهير الحلق.[4] ^ جونيور دا مالون، بانديا م.م. "جراحة المخ والأعصاب السلوكي ". ADV Neurol. 2006 ؛ 99:241-47. PIMD 16536372 اضطرابات الحركة (على سبيل المثال، رقاص، خلل التوتر، رمع عضلي)يجب تمييزها عن التشنجات اللاإرادية. الحالات الأخرى، مثل التوحد واضطرابات الحركة، تشمل أيضا الحركات التي يمكن الخلط بينها وبين العرات(التشنجات اللاإرداية). التشنجات اللاإرادية أيضا يجب أن تميز عن دوافع الوسواس القهري، وحالات فقدان الوعي "سيجر اكتفتي". * الوصف والتصنيف
تصنف التشنجات اللاإرادية كما يلي, حركي مقابل صوتي ومعقدة مقابل بسيطة.
التشنجات اللاإرادية الحركية هي التشنجات اللاإرادية التي تؤثر على حركة مجموعات منفصلة من العضلات.
العرات صوتية هي الأصوات التلقائية التي تنتج من حركة الهواء المار عن طريق الفم أو الأنف، أو الحلق. وقد يشار إليها بالتناوب علي انها التشنجات الفعلية أو التشنجات الصوتية ، ولكن معظم مشخصو الامراض يفضلون استخدام مصطلح التشنجات الصوتية حتي تعكس الفكرة القائلة بأن الحبال الصوتية لا تشارك في جميع التشنجات اللاإرادية التي تنتج الصوت.[6] ^ روبرتسون م.م. متلازمة توريت، والظروف المرتبطة بها، وتعقيدات العلاج. الدماغ. مارس 2000 ؛ 123 3:425-62 العلاج الطبيعي. PIMD 10686169
التشنجات اللاإرادية قد تزيد نتيجة التعرض للالإجهاد والتعب والملل، أو العواطف والطاقة العالية الاثر، والتي يمكن أن تشمل المشاعر السلبية، مثل القلق، والعواطف الإيجابية أيضا لها تاثير، كأمثلتها الإثارة أو شوق التوقع. الاسترخاء قد ينجم عنه زيادة في حالات التشنج (على سبيل المثال، مشاهدة التلفزيون أو استخدام الكمبيوتر)، في حين أن التركيز على نشاط الانتباه غالبا ما يؤدي إلى انخفاض في العرات والتشنجات.[7] ^ المعاهد الوطنية للصحة). تم استعادته في الخامس عشر من شهر مارس، ٢٠٠٩.[8] ^ باكر، لام . تم استعادته في 12 فبراير 2006. الكاتب وطبيب الأعصاب أوليفر ساكسقد وصف طبيباً يعاني من متلازمة توريت حادة (مورت دوران الكندي، العضو المنتدب، الطيار وجراح في الحياة الحقيقية، وعلى الرغم من استخدام اسم مستعار في الكتاب)، فإن هذه التشنجات اللاإرادية سكنت بالكامل تقريبا بينما كان يجري العملية الجراحية.[9] ^ دوران، مورتون لام جمعية متلازمة توريت، وشركة، الفصل كونيتيكت 1998 المربين المؤتمر ؛ 6 نوفمبر 1998 ؛ دانبري، ط م.[10] ^ أكياس سين عالم الأنثروبولوجيا على سطح المريخ. كنوبف، نيويورك، 1995.
مباشرة قبل بداية العرة، معظم الأفراد على علم بوجود دافع [11] ^ كوهين جعفر، Leckman جي. الظواهر الحسية المرتبطة متلازمة جيل دو لا توريت. ياء كلين الطب النفسي. 1992 سبتمبر ؛ 53 (9) :319 - 23. PIMD 1517194 وهذا مشابه للرغبة في التثاؤب، العطاس، وميض العين، أو حك الجلد عن الشعور بالحكة. الأفراد يصورون الحاجة إلى التشنج علي انها تراكم التوتر [12] ^ بليس ياء الخبرات الحسية للجيل دي لوس انجليس لمتلازمة توريت. قوس الجنرال الطب النفسي. ديسمبر 1980 ؛ 37 (12) :1343 - 47. PIMD 6934713 الذي يرغبون وهم واعون التخلي عنه، وكأنهم "يجب عليهم فعل ذلك".[13] ^ كواك جيم، دات ك فونج، يانكوفيتش جيه ".منذر الحسية الظاهرة في متلازمة توريت ". Disord التحركات. ديسمبر 2003 ؛ 18 (12) :1530 - 33. PIMD 14673893 ومن أمثلة هذه الدوافع الأولية هي الشعور بوجود شيء في الحلق أو وجود إزعاج في الكتفين، مما أدى بالضرورة الي الرغبة في تنظيف الحلق أو هز الكتفين. قد يكون الشعور بالتشنجات الفعلية كما لو كان كهدوء هذا التوتر أو الشعور، وهذا اشبه بحك الجلد عند الشعور بالحكة. وهناك مثال آخر ألا وهو الوميض للتخفيف إحساس عدم الارتياح في العين.
التشنجات اللاإرادية توصف بأنها شبه إرادية أو لاإرادية, [14] ^ "ان تصنيف متلازمة توريت فريق الدراسة. التعاريف وتصنيف اضطرابات العرة ". قوس Neurol. أكتوبر 1993؛ 50 (10) :1013 - 16. PIMD 8215958 ، أرشفة 26 أبريل 2006. لأنها ليست إلزامية تماماً - ولذا فإنها قد تكون عُرِفَت علي انها استجابة طوعية إلى الرغبة الأولية الغير المرغوب فيها. ومن الجوانب الفريدة للالتشنجات اللاإرادية، القريبة إلى اضطرابات الحركة الأخرى، هو أنها قابلة للقمع بعد مقاومتها ؛ [15] ^ ليرة سورية Dure 4، ج DeWolfe علاج التشنجات اللاإرادية. ADV Neurol. 2006 ؛ 99:191-96. PIMD 16536366 وهي قد عُرِفَت علي أنها رغبة مُلِحة لا يمكن مقاومتها وفي النهاية يجب التعبير عنها. بعض الناس الذين يعانون من عرات قد لا يكون لديهم وعي بالدوافع الأولية المُلِحة. قد يكون الأطفال أقل وعيا من البالغين بالدوافع الأولية المُلِحة المرتبطة بالعرات ،لكن مع النضج وعيهم يتجه نحو الزيادة. * العرات البسيطة
العرات الحركية البسيطة عادة ما تكون مفاجئة، قصيرة، وعلي هيئة حركات لا معني لها وعادة ما ترتبط بمجموعة واحده من العضلات، مثل الوميض، ورعشة الرأس أو هز الكتف.[18] ^ المغني النظام المنسق. "متلازمة توريت : من السلوك لعلم الأحياء ". انسيت نورل. مارس 2005 ؛ 4 (3) :149 - 59. PIMD 15721825 العرات الحركية يمكن أن تكون من مجموعة لا نهائية ويمكن أن تشمل حركات مثل التصفيق، مد والرقبة، وحركات الفم والرأس وهز الذراع أو الساق، وتكشير الوجه.
العرة الصوتية البسيطة تكاد تكون أي صوت أو ضجيج، مع وجود عرات صوتية شائعة كتطهير الحلق، والاستنشاق، أو الشخير. * العرات المعقدة
العرات الحركية المعقدة وعادة ما تكون أكثر ظهورا بشكل مقصود، وتظهر بشكل طبيعي أكثر. ويمكن أن تنطوي تحت مجموعة من الحركات وتظهر بشكل منسق. أمثلة من العرات الحركية المعقدة هي سحب الملابس، ولمس الناس، ولمس الأشياء، وأداء صدوي وأداء حركات محرمة أو فاحشة بطريقه لاإرادية.
العرات الصوتية المعقدة قد تقع في سلاسل متنوعة (فئات)، بما في ذلك لفظ صدوي (تكرار كلمات تحدث بها للتو شخص آخر)، لجلجة (تكرار الكلمات التي تحدث بها نفس الشخص سابقا)، تكرار المقروء(تكرار كلمات بعد قراءتها) والبذاء (الكلام العفوي أو مبغوض اجتماعيا أو الكلمات والعبارات المحرمة). البذاء هو عرض من أعراض حظيت بتغطية إعلامية مكثفة من متلازمة توريت ؛، فقط حوالي 10 ٪ من الملخص المعرض. يظهر البذاء
ونادرا ما تشاهد العرات المعقدة في حالة غياب العرات البسيطة. التشنجات اللاإرادية "قد تكون صعبة في تمييزها عن الدوافع"، [22] ^ Scamvougeras، انطون. الجمعية الكندية لطب النفسي (فبراير 2002). تم استرجاعه في 17 يونيو 2009. كما في حالة الصراخ (الصياح القهري). * اضطرابات التشنج
اضطرابات التشنج تحدث على امتداد السلسلة، التي تتراوح بين خفيفة إلى أكثر شدة، وتصنف وفقا للمدة والشدة (عرات عابرة، العرات المزمنة، أو متلازمة توريت). متلازمة توريت هو التعبير الأكثر شدة لسلسلة اضطرابات التشنج، والتي يعتقد أنها تعود إلى ضعف الوراثة نفسها. ومع ذلك، فإن معظم حالات متلازمة توريت ليست شديدة.[24] ^ Zinner اس اتش. اضطراب توريت. Pediatr القس ؛ 21 نوفمبر 2000 (11) :372 - 83. PIMD 11077021 علاج سلسلة اضطرابات العرة مشابه للعلاج متلازمة توريت.
اختلاف التشيخصات : خلل التوتر، والرقاص والأمراض الوراثية الأخرى، والأسباب الثانوية من التشنجات اللاإرادية ينبغي أن تستبعد في التشخيص التفريقي. الظروف التي بجانب متلازمة توريت قد توضح عرات أو حركات نمطية تشمل علي الإضاطرابات التزايدية، اضطرابات سلسلة التوحد، [26] ^ فاليس Ringman، يانكوفيتش جيه ".حدوث التشنجات اللاإرادية في بعرض اسبرجر والتوحد اضطراب ". ياء Neurol الطفل. 2000 يونيو ؛ 15 (6) :394 - 400. PIMD 10868783 لإضطرابات الحركة النمطية ؛ [27] ^ يانكوفيتش ياء ني ميخيا. "التشنجات اللاإرادية المرتبطة غيره من الاضطرابات ". ADV Neurol. 2006 ؛ 99:61-8. PIMD 16536352[28] ^ فريمان، والثالثة. . روجر فريمان، دكتوراه في الطب، مدونة. تم استعادته في 8 2006، شباط / فبراير. رقاص سيدنهام ؛ خلل التوتر مجهول السبب، والأمراض الوراثية مثل مرض هنتنغتون، نيورواسانثوسيتوسيس (مشاكل عصبية)، هالرفوردن - سباتز متلازمة دوشين ضمور العضلات، داء ويلسون، والتصلب الجلدي. وهناك إمكانيات أخرى تشمل الاضطرابات الصبغية مثل متلازمة داون، متلازمة كلاينفلتر، ومتلازمة XYY وهشة متلازمة العاشر. الأسباب المكتسبة للعرات تشمل المخدرات الناجمة عن التشنجات اللاإرادية، صدمات الرأس، التهاب الدماغ السكتة الدماغية، والتسمم بأول أكسيد الكربون.[30] ^ ني ميخيا، يانكوفيتش ياء (الشعبي). القس براس Psiquiatr. 2005 ؛ 27 (1) :11 - 17. PIMD 15867978 معظم هذه الشروط هي أندر من اضطرابات التشنج، واستخدام السجل والفحص قد يكون كافيا للحكم بإقصائها ،وهذا بدون فحوص طبية.
على الرغم من أن اضطرابات التشنج تعتبر عادة أعراض مرحلة الطفولة ،والعرات أحيانا تزيد خلال مرحلة البلوغ ؛ عرات بداية البلوغ غالبا ما يكون لها أسباب ثانوية [32] ^ عادةً هذه التشنجات اللاإرادية التي تبدأ بعد سن ال 18 لا تعتبر أعراض متلازمة توريت.
الاختبارات قد تكون ضرورية لاستبعاد الشروط الأخرى : علي سبيل المثال، عند تشخيص الالتباس بين العرات ونشاط سيجر، قد يكون التخطيط الدماغي مطلوب، أو أعراض قد تشير إلى أن هناك حاجة إلى التصوير بالرنين المغناطيسي لاستبعاد شذوذ الدماغ.[33] ^ Scahill لام، إيرينبيرغ زاي، برلين الابن سم، وجيم بودمان، ب. ج كوفي، يانكوفيتش ياء ولام كيسلينج، أرمينيا الملك، ص Kurlan، وانغ، والمنك ياء، تي ميرفي، Zinner قاف، Walkup ياء ؛ جمعية متلازمة توريت المجلس الاستشاري الطبي : لجنة الممارسة. "التقييم والعلاج الدوائي المعاصر من متلازمة توريت". NeuroRx. أبريل 2006 ؛ 3 (2) :192 - 206. PIMD 16554257 قياس مستويات الهرمون يمكن أن يكون لإقصاء احتمال الغدة الدرقية، والذي يمكن أن يكون مسبباً للتشنجات اللاإرادية. دراسات تصوير الدماغ عادة ما تكون غير مضمونة اومبررة. المراهقين والبالغين يتعرضون لظهور العرات المفاجئ وغيرها من الأعراض السلوكية لذلك فإن اختبارات البول لكشف المخدرات والكوكايين والمنشطات قد تكون مطلوبة. إذا كان السجل العائلي لمرض الكبد قد تم تقديمه، ومصل النحاس ومستويات السيرولوبلازمين من الممكن ان تُقصي داء ويلسون. معظم المسببات خفيفة.[36] ^ جمعية متلازمة توريت. قد المحفوظ 24، 2006.
التشنجات اللاإرادية يجب أن يفرق بينها وبين التحزم. على سبيل المثال ،التشنجات الصغيرة في الجفن العلوي أو السفلي، ليست تشنجات لاإرادية، لأنها لا تنطوي على العضلات كلها. وهي تشنجات تحدث في القليل من حزم ألياف العضلات، والتي يمكن للمرء أن يشعر بها ولكن بالكاد يمكن ملاحظتها ورؤيتها.[37] ^ فريمان، ر لهذا المسار في 18 فبراير 2006. * ملاحظات
2: : مصادر أخرى * أسود، كيفن جيه * Evidente، غ. دراسات عليا الطب أون لاين. أكتوبر 2000 108:5. * Swerdlow، العدد. "متلازمة توريت : الخلافات الحالية والمناظر الطبيعية ساحة المعركة ". بالعملة تقييم Neurosci Neurol. 2005، 5:329-331. PIMD 16131414
تصنيف متلازمة توريت لجنة الدراسات. . القوس. Neurol. 50 (10) : 1013-6. PMID 8215958. اخر تعديل في 2009-05-03.
Topics related to Tourette syndrome: Obsessive–compulsive disorder:
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Tic
Habits | Tourette syndrome
Tic (disambiguation):
A tic is a sudden, repetitive, nonrhythmic motor movement or vocalization involving discrete muscle groups. Tics can be invisible to the observer, such as abdominal tensing or toe crunching. Common motor and phonic tics are, respectively, eye blinking and throat clearing. Movements of other movement disorders (for example, chorea, dystonia, myoclonus) must be distinguished from tics. Other conditions, such as autism and stereotypic movement disorder, also include movements that may be confused with tics. Tics must also be distinguished from the compulsions of OCD and from seizure activity.
Description and classification : Clips of tics: Tics are classified as motor vs. phonic and simple vs. complex.
Motor tics are movement-based tics affecting discrete muscle groups.
Phonic tics are involuntary sounds produced by moving air through the nose, mouth, or throat. They may be alternately referred to as verbal tics or vocal tics, but most diagnosticians prefer the term phonic tics to reflect the notion that the vocal cords are not involved in all tics that produce sound.
Tics may increase as a result of stress, fatigue, boredom, or high-energy emotions, which can include negative emotions, such as anxiety, but positive emotions as well, such as excitement or anticipation. Relaxation may result in a tic increase (for instance, watching television or using a computer), while concentration on an absorbing activity often leads to a decrease in tics. Neurologist and writer Oliver Sacks described a physician with severe Tourette syndrome (Canadian Mort Doran, M.D., a pilot and surgeon in real life, although a pseudonym was used in the book), whose tics remitted almost completely while he was performing surgery.
Immediately preceding tic onset, most individuals are aware of an urge that is similar to the need to yawn, sneeze, blink, or scratch an itch. Individuals describe the need to tic as a buildup of tension that they consciously choose to release, as if they "had to do it". Examples of this premonitory urge are the feeling of having something in one's throat or a localized discomfort in the shoulders, leading to the need to clear one's throat or shrug the shoulders. The actual tic may be felt as relieving this tension or sensation, similar to scratching an itch. Another example is blinking to relieve an uncomfortable sensation in the eye.
Tics are described as semi-voluntary or unvoluntary, because they are not strictly involuntary—they may be experienced as a voluntary response to the unwanted, premonitory urge. A unique aspect of tics, relative to other movement disorders, is that they are suppressible yet irresistible; they are experienced as an irresistible urge that must eventually be expressed. Some people with tics may not be aware of the premonitory urge. Children may be less aware of the premonitory urge associated with tics than are adults, but their awareness tends to increase with maturity.
Simple tics: Simple motor tics are typically sudden, brief, meaningless movements that usually involve only one group of muscles, such as eye blinking, head jerking, or shoulder shrugging. Motor tics can be of an endless variety and may include such movements as hand clapping, neck stretching, mouth movements, head, arm or leg jerks, and facial grimacing.
A simple phonic tic can be almost any sound or noise, with common vocal tics being throat clearing, sniffing, or grunting.
Complex tics: Complex motor tics are typically more purposeful-appearing and of a longer nature. They may involve a cluster of movements and appear coordinated. Examples of complex motor tics are pulling at clothes, touching people, touching objects, echopraxia and copropraxia.
Complex phonic tics may fall into various series (categories), including echolalia (repeating words just spoken by someone else), palilalia (repeating one's own previously spoken words), lexilalia (repeating words after reading them), and coprolalia (the spontaneous utterance of socially objectionable or taboo words or phrases). Coprolalia is a highly publicized symptom of Tourette syndrome; however, only about 10% of TS patients exhibit coprolalia.
Complex tics are rarely seen in the absence of simple tics. Tics "may be challenging to differentiate from compulsions", as in the case of klazomania (compulsive shouting).
Tic disorders : Tic disorder: Tic disorders occur along a spectrum, ranging from mild to more severe, and are classified according to duration and severity (transient tics, chronic tics, or Tourette syndrome). Tourette syndrome is the more severe expression of a spectrum of tic disorders, which are thought to be due to the same genetic vulnerability. Nevertheless, most cases of Tourette syndrome are not severe. The treatment for the spectrum of tic disorders is similar to the treatment of Tourette syndrome. * Differential diagnosis
Dystonias, paroxysmal dyskinesias, chorea, other genetic conditions, and secondary causes of tics should be ruled out in the differential diagnosis. Conditions besides Tourette syndrome that may manifest tics or stereotyped movements include developmental disorders, autism spectrum disorders, and stereotypic movement disorder; Sydenham's chorea; idiopathic dystonia; and genetic conditions such as Huntington's disease, neuroacanthocytosis, Hallervorden-Spatz syndrome, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, Wilson's disease, and tuberous sclerosis. Other possibilities include chromosomal disorders such as Down syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome, XYY syndrome and fragile X syndrome. Acquired causes of tics include drug-induced tics, head trauma, encephalitis, stroke, and carbon monoxide poisoning. Most of these conditions are rarer than tic disorders, and a thorough history and examination may be enough to rule them out, without medical or screening tests.
Although tic disorders are commonly considered to be childhood syndromes, tics occasionally develop during adulthood; adult-onset tics often have a secondary cause. Tics that begin after the age of 18 are generally not considered symptoms of Tourette's syndrome.
Tests may be ordered as necessary to rule out other conditions: For example, when diagnostic confusion between tics and seizure activity exists, an EEG may be ordered, or symptoms may indicate that an MRI is needed to rule out brain abnormalities. TSH levels can be measured to rule out hypothyroidism, which can be a cause of tics. Brain imaging studies are not usually warranted. In teenagers and adults presenting with a sudden onset of tics and other behavioral symptoms, a urine drug screen for cocaine and stimulants might be necessary. If a family history of liver disease is present, serum copper and ceruloplasmin levels can rule out Wilson's disease. most cases are mild.
Tics must be distinguished from fasciculations. Small twitches of the upper or lower eyelid, for example, are not tics, because they do not involve a whole muscle. They are twitches of a few muscle fibre bundles, which one can feel but barely see.
Notes: 2: Further reading : * Black, Kevin J. * Evidente, GH. PostGraduate Medicine Online. October 2000 108:5. * Swerdlow, NR. "Tourette Syndrome: Current Controversies and the Battlefield Landscape". Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep. 2005, 5:329-331. 10.1007/s11910-005-0054-8: PMID 16131414
The Tourette Syndrome Classification Study Group. . Arch. Neurol. 50 (10): 1013-6. PMID 8215958. Retrieved on 2005-03-22
Topics related to Tourette syndrome: Obsessive–compulsive disorder:
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Tic
Sémiologie neurologique | Sémiologie psychiatrique | Pathologie en psychiatrie de l'enfant
TIC: médecine: wiktionary tic: Les tics sont des mouvements compulsifs surprenant par leur caractère brusque et inapproprié à la situation. * Caractères des tics
Un tic présente ordinairement les caractères suivants : * suggestibilité : le degré d'émotivité et l'attention du sujet influent sur le déclenchement du tic. * involontaire ou semi-volontaire : le tic est spontané ou parasite un mouvement délibéré. * suppressible temporairement : le tic répond passagèrement à un effort de contrôle * besoin réalisé (urge to move) * rémittent : la fréquence des tics connaît des diminutions passagères.
On distingue plusieurs types de tics : * les tics moteurs ** simples : clignotement des yeux ** complexes : mouvement d'haussement d'épaules, mouvements du visage (hausser les sourcils, rouler les yeux, faire mine de renifler), mouvement des mains (taper sur un support, "jouer" avec sa barbe, ses cheveux ou ses sourcils, se frotter le menton) * les tics vocaux ** simples : émission vocale ** complexes : Coprolalie * Causes
Le stress, la fatigue, la nervosité ou l'ennui peuvent être des facteurs déclencheurs de tics.
Certaines maladies neurologiques sont caractérisées par des tics à répétition. La maladie de Gilles de la Tourette est un exemple de maladie où les tics font partie du diagnostic.
Il est à noter que les tics peuvent prendre la forme de tics de langage. * Maladies comportant des tics * Maladie de Gilles de la Tourette
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ديماغوغيا
مصطلحات سياسية
دِيمَاغُوجِيَا (من اليونانية دِيمَا من "دِيمُوسْ δῆμος": الشعب، وغوجيا من "أَگَيْنْ ἄγειν": قَادَ / قيادة) وهي استراتيجية لاقناع الآخرين بالاستناد إلى مخاوفهم وأفكارهم المسبقة. ويشير إلى استراتيجية سياسية للحصول على السلطة والكسب للقوة السياسية من خلال مناشدة التحيزات الشعبية معتمدين على مخاوف وتوقعات الجمهور المسبقة، عادة عن طريق الخطابات والدعاية الحماسية مستخدمين المواضيع القومية والشعبية محاولين استثارة عواطف الجماهير .
أما اليوم فهي تدل على مجموعة الأساليب والخطابات والمناورات والحيل السياسية التي يلجأ إليها السياسيون لإغراء الشعب أو الجماهير بوعود كاذبة أو خداعه وذلك ظاهرياً من أجل مصلحة الشعب، وعملياً من أجل الوصول إلى الحكم. قد اعتاد الكثير من السياسيين اللجوء لاستخدام أساليب السفسطة واللعب على مشاعر ومخاوف الشعوب، ويعتبر بعض السياسيين أفضل من غيرهم وربما محترفون في ذلك. وعليه فهي خداع الجماهير وتضليلها بالشعارات والوعود الكاذبة. والديماجوجية هي أحد الأساليب الأساسية في سياسة الأحزاب البرجوازية. وهي موقف شخص أو جماعة يقوم على إطراء وتملق الطموحات والعواطف الشعبية بهدف الحصول على تأييد الرأي العام استناداً على مصداقيته. والديماغوجي هو الشخص الذي يسعى لاجتذاب الناس إلى جانبه عن طريق الوعود الكاذبة والتملق وتشويه الحقائق ويؤكد كلامه مستنداً إلى شتى فنون الكلام وضروبه وكذلك الأحداث، ولكنه لا يلجأ إلى البرهان أو المنطق البرهاني لأن من حق البرهان أن يبعث على التفكير وأن يوقظ الحذر، والكلام الديماغوجي مبسط ومتزندق، يعتمد على جهل سامعيه وسذاجتهم و اللعب على عواطفهم ، مثل قول البعض مخاطباً العامة " إنى أحبكم " ، " صدقونى إنى أحبكم " ... إلخ .
وتطلق أحياناً على المتمدينين أي سكان الأرياف الذين سكنوا المدن
المصادر : * القاموس السياسي / عبد الرزاق الصافي * موسوعة السياسة / عبدالوهاب الكيالي * الموسوعة الأشتراكية
بذرة:
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Demagogy
Propaganda techniques | Populism
Demagogy ( ) or demagoguery ( ) (δημαγωγία: , from δῆμος: dēmos "people" and ἄγειν: agein "to lead") is a strategy for gaining political power by appealing to the prejudices, emotions, fears, vanities and expectations of the public—typically via impassioned rhetoric and propaganda, and often using nationalist, populist or religious themes. What qualifies as demagogy has been the subject of debate and ambiguity since Aristophanes first used the term, in reference to the Athenian statesman, Cleon.dateMay 2011: : Uses and definitions
20th-century American social critic and humorist H. L. Mencken, defined a demagogue as "one who will preach doctrines he knows to be untrue to men he knows to be idiots."
As George Bernard Shaw said:
But though there is no difference in this respect between the best demagogue and the worst, both of them having to present their cases equally in terms of melodrama, there is all the difference in the world between the statesman who is humbugging the people into allowing him to do the will of God, in whatever disguise it may come to him, and one who is humbugging them into furthering his personal ambition and the commercial interests of the plutocrats who own the newspapers and support him on reciprocal terms.
Max Weber: Political leadership in the form of the free 'demagogue' who grew from the soil of the city state is of greater concern to us; like the city state, the demagogue is peculiar to the Occident and especially to Mediterranean culture. Furthermore, political leadership in the form of the parliamentary "party leader" has grown on the soil of the constitutional state, which is also indigenous only to the Occident.
Though this definition emphasizes the use of lying and falsehoods, skilled demagogues often need to use only special emphasis by which an uncritical listener will be led to draw the desired conclusion themselves. Moreover, a demagogue may well believe his or her own arguments (for example, there are good reasons to assume that Adolf Hitler—certainly one of the most successful demagogues in history—sincerely believed his own anti-Jewish diatribes). * History and examples
The leaders of the Athenian democracy, who were called Demagogues, learned their rhetoric and law from the Sophists. Plato reacted against this reality:These impractical [political] schemes reflect at once Plato's discontent with the demagogy then prevalent in Athens and in his personal predilection for the aristocratic form of government.
In the 19th Century, political reactionaries branded their opponents as demagogues and directed numerous reprisals and censorship against them. Representatives of the German Confederation of German-national and liberal groups were accused of Demagogenverfolgung, subversion, and sedition. After the July Revolution of 1830, the measures against the "demagogic machinations", and especially, Fritz Reuter, were renewed.
A famous usage was by the aging Erich Ludendorff, who was for a time a strong supporter of the early rise of Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany. After learning of Hitler's appointment as Chancellor, he expressed his disappointment to German President Paul von Hindenburg:
"By appointing Hitler Chancellor of the Reich, you have handed over our sacred German Fatherland to one of the greatest demagogues of all time. I prophesy to you this evil man will plunge our Reich into the abyss and will inflict immeasurable woe on our nation. Future generations will curse you in your grave for this action.": Hitler indeed would become regarded as perhaps the epitome of a demagogue, having successfully risen to power through appeals to the ethnic and nationalistic prejudices and vanities of the German people. * Famous historical demagogues
The following are some classic examples of demagogues from history. * Cleon
The Athenian leader Cleon is known as a notorious demagogue mainly because of three events described in the writings of Thucydides and Aristophanes
Aristophanes, The Knights. is an old free version translated by William Walter Merry, Clarendon Press (1902). The translator says on p. 5:
"The picture of Cleon the demagogue has been painted for us in the comedies of Aristophanes, and in the graver history of Thucydides. On the strength of these representations, he is commonly taken as the type of the reckless mob-orator, who trades upon popular passions to advance his own interests."
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First, after the failed revolt by the city of Mitylene, Cleon persuaded the Athenians to slaughter not just the Mitylenaean prisoners, but every man in the city, and to sell their wives and children as slaves. The Athenians rescinded the resolution the following day when they came to their senses.
Second, after Athens had completely defeated the Peloponnesian fleet and Sparta could only beg for peace on almost any terms, Cleon persuaded the Athenians to reject the peace offer.
Third, he taunted the Athenian generals over their failure to bring the war in Sphacteria to a rapid close, accusing them of cowardice, and declared that he could finish the job himself in twenty days, despite having no military knowledge. They gave him the job, expecting him to fail. Cleon shrank at being called to make good on his boast, and tried to get out of it, but he was forced to take the command. In fact, he succeeded—by getting the general Demosthenes to do it, now treating him with respect after previously slandering him behind his back. Three years later, he and the opposing general Brasidas were killed in a battle, enabling peace to finally be restored.
Modern commentators suspect that Thucydides and Aristophanes exaggerated the vileness of Cleon's real character. Both had personal conflicts with Cleon, and The Knights is a satirical, allegorical comedy that doesn't even mention Cleon by name. Cleon was a tradesman—a leather-tanner; Thucydides and Aristophanes came from the upper classes, predisposed to look down on the commercial classes. Nevertheless, their portrayals define the archetypal example of the "low-born demagogue" or "rabble-rouser": born into the lower classes, hating the nobility, uneducated, despising thought and deliberation, ruthless and unprincipled, bullying, coarse and vulgar in style, rising in popularity by exploiting a national crisis, telling lies to whip up emotions and drive a mob against an opponent, deriving political support primarily from the poor and ignorant, quick to accuse any opponent of weakness or disloyalty, eager for war and violence, inciting the people to terrible acts of destruction they later regret. * Alcibiades
Alcibiades convinced the people of Athens to attempt to conquer Sicily during the Peloponnesian War, with disastrous results. He led the Athenian assembly to support making him commander by claiming victory would come easily, appealing to Athenian vanity, and appealing to action and courage over deliberation. It should be noted, however, that Alcibaldes's expedition could have succeeded if he was not denied from command due to the political manouvers of his rivals.date: May 2011: Father Coughlin : An American Catholic priest, Father Charles Coughlin was one of the first to use radio to reach a mass audience in the 1930s, and was close friends with Huey Long. While initially a vocal supporter of Franklin D. Roosevelt and his New Deal, he later became a harsh critic of Roosevelt. Coughlin's themes eventually became increasingly antisemitic and supportive of assorted aspects of the fascist policies of leaders like Benito Mussolini.dateMay 2011: : Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler led the Nazi party to power in Germany by appeals to ethnic pride and conspiracy theories that blamed Jews for the nation's economic troubles. He instituted government control over the news media date: October 2011: , and used his charisma and great oratorical skills to lead Germany into a war aimed at expanding its territory.
Joseph McCarthy : Joseph McCarthy:
Richard Rovere, Senator Joe McCarthy, Methuen Books (1959); reprinted by the University of California Press (1996). ISBN 0520204727
The book describes McCarthy's tactics, compares him to the ancient demagogues and previous U.S. demagogues, and concludes that McCarthy was the first "national demagogue" in the U.S. (as opposed to demagogues whose influence is limited to a small area like a town or county).
Tom Wicker, Shooting Star: the Brief Arc of Joe McCarthy, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt (2006) ISBN 015101082X
"Joe McCarthy may have been the most destructive demagogue in American history." p. 5
"McCarthy's Senate colleagues voted sixty-seven to twenty-two to censure him for his reckless accusations and fabrications." back cover
Haynes Johnson, The Age of Anxiety: McCarthyism to Terrorism, Houghtin Mifflin Harcourt (2006). ISBN 015603039X
"Joe McCarthy was a demagogue, but never a real leader of the people." p. 193
"McCarthy represented what Richard Hofstadter called 'the paranoid style of American politics.'" p. 193–4
"While he never approached the importance of a Hitler or a Stalin, McCarthy resembled those demagogic dictators by also employing the techniques of the Big Lie." p. 194
was a U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 to 1957. Though a poor orator, he rose to national prominence during the early 1950s by accusing a number of politicians and other individuals of being either communists or communist sympathizers. He presented himself as being above reproach while accusing anyone who questioned or opposed him of disloyalty to the United States. Ultimately his inability to substantiate his claims led him to be censured by the United States Senate in 1954, and to fall from popularity.
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto : Zulfikar Ali Bhutto was prime minister of Pakistan (1974-1977) and Chairman of the Pakistan People's Party. Bhutto rose to national politics in 1967 by criticizing Ayub Khan's dictatorial policies. Bhutto had great oratorical skills and was an extreme populist figure. He spoke at public seminars in a drastic manner to attract attention.date=October 2011:
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Démagogie
Système politique
politique: La démagogie (du grec « le peuple » et : « conduire ») est une notion politique et rhétorique désignant l'état politique dans lequel les dirigeants mènent le peuple en s'attirant ses faveurs, notamment en utilisant un discours flatteur.
Le discours du démagogue sort du champ du rationnel pour s'adresser aux passions, aux frustrations du peuple. Il recourt en outre à la satisfaction immédiate des souhaits ou des attentes du public ciblé, sans recherche de l'intérêt général mais dans le but de s'attirer la sympathie et de gagner le soutien. L'argumentation démagogique peut être simple afin de pouvoir être comprise et reprise par le public auquel elle est adressée. Elle fait fréquemment appel à la facilité voire la paresse intellectuelle en proposant des analyses et des solutions qui semblent évidentes.
Le terme « démagogie » aujourd'hui est largement perçu avec une connotation péjorative. En effet, l’étymologie du mot grec traduit plutôt le terme « démagogue » comme celui qui éduque, qui conduit le peuple.
Souvent confondue avec le terme populisme, la démagogie se différencie de celui-ci dans la mesure où elle renvoie à l'idée de dire au peuple ce qu'il veut entendre, alors que le populisme renvoie à l'idée de faire ce que l'opinion publique souhaite en stigmatisant les élites.
Articles connexes : * Pisistrate (démagogue célèbre) * Populisme * Effet Narcisse * Le Littératron, ouvrage de Robert Escarpit * Langue de bois
politique:
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بوغوميل
no categories
ويكي: ترجمة: مصدر: بوغوميل :
حركة البوغوميل Bogomil (بالبلغارية: Богомилство) هي مذهب غنوصي Gnostic ثنوي dualistic، مركب من حركتى الإصلاح البوليشيانية الأرمينية Armenian Paulicianism والكنيسة الأرثودكسية البلغارية، التى ظهرت في بلغاريا بين 927 و970 وانتشرت داخل الامبراطورية البيزنطية، روسيا الكييفية، صربيا، البوسنة، كرواتيا، ايطاليا وفرنسا. – ظهرت هذه الحركة الإجتماعية-الدينية المذهبية الغنوصية، الميتة الآن، زمن ملك بلغاريا بيتر الأول Peter I (927-969) كردة فعل ضد الإضطهاد المدني والكهنوتي التي قامت به الكنيسة البيزنطية ضدهم. ورغم كل ألوان الإضطهاد، ضلت قوية وذات شعبية حتى سقوط بلغاريا نهاية القرن 14. البوغوميلية Bogomilism هي أبرز الحركات البلغارية المهرطقة الأولى التى ظهرت في الربع الأول من القرن 10. مصطلح "Bogomil" يعني "عزيز على الله Dear to God" باللغة البلغارية. كانت البوغوميلية ناتج طبيعي لعدة عوامل ظهرت حتى بداية القرن 10. أنتجت حركة النصرنة Christianization القسرية لشعوب السلاف Slavs والبلغار الأصليين proto-Bulgarians على يد تسار بوريس الأول Tsar Boris I سنة 863 وحقيقة أن الدين كان يمارس أساسا باللغة الإغريقية، التي يتقنها نخبة من القوم فقط، أنتجت مستويات متفاوتة من فهم الديانة (المسيحية)، إذا فهمت أصلا.
عامل مهم آخر كان السخط الإجتماعي لطبقة الفلاحين. بسبب الحروب الدائمة خلال زمن سيميون الأول Simeon I، والد تسار بيتر الأول Tsar Peter I ملك بلغاريا، أتلفت الأراضى (الزراعية) المجاورة للحدود اليونانية (ثرايس Tharce)، وترك الناس القاطنين هناك بدون عمل. علاوة على ذلك، كان تغير السلطات والحكومات على هذه الأراضي سبب القلاقل وحالة عدم راحة للفلاحين. باختصار، أولئك الذين كافحوا الكفاح الأكبر بسبب النزاع على الأرض كانوا فلاحي ثرايس Thrace (شمال اليونان). أثناء زمن تسار بيتر الأول ملك بلغاريا، كانوا كذلك معرضين لأعلى الضرائب، التي كانت مهلكة لهم. كل هذه العوامل ساهمت في السخط العام للفلاحين بداية القرن 10. علاوة على ذلك، كانت الكنيسة فاسدة للغاية، وأولئك الذين يحاولون إيجاد الراحة داخلها كانوا مُخيَبيْ الآمال جداً وأخفقوا في إيجاد العزاء فيها.
عامل آخر كان هو وجود هرطقات مسيحية أقدم عمراً في الأراضي البلغارية. أكثر الحركات المهرطقة تأثيراً كانت المانوية Manichaeism والبولشيانية Paulicianism، التي أعتبرت شديدة الثنوية dualistic. أصل الحركة المانوية هي دين الزردشتية Zoroastrianism؛ لأجل ذلك ترتبط البوغوميلية بشكل غير مباشر بالزردشتية بمعني ثنويتها. السخط الإجتماعي لطبقة الفلاحين وحظور الهرطقات المسيحية القديمة خلقت هرطقة مسيحية جديدة تحت مسمى بوغوميلية Bogomilism.
من الصعب تأكيد إذا ما قد أخذ الإسم من إسم مؤسس الحركة المزعوم، الكاهن Bogumil أو Bogomil، (بالبلغارية: поп Богомил حيث 'поп' [pop] تعني كاهن – أب وأسمه Богомил يترجم كـ "عزيز عند الله dear to God" أو أنه تسمى بذلك الإسم بعد أن أُطلق هذا الإسم على كامل المذهب. الكلمة هي ترجمة مباشرة بالسلافية الماسليانية Slavonic of Massaliani، الإسم السرياني للمذهب طبقاً للإغريقية الإيوخيتية the Greek Euchites. تم التعرف على حركة البوغوميل باللهجة الماسليانية في الوثائق السلافية من القرن 13. إن تقرير الشخصية والوصايا الحقيقية لأي مذهب قديم مهمة شاقة وعسيرة، على إعتبار أن كل المعلومات التى وصلتنا تأت من أعدائهم. الكثير من الأدب المهرطق إما قد أتلف أو بُدّل (حُرّف) بالكامل، ولكن بعضه نجى في شكل كتابات معدلة أو خلال تقاليد النقل الشفهي. يمكن جمع بعض متعلقات شيعة البوغوميل Bogomils من المعلومات التي جمعها Euthymius Zygadenus في القرن 12، ومن كتاب الجدل اللاهوتي Against the Newly-Appeared Heresy of the Bogomils الذي كتبه بالسلافية Presbyter Cosmas، وهو موظف بلغاري رسمي من القرن 10. القوائم السلافية القديمة للكتب المحرمة من القرن 15 و16 تقدم لنا كذلك دليلا لإكتشاف هذه الأدبيات المهرطقة والطرق التي وظفها Bogomils ليتابعوا نشر مذهبهم.
يمكن تعلم الكثير من المذاهب المهرطقة العديدة جداً التي ظهرت في روسيا الكييفية القرون الوسطى بعد القرن 11. تعتبر حركة Bogomils بلاشك الرابط الذي ربط بين ما يسمى بمذاهب الشرق المهرطقة وتلك التي ظهرت في الغرب. يعتبر البوغوميل، فوق كل ذلك، العامل الأكثر حيوية في نشر مثل تلك التعاليم في روسيا وبين كل أمم أوروبا. في القرن 12 و13، عرف أتباع الحركة في الغرب بأسم "Bulgari"، وتعني البلغاريون (البُلغار българи). في 1207 ذكر اسم Bulgarorum heresis. في 1223 أعلن Albigenses ليكون the local Bougres، وفي نفس الفترة جرى ذكر "بابا الألبينيين Albigenses الذي يقيم ضمن حدود بلغاريا". كانت طوائف الكاثار والفالديين Patarenes، the Waldenses، the Anabaptists، وفي روسيا the Strigolnili، Molokani و Doukhobors، جميعها في أوقات مختلفة إما كانت تماثل حركة Bogomils أو أنها على صلة قريبة بهم.
المذهب: العقيدة : من خلال المعلومات المضطربة والغير كاملة المتوفرة، يمكن جمع نتيجة إيجابية واحدة: أن البوغوميل كانوا مُتبنية Adoptionists ومانويون. هم قبلوا تعاليم بولس الزموستي (مدينة زموستا Samosta التركية على الفرات) Paul of Samosata، رغم أنه في فترة متأخرة أعتبر أسم بولس Paul هو نفسه بولس الرسول Apostle؛ ولم تكونا في منأى عن المبدأ الثنوي للغنوصية، وفي مرحلة أكثر تأخراً تماثلت جداً مع تعاليم ماني Mani، أمور قال بها مؤلفين مثل Photius، و Petrus Siculus، وآخرون. هم رفضوا مسيحية الكنائس الأرثوذكسية ولم يقبلوا التعاليم الثنوية docetic لبعض المذاهب الأخرى. نجد Karp Strigolnik، الذي وعظ وعلم في القرن 14 تعاليم المذهب في مدينة نوفوغورد Novgorod الروسية (531 كم غرب موسكو، 189 كم عن بطرسبرغ، تأسست سنة 859، الذي قام حاكمها Oleg خليفة Rurik، سنة 882 بأسر مدينة كييف وتأسيس دولة روسيا الكييفية Kievan Rus’)، يقول أن القديس بولس الرسول علّم أنّ الناس السذج يجب أن يوجه بعضهم البعض؛ لذلك فهم ينتخبون "معلميهم" من بينهم ليكونوا قادتهم الروحانيين، ولا وجود هناك لكهنة خاصين.
من المتعارف عليه أن البوغوميل علّموا أن الصلواة يجب أن تتلى في خلوات المنازل، وليس في مبان منفصلة مثل الكنائس. حق رسامة الكاهن كان يعطى من خلال الرعية وليس من خلال أي كاهن معين خصيصاً لذلك الأمر. كانت الرعية هي "الشخص المنتخَب"، وكل عضو كان يمكنه الحصول على كمال المسيح وأن يصبح مسيحاً أو "Chuist". لم يكن الزواج عندهم سراً مقدساً sacrament. يتفق العلماء على أن البوغوميل رفضوا صيام الأثنين والجمعة، ورفضوا الرهبانية monasticism. وكذلك يعتقد أنهم أعلنوا أن المسيح ابناً لله فقط من خلال نعمته وفضله مثل الأنبياء الآخرين، وأن خبز وخمر القربان المقدس الايخرست Eucharist لم يتحول مادياً physically لجسد ودم؛ وأن يوم الحساب سيقوم به الله وليس يسوع؛ وأن تماثيل وصور الصليب هي أوثان وأن تقديس وإجلال القديسين ورفاتهم هي وثنية. هذه العقائد البولسية Pauline doctrines نجت ضمن الشيع الروسية الكبيرة، ويمكن تتبع أثرها رجوعا الى تعاليم وممارسات البوغوميل. لكن بالاضافة الى هذه المذاهب ذات المصادر المتبنية (adoptionist هي أقلية مسيحية تؤمن بأن المسيح هو ابن مريم ويوسف وقد ولد بالطريقة الاعتيادية كالبشر، وأن يسوع تبناه adopted الله كابن له "Son of God" بعد المعمودية)، فهي تحمل مبدأ الثنوية المانوي Manichaean (نسبة الى ماني) لأصل العالم. حفظ هذا جزئيا في بعض أثارهم الأدبية، وتضرب بجدورها في عقائد وتقاليد البلغاريين والأمم الأخرى بواسطة أتباع حركة البوغوميل الحقيقيين.
العمل الأدبي الرئيسي لكل المذاهب المهرطقة خلال العصور كانت تلك النصوص الكتابية الأبوكريفية المنقولة شفهيا، وباباوات أرميا popes Jeremiah أو Bogumil الذين يذكرون مباشرة كمؤلفين لمثل هذه الكتب المحرمة "التي لا يجرؤ أرثوذكسي على قراءتها". مع أن تلك الكتابات غالباً ما تكون من نفس مصدر تلك القوائم الأقدم للكتب الأبوكريفية، لقد تعرضت تلك الكتابات للتعديلات على أيد كتابها البوغوميل، لتكون مفيدة لنشر معتقداتهم المحددة. بهذا الشكل البسيط والجذاب – واحد كل مرة كان مفوضاً للكاتب المقدس حسن السمعة – نظرتهم لخلق العالم والإنسان؛ أصل الخطيئة والخلاص، الجنة والنار، كانت مدرجة إما في "كتب مقدسة مكتوبة بشكل تأريخي Historiated Bibles" (Palcyaf) أو على شكل حوار خاص بين المسيح وحوارييه، أو بين آباء الكنيسة المشهورين الذين فسروا وجهات النظر هذه بشكل مبسط يتماشى مع فهم الشعب (Lucidaria).
يعتقد البوغوميل أن الله عنده إبنان، الأكبر ستانئيل Satanil والأصغر ميكائيل Michael. تمرد الأبن الأكبر على الأب فأصبح روح الشر. بعد سقوطه قام بخلق السموات السفلى والأرض وحاول عبثاً خلق بشر؛ في النهاية توسّل لله من أجل الروح Spirit. بعد أن خلق آدم أباح له حرث الأرض شرط أن يسلّم نفسه وذريته لمالك الأرض. عندها أرسل ميكائيل في شكل إنسان؛ وأصبح يشبه يسوعاً، وكان قد "أُنتخِب elected" من قِبل الله بعد التعميد في (مياه نهر) الأردن. عندما ظهر الروح القدس Holy Ghost (ميكائيل مرة أخرى) على شكل حمامة امتلك يسوع القوة لأن يكسر الميثاق أو العهد الذي كان على شكل ألواح من الطين (هيروغليفية) الذي أخذه ستانئيل من آدم. أصبح الآن الملاك ميكائيل في صورة بشرية؛ كما أنه هزم ستانئيل، وسلب منه اللاحقة -ئيل -il التي تعنى الله، التي تكمن قوته فيها. فتحول Satanail الى Satan شيطان. من خلال دسائسه ومكائده، حدث الصلب crucifixion، وكان الشيطان هو مؤسس الطائفة الأرثوذكسية بكلها وكليلها، مع كنائسها، وحللها وأثوابها، طقوسها، قرابينها المقدسة وصيامها، مع نساكها ورهبانها. هذا العالم كان من صنع الشيطان وكان على الشخص "الكامل perfect" أن يتجنب متعه وملاهيه.
إلا أن البوغوميل لم ينصرفوا لأن يوصوا بالتقشف والزهد asceticism. لقد حافضوا على "صلاة الرب Lord’s Prayer" بتبجيل عظيم كسلاح ماض ضد الشيطان Satan، وكان لديهم عدد من الرقى conjurations ضد "الأرواح الشريرة". كل طائفة لديها "رسلها" الأثنى عشر، وأمرأة يجب أن ترفع لمرتبة "مختارة elect". يرتدي البوغوميل أثواب أو أردية مثل الرهبان المتسولون mendicant friars وكانوا يعرفون بالمبشرين المتحمسين keen missionaries، متنقلين في طول البلدان وعرضها لنشر معتقداتهم. شفوا المرضى وأخرجوا الأرواح الشريرة، قاوموا دولا عديدة ونشروا أدبياتهم الأبوكريفية خالطينها ببعض كتب العهد القديم التي تؤثر بشكل عميق في الروح الدينية للأمم، وتؤهلهم لحركة الإصلاح Reformation التي قامت في القرن 16. قبلوا الأناجيل الأربعة Gospels، رسائل بولس Paul الإنجيلية الأربع عشرة، رسائل يوحنا John الثلاثة، يعقوب James، يهوديت Jude، والرسالة الى اللوديسينيين Laodiceans، الذين أعلنوا إمتلاكها. لقد نثروا بذور أعمال أدبية دينية غنية ورائجة في الشرق كما في الغرب. Historiated Bible، Letter from Heaven، Wanderings through Heaven and Hell، أساطير آدم والصليب الكثيرة العدد، الشعر الديني لـ"Kaliki perehozhie" وأعمال وإنتاجات أدبية مشابهة أخرى يدينون في إنتشارها للمد الكبير لنشاط البوغوميل في بلغاريا، وخلفائهم في بلدان أخرى.
جوهر الحركة البوغوميلية Bogomilism هي الثنوية duality في خلق العالم. هذا هو حرفياً السبب في إعتبارها مهرطقة Heresy. فسّر البوغوميل الحياة الجسمانية الأرضية الآثمة كخلق للشيطان، كملاك أرسل للأرض. بسبب هذه الثنوية، إستخف مذهبهم بكل شيء خلق من ولأجل أهداف ماديّة ولا تنشأ من الروح، الشيء الوحيد المقدس الذي يمتلكه البشر. لذلك، قامت البوغوميلية بتقويض الكنيسة الرسمية، الدولة، والتسلسل الكهنوتي تدريجياً. رفض أتباع الحركة دفع الضرائب، العمل في الرق (عبودية الأرض serfdom)، والقتال في حروب الفتح. كان النظام الإقطاعي الإجتماعي مهملا، الذي من جهته، كان يعتبر كاقتراح للفوضى ودافع لدمار الدولة والكنيسة، على يد أسلافها، الأمر الذي أدى بالنهاية لأستإصال شأفة حركة البوغوميل.
تاريخ :
أفضل مصادرنا عن البوغوميل هو كتابPanoply للمؤلف Euthymius Zigabenus، الذي وصل الى محاكمة البوغوميل التي أقامها الأمبراطور Alexios I Komnenos. وفقا للوثائق السلافية، كان مؤسس هذا المذهب هو راهب معروف اسمه Bogumil الذي "تشرب التعاليم المانوية وازدهر زمن الامبراطور البلغاري Peter" (927-968). وفقا لمصدر آخر، كان المؤسسين أربعة يدعون Jeremiah (أو كان هناك كاهن آخر مشترك معهم عرف باسم Jeremiah). كانت هذه بداية إنتعاش المذهب الي أثبت إخلاصه للامبراطور. تجمع المصادر السلافية على النقطة التي تقول أن تعاليم البوغوميل كانت مانوية. يضيف Synodikon من السنة 1210 أسماء تلاميذه أو "رسله"، Mihail، Todur، Dobri، Stefan، Vasilie و Peter.
حمل المبشرون المتحمسين تعاليمهم لمسافات بعيدة وخاضوا أراض شاسعة. في 1004، لم تكد تمض 25 سنة منذ أن قُدِّمت المسيحية لروسيا الكييفية، فنسمع عن الكاهن Adrian يُعلّم نفس التعاليم التي كان يُعلِّمها البوغوميل. لقد كان سجينا لدي Leontius، أسقف كييف. في 1125، إشتبكت الكنيسة في جنوب روسيا مع مبتدع سُمى Dmitri. حاولت الكنيسة في بلغاريا كذلك إبادة البوغوميلية. ذهب الآلاف في جيش الأمبراطور Alexios I Komnenos ضد النورمان Norman، Robert Guiscard؛ ولكن، بخيانة الامبراطور، ألقي العديد منهم في السجون (1085)، بذلت الجهود مرة أخرى لأجل هدايتهم
تحويلهم عن معتقداتهم : ولتحويل المدينة الجديدة Alexiopolis التي بنيت معاكسة لمدينة Philippopolis. عندما استولى الصليبيون على مدينة القسطنطينية Constantinople (1204)، وجدوا بعض البولسيين Paulicians، اللذين دعاهم المؤرخ Geoffrey of Villehardouin باسم Popelicans. لم ينس البابوات في روما أثناء قيادتهم للحملات الصليبية ضد Albigenses (حركة الكاثار) نظرائهم في البلقان وأوصوا بإبادة الهرطقات. تكشف اسطورة القديس جيرارد Gerard أن أتباع الحركة البوغوميلية البلغارية كانوا موجودين في بداية القرن 11 في ضل مُلك Ahtum، التي تشمل اليوم منطقة Banat (بين رومانيا وصربيا وهنغاريا اليوم، كلمة panat أو banate من السلافية وتعني سيد أو حاكم). لقد تضرعوا ليوريل Uriel אוּרִיאֵל (نور الله) أحد رؤساء الملائكة (وهو من أسماء لوسفير Lucifer إبليس حامل النور)، الذي شاع اسمه علي التمائم amulets وفي الطقوس السحرية. إنتشر البوغوميل غربا واستقروا في صربيا أولاً؛ لكن بنهاية القرن 12 قام ملك صربيا ستيفان نيمانيا Stefan Nemanja بأحراقهم، واضطهادهم ونفيهم من البلاد. أعداد كبيرة منهم إتخذوا من البوسنة ملجأً، حيث عرفوا هناك تحت اسم باتارين Patarenes أو Patareni أي ضالين. وهناك، أقدموا على الاتصال بالكنيسة المحلية البوسنية، التي كانت تعتبر مهرطقة في نظر البابا والبيزنطيين، ولكنها لم تكن بوغوميلية في طبيعتها. إنتشر نفوذهم من البوسنة الى ايطاليا (Piedmont).
لجأ الهنغاريون للعديد من الصليبيين ضد المهرطقين في البوسنة، لكن بنهاية القرن 15، إنتهى غزو تلك البلاد بأن وضع الترك نهاية لإضطهادهم. يزعم أن عددا كبيرا من البوسنيين الباتارنة (الضالين) إعتنقوا الإسلام، وخصوصا النبلاء منهم. كما نجت فرقة قليلة من بقايا الحركة البوغوميلية في البوسنة. كتبت الطقوس بالسلافية بواسطة الحرف الرادوسلافي البوسني Bosnian Radoslav، ونشرت في المجلد رقم 15 من Starine of the South Slavonic Academy at Agram، سنة 1870، مظهرة تشابها عظيما بينها وبين طقوس الكاثار التي نشرها Cuntiz سنة 1853. في 970 نقل الامبراطور John I Tzimiskes عدد لا يقل عن 200,000 بوليشياني أرميني الى أوروبا وأسكنهم ضواحي مدينة Philippopolis (Plovdiv الحالية في Thrace). عاش البوليشيان الأرمن، تحت ظل الحكم التركي، في أمان نسبي في حصنهم العتيق قرب فيليبوبوليسPhilippopolis، وشمالها أيضاً. لغويا، كانت لهجتهم تدغم في اللغة البلغارية، على لسان الذين يدعون pavlikiani.
في 1650، جمعتهم الكنيسة الرومانية الكاثوليكية تحت جناحها. إعتنقت عدد من القرى، لا يقل عن أربعة عشر قرية، قرب Nicopolis، في Moesia، الكاثوليكية، كما فعلت القرى حول مدينة Philippopolis. تبعت مستعمرة البوليشيان في قرية Wallachian من قضاء Cioplea قرب بوخارست، مثال إخوانهم على مدى الدانوب. في القرن 18، تعرض الشعب البوليشياني حول Nicopolis للأضطهد على يد الأتراك، يفترض أنه كان على خلفية دينية، حيث هرب عدد كبير منهم عبر الدانوب وحطوا رحالهم في منطقة بانات Banat التي كانت جزءاً من الامبراطورية النمساوية في ذلك الوقت، وأصبحوا يعرفون باسم (البلغار البانات Banat Bulgarians) لا يزال يعيش اليوم أكثر من عشرة الآف من البلغار البانات في منطقة Banat اليوم في قرى Dudeştii Vechi، Vinga، Breştea وكذلك في مدينة Timişoara، وعدد قليل في Arad؛ على كل، هم لم يعودوا يمارسون ديانتهم، وتحولوا الى الكاثوليكية الرومية. كذلك يوجد هناك القليل من قرى البوليشيان في الجزء الصربي من Banat، خصوصاً قرى Ivanovo وBelo Blato ، قرب Pančevo.
الثقافة المعاصرة والشعبية : في الحبكة الروائية لرواية Foucault's Pendulum، يقدم الروائي الإيطالي Umberto Eco مؤامرة خفية وواسعة الانتشار أسهمت في إختفاء البوغوميل بعد سقوط الامبراطورية البلغارية الثانية تحت حكم الامبراطورية العثمانية. The Secret Book هو فيلم رئيسي مقدوني مميز يجمع الأنواع الأدبية من خيال نظرية المؤامرة والرعب والتحقيقات، قائم على قصة روائية أسطورية تدور حول البحث عن اللغة السلافية الأصلية "الكتاب السري Secret Book"، كتبه البوغوميل في بلغاريا وحملوه معهم الى أوروبة الغربية خلال القرون الوسطى. ظهر في تقارير عن البوغوميل للكنيسة الكاثوليكية مصطلح تجذيف profanity الانجليزي وأسم الجريمة. ظهرت الكلمات "bugger" و "buggery" على غرار الكلمة الفرنسية "bouger" من "Bulgar" (البلغار Bulgarians)، التي فهمت على أنها تعني البوغوميل Bogomils، الذين كانوا يظنون أنهم يمارسون اللواط sodomy. ظهرت كلمة "Buggery تعني اللواط" أول مرة في اللغة الانجليزية سنة 1330، رغم أن "bugger اللوطيّ" كمدلول جنسي لم تسجل حتى سنة 1555. سمي ممر/كهف Bogomil Cove على جزيرة Rugged Island ضمن جزر South Shetland Islands، Antarctica القارة القطبية المتجمدة الجنوبية على اسم الكاهن Bogomil.
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Bogomilism
Bogomilism | 10th century in Bulgaria | Heresy in Christianity | Medieval Thrace | Bulgarian Empire | Bulgarian loanwords
dateMay 2009: date: June 2010: Gnosticism: Bogomilism was a Gnostic sect founded in the First Bulgarian Empire by the priest Bogomil during the reign of Tsar Petar I in the 10th century. It most probably arose in what is today the region of Macedonia as a response to the social stratification that occurred as a result of the introduction of feudalism and as a form of political movement and opposition to the Bulgarian state and the church.
The Bogomils called for a return to early Christianity, rejecting the ecclesiastical hierarchy, and their primary political tendencies were resistance to the state and church authorities. This helped the movement spread quickly in the Balkans, gradually expanding throughout the Byzantine Empire and later reaching Kievan Rus, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Dalmatia, Italy, France, and England.
The Bogomils were dualists in that they believed the world was created not by the Abrahamic God, but by an evil demiurge — the Devil. They did not use the cross nor build churches, preferring to perform rituals outdoors. * Etymology
The term Bogomil in free translation means "dear to God", and ultimately derives from the Proto-Slavic * bogъ ("God") and * milъ ("dear"). It is difficult to ascertain whether the name was taken from the reputed founder of that movement, the priest Bogomil, or whether he assumed that name after it had been given to the sect itself. The word is an Old Church Slavonic calque of Massaliani, the Syriac name of the sect corresponding to the Greek Euchites. The Bogomils are identified with the Massaliani in Slavonic documents from the 13th century.
The members are referred to as Babuni in several documents. Toponyms which include the river Babuna, the mountain Babuna, the Bogomila Waterfall and village Bogomila, all in the region of Azot today in central Republic of Macedonia, suggests that the movement was very active in the region. * Origin
The Gnostic social-religious movement and doctrine originated in the time of Peter I of Bulgaria (927 – 969) as a reaction against state and clerical oppression of Byzantine church. In spite of all measures of repression, it remained strong and popular until the fall of the Second Bulgarian Empire in the end of the 14th century.
Bogomilism is the first significant Balkan heresy that came about in the first quarter of the 10th century. Bogomilism was an outcome of many factors that had arisen in the beginning of 10th century, most probably in the region of Macedonia. It was also strongly influenced by the Paulicians who had been chased out of Armenia. * Social factors
The gradual Christianization of the Slavs, Thracians and proto-Bulgarians, the fact that the service was initially practiced in Greek, which only the elite knew, resulted in a low level of understanding of the religion among the peasantry. Due to the constant wars during the time of Simeon I, the lands near the Byzantine border (Thrace) were devastated, and the people living there were left without occupation. The constant change of authority over these lands, and the higher taxes during the time of Tsar Peter I, gave birth to a great social discontent at the beginning of the 10th century. Moreover, the corruption of the church as an institution, led to grave disappointment among its recently converted flock. * Religious factors
The existence of older Christian heresies in the Bulgarian lands (Manichaeism and Paulicianism), which were considered very dualistic, influenced the Bogomil movement. Manichaeism’s origin is related to Zoroastrianism; that is why Bogomilism is sometimes indirectly connected to Zoroastrianism in the sense of its duality. * Connections to the royal court
Some sources claim the originator was the brother of tsar Petar, the fourth of the sons of Simeon I - Beneamin-Boyan, known in Bulgaria under the name Boyan the Magus. According to these sources (Roman clergy documents in Constantinople) Beneamin was heavily influenced by "strange Syrean visitors" who visited Beneamin-Boyan on several occasions during his studies at the imperial Magnaur University in Constantinople. Upon returning to Bulgaria Beneamin-Boyan used his position to receive a monastery from the state which he used to convert a large portion of the aristocracy and clergy into Bogomil followers.
Some historians claim that tzar Samuil and in particular his son Gavril Radomir supported the movement. The core of Samuil's empire corresponds to the region where the Bogomils were most active. Most probably, as Samuil revolted against the Byzantine Empire, he relied on the popular support of the movement. There are no sources of Bogomil persecution during his reign (976 - 1014).
Doctrine : The Bogomils had a system of altered traditional orthodox beliefs and rituals. The essence behind their teaching was a dualistic doctrine that the world is divided by God and Satan (good and evil). God rules the spiritual part of the world, and Satan the material. They regarded every material being to be the work of Satan, and therefore sinful. They also opposed established forms of government and church, which brings them close to modern anarchists.
From the imperfect and conflicting data which is available, one positive result can be gathered: that the Bogomils were both Adoptionists and Manichaeans.dateNovember 2010: They had accepted the teaching of Paul of Samosata, though at a later period the name of Paul was believed to be that of the Apostle; and they were not quite free from the Dualistic principle of the Gnostics, at a later period too much identified with the teaching of Mani, by Photius, Petrus Siculus, and other authors. They rejected the Christianity of the orthodox churches and did not accept the docetic teaching of some of the other sects. * Dualist beliefs and customs
The Bogomils taught that God had two sons, the elder Satanail and the younger Michael. The elder son rebelled against the father and became the evil spirit. After his fall he created the lower heavens and the earth and tried in vain to create man; in the end he had to appeal to God for the Spirit. After creation Adam was allowed to till the ground on condition that he sold himself and his posterity to the owner of the earth. Then Michael was sent in the form of a man; he became identified with Jesus, and was "elected" by God after the baptism in the Jordan. When the Holy Ghost (again Michael) appeared in the shape of the dove, Jesus received power to break the covenant in the form of a clay tablet (hierographon) held by Satanail from Adam. He had now become the angel Michael in a human form; as such he vanquished Satanail, and deprived him of the termination -il : God, in which his power resided. Satanail was thus transformed into Satan. Through his machinations the crucifixion took place, and Satan was the originator of the whole Orthodox community with its churches, vestments, ceremonies, sacraments and fasts, with its monks and priests. This world being the work of Satan, the perfect must eschew any and every excess of its pleasure. But the Bogomils did not go as far as to recommend asceticism.
They held the "Lord's Prayer" in high respect as the most potent weapon against Satan, and had a number of conjurations against "evil spirits." Each community had its own twelve "apostles," and women could be raised to the rank of "elect." The Bogomils wore garments like mendicant friars and were known as keen missionaries, traveling far and wide to propagate their doctrines. Healing the sick and exorcising the evil spirit, they traversed different countries and spread their apocryphal literature along with some of the books of the Old Testament, deeply influencing the religious spirit of the nations,dateAugust 2011: date: August 2011: and preparing them for the Reformation.dateAugust 2011: date: August 2011: They accepted the four Gospels, fourteen Epistles of Paul, the three Epistles of John, James, Jude, and an Epistle to the Laodiceans, which they professed to have. They sowed the seeds of a rich, popular religious literature in the East as well as the West. The Historiated Bible, the Letter from Heaven, the Wanderings through Heaven and Hell, the numerous Adam and Cross legends, the religious poems of the "Kaliki perehozhie" and other similar productions owe their dissemination to a large extent to the activity of the Bogomils of Bulgaria, and their successors in other lands.
Opposing institutions and materialism : dateDecember 2010: The essence of Bogomilism is the duality in the creation of the world. This is exactly why it is considered a heresy. Bogomils explained the earthly sinful corporeal life as a creation of Satan, an angel that was sent to Earth. Due to this duality, their doctrine undervalues everything that is created with materialistic and governmental goals and that does not come from the soul, the only divine possession of the human. Therefore, the established Church, the state, and the hierarchy is totally undermined by Bogomilism. Its followers refuse to pay taxes, to work in serfdom, or to fight in conquering wars. The feudal social system was disregarded, which was understood as suggesting disorder and propelling destruction for the state, the church by its progenitors, that ultimately eradicated the Bogomils.date: November 2010: Karp Strigolnik, who in the 14th century preached the doctrine in Novgorod, explained that St. Paul had taught that simpleminded men should instruct one another; therefore they elected their "teachers" from among themselves to be their spiritual guides, and had no special priests. There is a tradition that the Bogomils taught that prayers were to be said in private houses, not in separate buildings such as churches.dateNovember 2010: Ordination was conferred by the congregation and not by any specially appointed minister. The congregation were the "elect," and each member could obtain the perfection of Christ and become a Christ or "Chuist." Marriage was not a sacrament. Bogomils refused to fast on Mondays and Fridays, and they rejected monasticism. They declared Christ to be the Son of God only through grace like other prophets, and that the bread and wine of the eucharist were not physically transformed into flesh and blood; that the last judgment would be executed by God and not by Jesus; that the images and the cross were idols and the veneration of saints and relics idolatry.date: November 2010: These Pauline doctrines have survived in the great Russian sects, and can be traced back to the teachings and practice of the Bogomils.dateNovember 2010: But in addition to these doctrines of an adoptionist origin, they held the Manichaean dualistic conception of the origin of the world. This has been partly preserved in some of their literary remains, and has taken deep root in the beliefs and traditions of Balkan nations with substantial Bogomil followings. The chief literature of all the heretical sects throughout the ages has been that of apocryphal Biblical narratives, and the popes Jeremiah or Bogumil are directly mentioned as authors of such forbidden books "which no orthodox dare read." Though these writings are mostly of the same origin as those from the older lists of apocryphal books, they underwent a modification at the hands of their Bogomil editors, so as to be useful for the propagation of their own specific doctrines.
In its most simple and attractive form — invested with the authority of the reputed holy author — their account of the creation of the world and of man, the origin of sin and redemption, the history of the Cross, and the disputes between body and soul, right and wrong, heaven and hell, were embodied either in "Historiated Bibles" (Palcyaf) or in special dialogues held between Christ and his disciples, or between renowned Fathers of the Church who expounded these views in a simple manner adapted to the understanding of the people (Lucidaria). * History
date: December 2010: It is a complicated task to determine the true character and the tenets of any ancient religion, considering that almost all the information that has reached us comes from their opponents. Much of the heretical literature has been thoroughly persecuted and burned by the Bulgarian state, the Roman Empire (Byzantine) and the Holy Roman Empire (Western). Some has survived in changed forms in other countries like France or Italy where Bogomilism was spread under the name Catharism.
Concerning the Bogomils, something can be gathered from the information collected by Euthymius Zigabenus in the 12th century, and from the polemic Against the Newly-Appeared Heresy of the Bogomils written in Slavonic by Cosmas the Priest, a 10th century Bulgarian official. The old Slavonic lists of forbidden books of the 15th and 16th century also give us a clue to the discovery of this heretical literature and of the means the Bogomils employed to carry on their teachings. Much may also be learned from the doctrines of the numerous variations of Bogomilism which spread in Medieval Kievan Rus' after the 11th century.
According to Slavonic documents,dateDecember 2010: the founder of this sect was a certain priest Bogumil, who "imbibed the Manichaean teaching and flourished at the time of the Bulgarian emperor Peter" (927-968). According to another source, the founder was called Jeremiah (or there was another priest associated with him by the name of Jeremiah). This was the beginning of a revival of the sect, which proved loyal to the empire.
The Slavonic sources are unanimous on the point that his teaching was Manichaean. A Synodikon from the year 1210 adds the names of his pupils or "apostles," Mihail, Todur, Dobri, Stefan, Vasilie and Peter. Zealous missionaries carried their doctrines far and wide. In 1004, scarcely 25 years after the introduction of Christianity into Kievan Rus, we hear of a priest Adrian teaching the same doctrines as the Bogomils. He was imprisoned by Leontius, Bishop of Kiev. In 1125, the Church in the south of Rus had to combat another heresiarch named Dmitri. The Church in Bulgaria also tried to extirpate Bogomilism. Several thousand went in the army of Alexios I Komnenos against the Norman, Robert Guiscard; but, deserting the emperor, many of them (1085) were thrown into prison.date: December 2010: Efforts were again put forth for their conversion; and for the converts the new city of Alexiopolis was built, opposite Philippopolis. When the Crusaders took Constantinople (1204), they found some Paulicians, whom the historian Geoffrey of Villehardouin calls Popelicans. The popes in Rome whilst leading the Crusade against the Albigenses did not forget their counterpart in the Balkans and recommended the annihilation of the heretics.dateDecember 2010: The Legend of Saint Gerard discloses that followers of Bulgarian Bogomilism were present during the early 11th century in Ahtum's realm, which comprised present day Banat. They invoked Archangel Uriel, whose name is common in amulets and magic rituals.
The Bogomils spread westwards and settled first in Serbia; but at the end of the 12th century Stefan Nemanja, Great Župan of Serbia, expelled them from the country. Large numbers took refuge in Bosnia, where they were known under the name of Patarenes or Patareni. There, they were also brought into connection with the indigenous Bosnian Church, which was also considered heretical by the Pope and Byzantines, but was not actually Bogomil in nature. From Bosnia, their influence extended into Italy (Piedmont). The Hungarians undertook many crusades against the heretics in Bosnia, but towards the close of the 15th century, the conquest of that country by the Turks put an end to their persecution. It is alleged that a large number of the Bosnian Paterenes, and especially the nobles, embraced Islam. Few or no remnants of Bogomilism have survived in Bosnia. The Ritual in Slavonic written by the Bosnian Radoslav, and published in vol. xv. of the Starine of the South Slavonic Academy at Agram, shows great resemblance to the Cathar ritual published by Cunitz, 1853. See F Rački, "Bogomili i Paternai" in Rad, vols. vii., viii. and x. (Agram, 1870); Dollinger, Beiträge zur Ketzergeschichte des Mittelalters, 2 vols. (Munich, 1890).
In 970 the emperor John I Tzimiskes transplanted no less than 200,000 Armenian Paulicians to Europe and settled them in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis (today's Plovdiv in Thrace).
Under Turkish rule, the Armenian Paulicians lived in relative safety in their ancient stronghold near Philippopolis, and further northward. Linguistically, they were assimilated into the Bulgarians, by whom they were called pavlikiani. In 1650, the Roman Catholic Church gathered them into its fold. No less than fourteen villages near Nicopolis, in Moesia, embraced Catholicism, as well as the villages around Philippopolis. A colony of Paulicians in the Wallachian village of Cioplea near Bucharest also followed the example of their brethren across the Danube.
In the 18th century, the Paulician people from around Nicopolis were persecuted by the Turks, presumably on religious grounds, and a good part of them fled across the Danube and settled in the Banat region that was part of the Austrian Empire at the time, and became known as Banat Bulgarians. There are still over ten thousand Banat Bulgarians in Banat today in the villages of Dudeştii Vechi, Vinga, Breştea and also in the city of Timişoara, with a few in Arad; however, they no longer practice their religion, having converted to Roman Catholicism. There are also a few villages of Paulicians in the Serbian part of Banat, especially the villages of Ivanovo and Belo Blato, near Pančevo. * Legacy * Link with later religious movements
The Bogomils were the connecting link between the so-called heretical sects of the East and those of the West.date: August 2010: They were, moreover, the most active agents in disseminating such teachings in Kievan Rus' and among all the nations of Europe. In the 12th and 13th century, the Bogomils were already known in the West as "Cathars" or in other places as "Bulgari", i.e. Bulgarians (българи).dateMay 2011: In 1207 the Bulgarorum heresis is mentioned. In 1223 the Albigenses are declared to be the local Bougres, and in the same period mention is made of the "Pope of the Albigenses who resided within the confines of Bulgaria" (see also Nicetas, Bogomil bishop). The Cathars and Patarenes, the Waldenses, the Anabaptists, and in Russia the Strigolniki, Molokani and Doukhobors, have all at different times been either identified with the Bogomils or closely connected with them. * In modern and popular culture===
In Foucault's Pendulum, a novel by the Italian philosopher and writer Umberto Eco, the plot concerning a widespread secret and mystic conspiracy has its ground in the disappearance of the Bogomils after the fall of the Second Bulgarian Empire under the rule of the Ottoman Empire.
The Secret Book is a Macedonian feature film combining the detective, thriller and conspiracy fiction genres, based on a fictional story of the quest for the original Slavic language "Secret Book", written by the Bogomils in Bulgaria and carried to Western Europe during the Middle Ages.
An English profanity and the name of a crime emerged from reports of the Bogomils by the Catholic Church. The words "bugger" and "buggery" emerged, by way of the word "bougre" in French, from "Bulgar" (Bulgarian), which was understood to mean the Bogomils, who were believed to be devoted to the practice of sodomy. "Buggery" first appears in English in 1330, though "bugger" in a sexual sense is not recorded until 1555.
Bogomil Cove on Rugged Island in the South Shetland Islands, Antarctica is named after Priest Bogomil.
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Bogomilisme
Mouvement chrétien dissident avant la Réforme | Bosnie-Herzégovine | Catharisme | Histoire de la Bulgarie | Histoire de la Serbie | Manichéisme
Le bogomilisme est un mouvement chrétien hétérodoxe né au Xe siècle: . Son nom vient du pope bulgare Bogomil. Il s'est développé en Bulgarie, puis en Serbie et enfin en Bosnie, et a influencé une grande partie des Balkans. Inspiré par les gnostiques chrétiens et le manichéisme, il fut considéré comme une hérésie par l'Église catholique romaine qui l'a vivement combattu. Les empereurs byzantins eurent une attitude ambiguë à son égard, parfois le réprimant, parfois l'utilisant à leur profit. Il est possible que le bogomilisme ait servi d'inspiration aux cathares : le dernier colloque de Mazamet (2009) vient de confirmer les liens entre cathares et bogomiles, ainsi que les origines doctrinales des deux, qui remontent aux premiers siècles du christianisme (écrits canoniques de Paul, doctrine de Marcion, doctrine de Valentin). En outre, les recherches menées sur les sources grecques et orientales (Pierre de Sicile) montrent que la doctrine bogomile aurait été transmise par les Pauliciens expatriés volontaires ou chassés de l'Arménie (Turquie actuelle) vers la Thrace bulgare au et au .
Histoire : Le mouvement bogomile fut fondé par un pope bulgare, le pope Bogomil - qui signifie en bulgare « ami de Dieu » ("chéris du Dieu"). Il prêcha d'abord en Thrace, où il rencontra un véritable écho populaire. Puis le mouvement se déplaça en Bulgarie, où il y connut un grand succès entre le , notamment auprès du peuple, avant de tomber sous les persécutions byzantines (en particulier celles de l'empereur byzantin Alexis Ier: Comnène et du patriarche Michel II Courcouas).
Le bogomilisme connut une seconde vie en Serbie puis en Bosnie, de la fin du . Il fut un important facteur dans le développement historique de la Bosnie, à une époque où celle-ci était sous domination hongroise. Finalement, le mouvement disparut après la conquête ottomane et les conversions à l'islam qui s'ensuivirent.
Les Bogomiles ont laissé dans tous les Balkans, et en particulier en Bosnie, de nombreuses tombes en pierre caractéristiques, décorées de symboles gnostiques et orientaux.
L'Église catholique romaine a toujours considéré le bogomilisme comme une hérésie et l'a combattu avec la plus grande fermeté. Les empereurs byzantins ont été plus ambigus : ils ont parfois réprimé le bogomilisme, notamment parce qu'il encourageait le sentiment national des peuples sous leur contrôle (Bulgarie, Bosnie), et également parce que son idéologie, rejetant les autorités constituées (en particulier la hiérarchie ecclésiastique) comme corrompues, était considérée comme « révolutionnaire ». Mais, à d'autres moments, ils ont su utiliser la force du sentiment populaire bogomile dans leur propre lutte contre Rome (notamment leurs liens avec les cathares, également en butte à l'hostilité de l'Église romaine).
Doctrine : Comme beaucoup d'« hérésies » persécutées avec efficacité, la doctrine bogomile nous est malheureusement surtout connue par les dénonciations de ses opposants, en particulier le Traité contre les Bogomiles du prêtre Cosmas, composé vers la fin du . On attribue aux bogomiles une riche littérature apocryphe puisant ses sujets dans les légendes hébraïques et chrétiennes. Un ouvrage bogomile apocryphe résumant leur doctrine, Le Livre secret, nous est parvenu dans sa traduction latine, par l'intermédiaire des Albigeois.
Le bogomilisme peut se définir comme un christianisme hétérodoxe, inspiré par le gnosticisme chrétien, le manichéisme perse et le paulicianisme. Le bogomilisme est dualiste : pour lui le monde est gouverné par deux principes, le Bien et le Mal, Dieu et le Diable. Tout le monde matériel, y compris le corps, est considéré comme l'œuvre du Diable, et donc voué au Mal. Seule l'âme est l'œuvre de Dieu. En conséquence, ils rejetaient les rapports sexuels, le mariage, et menaient une vie ascétique, s'abstenant en général de manger de la viande et de boire du vin.
Les bogomiles rejetaient l'Ancien Testament, et étudiaient seulement les Évangiles, en particulier celui de Jean, les Actes des apôtres et les Épîtres de Paul. Ils rejetaient l'Église, considérée comme appartenant au Monde (et donc au Diable), l'accusant d'être corrompue. Ils rejetaient également les sacrements. La prière était considérée comme une activité avant tout personnelle. Les Bogomiles reconnaissaient cependant des guides spirituels, les « Parfaits », ceux des croyants qui avaient été particulièrement exemplaires et ascétiques. Cette notion se retrouvera chez les cathares.
Le bogomilisme était globalement un mouvement rejetant toutes les autorités constituées, les princes comme les Églises, ce qui a contribué au grand engouement populaire qu'il a suscité, et explique aussi l'ampleur des répressions qu'il a subies.
Bogomiles et cathares : L'idée est souvent évoquée que les bogomiles seraient à l'origine du mouvement cathare. La proximité doctrinale entre les deux mouvements est en effet frappante. La doctrine bogomile apparaît à la fin du en Bulgarie, elle se serait étendue chez les Serbes et les moines de Constantinople, puis en Asie Mineure, avant de gagner l'Europe sous des formes différentes. Il est aujourd'hui établi que les bogomiles ont envoyé des missionnaires vers l'Europe de l'Ouest, mais rien ne permet de dire s'ils sont allés dans le sud de la France, ni s'ils ont fondé le mouvement cathare. Plus probablement, les deux mouvements, contemporains, sont « cousins », chacun gardant son autonomie et son originalité propre, mais s'influençant à travers des échanges réciproques.
Cependant, ces relations entre Bogomiles et Cathares ont constitué une composante importante de l'histoire de la chrétienté médiévale. Le bogomilisme et le catharisme sont deux mouvements religieux proches qui ont été déclarés hérétiques par l'Église catholique romaine, et vigoureusement combattus par elle (croisades). Dans le même temps, Rome était également en opposition à Byzance, en particulier depuis le grand schisme de 1054. Une solidarité de fait s'est donc constituée entre Cathares et Bogomiles, ces derniers se trouvant par ailleurs dans la sphère d'influence byzantine. Les empereurs byzantins, qui avaient eux-mêmes réprimé les bogomiles (en particulier parce qu'ils avivaient le sentiment national des peuples sous leur contrôle), ont pu utiliser ces liens dans une perspective stratégique et militaire. Ainsi, des liens ont été noués entre les comtes de Barcelone et l'Empire byzantin, et des mercenaires catalans et occitans ont combattu dans les armées byzantines. Les relations entre bogomiles et cathares se sont donc inscrites sur la toile de fond beaucoup plus large de la lutte âpre entre Église d'Occident (Rome) et Église d'Orient (Byzance), et elles ont constitué un paramètre géopolitique de cet affrontement.
Bibliographie : * The Bogomils. A study in Balkan neo-manicheism, O. Bolensky, Cambridge, 1948. * Le Traité contre les Bogomiles de Cosmas le Prêtre, Traduction et introduction de Charles Puech et A. Vaillant, Paris, 1945. * Jordan Ivanov, Monique Ribeyrole (trad.), Livres et légendes bogomiles, éd. G.P. Maisonneuve et Larose, 1976, d’un ouvrage écrit en bulgare en 1925. * O. Bihalji-Merin et A. Benac, Tošo Dabac (photographie), L'art des Bogomiles, éd. originale : Arthaud, 1966 * Marian Wenzel, Bosnian Style on Tombstone and Metal, éd. originale : Sarajevo-Publishing (en bosniaque et anglais), 1999. * Borislav Primov, Monique Ribeyrole (trad.), Les Bougres, éd. Payot, traduit du bulgare, 1975 (éd. originale de Izdatelstvo na Otecest venlja front, janvier 1970). * Thierry Mudry, Histoire de la Bosnie-Herzégovine, Ellipses, 1999. * Noel Malcolm, Bosnia. A short history, Macmillan Londres, 1994, 1998.
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الرجال من المريخ والنساء من الزهرة
كتب | كتب 1992
الرجال من المريخ والنساء من الزهرة كتاب من تأليف الطبيب النفسي الأمريكي جون غراي صدر في مايو 1992 وفيه يتناول المشاكل التي قد تحدث بين الرجل والمرأة نتيجة الاختلافات بينهم. وترجم إلى عدد كبير من اللغات، وبيعت منه ملايين النسخ. يتكون الكتاب من 13 فصلا كتبت بأسلوب بسيط ومناسب لكافة أنواع القراء.
من مقدمة الكتاب : تخيل أن الرجال من المريخ والنساء من الزهرة, وفي أحد الأيام منذ زمن بعيد كان أهل المريخ ينظرون من خلال مناظيرهم المقربة واكتشفوا أهل الزهرة.وبلمحة خاطفة أيقظ أهل الزهرة مشاعر لم يكن لأهل المريخ بها عهد. لقد وقعوا في الحب واخترعوا بسرعة سفن فضائية وطاروا للزهرة .
فتح أهل الزهرة أذرعتهم ورحبوا بأهل المريخ . كانوا بفطرتهم يعرفون أن هذا اليوم سيأتي. وتفتحت قلوبهم على مصراعيها لحب لم يشعروا به قط من قبل .
لقد كان الحب بينهم سحرياً وكانوا مسرورين للغاية لوجودهم مع بعض على الرغم من أنهم من عوالم مختلفة فقد وجدوا المتعة على الرغم من اختلافاتهم . وقضوا شهوراً يتعلمون عن بعضهم ويستكشفون حاجاتهم المختلفة وتفضيلاتهم وأنماطهم السلوكية ويقدرونها حق قدرها .
ثم قرروا السفر للأرض كان كل شيء مدهشا وجميلا ولكن تأثير جو الأرض غلب عليهم واستيقظوا وكل واحد منهم يعاني من نوع معين من فقدان الذاكرة, فقدان الذاكرة الإختياري
نسوا أنهم من عوالم مختلفة . ونسوا ما تعلموه عن اختلافاتهم , ومنذ ذلك اليوم كان الرجال والنساء على خلاف.
فصول الكتاب : * الرجال من المريخ، النساء من الزهرة. * السيد الخبير ولجنة تحسين البيت. * يذهب الرجال إلى كهوفهم وتتحدث النساء. * كيف تحفز الجنس الآخر؟ * التحدث بلغات مختلفة. * الرجال مثل الأحزمة المطاطية. * النساء مثل الأمواج. * استكشاف حاجاتنا العاطفية المختلفة. * كيف تتفادى المجاملات؟ * إحراز النقاط مع الجنس الآخر. * كيف تنقل للآخرين مشاعر سيئة؟ * كيف تطلب الدعم وتحصل عليه؟ * الإبقاء على سحر الحب حيا.
بذرة كتاب:
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Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus
1992 books | Popular psychology | Self-help books | Gender studies books
Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus is a book written by American author, and relationship counselor, John Gray.
The book has sold more than 7 million copies, and the author claims it to be the best selling book of the 1990s, though CNN placed it at number 3 (number 1 in nonfiction) spending 121 weeks on the bestseller list. The book and its central metaphor have become an established part of popular culture and are the foundation for the author's subsequent books, recordings, seminars, theme vacations, a one-man Broadway show and a TV sitcom. * Overview
Gray's book proposes that a large number of common relationship problems between men and women are a result of fundamental differences between the genders, which Gray exemplifies by means of the book's eponymous metaphor: that men and women are from distinct planets, - men from Mars and women from Venus - and that each gender is acclimated to its own planet's society and customs, but not those of the other.
One example from this paradigm is the book's claim that men complain about problems because they are asking for solutions while women complain about problems because they want their problems to be acknowledged. Gray also believes that the genders can be understood in terms of purported differences in how they behave under stress. * Content
date: December 2011: Gray suggests that men and women count (or score) the giving and receiving of love differently. He says that men tend to give larger blocks of points (20, 30, 40 points etc.) for what they think are Big Acts, while women give each act of love one point at a time. According to Gray, women tend to keep a Points System that few men are aware of. Gray writes that men and women each monitor the amount of give and take in a relationship and if the balance becomes off and one person feels they have given more than they have been given to, resentment develops. He states that this is a time when communication is very important to help bring the relationship back into balance.
According to Gray, women and men are often surprised to find that their partner "keeps score' at all, and that their scoring methods are different.dateJanuary 2011: The emotional stroke delivered by the sincere attention is as important as the value of the item. This can lead to conflict when a man thinks his work has earned 20 points and deserves appropriate recognition while the woman has only given him 1 point and recognizes him accordingly. Men tend to think they can do one Big Thing for her (scoring 50 points) and not do anything else. They assume the woman will be satisfied with it. To the woman, she would rather have many Little Acts on a regular basis. The reason is that women like to think their man is thinking of them and cares for them on a regular basis.
Another major idea in Gray's books are the differences he believes operate in terms of the way the genders react under stress. He believes that many men withdraw until they find a solution to the problem. He refers to this as "retreating into their cave". In some cases they may literally retreat, for example, to the garage or spend time with friends. The point of retreating is to take time to determine a solution. In these "caves", men (writes Gray) are not necessarily focused on the problem at hand; many times this is a "time-out" of sorts to allow them to distance themselves from the problems so their brains can focus on something else. Gray posits that this allows them to revisit the problem later with a fresh perspective.
Gray holds that this retreat into the cave has historically been hard for women to understand because when they are stressed their natural reaction is to talk about issues (even if talking does not solve the problem). This leads to a natural dynamic of the man retreating as the woman tries to grow closer. According to Gray this becomes a major source of conflict between women and men.
The "wave" is a term Gray uses to describe a natural cycle for women that is centered around their abilities to give to other people. He claims that when they feel full of love and energy to give to others their wave is in a stable place. When they give to others (and don't receive the same amount of love and attention in return) their wave begins to grow until it eventually crashes. This is a time when a woman needs the love, listening, understanding and reassurance of those around her (including self love). Gray holds that once she is rejuvenated (by getting the support she needs) she is able to rise like a wave and once again has love and energy to give. Men, advised Gray, must support this natural cycle by not being threatened by it or telling her why she should not feel this way. * Reception
The book has sold more than 7 million copies and according to a 1997 report by the book's publisher, HarperCollins, it is the all time, best-selling hardcover nonfiction book. CNN reports that it was the best selling nonfiction book of the 1990s.
The book has become a “popular paradigm” for problems in relationships based on the different tendencies in each gender and has spawned infomercials, audiotapes and videotapes, weekend seminars, theme vacations, a one-man Broadway show, a TV sitcom plus a proposed movie topic with 20th Century Fox.
The book has also been criticized for placing human psychology into stereotypes. In 2002, author Julia T. Wood published a critical response to the portrayal of the genders in Men Are from Mars, Women Are from Venus. In 2004 a Purdue University communications professor said that based on research she conducted using questionnaires and interviews, men and women are not so different and "books like John Gray's Men are From Mars and Women are From Venus and Deborah Tannen's You Just Don't Understand tell men that being masculine means dismissing feelings and downplaying problems. That isn't what most men do, and it isn't good for either men or women."
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Les hommes viennent de Mars, les femmes viennent de Vénus
Développement personnel | Psychologie populaire | Gender studies | Essai de langue anglaise
livre:
Les hommes viennent de Mars, les femmes viennent de Vénus (Men are from Mars, Women are from Venus) est un essai américain, livre à succès de John Gray paru en 1992.
Gray y traite de la différence entre hommes et femmes d'un point de vue essentialiste et y expose des exemples et comportements visant à permettre à chacun des deux sexes de mieux comprendre le sexe opposé .
En 2006, la traduction française du livre a été mise en scène par Thomas Le Douarec. Ce spectacle connaît un succès considérable à travers toute la francophonie.
Le spectacle et le livre traitent les relations du couple sous leur angle très caricaturé (hommes qui n'aiment pas demander leur chemin en voiture ou femmes qui emportent trop de vêtements en voyage…), les traits étant poussés volontairement afin de mieux illustrer et opposer les côtés masculins et féminins de chaque personne.
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غونزالو دي كوردوبا
مواليد 1453 | وفيات 1515
غونزالو فرنانديز دي كوردوبا Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba: دوق تيرانوفا وسانتانجيلو وأندريا ومونتالتو وسيسا والمعروف أيضاً باسم غونزالو دي كوردوبا و Gonsalvo or Consalvo di Cordova: أو جونزالفو أو كونسالفو دي كوردوفا (21 سبتمبر 1453 - 2 ديسمبر 1515). كان جنرالاً إسبانياً قاتل في حرب غرناطة والحروب الإيطالية. يعرف بكونه "أب حرب الخنادق" ووحدات المشاة التي عرفت فيما بعد باسم تيرسيو. أكن له جيل الكونكيستدور الاحترام كما حارب تحت رايته العديد من الرجال ذوي النفوذ مثل فرانسيسكو بيسارو.
بذرة إسبانيا: بذرة إيطاليا: بوابة إيطاليا1:
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Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba
1453 births | 1515 deaths | People from Córdoba (province) | Military leaders of the Italian Wars | Spanish generals | Spanish nobility | Viceroys of Naples | 15th-century Spanish people | 16th-century Spanish people | Spanish Roman Catholics | Dukes of Sessa
Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba known as The Great Captain, Duke of Terranova and Santangelo, Andria, Montalto and Sessa, also known as Gonzalo de Córdoba, Italian: Gonsalvo or Consalvo Ernandes di Cordova (September 1, 1453 – December 2, 1515) was a Spanish general fighting in the times of the Conquest of Granada and the Italian Wars. He reorganized the emerging Spanish army and its tactics and came to be known as "the Father of Trench Warfare". He was admired by the generation of conquistadors that followed and many influential men fought under him such as the father of Francisco Pizarro.
Early life: He was born at Montilla, in what is now the province of Córdoba, a younger son of Pedro Fernández de Córdoba, Count of Aguilar, and his wife Elvira de Herrera.
He and his elder brother, Alonso, became orphans while very young boys. The counts of Aguilar carried on an hereditary feud with the rival house of Cabra, in spite of both family branches coming from the same family tree. As a cadet child within the family, he could not expect much on the way of inherited wealth or titles, having, as nearly always then, to try a church or a military career, the latter being more satisfactory to his wishes.
He was first attached to the household of Don Alfonso, the king's half brother, and upon his death devoted himself to Prince Alfonso's uterine half-sister, Isabel of Castile, who later, mediating a civil war, had proclaimed herself successor queen in 1474, disputing the right of her niece, Juana, to ascend the throne.
During the ensuing civil war between the followers of the daughter of deceased King Henry IV of Castile, Juana la Beltraneja, and the king's half sister Princess Isabella of Castile, there were also conflicts with Portugal as king Afonso V of Portugal sided during the war with his 13 year old niece, Juana. Córdoba fought under the grand master of the Order of Santiago, Alonso de Cárdenas. After the battle of Albuera, the grand master gave him special praise for his behavior.
Role in the conquest of Granada: During the ten-year long conquest of Granada under the Catholic monarchs, he completed his apprenticeship under his brother Alonso, the grand master of Santiago, Alonso de Cardenas, and the counts of Aguilar and of Tendilla, of whom he spoke always as his masters. It was a war of sieges and the defence of castles or towns, of skirmishes, and of ambushes in the defiles of the mountains. The skills of a military engineer and a guerilla fighter were equally employed. Córdoba's most distinguished feat was the defence of the advanced post of Íllora. Able to speak Berber Arabic, the language of the emirate, he was chosen as one of the officers to arrange the capitulation, and, with the peace of 1492, was rewarded with a grant of land in the town of Loja, near the city of Granada.
Marriage: He married, as a widower, one of the ladies in waiting to Queen Isabella I of Castile, namely, Luisa Manrique de Lara, on 14 February 1489, when he was already aged 36 . His only surviving daughter, Elvira Fernández de Córdoba y Manrique, would inherit all their titles on his death in 1515. In order to keep her father's name, she married within the close family, with someone from a long time antagonistic branch but bearing also her own family name, "Fernández de Córdoba".
In Italy: When the Catholic Monarchs decided to support the Aragonese house of Naples against Charles VIII of France, Gonzalo, in his mid forties, was chosen by the influence of the Queen, and in preference to older men, to command the Spanish expedition. In Italy, he won the title of the Great Captain.
Italian historian Francesco Guicciardini says that it was given him by the customary arrogance of the Spaniards.
He held the command in Italy twice. In 1495 he was sent with a small force of little more than five thousand men to aid Ferdinand I of Naples, by then brother in law of king Ferdinand II of Aragon to recover his kingdom.
Path to Italian success after failure: Ordered to pit his light infantry and cavalry against the heavy French forces, his first major battle in Italy, at Seminara in 1495, ended in defeat at the hands of Bernard Stewart d'Aubigny. The following year, he captured the rebel county of Alvito for the King and avoiding a major pitched battle, used his highly mobile forces to drive the French back to Calabria.
He returned home in 1498. After a brief interval of service against the conquered Moors who had risen in revolt, he was back to Italy in 1501. Ferdinand II of Aragon had entered into his apparently iniquitous compact with Louis XII of France for the spoliation and division of the kingdom of Naples. The Great Captain was chosen to command the Spanish part of the coalition. As general and as viceroy of Naples he remained in Italy till 1507.
During his first command he was mostly employed in Calabria in mountain warfare which bore much resemblance to his former experience in Granada. There was, however, a material difference in the enemy. The French forces under d'Aubigny consisted largely of Swiss mercenary pikemen, and of their own men-at-arms, the heavily armoured professional cavalry, the gendarmes. With his veterans of the Granadine war, foot soldiers armed with sword and buckler, or arquebuses and crossbows, and light cavalry, who possessed endurance unparalleled among the soldiers of the time, he could carry on a guerrilla-like warfare which wore down his opponents, who suffered far more than the Spaniards from the heat.
His experience at Seminara showed him that something more was wanted on the battlefield. The action was lost mainly because Ferdinand, disregarding the advice of Gonzalo, persisted in fighting a pitched battle with their more lightly equipped troops. In the open field, the loose formation and short swords of the Spanish infantry put them at a disadvantage against a charge of heavy cavalry and pikemen. Gonzalo therefore introduced a closer formation, and divided the Spanish infantry into the battle or main central body of pikemen, and the wings of shot, called a colunella - the original pike and shot formation.
The French were expelled by 1498 without another battle, king Charles VIII of France dying in April 1498. When the Great Captain reappeared in Italy he had first to perform the congenial task of driving the Turks out of Kefalonia, together with such condottieri as Pedro Navarro, helping the Venetian navy to reconquer the Castle of Saint Georges, 25 December 1500, killing there over 300 people including the Albanian born leader of the garrison Gisdar, to aid in the campaign against Frederick IV of Naples.
Franco-Spanish battles after deposing Frederick IV of Naples: When the king of Naples had been deposed, the French and Spaniards engaged in a guerilla war while they negotiated the partition of the kingdom. The Great Captain now found himself with a much outnumbered army besieged in Barletta by the French. The war was divided into two phases very similar to one another. During the end of 1502 and the early part of 1503 the Spaniards were besieged in Barletta near the Ofanto on the shores of the Adriatic. Cordoba resolutely refused to be tempted into battle either by the taunts of the French or the discontent of his own soldiers. Meanwhile he employed the Aragonese partisans in the country, and flying expeditions of his own men, to harass the enemy's communications and distracted his men with a tournament between Italian knights under Ettore Fieramosca and French prisoners.
When he was reinforced, and the French committed the mistake of spreading out their forces to forage for supplies, he took the offensive and pounced on his enemies supply depot in the Cerignola. There he took up a strong defensive position (he was still outnumbered three to one), threw up hasty field works and strengthened them with wired entanglements. The French made a headlong front attack, were repulsed, assailed in the flank, and routed in only half an hour by the combination of firepower and defensive measures. Later operations on the Garigliano against Ludovico II of Saluzzo were very similar, and led to the total expulsion of the French from the Kingdom of Naples.
Later life: Cordoba was appointed Viceroy of Naples in 1504. However, his fame aroused the jealousy of so typical a renaissance monarch as Ferdinand II of Aragon. Furthermore, Cordoba was profligate in using the public treasury to reward his captains and soldiers. The death of queen Isabel I in 1504 deprived him of a friend and protector and in 1507 he was recalled. Ferdinand loaded him with titles and fine words, but left him unemployed till his death.
Legacy: Córdoba was first among the founders of modern warfare. As a field commander, Córdoba, like Napoleon three centuries later, saw his goal in the destruction of the enemy army. He systematically organized the pursuit of defeated armies after a victory in order to destroy the retreating enemy. Córdoba helped found the first modern standing army and the nearly invincible Spanish infantry that dominated the battlefields of Europe for most of the 16th and 17th centuries.
The best generals of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and Philip II of Spain were either the pupils of the Great Captain or were trained by them.
Córdoba's influence upon military tactics was profound. Wellington's Torres Vedras campaign has a distinct resemblance to Córdoba's campaign at Barletta and the Battle of Assaye is easily compared with that at Garigliano.
It is noted that Cordoba directed the first battle in history won by gunpowder small arms in the battle of Cerignola. Additionally at the end of the same battle of Cerignola occur for the first time a "call to prayer" (toque de oracion) adopted later for all western armies, when the Great Captain seeing the fields full of french bodies (Christian like the Spaniards) ordered to play three long tones and had his troops pray for all the fallen.
He left no sons, so he was succeeded in his dukedoms by his daughter, Elvira Fernández de Córdoba y Manrique.
His burial place, Monastery of San Jerónimo, Granada, was built in Renaissance style by his wife and daughter. It was desecrated by French Napoleonic troops under the command of Corsican General Sebastiani at the beginning of the 19th century. Stone from the tower was used to build the "Puente Verde" bridge over the river Genil. The monastery was fully restored at the end of the 19th century.
Renown : Gonzalo's renown was great and his extensive knowledge was passed on to the next generation through the men that served under him. A few men such as Amador de Lares, who was steward to the Great Captain, accompanied Hernán Cortés during his conquest of the Aztec Empire.
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Gonzalve de Cordoue
Général espagnol d'Ancien Régime | Renaissance espagnole | Guerres d'Italie | Histoire de Naples | Histoire militaire espagnole | Noble espagnol de l'Ancien Régime | Naissance en 1453 | Décès en 1515 | Théoricien militaire | Personnalité andalouse
Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba:
Gonzalve de Cordoue (son nom complet en espagnol est Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba y Aguilar à ne pas confondre avec Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba), né à Montilla le 1er septembre: 1453 et mort à Grenade le 2 décembre 1515, est un militaire espagnol au service des rois catholiques, dont la carrière se déroule essentiellement pendant les guerres d'Italie. Ses succès militaires lui ont valu très tôt le surnom de Gran Capitán (Grand Capitaine en espagnol).
Premiers faits d'armes en Espagne : Tout d'abord attaché à la suite de la princesse Isabelle, il embrasse la carrière des armes comme tout bon cadet espagnol de l'époque. Son baptême du feu a lieu pendant la Guerre de Succession de Castille, qui oppose l'infante Isabelle à Jeanne de Castille, fille d'Henri IV de Castille dont on doute fort qu'il fut réellement son père. En 1492, il négocie avec Boabdil la reddition de Grenade qui met fin à la Reconquista.
En récompense de ses exploits, il se voit octroyer une commanderie de l'ordre de Santiago.
Première expédition en Italie (1495-1498) : A la mort de Ferdinand Ier: de Naples, le roi Charles VIII de France, héritier de la maison d'Anjou entend reconquérir le royaume de René Ier de Naples. Il envahit le royaume de Naples et pousse Alphonse II de Naples à l'abdication en faveur du fils illégitime de ce dernier Ferdinand II de Naples. Le roi catholique Ferdinand II d'Aragon décide de venir en aide à son cousin de Naples.
Gonzalve de Cordoue s'appuie sur le soulèvement de la population napolitaine pour prendre la ville et deux ans plus tard quitte le royaume de Naples dont les Français ont été évacués. C'est à l'issue de cette campagne qu'il reçoit le surnom de Gran Capitán.
Avant de quitter l'Italie, le Gran Capitán libère la ville d'Ostie d'un corsaire basque et reçoit pour cela une Rose d'or des mains du pape Alexandre VI.
Deuxième expédition en Italie (1501-1507) : Malgré le traité de Grenade, les heurts se multiplient entre Français et Espagnols qui se sont partagé le royaume de Naples. Cette même année, Gonzalve de Cordoue est envoyé par les rois catholiques en Céphalonie pour aider la république de Venise à en chasser les Ottomans. La compagne est victorieuse mais se révèle peu productive en termes de butin.
Il conduit la répression de la rébellion des Alpujarras, du nom d'une région située dans les environs de Grenade, en Andalousie. Cette rébellion est le fait de Maures de l'ancien Royaume de Grenade, dont un cardinal, Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros, tente d'accélérer la conversion au christianisme, au rebours des accords signés lors de la reddition de Grenade.
Renvoyé en Italie, le Gran Capitán affronte victorieusement les troupes que Louis XII envoie à l'assaut de l'Italie. Il remporte tout d'abord la victoire à Cerignola (1503), puis celle du Garigliano (1503).
Les Français doivent quitter la région et Gonzalve de Cordoue est nommé vice-roi de Naples. Il occupe cette fonction durant mais, après la mort en 1504 de la reine Isabelle la catholique, le roi Ferdinand d'Aragon devient sensible aux jalousies nées de la faveur du vice-roi et, dans la crainte de possible velleités d'indépendance, le rappelle en Espagne.
Bien qu'ayant produit les comptes justifiant sa gestion durant ses années de vice-roi, coupant cours aux rumeurs de détournement à la cour, il ne retrouve jamais la faveur du roi et se retire à Loja, où il meurt en 1515.
Organisation des troupes : Tirant parti de son expérience sur les champs de bataille, et en particulier des formations militaires des Suisses, Gonzalve de Cordoue est à l'origine de la réorganisation des troupes espagnoles, qui donne naissance, plus tard aux fameux tercios.
Le Gran Capitán met en place la coronelía, composée de 6 000 hommes, sous les ordres d'un colonel, dont 3 000 piquiers, 2 000 fantassins armés d'une épée et d'une targe, et 1 000 arquebusiers. La coronelía peut être décomposée en 12 batailles de 500 hommes, chacune commandée par un capitaine. Selon Gonzalve de Cordoue, une armée doit être composée de deux coronelías auxquelles s'ajoutent deux escadrons de cavaliers lourds et deux escadrons de cavaliers légers. A la tête de larmée, on trouve un Capitaine Général, dotée d'une troupe supplémentaire de 150 soldats.
Articles connexes : * Guerres d'Italie * Guerre de Succession de Castille * Tercio Gran Capitán
Sources : * Article sur Wikipédia hispanophone. * Nouveau dictionnaire encyclopédique universel illustré : répertoire des connaissances humaines. Troisième volume, FRAN-MECO. sous la direction de Jules Trousset, 1886 * Collection universelle des mémoires particuliers relatifs à l'histoire de France. Tome XIV [-XV], 1786
Bibliographie : * es: José Antonio Vaca de Osma, El Gran Capitán, 1998, ISBN 84-239-9920-3. * es: Martín Gómez, Antonio L., El Gran Capitán. Las Campañas del Duque de Terranova y Santángelo, 2000, ISBN 84-930713-1-5. * es: José Enrique Ruiz-Domènec, El Gran Capitán. Retrato de una época, 2002, ISBN 84-8307-460-5. * es: Fernández Duro, Cesáreo, Armada Española, desde la unión de los reinos de Castilla y Aragón. Museo Naval, Madrid, 1972.
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تأشيرة تنوع المهاجر
هجرة إلى الولايات المتحدة | سياسة تأشيرة دخول الولايات المتحدة
برنامج تأشيرة مهاجرو التعددية أو الهجرة Diversity Immigrant Visa program: أو يسمى ب اللوتري الأمريكي هو برنامج لاستقدام المهاجرين إلى الولايات المتحدة بتفويض من الكونغرس وهو برنامج يانصيب لتلقي بطاقة الاقامة الدائمة الولايات المتحدة. ومن المعروف أيضا باسم يانصيب البطاقة الخضراء Green Card Lottery: أو يانصيب الكارت الاخضر أو يانصيب أو بطاقة الغرين كارد أو قرعة الغرين كارت أو الجرين كارد لوتري. ويدار اليانصيب على أساس سنوي من قبل وزارة الخارجية، ويجري وفقا لأحكام المادة 203 (ج) من قانون الهجرة والجنسية.
المادة 131 من قانون الهجرة لعام 1990 (Pub. L. 101-649) المعدل قانون الهجرة والتجنس 203 لتوفير فئة جديدة من المهاجرين تعرف باسم "مهاجرو التعددية". ونص القانون على توفير 50000 تأشيرة إقامة دائمة سنويًا لأشخاص من البلدان ذات معدلات الهجرة المنخفضة إلى الولايات المتحدة. وذلك للحفاظ على التعددية الثقافية والعرقية فيها.
تقوم الدائرة المختصة في كل سنة باستقبال الطلبات عن طريق الموقع الرسمي لوزارة الخارجية الأمريكية المخصص للبطاقة الخضراء في الفترة المحصورة بين شهر أكتوبر (تشرين الأول) وشهر نوفمبر (تشرين الثاني).
بالنسبة لبرنامج العام 2013 DV يبدأ التسجيل للبرنامج من خلال الموقع الرسمي من الظهر، بالتوقيت الصيفي ل(شرق الولايات المتحدة) (GMT - 4 للرابع من أكتوبر 2011، حتى الظهر، بالتوقيت الصيفي لشرق (الولايات المتحدة) (GMT - 4)، للخامس من نوفمبر 2011 وعلى الموقع الرسمي للحكومة الأمريكية دائرة الهجرة http://www.dvlottery.state.gov/
الغش والاحتيال : ليس هناك أية رسوم للاشتراك في السحب (اليانصيب) لتأشيرة تنوع المهاجر أو البطاقة الخضراء، والطريقة الوحيدة للقيام بذلك هي عن طريق تعبئة وإرسال النموذج الإلكتروني المتوفر في وزارة الخارجية الأمريكية من موقع الدولة خلال فترة التسجيل.
ومع ذلك، هناك العديد من الشركات والمواقع التي تأخذ رسمًا من أجل استكمال الطلب، وقد حذرت وزارة الخارجية الأمريكية ولجنة التجارة الإتحادية أن بعض هذه الشركات تدعي كذبًا أنها تستطيع زيادة فرص أحدهم للفوز في اليانصيب، أو تدعي ارتباطها مع حكومة الولايات المتحدة.
مراجع : ثبت المراجع:
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Diversity Immigrant Visa
Immigration to the United States | United States visa policy
The Diversity Immigrant Visa program is a United States congressionally mandated lottery program for receiving a United States Permanent Resident Card. It is also known as the Green Card Lottery. The lottery is administered on an annual basis by the Department of State and conducted under the terms of Section 203(c) of the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA). Section 131 of the Immigration Act of 1990 (Pub. L. 101-649) amended INA 203 to provide for a new class of immigrants known as "diversity immigrants" (DV immigrants). The Act makes available 55,000 permanent resident visas annually to natives of countries deemed to have low rates of immigration to the United States.
Ineligible countries: Those born in any territory that has sent more than 50,000 immigrants to the United States in the previous five years are not eligible to receive a diversity visa. For DV-2013, natives of the following nations are ineligible: Bangladesh, Brazil, Canada, China (mainland-born), Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Haiti, India, Jamaica, Mexico, Pakistan, Peru, Philippines, South Korea, United Kingdom (except Northern Ireland) and its dependent territories, and Vietnam. The entry period to apply for the DV-2013 is from October 4, 2011 to November 5, 2011. * Exemptions
The term 50,000 "immigrants" refers only to people who immigrated via the family-sponsored, employment, or immediate relatives of U.S. citizen categories, and does not include other categories such as refugees, asylum seekers, NACARA beneficiaries, or previous diversity immigrants. It is for this reason that Cuba, Ethiopia, Iran, Nigeria, Ukraine, Venezuela and Poland are not on the ineligible list as of 2011 despite sending over 50,000 immigrants in the previous five years. * Changes
The first program was DV-1995, and the following 13 countries were ineligible from the start: Canada, China (mainland), Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Haiti, India, Jamaica, Mexico, Philippines, South Korea, Taiwan, United Kingdom (except Northern Ireland) and its dependent territories, and Vietnam.
Changes to the list of countries over the years include the following: * DV-1996: Colombia now ineligible. * DV-1998: Poland now ineligible. * DV-2002: Poland and Taiwan now eligible, Pakistan ineligible. * DV-2004: East Timor added, eligible. * DV-2005: Russia now ineligible. * DV-2007: Poland again ineligible. * DV-2008: Brazil and Peru now ineligible; Serbia and Montenegro listed separately, both eligible. * DV-2009: Ecuador and Guatemala now ineligible. * DV-2010: Russia now eligible; Kosovo added, eligible. * DV-2013: Poland again eligible, Bangladesh now ineligible; South Sudan added, eligible.
The large number of changes for DV-2002 was due to a three-year gap between the publication of the 1998 and 1999 immigration statistics. In other words, DV-2001 was still using the statistics from the five-year period from 1994 to 1998 to determine country eligibility. As immigration has increased, the number of ineligible countries has risen, from 13 for DV-1995 to 19 now. Taiwan is the only country which was ineligible in 1995 but eligible now due to decreasing immigration.
Russia fell below the ineligibility limit for DV-2010 due to a combination of a sharp dropoff in adoptions (from 5,878 in 2004 to 2,301 in 2007) and the unusual bureaucratic quirk of large numbers of Russian immigrants being allocated to "Soviet Union (former)" rather than Russia in 2006 and 2007. * Distribution and lottery process
The visas are distributed on a regional basis, with each region sending fewer immigrants to the US in the previous 5 years receiving more diversity visas. Currently, Africa and Europe receive about 80% of the visas in the lottery. In addition, no single country can receive more than 7% of the total number of visas (3,500).
In order to allow for those who do not pursue immigrant visas, and for the applicants who do not qualify, more 'winners' are selected in the lottery than there are visas available. Hence being selected from the lottery does not guarantee an immigrant visa to the U.S. To receive a diversity visa and immigrate to the United States, 'winners' must meet all eligibility requirements under U.S. law to qualify, and must be interviewed before the 50,000 green cards are distributed. Requirements include at least a high school diploma, or its equivalent, or two years of work experience in an occupation requiring at least two years training.
Over 13.6 million applications for the 2008 Diversity Visa Lottery (DV-2010) were submitted — an increase of 4.5 million, or 50%, from the 9.1 million applications submitted in the 2007 Diversity Visa Lottery (DV-2009).
Starting with the DV-2008, several questions and options for answers have been added. Applicants are now required to provide information, such as the country where they currently live and their highest level of education achieved, in the Electronic Diversity Visa Entry Form (E-DV Entry Form). The open registration period for the lottery was restored from 60 days to 30 days beginning with the calendar year 2010 diversity visa lottery (DV-2012). * Winning chances
Winning chances per year, per continent, per legitimate entry, DV-2007 through DV-2012
Jump in those probabilities from DV-2007 to DV-2008 was caused by significant improvement in fraud prevention techniques and error prevention techniques (mainly catching duplicate entries and throwing out entries with invalid photos).
Legitimate entry for the purpose of this table is an entry with photos of humans satisfying all photo requirements, that do not have duplicates where photos coincide as files. Legitimate entries are not disqualified during the selection process.
Chances to get visa for a winner: Those are the average numbers per continent, in reality they differ from country to country and do not depend on the continent at all.
For a country with statistically significant amount of winners (more than 100) the highest chance to get a visa per winner in DV-2009 was Nepal (85.4%) and the lowest was Senegal (14.05%). Those numbers include failure to follow-up or disinterest by a lottery winner, or an inability to satisfy all of the visa lottery requirements.
Chances to get visa for winners, per year, per continent, DV-2007 through DV-2009
* 2012 Results
For the 2012 Diversity Visa Lottery, the winning applicants were apportioned as follows: :
The percentage of fraudulent entries from Bangladesh has been difficult to eradicate from the very beginning.
According to Testimony of Stephen A. Edson Before the House Judiciary Committee, Subcommittee on Immigration Policy and Enforcement Hearing on the Diversity Visa Program "In Bangladesh, for example, one agent is reported to have enrolled an entire phone book so that he could then either extort money from winning applicants who had never entered the program to begin with or sell their winning slots to others"
Legal status: In December 2005, the United States House of Representatives voted 273-148 to add an amendment to the border enforcement bill H.R. 4437 abolishing the DV. Opponents of the lottery said it was susceptible to fraud and was a way for terrorists to enter the country. The Senate never passed the bill.
Hesham Mohamed Hadayet, an immigrant from Egypt, a country not on the list of state sponsors of terrorism, was among the beneficiaries of the program.
2007 GAO report stated: “In 2003, State’s Inspector General raised concerns that aliens from countries designated as state sponsors of terrorism can apply for diversity visas. Nearly 9,800 persons from these countries have obtained permanent residency in the United States through the program. We found no documented evidence that DV immigrants from these, or other, countries posed a terrorist or other threat.” Immigrants coming to the United States in the other LPR visa categories are not restricted if they come from these same countries and ... background checks for national security risks are performed on all prospective immigrants seeking to come to the United States
In March 2007, Congressman Bob Goodlatte (R-VA) introduced , which would eliminate the diversity visa program. In June 2007, the U.S. House passed H.R. 2764 to eliminate funding for the program, and the Senate did likewise in September. However, the final version of this bill with amendments, signed into law on December 26, 2007, did not include the removal of funds for the program. Several attempts have been made over the last several years to eliminate the lottery. Although H.R. 2764 was an appropriation bill and could only cut funds for the lottery during one fiscal year, this was the first time that both the House and the Senate passed a bill to halt the diversity visa program.
Rep. Goodlatte reintroduced his Security and Fairness Enhancement for America Act (formerly H.R. 1430, now ) on May 7, 2009. The bill would have amended the Immigration and Nationality Act to eliminate the diversity immigrant program completely, but did not pass.
Rep. Sheila Jackson-Lee (D-TX) introduced the Save America Comprehensive Immigration Act of 2009 on January 7, 2009. The bill would have doubled the number of diversity visas available to 110,000 yearly. The bill did not pass.
Comprehensive analysis of DV lottery issues has been prepared by Congressional Research Service
Frauds and scams: There is no charge to enter the diversity visa lottery, and the only way to do so is by completing and sending the electronic form available at the U.S. Department of State's website during the registration period. However, there are numerous companies and websites that charge a fee in order to complete the form for the applicant. The Department of State and the Federal Trade Commission have warned that some of these businesses falsely claim to increase someone's chances of winning the lottery, or that they are affiliated with the U.S. government.
There have also been numerous cases of fraudulent emails and letters which falsely claim to have been sent by the Department of State and that the recipient has been granted a Permanent Resident Card. These messages prompt the recipients to transfer a "visa processing fee" as a prerequisite for obtaining a "guaranteed" green card. The messages are sometimes sent to people who never participated in the lottery and can look trustworthy as they contain the recipient's exact name and contact details and what appears to be a legal notice.
The Department of State has issued a warning against the scammers. It notes that any email claiming the recipient to be a winner of the lottery is fake because the Department has never notified and will not notify winners by email. The Department has urged recipients of such messages to notify the Internet Crime Complaint Center about the scam.
Criticism of the DV Lottery system: Until DV-2010, there was no means by which an applicant could check the status of an application. Only those selected in the lottery were notified, by mail. However, starting with DV-2010 the applicant receives a confirmation number after a successful application is submitted. This number can be used to check the application status online from May 1. This was a long awaited feature since many postal services in developing or politically unstable countries are neither effective nor trustworthy.
Also, there have been arguments by long time temporary legal residents in the United States against the fairness of the DV program. A situation where high skilled (H-1B and L-1 visas) workers remain on temporary visas in the US for years (in some cases, more than a decade) with no clear path to becoming permanent residents while 50,000 random people are picked around the world and handed permanent resident status questions the fairness of the US immigration system. The odds of winning a diversity immigration visa is based on national origin of current U.S. residents descended from such countries. Hence, for example, Asia has a small quota since countries with large populations (China, India, Pakistan) are excluded.
2012 errors; lawsuit:
Due to a programming error, the results of the 2012 DV lottery, which had been available since May 1, 2011, were rescinded on Friday, May 13, 2011. Around 22,000 applicants had been notified that they had been selected for further processing. David Donahue, assistant secretary for Visa Services asserted that due to an error in the selection program, the selection had not been random, with more than 90 percent of winners selected coming from among those who had submitted their applications during the first two days of the registration period. As a result, the decision was taken to void all selection results and re-run the selection process. New results were published on July 15, 2011. Kirit Amin, Chief Information Officer for the Bureau of Consular Affairs and Director for the Office of Consular Systems and Technology, narrowed down the figure further to 98%.
Kenneth White, an immigration attorney in Los Angeles, contacted the State Department in mid-May requesting that the 22,000 winners be allowed to go forward with their applications and that a second drawing be held for the remaining slots, arguing it would still be a random drawing. Those who had already won the lottery said it was unfair to nullify the results. The putative winners sought class action status to fight the nullification, but this was denied by Judge Amy Berman Jackson on July 14, who ruled in favor of the State Department. Kenneth White has indicated the decision is very narrow and is very hard to appeal.
John Patrick Pratt, a partner of Ira J. Kurzban at the company filed an appeal. Electronic court records indicate the filing was done on September 9, according to. dateSeptember 2011: Office of Inspector General, U.S. has completed an investigation to review DV-2012 on October 25, 2011.
The 22316 May winners joined into several internet groups seeking for a Congressional action on their behalf. * References==
reflist:
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Carte de résident permanent aux États-Unis
Droit des étrangers aux États-Unis | Permis de travail
guide pratique: Palette droit des étrangers: La carte de résident permanent aux États-Unis plus connue sous le nom de green card (carte verte) est un document d'identification émis par le département d'État américain. Il permet aux citoyens non-américains de s'installer et de travailler légalement aux États-Unis sans besoin de visa. Les droits et devoirs des porteurs de la carte sont en tous points identiques à ceux d'un citoyen américain à l'exception du droit de vote et de servir comme juré. Le titulaire a obligation d'avoir la carte avec lui afin de pouvoir être identifié à tout moment.
Origine : Le terme carte verte vient de la couleur du papier utilisée par le formulaire I-151, prédécesseur de la carte, qui fut de couleur verte jusqu'en 1964. Depuis cette date, la carte a été de différentes couleurs, mais elle est toujours connue sous le nom de carte verte. La carte, en 2006, est plutôt de couleur blanche sur le devant avec le nom du porteur, sa photo et d'autres informations, et contient un bandeau vert foncé au verso avec divers systèmes empêchant la contrefaçon.
Loi : La loi américaine considère que les citoyens américains ont plus de droits que les résidents permanents et obligent ces derniers à avoir leur carte verte disponible à tout moment, afin de pouvoir la montrer à un agent de l'immigration le cas échéant, alors que les citoyens ne sont pas tenus par la loi d'avoir des papiers d'identité. Bien que rarement demandée lors des voyages intérieurs avant le 11 septembre 2001, les officiers du Deparment of Homeland Security ont depuis demandé à certains passagers de voir leur carte verte s'ils répondaient à la question êtes vous citoyen américain, immigrant ou sous visa qu'ils étaient résidents permanents.
Les cartes vertes étaient délivrées par l' qui fait maintenant partie du et s'appelle désormais .
Ce que la carte verte n'est pas: Tout comme pour le Canada, la carte de résidence permanente n'est pas une obtention de citoyenneté. Le détenteur d'une carte verte doit obéir aux lois et payer les impôts américains, mais n'est pas citoyen américain. Pour devenir citoyen il faut faire une demande de naturalisation après avoir été détenteur d'une carte verte depuis au minimum 5 ans. Contrairement à un citoyen américain, le résident permanent peut être expulsé des États-Unis et, par ailleurs, il est illégal de prétendre être citoyen américain si l'on est seulement détenteur d'une carte verte.
Comment obtenir la carte verte ? : Il est conseillé de faire appel à un avocat spécialisé pour obtenir la green card. En effet, les formulaires à remplir peuvent être difficiles à comprendre et les autorités renverront toute documentation incomplète.
De 1998 à 2010, un test de dépistage VIH devait être fait par un médecin agréé par l' avant d'obtenir la carte verte ; sauf dans des cas précis, un résultat positif était un critère d'inadmissibilité. Cette mesure a été annulée à partir du 4 janvier 2010 par une décision du Président Obama.
Il y a en général trois étapes pour obtenir la carte verte, qui peuvent prendre quelques mois à plusieurs années selon le type de demande et le pays d'origine.
Étape 1: La demande initiale : USCIS approuve la demande provenant d'une personne de la famille ou de l'employeur.
Par l'employeur : L'employeur doit prouver qu'il n'y a personne d'autre aux États-Unis capable d'effectuer le travail du demandeur et que son salaire ne risque pas de remettre en cause les salaires des Américains situés dans la même région. En général, les employeurs font appel à des cabinets d'avocats spécialisés pour remplir les formulaires et fournir les preuves, cette partie étant la plus difficile à passer. Le coût est en général de 1500 à 2000 dollars, souvent pris en charge par l'employeur.
Si la certification est refusée, il n'y a plus qu'à recommencer à zéro.
Par la famille : Il est possible d'obtenir une Green card en se mariant avec une personne de nationalité américaine.
A condition qu'après le mariage le citoyen américain ainsi que vous (moyennant finance) remplissiez diverses demandes de visa, telles que : visa temporaire de voyage, visa temporaire de résidence, visa temporaire de travail, visite médicale et d'autres. Le citoyen américain doit par ailleurs se porter garant (sponsor) du non citoyen américain.
Étape 2: Obtention d'un numéro d'immigrant : À moins d'être un membre proche du demandeur (époux, enfants et parents de citoyens américains), il faut obtenir un numéro d'immigrant de la part de l'USCIS. Ce numéro peut prendre des années à être obtenu car il y a un certain nombre de numéros attribués chaque année par pays d'origine et les listes d'attentes sur certains pays peuvent être très longues. Les immigrants qui sont membres proches du demandeur ne sont pas soumis à ce quota et peuvent passer à l'étape suivante immédiatement.
Dans le cas d'une demande par l'employeur, la demande du numéro d'immigrant consiste à remplir le formulaire Immigrant Petition qui une fois renvoyé signé par les autorités permettent de travailler légalement aux États-Unis sans avoir besoin d'un visa de travail. Cette étape est l'obtention du statut d'immigrant temporaire. À ce point précis le demandeur est en transition, et il faut une autorisation de sortie du territoire (EAD) si le demandeur a besoin de voyager hors des États-Unis : les autorités donnent le droit de travailler aux États-Unis, elles n'apprécient pas que ce soit pris à la légère, et le demandeur risque de ne plus pouvoir rentrer sur le territoire américain s'il n'a pas effectué cette démarche au préalable.
Étape 3: L'ajustement de statut : Après l'obtention d'un numéro d'immigrant, le demandeur doit passer du statut d'immigrant temporaire à celui d'immigrant permanent. La procédure prend en général environ un an et est approuvée du moment que tous les documents nécessaires obtenus précédemment sont validés, que la visite médicale obligatoire nécessaire pour vérifier que le demandeur n'est pas sous influence de drogues illégales et n'a pas de problèmes psychologiques a été effectuée, et que le FBI a pris des empreintes digitales et a effectué une recherche d'antécédents criminels.
Obtenir la carte verte par loterie : Chaque année, dans le cadre de son programme "diversity immigrant visa program" (programme pour maintenir une certaine diversité parmi la population d'immigrés aux États-Unis), le gouvernement américain organise une loterie gratuite permettant à environ 50 000 étrangers de recevoir le fameux sésame.
Arnaque de la loterie: De nombreuses sociétés proposent (contre une somme allant de 30 à 50 dollars) de s'occuper de l'inscription en lieu et place des candidats à l'immigration. Certains prétendent même que, en passant par leur intermédiaire, le candidat augmente ses chances d'être sélectionné. C'est faux. En fait, cela peut même ralentir l'inscription ou celle-ci peut carrément ne pas être faite du tout par le mandataire puisqu'il est impossible de savoir si l'inscription est réellement faite. En effet, jusqu'en 2009, aucune confirmation d'inscription n'était envoyée aux candidats par le département d'état.
Le département d'état et la "Federal Trade Commission" ont donc publié des avertissements concernant ce type de fraude : voir http://travel.state.gov/visa/immigrants/types/types_1749.html et http://www.ftc.gov/bcp/conline/pubs/alerts/lottery.htm
Modalité d'inscription: Le plus simple reste donc de s'inscrire soi-même sur le site du département d'état à l'adresse suivante : http://dvlottery.state.gov/
L'inscription se fait uniquement par Internet et nécessite une photo numérique du candidat. C'est ici le seul point complexe de l'inscription car la photographie doit répondre à de nombreux critères décrits sur le site.
Elle n'est ouverte qu'aux ressortissants de certains pays chaque année. Les pays considérés à forte admission d'immigrants, c’est-à-dire dont plus de 50 000 ressortissants se sont installés aux États-Unis dans les cinq dernières années, sont exclus de la loterie.
Le site d'inscription n'est ouvert qu'entre octobre et novembre.
Après la sélection: Si on a la chance de faire partie des 100 000 pré sélectionnés sur les onze millions d'inscriptions, on n'est pas pour autant, à ce stade, titulaire d'une green card (en realité seulement 50,000 cartes vertes sont disponibles sous ce programme). En effet, gagner la loterie ne donne pas immédiatement la carte verte, elle évite les deux premières étapes. Après la présélection, on reçoit entre mai et juillet de l'année suivant l'inscription un dossier complet (antécédents juridiques, militaires, médicaux, etc.) à remplir et à retourner si on souhaite donner suite à la demande. Quelques mois plus tard, on doit se rendre à un entretien avec l'ambassade américaine du pays du demandeur afin de demander le statut d'immigrant permanent (la green card). C'est l'officier d'immigration de l'ambassade qui décide de valider la demande ou pas. La demande d'ajustement de statut (troisième étape) doit ensuite être effectuée dès l'arrivée aux États-Unis (obligatoirement dans les 6 mois qui suivent).
Conserver la green card: Une fois installé, on peut perdre la green card si on est pas effectivement "résident américain", c’est-à-dire si l'on s'absente plus d'un an des États-Unis. Par contre, en tant que résident permanent, il est possible de demander la nationalité américaine au bout de 5 ans.
Dans certains cas la nationalité americaine peut être demandée après seulement trois années de résidence.
Lien externe: *
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فورفورال
ألدهيدات | فيورانات
الفرفورال Furfural: مادة كيميائية عضوية سائلة، تدخل في العديد من الصناعات، مثل :
النايلون والبلاستيك وغيرها، ويتغير لونه عند التعرض للهواء من عديم
اللون إلى أصفر إلى بني غامق. ويسبب بخاره حرقاناً بالعين والأنف والحلق
.
ومن استخدامات الفرفورال الآخرى صناعة المطاط الصناعي، والمذيبات، والراتنج. كما يدخل في صناعة مبيدات الحشرات والميكروبات
والفطريات، لما له من تأثير قاتل عليها. ويدخل أيضاً في تكرير البترول، وكذلك
في
عملية تصليد المطاط (أى إكسابه صلابة وقوة تحمل) وهى عملية تسمى"فلكنة"
. وينتج الفرفورال عن طريق معالجة مخلفات بعض النباتات بالأحماض، مثل *
سيقان الذرة، وقشور بذر القطن والشوفان والأرز ،كما يوجد طبيعياً في بعض
الزيوت.
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Furfural
Flavors | Furans | Aldehydes | Solvents | Fuel dyes
Furfural is an organic compound derived from a variety of agricultural byproducts, including corncobs, oat, wheat bran, and sawdust. The name furfural comes from the Latin word , meaning bran, referring to its usual source.
Furfural is an aromatic aldehyde, with the ring structure shown at right. Its chemical formula is OC4H3CHO. It is a colorless oily liquid with the odor of almonds, but upon exposure to air samples quickly become yellow. * History
Furfural was first isolated in 1832 by the German chemist Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, who produced a small sample as a byproduct of formic acid synthesis. At the time, formic acid was formed by the distillation of dead ants, and Döbereiner's ant bodies probably contained some plant matter. In 1840, the Scottish chemist John Stenhouse found that the same chemical could be produced by distilling a wide variety of crop materials, including corn, oats, bran, and sawdust, with aqueous sulfuric acid, and he determined the empirical formula (C5H4O2). In 1901, the German chemist Carl Harries deduced furfural's structure.
Except for occasional use in perfume, furfural remained a relatively obscure chemical until 1922, when the Quaker Oats Company began mass-producing it from oat hulls. Today, furfural is still produced from agricultural byproducts like sugarcane bagasse and corn cobs. The main countries producing furfural today are South Africa and China. * Properties
Furfural's physical properties are summarized in the table at top right. Furfural dissolves readily in most polar organic solvents, but is only slightly soluble in either water or alkanes.
Chemically, furfural participates in the same kinds of reactions as other aldehydes and other aromatic compounds. Indicating its diminished aromaticity relative to benzene, furfural is readily hydrogenated to the corresponding tetrahydrofuran derivatives. When heated above 250 °C, furfural decomposes into furan and carbon monoxide, sometimes explosively. When heated in the presence of acids, furfural irreversibly solidifies into a hard thermosetting resin. * Production
Many plant materials contain the polysaccharide hemicellulose, a polymer of sugars containing five carbon atoms each. When heated with sulfuric acid, hemicellulose undergoes hydrolysis to yield these sugars, principally xylose. Under the same conditions of heat and acid, xylose and other five carbon sugars undergo dehydration, losing three water molecules to become furfural: * C5H10O5 → C5H4O2 + 3 H2O
For crop residue feedstocks, about 10% of the mass of the original plant matter can be recovered as furfural. Furfural and water evaporate together from the reaction mixture, and separate upon condensation. The global production capacity is about 450,000 tons as of 2004. China is the biggest supplier of furfural, and accounts for around half of global capacity.
In the laboratory, synthesis of furfural from corn cobs takes place by reflux with dilute sulfuric acid.
The lignocellulosic residue that remains after the removal of the furfural is used to generate all the steam requirements of the furfural plant. Newer and more energy efficient plants have excess residue, which is or can be used for co-generation of electricity, cattle feed, activated carbon, mulch/fertiliser, etc.. It also has been used as a glue extender in the North American board industry.
Uses: Furfural is an important renewable, non-petroleum based, chemical feedstock. Hydrogenation of furfural provides furfuryl alcohol (FA), which is a useful chemical intermediate and which may be further hydrogenated to tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol (THFA). THFA is used as a nonhazardous solvent in agricultural formulations and as an adjuvant to help herbicides penetrate the leaf structure. Furfural is used to make other furan chemicals, such as furoic acid, via oxidation, and furan itself via palladium catalyzed vapor phase decarbonylation,
Safety: Although it occurs in many foods and flavorants, furfural is toxic with an LD50: of 300–500 mg/kg (oral, mice). It is a skin irritant and chronic skin exposure can lead to a skin allergy as well as an unusual susceptibility to sunburn. * References==
reflist:
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Furfural
Aldéhyde | Furane | Solvant | Arôme
Le furfural est un composé chimique industriel qui est le dérivé de divers produits secondaires agricoles comme le maïs, le son d'avoine et de blé, et la sciure. Le nom furfural vient du mot latin furfur, qui signifie son, par référence à la source la plus courante.
Le furfural est un aldéhyde aromatique, avec la structure cyclique (furane) indiquée à droite. Sa formule chimique est . À l'état pur, c'est un liquide huileux incolore à l'odeur d'amandes, mais il jaunit rapidement au contact de l'air.
* Histoire
Le furfural a été pour la première fois isolé en 1832 par le chimiste allemand Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner, qui en obtient une très petite quantité comme produit secondaire de la synthèse de l'acide formique. 5H4O2. In 1901, the German chemist Carl Harries deduced furfural's structure.
Except for occasional use in perfume, furfural remained a relatively obscure chemical until 1922, when the Quaker Oats Company began mass-producing it from oat hulls. Today, furfural is still produced from agricultural byproducts.
* Propriétés
* Production
* Propriétés physico-chimiques
Le furfural, fraichement distillé, est aux conditions normales de pression et de température un liquide incolore avec une odeur pénétrante d'amande, qui devient plus sombre après exposition à l'air ou après une longue durée de stockage. Le furfural est miscible avec la plupart des solvants organiques mais seulement en très faible quantité avec les hydrocarbures saturés aliphatiques. * Utilisations
Le furfural est utilisé comme solvant en raffinage pétrochimique pour séparer les diènes (qui sont utilisés pour fabriquer le caoutchouc synthétique) des autres hydrocarbures.
Le furfural, avec son odeur épicé et amandé, est utilisé dans la fabrication d'arômes chocolat, caramel, beurre, noix cannelle, café, pain ou bien de liqueur. Son numéro fema/GRAS est le 2489.
Le furfural, ainsi que son dérivé l’alcool furfurylique, peut être utilisé seul ou en association avec le phénol, l’acétone, ou l’urée pour fabriquer des résines résistantes. Ces résines sont utilisées dans la fabrication des fibres de verre, de certains pièces d’avions, et de freins dans l’industrie automobile.
Le furfural est également utilisé comme intermédiaire de synthèse pour la production de solvants comme les furanes et le tétrahydrofuranne. L’Hydroxyméthylfurfural a été identifié dans une grande variété d'aliments transformés par la chaleur.
Sécurité : Effets aigus : Lorsqu'il est ingéré ou inhalé, le furfural peut provoquer des symptômes similaires à ceux rencontrés dans l’ intoxication par différents solvants, notamment une certaine euphorie, des maux de tête, des étourdissements, des nausées et, dans les cas extrêmes, la perte de conscience et la mort par insuffisance respiratoire. Le contact avec le furfural irrite la peau et les voies respiratoires et peut provoquer un œdème pulmonaire.
Effets chroniques : L'exposition cutanée chronique peut entraîner une allergie cutanée à la substance, ainsi qu’une photosensibilisation. Dans les études de toxicité expérimentale, le furfural s’est révélé mutagène et a provoqué des tumeurs ainsi que des lésions du foie et des reins chez l’animal.
Notes et références : Références:
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مهرجان العشبات السبع
مهرجانات اليابان | مناسبات يناير
مهرجان العشبات السبع 七草の節句 ناناكوسا نو سيكُّو: هو عادة يابانية لتناول العشبات السبع مع عصيدة الأرز في يوم جينجيتسو (عيد الإنسان) المصادف 7 يناير من كل عام.
العشبات السبع هي سبع عشبات ربيعية صالحة للأكل، وتكون العشبات السبع عادة: * شمار الماء Water dropwort * كيس الراعي Capsella bursa-pastoris * رجل القط Gnaphalium * حشيشة القزاز Chickweed * لابساناحقيقة: Lapsana * لفت * دايكون Daikon
وقد تتنوع العشبات السبع باستخدام أنواع أخرى بحسب توافرها المحلي.
في صباح 7 يناير أو عشية ذلك اليوم يضع الناس العشبات السبع مع ملعقة الأرز (شاموجي) وطاحونة السمسم (سوري باتشي) على لوحة التقطيع في اتجاه الحظ السعيد ويغنون "قبل أن تأتي طيور الصين إلى أرض اليابان، لنأكل العشبات السبع".
كان السابع من يناير مهرجاناً في اليابان منذ قديم الزمن، وكانت عادة أكل العشبات السبع من أجل تمني الصحة والعمر المديد، وجاء هذا التقليد إلى اليابان من الصين من أجل طرد الشر. ولقلة النباتات الخضراء في ذلك الوقت من السنة فإن وجود الخضار يضيف إلى المائدة لوناً حيوياً يتناسب مع روح السنة الجديدة.
بذرة يابان: بوابة اليابان:
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Nanakusa-no-sekku
Festivals in Japan
The Festival of Seven Herbs, or Nanakusa no sekku (七草の節句), is the long-standing Japanese custom of eating seven-herb rice porridge (nanakusa-gayu) on January 7 (Jinjitsu).
The nanakusa are seven edible wild herbs of spring. Traditionally, they are : * Water dropwort (芹 : せり seri) * Shepherd's Purse (薺 : なずな nazuna) * Cudweed (御形 : ごぎょう gogyō) * Chickweed (繁縷 : はこべら hakobera) * Nipplewort (仏の座 : ほとけのざ hotokenoza) * Turnip (菘 : すずな suzuna) * Radish (蘿蔔 : すずしろ suzushiro)
There is considerable variation in the precise ingredients, with common local herbs often being substituted.
On the morning of January 7, or the night before, people place the nanakusa, rice scoop, and/or wooden pestle on the cutting board and, facing the good-luck direction, chant "Before the birds of the continent (China) fly to Japan, let's get nanakusa" while cutting the herbs into pieces. The chant may vary.
The seventh of the first month has been an important Japanese festival since ancient times. The custom of eating nanakusa-gayu on this day, to bring longevity and health, developed in Japan from a similar ancient Chinese custom, intended to ward off evil. Since there is little green at that time of the year, the young green herbs bring color to the table and eating them suits the spirit of the New Year.
The spring-time nanakusa are mirrored by the "seven flowers of autumn", which are bush clover (hagi), miscanthus (obana, Miscanthus sinensis), kudzu, large pink (nadeshiko, Dianthus superbus), yellow flowered valerian (ominaeshi, Patrinia scabiosaefolia), boneset (fujibakama, Eupatorium fortunei), and Chinese bellflower (kikyō). These seven autumn flowers provide visual enjoyment. Their simplicity was very much admired: they are small and dainty yet beautifully colored. They are named as typical autumn flowers in a verse from the Man'yōshū anthology.
Cautionary note: The Japanese parsley (Oenanthe javanica) is one of the few non-toxic species of the Oenanthe (water dropworts) genus, which are otherwise extremely toxic. As this species is not found outside of Asia unless specifically cultivated, one should always consider wild-growing varieties of water dropworts to be lethal, even in small amounts.
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Nanakusa-no-sekku
Fête japonaise
Japon: La fête des sept herbes (七草の節句, nanakusa no sekku) est une très ancienne coutume japonaise qui consiste à manger un kayu aux sept-herbes (七草粥, nanakusa-gayu) le 7 janvier (Jinjitsu).
Les nanakusa sont sept herbes sauvages comestibles de printemps. Traditionnellement, ce sont : * Œnanthe (seri, Oenanthe javanica) * Bourse-à-pasteur (nazuna, Capsella bursa-pastoris) * Gnaphalium (gogyo, Gnaphalium affine) * Mouron des oiseaux (hakobera, Stellaria media) * Lampsane commune (hotokenoza, Lapsana apogonoides) * Navet (suzuna) * Daikon (suzushiro, Raphanus sativus var. longipinnatus)
Il existe de nombreuses variantes.
Le matin du 7 janvier, ou la veille, on place les nanakusa, la spatule à riz, et/ou un mortier sur la planche à découper et, en faisant face à la direction de la chance, on chante "Avant que les oiseaux du continent s'envolent vers le Japon" en hachant menu les herbes. Ce chant varie aussi.
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ڤيإلسي مديا بلاير
مشغلات فيديو | برمجيات متعددة المنصات | برمجيات حرة
ڤيإلسي مديا بلاير VLC media player: هو مُشغّل وسائط حُر ومفتوح المصدر ، يُشغل مُختلف صيغ الصوت والفيديو وأقراص الدي في دي ويدعم مختلف برتوكولات البث الحي، ويستطيع هذا البرنامج أيضا أن يُستخدم كخادم للاتصالات الحية أو الوسائط المتعددة في IPv4 وIPv6
تاريخ البرنامج : بدأ البرنامج عام 1999 من فريق ڤيديولان وكان من تأليف طلبة مدرسة الهندسة في فرنسا ثم طور فيما بعد في أكثر من 20 دولة، هذا البرنامج هو تحت رخصة جنو العمومية ويمكن نشره مجانا.
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VLC media player
2001 software | Free media players | Free video software | Amiga media players | Linux DVD players | Mac OS media players | Mac OS X media players | Multimedia frameworks | Windows media players | BeOS software | BSD software | Solaris media players | Streaming software | Software DVD players | Apple Design Award winners | Cross-platform software | Applications using D-Bus | Software that uses Qt | Lua-scriptable software | Audio software with JACK support | Portable software | Linux media players | Streaming media systems
dateDecember 2011:
VLC media player (also known as VLC) is a highly portable free and open-source media player and streaming media server written by the VideoLAN project. It is a cross-platform media player, with versions for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, GNU, Linux, BeOS, MorphOS, BSD, Solaris, iOS, and eComStation.
VLC media player supports many audio and video compression methods and file formats, including DVD-video, video CD and streaming protocols. It is able to stream over computer network and to transcode multimedia files.dateDecember 2011: VLC used to stand for VideoLAN Client, but since VLC is no longer simply a client, that initialism no longer applies.
The default distribution of VLC includes a large number of free decoding and encoding libraries, avoiding the need for finding/calibrating proprietary plugins. Many of VLC's codecs are provided by the libavcodec library from the FFmpeg project, but it uses mainly its own muxer and demuxers. It also gained distinction as the first player to support playback of encrypted DVDs on Linux by using the libdvdcss DVD decryption library. * History
The VideoLan project was originally started as an academic project in 1996. It was intended to consist of a client and server to stream videos across a campus network. VLC was the client for the VideoLAN project, with VLC standing for VideoLan Client. Originally developed by students at the École Centrale Paris, it is now developed by contributors worldwide and is coordinated by the VideoLAN non-profit organization.
Rewritten from scratch in 1998, it was released under the GPL on 1 February 2001. The functionality of the server program, VideoLan Server (VLS), has mostly been subsumed into VLC and has been deprecated. The project name has been changed to VLC because there is no longer a client/server infrastructure.
The cone icon used in VLC is a reference to the traffic cones collected by Ecole Centrale's Networking Students' Association. The cone icon design was changed from a hand drawn low resolution icon to a higher resolution CGI-rendered version in 2006, illustrated by Richard Øiestad.
After 13 years of development, version 1.0.0 of VLC media player was released on July 7, 2009.
VLC is third in the sourceforge.net overall download count. VLC was available for the iPad, iPhone, and iPod Touch from the Apple AppStore, but was pulled due to a licensing conflict between the GPL and the iTunes Store agreement. * Design principles * Interfaces
In VLC, interfaces are modules, which means that VLC's core can launch one, many, or no interfaces.
The default GUI is based on Qt 4 for Windows and Linux, Cocoa for Mac OS X, and Be API on BeOS; but all give a similar standard interface. The old default GUI was based on wx on Windows and Linux.
The interface contains an easter egg which changes the VLC traffic cone logo so that it's wearing a Santa hat. The logo changes on December 18, one week before Christmas, and reverts to its normal appearance on January 1.
VLC supports highly customizable skins through the skins2 interface, also supporting Winamp 2 and XMMS skins. The customizable skins feature can malfunction depending on which version is being used.
For console users, VLC has a remote control interface and an ncurses interface. As VLC can act as a streaming server, rather than a media player, it can be useful to control it from a remote location and there are interfaces allowing this. The Remote Control Interface is a text-based interface for doing this. There are also interfaces using telnet and HTTP (Ajax). * Control
In addition to these interfaces, it is possible to control VLC in different ways: * Configurable hotkeys * Mouse gestures * LIRC and infrared controllers * D-Bus * Laptop motion * Apps for operating systems, such as Android and iOS (iPad, iPhone, iPod Touch) * Modular design
VLC, like most multimedia frameworks, has a very modular design which makes it easier to include modules/plugins for new file formats, codecs, or streaming methods. VLC 1.0.0 has more than 380 modules.
The VLC core creates dynamically its own graph of modules depending on the situation: input protocol, input file format, input codec, video card capabilities and other parameters. In VLC, almost everything is a module, like interfaces, video and audio outputs, controls, scalers, codecs, and audio/video filters. * Features
Because VLC is a packet-based media player, it can play the video content of some damaged, incomplete, or unfinished videos. (For example, files still downloading via peer-to-peer (P2P) networks). It also plays m2t MPEG transport streams (.TS) files while they are still being digitized from an HDV camera via a FireWire cable, making it possible to monitor the video as it is being played. The player can also use libcdio to access .iso files so that users can play files on a disk image, even if the user's operating system cannot work directly with .iso images.
VLC supports all audio and video formats and all file formats supported by libavcodec and libavformat. This means that VLC can play back H.264 or MPEG-4 video as well as support FLV or MXF file formats "out of the box" using FFmpeg's libraries. Alternatively, VLC has modules for codecs that are not based on FFmpeg's libraries. VLC is one of the free software and open source DVD players that ignores DVD region coding on RPC-1 firmware drives, making it a region-free player. However, it does not do the same on RPC-2 firmware drives. VLC media player has some filters that can distort, rotate, split, deinterlace, mirror videos, create display walls, or add a logo overlay. It can also output video as ASCII art.
VLC media player can play high definition recordings of D-VHS tapes duplicated to a computer using CapDVHS.exe. This offers another way to archive all D-VHS tapes with the DRM copy freely tag. Using a FireWire connection from cable boxes to computers, VLC can stream live, unencrypted content to a monitor or HDTV. VLC media player can display the playing video as the desktop wallpaper, like Windows DreamScene, by using DirectX, only available on Windows operating systems. VLC media player can create screencasts and record the desktop. On Microsoft Windows, VLC also supports the Direct Media Object (DMO) framework and can thus make use of some third-party DLLs. On most platforms, VLC can tune in to and view DVB-C, DVB-T, and DVB-S channels. On Mac OS X the separate EyeTV plugin is required, on Windows it requires the card's BDA Drivers.
VLC can be installed or run directly from a USB flash drive or other external drive. VLC can be extended through scripting. It uses the Lua scripting language. VLC can play videos in the AVCHD format, a highly compressed format used in recent HD camcorders. VLC can generate a number of music visualization displays. * Use of VLC with other programs * API
Several APIs can connect to VLC and use its functionality: * libVLC API – the VLC Core, for C, C++, and C# * VLCKit – an Objective-C framework for Mac OS X * JavaScript API – the evolution of ActiveX API and Firefox integration * D-Bus controls * Go binding * C# interface * Python controls * Java API * DirectShow filters * Delphi/Pascal API: PasLibVlc by: "Robert Jędrzejczyk" * Browser plugins
On Windows, Linux, Mac, and some other Unix-like platforms, VLC provides an NPAPI plugin, which enables users to view QuickTime, Windows Media, MP3, and Ogg files embedded in websites without using additional products. It supports many web browsers including Firefox, Mozilla Application Suite, and other Netscape plug-in based browsers; Safari, Chrome, and other WebKit based browsers; and Opera. Google used this plugin to build the Google Video web browser plugin before switching to use Adobe Flash.
Starting with version 0.8.2, VLC also provides an ActiveX plugin, which lets people view QuickTime (MOV), Windows Media, MP3, and Ogg files embedded in websites when using Internet Explorer. * Applications which use the VLC plugin
VLC can handle incomplete files and can be used to preview files being downloaded. Several programs make use of this, including eMule and KCeasy. The free/open-source Internet television application Miro also uses VLC code. HandBrake, an open-source video encoder, loads libdvdcss from VLC Media Player. * Format support * Readable formats
VLC can read several formats, depending on the operating system VLC is running on.
; Input : UDP/RTP unicast or multicast, HTTP, FTP, MMS, RTSP, RTMP, DVDs, VCD, SVCD, CD Audio, DVB, Video acquisition (via V4l and DirectShow), RSS/Atom Feeds, and from files stored on the user's computer.
; Container formats: 3GP, ASF, AVI, FLV, Matroska, Musical Instrument Digital Interface (.mid/.midi), QuickTime, MP4, Ogg, OGM, WAV, MPEG-2 (ES, PS, TS, PVA, MP3), AIFF, Raw audio, Raw DV, MXF, VOB.
; : Cinepak, Dirac, DV, H.263, H.264/MPEG-4 AVC (8-bit; nightly builds also have 10-bit H.264 support), HuffYUV, Indeo 3, MJPEG, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4 Part 2, RealVideo 3&4, Sorenson (thus enabling direct playback of the modified Sorenson H.263 encoded videos downloaded from YouTube), Theora, VC-1, VP5, VP6, VP8, and some WMV.
; Subtitles: DVD, SVCD, DVB, OGM, SubStation Alpha, SubRip, Advanced SubStation Alpha, MPEG-4 Timed Text, Text file, Vobsub, MPL2, Teletext.
; Audio formats: AAC, AC3, ALAC, AMR, DTS, DV Audio, XM, FLAC, MACE, Mod, MP3, PLS, QDM2/QDMC, RealAudio, Speex, Screamtracker 3/S3M, TTA, Vorbis, WavPack, WMA (WMA 1/2, WMA 3 partially).
Output formats for streaming/encoding: VLC can transcode into several formats depending on the operating system.
; Container formats: ASF, AVI, FLV, Fraps, MP4, Ogg, Wav, MPEG-2 (ES, PS, TS, PVA, MP3), MPJPEG, FLAC, QuickTime, Matroska
; Video formats: H.263, H.264/MPEG-4 AVC, MJPEG, MPEG-1, MPEG-2, MPEG-4 Part 2, VP5, VP6, VP8, Theora, DV
; Audio formats: AAC, AC3, DV Audio, FLAC, MP3, Speex, Vorbis
; Streaming protocols: UDP, HTTP, RTP, RTSP, MMS, file
Android support: As of December, 2011, the VLC team states that a version of VLC for Android "is in development".
On the December 29, 2011, Softpedia reports "Also important is the fact that almost every video filter can now be transcoded and it can be ported to mobile operating systems (Android and iOS) as well as 64-bit Windows."
Despite no official version being yet available, a non-official Android build has been compiled by Austen Dicken, based on the "pre-alpha" source code of VLC for Android, by the VLC team.
Legality: The VLC media player software installers for the Mac OS X platform and the Windows platform include the libdvdcss DVD decryption library, even though this library may be legally restricted in certain jurisdictions.
USA: At least one recent release of the VLC media player software is able to read video and audio data from DVDs that incorporate Content Scramble System (CSS) encryption, even though the VLC media player software lacks a CSS decryption license. The unauthorized decryption of CSS-encrypted DVD content and/or the unauthorized distribution of CSS decryption tools may violate the US Digital Millennium Copyright Act, although the decryption of CSS-encrypted DVD content has been temporarily authorized for certain purposes (such as documentary filmmaking that uses short portions of DVD content for criticism and/or commentary) under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act anticircumvention exemptions that were issued by the US Copyright Office in 2010. (These exemptions do not change the DMCA's ban on the distribution of CSS decryption tools.)
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VLC media player
Lecteur multimédia | Logiciel libre sous licence GPL | Logiciel pour Mac OS | Logiciel pour Linux | Logiciel pour Windows | Logiciel utilisant Qt
VLC media player (VLC) (à l'origine VideoLAN Client) est un lecteur multimédia libre issu du projet VideoLAN. Ce logiciel est multiplateforme puisqu'il fonctionne sous Windows, toutes les tendances GNU/Linux, BSD, Mac OS X, BeOS, Solaris, QNX et même Pocket PC soit en tout près de 20 plateformes. Il est distribué sous licence GNU/GPL.
Un des grands atouts de VLC est qu'il intègre les codecs nécessaires à la lecture de la plupart des formats audio et vidéo. De plus, le lecteur est capable de lire un grand nombre de flux réseaux. Il se montre par ailleurs très tolérant avec les flux légèrement endommagés, allant même jusqu'à les réparer de son mieux.
VLC est aujourd'hui l'un des premiers lecteurs multimédias, utilisé par au moins 50 millions de personnes.
Historique : VLC media player était au début le client pour le projet VideoLAN qui avait pour but la création d'un logiciel permettant la diffusion de vidéos à travers un réseau informatique. Il était à l'origine développé par les étudiants de l'école centrale Paris et a }} sous licence GNU GPL. Il est aujourd'hui développé par des contributeurs du monde entier. Le cœur du développement de VLC n'est toutefois assuré que par une dizaine de personnes, dont seulement quatre développeurs très actifs.
L'icône en forme de cône de VLC media player a légèrement changé en .
Historique des versions : Liste des mise à jour de VLC media player:
Fonctions de VLC : VLC est très populaire pour sa capacité à jouer des vidéos incomplètes ou endommagées. Ceci permet de prévisualiser des vidéos avant de les avoir téléchargées entièrement.
Exemple : avec eMule, il permet de vérifier la qualité du fichier téléchargé et de vérifier si on a affaire à un
faux fichier (fake) ou pas.
Une autre caractéristique intéressante est la capacité de VLC à utiliser la bibliothèque libcdio pour lire les fichiers .iso pour que l'utilisateur puisse jouer les fichiers sur une image de disque, même si le système d'exploitation de l'utilisateur n'a pas la capacité de travailler directement avec les fichiers .iso.
VLC supporte tous les codecs et tous les formats de fichier supportés par FFmpeg.
Le lecteur multimédia VLC a des filtres de distorsion, de rotation, d'inversion, de désentrelacement, d'ajustement, de duplication, d'agrandissement ou de redimensionnement.
Sous Windows, VLC supporte également DirectShow.
Personnalisation: Avec la version 0.9.X, l'interface de VLC media player a très largement été modifiée en abandonnant la bibliothèque wxWidgets de Windows et Linux pour la version 4 de Qt. Mac OS X utilise Cocoa et BeOS lui utilise Be API. Tous ces environnements donnent une interface standard similaire. Cependant, de nombreuses options de configuration rendent le logiciel très attirant. * Skins 2
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Formats vidéo ,:
Formats de sous-titres ,: : * Formats de métadonnées,: : * L'utilisation de VLC avec d'autres programmes * API
Il existe plusieurs API s qui peuvent se connecter à VLC et l'utilisation de ses fonctionnalités: * LibVLC API, qui est au cœur de VLC, pour C, C++ et C# * JavaScript API, qui est l'évolution de l'API et l'intégration ActiveX Firefox * D-Bus Controls * C# interface * Python contrôles * Java API * DirectShow filtres * VLC comme plug-ins * Sous Windows, Linux, Mac et quelques autres plates-formes, VLC fournit un plugin trad: NPAPI: qui permet de visionner les fichiers QuickTime et Windows Media inclus dans les pages web sans utiliser les produits d'Apple ou de Microsoft. Il supporte Firefox, Mozilla Application Suite et Safari mais ne fonctionne pas encore avec Opera. Ce plugin a été utilisé par Google pour créer le plugin web Google Vidéos . * Depuis la version 0.8.2, VLC fournit également un plugin ActiveX, ce qui permet aux gens de voir les fichier QuickTime (MOV), Windows Media, MP3 et Ogg embarqués dans des sites Web lorsque vous utilisez Internet Explorer.
Applications qui utilisent le plugin VLC : * VLC est efficace pour lire des fichiers incomplets et peut alors être utilisé pour prévisualiser des fichiers en cours de téléchargement. Plusieurs programmes utilisent cette capacité comme eMule et tradKCeasy: . * Le lecteur open source Miro utilise aussi VLC. * Le lecteur multimédia Songbird utilise du code de VLC et de Firefox. * VLC est aussi utilisé pour la lecture des Podcasts dans le lecteur trad: Noopod: . * HandBrake, un encodeur vidéo open-source, utilise la bibliothèque libdvdcss de VLC Media Player.
Utilisation pour la télévision : * VLC est utilisé pour lire sur la télévision des flux vidéo depuis l'ordinateur transmis par la Freebox, la Livebox ou la Neufbox, cela est possible par le fait que la télévision soit raccordée à la box qui transporte le flux vidéo lu sur l'ordinateur. * Il est aussi utilisé par le DDREAM, pour pouvoir lire sur la télévision du salon les flux venant du PC. * VLC peut lire la TNT (DVB-T) reçue à partir d'un tuner TV. Un moyen simple pour regarder la télévision est alors d'ouvrir avec VLC un fichier texte, nommé par exemple, contant une ligne de texte par chaine TV.
Internationalisation : VLC est disponible en 69 langues dans la version 1.1.x : * L'afrikaans, allemand, l'albanais, anglais britannique, arabe, basque, biélorusse, le bengali, bulgare, birman, catalan, cinghalais, chinois simplifié, chinois traditionnel, le coréen, corse, croate, danois, espagnole, estonien, finnois, français, frioulan, galicien, géorgien, grec moderne, l'hébreu , hindi, hongrois, indonésien, italien, japonais, kazakh, khmer, kurmandji, lituanien, letton, malais, malayalam, macédonien, mongolien, néerlandais, népalais, norvégien, nynorsk norvégien, occitan, pachtou, persan, polonais, portugais, le portugais brésilien, le punjabi, roumain, russe, serbe, slovaque, slovène, sorani, suédois, tagalog, tamoul, le tetum, thaï, tchèque, turc, ukrainien, vietnamien, wallonne
La langue du programme peut être changée à tout moment dans le menu « préférences » mais le programme doit être redémarré pour que ce changement soit pris en compte.
Notes et références : Notes : groupenote: : Références ===
Références:
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مانويل كويزون
رؤساء الفلبين | مواليد 1878 | وفيات 1944
مانويل لويس كويزون (بالإنجليزية: Manuel Luis Quezon y Molina، عاش ما بين 19 أغسطس 1878 إلى 1 أغسطس 1944 م) أول من شغل منصب رئيس الكومنولث الفلبيني من عام 1935 م
حتى وفاته، وفي عام 1934 م أشرف على قانون استقلال الفلبين الذي أقره الكونجرس الأمريكي لإنشاء
الكومنولث الفلبيني وفي العام التالي انتخب كويزون رئيسا. وعندما اجتاح اليابانيون الفلبين في عام 1941 م اضطر كويزون للانسحاب إلى كوريجدور وهرب بغواصة في عام 1942 م وشكل حكومة في المنفى بالولايات المتحدة وفي عام 1944 م مات بمرض السل في نيويورك. أعيد جثمانه إلى الفلبين ودفن في مدينة كويزون التي أطلق اسمه عليها تكريما له.
ولد مانويل لويس كويزون في مدينة بالر الواقعة على الساحل الشرقي. كان والداه مدرسين درس في مدارس الدومينيكان في مانيلا حيث تخرج متخصصا في القانون وانضم إلى الجيش الثوري الذي حارب لنيل الاستقلال
ضد حكام الفلبين الأسبان أولا ثم ضد الولايات المتحدة وأصبح مساعدا للقائد الثوري الجنرال أميليو أجينالدو
وسجن بسبب الدور الذي قام به في الانتفاضة.
وفي عام 1905 م خاض كويزون الانتخابات بنجاح لشغل منصب حاكم مقاطعة وفي عام 1907 م انتخب عضوا بأول جمعية فلبينية وطنية وقد ساعد في إنشاء حزب الناسيونا ليستا الذي أصبح الحزب المسيطر طوال الفترة من 1906 إلى 1915 م وشغل كويزون منصب المندوب الفلبيني في الكونجرس الأمريكي. وفي عام 1916 م أقر قانون إنشاء مجلس شيوخ فلبيني وأصبح كويزون رئيسه وظل يشغل هذا المنصب حتى عام 1934 م عندما تم انتخابه رئيسا لحكومة الكومنولث الفلبيني حديثة التكوين.
بذرة أعلام:
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Manuel L. Quezon
1878 births | 1944 deaths | American colonial period of the Philippines | City founders | Colegio de San Juan de Letran alumni | Deaths from tuberculosis | Filipino lawyers | Filipino people of Spanish descent | Filipino Roman Catholics | Infectious disease deaths in New York | Military history of the Philippines during World War II | People from Aurora (province) | People from Quezon | Philippine presidential candidates | Presidents of the Philippines | Resident Commissioners from the Philippines | Members of the Senate of the Philippines | University of Santo Tomas alumni | World War II political leaders | Nacionalista Party politicians
dateOctober 2011:
Manuel Luis Quezón y Molina (August 19, 1878 – August 1, 1944) served as president of the Commonwealth of the Philippines from 1935 to 1944. He was the first Filipino to head a government of the Philippines (as opposed to other historical states). Quezón is considered by most Filipinos to have been the second president of the Philippines, after Emilio Aguinaldo (1897–1901).
Quezón was the first Senate president elected to the presidency, the first president elected through a national election, and the first incumbent to secure re-election (for a partial second term, later extended, due to amendments to the 1935 Constitution). He is known as the "Father of the National Language".
During his presidency, Quezón tackled the problem of landless peasants in the countryside. Other major decisions include reorganization of the islands military defense, approval of recommendation for government reorganization, promotion of settlement and development in Mindanao, tackling foreign strangle-hold on Philippine trade and commerce, proposals for land reform and the tackling of graft and corruption within the government. Quezón established an exiled government in the US with the outbreak of the war and the threat of Japanese invasion. During his exile in the US, Manuel Quezón died of tuberculosis in Saranac Lake, New York. * Early life and career
Quezón, was born in Baler, Tayabas (now Aurora). His Spanish mestizo parents were Lucio Quezón and María Dolores Molina. His father was a primary grade school teacher from Paco, Manila, and also a retired Sergeant in the Spanish colonial army, while his mother was a primary grade school teacher in their hometown.
Although both his parents must have contributed to his education, he received most of his primary education from the public school established by the Spanish government in his village, as part of the establishment of the system of free public education in the Philippines, as he himself testified during his speech delivered in the House of Representatives of the United States during the discussion of Jones Bill, in 1914.
He later boarded at the Colegio de San Juan de Letran where he completed secondary school.
In 1898, his father Lucio and his brother Pedro were ambushed and killed by armed men while on their way home to Baler from Nueva Ecija. Some historians believe they were murdered by bandits who also robbed their money, while others believe the killings could have been related to their loyalty to the Spanish government.
In 1899 Quezon cut short his law studies at the University of Santo Tomas in Manila, to participate in the struggle for independence against the United States, led by Emilio Aguinaldo. During the Philippine-American War he was an ayuda-de-campo to Emilio Aguinaldo. He rose to the rank of Major and fought in the Bataan sector. However, after Aguinaldo was captured in 1901, Quezón returned to the university and passed the bar examinations in 1903, achieving fourth place.
He worked for a time as a clerk and surveyor, entering government service as an appointed fiscal for Mindoro and later Tayabas. He became a councilor and was elected governor of Tayabas in 1906 after a hard-fought election. * Congressional career * House of Representatives
In 1907, he was elected to the first Philippine Assembly – later became the House of Representatives – where he served as majority floor leader and chairman of the committee on appropriations. From 1909–1916, he served as one of the Philippines' two resident commissioners to the U.S. House of Representatives, lobbying for the passage of the Philippine Autonomy Act or Jones Law. * Senate
Quezón returned to Manila in 1916 to be elected into the Philippine Senate and later became Senate President, serving continuously until 1935 (19 years). He headed the first Independent Mission to the U.S. Congress in 1919 and securing passage of the Tydings-McDuffie Independence Law in 1934. In 1922, Quezón became the leader of Nacionalista Party. * Presidency * Administration and Cabinet * Appointments 1935–1941
* War Cabinet 1941–1944
Col-begin: The outbreak of World War II and the Japanese invasion resulted in periodic and drastic changes to the government structure. Executive Order 390, December 22, 1941 abolished the Department of the Interior and established a new line of succession. Executive Order 396, December 24, 1941 further reorganized and grouped the cabinet, with the functions of Secretary of Justice assigned to the Chief Justice of the Philippines.
Col-1-of-2:
Col-end: Sources:
The Sixth Annual Report of the United States High Commission to the Philippine Island to the President and Congress of the United States, Covering the Fiscal Year July 1, 1941 to June 30, 1942 Washington D.C. October 20, 1942
Executive Orders of the Commonwealth of the Philippines, Manila, Bureau of Printing 1945 * Supreme Court appointments
President Quezón was given the power under the reorganization act, to appoint the first all-Filipino Supreme Court of the Philippines in 1935. From 1901 to 1935, although a Filipino was always appointed chief justice, the majority of the members of the Supreme Court were Americans. Complete Filipinization was achieved only with the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines in 1935. Claro M. Recto and José P. Laurel were among Quezón's first appointees to replace the American justices. The membership in the Supreme Court increased to 11: a chief justice and ten associate justices, who sat en banc or in two divisions of five members each. * Ramón Avanceña – 1935 (Chief Justice) – 1935–1941 * José Abad Santos – 1935 * Claro M. Recto 1935–1936 * José P. Laurel – 1935 * José Abad Santos (Chief Justice) – 1941–1942 * First Term thumb|right|200px|Official car of MLQ, a 1937 Chrysler Airflow (restored by Alfred Motorworks & Alfred Nobel R. Peres), at Baler, Aurora.]]
In 1935 Quezón won the Philippine's first national presidential election under the banner of the Nacionalista Party. He obtained nearly 68% of the vote against his two main rivals, Emilio Aguinaldo and Gregorio Aglipay. Quezón was inaugurated in November 1935. He is recognized as the second President of the Philippines. However, in January 2008, House Representative Rodolfo Valencia of Oriental Mindoro filed a bill seeking instead to declare General Miguel Malvar as the second Philippine President, having directly succeeded Aguinaldo in 1901. * Government Reorganization
To meet the demands of the newly established government set-up and in compliance with the provisions of the Tydings-McDuffie law, as well as the requirements of the Constitution, President Quezon, true to his pledge of "More Government and less politics", initiated a reorganization of the government bodies. To this effect, he established the Government Survey Board to study the existing institutions and in the light of the changed circumstances, make the necessary recommendations.
Early results were seen with the revamping of the Executive Department. Offices and bureaus were either merged with one another or outrightly abolished. Some new ones, however, were created. President Quezon ordered the transfer of the Philippines Constabulary for the Department of Interior, were placed under the Department of Finance. Among the innovations in the Executive Departments by the way of modification in functions ore new creations, were those of the National Defense, Agriculture and Commerce, Public Works and Communications, and Health and Public Welfare.
In Keeping with other exigencies posed by the Constitution, new offices and boards were created either by Executive Order or by appropriate legislative action. Among these were the Council of National Defense, the Board of National Relief, the Mindanao and Sulu Commission, and the Civil Service Board of Appeals. * Social justice program
Pledged to improve the lot of the Philippine working class and seeking the inspiration from the social doctrines of Leo XIII and Pius XI, aside from the authoritative treatises of the world's leading sociologists, President Quezon started a vigorous program of social justice, which he traduced into reality through appropriate executive measures and legislation obtained from the National Assembly.
Thus, a court of Industrial Relations was established by law to take cognizance disputes, under certain conditions, minimizing in this wise the inconveniences of the strikes and lockouts. A minimum wage law was enacted, as well as a law providing for a maximum of eight hours daily work and a Tenancy law for the Filipino farmers. Another effective measure was the creation of the position of Public Defenders to help indigent litigants in their court suits.
Commonwealth Act No. 20 authorize President Quezon to institute expropriation proceedings and/or acquire large landed estates to re-sell them at nominal cost and under easy terms to tenants thereon, thus enabling them to possess a lot and a home of their own. It was by virtue of this law that the Buenavista estate was acquired by the Commonwealth Government. President Quezon also launched a cooperative system of agriculture among the owners of the subdivided estates in order to alleviate their situation and provide them grater earnings.
In all these, President Quezon showed an earnest desire to follow the constitutional mandate on the promotion of social justice. * Economy
Upon the advent of the Commonwealth fortunately the economic condition of the country was stable and promising. With foreign trade reaching a peak of four hundred million pesos, the upward trend in business was accentuated and assumed the aspect of a boom. Exports crops were generally good and, with the exemption of tobacco, they were all in excellent demand in foreign trade markets. Indeed the value of the Philippine exports reached an all high of 320,896,000 pesos, the highest since 1929.
On the other hand, government revenues amounted to 76,675,000 pesos in 1936, as compared with the 1935 revenue of 65,000,000 pesos. Even the government companies, with the exemption of the Manila Railroad, managed to earn profits. Gold production increased about 37% and iron nearly 100%, while cement production augmented some 14%.
Notwithstanding this prosperous situation, the government had to meet certain economic problems besetting the country and which, if attended to, might jeopardize the very prosperity then being enjoyed. For this Purpose the National Economic Council was created by law. This body advised the government in economic and financial questions, including promotion of industries, diversification of crops and enterprises, tariffs, taxation, and formulation of an economic program in the contemplation of the future independent Republic of the Philippines.
Again, a law reorganized the National Development Company, the National Rice and Corn Company (NARIC) was created by law. It was given a capital of four million pesos.
Upon the recommendation of the National Economic Council, agricultural colonies were established in the country, especially in Korondal, Malig, and other appropriate sites in Mindanao. The government, moreover, offered facilities of every sort to encourage migration and settlement in those places. The Agricultural and Industrial Bank was established to aid small farmers with the convenient loans on easy terms. Attention was also devoted to soil survey, as well as to the proper disposition of lands of t the public domain. These steps and measures held much promise for our economic welfare.
Agrarian reform: When the Commonwealth Government was established, President Quezon implemented the Rice Share Tenancy Act of 1933. The purpose of this act was to regulate the share-tenancy contracts by establishing minimum standards. Primarily, the Act provided for better tenant-landlord relationship, a 50–50 sharing of the crop, regulation of interest to 10% per agricultural year, and a safeguard against arbitrary dismissal by the landlord. But the Act could only be implemented by petition of majority of the municipal councils was overwhelming, no petition for the Rice Share Tenancy Act was ever presented.
The major flaw of this law was that it could be used only when the majority of municipal councils in a province petitioned for it. Since landowners usually controlled such councils, no province ever asked that the law be applied. Therefore, Quezon ordered that the act be mandatory in all Central Luzon provinces. However, contracts were good only for one year. By simply refusing the renew their contract, landlords were able to ejects tenants. As a result, peasant organizations agitated in vain for a law that would make the contract automatically renewable for as long as the tenants fulfilled their obligations.
In 1936, this Act was amended to get rid of its loophole, but the landlords made its application relative and not absolute. Consequently, it was never carried out in spite of its good intentions. In fact, by 1939, thousands of peasants in Central Luzon were being threatened with wholesale eviction.
The desire of Quezon to placate both landlords and tenants pleased either. By early 1940s, thousands of tenants in Central Luzon were ejected from their farmlands and the rural conflict was more acute than ever.
Indeed, during the Commonwealth period, agrarian problems persisted. This motivated the government to incorporate a cardinal principle on social justice in the 1935 Constitution. Dictated by the social justice program of the government, expropriation of landed estates and other landholdings commenced. Likewise, the National Land Settlement Administration (NSLA) began an orderly settlement of public agricultural lands. At the outbreak of the Second World War, major settlement areas containing more than 65,000 hectares were already established. * Educational reforms
Turning his attention to the matter of education in the country, President Quezon by virtue of Executive Order No. 19, dated February 19, 1936, created the National Council of Education, with Rafael Palma, former President of the University of the Philippines, as its first chairman. Funds retained from the early approved Residence Certificate Law were devoted to the maintenance of the public schools all over the nation and the opening of many more to meet the needs of the young people. Indeed, by this time there were already 6,511 primary schools; 1039 intermediate schools; 133 secondary and special schools; and five junior colleges. The total number of pupils enrolled was 1,262,353, who were placed under charge of 28,485 schools teachers This year's appropriation for public education amounted to 14,566,850 pesos. The private institutions of learning, for their part, accommodated more than ninety seven thousand students, thus considerably aiding the government in solving the annual school crisis. To implement the pertinent constitutional provision, the Office of Adult Education was likewise created.
Women's suffrage: President Quezón initiated women's suffrage in the Philippines during the Commonwealth Era. As a result of the prolonged debate between the proponents of women's suffrage and their opponents, the Constitution finally provided that the issue be resolved by the women themselves in a plebiscite. If no less than 300,000 of them were to affirmatively vote in favour of the grant within two years would be deemed granted the country's women. Complying with this mandate, the government ordered a plebiscite to be held for the purpose on April 3, 1937.
Following a rather vigorous campaign, on the day of the plebiscite, the turnout of female voters was impressive. The affirmative votes numbered 447,725, as against 44,307 who opposed the grant.
National language: Another constitutional provision to be implemented by President Quezón's administration dealt with the question of The Philippines' national language. Following a year's study, the Institute of the National Language – established on 1936 – recommended that Tagalog be adopted as the basis for the national language. The proposal was well received, considering that the Director – the first to be appointed – at the time Jaime C. de Veyra, was an ethnic Visayan.
On December 1937, Quezón issued a proclamation approving the constitution made by the Institute and declaring that the adoption of the national language would take place two years hence. With the presidential approval, the Institute of National Language started to work on a grammar and dictionary of the language. * Council of State
In 1938, President Quezon enlarged the composition of the Council of State through Executive Order No. 44. This highest of advisory bodies to President was henceforth to be composed of the President, Vice-President, Senate President, House Speaker, Senate President pro tempore, House Speaker pro tempore, Majority Floor leader of both chambers of Congress, former Presidents of the Philippines, and some three to five prominent citizens. * 1938 midterm election
Philippine legislative election, 1938: The Elections for the Second National Assemblywere held on November 8, 1938, under a new law that allowed block voting which favored the governing Nacionalista Party. As expected all the 98 seats of the National Assembly went to the Nacionalistas. Jose Yulo who was Quezon's Secretary of Justice from 1934 to 1938, was elected Speaker.
The Second National Assembly embarked on passing legislations strengthening the economy, unfortunately the cloud of the Second World War loomed over the horizon. Certain laws passed by the First National Assembly were modified or repealed to meet existing realities. A controversial immigration law that set an annual limit of 50 immigrants per country which affected mostly Chinese and Japanese nationals escaping the Sino-Japanese War was passed in 1940. Since the law bordered on foreign relations it required the approval of the U.S. President which was nevertheless obtained. When the result of the 1939 census was published, the National Assembly updated the apportionment of legislative districts, which became the basis for the 1941 elections.
1939 plebiscite: On August 7, 1939, the United States Congress enacted a law embodying the recommendations submitted by the Joint Preparatory Commission on Philippine Affairs. Because the new law required an amendment of the Ordinance appended to the Constitution, a plebiscite was held on August 24, 1939. The amendment was carried by 1,339,453 votes against 49,633. * Third official language
On April 1, 1940, President Quezon officially authorized the printing and publication of the grammar and dictionary prepared by the Institute of the National Language. Likewise, the Chief Executive decreed that the national language was to be compulsorily taught in all the schools during the forthcoming academic term. For its part, the National Assembly enacted Law No. 570 raising the national language elaborated by the institute to the status of official language of the Philippines, at par with English and Spanish, effective July 4, 1946, upon the establishment of the Philippine Republic.
1940 plebiscite : Philippine constitutional plebiscite, 1940: Coincident with the local elections for the 1940, another plebiscite was held this time to ratify the proposed amendments to the Constitution regarding the restoration of the bicameral legislature, the presidential term, which was to be fixed at four years with one re-election; and the establishment of an independent Commission on Elections. With the Nacionalista Party, which had proposed said amendment in their convention, working hard under the leadership of its President, Speaker Jose Yulo, the amendments were overwhelmingly ratified by the electorate. Speaker Yulo and Assemblyman Dominador Tan traveled to the United States to obtain President Franklin D. Roosevelt's approval, which was given on December 2, 1940. Two days later President Quezon proclaimed the amendments.
1941 presidential election: Philippine presidential election, 1941: Quezón had originally been barred by the Philippine constitution from seeking re-election. However, in 1940, constitutional amendments were ratified allowing him to seek re-election for a fresh term ending in 1943. In the 1941 presidential elections, Quezón was re-elected over former Senator Juan Sumulong with nearly 82% of the vote.
Second term (1941–1944): Jewish refugees: In a notable humanitarian act, Quezón, in cooperation with United States High Commissioner Paul V. McNutt, facilitated the entry into the Philippines of Jewish refugees fleeing fascist regimes in Europe. Quezón was also instrumental in promoting a project to resettle the refugees in Mindanao.
Government-in-exile: After the Japanese invasion of the Philippines during World War II he evacuated to Corregidor, then the Visayas and Mindanao, and upon the invitation of the US government, was further evacuated to Australia and then to the United States, where he established the Commonwealth government in exile with headquarters in Washington, D.C.. There, he served as a member of the Pacific War Council, signed the declaration of the United Nations against the Axis Powers, and wrote his autobiography (The Good Fight, 1946).
To carry on the government duties in exile, President Quezon hired the entire floor of one of the wing of the Shoreham Hotel to accommodate his family and his office. On the other hand, the offices of the government were established at the quarters of the Philippine Resident Commissioner, Joaquin Elizalde. The latter was made a member of President's wartime Cabinet. Others likewise appointed were Brigadier-General Carlos P. Romulo, as Secretary of the Department of Information and Public Relations, and Jaime Hernandez as Auditor General.
On June 2, 1942, President Quezon addressed the United States House of Representatives, impressing upon them the vital necessity of relieving the Philippine front. Before the Senate, later, the Philippine President reiterated the same message and urged the senators to adopt the slogan "Remember Bataan". Despite his precarious state of health, President Quezon roamed the States to deliver timely and rousing speeches calculated to keep the Philippine war uppermost in the minds of the American nation. * Talks of Post-war Philippines
On the occasion of his first birthday celebration in the United States, President Quezon broadcast as radio message to the Philippine residents in Hawaii, who contributed to the celebration by purchasing four million pesos worth of World War II bonds. Further showing the Philippine government's cooperation with the war effort, President Quezon officially offered the U.S Army a Philippine infantry regiment, which was authorized by the U.S. Department of War to train in California. He also had the Philippine government acquire Elizalde's yacht, which, renamed "Bataan" and totally manned by the Philippine officers and crew, was donated to the United States for use in the war.
Early in November 1942, President Quezon held conferences with President Roosevelt to work out a plan for the creation of a joint commission to study the economic conditions of post-war Philippines. Eighteen months later, the United States Congress would pass an Act creating the Philippine Rehabilitation Commission as an outcome of such talks between the two Presidents.
Quezon-Osmeña Impasse: By 1943, the Philippine Government-in-exile was faced with a serious crisis. According to the 1935 Constitution, the official term of President Quezon was to expire on the December 30, 1943 and Vice-President Sergio Osmeña would automatically succeed him in the Presidency. This eventuality was brought to the attention of President Quezon by Osmeña himself, who wrote the former to this effect. Aside from replying to this letter informing Vice-President Osmeña that it would not be wise and prudent to effect any such change under the circumstances, President Quezon issued a press release along the same line. Osmeña then requested the opinion of U.S. Attorney General Homer Cummings, who upheld Osmeña's view as more in keeping the law. Quezon, however, remained adamant. He accordingly sought President Roosevelt's decision. The latter choose to remain aloof from the controversy, suggesting instead that the Philippine officials themselves solve the impasse.
A cabinet meeting was then convened by President Quezon. Aside from Quezon and Osmeña, others present in this momentous meeting were Resident Commissioner Joaquin Elizalde, Brig.Gen.Carlos P. Romulo, and Cabinet Secretaries Andres Soriano and Jaime Hernandez. Following a spirited discussion, the Cabinet adopted Elizalde's opinion favorable the decision and announced his plan to retire in California.
After the meeting, however, Vice-President Osmeña approached the President and broached his plan to ask the American Congress to suspend the constitutional provisions for presidential succession until after the Philippines should have been liberated. This legal way out was agreeable to President Quezon and the members of his Cabinet. Proper steps were taken to carry out the proposal. Sponsored by Senator Tydings and Congressman Bell, the pertinent Resolution was unanimously approved by the Senate on a voice vote and passed the House of Representatives by the a vote of 181 to 107 on November 10, 1943.
Death: Quezón suffered from tuberculosis and spent his last years in a "cure cottage" in Saranac Lake, New York, where he died on August 1, 1944. He was initially buried in Arlington National Cemetery. His body was later carried by the USS Princeton and re-interred in Manila at the Manila North Cemetery before being moved to Quezon City within the monument at the Quezon Memorial Circle.
Personal life: thumb|left|150px|Baler, Aurora Quezon Memorial Park/Museo de Baler, Quezon's birthplace.]]
Quezón was married to his first cousin, Aurora Aragón Quezón, and had four children: María Aurora "Baby" Quezón (1919–1949), María Zeneida "Nini" Quezón-Avancena (born 1921), Luisa Corazón Paz "Nenita" Quezón (1923–1923) and Manuel L. "Nonong" Quezón, Jr. (1926–1998). His grandson, Manuel L. "Manolo" Quezón III (born 1970), a prominent writer and current undersecretary of the Presidential Communications Development and Strategic Planning Office, was named after him.
In their column on the pronunciation of names, The Literary Digest wrote "The President and his wife pronounce the name keh'-zon. The pronunciation keh-son', although widely heard in the Philippine Islands, is incorrect." (Charles Earle Funk, What's the Name, Please?, Funk & Wagnalls, 1936.)
Electoral history: Philippine presidential election, 1935: Philippine presidential election, 1941: Quotes: "My loyalty to my party ends where my loyalty to my country begins."
"Social Justice is far more beneficial when applied as a matter of sentiment, and not of law."
"I would rather have a country run like hell by Filipinos than a country run like heaven by the Americans, because however a bad Filipino government might be, we can always change it."
"Pray for me so that I can return to the Philippines. I feel so weak that I'm afraid I cannot make it"
"I'd rather be called "Quezón the Letranite" than "Quezón the President"."
"The Latin American people believed and feel that we Filipinos form past of that vast family, the children of Spain. Thus, although Spain ceased to govern those countries many years ago and although another nation is sovereign in the Philippines, those Latin-American peoples feel themselves as brothers to the people of the Philippines. It is the Spanish language that still binds us to those peoples, and the Spanish language will bind us to those peoples eternally if we have the wisdom and patriotism of preserving it."
Civics and Ethics Code: As promulgated by the Manuel L. Quezón
The First President of the Philippine Commonwealth
1. Have faith in Divine Providence that guides the destinies of men and nations.
2. Love your country for it is the home of your people, the seat of your affections, and the sources of your happiness and well-being. It's defense is your primary duty. Be ready at all times to sacrifice and die for it if necessary.
3. Respect the Constitution which is the expression of your sovereign will. The government is your government. It has been established for your safety and welfare. Obey the laws and see that they are observed by all and that public officials comply with their duties.
4. Pay your taxes willingly and promptly. Citizenship implies not only rights but also obligations.
5. Safeguard the purity of suffrage and abide by the decisions of the majority.
6. Love and respect your parents. It is your duty to serve them gratefully and well.
7. Value your honor as you value your life. Poverty with honor is preferable to wealth with dishonor.
8. Be truthful and be honest in thought and in action. Be just and charitable, courteous but dignified in your dealings with your fellowmen.
9. Lead a clean and frugal life. Do not indulge in frivolity or pretense. Be simple in your dress and modest in your behavior.
10. Live up to the noble traditions of our people. Venerate the memory of our heroes. Their lives point the way to duty and honor.
11. Be industrious. Be not afraid or ashamed to do manual labor. Productive toil is conductive to economic security and adds to the wealth of the nation.
12. Rely on your own efforts for your progress and happiness. Be not easily discouraged. Persevere in the pursuit of your legitimate ambitions.
13. Do your work cheerfully, thoroughly, and well. Work badly done is worse than work undone. Do not leave for tomorrow what you can do today.
14. Contribute to the welfare of your community and promote social justice. You do not live for yourselves and family alone. You are part of society to which you owe definite responsibilities.
15. Cultivate the habit of using goods made in the Philippines. Patronize the products and trades of your countrymen.
16. Use and develop our natural resources and conserve them for posterity. They are the inalienable heritage of our people. Do not traffic with your citizenship.
The vital lesson we must learn from our past is that we can triumph if we only persevere. The Filipino people, by grit, hard work, and faith in God, will march forward to fulfill their destiny.
Legacy: * A province, a city, a bridge, a private university in Manila and many streets are named after him. The highest honor conferred by the Republic of the Philippines is the Quezon Service Cross. He is also memorialized on Philippine currency. He appears on the Philippine twenty peso bill. He also appears on two commemorative one peso coins, one alongside Frank Murphy and another with Franklin Delano Roosevelt. * Recording of speech
President Quezón delivered a speech entitled "" in English and in Spanish. According to Manuel L. Quezón III, the speech was "recorded in the 1920s, when he was first diagnosed with tuberculosis and assumed he didn't have much longer to live." * References
date: November 2011: *
Notes: Wikisource author: reflist:
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Manuel L. Quezon
Naissance en 1878 | Décès en 1944 | Président des Philippines | Chef d'État ou de gouvernement de la Seconde Guerre mondiale | Personnalité morte en exil | Leader indépendantiste
Manuel Luis Quezon y Molina (né à Baler le 19 août 1878, mort à New York le 1er août: 1944) était un homme politique philippin. Artisan du processus d'indépendance du pays, il fut le premier président du Commonwealth des Philippines. Il est considéré dans ce pays comme le second président après Emilio Aguinaldo, ce dernier n'étant toutefois pas reconnu comme tel par les États-Unis.
Biographie : Manuel Luis Quezon est né de parents métis espagnols, son père étant sergent dans l'armée espagnole au temps de la colonisation. Durant la guerre américano-philippine, il est aide de camp d'Emilio Aguinaldo, chef de la Première République des Philippines.
Après le conflit, qui se termine par l'échec du mouvement indépendantiste, Quezon reprend ses études et devient avocat en 1903. En 1906, il est élu gouverneur de Tayabas. En 1907, il est élu à la première assemblée des Philippines, mise en place par l'administration américaine. De 1909 à 1916, il est l'un des deux représentants des Philippines à la Chambre des représentants des États-Unis. Son action de lobbying contribue au passage, le 29 août 1916, de la Loi Jones (Jones Law), qui établit aux Philippines l'embryon d'un gouvernement indépendant, ainsi qu'un système parlementaire bicaméral.
Élu sénateur en 1916, il mène aux États-Unis une succession de missions qui aboutissent, le 24 mars 1934, au passage de l'acte Tydings-McDuffie, loi fédérale garantissant l'indépendance des Philippines après une période de transition de dix ans, et l'établissement d'une constitution provisoire.
En 1935, il est élu président du Commonwealth des Philippines avec 68% des voix, face à son ancien mentor Emilio Aguinaldo. Il nomme ensuite la première Cour suprême des Philippines, réorganisée pour ne compter que des membres philippins. Dans les années 1930, il fonde une nouvelle ville, destinée à devenir la capitale du pays, et qui prend ensuite le nom de Quezon City. Une modification de la constitution lui permet de se représenter en 1941, et il est réélu avec 82% des voix.
L'invasion japonaise le force à se réfugier sur Corregidor aux côtés de Douglas MacArthur. Il est ensuite évacué vers l'Australie, puis les États-Unis. Il participe à l'effort de guerre au sein du Pacific War Council, son gouvernement en exil ayant ses bureaux à Washington D.C..
Atteint de tuberculose, il meurt en 1944 à New York sans revoir les Philippines libérées du joug japonais. Après avoir été enterré au cimetière national d'Arlington, son corps est transféré au Cementerio del Norte puis finalement au Quezon Memorial Shrine, à Quezon City. Sergio Osmeña lui succéde à la présidence. L'indépendance pleine et entière de la République des Philippines entre en vigueur en 1946, deux ans après la mort de son principal artisan.
La province de Quezon et la ville de Quezon City (qui n'est pas située dans la province homonyme) lui doivent leurs noms.
Lien externe : * en:
Références : *
Palette Présidents des Philippines:
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إقفار
أمراض
اقفار (Ischemia) هو قصور نسبيّ أو مطلق لإمداد الدّم (التروية الدموية) إلى عضو ما التاجم عن الدفق غير الكافي للدم إليه, وينشـأ بسبب تضيق الأوعية الدّمويّة أو انسدادها. وعندما يحدث في الأوعية التي تغذي عضلة القلب فانها تؤدي إلى الذّبحة الصّدريّة.
التأثير على الخلية : تؤدي عملية الافقار إلى نقص الأكسجين في أنسجة الجسم (بالانجليزية Hypoxia)، كما تؤدي إلى النقص في ايصال المواد الأساسية اللازمة في عملية تكون الجلوكوز
بذرة صحة وطب: أمراض القلب:
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Ischemia
Angiology | Abdominal pain
dateSeptember 2009: In medicine, ischemia (from Greek ισχαιμία, ischaimía; isch- root denoting a restriction or thinning or to make or grow thin/lean, haema blood) is a restriction in blood supply, generally due to factors in the blood vessels, with resultant damage or dysfunction of tissue. It may also be spelled ischaemia or ischæmia. It also means local anemia in a given part of a body sometimes resulting from congestion (such as vasoconstriction, thrombosis or embolism).
Ischemic means having or showing symptoms of ischemia, while nonischemic means "not related to or showing signs of ischemia". * Mechanism
Rather than hypoxia (a more general term denoting a shortage of oxygen, usually a result of lack of oxygen in the air being breathed), ischemia is an absolute or relative shortage of the blood supply to an organ, i.e. a shortage of oxygen, glucose and other blood-borne fuels. A relative shortage means the mismatch of blood supply (oxygen/fuel delivery) and blood request for adequate metabolism of tissue. Ischemia results in tissue damage because of a lack of oxygen and nutrients . Ultimately, this can cause severe damage because of the potential for a build-up of metabolic wastes.
Ischemia can also be described as an inadequate flow of blood to a part of the body, caused by constriction or blockage of the blood vessels supplying it. Ischemia of heart muscle produces angina pectoris.
This can be due to * Atherosclerosis (lipid-laden plaques obstructing the lumen of arteries) * Hypoglycemia (lower than normal level of glucose) * Tachycardia (abnormally rapid beating of the heart) * Hypotension (low blood pressure, e.g. in septic shock, heart failure) * Thromboembolism (blood clots) * Outside compression of a blood vessel, e.g. by a tumor or in the case of superior mesenteric artery syndrome * Embolism (foreign bodies in the circulation, e.g. amniotic fluid embolism) * Sickle cell disease (abnormally shaped red blood cells) * Induced g-forces which restrict the blood flow and force the blood to the extremities of the body, as in acrobatics and military flying * Localized extreme cold, such as by frostbite or improper cold compression therapy * Tourniquet application * An increased level of glutamate receptor stimulation * arteriovenous malformations, and peripheral artery occlusive disease.
The heart, the kidneys, and the brain are among the organs that are the most quickly damaged by loss of blood flow for any period of time. * Consequences
Since oxygen is mainly bound to hemoglobin in red blood cells, insufficient blood supply causes tissue to become hypoxic, or, if no oxygen is supplied at all, anoxic. In very aerobic tissues such as heart and brain, at body temperature necrosis due to ischemia usually takes about 3–4 minutes before becoming irreversible. Administration of "clot-buster" drugs such as Alteplase (given for stroke and heart attack) within this time period, together with some collateral circulation to the ischemic area is a main factor in patient recoveries. However, complete cessation of oxygenation of such organs for more than 20 minutes typically results in irreversible damage.
Ischemia is a feature of heart diseases, transient ischemic attacks, cerebrovascular accidents, ruptured sensitive to inadequate blood supply. Ischemia in brain tissue, for example due to stroke or head injury, causes a process called the ischemic cascade to be unleashed, in which proteolytic enzymes, reactive oxygen species, and other harmful chemicals damage and may ultimately kill brain tissue.
Restoration of blood flow after a period of ischemia can actually be more damaging than the ischemia. Reintroduction of oxygen causes a greater production of damaging free radicals as well as allowing, via removal of the extracellular acidotic conditions, influx of calcium and thus calcium overloading. Overall this results in reperfusion injury which can result in potentially fatal cardiac arrhythmias, also necrosis can be greatly accelerated. * Variations
There are various types of ischemia, organized by the organ experiencing the ischemic insult. The mechanism of ischemia may differ based on the organ involved. * Cardiac ischemia
Cardiac ischemia may be asymptomatic or may cause chest pain, known as angina pectoris. It occurs when the heart muscle, or myocardium, receives insufficient blood flow. This most frequently results from atherosclerosis, which is the long-term accumulation of cholesterol-rich plaques in the coronary arteries. Ischemic heart disease is the most common cause of death in most Western countries and a major cause of hospital admissions.
Bowel: Both large and small bowel can be affected by ischemia. Ischemia of the large intestine may result in an inflammatory process known as ischemic colitis. Ischemia of the small bowel is called mesenteric ischemia.
Brain: Brain ischemia is insufficient blood flow to the brain, and can be acute (i.e., rapid) or chronic (i.e., long-lasting). Acute ischemic stroke is a neurologic emergency that may be reversible if treated rapidly. Chronic ischemia of the brain may result in a form of dementia called vascular dementia.
Limb: Acute limb ischaemia: Lack of blood flow to a limb results in acute limb ischemia.
Cutaneous: Reduced blood flow to the skin layers may result in mottling or uneven, patchy discoloration of the skin
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Ischémie
Terme médical
Une ischémie /iskemi/ est la diminution de l'apport sanguin artériel à un organe. Cette diminution entraîne essentiellement une baisse de l'oxygénation des tissus de l'organe en dessous de ses besoins (hypoxie), et la perturbation, voire l'arrêt de sa fonction.
Mécanismes: L'ischémie peut avoir diverses causes : * caillot sanguin obstruant une artère (thrombose), * plaque d'athérome, * hémorragie ou hypoperfusion empêchant certains tissus d'être correctement alimentés, * compression d'une artère par un objet extérieur (écrasement d'un membre, garrot) ou par un phénomène interne (hématome, tumeur, épanchement d'un liquide).
L'ischémie peut être réversible et n'entraîner qu'une gêne limitée. Elle peut être irréversible et peut conduire à l'infarctus de l'organe, c'est-à-dire à la mort d'une partie (notion de « pénombre ischémique » ) ou de la totalité de celui-ci. Les deux cas les plus critiques sont évidemment les ischémies touchant le cerveau ou le muscle cardiaque.
L'ischémie aiguë d'un membre, consécutive à l'oblitération brutale de l'axe artériel de ce dernier, est une urgence vasculaire à pronostic vital engagé (mortalité d'environ 20 %).
Elle survient le plus souvent après une thrombose ou une embolie. Il en résulte une souffrance tissulaire due à l'anoxie.
Conséquences : * Les conséquences locales immédiates sont une atteinte des nerfs périphériques en 2 à 5 heures, suivie d'une rhabdomyolyse dans les 6 heures. * L'atteinte cutanée n'est décelable que tardivement et indique souvent des lésions irréversibles. * Si elle touche le cerveau et est due à une hypertension chronique, elle est à long terme un facteur de risque de démence et de maladie d'Alzheimer (MA). Certains se demandent même si la MA n'est pas une maladie vasculaire plutôt que neurodégénérative , notamment liée à une hypoperfusion cérébrale et à une mauvaise irrigation du cerveau , comme dans d'autres formes de démence peut-être. * Manifestations
Elle peut se manifester par : * des douleurs au niveau de l'organe atteint (angine de poitrine pour le cœur, claudication intermittente pour une jambe, syndrome des loges pour les muscles...); * un mauvais fonctionnement de l'organe atteint (insuffisance cardiaque pour le cœur...) * maux de tête, troubles du comportement, perte de motricité ou perte de connaissance quand l'organe atteint est le cerveau * Principes de traitement
Le traitement vise essentiellement à rétablir un débit artériel suffisant vers l'organe.
On propose soit : * la correction de l'anomalie artérielle responsable : angioplastie, chirurgie vasculaire, ... ; * l'administration de médicaments qui vont dilater les artères.
Le traitement préventif consiste à empêcher la récidive des lésions sur l'artère, ou, au moins, empêcher leur progression : * antiagrégant plaquettaire ; * lutte contre les facteurs de risque de l'athérome.
Dans tous les cas, l'entraînement régulier de l'organe atteint permet de limiter de manière notable la gène occasionnée par l'ischémie : marche en cas d'artérite des membres inférieurs, rééducation cardiaque. * Cas particulier
La diminution du débit artériel pulmonaire, dans le cadre par exemple d'une embolie pulmonaire n'entraîne pas d'ischémie de cet organe, le sang étant dans ce cas carbonaté (pauvre en oxygène), même s'il circule dans une artère. * Notes et références
Références: : Articles connexes * Système vasculaire * Vaisseaux sanguins * Ischémie myocardique * Maladie d'Alzheimer * Démence
Portail médecine:
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