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+{"id": "1", "revid": "1475106", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=1", "title": "April", "text": "April (Apr.) is the fourth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, and comes between March and May. It is one of four months to have 30 days.\nApril always begins on the same day of the week as July, and additionally, January in leap years. April always ends on the same day of the week as December.\nThe Month.\nApril comes between March and May, making it the fourth month of the year. It also comes first in the year out of the four months that have 30 days, as June, September and November are later in the year.\nApril begins on the same day of the week as July every year and on the same day of the week as January in leap years. April ends on the same day of the week as December every year, as each other's last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.\nIn common years, April starts on the same day of the week as October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years, April finishes on the same day of the week as July of the previous year, and in leap years, February and October of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, April starts on the same day of the week as January of the previous year, and in leap years and years immediately after that, April finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year.\nIn years immediately before common years, April starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, June of the following year. In years immediately before common years, April finishes on the same day of the week as September of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and June of the following year.\nApril is a spring month in the Northern Hemisphere and an autumn/fall month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of October in the other.\nIt is unclear as to where April got its name. A common theory is that it comes from the Latin word \"aperire\", meaning \"to open\", referring to flowers opening in spring. Another theory is that the name could come from Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love. It was originally the second month in the old Roman Calendar, before the start of the new year was put to January 1.\nQuite a few festivals are held in this month. In many Southeast Asian cultures, new year is celebrated in this month (including Songkran). In Western Christianity, Easter can be celebrated on a Sunday between March 22 and April 25. In Orthodox Christianity, it can fall between April 4 and May 8. At the end of the month, Central and Northern European cultures celebrate Walpurgis Night on April 30, marking the transition from winter into summer.\nApril in poetry.\nPoets use \"April\" to mean the end of winter. For example: \"April showers bring May flowers.\""}
+{"id": "2", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=2", "title": "August", "text": "August (Aug.) is the eighth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between July and September. It has 31 days. It is named after the Roman emperor Augustus Caesar.\nAugust does not begin on the same day of the week as any other month in common years, but begins on the same day of the week as February in leap years. August always ends on the same day of the week as November.\nThe Month.\nThis month was first called \"Sextilis\" in Latin, because it was the sixth month in the old Roman calendar. The Roman calendar began in March about 735\u00a0BC with Romulus. October was the eighth month. August was the eighth month when January or February were added to the start of the year by King Numa Pompilius about 700\u00a0BC. Or, when those two months were moved from the end to the beginning of the year by the decemvirs about 450\u00a0BC (Roman writers disagree). In 153 BC January 1 was determined as the beginning of the year.\nAugust is named for Augustus Caesar who became Roman consul in this month. The month has 31 days because Julius Caesar added two days when he created the Julian calendar in 45 BC. August is after July and before September.\nAugust, in either hemisphere, is the seasonal equivalent of February in the other. In the Northern hemisphere it is a summer month and it is a winter month in the Southern hemisphere.\nNo other month in common years begins on the same day of the week as August, but August begins on the same day of the week as February in leap years. August ends on the same day of the week as November every year, as each other's last days are 13 weeks (91 days) apart.\nIn common years, August starts on the same day of the week as March and November of the previous year, and in leap years, June of the previous year. In common years, August finishes on the same day of the week as March and June of the previous year, and in leap years, September of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, August starts on the same day of the week as February of the previous year.\nIn years immediately before common years, August starts on the same day of the week as May of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, October of the following year. In years immediately before common years, August finishes on the same day of the week as May of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, February and October of the following year."}
+{"id": "6", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=6", "title": "Art", "text": "Art is a creative activity. It produces a product, an object. Art is a diverse range of human activities in creating visual, performing subjects, and expressing the author's thoughts. The product of art is called a work of art, for others to experience.\nSome art is useful in a practical sense, such as a sculptured clay bowl that can be used. That kind of art is sometimes called a \"craft\".\nThose who make art are called artists. They hope to affect the emotions of people who experience it. Some people find art relaxing, exciting or informative. Some say people are driven to make art due to their inner creativity.\n\"The arts\" is a much broader term. It includes drawing, painting, sculpting, photography, performance art, dance, music, poetry, prose and theatre.\nTypes of art.\nArt is divided into the plastic arts, where something is made, and the performing arts, where something is done by humans in action. The other division is between pure arts, done for themselves, and practical arts, done for a practical purpose, but with artistic content.\nWhat \"art\" means.\nSome people say that art is a product or item that is made with the intention of stimulating the human senses as well as the human mind, spirit and soul. Art can also be an Idea or a concept that is expressed visually. An artwork is normally judged by how much impact it has on people, the number of people who can relate to it, and how much they appreciate it. Some people also get inspired.\nThe first and broadest sense of \"art\" means \"arrangement\" or \"to arrange.\" In this sense, art is created when someone arranges things found in the world into a new or different design or form; or when someone arranges colors or forms next to each other to make an image or just to make a pretty or interesting look. Art can also be an existing object that is presented and called art, this is called re contextualizing. This is often done by placing the object in a frame or a special setting like a Gallery were the new setting gives the object a different meaning or message. (Marcel Duchamp, \"Fountain,\" 1917)\nThe difference between Art and design can be subjective to the viewer and hard to distinguish. Art is often said to have a message or a meaning and design is about only the appearance.\nArt may express emotion. Artists may feel a certain emotion or message and wish to express it by creating something that means something to them. Most of the art created in this case is made for the artist rather than an audience. However, if an audience is able to connect with the emotion or the message as well, then the art work may become publicly successful.\nHistory of art.\nThere are sculptures, cave painting and rock art dating from the Upper Paleolithic era.\nAll of the great ancient civilizations, such as Ancient Egypt, India, China, Greece, Rome and Persia had works and styles of art. In the Middle Ages, most of the art in Europe showed people from the Bible in paintings, stained-glass windows, and mosaic tile floors and walls.\nIslamic art includes geometric patterns, Islamic calligraphy, and architecture. In India and Tibet, painted sculptures, dance, and religious painting were done. In China, arts included jade carving, bronze, pottery, poetry, calligraphy, music, painting, drama, and fiction. There are many Chinese artistic styles, which are usually named after the ruling dynasty.\nIn Europe, after the Middle Ages, there was a \"Renaissance\" which means \"rebirth\". People rediscovered science and artists were allowed to paint subjects other than religious subjects. People like Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci still painted religious pictures, but they also now could paint mythological pictures too. These artists also invented perspective where things in the distance look smaller in the picture. This was new because in the Middle Ages people would paint all the figures close up and just overlapping each other. These artists used nudity regularly in their art.\nIn the late 1800s, artists in Europe, responding to Modernity created many new painting styles such as Classicism, Romanticism, Realism, and Impressionism. The history of twentieth century art includes Expressionism, Fauvism, Cubism, Dadaism, Surrealism, and Minimalism.\nRoles of art.\nIn some societies, people think that art belongs to the person who made it. They think that the artist put his or her \"talent\" and industry into the art. In this view, the art is the property of the artist, protected by copyright.\nIn other societies, people think that art belongs to no one. They think that society has put its social capital into the artist and the artist's work. In this view, society is a collective that has made the art, through the artist.\nFunctions of art.\nThe functions of art include:\n1) Cognitive function\n2) Aesthetic function\n3) Prognostic function\n4) Recreation function\n5) Value function\n6) Didactic function"}
+{"id": "8", "revid": "1467751", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=8", "title": "A", "text": "A is the first letter of the English alphabet. The small letter, a, is used as a lowercase vowel. \nOverview.\nWhen it is spoken, \u0101 is said as a long a, a diphthong of \u0115 and y. A is similar to Alpha of the Greek alphabet. That is not surprising, because it means the same sound. \"Alpha and Omega\" (the last letter of the Greek alphabet) means from beginning to the end. In musical notation, the letter A is the symbol of a note in the scale, below B and above G.\nA is the letter that was used to represent a team in an old TV show, The A-Team. A capital a is written \"A\". Use a capital A at the start of a sentence if writing. A is also a musical note, sometimes referred to as \"La\".\nOrigin.\nThe letter 'A' was in the Phoenician alphabet's aleph. This symbol came from a simple picture of an ox head. \nThis Phoenician letter helped make the basic blocks of later types of the letter. The Greeks later modified this letter and used it as their letter alpha. The Greek alphabet was used by the Etruscans in northern Italy, and the Romans later modified the Etruscan alphabet for their own language.\nUsing the letter.\nThe letter A has six different sounds. It can sound like \u00e6, in the International Phonetic Alphabet, such as the word \"pad\". Other sounds of this letter are in the words \"father\", which developed into another sound, such as in the word \"ace\".\nUse in mathematics.\nIn algebra, the letter \"A\" along with other letters at the beginning of the alphabet is used to represent known quantities.\nIn geometry, capital A, B, C etc. are used to label line segments, lines, etc. Also, A is typically used as one of the letters to label an angle in a triangle.\nIts letter shape is referred to abstractly in Sir William Vallance Douglas Hodge's 5th postulate, the basis for, as one of the Millennium Prize Problems, the Hodge Conjecture."}
+{"id": "9", "revid": "251904", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=9", "title": "Air", "text": "Air is the Earth's atmosphere. Air is a mixture of many gases and tiny dust particles. It is the clear gas in which living things live and breathe. It has an indefinite shape and volume. It has mass and weight, because it is matter. The weight of air creates atmospheric pressure. There is no air in outer space.\nEarth's atmosphere is composed of about 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent oxygen, 0.9 percent argon, and 0.1 percent other gases.\nAnimals live and need to breathe the oxygen in the atmosphere. In breathing, the lungs put oxygen into the blood, and send back carbon dioxide to the air. Plants need the carbon dioxide in the air to live. They give off the oxygen that we breathe. Without it animals die of asphyxia.\nAir can be polluted by some gases (such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides), smoke, and ash. This air pollution causes various problems including smog, acid rain and global warming. It can damage people's health and the environment. There are debates about whether or not to act upon climate change, but soon enough the Earth will heat up too much, causing it to become too hot and not support life. Some say fewer people would die of cold weather, and that is true but there is already a huge amount of people dying from heat and that number is and will keep increasing more and more.\nSince early times, air has been used to create technology. Ships moved with sails and windmills used the mechanical motion of air. Aircraft use propellers to move air over a wing, which allows them to fly. Pneumatics use air pressure to move things. Since the late 1900s, air power is also used to generate electricity.\nAir is invisible: it cannot be seen by the eye, though a shimmering in hot air can be seen.\nAir is one of the 4 classical elements (water, air, earth and fire).\nMain history.\nOriginal atmosphere.\nAt first it was mainly a hydrogen atmosphere. It has changed dramatically on several occasions\u2014for example, the Great Oxygenation Event 2.4 billion years ago, greatly increased oxygen in the atmosphere from practically no oxygen to levels closer to present day. Humans have also contributed to significant changes in atmospheric composition through air pollution, especially since industrialisation, leading to rapid environmental change such as ozone depletion and global warming.\nSecond atmosphere.\nOut gassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases.\nThird atmosphere.\nThe constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide was transferred to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago. The Great Oxygenation Event is shown by the end of the banded iron formations."}
+{"id": "12", "revid": "9554077", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=12", "title": "Autonomous communities of Spain", "text": "Spain is divided in 17 parts called autonomous communities. \"Autonomous\" means that each of these autonomous communities has its own executive, legislative, and judicial powers. These are similar to, but \"not\" the same as, states in the United States of America, for example.\nSpain has fifty smaller parts called provinces. In 1978 these parts came together, making the autonomous communities. \nBefore then, some of these provinces were together but were broken. The groups that were together once before are called \"historic communities\": Catalonia, Basque Country, Galicia and Andalusia.\nThe Spanish language is the sole official language in every autonomous community but six, where Spanish is co-official with other languages, as follows:\nList of the autonomous communities, with their Capital city (the place where the government has its offices):\nSpain also has two cities on the north coast of Africa: Ceuta and Melilla. They are called \"autonomous cities\" and have simultaneously the majority of the power of an autonomous community and also power of provinces and power of municipalities."}
+{"id": "13", "revid": "1477024", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=13", "title": "Alan Turing", "text": "Alan Mathison Turing (London, 23 June 1912 \u2013 Wilmslow, Cheshire, 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician and computer scientist. He is known as the father of computer science. He was born in Maida Vale, London.\nEarly life.\nTuring was born in Maida Vale, London. His father came from a Scottish merchant family. His mother, Ethel Sara Stoney, was the daughter of an engineer from Ireland. Turing was very good at math when he was young.\nEducation.\nHe went to school at St. Michael\u2019s in St Leonards-on-Sea. Later, he studied at Cambridge University and Princeton University.\nCareer.\nIn 1936, Turing wrote about a theoretical machine called the Turing machine. This idea became important in the development of computers. He also created the idea of a computer program.\nDuring World War II, Turing worked at Bletchley Park. He helped break secret German messages made by the Enigma machine. This helped the Allies win the war and may have saved millions of lives.\nHe worked for the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS), using cryptanalysis to break Nazi codes. Later, he helped design the Automatic Computing Engine (ACE), one of the first stored-program computers. He presented the design in 1946.\nTuring was also interested in artificial intelligence. He proposed the Turing test to check if a machine can \"think\".\nPrivate life.\nTuring was homosexual. In 1952, he admitted to having sex with a man. At that time, being gay was illegal in the UK. He was convicted and had to choose between prison or taking hormones to reduce his sex drive. He chose the medicine. This caused him health problems like impotence and breast growth.\nDeath.\nIn 1954, Turing died from cyanide poisoning. Some say he ate a poisoned apple, but the apple was never tested. It is believed he died by suicide.\nLegacy.\nIn 2009, a petition asked the UK Government to say sorry for how Turing was treated. Prime Minister Gordon Brown later gave an apology and called Turing's treatment \"appalling\".\nIn 2013, Queen Elizabeth II gave him a royal pardon.\nThe \u201cTuring Law\u201d was later passed to pardon other men who were punished under old anti-gay laws."}
+{"id": "14", "revid": "10500383", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=14", "title": "Alanis Morissette", "text": "Alanis Nadine Morissette (born June 1, 1974) is a Grammy Award-winning Canadian-American singer and songwriter. She was born in Ottawa, Canada. She began singing in Canada as a teenager in 1990. In 1995, she became popular all over the world.\nAs a young child in Canada, Morissette began to act on television, including 5 episodes of the long-running series, \"You Can't Do That on Television\". Her first album was released only in Canada in 1990.\nHer first international album was \"Jagged Little Pill\", released in 1995. It was a rock-influenced album. \"Jagged\" has sold more than 33 million units globally. It became the best-selling debut album in music history. Her next album, \"Supposed Former Infatuation Junkie\", was released in 1998. It was a success as well. Morissette took up producing duties for her next albums, which include \"Under Rug Swept\", \"So-Called Chaos\" and \"Flavors of Entanglement\". Morissette has sold more than 60 million albums worldwide.\nShe also acted in several movies, including Kevin Smith's \"Dogma\", where she played God.\nAbout her life.\nAlanis Morissette was born in Riverside Hospital of Ottawa in Ottawa, Ontario. Her father is French-Canadian. Her mother is from Hungary. She has an older brother, Chad, and a twin brother, Wade, who is 12 minutes younger than she is. Her parents had worked as teachers at a military base in Lahr, Germany.\nMorissette became an American citizen in 2005. She is still a Canadian citizen.\nOn May 22, 2010, Morissette married rapper Mario \"MC Souleye\" Treadway.\nJagged Little Pill.\nMorissette has had many albums. Her 1995 album \"Jagged Little Pill\" became a very popular album. It has sold over 30 million copies worldwide. The album caused Morissette to win four Grammy Awards. Many reviewers had positive things to say.\nOn the album, Morissette sang songs about many different things. These things include:\nDiscography.\nSelected songs.\nMorissette has written many songs. Some of her most famous songs are:"}
+{"id": "17", "revid": "1076232", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=17", "title": "Adobe Illustrator", "text": "Adobe Illustrator is a computer program for making graphic design and illustrations. It is made by Adobe Systems. Pictures created in \"Adobe Illustrator\" can be made bigger or smaller, and look exactly the same at any size. It works well with the rest of the products with the Adobe name.\nHistory.\nIt was first released in 1986 for the Apple Macintosh. The latest version is Adobe Illustrator 2024, part of Adobe Creative Cloud."}
+{"id": "18", "revid": "1351064", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=18", "title": "Andouille", "text": "Andouille is a type of pork sausage. It is spicy (hot in taste) and smoked. There are different kinds, all with different combinations of pork meat, fat, intestines (tubes going to the stomach), and tripe (the wall of the stomach).\nOther sorts are \"French andouille\" and \"German andouille\"; they are less spicy than Cajun. Cajun has extra salt, black pepper, and garlic. Andouille makers smoke the sausages over pecan wood and sugar cane for a maximum of seven or eight hours, at about 175 degrees Fahrenheit (80 degrees Celsius)."}
+{"id": "19", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=19", "title": "Farming", "text": "Farming is growing crops and keeping animals for food and raw materials. Farming is a significant part of agriculture.\nHistory.\nFarming began in different parts of the world, independently; There were at least 11 separate centers of origin.\nRice was domesticated in China between 11,500 and 6,200 BC with the earliest known cultivation from 5,700 BC; Later came domestication of mung, soy and azuki beans. Sheep were domesticated in Mesopotamia between 13,000 and 11,000 years ago. Cattle were domesticated from the wild aurochs in the areas of modern Turkey and Pakistan c. 10,500 years ago. \nThe development of farming gave rise to the Neolithic Revolution as people gave up nomadic hunting and became settlers in cities.\nFarming and domestication probably started in the Fertile Crescent (the Nile Valley, the Levant and Mesopotamia). The area called Fertile Crescent is now in the countries of Iraq, Syria, Turkey, Jordan, Lebanon, Israel, and Egypt. Wheat and barley are some of the first crops people grew. \nCotton was domesticated in Peru by 4200 BC.\nLivestock including horses, cattle, sheep, and goats were taken to the Americas, from the Old World. The first of those horses, came with the Spanish conquistadors (or soldiers and explorers) in the 1490s. Moving those cattle, sheep, goats and horses, were part of the Columbian Exchange.\nPeople probably started agriculture by planting a few crops, but still gathered many foods from the wild. People may have started farming because the weather and soil began to change. Farming can feed many more people than hunter-gatherers can feed on the same amount of land.\nThis allowed the human population to grow to such large numbers as there are today.\nTypes.\nMany people still live by subsistence farming, on a small farm. They can only grow enough food to feed the farmer, his family, and his animals. The yield is the amount of food grown on a given amount of land, and it is often low. This is because subsistence farmers are generally less educated, and they have less money to buy equipment. Drought and other problems sometimes cause famines. Where yields are low, deforestation can provide new land to grow more food. This provides more nutrition for the farmer's family, but can be bad for the country and the surrounding environment over many years.\nIn some countries, farms are often fewer and larger. During the 20th century they have become more productive because farmers are able to grow better varieties of plants, use more fertilizer, use more water, and more easily control weeds and pests. Many farms also use machines, so fewer people can farm more land. There are fewer farmers in rich countries, but the farmers are able to grow more.\nThis kind of intensive agriculture comes with its own set of problems. Farmers use a lot of chemical fertilizers, pesticides (chemicals that kill bugs), and herbicides (chemicals that kill weeds). These chemicals can pollute the soil or the water. They can also create bugs and weeds that are more resistant to the chemicals, causing outbreaks of these pests. The soil can be damaged by erosion (blowing or washing away), salt builddup, or loss of structure. Irrigation (adding water from rivers) can pollute water and lower the water table. These problems have all got solutions, and modern young farmers usually have a good technical education.\nFarmers select plants with better yield, taste, and nutritional value. They also choose plants that can survive plant disease and drought, and are easier to harvest. Centuries of artificial selection and breeding have changed crop plants. The crops produce better yield. Fertilizers, chemical pest control, and irrigation all help.\nSome plants are improved with genetic engineering. One example is modifying the plant to resist herbicides.\nLivestock.\nFarms may also keep animals. That is called animal husbandry. If they are used to make meat for people to eat, that is livestock production. Non-meat animals, such as milk cows and egg-producing chickens, are kept for their produce. \"Produce\" here means their eggs and milk, which are sold by the farm, usually in markets. Large animals need grassland of some kind for grazing. What they need depends on the animals. Goats eat a much wider range of plants than cows. In some parts of the world, that makes goats a more sensible choice for a farmer than cows.\nFood.\nIt is important for there to be enough food for everyone. The food must also be safe and good. People say it is not always safe, because it contains some chemicals. Other people say intensive agriculture is damaging the environment. For this reason, there are several types of agriculture.\nAgricultural policy means the goals and methods of agricultural production. Common goals of policy include the quality, amount, and safety of food.\nProblems.\nThere are some serious problems that people face trying to grow food today.\nThese include:\nThere are also difficulties with the distribution of food:\nCrops.\nIn produced weight, these crops are the most important (global production in metric tonnes):\nThe figure for sugarcane is rather deceptive. It omits sugar beet, but includes the weight of the woody stalk. Most of the plants which produce food are in the grass family Poaceae."}
+{"id": "21", "revid": "1522289", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=21", "title": "Arithmetic", "text": "In mathematics, arithmetic is the basic study of numbers. The four basic arithmetic operations are addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, although other operations such as exponentiation and roots are also studied in arithmetic.\nOther arithmetic topics includes working with negative numbers, fractions, decimals and percentages.\nOverview.\nMost people learn arithmetic in primary school, but some people do not learn arithmetic and others forget the arithmetic they learned. Many jobs require a knowledge of arithmetic, and many employers complain that it is hard to find people who know enough arithmetic. \nApplications.\nA few of the many jobs that require arithmetic include carpenters, plumbers, mechanics, accountants, architects, doctors, and nurses. Arithmetic is needed in all areas of mathematics, science, and engineering.\nSome arithmetic can be carried out mentally. A calculator can also be used to perform arithmetic. Computers can do it more quickly, which is one reason Global Positioning System receivers have a small computer inside."}
+{"id": "22", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=22", "title": "Addition", "text": "In mathematics, addition, represented by the symbol formula_1, is an operation which combines two mathematical objects together into another mathematical object of the same type, called the sum. Addition can occur with simple objects such as numbers, and more complex objects and concepts such as vectors and matrices.\nAddition has several important properties. It is commutative, meaning that the order of the operands does not matter, and it is associative, meaning that when one adds more than two numbers, the order in which addition is performed does not matter (see \"Summation\"). Repeated addition of 1 is the same as counting. Addition of 0 does not change a number. Addition also obeys predictable rules concerning related operations such as subtraction and multiplication.\nArithmetic.\nIn arithmetic, addition is the operation where two or more numbers called \"addends\" are used to make a new number, which is the \"sum\" or total that is expressed with the equals sign. The symbol for addition, in infix notation, is the plus sign \"+\" placed between the operands.\nCounting examples.\nFor example, there are objects in two groups (as shown on the right). The objects are various shapes, where one group has 3 of them while the other has 2. When the two groups combine into one, the overall amount (sum) of the shapes become 5.\nVertical Addition.\nThe animation above demonstrates the addition of seven hundred eighty six and four hundred sixty seven. The problem's digits have been separated into units, tens and hundreds (see Place value).\nFirst, the units 6 and 7 are added together to make 13, so 1 ten and 3 units, with the 3 written below and the 1 ten carried to the tens column. Next, in the tens column, the 1, 8, and 6 are added together to make 15 tens, so 1 hundred and 5 tens, with the 5 written below and the 1 hundred carried to the hundreds column. Finally, in the hundreds column, 1, 7, and 4 are added together to make 12 hundreds, so 1 thousand and 2 hundreds, with the 2 written below and the 1 thousand carried to the thousand column. The final answer is thus one thousand two hundred fifty three.\nA measurement example.\nTom wants to know the distance between his house and Sally's house. Bob's house is 300\u00a0m east of Tom's house. Sally's house is 120\u00a0m east of Bob's house:\nThe distance from Tom's house to Sally's house can be found by adding the distances already measured. The distance from Tom's house to Bob's house, added to the distance from Bob's house to Sally's house, is the same as the distance from Tom's house to Sally's house. That is, 300 m plus 120\u00a0m.\nHence Sally's house is 420\u00a0m to the east of Tom's house.\nProperties.\nCommutativity.\nAddition is commutative, meaning that one can change the order of the numbers in a sum, but still get the same result. For example:\nAssociativity.\nAddition is also associative, which means that when three or more numbers are added together, the order of operations does not change the result.\nFor any three numbers formula_9, formula_10, and formula_11, it is true that formula_12. For example, formula_13 and formula_14, which means that formula_15.\nWhen addition is used together with other operations, the order of operations becomes important. In the standard order of operations, addition is to be computed later than exponentiation, roots, multiplication and division, but has equal importance as subtraction."}
+{"id": "24", "revid": "11594", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=24", "title": "Albigensian", "text": ""}
+{"id": "27", "revid": "888555", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=27", "title": "Australia", "text": "Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is an island country and sovereign state located in the southern hemisphere, in Oceania. Its capital city is Canberra, and its largest city is Sydney. It is mostly a desert country. \nAustralia is the sixth biggest country in the world by land area, and is part of the Oceanic and Australasian regions. Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea and other islands on the Australian tectonic plate are together called Australasia, which is one of the world's great ecozones. When other Pacific islands are included with Australasia, it is called Oceania.\n27 million people live in Australia, and about 85% of them live near the east coast. The country is divided up into six states and two territories, and more than half of Australia's population lives in and around the cities of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide. The first people to live in the country were the Indigenous Australians: many of them died from smallpox during colonisation.\nAustralia is known for its mining (coal, iron, gold, diamonds and crystals). It produces wool, and is the world's largest producer of bauxite. Its emblem is a flower called the golden wattle.\nAustralia is also known for its animals. The national symbols of Australia are the kangaroo and the golden wattle. Scientifically, perhaps even more important are its two monotreme mammals: the platypus and the echidna.\nGeography.\nAustralia's landmass of is on the Indo-Australian plate. The continent of Australia, including the island of Tasmania, was separated from the other continents of the world many millions of years ago. Because of this, many animals and plants live in Australia that do not live anywhere else. These include animals like the kangaroo, the koala, the emu, and the kookaburra. The duck-billed platypus and the echidna are completely unique.\nPeople first arrived in Australia more than 50,000 years ago. These native Australians are called Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders. For the history of Australia, see History of Australia.\nMost of the Australian colonies, having been settled from Britain, became mostly independent democratic states in the 1850s and all six combined as a federation on 1 January 1901. The first Prime Minister of Australia was Edmund Barton in 1901. Australia is a member of the United Nations and the Commonwealth of Nations. It is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy with King Charles III as King of Australia and Head of State and a Governor-General who is chosen by the Prime Minister to carry out all the duties of the King in Australia.\nRegions and cities.\nAustralia has six states, two major mainland territories, and other minor territories. The states are New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria, Western Australia and Tasmania (which is a large island). The two major mainland territories are the Northern Territory (which is huge) and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT) which is not much more than a city.\nThe population is about 26 million people (2021 census = 25,890,773). Most Australians live in cities along the coast, such as Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Adelaide, Newcastle and the Gold Coast. The largest inland city is Canberra, which is also the nation's capital. The largest city is Sydney.\nAustralia is a very large country, but much of the land is very dry, and the middle of the continent is mostly a hot desert. Only the areas around the east, west and south coast have enough rain and a suitable climate (not too hot and dry) for farms and cities. The island state of Tasmania has a more balanced climate than much of the mainland.\nClimate change.\nAll the capital cities except Perth and Darwin are in the south-east of the country. There is now increasing rainfall and flooding which affects this region, which is ominous [threatening]. It is thought this is caused by climate change, and may continue to get worse. The BBC report comments: \"In the past three years, record-breaking bushfire and flood events have killed more than 500 people and billions of animals. Drought, cyclones and freak tides have gripped communities\". The BBC report continues: \"Nowhere is this a bigger issue than in Queensland. It is home to almost 40% of the 500,000 homes projected to be effectively uninsurable\". This means people can't get insurance because the risk of flooding (in one season) or fire (in another season) is too great.\nHistory.\nAboriginal people.\nThe Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people arrived in Australia about 60,000 years ago or maybe even earlier. Until the arrival of British settlers in 1788, the Aboriginal people lived by hunting and gathering food from the land. They lived in all sorts of climates and managed the land in different ways. An example of Aboriginal land management was the Cumberland Plain where Sydney is now. Every few years the Aboriginal people would burn the grass and small trees. This meant that a lot of grass grew back, but not many big trees. Kangaroos like to live on grassy plains, but not in forests. The kangaroos that lived on the plain were a good food supply for the Aboriginal people. Sometimes, Aboriginals would name a person after an animal, and they could not eat that animal to help level out the food population.\nAboriginal people did not usually build houses, except huts of grass, leaves and bark. They did not usually build walls or fences, and there were no horses, cows or sheep in Australia that needed to be kept in pens. The only Aboriginal buildings that are known are fish-traps made from stones piled up in the river, and the remains of a few stone huts in Victoria and Tasmania. The Aboriginal people did not use metal or make pottery or use bows and arrows or weave cloth. In some parts of Australia the people used sharp flaked-stone spearheads, but most Aboriginal spears were made of sharply pointed wood. Australia has a lot of trees that have very hard wood that was good for spear making. The boomerang was used in some areas for sport and for hunting.\nThe Aboriginal people did not think that the land belonged to them. They believed that they had grown from the land, so it was like their mother, and they belonged to the land.\n\"Terra Australis\".\nIn the 1600s, Dutch merchants traded with the islands of Batavia (now Indonesia), to the north of Australia and several different Dutch ships touched on the coast of Australia. The Dutch governor, van Diemen, sent Abel Tasman on a voyage of discovery and he found Tasmania, which he named Van Diemen's Land. Its name was later changed to honour the man who discovered it.\nThe British Government was sure that there must be a very large land in the south, that had not been explored. They sent Captain James Cook to the Pacific Ocean. His ship, \"HMS Endeavour\", carried the famous scientists, Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Solander who were going to Tahiti where they would watch the planet Venus pass in front of the Sun. Captain Cook's secret mission was to find \"Terra Australis\" (the Land of the South).\nThe voyage of discovery was very successful, because they found New Zealand and sailed right around it. Then they sailed westward. At last, a boy, William Hicks, who was up the mast spotted land on the horizon. Captain Cook named that bit of land Point Hicks. They sailed up the coast and Captain Cook named the land that he saw \"New South Wales\". At last they sailed into a large open bay which was full of fish and stingrays which the sailors speared for food. Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander went ashore and were astonished to find that they did not know what any of the plants or birds or animals that they saw were. They collected hundreds of plants to take back to England.\nCaptain Cook saw the Aboriginal people with their simple way of life. He saw them fishing and hunting and collecting grass seeds and fruit. But there were no houses and no fences. In most parts of the world, people put up a house and a fence or some marker to show that they own the land. But the Aboriginal people did not own the land in that way. They belonged to the land, like a baby belongs to its mother. Captain Cook went home to England and told the government that no-one owned the land. This would later cause a terrible problem for the Aboriginal people.\nSettlement.\nIn the 1700s, in England, laws were tough, many people were poor and gaols (jails) were full. A person could be sentenced to death for stealing a loaf of bread. Many people were hanged for small crimes. But usually they were just thrown in gaol. Often they were sent away to the British colonies in America. But by the 1770s, the colonies in America became the United States. They were free from British rule and would not take England's convicts any more, so England needed to find a new and less populated place.\nBy the 1780s the gaols of England were so full that convicts were often chained up in rotting old ships. The government decided to make a settlement in New South Wales and send some of the convicts there. In 1788 the First Fleet of eleven ships set sail from Portsmouth carrying convicts, sailors, marines, a few free settlers and enough food to last for two years. Their leader was Captain Arthur Phillip. They were to make a new colony at the place that Captain Cook had discovered, named Botany Bay because of all the unknown plants found there by the two scientists.\nCaptain Phillip found that Botany Bay was flat and windy. There was not much fresh water. He went with two ships up the coast and sailed into a great harbour called Port Jackson, which he said was \"the finest harbour in the world\". There were many small bays on the harbour so he decided on one which had a good stream of fresh water and some flat shore to land on. On 26 January 1788, the flag was raised and New South Wales was claimed in the name of King George III of England, and the new settlement was called Sydney.\nFor the first few years of the settlement, things were very difficult. No-one in the British Government had thought very hard about what sort of convicts should be sent to make a new colony. Nobody had chosen them carefully. There was only one man who was a farmer. There was no-one among the convicts who was a builder, a brick-maker or a blacksmith. No-one knew how to fix the tools when they broke. All of the cattle escaped. There were no cooking pots. All the plants were different so no-one knew which ones could be eaten. It was probable that everyone in the new colony would die of starvation.\nThe little group of tents had a hut for the Governor, Arthur Phillip, and another hut for the supply of food. Soon it grew into a small town with streets, a bridge over the stream, a windmill for grinding grain and wharves for ships. By the 1820s there was a fine brick house for the Governor. There was also a hospital and a convict barracks and a beautiful church which are still standing today. Settlements had spread out from Sydney, firstly to Norfolk Island and to Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), and also up the coast to Newcastle, where coal was discovered, and inland where the missing cattle were found to have grown to a large herd. Spanish Merino sheep had been brought to Sydney, and by 1820, farmers were raising fat lambs for meat and also sending fine wool back to the factories of England.\nWhile the settlement was growing in New South Wales, it was also growing in Tasmania. The climate in Tasmania was more like that in England, and farmers found it easy to grow crops there.\nExploration.\nBecause Australia is such a very large land, it was easy to think that it might be able to hold a large number of people. In the early days of the colony, a great number of explorers went out, searching for good land to settle on. When the settlers looked west from Sydney, they saw a range of mountains which they called the Blue Mountains. They were not very high and did not look very rugged but for many years no-one could find their way through them. In 1813, Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and a 17-year-old called William Charles Wentworth crossed the Blue Mountains and found land on the other side which was good for farming. A road was built and the governor, Lachlan Macquarie founded the town of Bathurst on the other side, 160\u00a0km (100 miles) from Sydney. Bathurst became Australia's first inland settlement.\nSome people, like Captain Charles Sturt were sure that there must be a sea in the middle of Australia and set out to find it. Many of the explorers did not prepare very well, or else they went out to explore at the hottest time of year. Some died like Burke and Wills. Ludwig Leichhardt got lost twice. The second time, he was never seen again. Major Thomas Mitchell was one of the most successful explorers. He mapped the country as he went, and his maps remained in use for more than 100 years. He travelled all the way to what is now western Victoria, and to his surprise and annoyance found that he was not the first white person there. The Henty brothers had come from Tasmania, had built themselves a house, had a successful farm and fed the Major and his men on roast lamb and wine.\nSelf government.\nThe gold rushes of New South Wales and Victoria started in 1851 leading to large numbers of people arriving to search for gold. The population grew across south east Australia and made great wealth and industry. By 1853 the gold rushes had made some poor people very rich.\nThe transportation of convicts to Australia ended in the 1840s and 1850s and more changes came. The people in Australia wanted to run their own country, and not be told what to do from London. The first governments in the colonies were run by governors chosen by London. Soon the settlers wanted local government and more democracy. William Wentworth started the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia's first political party) in 1835 to demand democratic government. In 1840, the city councils started and some people could vote. New South Wales Legislative Council had its first elections in 1843, again with some limits on who could vote. In 1855, limited self-government was given by London to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. In 1855, the right to vote was given to all men over 21 in South Australia. The other colonies soon followed. Women were given the vote in the Parliament of South Australia in 1895 and they became the first women in the world allowed to stand in elections.\nAustralians had started parliamentary democracies all across the continent. But voices were getting louder for all of them to come together as one country with a national parliament.\nThe Commonwealth of Australia.\nUntil 1901, Australia was not a nation, it was six separate colonies governed by Britain. They voted to join to form one new country, called the Commonwealth of Australia, in 1901. Australia was still part of the British Empire, and at first wanted only British or Europeans to come to Australia. But soon it had its own money, its own Army and its own Navy.\nIn Australia at this time, the trade unions were very strong, and they started a political party, the Australian Labor Party. Australia passed many laws to help the workers.\nIn 1914, the First World War started in Europe. Australia joined in on the side of Britain against Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. Australian soldiers were sent to Gallipoli, in the Ottoman Empire. They fought bravely, but were beaten by the Turks. Today Australia remembers this battle every year on ANZAC Day. They also fought on the Western Front. More than 60,000 Australians and New Zealanders were killed.\nIn 1932, the Sydney Harbour Bridge was opened.\nAustralia had a really hard time in the Great Depression of the 1930s and joined Britain in a war against Nazi Germany when Hitler invaded Poland in 1939. But in 1941 lots of Australian soldiers were captured in the Fall of Singapore by Japan. Then Japan started attacking Australia and people worried about invasion. But with help from the United States Navy, the Japanese were stopped. After the war, Australia became a close friend of the United States and Japan.\nWhen the war ended, Australia felt that it needed many more people to fill the country up and to work. So the government said it would take in people from Europe who had lost their homes in the war. It did things like building the Snowy Mountains Scheme. Over the next 25 years, millions of people came to Australia. They came especially from Italy and Greece, other countries in Europe. Later they also came from countries like Turkey and Lebanon. An important new party, the Liberal Party of Australia was made by Robert Menzies in 1944 and it won lots of elections from 1949 until in 1972, then Gough Whitlam won for the Labor Party. Whitlam made changes, but he made the Senate unhappy and the Governor-General sacked him and forced an election in 1975. Then Malcolm Fraser won a few elections for the Liberal Party.\nIn the 1960s many people began coming to Australia from China, Vietnam, Malaysia and other countries in Asia. Australia became more multicultural. In the 1950s and 1960s Australia became one of the richest countries in the world, helped by mining and wool. Australia started trading more with America, than Japan. Australia supported the United States in wars against dictatorships in Korea and Vietnam and later Iraq. Australian soldiers also helped the United Nations in countries like East Timor in 1999.\nIn 1973, the famous Sydney Opera House opened. In the 1970s, 80s and 90s lots of Australian movies, actors and singers became famous around the world. In the year 2000, Sydney had the Summer Olympics.\nIn the 1980s and 90s, the Labor Party under Bob Hawke and Paul Keating, then the Liberal Party under John Howard made lots of changes to the economy. Australia had a bad recession in 1991, but when other Western countries had trouble with their economies in 2008, Australia stayed strong.\nToday Australia is a rich, peaceful and democratic country. But it still has problems. Around 4-5% of Australians could not get a job in 2010. A lot of land in Australia (like Uluru) has been returned to Aboriginal people, but lots of Aboriginals are still poorer than everybody else. Every year the government chooses a big number of new people from all around the world to come as immigrants to live in Australia. These people may come because they want to do business, or to live in a democracy, to join their family, or because they are refugees. Australia took 6.5 million immigrants in the 60 years after World War Two, including around 660,000 refugees.\nJulia Gillard became the first woman Prime Minister of Australia in 2010 when she replaced her Labor Party colleague Kevin Rudd (who later replaced her).\nPolitics.\nAustralia is part of the Commonwealth of Nations. Australia is made up of six states, and two mainland territories. Each state and territory has its own Parliament and makes its own local laws. The Parliament of Australia sits in Canberra and makes laws for the whole country, also known as the Commonwealth or Federation.\nThe Federal government is led by the Prime Minister of Australia, who is the member of Parliament chosen as leader. The current Prime Minister is Anthony Albanese.\nThe leader of Australia is the Prime Minister, although the Governor-General represents the King of Australia, who is also the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, as head of state. The Governor-General, currently His Excellency Sam Mostyn, is chosen by the Prime Minister.\nAustralia constitutionally is a Constitutional Monarchy meaning that the Monarch has little power and in Australia must be neutral in Australian politics \nCulture.\nAustralia was colonised by people from Britain, but today people from all over the world live there. English is the main spoken language. Christianity is the main religion, though all religions are accepted and not everybody has a religion. Australia is multicultural: all its people are encouraged to keep their different languages, religions and ways of life, while also learning English and joining in with other Australians. Australia has many immigrants from different countries around the world.\nFamous Australian writers include the bush balladeers Banjo Paterson and Henry Lawson who wrote about life in the Australian bush. More modern famous writers include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally and Colleen McCullough. In 1973, Patrick White won the Nobel Prize in Literature, the only Australian to have achieved this; he is seen as one of the great English-language writers of the twentieth century.\nAustralian music has had world-wide stars, for example the opera singers Nellie Melba and Joan Sutherland, the rock and roll bands Bee Gees, AC/DC and INXS, the folk-rocker Paul Kelly (musician), the pop singer Kylie Minogue and Australian country music stars Slim Dusty and John Williamson. Australian Aboriginal music is very special and very ancient: it has the famous didgeridoo woodwind instrument. \nAustralian TV has produced many successful programs for home and overseas. Skippy the Bush Kangaroo, Home and Away and Neighbours are examples. It has had well known TV stars, such as Barry Humphries (\"Dame Edna Everage\"), Steve Irwin (\"The Crocodile Hunter\") and The Wiggles. Major Australian subgroups such as the Bogan have been shown on Australian TV in shows such as Bogan Hunters and Kath & Kim.\nAustralia has two public broadcasters (the ABC and the multicultural SBS), three commercial television networks, three pay-TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has its daily newspapers, and there are two national daily newspapers, \"The Australian\" and \"The Australian Financial Review\".\nAustralian movies have a long history. The world's first feature movie was the Australian movie \"The Story of the Kelly Gang\" of 1906. In 1933, \"In the Wake of the Bounty\", directed by Charles Chauvel, had Errol Flynn as the main actor. Flynn went on to a celebrated career in Hollywood. The first Australian Oscar was won by the 1942 \"Kokoda Front Line!\", directed by Ken G. Hall. In the 1970s and 1980s Australian movies and movie stars became world famous. There were movies like \"Picnic at Hanging Rock\", \"Gallipoli\" (with Mel Gibson), \"The Man From Snowy River\" and \"Crocodile Dundee\". Russell Crowe, Cate Blanchett and Heath Ledger became global stars during the 1990s and \"Australia\" starring Nicole Kidman and Hugh Jackman made a lot of money in 2008.\nAustralia is a popular destination for business conferences and research, with Sydney one of the top 20 meeting destinations in the world.\nSport.\nSport is an important part of Australian culture because the climate is good for outdoor activities. 23.5% Australians over the age of 15 regularly take part in organised sporting activities. The most popular sports are Australian rules football, rugby league and cricket. In international sports, Australia has very strong teams in cricket, hockey, netball, rugby league and rugby union, and performs well in cycling, rowing and swimming. Local popular sports include Australian Rules Football, horse racing, soccer and motor racing. Australia has participated in every summer Olympic Games since 1896, and every Commonwealth Games. Australia has hosted the 1956 and 2000 Summer Olympics, and has ranked in the top five medal-winners since 2000. Australia has also hosted the 1938, 1962, 1982 and 2006 Commonwealth Games and are to host the 2018 Commonwealth Games. Other major international events held regularly in Australia include the Australian Open, one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, annual international cricket matches and the Formula One Australian Grand Prix. Corporate and government sponsorship of many sports and elite athletes is common in Australia. Televised sport is popular; some of the highest-rated television programs include the Summer Olympic Games and the grand finals of local and international football competitions.\nThe main sporting leagues for men are the AFL (Australian rules football), the NRL (rugby league), the A-League (soccer) and the NBL (basketball). For women, they are the AFLW (Australian rules football), ANZ Netball Championships (netball), the W-League (soccer) and WNBL (basketball).\nFamous Australian sports players include the cricketer Sir Donald Bradman, the swimmer Ian Thorpe, the cricketer Shane Warne and the athlete Cathy Freeman.\nArt festivals.\nJust 60 years ago, Australia had only one big art festival. Now Australia has hundreds of smaller community-based festivals, and national and regional festivals that focus on specific art forms.\nIndigenous life.\nAustralia is home to many animals and plants that can be found nowhere else on Earth, except perhaps New Guinea.\nThe platypus and the short-beaked echidna are unique, and are two of the only five surviving monotremes. Monotremes are only found in Australia and New Guinea.\nKoalas, kangaroos, wombats, numbats and many others are marsupials. Most of the marsupials in the world are found only on the continent or on the neighbouring island of New Guinea. Wildfires from global warming in 2020 have reduced their population.\nTrees.\nThe gum trees are almost as remarkable as the animals. They are mainly Eucalypts and other gum trees. These are woody evergreens which make essential oils and are prone to fire. Sticky heavily scented gum squeezes out of their wood. The tribe has about 860 species. They are all native to Southeast Asia and Oceania. Most live in Australia. Until British settlement in Australia, these trees were almost entirely unknown. They had been separated from the Americas, Africa and much of Asia for millions of years.\nOther websites.\nGovernment\nTravel"}
+{"id": "28", "revid": "687081", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=28", "title": "American English", "text": "American English, or US English, is the dialect of English that is spoken in the United States. It is different from other types of English like British English. Most types of American English came from local dialects in England. During the 18th and 19th centuries, pronunciation changed less in America than in England.\nUse.\nMany people today know about American English even if they live in a country that speaks another type of English. They hear and read American English through the media, such as movies, television, and the Internet, where the most common form of English is American English.\nBecause people all over the world use English, many new words are used. English has been changing that way for hundreds of years. For example, the millions who speak Indian English frequently add American English words to go along with its British English base and many other words from the various Indian languages.\nSome people learn American English as it is spoken in the United States. For example, in telephone call centers in India and other places, people often learn American English to sound more like their customers who call from America. Those people often keep using American English in everyday life.\nSpelling.\nThere are many words that sound the same in both American and British English but have different spellings. British English often has more traditional ways of spelling words than American English.\nVocabulary.\nThere are also some words in American English that are a bit different from British English.:\nRegional accents.\nGeneral American English is the kind most spoken in mass media. It more vigorously pronounces the letter \"r\" than some other kinds do. Non-rhoticity (\"R\"-dropping) is frequent in certain places in which \"r\" is not pronounced after a vowel such as in the words \"car\" and \"card,\" which sound like \"cah\" and \"cahd\" in places like the Boston area. \nHere are some regional accents of American English:"}
+{"id": "30", "revid": "1508758", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=30", "title": "Aquaculture", "text": "Aquaculture is the farming of fish, shrimp, abalones, algae, and other seafood. Aquaculture supplies fish, such as catfish, salmon, and trout. It was developed a few thousand years ago in China. Aquaculture supplies over 20% of all the seafood harvested. \nFish farming has been practiced, in some parts of the world, for thousands of years. Goldfish originated about a thousand years ago in carp farms in China, and the Roman Empire farmed oysters and other seafood. Today, half of the seafood eaten in the U.S. is farmed. To help meet the growing global demand for seafood, aquaculture is growing fast.\nThe environmental impact of fish farming varies widely, depending on the species being farmed, the methods used and where the farm is located. When good practices are used, it's possible to farm seafood in a way that has very little impact to the environment. Such operations limit habitat damage, disease, escapes of farmed fish and the use of wild fish as feed."}
+{"id": "32", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=32", "title": "Abbreviation", "text": "An abbreviation is a shorter way to write a word or phrase. People use abbreviations for words that they write a lot. \nIn English.\nThe English language occasionally uses the apostrophe mark ' to show that a word is written in a shorter way, but some abbreviations do not use this mark. \nBorrowed Latin phrases.\nMore often, they use periods, especially the ones that come from the Latin language, which include i.e. [id est] (\"that is\"), e.g. [exempli gratia] (\"for example\") and et al. [et alia] (\"and others\").\nSome new abbreviations have been created by scientists, by workers in companies and governments, and by people using the Internet. People often think words are abbreviations when in fact they are acronyms.\nExamples.\nHere are examples of common acronyms: The word \"radar\" is an acronym for \"Radio Detection and Ranging\". The name of the large computer company IBM comes from the words \"International Business Machines\". The name of the part of the United States government that sends rockets into outer space is NASA, from the words \"National Aeronautics and Space Administration\". \nWhen people using the Internet think that something is very funny, they sometimes write \"LOL\" to mean \"Laughing Out Loud\". People sometimes write \"ASAP\" for \"As Soon As Possible\"."}
+{"id": "33", "revid": "1405015", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=33", "title": "Angel", "text": "In many mythologies and religions, an angel is a good spirit. The word angel comes from the Greek word \"angelos\" which means \"messenger\". Angels appear frequently in the Old Testament, the New Testament, Qur'an and Aqdas.\nDifferent references to angels throughout the Bible suggest different kinds and ranks of angels, such as seraphs (Hebrew plural: seraphim) or cherubs (Hebrew plural: cherubim). This resulted in medieval theologians outlining a hierarchy of such divine messengers, including not only cherubs and seraphs, but also archangels, powers, principalities, dominions and thrones.\nThe study of angels is called angelology.\nIn the Bible.\nAngels are powerful spirits that obey God's commands. They sometimes appear to humans in a human form. They can deliver messages to people in person or in dreams. Angels that are named in the Bible are Michael (called a \"chief prince\"), Gabriel (known for telling Mary that she would be the mother of Jesus), and Raphael (in the Apocryphal Book of Tobit). The Ethiopian Book of Enoch also lists four Archangels which watch over the four parts of heaven; Michael, Raphael, Gabriel and Uriel. Lucifer is also known as an angel in the Bible.\nAppearances in Genesis.\nGod, in the Book of Genesis sends an Angel with a sword made out of fire to keep Adam and Eve from going back to the Garden of Eden. \nAppearances in Exodus.\nIn the Book of Exodus, an Angel comes to a bush and makes a fire but the bush doesn't burn. When Moses sees this, he comes close to the Bush and he hears God speak to him. On the way to Egypt, Moses forgets to circumcise his son so an Angel tries to kill him but then Zipporah circumcises him and the Angel lets Moses live. Angels are also there when God gives the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai.\nAppearances in Leviticus.\nIn the Book of Leviticus, the Ark of the Covenant, has statues of two angels called Cherubim on top of it.\nAppearances in Numbers.\nIn the Book of Numbers, Balaam goes to curse the Israelites but God sends an Angel to be a Satan against Balaam. Balaam doesn't see the Angel but his donkey does so she moves out of the way. Balaam then hits her and gets her to go continue moving. When the donkey sees the Angel again and Balaam doesn't, she moves to the other side of the road and Balaam hits her and she starts walking again. When she sees the Angle again and there's nowhere on the road to go, she stops moving, so Balaam hits her. Balaam's donkey then talks to him and asks him why he's hitting her. He says if he had a sword, then he would kill her. Then Balaam sees the Angel and the Angel tells Balaam that Balaam's donkey is more righteous than he is and that he would have only killed Balaam but not the donkey.\nAppearances in Deuteronomy.\nWhen Moses spoke to the Israelites in the Book of Deuteronomy, there were ten thousand angels next to him.\nAppearances in Judges.\nGod sends an Angel to Gideon in the Book of Judges to tell Gideon that he must save the Israelites. He later sends an Angel to an Israelite woman and her husband Manoach to tell them that they would have a son Samson.\nAppearances in Samuel.\nWhen King David has a census, God punishes him by sending an Angel to cause a plague.\nAppearances in Kings.\nWhen Queen Jezebel wants to kill Elijah, an Angel comes to help him. Another Angel later protects Elisha. When King Ahab asks the prophet Micaiah for a prediction, Mecaiah tells him that God sent an Angel to trick Ahab into fighting a war and getting killed. Later when Sannecherib attacks Judah, God sends His Angel to kill Sannecherib's entire Assyrian army.\nIsaiah.\nIsaiah said that the Angels sang songs and that every Angel had six wings, two for covering its face, two for covering its feet and two for flying. Isaiah said that when he heard the Angels sing he said \"I am doomed for I live among a people of unclean lips\" and that God got angry with him for saying that.\nEzekiel.\nThe Book of Ezekiel begins with Ezekiel seeing Angels on a Chariot.\nZechariah.\nThe prophet Zechariah saw an Angel tell him that God would have mercy on the Jews. And that their enemies will be punished. Another Angel says that even the Kingdom of Israel will come back to the land. Zechariah sees an Angel defending the Priest from The Satan when The Satan says that the Priest did a bad thing. An Angel shows Zechariah a Menorah in the Temple of Jerusalem. The Angel tells Zechariah that the children of Zerubavel will be Kings.\nMalachi.\nGod told Malachi that He would send an Angel and Elijah to announce that the Messiah was coming.\nJob.\nIn the Book of Job, all the Angels meet with God and The Satan bets God that he can make Job curse God\nDaniel.\nIn the Book of Daniel, an Angel rescues Daniel's friends from Nebuchadnezzar. Daniel also mentions Angels being named Michael and Gabriel\nChronicles.\nIn the Books of Chronicles, The Satan gets King David to want to have his census.\nAppearances in The New Testament.\nIn the New Testament, an Angel tells The Virgin Mary that she will give birth to Jesus, Angels proclaim the birth of Jesus in the Adoration of the shepherds (Luke 2:10) and Angels help Jesus in the desert.\nIn Luke 22:43 of the New Testament, an Angel comforts Jesus during the agony in the garden of Gethsemane and in Matthew 28:5 an Angel speaks at the empty tomb following the Resurrection of Jesus saying: \u201cDo not be afraid, for I know that you are looking for Jesus, who was crucified. He is not here; he has risen, just as He said\".\nTypes of Angels.\nEzekiel 28:13-14\n13. Thou hast been in Eden the garden of God; every precious stone was thy covering, the sardius, topaz, and the diamond, the beryl, the onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the emerald, and the carbuncle and gold: the workmanship of thy tabrets and of thy pipes was prepared in thee in the day that thou wast created.\n14. Thou art the anointed cherub that covereth; and I have set thee so: thou wast upon the holy mountain of God; thou hast walked up and down in the midst of the stones of fire.\nIt describes the sound of their wings, \"like the roar of rushing waters.\"\nEzekiel 10:5-7 ; Ezekiel 10:8 reveals that they have hands like a man under their wings .\nEzekiel 1:7 KJV reveals that they look like man but are different because they have \"straight feet\" and four wings and four faces.\nEzekiel ch 1, and 10 describe the cherubim creatures ascending and descending from the earth with wheels. Ezekiel 1:14-20 ; Ezekiel 10:16\nEzekiel 10:9-13 describes what the wheels appeared to look like, and how they moved around, how they moved or flew through the sky quickly but turned not as they went; and how the inside workings of the wheels appeared to be \"a wheel in the midst of a wheel\" and that the color of the wheels was the color of \"Amber\" Stone. There are four separate wheels in both accounts, one for each single cherub which is there.\nReligion.\nRabbinic Judaism.\nIn Judaism angels are created by God from fire. They fullfil tasks given by God. Rabbinic Judaism rejects earlier accounts on fallen angels who sinned by mating with humans. Instead, angels are servants of God. Still, not all angels are benevolent. Some angels are jealous of humans, because God loves them so much. Unlike angels, humans can overcome sin and repent. Angels cannot repent their sin, because they are already sinless.\nWhen the Bible speaks about the creation of humans in the plural, Judaism sometimes argues that God discussed his decision with the angels. But they make clear, it is God alone who creates humans. God only wanted to discuss with the angels to show that someone in power, should still try to value the opinion of people lower.\nIslam.\nIn Islam angels are created by God (referred to as Allah in the Arabic, Persian, Urdu, Pashto, and Dari languages) before jinn and humans. Some say, that before angels however, demons were created. Angels were created in heaven and fullfil God's orders. Some angels deliver messages to humans and prophets, most famous among them is Gabriel. Other angels support humans with rain. Some angels don't have a task on earth, but dwell in heaven, for example, to praise God. \nMuslims disagree if angels can fail a task, but they agree that an angel never wants to disobey. Sometimes angels might simply make mistakes on accident, like the angels Harut and Marut. But these angels are not considered evil, they just lose their rank as punishment, but can restore their rank later again. Not all angels are nice. God gives angels violent tasks too. For example, God orders angels to punish people in hell, not demons. Muslims believe hell is under God's control, and not the demon's. They believe hell is not only suffering, but also justice. Angels watch out that people don't escape their punishment. While the benevolent angels are said to be created from light, some Muslims think the angels in hell are created from fire.\nMuslims believe that angels are also present in life. They are, however, only in clean places. They are believed to give also good advises and blessings.\nIn art.\nThey are often shown in art as having wings and a halo. The wings represent their speed, and the halo represents their holiness.\nThe cherubim in art always appear as baby faced angels with very small, non-useful wings.\nThe cherubim statue or bronze casting of cherubim in the Temple of Solomon depicted them as two four winged creatures whose wings touched at the peak of the ark that they were making.\nThe same cherubim creatures were said to be cast in gold on top of the Ark of the Covenant. Casting metal is one of the oldest forms of artwork, and was attempted by Leonardo da Vinci.\nIn literature.\nAngels are generally held to be holy and virtuous, hence the term is used loosely to apply to anyone particularly good or kind, or having a good influence. In his novel \"Far From the Madding Crowd\", Thomas Hardy chooses the name of an angel, Gabriel, for his kind and helpful hero. On the other hand, in his play \"Measure for Measure\", Shakespeare's use of the name Angelo is ironic, since Angelo is a character who likes to see himself as virtuous, but who is concealing evil aspects of his nature. Fallen angels, who are no longer holy or virtuous, are also known as devils.\nHowever, since angels are held to be spirits (that is, non-material beings), medieval theologians were faced with the problem of how humans could see a non-physical creature. Eventually a theory was put forward that angels must make themselves a body out of the nearest thing to the non-physical, i.e. from air. Hence in his famous poem \"Aire and Angels\", the seventeenth century metaphysical poet John Donne uses this idea to write a cynical comment on women, whose love, he says, is like an angel's body of air, while men's love is like the real thing, the angel itself.\nIdea of Guardian angel.\nFrom the era of the Romantics onwards, there has developed the widely held belief that everyone has an angel assigned to guard them. This concept is probably based on Jesus' comment in Matthew 18:10 regarding children, though it is not mentioned elsewhere in the Bible.\nIn superstitions.\nSeeing repetitive numbers are thought to be associated with numerology, also referred to as angel numbers. It is believed that angels communicate with humans through repetitive appearances of numbers. Humanity has studied and used numbers since the dawn of time, and no matter what the culture is, there are certain numbers that hold specific value or meaning over other numbers."}
+{"id": "35", "revid": "103847", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=35", "title": "Ad hominem", "text": "Ad hominem is a Latin word for a type of argument. It is a word often used in rhetoric. Rhetoric is the science of speaking well, and convincing other people of your ideas.\nTranslated to English, \"ad hominem\" means \"against the person\". In other words, when someone makes an ad hominem, they are attacking the person they are arguing against, instead of what they are saying.\nThe term comes from the Latin word \"homo\", which means human. \"Hominem\" is a gender neutral version of the word \"homo\". In ancient Rome it referred to all free men, or in other words, all free human beings.\nAd hominem can be a way to use reputation, rumors and hearsay to change the minds of other people listening. When a social network has already excluded or exiled one person, or applied a negative label to them, this can work more often.\nIt is most of the time considered to be a weak and poor argument. In courts and in diplomacy ad hominems are not appreciated.\nAd hominems are not wrong every time. For example, when people think that someone can't be trusted, things that they have said previously can be doubted.\nWhat an ad hominem argument looks like.\nIn logic, a proof is something that starts with premises, and goes through a few logical arguments, to reach a conclusion.\nAd hominem example.\nIn this example it can be seen that the (completely unrelated) fact that person A is uneducated and poor is used to prove that abortion should not be illegal."}
+{"id": "37", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=37", "title": "Native American", "text": "Native Americans (also called Aboriginal Americans, American Indians, Amerindians, or Indigenous peoples of the Americas) are the indigenous peoples and their descendants, who were in the Americas before the Europeans arrived.\nName.\nThe people are sometimes called Indians, but that may be confusing, because it is the same word used for people from India. When Christopher Columbus explored the area, he did not know about the Americas. He was in the Caribbean but thought he was in the East Indies and so he called the people Indians. Today, some think that it is racism to use Indian for a Native American.\nThere are different Native American tribes, with many different languages. Some tribes were hunter-gatherers who moved from place to place. Others lived in one place and built cities and kingdoms. Many Native Americans died after the European settlers came to the Americas. One reason is that diseases came with the Europeans but were new to the Native Americans. There were also battles with the Europeans. Many native people were hurt, killed, or forced to leave their homes by settlers, who took their lands.\nOrigins.\nThe ancestors of Native Americans came to the Americas from Asia. Some of them may have come to the Americas 15,000 years ago, when Alaska was connected to Siberia by the Bering land bridge.\nThe earliest people in the Americas came from Siberia when there was an ice bridge across the Bering Strait. The cold but mainly grassy plain, called Beringia, was a land bridge that connected Siberia with Canada. It is believed that a few thousand people arrived in Beringia from eastern Siberia during the Last Glacial Maximum and that they moved into the Americas sometime after 16,500 years before the present (BP). That would have occurred as the American glaciers blocking the way southward melted but before the land bridge was covered by the sea about 11,000 years BP.\nBefore the European colonization of the Americas and Russian expansion to the Russian Far East, Beringia was inhabited by the Yupik peoples on both sides of the straits. The culture remains in the region today, with others. In 2012, the governments of Russia and the United States announced a plan to formally establish \"a transboundary area of shared Beringian heritage.\" Among other things, the agreement would establish close ties between the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve and the Cape Krusenstern National Monument in the United States, and Beringia National Park in Russia. Native Americans were divided into many small nations that are called called First Nations in Canada and tribes in the United States.\nCulture.\nThe Native American tribes have their own cultures, which can be grouped together by region. For example, the tribes living in Mesoamerica have similar cultures.\nFood.\nNative Americans ate various food depending on where they lived. Native Americans from Mesoamerica introduced vanilla, avocados and chocolate to the world.\nReligion.\nBefore Europeans came, the Native Americans practiced many different religions. Each tribe had its own different beliefs. Many Native Americans now practice Christianity, a religion that was brought to the Americas by Europeans. Others, meanwhile, still practice their own religions.\nLanguages.\nNative Americans speak over 1000 different languages. Some of these languages had writing systems before Europeans came. Many of these languages are endangered because more people speak European languages and do not teach their children Native American languages.\nMusic.\nNative Americans make musical instruments using the things around them.\nArt.\nNative Americans made many different kinds of art.\nToday.\nNorth America.\nThere are now more than three million Native Americans in Canada and the United States combined. About 51 million more Native Americans live in Latin America. Many Native Americans still speak native languages and have their own cultural practices, and others have adopted parts of American culture. Many Native Americans still face problems with racism.\nUnited States.\nAccording to the 2010 United States Census, 0.9% of Americans say that they are Native American, 2.9 million people, and 0.8% of Americans say they are both Native American and something else. They are not evenly spread out through the United States. About a third of the people in Alaska are Native Alaskan. and about a sixth of the people in Oklahoma are Native American.\nIn the United States, most Native Americans live in cities. About 28% of Native Americans live on Indian reservations. Many Native Americans are poor, and 24% are extremely poor. The history of violence against Native Americans still persists in higher rates of violence against Native Americans than whites.\nMexico.\nMany Mexicans are of Native American or mestizo ancestry. Mexico has the largest and most diverse Native American population in Latin America.\nCanada.\nIn the 2016 census, more than 1.67 million people in Canada identified as Indigenous, making them 4.9 percent of Canada\u2019s population.\nCentral America.\nGuatemala.\nAbout 40% of the people of Guatemala identify as Native American. Many indigenous groups in the country are descendants of the Maya. Many Native Americans in Guatemala are poor. Many of them have left the country to find better jobs elsewhere.\nSouth America.\nBolivia.\nMost people in Bolivia belong to indigenous groups. Many of them are Aymara and Quechua.\nPeru.\nPeru has a large indigenous population, around 80% of the country's population identifying as indigenous or mestizo.\nIndigenous activism.\nIn the later half of the 20th century, many Native Americans protested the unfair treatment that they experienced from the societies in which they lived. Some Native Americans have become famous in politics. For example, an Aymara man. Evo Morales was elected as president of Bolivia in 2005."}
+{"id": "39", "revid": "1011873", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=39", "title": "Apple", "text": "An apple is a sweet, edible fruit that is usually red or green. The tree (Malus spp.) is grown worldwide. The fruit is low-cost, popular, and common all over the earth & taste is fruity. \nThe apple tree comes from southern Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan; Uzbekistan; Turkey; and northwestern part of China. Apples have been grown for thousands of years in Asia and in European continent. They were brought to North America by European World Colonial settlers. Apples have Religious and mythological significance in many cultures.:.\nApples are generally grown by grafting, although wild apples grow readily from seed. Apple trees are large if grown from seed, but small if grafted onto roots (rootstock). There are more than 10,000 known variants of apples, with a range of desired characteristics. Different variants are bred for various tastes and uses: cooking, eating raw and cider production are the most common uses. In addition to that, when it comes to food toxicity, the seeds in apples can be fatal, but only if they've been crushed. Apples contain amygdalin, which can release cyanide when digested. Apple seeds contain a chemical that can make cyanide, but the amount is too small to harm people who eat a few seeds. \nTrees and fruit are attacked by fungi, bacteria and pests. In 2010, the fruit's genome was sequenced as part of research on disease control and selective breeding in apple production. \nWorldwide production of apples in 2013 was 90.8 million tonnes. China grew 49% of the total.\nBotanical information.\nThe apple tree is a small, leaf-shedding tree that grows up to tall. The apple tree has a broad crown with thick twigs.\nThe leaves are alternately arranged simple ovals. They are 5 to 12 centimetres long and 3\u20136 centimetres (1.2\u20132.4 in) wide. It has a sharp top with a soft underside. Blossoms come out in spring at the same time that the leaves begin to bud. The flowers are white. They also have a slightly pink color. They have five petals, and 2.5 to 3.5 centimetres (0.98 to 1.4 in) in diameter. The fruit matures in autumn. It is usually 5 to 9 centimetres (2.0 to 3.5 in) in diameter. There are five carpels arranged in a star in the middle of the fruit. Every carpel has one to three seeds.\nWild ancestors.\nThe wild ancestor of apple trees is \"Malus sieversii\". They grow wild in the mountains of Central Asia in the north of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Xinjiang, China, and possibly also \"Malus sylvestris\". Unlike domesticated apples, their leaves become red in autumn. They are being used recently to develop \"Malus domestica\" to grow in colder climates.\nHistory.\nThe apple tree was possibly the earliest tree to be cultivated. Its fruits have become better over thousands of years. It is said that Alexander the Great of Greek civilisation discovered dwarf apples in Asia Minor in 300 BC. Asia and Europe have used winter apples as an important food for thousands of years. From when Europeans arrived, Argentina and the United States have used apples as food as well. Apples were brought to North America. The first apple orchard on the North American continent was said to be near Boston in 1625. In the 1900s, costly fruit industries, where the apple was a very important species, began developing.\nIn culture.\nPaganism.\nIn Norse mythology, the goddess I\u00f0unn gives apples to the gods in \"Prose Edda\" (written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson) that makes them young forever. English scholar H. R. Ellis Davidson suggests that apples were related to religious practices in Germanic paganism. It was from there, she claims, that Norse paganism developed. She points out that buckets of apples were discovered in the place of burial for the Oseberg ship in Norway. She also remarks that fruit and nuts (I\u00f0unn having been described as changing into a nut in \"Sk\u00e1ldskaparm\u00e1l\") have been discovered in the early graves of the Germanic peoples in England. They have also been discovered somewhere else on the continent of Europe. She suggests that this may have had a symbolic meaning. Nuts are still a symbol of fertility in Southwest England.\nCooking.\nSometimes apples are eaten after they are cooked. Often, apples are eaten uncooked. Apples can also be made into drinks. Apple juice and apples cider are drinks made with apples. \nThe flesh of the fruit is firm with a taste anywhere from sour to sweet. Apples used for cooking are sour, and need to be cooked with sugar, while other apples are sweet, and do not need cooking. There are some seeds at the core, that can be removed with a tool that removes the core, or by carefully using a knife.:.\nThe scientific name of the apple tree genus in the Latin language is \"Malus\". Most apples that people grow are of the \"Malus domestica\" species.\nMost apples are good to eat raw (not cooked), and are also used in many kinds of baked foods, such as apple pie. Apples are cooked until they are soft to make apple sauce.\nApples are also made into the drinks apple juice and cider. Usually, cider contains a little alcohol, about as much as beer. The regions of Brittany in France and Cornwall in England are known for their apple ciders.:.\nApple variants.\nIf one wants to grow a certain type of apple, it is not possible to do this by planting a seed from the wanted type. The seed will have DNA from the apple that the seeds came from, but it will also have DNA from the apple flower that pollinated the seeds, which might be a different variant of apple. This means that the tree which would grow from planting would be a mixture of two, or a hybrid. In order to grow a certain type of apple, a small twig, or 'scion', is cut from the tree that grows the type of apple desired, and then added on to a specially grown stump called a rootstock. The tree that grows will create apples of the type needed.\nThere are more than 7,500 known variants of apples. Different variants are available for temperate and subtropical climates. One large collection of over 2,100 apple variants is at the National Fruit Collection in England. Most of these variants are grown for eating fresh (dessert apples). However, some are grown simply for cooking or making cider. Cider apples are usually too tart to eat immediately. However, they give cider a rich flavor that dessert apples cannot.\nMost popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Colorful skin, easy shipping, disease resistance, 'Red Delicious' apple shape, and popular flavor are also needed. Modern apples are usually sweeter than older cultivars. This is because popular tastes in apples have become different. Most North Americans and Europeans enjoy sweet apples. Extremely sweet apples with hardly any acid taste are popular in Asia and India.\nWorld production.\nApples are grown around the world. China produces more than half of all commercially grown apples. In 2020/2021, China produced 44,066,000 metric tons. Other important producers were the European Union (11,719,000 metric tons), the United States (4,490,000 metric tons), and Turkey (4,300,000 metric tons). Total world production was 80,522,000 metric tons.\nIn the United Kingdom.\nIn the United Kingdom there are about 3000 different types of apples. The most common apple type grown in England is the 'Bramley seedling', which is a popular cooking apple.\nApple orchards are not as common as they were in the early 1900s, when apples were rarely brought in from other countries. Organizations such as Common Ground teach people about the importance of rare and local varieties of fruit.\nIn North America.\nMany apples are grown in temperate parts of the United States and Canada. \"Washington State currently produces over half the Nation's domestically grown apples and has been the leading apple-growing State since the early 1920s.\" New York and Michigan are the next two leading states in apple production. \"The total reported area dedicated to the crop in the United States is 336,940 acres or 526.47 square miles.\" \nIn many areas where apple growing is important, people have huge celebrations:\nVarieties of apples.\nThere are many different varieties of apples, including\nFamily.\nApples are in the group Maloideae. This is a subfamily of the family \"Rosaceae\". They are in the same subfamily as pears."}
+{"id": "41", "revid": "114482", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=41", "title": "American Units Of Measurement", "text": ""}
+{"id": "43", "revid": "1667106", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=43", "title": "Abrahamic religions", "text": "The Abrahamic religions are a group of religious communities of faith that claim descent from the religion of the ancient Israelites and the worship of the God of Abraham. The Abrahamic religions are monotheistic. The term derives from patriarch Abraham, a major biblical figure from The Hebrew Bible. The major Abrahamic religions are Christianity, Islam, Judaism and the Bah\u00e1'\u00ed Faith."}
+{"id": "45", "revid": "1467751", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=45", "title": "Algebra", "text": "Algebra (from Arabic: \u0627\u0644\u062c\u0628\u0631, transliterated \"al-jabr\", meaning \"completion\") is a part of mathematics. It uses variables to represent a value that is not yet known or can be replaced with any value. When an equals sign (=) is used, this is called an equation. A very simple equation using a variable is: formula_1. In this example, formula_2, or it could also be said that \"formula_3 equals five\". This is called \"solving for\" formula_3.\nBesides equations, there are inequalities (\"less than\" and \"greater than\"). A special type of equation is called the function. This is often used in making graphs because it always turns one input into one output.\nAlgebra can be used to solve real problems because the rules of algebra work in real life and numbers can be used to represent the values of real things. Physics, engineering and computer programming are areas that use algebra all the time. It is also useful to know in surveying, construction and business, especially accounting.\nPeople who do algebra use the rules of numbers and mathematical operations used on numbers. The simplest are adding, subtracting, multiplying, and dividing. More advanced operations involve exponents, starting with squares and square roots.\nAlgebra was first used to solve equations and inequalities. Two examples are linear equations (the equation of a straight line, formula_5 or formula_6) and quadratic equations, which has variables that are squared (multiplied by itself, for example: formula_7, formula_8, or formula_9).\nHistory.\nEarly forms of algebra were developed by the Babylonians and Greek geometers such as Hero of Alexandria. However the word \"algebra\" is a Latin form of the Arabic word \"Al-Jabr\" (\"casting\") and comes from a mathematics book \"Al-Maqala fi Hisab-al Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah\", (\"Essay on the Computation of Casting and Equation\") written in the 9th century by a Persian mathematician, Muhammad ibn M\u016bs\u0101 al-Khw\u0101rizm\u012b, who was a Muslim born in Khwarizm in Uzbekistan. He flourished under Al-Ma'moun in Baghdad, Iraq through 813-833 CE, and died around 840 CE. The book was brought into Europe and translated into Latin in the 12th century. The book was then given the name \"Algebra\". (The ending of the mathematician's name, al-Khwarizmi, was changed into a word easier to say in Latin, and became the English word \"algorithm\").\nExamples.\nHere is a simple example of an algebra problem:\nThese are the steps you can use to solve the problem:\nWith practice, algebra can be used when faced with a problem that is too hard to solve any other way. Problems such as building a freeway, designing a cell phone, or finding the cure for a disease all require algebra.\nWriting algebra.\nAs in most parts of mathematics, adding formula_22 to formula_23 (or formula_22 plus formula_23) is written as formula_26;\nsubtracting formula_23 from formula_22 (or formula_22 minus formula_23) is written as formula_31;\nand dividing formula_22 by formula_23 (or formula_22 over formula_23) is written as formula_36 or formula_37.\nIn algebra, multiplying formula_22 by formula_23 (or formula_22 times formula_23) can be written in 3 different ways: formula_42, formula_43 or just formula_44. All of these notations mean the same thing: formula_22 times formula_23. The symbol \"formula_47\" used in arithmetic is not used in algebra, because it looks too much like the letter formula_3, which is often used as a variable.\nWhen we multiply a number and a variable in algebra, we can simply write the number in front of the letter: formula_49. When the number is 1, then it is not written because 1 times any number is that number (formula_50) and so it is not needed. And when it is 0, we can completely remove the terms, because 0 times any number is zero (formula_51).\nAs a side note, you do not have to use the letters formula_3 or formula_22 in algebra. Variables are just symbols that mean some unknown number or value, so you can use any letter for a variable (except formula_54 (Euler's number) and formula_55 (Imaginary unit), because these are mathematical constants). formula_3 and formula_22 are the most common, though.\nFunctions and Graphs.\nAn important part of algebra is the study of functions, since they often appear in equations that we are trying to solve. A function is like a machine you can put a number (or numbers) into and get a certain number (or numbers) out. When using functions, graphs can be powerful tools in helping us to study the solutions to equations.\nA graph is a picture that shows all the values of the variables that make the equation or inequality true. Usually this is easy to make when there are only one or two variables. The graph is often a line, and if the line does not bend or go straight up-and-down it can be described by the basic formula formula_5. The variable formula_59 is the y-intercept of the graph (where the line crosses the vertical axis) and formula_60 is the slope or steepness of the line. This formula applies to the coordinates of a graph, where each point on the line is written formula_61.\nIn some math problems like the equation for a line, there can be more than one variable (formula_3 and formula_22 in this case). To find points on the line, one variable is changed. The variable that is changed is called the \"independent\" variable. Then the math is done to make a number. The number that is made is called the \"dependent\" variable. Most of the time the independent variable is written as formula_3 and the dependent variable is written as formula_22, for example, in formula_66. This is often put on a graph, using an formula_3 axis (going left and right) and a formula_22 axis (going up and down). It can also be written in function form: formula_69. So in this example, we could put in 5 for formula_3 and get formula_71. Put in 2 for formula_3 would get formula_73. And 0 for formula_3 would get formula_75. So there would be a line going through the points formula_76, formula_77, and formula_78 as seen in the graph to the right.\nIf formula_3 has a power of 1, it is a straight line. If it is squared or some other power, it will be curved. If it uses an inequality (formula_80 or formula_81), then usually part of the graph is shaded, either above or below the line.\nRules.\nIn algebra, there are a few rules that can be used for further understanding of equations. These are called the rules of algebra. While these rules may seem senseless or obvious, it is wise to understand that these properties do not hold throughout all branches of mathematics. Therefore, it will be useful to know how these axiomatic rules are declared, before taking them for granted. Before going on to the rules, reflect on two definitions that will be given.\nCommutative property of addition.\n\"Commutative\" means that a function has the same result if the numbers are swapped around. In other words, the order of the terms in an equation does not matter. When two terms (addends) are being added, the \"commutative property of addition\" is applicable. In algebraic terms, this gives formula_86.\nNote that this does not apply for subtraction (i.e. formula_87 except if formula_88).\nCommutative property of multiplication.\nWhen two terms (factors) are being multiplied, the \"commutative property of multiplication\" is applicable. In algebraic terms, this gives formula_89.\nNote that this does not apply for division (i.e. formula_90, when formula_91 and formula_92, except if formula_88).\nAssociative property of addition.\n\"Associative\" refers to the grouping of numbers. The associative property of addition implies that, when adding three or more terms, it doesn't matter how these terms are grouped. Algebraically, this gives formula_94. Note that this does not hold for subtraction, e.g. formula_95 (see distributive property).\nAssociative property of multiplication.\nThe associative property of multiplication implies that, when multiplying three or more terms, it doesn't matter how these terms are grouped. Algebraically, this gives formula_96. Note that this does not hold for division, e.g. formula_97.\nDistributive property.\nThe distributive property states that the multiplication of a term by another term can be distributed. For instance: formula_98. (Do not confuse this with the associative properties! For instance: formula_99.)\nAdditive identity.\n\"Identity\" refers to the property of a number that it is equal to itself. In other words, there exists an operation of two numbers so that it equals the variable of the sum. The additive identity property states that any number plus 0 is that number: formula_100. This also holds for subtraction: formula_101.\nMultiplicative identity.\nThe multiplicative identity property states that any number times 1 is that number: formula_102. This also holds for division: formula_103.\nAdditive inverse property.\nThe additive inverse property is somewhat like the inverse of the additive identity. When we add a number and its opposite, the result is 0. Algebraically, it states the following: formula_104, which is the same as formula_105. For example, the additive inverse (or opposite) of 1 is -1.\nMultiplicative inverse property.\nThe multiplicative inverse property means that when we multiply a number and its reciprocal, the result is 1. Algebraically, it states the following: formula_106, which is the same as formula_107. For example, the multiplicative inverse (or reciprocal) of 2 is 1/2. To get the reciprocal of a fraction, switch the numerator and the denominator: the reciprocal of formula_108 is formula_109.\nAdvanced Algebra.\nIn addition to \"elementary algebra\", or basic algebra, there are advanced forms of algebra, taught in colleges and universities, such as abstract algebra, linear algebra, and universal algebra. This includes how to use a matrix to solve many linear equations at once. Abstract algebra is the study of things that are found in equations, going beyond numbers to the more abstract with groups of numbers.\nMany math problems are about physics and engineering. In many of these physics problems time is a variable. The letter used for time is formula_110. Using the basic ideas in algebra can help reduce a math problem to its simplest form making it easier to solve difficult problems. Energy is formula_54, force is formula_112, mass is formula_60, acceleration is formula_82 and speed of light is sometimes formula_115. This is used in some famous equations, like formula_116 and formula_117 (although more complex math beyond algebra was needed to come up with that last equation)."}
+{"id": "46", "revid": "209999", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=46", "title": "As", "text": ""}
+{"id": "47", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=47", "title": "Atom", "text": "An atom is an extremely small piece of matter. All normal matter \u2013 everything that has mass \u2013 is made of atoms. This includes solids, liquids, and gases. The atom cannot be broken to parts by chemistry, so people once thought it was the smallest piece of matter that could exist. There are over 100 different kinds of atoms, called chemical elements. Each kind has the same basic structure, but a different number of parts. \nAtoms are very small, but their exact size depends on the type. Atoms are from 0.1 to 0.5 nanometers across. One nanometer is about 100,000 times smaller than the width of a human hair. This makes one atom impossible to see without special tools. Scientists learn how they work by doing experiments.\nAtoms are made of three kinds of subatomic particles. These are protons, neutrons, and electrons. Protons and neutrons have much more mass. These are in the middle of the atom, called the nucleus. Lightweight electrons move quickly around them. The electromagnetic force holds the nucleus and electrons together.\nAtoms with the same number of protons belong to the same chemical element. Examples of elements are carbon and gold. Atoms with the same number of protons, but different numbers of neutrons, are called isotopes. Usually an atom has the same number of electrons as protons. If an atom has more or less electrons than protons, it is called an ion, and has an electric charge.\nAtoms can join by chemical bonds. Many things are made of more than one kind of atom. These are chemical compounds or mixtures. A group of atoms connected by chemical bonds is called a molecule. For example, a water molecule is made of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The forming or breaking of bonds is a chemical reaction.\nAtoms split if the forces inside are too weak to hold them together. This is what causes radioactivity. Atoms can also join to make larger atoms at very high temperatures, such as inside a star. These changes are studied in nuclear physics. Most atoms on Earth are not radioactive. They are rarely made, destroyed, or changed into another kind of atom.\nHistory.\nThe word \"atom\" comes from the Greek (\u1f00\u03c4\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2) \"atomos\", which means \"indivisible\" or \"uncuttable\". One of the first people to use the word \"atom\" is the Greek philosopher Democritus, around 400\u00a0. He thought that everything was made of particles called atoms, which could not be divided into smaller pieces. Some Hindu, Jain, and Buddhist philosophers also had ideas like this. Atomic theory was a mostly philosophical subject, with not much scientific investigation or study, until the early 1800s.\nIn 1777 French chemist Antoine Lavoisier defined the term \"element\" as we now use it. He said that an element was any substance that could not be broken down into other substances by the methods of chemistry. Any substance which could be broken down was a \"compound\".\nIn 1803, English philosopher John Dalton suggested that elements were made of tiny, solid balls called atoms. Dalton believed that all atoms of the same element have the same mass. He said that compounds are formed when atoms of more than one element combine. In any one compound, the atoms would always combine in the same numbers.\nIn 1827, British scientist Robert Brown looked at pollen grains in water under his microscope. The pollen grains appeared to be shaking. Brown used Dalton's atomic theory to describe patterns in how they moved. This was called \"Brownian motion\". In 1905 Albert Einstein used mathematics to prove that the pollen particles were being moved by the motion, or heat, of individual water molecules. By doing this, he proved that atoms are real without question.\nIn 1869, Russian scientist Dmitri Mendeleev published the first periodic table. The periodic table groups elements by their atomic number (how many protons they have; this is usually the same as the number of electrons). Elements in the same column, or group, usually have similar qualities. For example, helium, neon, argon, krypton, and xenon are all in the same column and are very similar. All these elements are gases that have no color or smell. Also, they cannot combine with other atoms to form compounds. Together they are known as noble gases.\nThe physicist J.J. Thomson was the first person to discover electrons. This happened while he was working with cathode rays in 1897. He learned they had a negative charge, and the rest of the atom had a positive charge. Thomson made the plum pudding model, which said that an atom was like plum pudding: the dried fruit (electrons) were stuck in a mass of pudding (having a positive charge). \nIn 1909, Ernest Rutherford used the Geiger\u2013Marsden experiment to prove that most of an atom is in a very small space, the atomic nucleus. Rutherford took a photo plate and covered it with gold foil. He then shot alpha particles (made of two protons and two neutrons stuck together) at it. Many of the particles went through the gold foil, which proved that atoms are mostly empty space. Electrons are so small and fast-moving that they did not block the particles from going through. Rutherford later discovered protons in the nucleus.\nIn 1913, Niels Bohr created the Bohr model. This model showed that electrons travel around the nucleus in fixed circular orbits. This was better than the Rutherford model, but it was still not completely true.\nIn 1925, chemist Frederick Soddy discovered that some elements had more than one kind of atom, called isotopes. Soddy believed that each different isotope of an element has a different mass. To prove this, chemist Francis William Aston built the mass spectrometer, which measures the mass of single atoms. Aston proved that Soddy was right. He also found that the mass of each atom is a whole number times the mass of the proton. This meant that there must be some particles in the nucleus other than protons. In 1932, physicist James Chadwick shot alpha particles at beryllium atoms. He saw that a particle shot out of the beryllium atoms. This particle had no charge, but about the same mass as a proton. He named this particle the neutron.\nThe best model so far comes from the Schr\u00f6dinger equation. Schr\u00f6dinger learned that the electrons exist in a cloud around the nucleus, called the electron cloud. In the electron cloud, it is impossible to know exactly where electrons are. The Schr\u00f6dinger equation says where an electron is likely to be. This area is called the electron's orbital.\nIn 1937, German chemist Otto Hahn became the first person to make nuclear fission in a laboratory. He discovered this by chance when shooting neutrons at a uranium atom, hoping to make a new isotope. However, instead of a new isotope, the uranium changed into a barium atom, a smaller atom than uranium. Hahn had \"broken\" the uranium atom. This was the world's first recorded nuclear fission reaction. This discovery led to the creation of the atomic bomb and nuclear power, where fission happens over and over again, creating a chain reaction.\nLater in the 20th century, physicists went deeper into the mysteries of the atom. Using particle accelerators, they discovered that protons and neutrons were made of other particles, called quarks.\nStructure and parts.\nParts.\nAn atom is made of three main particles: the proton, the neutron, and the electron. Protons and neutrons have nearly the same size and mass (about grams). The mass of an electron is about 1800 times smaller (about grams). Protons have a positive charge, electrons have a negative charge, and neutrons have no charge. Most atoms have no charge. The number of protons (positive) and electrons (negative) are the same, so the charges balance out to zero. However, ions have a different number of electrons than protons, so they have a positive or negative charge.\nScientists believe that electrons are elementary particles: they are not made of any smaller pieces. Protons and neutrons are made of quarks of two kinds: up quarks and down quarks. A proton is made of two up quarks and one down quark, and a neutron is made of two down quarks and one up quark.\nNucleus.\nThe nucleus is in the middle of the atom. It is made of protons and neutrons. The nucleus makes up more than 99.9% of the mass of the atom. However, it is very small: about 1 femtometer (10\u221215 m) across, which is around 100,000 times smaller than the width of an atom, so it has a very high density. \nUsually in nature, two things with the same charge repel or shoot away from each other. So for a long time, scientists did not know how the positively charged protons in the nucleus stayed together. We now believe that the attraction between protons and neutrons comes from the \"strong nuclear force\". This force also holds together the quarks that make up the protons and neutrons. Particles called mesons travel back and forth between protons and neutrons, and carry the force.\nThe number of neutrons in relation to protons defines whether the nucleus stays together or goes through radioactive decay. When there are too many neutrons or protons, the atom tries to make the numbers smaller or more equal by removing the extra particles. It sends out radiation in the form of alpha, beta, or gamma decay. Nuclei can also change in other ways. Nuclear fission is when the nucleus breaks into two smaller nuclei, releasing a lot of energy. This release of energy makes nuclear fission useful for making bombs, and electricity in the form of nuclear power.\nThe other way nuclei can change is through nuclear fusion, when two nuclei join or fuse to make a larger nucleus. This process requires very high amounts of energy to overcome the electric repulsion between the protons, as they have the same charge. Such high energies are most common in stars like our Sun, which fuses hydrogen for fuel. However, once fusion happens, far more energy is released, because some of the mass becomes energy.\nThe energy needed to break a nucleus into protons and neutrons is called its nuclear binding energy. This energy can be converted to mass, as stated by Einstein's famous formula \"E\"\u00a0=\u00a0\"mc\"2. Medium-sized nuclei, such as iron-56 and nickel-62, have the highest binding energy per proton or neutron. They will probably not go through fission or fusion, because they cannot release energy in this way. Very small and very large atoms have low binding energy, so they are most willing to go through fission or fusion.\nElectrons.\nElectrons orbit, or travel around, the nucleus. They are called the atom's \"electron cloud\". They are attracted to the nucleus because of the electromagnetic force. Electrons have a negative charge, and the nucleus always has a positive charge, so they attract each other.\nThe Bohr model shows that some electrons are farther from the nucleus than others in different levels. These are called \"electron shells\". Only the electrons in the outer shell can make chemical bonds. The number of electrons in the outer shell determines whether the atom is stable or which atoms it will bond with in a chemical reaction. If an atom has only one shell, it needs two electrons to be complete. Otherwise, the outer shell needs eight electrons to be complete.\nThe Bohr model is important because it has the idea of energy levels. The electrons in each shell have a certain amount of energy. Shells that are farther from the nucleus have more energy. When a small burst of energy called a photon hits an electron, the electron can jump into a \"higher-energy\" shell. This photon must carry exactly the right amount of energy to bring the electron to the new energy level. A photon is a burst of light, and the amount of energy determines the color of light. So each kind of atom will absorb certain colors of light, called the absorption spectrum. An electron can also send out, or emit, a photon, and fall into a \"lower energy\" shell. For the same reason, the atom will only send out certain colors of light, called the emission spectrum.\nThe complete picture is more complicated. Unlike the Earth moving around the Sun, electrons do not move in a circle. We cannot know the exact place of an electron. We only know the probability, or chance, that it will be in any place. Each electron is part of an \"orbital\", which describes where it is likely to be. No more than two electrons can be in one orbital; these two electrons have different \"spin\".\nFor each shell, numbered 1, 2, 3, and so on, there may be a number of different orbitals. These have different shapes, or point in different directions. Each orbital can be described by its three \"quantum numbers\". The \"principal quantum number\" is the electron shell number. The \"azimuthal quantum number\" is represented by a letter: s, p, d, or f. Depending on the principal and azimuthal quantum numbers, the electron can have more or less energy. There is also a \"magnetic quantum number\", but it does not usually affect the energy level. As more electrons are added, they join orbitals in order from lowest to highest energy. This order starts as follows: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d. For example, a chlorine atom has 17 electrons. So, it will have:\nIn other words, it has 2 electrons in the first shell, 8 in the second shell, and 7 in the third shell. \nProperties.\nAtomic number.\nThe number of protons in an atom is called its \"atomic number\". Atoms of the same element have the same atomic number. For example, all carbon atoms have six protons, so the atomic number of carbon is six. Today, 118 elements are known. Depending on how the number is counted, 90 to 94 elements exist naturally on earth. All elements above number 94 have only been made by humans. These elements are organized on the periodic table.\nAtomic mass and weight.\nBecause protons and neutrons have nearly the same mass, and the mass of electrons is very small, we can call the number of protons and neutrons in an atom its \"mass number\". Most elements have several isotopes with different mass numbers. To name an isotope, we use the name of the element, followed by its mass number. So an atom with six protons and seven neutrons is called carbon-13.\nSometimes, we need a more exact measurement. The exact mass of an atom is called its \"atomic mass\". This is usually measured with the atomic mass unit (amu), also called the dalton. One amu is exactly 1/12 of the mass of a carbon-12 atom, which is grams. Hydrogen-1 has a mass of about 1 amu. The heaviest atom known, oganesson, has a mass of about 294 amu, or grams. The average mass of all atoms of a particular element is called its \"atomic weight\".\nSize.\nThe size of an atom depends on the size of its electron cloud. Moving down the periodic table, more electron shells are added. As a result, atoms get bigger. Moving to the right on the periodic table, more protons are added to the nucleus. This more positive nucleus pulls electrons more strongly, so atoms get smaller. The biggest atom is caesium, which is about 0.596 nanometers wide according to one model. The smallest atom is helium, which is about 0.062 nanometers wide.\nHow atoms interact.\nWhen atoms are far apart, they attract each other. This attraction is stronger for some kinds of atoms than others. At the same time, the heat, or kinetic energy, of atoms makes them always move. If the attraction is strong enough, relative to the amount of heat, atoms will form a solid. If the attraction is weaker, they will form a liquid, and if it is even weaker, they will form a gas. \nChemical bonds are the strongest kinds of attraction between atoms. The movement of electrons explains all chemical bonds.\nAtoms usually bond with each other in a way that fills or empties their outer electron shell. The most reactive elements have an almost full or almost empty outer shell. Atoms with a full outer shell, called noble gases, do not usually form bonds.\nThere are three main kinds of bonds: ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds.\nAll atoms attract each other by Van der Waals forces. These forces are weaker than chemical bonds. They are caused when electrons move to one side of an atom. This movement gives a negative charge to that side. It also gives a positive charge to the other side. When two atoms line up their sides with negative and positive charges, they will attract.\nAlthough atoms are mostly empty space, they cannot pass through each other. When two atoms are very close, their electron clouds will repel each other by the electromagnetic force.\nMagnetism.\nTo understand how magnets work, we can look at the properties of the atom. Any magnet has a north and south pole, and a certain strength. The direction and strength of a magnet, together, are called its magnetic moment. Every electron also has a magnetic moment, like a tiny magnet. This comes from the electron's spin and its orbit around the nucleus. The magnetic moments for the electrons add up to a magnetic moment for the whole atom. This tells us how atoms act in a magnetic field. \nEvery electron has one of two opposite spins. We can think of one as turning to the right, and the other as turning to the left. If every electron is paired with an electron with the opposite spin in the same orbital, the magnetic moments will cancel out to zero. Atoms like this are called diamagnetic. They are only weakly repelled by a magnetic field.\nHowever, if some electrons are not paired, the atom will have a lasting magnetic moment: it will be paramagnetic or ferromagnetic. When atoms are paramagnetic, the magnetic moment of each atom points in a random direction. They are weakly attracted to a magnetic field. When atoms are ferromagnetic, the magnetic moments of nearby atoms act on each other. They point in the same direction. This means that the whole object is a magnet, and it can point in the direction of a magnetic field. Ferromagnetic materials, such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, are strongly attracted to a magnetic field.\nRadioactive decay.\nSome elements, and many isotopes, have what is called an \"unstable nucleus\". This means the nucleus is either too big to hold itself together, or it has too many protons or neutrons. When a nucleus is unstable, it has to eliminate the excess mass of particles. It does this through radiation. An atom that does this is called \"radioactive\". Unstable atoms emit radiation until they lose enough particles in the nucleus to become stable. All atoms above atomic number 82 (82 protons, lead) are radioactive.\nThere are three main kinds of radioactive decay: alpha, beta, and gamma.\nEvery radioactive element or isotope has a \"half-life\". This is how long it takes half of any sample of atoms of that type to decay into a different isotope or element.\nCreation of atoms.\nNearly all the hydrogen atoms in the Universe, most of the helium atoms, and some of the lithium atoms were made soon after the Big Bang. Even today, about 90% of all atoms in the Universe are hydrogen.\nAll other atoms come from nuclear fusion in stars, or sometimes from cosmic rays that hit atoms. At the start of their life, all stars fuse hydrogen to make helium. The least massive stars, red dwarfs, are expected to stop there. All other stars will then fuse helium to make carbon and oxygen. In stars like the Sun, the temperature and pressure are too low to make larger atoms. But more massive stars continue fusion, until they create iron (atomic number 26) or nickel (atomic number 28). Atoms can also grow larger when neutrons or protons hit them. This could happen inside stars or in supernovae. Most atoms on Earth were made by a star that existed before the Sun.\nPeople make very large atoms by smashing together smaller atoms in particle accelerators. However, these atoms often decay very quickly. Oganesson (element 118) has a half-life of 0.00089 seconds. Even larger atoms may be created in the future."}
+{"id": "48", "revid": "1696158", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=48", "title": "Astronomy", "text": "Astronomy is the scientific study of celestial bodies. It is a major branch of space science. Stars, galaxies, planets, moons, asteroids, comets and nebulae are studied, as are supernovae explosions, gamma ray bursts, and cosmic microwave background radiation. Astronomy includes the development, physics, chemistry, meteorology and movement of celestial bodies. The big questions are the structure and development of the universe.\nAstronomy is one of the oldest sciences. The patterns of stars in the night sky were called constellations by the ancient Greeks. They used the positions of the stars to navigate, and to find when was the best time to plant crops.\nAstrophysics is an important part of astronomy. A related subject, cosmology, is concerned with studying the universe as a whole, and the way the universe changed over time. Astronomy is not the same as \"astrology\", a belief that the motion of the stars and the planets may affect human lives.\nThere are two main types of astronomy, \"observational\" and \"theoretical\" astronomy. Observational astronomy uses telescopes and cameras to \"observe\" or look at stars, galaxies and other astronomical objects. Theoretical astronomy explains what we see. It predicts what might happen. Observations show whether the predictions work. The main work of astronomy is to explain puzzling features of the Universe. For many years the most important issue was the motions of planets. Many other topics are now studied.\nDay-time astronomy is possible but could be harmful. The Sun, is our biggest star, better describes as a big all of light and observing directly is dangerous. It is too bright, and can burn your eyes and can cause permanent blindness. To look at the Sun you need proper shields and equipment. Some other individual bright stars and planets can be seen during daylight hours through a telescope or a powerful pair of binoculars.\nHistory of astronomy.\nAncient history.\nEarly astronomers used only their eyes to look at the stars. They made maps of the constellations and stars for religious reasons and calendars to work out the time of year. Early civilisations such as the Maya people and the Ancient Egyptians built simple observatories and drew maps of the stars positions. They also began to think about the place of Earth in the universe. For a long time people thought Earth was the center of the universe, and that the planets, the stars and the sun went around it. This is known as geocentrism. Astronomy is from the Greek \"astron\" (\u1f04\u03c3\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd) meaning \"star\" and \"nomos\" (n\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2) meaning \"law\")\nAncient Greeks tried to explain the motions of the Sun and stars by taking measurements. A mathematician named Eratosthenes was the first who measured the size of the Earth and proved that the Earth is a sphere. A theory by another mathematician named Aristarchus was, that the Sun is the center and the Earth is moving around it. This is known as heliocentrism. Only a few people thought it was right. The rest continued to believe in the \"geocentric\" model. Most of the names of constellations and stars come from Greeks of that time.\nArabic astronomers made many advancements during the Middle Ages including improved star maps and ways to estimate the size of the Earth. They also learned from the ancients by translating Greek books into Arabic.\nRenaissance to modern era.\nDuring the renaissance a priest named Nicolaus Copernicus thought, from looking at the way the planets moved, that the Earth was not the center of everything. Based on previous works, he said that the Earth was a planet and all the planets moved around the Sun. This brought back the old idea of heliocentrism. Galileo Galilei built his own telescopes, and used them to look more closely at the stars and planets for the first time. He agreed with Copernicus. The Catholic Church thought Galileo was wrong. He spent the rest of his life under house arrest. Heliocentric ideas were soon improved by Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton, who invented the theory of gravity.\nAfter Galileo, people made better telescopes and used them to see farther objects such as the planets Uranus and Neptune. They also saw how stars were similar to our Sun, but in a range of colours and sizes. They also saw thousands of other faraway objects such as galaxies and nebulae.\nModern era.\nThe 20th century after 1920 saw important changes in astronomy.\nIn the early 1920s it began to be accepted that the galaxy in which we live, the Milky Way, is not the only galaxy. The existence of other galaxies was settled by Edwin Hubble, who identified the Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy. It was also Hubble who proved that the universe was expanding. There were many other galaxies at large distances and they are receding, moving away from our galaxy. That was completely unexpected.\nIn 1931, Karl Jansky discovered radio emission from outside the Earth when trying to isolate a source of noise in radio communications, marking the birth of radio astronomy and the first attempts at using another part of the electromagnetic spectrum to observe the sky. Those parts of the electromagnetic spectrum that the atmosphere did not block were now opened up to astronomy, allowing more discoveries to be made.\nThe opening of this new window on the Universe saw the discovery of entirely new things, for example pulsars, which sent regular pulses of radio waves out into space. The waves were first thought to be alien in origin because the pulses were so regular that (so it was thought) it implied an artificial source.\nThe period after World War II saw more observatories. Large and accurate telescopes were built and operated at good observing sites, usually by governments. For example, Bernard Lovell began radio astronomy at Jodrell Bank using leftover military radar equipment. By 1957, the site had the largest steerable radio telescope in the world. Similarly, the end of the 1960s saw the start of the building of dedicated observatories at Mauna Kea in Hawaii, a good site for visible and infra-red telescopes thanks to its high altitude and clear skies.\nThe next great revolution in astronomy was thanks to the birth of rocketry. This allowed telescopes to be placed in space on satellites.\nSpace telescopes gave access, for the first time in history, to the entire electromagnetic spectrum including rays that had been blocked by the atmosphere. The X-rays, gamma rays, ultraviolet light and parts of the infra-red spectrum were all opened to astronomy as observing telescopes were launched. As with other parts of the spectrum, new discoveries were made.\nFrom 1970s satellites were launched to be replaced with more accurate and better satellites, causing the sky to be mapped in nearly all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.\nDiscoveries.\nDiscoveries broadly come in two types: bodies and phenomena. Bodies are things in the Universe, whether it is a planet like our Earth, or a galaxy like our Milky Way. Phenomena are events and happenings in the Universe.\nBodies.\nFor convenience, this section has been divided by where these astronomical bodies may be found: those found around stars are solar bodies, those inside galaxies are galactic bodies and everything else larger are cosmic bodies.\nGalactic.\nDiffuse Objects:\nCompact Stars:\nPhenomena.\nBurst events are those where there is a sudden change in the heavens that disappears quickly. These are called bursts because they are normally associated with large explosions producing a \"burst\" of energy. They include:\nPeriodic events are those that happen regularly in a repetitive way. The name periodic comes from period, which is the length of time required for a wave to complete one cycle. Periodic phenomena include:\nNoise phenomena tend to relate to things that happened a long time ago. The signal from these events bounce around the Universe until it seems to come from everywhere and varies little in intensity. In this way, it is \"noise\", the background signal that pervades every instrument used for astronomy. The most common example of noise is static seen on analogue televisions. The principal astronomical example is: cosmic background radiation.\nMethods.\nTechniques.\nThere are way astronomers can get better pictures of the heavens. Light from a distant source reaches a sensor and gets measured, normally by a human eye or a camera. For very dim sources, there may not be enough light particles coming from the source for it to be seen. One technique that astronomers have for making it visible is using \"integration\" (which is like longer exposures in photography).\nIntegration.\nAstronomical sources do not move much: only the rotation and movement of the Earth causes them to move across the heavens. As light particles reach the camera over time, they hit the same place making it brighter and more visible than the background, until it can be seen.\nTelescopes at most observatories (and satellite instruments) can normally track a source as it moves across the heavens, making the star appear still to the telescope and allowing longer exposures. Also, images can be taken on different nights so exposures span hours, days or even months. In the digital era, digitised pictures of the sky can be added together by computer, which overlays the images after correcting for movement.\nAdaptive optics.\nAdaptive optics means changing the shape of the mirror or lens while looking at something, to see it better.\nData analysis.\nData analysis is the process of getting more information out of an astronomical observation than by simply looking at it. The observation is first stored as data. This data then has various techniques used to analyse it.\nFourier analysis.\nFourier analysis in mathematics can show if an observation (over a length of time) is changing periodically (changes like a wave). If so, it can extract the frequencies and the type of wave pattern, and find many things including new planets.\nSubfields of astronomy.\nPulsars pulse regularly in radio waves. These turned out to be similar to some (but not all) of a type of bright source in X-rays called a Low-mass X-ray binary. It turned out that all pulsars and some LMXBs are neutron stars and that the differences were due to the environment in which the neutron star was found. Those LMXBs that were not neutron stars turned out to be black holes.\nThis section attempts to provide an overview of the important fields of astronomy.\nSolar astronomy.\nSolar astronomy is the study of the Sun. The Sun is the closest star to Earth at around 92 million (92,000,000) miles away. It is the easiest to observe in detail. Observing the Sun can help us understand how other stars work and are formed. Changes in the Sun can affect the weather and climate on Earth. A stream of charged particles called the Solar wind is constantly sent off from the Sun. The Solar wind hitting the Earth's magnetic field causes the northern lights.\nStellar astronomy\nStellar astronomy, sometimes \"stellar astrophysics\" is the scientific study of stars, their formation, evolution and fate (stellar evolution). In the most basic sense, Stellar Astronomy attempts to answer the questions to the universe's most common phenomena \u2014 stars. Heavily relating with Galactic and Planetary Astronomy.\nPlanetary astronomy.\nPlanetary astronomy is the study of planets, moons, dwarf planets, comets and asteroids as well as other small objects that orbit stars. The planets of our own Solar System have been studied in depth by many visiting spacecraft such as Cassini-Huygens (Saturn) and the Voyager 1 and 2.\nGalactic astronomy.\nGalactic astronomy is the study of distant galaxies. Studying distant galaxies is a good way of learning about our own galaxy, as the gases and stars in our own galaxy make it difficult to observe. Galactic astronomers try to understand the structure of galaxies and how they are formed by using different types of telescopes and computer simulations.\nGravitational wave astronomy.\nGravitational wave astronomy is the study of the Universe in the gravitational wave spectrum. So far, all astronomy that has been done has used the electromagnetic spectrum. Gravitational waves are ripples in spacetime emitted by very dense objects changing shape, which include white dwarves, neutron stars and black holes. Because no one has been able to detect gravitational waves directly, the impact of gravitational wave astronomy has been limited.\nUnsolved problems.\nGreat discoveries also produce unsolved problems. This is just a short-list:"}
+{"id": "49", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=49", "title": "Architecture", "text": "Architecture is the process of designing structures and buildings. It uses both art and engineering. Examples include houses, churches, hotels, office buildings, roads, tunnels and bridges. \nArchitecture is the profession of an architect. Usually, a person must study at an institution of higher education (university) to become an architect. There were architects long before there was higher education. They learnt by being an apprentice to an established architect. \nArchitecture can do small designs, such as for a garage, or large designs, such as for a whole new town. The capital cities of Bras\u00edlia, and Canberra were designed. Architects often work with structural engineers to make structurally sound buildings.\nHistory.\nIn the past, people built huts and wood houses to protect themselves from the weather. For safety, they were often close together. Great civilizations like the Ancient Egyptians built large temples and structures, like the Great Pyramids of Giza. The Ancient Greeks and Romans made what we now call \"Classical Architecture\". The Romans, working over 2000 years ago, copied the arch from the Etruscans, who copied it from the Mesopotamians. \nClassical architecture was formal, and it always obeyed laws. It used symmetry, which really means balance, and it used proportion between shapes. The Golden Mean was a rule which said, (to put it simply) if you are making a room, or any other thing, it will work best if you always make the long side 1.6 times as long as the short side. There are many 'laws' in classical architecture, like how high the middle of an arched bridge needs to be (which depends on how wide the bridge needs to be). These laws were learned from thousands of years of experience and they are often used today. However, today more notice is taken of specific facts, such as what wind speeds occur once or twice in a century. Several bridges have blown down because that was not properly taken into consideration.\nIn some parts of the world, like India, the architecture is famous for carving the stone on temples and palaces. Different architectural styles occur in China, Japan, Southeast Asia, Africa, Mexico, and Central and South America.\nArchitects in Western Europe in the Middle Ages made Romanesque architecture, then Gothic architecture. Gothic buildings have tall, pointed windows and arches. Many churches have Gothic architecture. Castles were also built at this time. In Eastern Europe, churches usually had domes. People added their own ideas and decoration to the Classical Architecture of the past. The Renaissance brought a return to classical ideas. \nIn the late 18th century with the Industrial Revolution, people began to invent machines to make things quickly and cheaply. Many factories and mills were built during, or after this revolution. Decades later, in the Victorian era, architects like George Fowler Jones and Decimus Burton still followed the Gothic style to build new churches. Up to this point, buildings were limited in size and style by the strength of the wood and masonry used to construct them. Gothic cathedrals were among the largest buildings because the gothic arch when combined with buttresses allowed stone buildings to be built taller. For example, the cathedral in Ulm, Germany is over 500 feet tall. However, building with stone has its limits, and building too tall could result in collapse. This happened to the Beauvais Cathedral, which was never completed. \nTowards the end of the 19th Century with a second Industrial Revolution, steel became much cheaper. Architects began to use inventions like metal girders and reinforced concrete to build. An example is the Eiffel Tower in Paris. Buildings can now be built taller than ever before. We call them skyscrapers. This new technology has made us free from traditional limitations, and because of the new possibilities presented by these materials, many traditional methods of construction and ideas about style were reevaluated, replaced, or abandoned. Cheap, strong glass soon brought transparent exterior walls, especially for office buildings.\nModernism is the name for the architectural style which developed because of these new building technologies, and its beginnings can been seen as early as 1890. Modernism can also refer to a specific group of architects and buildings from the early to late 20th century, and so may not be the proper term to use for many building built since then, which are sometimes called \"post-modern\".\nMany of the world's greatest structures were built by modern-day architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright; Sir Hugh Casson; Norman Foster; I. M. Pei; Adrian Smith; Edward Durell Stone; Frank Gehry; Fazlur Khan; Gottfried B\u00f6hm; and Bruce Graham."}
+{"id": "50", "revid": "1511774", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=50", "title": "Anatomy", "text": "Anatomy is the study of the bodies of people and other animals. Anatomy is the study of the inside of the body and outside the body. Anatomy notes the position and structure of organs such as muscles, glands and bones. A person who studies anatomy is an anatomist. \nThe history of anatomy dates back to 1600 BC when Egyptians began studying human anatomy. They discovered the functions of many organs like the liver, spleen, kidneys, heart etc. and were the first to discover the structure and functions of the lymphatic system.\nFor long periods the dissection of deceased people was forbidden, and correct ideas about human anatomy was a long time coming.\nAcademic human anatomists are usually employed by universities, medical schools and teaching hospitals. They are often involved in teaching and research. Gross anatomy studies parts of the body that are big enough to see. Micro-anatomy studies smaller parts.\nBody systems.\nThere are different organ systems, such as the cardiovascular system, also known as the circulatory system (the system that gets blood around the body), the muscular system (the system that contains muscles), the nervous system (the system that controls the nerves, and the brain) and the skeleton (the bones).\nAnatomy, physiology and biochemistry are similar basic medical sciences."}
+{"id": "51", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=51", "title": "Asteroid", "text": "An asteroid is a minor planet that orbits within the inner solar system. It is a small object in the Solar System that travels around the Sun. It is like a planet but smaller. They range from very small (smaller than a car) to 600 miles (1000 km) across. A few asteroids have an asteroid moon.\nThe name \"asteroid\" means \"like a star\" in the ancient Greek language. Asteroids may look like small stars in the sky, but they really do move around the Sun. Like planets, asteroids do not make their own light. Because of this, some people think \"asteroids\" is not a good name, and think that the name \"planetoid\" (\"like a planet\") would be a better name.\nAsteroids are the leftover rock and other material from the formation of the Solar System. These rocks were too small to come together to make a planet. Some are made of carbon or metal. Depending on what's on the surface, they are classified into various asteroid spectral types including Type M (metal), Type S (stone), and Type C (carbon).\nMost asteroids in our Solar System are in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Many are not in the main asteroid belt. The ones that come close to Earth are called Near-Earth asteroids. Some scientists think asteroids striking the Earth killed off all the dinosaurs and caused some of the other extinction events.\nMedia told in 2025, about the chemical substances that were (found on, or) sampled from asteroid Bennu: \"traces of brine\" and \"all five nucleobases that make up DNA and RNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil\". The sample was taken in 2020, and the space capsule with sample, landed in the United States in 2023.\nHistory.\nGiuseppe Piazzi found the first asteroid, in 1801. He called it Ceres, and it is the biggest object in the asteroid belt. Others, like Juno, Pallas, and Vesta were found later. In the 1850s, so many had been found that they were numbered by a Minor planet designation starting with 1 Ceres. Today, astronomers using computerized telescopes find thousands of asteroids every month. Asteroid impact prediction is one of their purposes. "}
+{"id": "52", "revid": "1687571", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=52", "title": "Afghanistan", "text": "Afghanistan, officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan is a country in Asia. It borders Pakistan in the south and east (border with India is disputed), Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast. Kabul is the capital city.\nAfghanistan is currently governed by the Taliban, after the collapse of the internationally recognized Islamic Republic of Afghanistan on 15 August 2021. In early times people passed through it with animals and other goods as it connected China and India with Central Asia and the Middle East. More recently, Afghanistan has been damaged by many years of war. There are not enough jobs.\nThe country is around in size. There are 40.976 million people in Afghanistan. There are about 3 million Afghan refugees (people who had to leave the country) in Pakistan and Iran. In 2011 Kabul, had about 3,691,400 people living in it.\nUnited Nations Human Rights Council decided in October 2021 to appoint an independent expert, known as a United Nations special rapporteur on Afghanistan, to find out about violations carried out by the Taliban and others who are now part of a big conflict.\nEconomy.\nThe economy does not have growth (as April 2024), of that kind that is called GDP growth, according to Worldbank.org. In regard to the mining industry: In 2024, Chinese engineers broke ground for a mine; \"The deposit is estimated to [... have] 11.5 million tons of copper ore\".\nGeography.\nAfghanistan has many mountains. The mountains are called the Hindu Kush and Himalayas. The tallest mountain in Afghanistan is Mount Nowshak. There are plains (which have soil that is good for growing plants) and foothills. Parts of the country are also dry, especially the Registan Desert. Afghanistan has snow and glaciers in the mountains. Amu Darya is the big water stream, or river.\nThe country has a lot of a valuable stone called lapis lazuli, which was used to decorate the tomb of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamun.\nClimate.\nAfghanistan has a continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. Having no water sometimes causes problems for farmers. Sandstorms happen a lot in the desert.\nPlants and animals.\nSouthern Afghanistan does not have many plants because it is dry. There are more plants where there is more water. Mountains have forests of pine and fir, cedar, oak, walnut, alder, and ash trees.\nAfghanistan's wild animals live in the mountains. There are wolves, foxes, jackals, bears, and wild goats, gazelles, wild dogs, camels, and wild cats such as the snow leopard in the country. The birds are falcons, eagles and vultures. The Rhesus Macaque and the red flying squirrel are also in Afghanistan.\nMany years of war, hunting, and years of no water have killed animals in Afghanistan. There used to be tigers in Afghanistan, but now there aren't any. Bears and wolves are almost gone.\nPeople and culture.\nMany people have moved through or invaded the land of Afghanistan. Today's people of Afghanistan are known as \"Afghans\". \nThe largest group of people are the Pashtuns. These make up about half the population. Tajiks are the second-largest ethnic group, making up about one-fifth of the population. Before the 20th century, Tajiks were called Sarts and some come from Iranian peoples. Most Pashtuns are also related to the Iranian peoples. Some Pashtuns and Tajiks marry each other but at the same time they are rivals. The third-largest group are the Hazaras. They are native to the Hazaristan area in central Afghanistan. The country's other groups include the Uzbek, Aimaq, Turkmen, Nuristani, Baloch, and Pashayi.\nDari-Persian and Pashto are the two official languages of Afghanistan. Many people speak both languages. Both are Indo-European languages from the Iranian languages sub-family. They are usually written with the Arabic alphabet. Uzbek and Turkmen are widely spoken in the north and Nuristani and Pashai are spoken in the east. Around 99% of Afghans follow the religion of Islam.\nAfghanistan is a largely rural country. This means there are only a few major cities. About one fifth of the population live in cities. Kabul, the capital, is the largest city. It is south of the Hindu Kush range and alongside the Kabul River. Other cities are Kandahar, Herat, Mazar-e Sharif, and Jalalabad. The rural population is made up of farmers and nomads. The farmers live mainly in small villages along the rivers. The nomads live in tents while moving from place to place with their animals and belongings. Some people live in the high central mountains. Some live in the deserts in the south and southwest. Millions of people left Afghanistan to get away from the wars that happened in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. Most of them went to Pakistan and Iran.\nHistory.\nAfghanistan is in the path of important trade routes that connect southern and eastern Asia to Europe and the Middle East. Because of this, many empire builders have tried to rule over the area. Signs that these emperors were near Afghanistan still exist in many parts of the country. Afghanistan is near what used to be the Silk Road. The peoples of Afghanistan helped develop major world religions, traded and exchanged many products, and sometimes controlled politics and culture in Asia.\nPrehistory.\nArchaeologists digging a cave in Badakhshan discovered that people lived in the country as early as 100,000 years ago. They found the skull of a Neanderthal, or early human, as well as tools from about 30,000 years ago. In other parts of Afghanistan, archaeologists uncovered pottery and tools that are 4,000 to 11,000 years old\u2014evidence that Afghans were among the first people in the world to grow crops and raise animals.\nFarmers and herders settled in the plains surrounding the Hindu Kush as early as 7000\u00a0B.C. These people may have grown rich off the lapis lazuli they found along riverbeds, which they traded to early city sites to the west, across the Iranian plateau and Mesopotamia. As farms and villages grew these ancient people started irrigation (digging ditches for water so it flows to crops) that allowed them to grow crops on the northern Afghanistan desert plains. This civilization (advanced state of organization) is today called BMAC (Bactria\u2013Margiana Archaeological Complex), or the \"Oxus civilization\".\nThe Oxus civilization expanded as far east as western edge of the Indus Valley during the period between 2200 and 1800\u00a0B.C. These people, who were the ancestors of the Indo-Aryans, used the term \"Aryan\" to identify their ethnicity, culture, and religion. Scholars know this when they read the ancient texts of these people; the Avesta of Iranic peoples and the Vedas of Indo-Aryans.\nZoroaster, the founder of the Zoroastrian religion, the world's earliest monotheistic religion, (meaning a religion believing in one god) lived in the area (somewhere north of today's Afghanistan), around 1000\u00a0B.C.\nAncient history.\nBefore the middle of the sixth century BCE, Afghanistan was held by the Medes. Then the Achaemenids took over control of the land and made it part of the Persian empire. Alexander the great defeated and conquered the Persian Empire in 330 BCE. He founded some cities in the area. The people used Macedonian culture and language. After Alexander, Seleucids, Mauryas, Greco-Bactrians, Scythians, Kushans, Parthians, Guptas and Sassanians ruled the area.\nKushans spread Buddhism from India in the 1st century BCE, and Buddhism remained an important religion in the area until the Islamic conquest in the 7th century CE.\nThe Buddhas of Bamiyan were giant statues, a reminder of Buddhism in Afghanistan. They were destroyed by the Taliban in 2001. There were international protests. The Taliban believe that the ancient statues were un-Islamic and that they had a right to destroy them.\nMedieval history.\nArabs introduced Islam in the 7th century and slowly began spreading the new religion. In the 9th and 10th centuries, many local Islamic dynasties rose to power inside Afghanistan. One of the earliest was the Tahirids, whose kingdom included Balkh and Herat; they established independence from the Abbasids in 820. The Tahirids were succeeded in about 867 by the Saffarids of Zaranj in western Afghanistan. Local princes in the north soon became feudatories of the powerful Samanids, who ruled from Bukhara. From 872 to 999, north of the Hindu Kush in Afghanistan enjoyed a golden age under Samanid rule.\nIn the 10th century, the local Ghaznavids turned Ghazni into their capital and firmly established Islam throughout all areas of Afghanistan, except the Kafiristan region in the northeast. Mahmud of Ghazni, a great Ghaznavid sultan, conquered the Multan and Punjab region, and carried raids into the heart of India. Mohammed bin Abdul Jabbar Utbi, a historian from the 10th century, wrote that thousands of \"Afghans\" were in the Ghaznavid army. The Ghaznavid dynasty was replaced by the Ghorids of Ghor in the late 12th century, who reconquered Ghaznavid territory in the name of Islam and ruled it until 1206. The Ghorid army also included ethnic Afghans.\nAfghanistan was recognized as \"Khorasan\", meaning \"land of the rising sun,\" which was a prosperous and independent geographic region reaching as far as the Indus River.\nAll the major cities of modern Afghanistan were centers of science and culture in the past. The New Persian literature arose and flourished in the area. The early Persian poets such as Rudaki were from what is now Afghanistan. Moreover, Ferdowsi, the author of Shahnameh, the national epic of Iran, and Rumi, the famous Sufi poet, were also from here. It has produced scientists such as Avicenna, Al-Farabi, Al-Biruni, Omar Khayy\u00e1m, Al-Khwarizmi, and many others who are widely known for their important contributions in areas such as mathematics, astronomy, medicine, physics, geography, and geology. It remained the cultural capital of Persia until the devastating Mongol invasion in the 13th century.\nTimur, the Turkic conqueror, took over in the end of the 14th century and began to rebuild cities in this region. Timur's successors, the Timurids (1405\u20131507), were great patrons of learning and the arts who enriched their capital city of Herat with fine buildings. Under their rule Afghanistan enjoyed peace and prosperity.\nBetween south of the Hindu Kush and the Indus River (today's Pakistan) was the native land of the Afghan tribes. They called this land \"Afghanistan\" (meaning \"land of the Afghans\"). The Afghans ruled the rich northern Indian subcontinent with their capital at Delhi. From the 16th to the early 18th century, Afghanistan was disputed between the Safavids of Isfahan and the Mughals of Agra who had replaced the Lodi and Suri Afghan rulers in India. The Safavids and Mughals occasionally oppressed the native Afghans but at the same time the Afghans used each empire to punish the other. In 1709, the Hotaki Afghans rose to power and completely defeated the Persian Empire. Then they marched towards the Mughals of India and defeated them with the help of the Afsharid forces under Nader Shah Afshar.\nIn 1747, after Nader Shah of Persia was killed, a great leader named Ahmad Shah Durrani united all the different Muslim tribes and established the Afghan Empire (Durrani Empire). He is considered the founding father of the modern state of Afghanistan while Mirwais Hotak is the grandfather of the nation.\nSince the 1800s.\nDuring the 1800s, Afghanistan became a buffer zone between two powerful empires, the British Indian Empire and the Russian Empire. As British India advanced into Afghanistan, Russia felt threatened and expanded southward across Central Asia. To stop the Russian advance, Britain tried to make Afghanistan part of its empire but the Afghans fought wars with British-led Indians from 1839 to 1842 and from 1878 to 1880. After the third war in 1919, Afghanistan under King Amanullah gained respect and recognition as a completely independent state.\nThe Kingdom of Afghanistan was a constitutional monarchy established in 1926. It was the successor state to the Emirate of Afghanistan. On 27 September 1934, during the reign of Zahir Shah, the Kingdom of Afghanistan joined the League of Nations. During World War II, Afghanistan remained neutral. It pursued a diplomatic policy of non-alignment.\nThe creation of Pakistan in 1947 as its eastern neighbor created problems. In 1973, political crises led to the overthrow of the king. The country's new leader ended the monarchy and made Afghanistan a republic. In 1978, a Communist political party supported by the Soviet Union seized control of Afghanistan's government. This move sparked rebellions throughout the country. The government asked the Soviet Union for military assistance. The Soviets took advantage of the situation and invaded Afghanistan in December 1979.\nMost people in Afghanistan opposed the sudden Soviet presence in their country. For nearly a decade, anti-Communist Islamic forces known as \"Mujahideen\" were trained in Pakistan to fight the Soviets and the Afghan government. The United States and other anti-Soviet countries supported the Mujahideen. In the long war, over one million Afghan civilians were killed. The Soviet Army also lost more than 15,000 soldiers in that war. Millions of Afghans left their country to stay safe in neighboring Pakistan and Iran. In 1989 the Soviet Army withdrew the last of its troops.\nAfter the Soviets left in 1989, the Afghan Civil War started; different Afghan warlords began fighting for control of the country. The warlords received support from other countries, including neighboring Pakistan and Iran. A very conservative Islamic group known as the Taliban emerged in an attempt to end the civil war. By the late 1990s the Taliban had gained control over 95% of Afghanistan. A group known as the Northern Alliance, based in northern Afghanistan near the border with Tajikistan, continued to fight against the Taliban.\nThe Taliban ruled Afghanistan according to their strict version of Islamic law. People whom the Taliban believed violated these laws were given cruel punishments. In addition, the Taliban completely restricted the rights of women. Because of such policies, most countries refused to recognize the Taliban government. Only Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates accepted them as the official government. The Taliban also angered other countries by allowing suspected terrorists to live freely in Afghanistan. Among them were Osama bin Laden and members of the al-Qaeda terrorist network. In September 2001, the United States blamed bin Laden for the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and the Pentagon outside Washington, D.C. The Taliban refused to hand him over to the United States. In response, the United States and its allies launched a bombing campaign against al-Qaeda in October 2001. Within months the Taliban abandoned Kabul, and a new government led by Hamid Karzai came to power, but fighting between the Taliban and US-led armies continued. Taliban fighters have gone into Afghanistan from neighboring Pakistan. Afghans accused Pakistan's military of being behind the Taliban militants but Pakistan rejected this and stated that a stable Afghanistan is in Pakistan's own interest.\nIn December 2004, Hamid Karzai became the first democratically elected president of Afghanistan. NATO began rebuilding Afghanistan, including its military and government institutions. Many schools and colleges were built. Freedom for women improved. Women can study, work, drive, and run for office. Many Afghan women work as politicians, some are ministers while at least one is a mayor. Others have opened businesses, or joined the military or police. Afghanistan's economy has also improved dramatically, and NATO agreed in 2012 to help the country for at least another 10 years after 2014. Afghanistan improved diplomatic ties with many countries in the world and continues.\nIn August 2021, the Cabinet of Afghanistan lost its power. Most of the country fell to the Taliban on 15 August 2021 with President Ashraf Ghani escaping the country. The former government's last holdout, [was] in the Panjshir Valley.\nThe Afghan conflict in the 2020s.\nThe Afghan conflict as of 2025: In regard to (clashes or) skirmishes at the border with Pakistan; They have happened as late as 2025's first quarter. Afghanistan\u2013Pakistan border conflicts, is the name of that part of the conflict.\nSome conflicts in other countries have spread into Afghanistan; Islamist insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and Islamist insurgency in Balochistan are two such conflicts.\nAnother part of the Afghan conflict, is the Republican armed rebellion in Afghanistan. Attacks by the NRF have happened as late as 2025's third quarter; Attacks by the AFF have happened as late as 2025's third quarter.\nGovernment.\nSince the Taliban captured Kabul on 15 August 2021, the governance of Afghanistan is disputed between the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan and the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.\nAccording to Transparency International, Afghanistan remains in the top most corrupt countries list.\nProvinces.\nAs of 2004, there are thirty-four provinces. Each province is divided into districts. (For cities see List of cities in Afghanistan.)"}
+{"id": "53", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=53", "title": "Angola", "text": "Angola, officially the Republic of Angola, is a country in southern Africa. It shares borders with Namibia in the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo in the north, and Zambia in the east. Its west border touches the Atlantic Ocean. Its coastline is 1600 kilometers. Angola's capital is Luanda. The country has many natural resources. Angola is the seventh largest country in Africa. The capital and most populated city of Angola is Luanda.\nAngola is a member state of the African Union, the Community of Portuguese Language Countries, the Latin Union, South Atlantic Peace and Cooperation Zone and the Southern African Development Community.\nHistory.\nPortugal built up its power in Angola from the late 15th to the middle 20th century. After independence there was a civil war from 1975 to 2002. Cuba and the Soviet Bloc supported the ruling People's Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA). South Africa supported the insurgent National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) until the end of apartheid. The war ended after the rebel leader Jonas Savimbi was killed.\nGeography.\nAngola is the world's twenty-third largest country. Angola is bordered by Namibia to the south, Zambia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north-east, the Republic of the Congo via the exclave of Cabinda, and the South Atlantic Ocean in the west.\nClimate.\nAngola's average temperature on the coast is in the winter and in the summer. It has two seasons; dry (May to October) and hot rainy (November to April).\nDemographics.\nAngola had a population of 25,789,024 in 2014.\nProvinces.\nAngola is divided into eighteen provinces.\nSee List of settlements in Angola for the cities and towns in the country."}
+{"id": "54", "revid": "1663616", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=54", "title": "Argentina", "text": "Argentina, officially the Argentine Republic, is a country in South America. Argentina is the second-largest country in South America and the eighth-largest country in the world.\nSpanish is the most spoken language, and the official language, but many other languages are spoken. There are minorities speaking Italian, German, English, Quechua and even Welsh in Patagonia.\nIn eastern Argentina is Buenos Aires, the capital of Argentina, it is also one of the largest cities in the world. In order by number of people, the largest cities in Argentina are Buenos Aires, C\u00f3rdoba, Rosario, Mendoza, La Plata, Tucum\u00e1n, Mar del Plata, Salta, Santa Fe, Neuqu\u00e9n and Bah\u00eda Blanca.\nArgentina is between the Andes mountain range in the west and the southern Atlantic Ocean in the east and south. It is bordered by Paraguay and Bolivia in the north, Brazil and Uruguay in the northeast, and Chile in the west and south. It also claims the Falkland Islands (Spanish: \"Islas Malvinas\") and South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands. Most citizens of the Argentine Republic are descendants of immigrants from Europe. They are united by citizenship and not necessarily by ethnicity. Most Argentinians embrace both their ethnic origins and Argentinian nationality.\nHistory.\nThe name Argentina comes from the Latin \"argentum\" (silver) as the Spanish conquistadors believed the area had silver. In the Americas (South and North), Canada, US, Brazil and Argentina are the largest countries (in that order).\nThe oldest signs of people in Argentina are in the Patagonia (Piedra Museo, Santa Cruz), and are more than 13,000 years old. In 1480 the Inca Empire conquered northwestern Argentina, making it part of the empire. In the northeastern area, the Guaran\u00ed developed a culture based on yuca and sweet potato however typical dishes all around Argentina are pasta, red wines (Italian influence) and beef.\nOther languages spoken are Italian, English and German. Lunfardo is Argentinean slang and is a mix of Spanish and Italian. Argentinians are said to speak Spanish with an Italian accent.\nArgentina declared independent from Spain in 1816, and achieved it in a War led by Jos\u00e9 de San Mart\u00edn in 1818. Many immigrants from Europe came to the country. By the 1920s it was the 7th wealthiest country in the world, but it began a decline after this. In the 1940s, following the \"infamous decade\" where the country's politics were not stable, Juan Peron came to power. Peron was one of the most important people in the country's history and many politicians today call themselves Peronist. Peron was forced out of power in 1955. After spending years in exile he returned to power in the 1970s.\nIn 1976, the country was falling into chaos, and the military took power. This was not the first time the military had done this. Leading the new government was Jorge Rafael Videla. Videla was one of history's most brutal dictators. Thousands of people disappeared or were killed during his time as president. Videla retired in 1980.\nOne of his successors was another general turned dictator, Leopoldo Galtieri. By the time Galtieri was in office in 1981 the dictatorship became unpopular. To stir up support, Galtieri ordered an invasion of the Falkland Islands, starting the Falklands War. Argentina lost the war, and soon the country fell into chaos again. Galtieri was removed from power and eventually democracy was restored. Galtieri and Videla would be charged with \"crimes against humanity\" because of the mass murder and other crimes that they ordered as president.\nIn the early 21st century Argentina is one of the most important countries in Latin America, though it still has many problems. It has a large economy and is influential in the \"southern cone\" of South America and a member of the G20 developing nations.\nPolitics.\nArgentina is a federal republic. The people of Argentina vote for a President to rule them and Senators and Deputies to speak for them and make laws for them. The President is Javier Milei since December 2023.\nAdministrative divisions.\nArgentina is divided into 23 provinces (\"provincias\"; singular: \"provincia\"), and 1 city (commonly known as \"capital federal\"):\nGeography.\nArgentina is almost 3,700\u00a0km long from north to south, and 1,400\u00a0km from east to west (maximum values). It can be divided into three parts: the Pampas in the central part of the country, Patagonia in the southern part down to Tierra del Fuego; and the Andes mountain range along the western border with Chile, with the highest point in the province of Mendoza. Cerro Aconcagua, at 6,960 metres (22,834 ft), is the Americas' highest mountain.\nThe most important rivers include the River Plate, Paraguay, Bermejo, Colorado, Uruguay and the largest river, the Paran\u00e1. River Plate was incorrectly translated though, and should have been translated to English as River of (the) Silver. River Plate is also a famous Buenos Aires soccer team.\nSee List of cities in Argentina for the many places people live in Argentina.\nOther information.\nThe majority of the Argentineans are descendants of Europeans mainly from Spain, Italy, Russia, France, Germany , Arabs other Europeans countries and Mestizo representing more than 90% of the total population of the country. More than 300,000 Roma gypsies live in Argentina. Since the 1990s, Romanian, Brazilian and Colombian gypsies arrived in Argentina.\nFootball or soccer is the most popular sport, although the national sport of the country is Pato. Argentina has a number of highly ranked Polo players. Field hockey (for women) rugby and golf are also favorites.\nArgentina is a Christian country. Most of Argentina's people (80 percent) are Roman Catholic. Argentina also has the largest population of Jewish community after Israel and US. Middle Eastern immigrants who were Muslims converted to Catholicism, but there are still Muslims as well.\nMedicine is socialized and so is education, making Argentina's literacy rate about 98%. State University is free as well."}
+{"id": "55", "revid": "1682444", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=55", "title": "Austria", "text": "Austria (, ; ), officially the\u00a0Republic of Austria ( ), is a country in Central Europe. Around Austria are the countries of Germany, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, Italy, Switzerland, and Liechtenstein. \nThe people in Austria speak German, a few also speak Hungarian, Slovenian and Croatian. The capital of Austria is Vienna (\"Wien\").\nHistory.\nAustria is more than 1000 years old. Its history can be followed to the 9th century. At that time, the first people moved to the land now known as Austria. The name \"Ostarrichi\" is first written in an official document from 996. Since then, that word developed into the Modern German word \"\u00d6sterreich,\" which literally means \"Eastern Empire.\"\nAncient times.\nThere has been human settlement in the area that is now Austria for a long time. The first settlers go back to the Paleolithic Age, the time of the Neanderthals. They left works of art such as the Venus of Willendorf. In the Neolithic Age people, lived there to dig for mineral resources, especially copper. \u00d6tzi, a mummy found in a glacier between Austria and Italy, is from that time.\nDuring the Bronze Age, people built larger settlements and fortresses, especially where there were mineral resources. Salt mining began near Hallstatt. At that time, Celts began to form the first states.\nThe Romans.\nThe Romans came 15 BC to Austria and made the Celtic Regnum Noricum to a Roman province. What is now Austria, was part of three provinces, Raetia, Noricum and Pannonia. The border in the north was the Danube.\nHoly Roman Empire.\nFrom the Early Middle Ages, the area of modern-day Austria was part of the Holy Roman Empire. The capital of the Holy Roman Empire was the Austrian city of Vienna. The Austrian Habsburg family became the rulers of the empire, and the son of the Holy Roman Emperor held the title of Archduke of Austria.\nIn 1806, France defeated the Holy Roman Empire and replaced it with the Confederation of the Rhine. Former Holy Roman Emperor Francis\u00a0II became the Emperor of the new Austrian Empire, which later became Austria-Hungary.\nModern history.\nIn 1869, the first postcards were sent from Austria. Within three months, almost 3 million cards had been sold.\nIn 1914, Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in Sarajevo. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia and this led to World War\u00a0I. In 1918, both Austria and Hungary became republics and split into separate countries that were much smaller tha before.\nIn 1938, Austria became part of Nazi Germany. However, Austrias became independent again in May 1945.\nGeography.\nAustria is a mountainous country since it is partially in the Alps. Grossglockner is the tallest mountain in Austria. The high mountainous Alps in the west of Austria flatten somewhat into low lands and plains in the east of the country where the Danube flows.\nClimate.\nAustria has a continental climate. \nThe highest temperature ever recorded in Austria was , on 8 August 2013 in Bad Deutsch-Altenburg. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Austria was , on 19 February 1932 at Gr\u00fcnloch doline.\nPolitics.\nAustria is a democratic republic. The President of Austria is the head of state and the Chancellor of Austria is the head of government.\nIt is a neutral state, that means it does not take part in wars with other countries. It has been in the United Nations since 1955 and in the European Union since 1995.\nAustria is also a federal state and divided into nine states (): \nA new cabinet (Austria) was formed (February 2025). It is formed by political parties \u00d6VP, SP\u00d6, and Neos. \nThe chancellor is Christian Stocker since 2025. Austria has been a member-state of the United Nations since 1955, the European Union since 1995 and OPEC since 2019.\nMore information: \"States of Austria\".\nCulture.\nMusic and Arts.\nMany famous composers were Austrians or born in Austria. There are Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Joseph Haydn, Franz Schubert, Anton Bruckner, Johann Strauss,\u00a0Sr., Johann Strauss,\u00a0Jr. and Gustav Mahler. In modern times there were Arnold Schoenberg, Anton Webern and Alban Berg, who belonged to the Second Viennese School.\nAustria has many artists, there are Gustav Klimt, Oskar Kokoschka, Egon Schiele or Friedensreich Hundertwasser, Inge Morath or Otto Wagner and scienc.\nFood.\nFamous Austrian dishes are Wiener Schnitzel, Apfelstrudel, Schweinsbraten, Kaiserschmarren, Kn\u00f6del, Sachertorte and Tafelspitz. But you can also find a lot of local dishes like K\u00e4rntner Reindling (a kind of cake), K\u00e4rntner Nudeln (also called \"K\u00e4rntner Kasnudeln\", you may write it \"...nudln\" too), Tiroler Kn\u00f6dl (may be written \"...kn\u00f6del\"; ), Tiroler Schlipfkrapfen (another kind of \"K\u00e4rntner Nudeln\"), Salzburger Nockerl (also may be written ...\"Nockerln\"), Steirisches Wurzelfleisch (...\"Wurzlfleisch\") or Sterz (\"Steirischer Sterz\")."}
+{"id": "56", "revid": "70336", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=56", "title": "Armenia", "text": "Armenia (, \"Hayast\u0101n\"), officially the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked country located in the Armenian Highlands in the Caucasus, spanning Eastern Europe and Western Asia.\nHistory.\nThe Hittites and Hayasa-Azzi may have played a significant role in the ethnicity of Armenians. It has an ancient cultural heritage. One of the earliest Armenian kingdoms such as Urartu was established in 860 BC and by the 6th century BC it was replaced by the Satrapy of Armenia. The Kingdom of Armenia reached its height under Tigranes the Great in the 1st century BC and became the first state in the world to adopt Christianity as its official state religion in the late 3rd or early 4th century AD. The official date of state adoption of Christianity is 301.\nForeign invasion.\nBetween the 16th century and 19th century, the traditional Armenian homeland composed of Eastern Armenia and Western Armenia came under the rule of the Ottoman and Iranian empires, repeatedly ruled by either of the two over the centuries. By the 19th century, Eastern Armenia had been conquered by the Russian Empire, while most of the western parts of the traditional Armenian homeland remained under Ottoman rule.\n20th century.\nDuring World War I, Armenians living in their ancestral lands in the Ottoman Empire were systematically \nexterminated in the Armenian Genocide, perpetrated by Ottoman Young Turks. Around 1.5 million people were slaughtered and many more deported. In 1918, following the Russian Revolution, the Russian Empire ceased to exist and all non-Russian countries declared their independence. This led to the establishment of the First Republic of Armenia. By 1920, the state was incorporated into the Transcaucasian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic, and in 1922 became a founding member of the Soviet Union. In 1936, the Transcaucasian state was dissolved, transforming its constituent states, including the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic, into full Union republics. The modern Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991 during the dissolution of the Soviet Union.\nAdministrative divisions.\nArmenia is divided into ten provinces, with the city of Yerevan having special administrative status as the country's capital. The chief executive in each of the ten provinces is the \"marzpet\" (\"marz\" governor), appointed by the government of Armenia. In Yerevan, the chief executive is the mayor, appointed by the president.\n, Armenia includes 915 communities, of which 49 are considered urban and 866 are considered rural.\n\u2020 2011 censusSources: Area and population of provinces.\nCulture.\nArmenia is a majority Christian country, with European and some wider Eurasian cultural influences. The Republic of Armenia recognizes the Armenian Apostolic Church, the world's oldest national church, as the country's primary religious establishment. The unique Armenian alphabet was invented by Mesrop Mashtots in 405 AD. Armenia also has a minority of Yazidis who settled in the country after fleeing persecution and have long established themselves into the wider Armenian society and have been integrated into the country. They speak both Armenian and their native Kurmanji.\nArmenia is a member of the Council of Europe, the Eurasian Economic Union and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Armenia supports the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh, which was proclaimed in 1991.\nGallery.\n<br>"}
+{"id": "57", "revid": "24594", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=57", "title": "Archaeology", "text": "Archaeology, or archeology, is the study of the human past. It looks at remains and objects left by the people who lived long ago. These remains may include old coins, tools, buildings, and inscriptions. Archaeologists, the people who study archaeology, use these remains to understand how people lived.\nFieldwork.\nWhen archaeologists do fieldwork, they look for remains, often by digging in the ground. As settlements (places where people lived in groups) change and grow, old buildings get buried. Usually, this is a natural process. A typical student project is to leave an object in a place where there is nothing going on. It will get covered rather quickly, because wind, water and plants will bury it. Sometimes buildings are deliberately buried to make way for new buildings. Ancient Rome, for example, is now up to 40\u00a0feet (12\u00a0metres) below the present city. This process of natural or man-made burial is why archaeological fieldwork involves digging, and is expensive and takes a long time.\nWhen things are found, or even when nothing is found, the results of the fieldwork are taken back to a base. Short term, the base is often on or near the site. Longer term, the results will usually go to a university or museum. Everything is written down on paper or entered into a computer. Gradually, they build up a picture of what happened long ago. Archaeologists publish their research so others can understand what they learned.\nFields of interest.\nArchaeologists do not all study the same topics. They have specialties. Some fields of interest include Ancient Egypt (these specialists are called Egyptologists), Ancient China, or the Vikings. Archaeologists study every civilization that is known, especially the ones where there is no written history. They can study any time period. For example, one might study the beginning of human life in Africa, or study World War II. Marine archaeologists study things that are now underwater. They search for sunken ships or cities that have been lost under the sea.\nSubdisciplines.\nThere are many different ways of doing archaeology. these depend on the methods used, the things studied, and the environment. Some of these subdisciplines overlap with each other.\nMarine archaeology.\nArchaeology relating to oceans, seas and lakes is usually done underwater. It includes the study of sunken ships and submerged coastlines. \"Maritime archaeology\" is a part of this subdivision. It refers to the archaeological investigation of past ships and seafaring. A famous example of maritime archaeology is the recovery and restoration of the ship Vasa.\nIce-patch archaeology.\nWhen a glacier melts, thingss that were captured in it can be seen. The recovery and study of these objects is called \"ice-patch archaeology\". A famous example is \u00d6tzi the Iceman.\nHistorical archaeology.\nHistorical archaeology deals with places, things, and issues from the past or present at or related to sites with written records or oral traditions. Or it can be defined as \"the archaeological investigation of any past culture that has developed a literate tradition.\" A prominent example of historical archaeology is the work done at Colonial Williamsburg.\nIndustrial archaeology.\nThis relatively new branch of archaeology consists of \"the systematic study of structures and artefacts as a means of enlarging our understanding of the industrial past.\"\nArchaeozoology.\nArchaeozoology, or zooarchaeology, is the study of the relationships between humans and animals in the archaeological record. This includes the study of bones, feathers, teeth and other body parts as well as their interpretation.\nPaleoethnobotany.\nPaleoethnobotany (also spelled palaeoethnobotany), or archaeobotany, is the study of past human-plant relations through the recovery and analysis of plant remains from the past, usually from archaeological sites. People who do this can be archaeologists, botanists, or chemists.\nExtraterrestrial archaeology.\nAny archaeology done outside of Earth is extraterrestrial archaeology. For example, people do archaeological work on satellites and on the Moon. The first extraterrestrial archaeology was done by a NASA astronaut, Kayla Barron, on the International Space Station: \"On 14 January 2022, she used bright yellow adhesive tape to mark out the corners of 1 sq m (10.7 sq ft) on a science rack in a module of the ISS \u2013 like an archaeological trench \u2013 and repeated the process in five other locations, ranging from the galley to the toilet.\" \nExperimental archaeology.\nThis field involves attempts at replicating the actions and conditions of ancient cultures. Good examples are Butser Ancient Farm and Overton Down.\nSites.\nIn many countries, governments and other groups of people protect important archaeological sites so they will not be destroyed and so that visitors can always come and see them.\nSometimes archaeological sites are found when foundations are dug for new buildings. Archaeologists have to work quickly when this happens, because people who are building often don't have a lot of time. As soon as the archaeologists are done with their work, the remains that they have found will be covered over, unless they are very important."}
+{"id": "58", "revid": "640235", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=58", "title": "Application", "text": "The word application has several uses."}
+{"id": "61", "revid": "68157", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=61", "title": "Animalia", "text": ""}
+{"id": "62", "revid": "1228821", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=62", "title": "Animal", "text": "Animals (or Metazoa) are living creatures with many cells that make up the kingdom Animalia. \nAnimals get their energy from other living things. Usually, they eat them or are parasites. Animals, plants, fungi, and some other living things have complex cells, so they are grouped together as eukaryotes.\nThe study of animals is called zoology. The study of ancient life is called palaeontology.\nMost animals are mobile, meaning they can move around. Animals take in oxygen, and give out carbon dioxide. This cellular respiration is part of their metabolism (chemical working). In both these ways they are different from plants. Also, the cells of animals have different cell membranes to other eukaryotes like plants and fungi. \nPlants are also multicellular eukaryotic organisms, but live by using light, water and basic elements to make their tissues.\nGrouping animals.\nThere are many different types of animals. The common animals most people know are only about 3% of the animal kingdom. When biologists look at animals, they find things that certain animals have in common. They use this to group the animals in a biological classification. Several million species may exist, but biologists have only identified about one million.\nAnimals can mainly be divided into two main groups: the invertebrates and the vertebrates. Vertebrates have a backbone, or spine; invertebrates do not. Vertebrates are the only group to have an adaptive immune system, which may be partly responsible for their size and success.\nVertebrates are:\nSome invertebrates are:\nLife styles.\nThe animal mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic because they get their food from other living organisms. Some animals eat only plants; they are called herbivores. Other animals eat only meat and are called carnivores. Animals that eat both plants and meat are called omnivores. Some animals get their energy from photosynthetic protists that live inside them. \nThe environments animals live in vary greatly. By the process of evolution, animals adapt to the habitats they live in. A fish is adapted to its life in water and a spider is adapted to a life catching and eating insects. A mammal living on the savannahs of East Africa lives quite a different life from a dolphin or porpoise catching fish in the sea.\nThe fossil record of animals goes back about 600 million years to the Ediacaran period, or somewhat earlier. During the whole of this long time, animals have been constantly evolving, so that the animals alive on Earth today are very different from those on the edges of the sea-floor in the Ediacaran."}
+{"id": "63", "revid": "1187223", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=63", "title": "Acceleration", "text": "Acceleration is a measure of how fast velocity changes. Acceleration is the change of velocity divided by the change of time. Acceleration is a vector, and therefore includes both a size and a direction. Acceleration is also a change in speed and direction. There is:\nSpeed (a scalar quantity) (uses no direction)\nVelocity (a vector quantity) (uses a direction)\nThe measurement of how fast acceleration changes is called jerk. \nFinding acceleration.\nAcceleration is the rate of change of the velocity of an object. Acceleration formula_1 can be found by using:\nwhere\nSometimes the change in velocity formula_7 is written as \u0394formula_8. Sometimes the change in time formula_9 is written as \u0394t.\nIn difficult situations, the acceleration can be calculated using mathematics: in calculus, acceleration is the derivative of the velocity (concerning time),formula_10.\nUnits of measurement.\nAcceleration has its units of measurement. For example, if velocity is measured in meters per second, and if time is measured in seconds, then acceleration is measured in meters per second squared (m/s2).\nOther words.\nAcceleration can be positive or negative. When the acceleration is negative (but the velocity does not change direction), it is sometimes called deceleration. For example, when a car brakes it decelerates. Physicists usually only use the word \"acceleration\".\nNewton's second law of motion.\nNewton's laws of motion are rules for how things move. These rules are called \"laws of motion\". Isaac Newton is the scientist who first wrote down the main laws of motion.\nAccording to Newton's Second Law of Motion, the force something needs to accelerate an object depends on the object's mass (the amount of \"stuff\" the object is made from or how \"heavy\" it is).\nThe formula of Newton's Second Law of Motion is formula_11,\nwhere formula_12 is the acceleration, formula_13 is the force, and formula_14 the mass. \nThis formula is very well-known, and it is very important in physics. Newton's Second Law of Motion, in short \"Newton's Second Law\", is often one of the first things that physics students learn.\nDeceleration.\nDeceleration is negative or backwards acceleration. This means that something slows down instead of speeding up. For example, when a car brakes, it is decelerating."}
+{"id": "68", "revid": "1674404", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=68", "title": "Black pudding", "text": "Black pudding is an English name for zwarte pudding. It is food made by cooking down the blood of any mammal (usually pigs or cattle) with meat, fat or filler until it is thick enough to congeal (become firm or solid) when cooled.\nTypes of black pudding.\nIn Great Britain, blood sausage is called \"black pudding\". The ingredients include pig's blood, suet, bread, barley and oatmeal. Bury is well known for them. The most common kind of German \"Blutwurst\" is made from fatty pork meat, beef blood and filler such as barley. Though already cooked and \"ready to eat\" it is usually served warm.\nOther kinds of blood sausage include \"boudin noir\" (France), \"boudin rouge\" (Creole and Cajun) and \"morcilla\" (Spain).\nHistory.\nA legend says that blood sausage was invented in a bet between two Bavarian butchers drunk on the alcoholic drink absinthe during the 14th century. Homer's \"Odyssey\" from Ancient Greece says that \"As when a man besides a great fire has filled a sausage with fat and blood and turns it this way and that and is very eager to get it quickly roasted...\"."}
+{"id": "69", "revid": "1393193", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=69", "title": "Boot device", "text": "A boot device is used to start a computer. It is named after a boot which fits on the foot. The word bootstrap is also closely related, and means, to use something simpler to get something more complex to make itself work better. It comes from the English phrase \"pull yourself up by your own bootstraps.\"\nBefore a computer can operate normally, it must have operating system instructions that tell it how to perform basic functions. A boot device loads the operating system into the memory of the computer. \nDevices that can boot a computer are usually boot disks or boot drives (normally a hard drive or Solid State Drive, but can be a floppy disk, flash drive or a CD). Some network computers use \"boot chips\" that get the operating system over a network. Web phones also use such chips to identify the user to the mobile phone network. Boot card standards may let many users boot kiosk computers with full privacy and access to all application software they own. There are also boot boards or boot \"add-in\" cards that are more permanent than boot cards.\nSome people refer to the boot device as just a boot and non-boot devices as data devices, although it is not the computer but the operating system that cares about the difference between these.\nOrigin.\nThe boot in boot device is the same as booting (or starting up). This is short for bootstrapping, or to start with simple stuff and make complex stuff out of it."}
+{"id": "70", "revid": "1555593", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=70", "title": "Boot", "text": "A boot is a type of footwear that protects the foot and ankle. Boots are higher and larger than shoes and sandals. Some boots are high enough to protect the calves (lower part of the leg) as well. Some boots are held on with \"bootstraps\" or \"bootlaces\". Some also have spats or \"gaiters\" to keep water out. Most have a very strong \"boot sole\", the bottom part of a boot."}
+{"id": "71", "revid": "527152", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=71", "title": "Bankruptcy", "text": "Bankruptcy is a legal process which happens when a person or an organization does not have enough money to pay all of its debts. Legally they are insolvent.\nWhere it is a person who cannot pay their debts, the person's creditors may ask the court to appoint a \"trustee in bankruptcy\". This is a professional accountant who is appointed by the court, to take control of the bankrupt person's assets. Some assets are protected by law, but the trustee in bankruptcy will sell off all of the other assets and use the money to pay as much of that person's debts as possible. After the process is complete the person is \"discharged from bankruptcy\", and the person is free from any further liability to pay those claims, but normally that person will be limited in their ability to borrow money again because their credit rating will be damaged.\nWhere it is an organisation which cannot pay its debts, the creditors may ask the court to appoint a \"liquidator\". The liquidator does a very similar job to the trustee in bankruptcy except that there are no assets which are protected so the liquidator can sell everything. Once all of the assets of the organisation have been sold, the organisation is then \"dissolved\" and no longer exists. Organisations do not get discharged from bankruptcy in the same way that a living person does.\nInsolvency or bankruptcy.\nPeople often confuse the terms bankruptcy and insolvency, and sometimes they use one word when they really mean the other. Insolvency usually just means that a someone does not have enough money to pay their debts or (sometimes) that the total amount of their debts is worth more than the total amount of their assets. Bankruptcy is a formal legal process in front of the courts. Although the two terms are connected, just because a person is insolvent does not necessarily mean that they will go into bankruptcy.\nAlternatives to bankruptcy.\nMany countries have alternatives to bankruptcy to try and allow people and businesses to try and avoid the bankruptcy process.\nIn various countries, individual people can try and reach \"individual voluntary arrangements\" (or IVAs) with their creditors. This means that the creditors agree to take less money to discharge their debts. There are similar processes for companies and other organisations, and they go by various different names in different countries, but in many countries they are called \"schemes of arrangement\".\nBankruptcy protection.\nIn many countries a company or business can ask the courts for \"bankruptcy protection\" to try and protect the business so that the creditors cannot destroy all of the physical capital and goodwill by breaking it apart and moving it away. The aim of this is to provide more time for the business to reorganise itself and to work out a new deal between the owners and the people with whom the business owes money. In many countries this is called \"going into administration\".\nHowever, not all countries have bankruptcy protection laws for businesses.\nDebt slavery.\nOften a creditor threatens a debtor with debt slavery in many parts of the world. In some cases the debtor does not know that they have a right to go bankrupt. This is a human rights problem in some countries. Also, some creditors continue to harass a debtor even though bankruptcy laws say they should not, hoping that the debtor will pay them money that they do not deserve.\nUnited States.\nBankruptcy in the United States falls mostly under federal law, Title 11 of the United States Code (Bankruptcy Code). The types of bankruptcy available in the United States are named after the primary divisions, or \"chapters\", of that law. The person or business that files a bankruptcy case is known as the \"debtor\".\nWhen a bankruptcy case is filed, a trustee is chosen by the court. The trustee has authority over the property of the bankrupt person or business and may use some of the debtor's assets to pay the creditors. After a bankruptcy is filed, creditors are notified that they are to stop trying to collect money directly from the debtor and are to make claims for payment to the bankruptcy court.\nChapter 7.\nThe most common form of bankruptcy is the Chapter 7 Bankruptcy, which can be filed by businesses or individuals. It is also called liquidation bankruptcy because some of a debtor's property may be sold (liquidated) to satisfy creditors. When a business is in debt which it cannot pay, it may ask or be forced to file bankruptcy in court under Chapter 7. This usually makes a company stop doing business. Employees often lose their jobs when company files for chapter 7.\nChapter 11.\nChapter 11 bankruptcy is a complicated type of bankruptcy that reorganizes the debtor's finances, usually reducing the amount of debt owed and changing debt repayment terms. A Chapter 11 bankruptcy case allows a business to keep running while it finds ways to reduce and arrange payment of its debts.\nAlmost all Chapter 11 bankruptcies are filed by businesses. Ordinary people do not usually file Chapter 11 bankruptcy, because a Chapter 13 bankruptcy will almost always be cheaper and easier for them.\nChapter 13.\nChapter 13 is the most popular form of bankruptcy in the United States for ordinary people. In a Chapter 13 bankruptcy some of your debts may be forgiven (discharged), but you will have to pay back a portion of your debt. The debt repayment plan is supervised by the bankruptcy court and usually lasts for three to five years. Businesses cannot file for Chapter 13 bankruptcy.\nOther bankruptcy chapters.\nLess common forms of bankruptcy may be filed under Chapter 9 and Chapter 12 of the bankruptcy code."}
+{"id": "74", "revid": "54777", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=74", "title": "Breakfast sausage", "text": "Breakfast sausage is a type of fresh pork sausage made from seasoned ground meat mixed with bread crumbs. Breakfast sausage has a blander flavor than many other types of sausage, such as British or Italian-style sausages.\nHistory of breakfast sausages.\nThe journey of breakfast sausages began centuries ago in Europe, with each European country adding its unique twist. For instance, Germany is known for its variety of wursts, while Italian sausages often feature fennel and garlic. This evolution reflects changes in societal norms and eating habits, transitioning from a means of preservation to a convenient breakfast option.\nUsing breakfast sausages.\nBreakfast sausages are not cured or smoked like other types of sausages, which means that they have to be cooked soon after they are purchased (unless they are frozen). Uncooked sausages should be stored in the refrigerator or the freezer. Individuals handling them should wash their hands in hot soapy water, because uncooked pork is unhealthy for humans. Pork sausages have to be heated until all of the meat inside is cooked. \nThey are usually fried or grilled in a pan until they are browned and served at breakfast, often with cooked eggs, pancakes, and toasted bread. Breakfast sausages are also used in other dishes, such as \"toad in the hole\" a cooked batter dish.\nPreparation and Cooking.\nCooking breakfast sausages to perfection is an art. Frying in a pan over medium heat brings out rich flavors, while baking offers a healthier alternative with minimal attention. Grilling imparts a unique smoky flavor. Regardless of the method, the internal temperature should reach 160\u00b0F (71\u00b0C) to ensure they are cooked through.\nTypes of breakfast sausages.\nDifferent types made from pork and beef mixtures as well as poultry can now be found. There are also vegetarian types that use textured vegetable protein in place of meat. Breakfast sausages are available in patties or slices from a large roll, or in weiner-like links of different lengths and thickness.\nNutritional Information.\nBreakfast sausages are a good protein source but can be high in saturated fat and sodium. Leaner versions are available, and for those looking for plant-based alternatives, vegetarian sausages offer similar textures and flavors but are lower in fat and cholesterol-free.\nCultural Variations.\nBreakfast sausages are a staple in many cultures. In the US, they are often paired with pancakes and eggs. In the UK, they are a key part of the 'full English breakfast.' German Bratwurst and Italian sausages with fennel and garlic are examples of how different regions have embraced and adapted breakfast sausages.\nRecipes and Serving Suggestions.\nCreative ways to incorporate breakfast sausages into meals include Sausage and Egg Muffin Cups, Sausage Breakfast Casseroles, and Sausage and Vegetable Skillets. These recipes demonstrate the versatility of breakfast sausages in various cuisines.\nModern Developments and Trends.\nRecent trends in breakfast sausages include the rise of plant-based options, ethically sourced meats, global flavors, and healthier ingredients. This reflects changing consumer preferences towards healthier and more diverse food choices."}
+{"id": "76", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=76", "title": "Browser", "text": "A browser is a name given to any animal, usually a herbivorous mammal, which eats leaves and shrubs rather than grass. It is contrasted with grazers, which eat grass."}
+{"id": "80", "revid": "1464674", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=80", "title": "Beekeeping", "text": "Beekeeping or apiculture is the farming of honeybees.\nUses.\nThe keeping of bees is usually, and has been in the past, for honey. That is becoming less true. Instead, it is more used for crop pollination and other products. These are wax and propolis.\nThere is only one queen bee in each hive and she is bigger than the rest. She lays all the eggs, which makes all the other bees in the hive her daughters and sons. However, they do not control the hive.\nTypes of beekeeping.\nThe largest beekeeping operations are agricultural businesses that are operated for profit. Some people also have small beekeeping operations that they do as a hobby. Urban beekeeping is a growing trend, and some have found that \"city bees\" are actually healthier than \"rural bees\" because there are fewer pesticides and greater biodiversity.\nThreats.\nColony Collapse Disorder is a growing problem, along with mites."}
+{"id": "83", "revid": "17988", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=83", "title": "British English", "text": "British English is the dialect of English that is spoken in the United Kingdom. It is different in some ways from other types of English such as American English. British English is widely spoken in most countries that were once part of the British Empire.\nUse in other countries.\nAmerican English is used in the United States. In Canada, the accent sounds very similar to American English, but Canadian English has a few differences. Canada has mixed the spelling rules of American and British English to form its own spelling rules.\nMost members of the Commonwealth of Nations learn British English, and American English is often learnt in the Americas, Japan, South Korea and Taiwan. The United Kingdom and Ireland use British layout keyboards, and Australia, South Africa, Canada, New Zealand and the United States use American layout keyboards. In Continental Europe, English as a second language is sometimes taught in American English except in Scandinavia and the Netherlands, where British English is taught.\nPronunciation.\nIn the United Kingdom, the spelling remains the same, but the pronunciation varies in the local dialects. For example, a person from a place near London may not pronounce the \"r\" the same as a person from Scotland. Across the country, the accent is different. Liverpool people may speak with a \"Scouse\" accent, and Birmingham people speak with a \"Brummie\" accent. \nIn London, the \"Cockney\" accent was once common but it is almost never heard today. All regional accents became less extreme in the 20th century. That is generally attributed to the arrival of radio and television. Another factor is the increased mobility of people. A similar process has been noted in the United States, where regional differences are much less noticeable than they used to be.\nSpelling.\nThere are many words that sound the same in both American and British English but have different spellings. British English often has more traditional ways of spelling words than American English. Many British English rules are also used in other countries. Most of those countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations.\nVocabulary.\nIn British English, \"dock\" refers to the water in the space between two \"piers\" or \"wharfs\". In American English, the \"pier\" or \"wharf\" could be called a \"dock\", and the water between would be a \"slip\".\nHere are other common differences:\nBritish English \u2013 American English"}
+{"id": "85", "revid": "1452189", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=85", "title": "Being", "text": "The word being means a living person or animal. \u2018Human being\u2019 means the same as \u2019person\u2019. Men, women, and children are human beings.\nSome people write stories or make movies about beings from other planets. Most religions talk about supernatural beings, for example spirits, angels, devils, gods, or God."}
+{"id": "87", "revid": "0", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=87", "title": "Bootstrap", "text": ""}
+{"id": "88", "revid": "0", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=88", "title": "Bootlace", "text": ""}
+{"id": "89", "revid": "10396593", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=89", "title": "Beijing", "text": "Beijing is the capital of the People's Republic of China. The city used to be known as Peking. It is in the northern and eastern parts of the country. Having more that 21 million residents, it is one of the most populous capital cities.\nThe city of Beijing has played a very important role in the development of China. Many people from different cities and countries come to Beijing to look for better chances to find work. Nearly 15 million people live there. Beijing hosted the Summer Olympic Games in 2008, and the Winter Olympic Games in 2022. It is the only city that has hosted both.\nBeijing is well known for its ancient history. Since the Jin Dynasty, Beijing has been the capital of several dynasties (especially the later ones), including the Yuan, Ming, and Qing. There are many places of historic interest in Beijing.\nName.\nThe Mandarin Chinese name of the city is \"B\u011bij\u012bng\", which means \"The Northern Capital\". It got this name when the Yongle Emperor of the Ming family of rulers moved most of his government from Nanjing (\"The Southern Capital\") in the early 1400s. In Chinese, Beijing's name is written Today, people spell it \"Beijing\" because they use the pinyin way of spelling, which shows what the name should sound like in Mandarin. People used to spell it \"Peking\" because that was the spelling used by some of the first people from Europe to visit the Ming and write home about it; the Jesuits' work was made popular by their French brother Du Halde. It then became the official Chinese Postal Map spelling around 1900 and continued to be used until pinyin became more popular.\nBeijing was also known as Beiping (\"City of Northern Peace\") between 1928 and 1949, when the Nationalists moved the Chinese capital to Nanjing and Chongqing.\nHistory.\nThe center of Beijing was settled in the 1st millennium BC. In those days, the Kingdom of Yan (\u71d5, Y\u0101n) set up their capital where Beijing is today. They called it Ji (\u84df, J\u00ec). After the Kingdom of Yan was destroyed, the city became smaller, although it was still an important place.\nBeijing became more important again in the 10th century, when the Jin dynasty set its capital there. This city was destroyed by Mongol forces in 1215. Then in 1267, Mongols built a new city on the north side of the Jin capital, and called it \"Great Capital\" (\u5927\u90fd, D\u00e0d\u016b), which was the beginning of modern Beijing. When Kublai Khan the Mongolian monarch, set up the Yuan dynasty, this city became his capital.\nThe Yuan Dynasty, Ming Dynasty and Qing dynasty all made Beijing their capital. When the Qing dynasty lost power and the Republic of China was set up, the new Republic moved its capital from Beijing to Nanjing. When the People's Republic of China seized power, Beijing became the capital of China again.\nIn 1989, there were protests in Tian'anmen Square because some people wanted democracy.\nThroughout its history, Beijing was the Chinese capital six times:\nSpecial places.\nImportant places in Beijing include:\nEducation.\nBeijing is the education center of People's Republic of China. More than 500 famous universities of China are in Beijing. They also include 5 of the top universities: Peking University, Tsinghua University, China People University, Beijing Normal University, and Beihang University. Beijing is also education center of China for teaching Chinese as a foreign language. The standard Chinese pronunciation is based on Beijing dialect, so over 70% foreigners who want to study Chinese go to Beijing for their studies.\n<br>"}
+{"id": "90", "revid": "1530097", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=90", "title": "Bottle", "text": "A bottle is a container used to carry liquids. Bottles can have many different sizes. Bottles are usually made of glass or plastic. Drinks such as milk, wine, lemonade, soft drinks, and water are often put into bottles. Other liquids put into bottles include chemicals like bleach or detergent, and some kinds of medicines."}
+{"id": "91", "revid": "10173682", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=91", "title": "Berry", "text": "The word berry is used for many different kinds of small fruits that have many seeds and can be used as food. Some examples are raspberry, strawberry, sutberry, lingonberry and blueberry.\nWhen botanists talk about \"berries\", they mean a simple fruit produced from a single ovary. They sometimes call this \"true berry\", to distinguish it from \"false berries\". By that statement of how words are used, grapes or tomatoes are true berries.\nThe berry is the most common type of soft fruit in which the entire ovary wall gets to the right stage of development of the pericarp which can be taken as food. The flowers of these plants have an upper ovary with one or more carpels. The seeds are inside the soft body of the ovary.\nBerries are small, sweet, bright colored fruits. Due to this, they are able to bring more animals towards them and spread their seeds.\nTypes of berries.\nSome fruits that are called \"berries\" in English are not \"true berries\" by the use of words above. These include raspberries, strawberry, sutberry, blackberries, cranberries, and boysenberries. Some true berries do not have \"berry\" in their name. These include tomatoes, bananas, eggplants, guavas, pomegranates and chillies. Pumpkins, cucumbers, melons, oranges and lemons are also berries that have slightly different structure and may be called by different names (pepo for pumpkins, cucumbers, and melons, or hesperidium for oranges and lemons).\nSome fruits are \"botanical berries\", meaning that scientists who study plants call them berries. But not all of these are the types of fruit that we usually call berries. Also, some of the fruits we usually call berries, are not \"botanical berries\"."}
+{"id": "93", "revid": "170917", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=93", "title": "Boil", "text": "Boil might mean:"}
+{"id": "94", "revid": "805501", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=94", "title": "Beard", "text": "A beard is the hair growing on the lower part of a man's face.\nThe hair that grows on the upper lip of some men is a mustache. When a man has hair only below the lower lip and above the chin, it is called a soul patch. Some men have a lot of hair and a big beard, and some have very little. In the modern world, many men shave part or all of their beards, or cut their beard so it does not get very long.\nSome animals also have hair like this, and people sometimes also call this hair a beard. "}
+{"id": "98", "revid": "1640132", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=98", "title": "Black", "text": "In light, black is the absence of all color. It is a shade. In painting, however, black pigment is the combination of all colors. In heraldry, black is called \"sable\". It is the opposite of white. No color can have the same level of dark pigmentation without turning itself into black. It appears as a dark shade that can reflect light into the rainbow.\nBlack in science and related.\nIn science, an object that is fully black would absorb all the light that hits it. Because this object would not reflect any light, the human eye would not see any colors coming from that object, and would see this object as black.\nA way to create black objects is to mix pigments. A pigment works by reflecting only the color of other colored objects because they absorb more light.\nMeaning of black.\nBlack is associated with a range of concepts, from power, elegance, formality, safety, birth, and male to death, crime, female, evil and mystery. Black is the darkest color there is. Black, along with gray and white, is a \"neutral\" color. This means that it is not a \"hot\" color or a \"cool\" color.\nBlack is a color seen with fear and the unknown. It can have a bad meaning (blackbird, black bunny) or a good meaning ('in the black', 'black is beautiful'). Black can stand for strength and boldness. It can be a formal, elegant and high-class color (black tie, black Mercedes)."}
+{"id": "100", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=100", "title": "Bubonic plague", "text": "Bubonic plague is the best-known form of the disease plague caused by the bacterium \"Yersinia pestis\". The name \"bubonic plague\" is specific for this form of the disease, which enters through the skin, and travels through the lymphatic system.\nThe plague was spread by fleas on rats. This method of spreading disease is called a zoonosis.\nIf the disease is left untreated, it kills about half its victims in three to seven days. The bubonic plague was the disease that caused the Black Death, which killed tens of millions of people in Europe, in the Middle Ages.\nSymptoms of this disease include coughing, fever, and black spots on the skin.\nDifferent kinds of the same disease.\nThere are different kinds of Bubonic plague. The most common form of the disease is spread by a certain kind of flea, that lives on rats. Then there is an incubation period which can last from a few hours to about seven days.\nSepticemic plague.\nSepsis happens when the bacterium enters the blood and makes it form tiny clots.\nPneumonic plague.\nThis happens when the bacterium can enter the lungs. About 95% of all people with this form will die. Incubation period is only one to two days.\nThe abortive form.\nThis is the most harmless form. It will result in a small fever. After that, the victim's body produces antibodies that protect against all forms of the disease for a long time.\nHistory.\nThe first recorded epidemic was in the Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire), It was called the Plague of Justinian after emperor Justinian I, who was infected but survived after long treatment. The pandemic resulted in the deaths of an estimated 25 million (6th century outbreak) to 50\u00a0million people (two centuries of recurrence).\nDuring the 1300s, this epidemic struck parts of Asia, North Africa, and Europe. Almost a third of the people in Europe died of it. Unlike catastrophes that pull communities together, this epidemic was so terrifying that it broke people's trust in one another. Giovanni Boccaccio, an Italian writer of the time, described it: \"\"This scourge had implanted so great a terror in the hearts of men and women that brothers abandoned brothers, uncles their nephews, sisters their brothers, and in many cases wives deserted their husbands. But even worse... fathers and mothers refused to nurse and assist their own children\".\"\nLocal outbreaks of the plague are grouped into three plague pandemics, whereby the respective start and end dates and the assignment of some outbreaks to either pandemic are still subject to discussion. The pandemics were:\nGlobally about 600 cases of plague are reported a year. In 2017 the countries with the most cases include the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Madagascar, and Peru.\nVector.\nThe transmission of \"Y. pestis\" by fleas is well known. Fleas are the vector. The flea gets the bacteria as they feed on an infected animal, usually a rodent. Several proteins then work to keep the bacteria in the flea's digestive tract. This is important for the survival of \"Y. pestis\" in fleas.\nModern history.\nIn the 20th century, some countries did research on the bacteria that causes bubonic plague, in order to use it for biological warfare.\nSamples of this bacteria are carefully controlled. There is much paranoia (fear) about it. Dr. Thomas C. Butler, a US expert in this organism was charged in October 2003 by the FBI with various crimes. This happened after he said he lost samples of \"Yersinia pestis\". This is the bacteria that causes bubonic plague. The FBI did not find the samples. They do not know what happened to them."}
+{"id": "101", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=101", "title": "Biology", "text": "Biology is the science that studies life, living things, and the evolution of life. Living things include animals, plants, fungi (such as mushrooms), and microorganisms such as bacteria and archaea.\nThe term 'biology' is relatively modern. It was introduced in 1799 by a physician, Thomas Beddoes. It comes from the Greek word \"\u03b2\u03af\u03bf\u03c2\" (\"bios\"), \"life\", and the suffix \"-\u03bb\u03bf\u03b3\u03af\u03b1\" (\"logia\"), \"study of\".\nPeople who study biology are called biologists. Biology looks at how animals and other living things behave and work, and what they are like. Biology also studies how organisms react with each other and the environment. It has existed as a science for about 200 years, and before that it was called \"natural history\". Biology has many research fields and branches. Like all sciences, biology uses the scientific method. This means that biologists must be able to show evidence for their ideas and that other biologists must be able to test the ideas for themselves.\nBiology attempts to answer questions such as:\nModern biology is influenced by evolution, which answers the question: \"How has the living world come to be as it is?\"\nHistory.\nThe earliest roots of science, including medicine, go back to ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia around 3000 to 1200 BCE. Their ideas influenced ancient Greek natural philosophy. Greek thinkers like Aristotle (384\u2013322 BCE) added a lot to early biology. He studied causes in nature and the variety of living things. His student, Theophrastus, began the scientific study of plants.\nIn the medieval Islamic world, several scholars wrote about biology. Al-Jahiz (781\u2013869) and Al-D\u012bnawar\u012b (828\u2013896) wrote about animals and plants. Rhazes (865\u2013925) studied the body and how it works. Islamic scholars, working from Greek ideas, studied medicine deeply. They also followed Aristotle\u2019s ideas about nature.\nBiology grew quickly when Anton van Leeuwenhoek greatly improved the microscope. Scientists then discovered sperm cells, bacteria, and many tiny living things. Jan Swammerdam\u2019s work led to interest in insects and new methods of studying tiny organisms. Better microscopes strongly changed how people thought about life.\nIn the early 1800s, scientists saw that cells were central to life. In 1838, Schleiden and Schwann said that (1) all living things are made of cells and (2) each cell shows the signs of life. They did not believe that (3) all cells come from other cells; they still thought cells could appear on their own. Later, Robert Remak and Rudolf Virchow proved that new cells come from existing cells. By the 1860s, most scientists accepted all three ideas, which became known as cell theory.\nAt the same time, natural historians focused on naming and grouping living things. Carl Linnaeus published a basic system in 1735 and gave scientific names to species in the 1750s. Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, believed species were not fixed and could change, and even suggested that different species might share ancestors.\nIn 1842, Charles Darwin wrote the first draft of \"On the Origin of Species\". Earlier, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck had offered one of the first full theories of evolution. Darwin built a stronger theory of evolution through natural selection. He used ideas from geography, geology, and population studies, along with his own observations. Alfred Russel Wallace reached similar conclusions on his own.\nModern genetics started with Gregor Mendel\u2019s work in 1865. He explained how traits are passed from parents to offspring. People did not fully understand his work until the early 1900s. Then, evolution and genetics were combined into the modern synthesis.\nIn the 1940s and early 1950s, experiments by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase showed that DNA is the part of chromosomes that carries genes. Scientists began to study small organisms like viruses and bacteria. In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick discovered that DNA has a double-helix shape. After this, biology expanded into molecular genetics. Scientists cracked the genetic code, showing how DNA uses codons to build proteins. This work was done by Har Gobind Khorana, Robert W. Holley, and Marshall Warren Nirenberg. In 1990, the Human Genome Project began to map all human genes.\nChemical basis.\nAtoms and molecules.\nAll living things are made of chemical elements. Most of their mass (about 96%) comes from oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen. Other elements like calcium, phosphorus, sulfur, sodium, chlorine, and magnesium make up almost all the rest. These elements can join together to form compounds, such as water, which is essential for life. Biochemistry is the study of chemical processes in living things. Molecular biology is the study of how molecules in cells work, including how they are made, changed, and how they interact with each other.\nWater.\nLife began in Earth's first oceans about 3.8 billion years ago. Since then, water has been the most common molecule in all living things.\nWater is important for life because it is a great solvent. This means it can dissolve many substances, like salt (sodium and chloride ions) and small molecules, to form solutions. When substances are dissolved in water, they can more easily meet and react with each other, which is necessary for life.\nStructure of water.\nA water molecule (H\u2082O) is small and polar. It has:\nBecause of this polarity, water molecules attract each other using hydrogen bonds, which makes water cohesive (they stick together).\nProperties of water.\nWater has several properties:\nWater molecules in motion.\nWater molecules are always changing. They constantly break apart into hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions, then join back together again. In pure water, the number of hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions is equal, making the pH neutral.\nOrganic compounds.\nOrganic compounds are molecules that contain carbon bonded to other elements, such as hydrogen. Except for water, almost all the molecules in living things contain carbon.\nCarbon is special because it can form up to four covalent bonds with other atoms. This allows it to make a wide variety of large and complex molecules. For example:\nCarbon can also create long chains (like in octane) or ring-shaped structures (like in glucose).\nThe simplest organic molecules are hydrocarbons, which are made only of carbon and hydrogen. These carbon chains can also include other elements such as oxygen, phosphorus, or sulfur, which change the molecule\u2019s chemical properties.\nGroups of atoms attached to carbon chains are called functional groups. These groups help determine how a molecule behaves. The six main functional groups in living things are amino group, carboxyl group, carbonyl group, hydroxyl group, phosphate group and sulfhydryl group.\nIn 1953, the Miller\u2013Urey experiment showed that organic molecules could form naturally under conditions like those of early Earth. This suggested that the complex molecules needed for life may have appeared spontaneously in Earth\u2019s early history.\nMacromolecules.\nMacromolecules are large molecules made from smaller building blocks called monomers. Examples of monomers include sugars, amino acids, and nucleotides.\nCarbohydrates are made of sugar monomers or chains of sugars. They can serve as energy sources or provide structure to cells. Lipids are different from other macromolecules because they are not made of polymers. They include fats, phospholipids, and steroids. Lipids do not mix well with water because they are mostly nonpolar and hydrophobic.\nProteins are the most varied type of macromolecule. They can act as enzymes, transport materials, send signals, form structures, or work as antibodies. The building blocks of proteins are amino acids, and living things use twenty different amino acids to make them.\nNucleic acids are made of nucleotides. Their job is to store, pass on, and express genetic information. DNA and RNA are examples of nucleic acids.\nCells.\nCell theory says that cells are the basic building blocks of all living things. Every living thing is made of one or more cells, and new cells come from existing cells by dividing. Most cells are very small\u2014only about 1 to 100 micrometers wide\u2014so you can only see them with a light or electron microscope.\nThere are two main kinds of cells: \nProkaryotes, like bacteria, are always single-celled. Eukaryotes can be either single-celled or made of many cells. In living things made of many cells, all the cells in the body originally come from one cell: the fertilized egg.\nCell structure.\nEvery cell is surrounded by a cell membrane that separates the inside of the cell, called the cytoplasm, from the outside space. The membrane is made of a double layer of lipids. Cholesterol sits between these lipids and helps the membrane stay flexible at different temperatures. The cell membrane is semipermeable, which means small molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water can move through it easily, while larger molecules and charged particles such as ions cannot pass through as easily.\nThe membrane also contains proteins. Some of these proteins go all the way through the membrane and help move substances in and out of the cell. Others are attached loosely to the outside of the membrane and can act like enzymes or help give the cell its shape. The cell membrane has several important roles, such as helping cells stick to each other, storing electrical energy, and sending or receiving signals. It also provides a surface where structures like the cell wall, the cytoskeleton, or the glycocalyx can attach.\nInside the cytoplasm, there are many important molecules, including proteins and nucleic acids. Eukaryotic cells also contain special structures called organelles, many of which are surrounded by their own lipid membranes. The nucleus holds most of the cell\u2019s DNA. Mitochondria produce ATP, which is the energy the cell uses. The endoplasmic reticulum helps make proteins and other molecules, while the Golgi apparatus packages and sends out proteins. Lysosomes can break down proteins and other unwanted materials.\nPlant cells have some organelles that animal cells do not. They have a cell wall that gives the cell support and shape. They also have chloroplasts, which use sunlight to make sugar, and vacuoles, which store materials, help support the cell, and can take part in reproduction and seed breakdown.\nEukaryotic cells also have a cytoskeleton that helps the cell keep its shape and allows movement. It is made of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and microfilaments. Microtubules are made from tubulin, intermediate filaments are made from fibrous proteins, and microfilaments are made from actin, which interacts with other proteins. These parts work together to support the cell and move the organelles inside it.\nMetabolism.\nAll cells need energy to carry out their activities. Metabolism is the name for all the chemical reactions that happen in a living organism. Metabolism has three main jobs: turning food into energy for the cell, turning food into small building blocks the body can use, and getting rid of waste made during these processes. These reactions, which are helped by enzymes, make it possible for organisms to grow, reproduce, maintain their structure, and react to their surroundings.\nMetabolic reactions can be grouped into two types. Catabolic reactions break down larger molecules into smaller ones, such as when glucose is broken down into pyruvate during cellular respiration. These reactions usually release energy. Anabolic reactions build larger molecules from smaller ones, such as proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. These reactions usually require energy.\nThe chemical reactions in metabolism are arranged in steps called metabolic pathways. In these pathways, one substance is changed step by step into another, and each step is carried out by a specific enzyme. Enzymes are essential to metabolism because they make it possible for organisms to perform useful reactions that need energy and would not happen on their own. They do this by linking those reactions to other reactions that release energy. Enzymes act as catalysts, which means they speed up reactions without being used up. They do this by lowering the activation energy needed to turn reactants into products. Enzymes also help control how fast a metabolic reaction happens, depending on the cell\u2019s environment or signals from other cells.\nCellular respiration.\nCellular respiration is the process cells use to turn the chemical energy in nutrients into ATP, which is the main energy source cells use to function. During this process, waste products are also released. The reactions in respiration are catabolic, meaning they break large molecules into smaller ones and release energy. Respiration is one of the main ways cells get the energy they need. Even though cellular respiration is a type of combustion, it does not look like burning because the energy is released slowly and in a controlled way through several steps.\nGlucose, a type of sugar, is the main nutrient that animal and plant cells use in respiration. When oxygen is present, the process is called aerobic respiration, and it happens in four stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle (also called the Krebs cycle), the electron transport chain, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis happens in the cytoplasm and breaks one glucose molecule into two pyruvate molecules, producing two ATP molecules. Each pyruvate is then converted into acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, which also produces NADH and carbon dioxide. Acetyl-CoA enters the citric acid cycle in the mitochondrial matrix. From one glucose molecule, this cycle produces a total of six NADH, two FADH\u2082, and two ATP molecules.\nThe final stage, oxidative phosphorylation, happens in the mitochondrial cristae of eukaryotic cells. It includes the electron transport chain, where four protein complexes pass electrons from one to another. This releases energy from NADH and FADH\u2082, which is used to pump protons across the inner mitochondrial membrane. This creates a proton gradient called the proton motive force. ATP synthase then uses this energy to make more ATP by adding phosphate to ADP. Oxygen is the final electron acceptor at the end of the electron transport chain.\nIf oxygen is not available, pyruvate cannot go through cellular respiration. Instead, it stays in the cytoplasm and goes through fermentation. In fermentation, pyruvate is turned into waste products that the cell can remove. This process allows NADH to be converted back into NAD\u207a so glycolysis can continue. Without oxygen, fermentation prevents the buildup of NADH and provides NAD\u207a for glycolysis to keep making ATP.\nThe waste product of fermentation depends on the organism. In human muscle cells, the waste product is lactic acid, so this process is called lactic acid fermentation. During intense exercise, when the body needs more energy than it can get from oxygen-based respiration, hydrogen atoms carried by NADH join with pyruvate to form lactate. This step is helped by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase and can be reversed. Lactate can also be used later to help make glycogen in the liver. When oxygen is available again, hydrogen from lactate combines with NAD\u207a to help make ATP.\nIn yeast, fermentation produces ethanol and carbon dioxide, so this is called alcoholic or ethanol fermentation. The ATP made during fermentation comes from substrate-level phosphorylation, which does not require oxygen.\nPhotosyntesis.\nPhotosynthesis is the process that plants and some other organisms use to change light energy into chemical energy. This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrates like sugars, which are made from carbon dioxide and water. Later, the stored energy can be released through cellular respiration to power the organism\u2019s activities. In most cases, oxygen is released as a waste product. Most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria perform photosynthesis, and this process is mainly responsible for maintaining the oxygen in Earth\u2019s atmosphere and providing most of the energy needed for life.\nPhotosynthesis happens in four stages: light absorption, electron transport, ATP production, and carbon fixation. Light absorption is the first step. During this stage, chlorophyll pigments in the thylakoid membranes absorb light energy. This energy is used to remove electrons from water and pass them to a primary electron acceptor called quinone, or Q.\nIn the second stage, these electrons move from the quinone through several electron carriers until they reach their final electron acceptor, which is usually NADP\u207a. NADP\u207a is reduced to NADPH during this process, which takes place in a protein complex called photosystem I. As electrons are passed along, protons (hydrogen ions) are moved from the stroma into the thylakoid space. This creates a pH difference across the membrane, with more hydrogen ions in the lumen than in the stroma. This is similar to the proton gradient created in mitochondria during aerobic respiration.\nIn the third stage, the hydrogen ions move back down their concentration gradient from the thylakoid lumen to the stroma through ATP synthase. As they pass through ATP synthase, ATP is produced. The NADPH and ATP made during the second and third stages supply the energy and electrons needed for the final step.\nIn the fourth stage, carbon fixation, the energy from ATP and the electrons from NADPH are used to make glucose. This happens by adding carbon dioxide from the air to existing carbon compounds like ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP). These reactions do not require light directly and are called the Calvin cycle.\nCell signalign.\nCell signaling, or cell communication, is the way cells receive, process, and send signals to their surroundings and to themselves. Signals can be physical, such as light, electrical impulses, or heat, or they can be chemical. Chemical signals, also called ligands, connect with receptors that may be located on the cell membrane of another cell or inside a cell.\nThere are four main types of chemical signaling: autocrine, paracrine, juxtacrine, and hormonal. In autocrine signaling, a cell releases a chemical signal that affects itself. For example, some tumor cells divide uncontrollably because they produce signals that trigger their own growth. In paracrine signaling, the chemical signal spreads to nearby cells and affects them. An example is neurons in the brain, which release neurotransmitters that cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptors on nearby neurons or muscle cells. In juxtacrine signaling, the signaling cell and the receiving cell are in direct contact with each other. Hormonal signaling involves signals that travel through the bloodstream in animals or through the vascular system in plants to reach distant target cells.\nWhen a ligand binds to a receptor, it can change the behavior of the target cell, depending on the type of receptor. For example, neurotransmitters that bind to an ionotropic receptor can change how easily a target cell becomes active. Other receptors include protein kinase receptors, like the insulin receptor, and G protein-coupled receptors. When G protein-coupled receptors are activated, they can start a chain of reactions called a second messenger cascade. The whole process by which a physical or chemical signal causes a series of molecular events inside a cell is known as signal transduction.\nCell cycle.\nThe cell cycle is the set of events that a cell goes through to divide and form two new daughter cells. During this process, the cell makes a copy of its DNA and some of its organelles. Then the cytoplasm is split into two new cells. This process is called cell division.\nIn eukaryotes, such as animals, plants, fungi, and protists, there are two types of cell division: mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is the type that produces two new cells that are genetically identical to the original cell and have the same number of chromosomes. Before mitosis begins, the DNA is copied during the S phase of interphase. Mitosis separates the duplicated chromosomes into two nuclei. It is usually followed by cytokinesis, which divides the cytoplasm, organelles, and cell membrane so that each daughter cell gets a roughly equal share. The stages of mitosis together make up the mitotic phase of the cell cycle. This process is essential for growth, development, and tissue repair. After division, each daughter cell starts a new cycle with interphase.\nMeiosis is different from mitosis. It produces four daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes (haploid cells). Meiosis involves one round of DNA replication followed by two divisions. In meiosis I, homologous chromosomes are separated. In meiosis II, sister chromatids are separated. Meiosis is used to produce sex cells and is part of sexual reproduction. Both mitosis and meiosis likely existed in the earliest eukaryotic ancestors.\nDuring meiosis, chromosomes are copied and homologous chromosomes exchange genetic information in the first division. The second division creates four haploid gametes.\nProkaryotes, like bacteria and archaea, also divide, but in a simpler way called binary fission. Unlike eukaryotic cells, they do not form a spindle. Before binary fission, the DNA is tightly coiled. Once it uncoils and copies itself, the DNA strands move to opposite ends of the cell as the cell grows. A new cell wall begins to form in the middle of the cell, guided by proteins like FtsZ that form a \u201cZ-ring.\u201d The new wall, called the septum, eventually divides the cell completely. The result is two new daughter cells, each with tightly coiled DNA, ribosomes, and plasmids.\nSexual reproduction and meiosis.\nMeiosis is an important part of sexual reproduction in organisms with complex cells. Its main job is to make sure the DNA passed from parents to their children stays correct and complete.\nTwo parts of sexual reproduction are especially helpful:\nThe benefits of outcrossing are often called hybrid vigor or heterosis. In 1878, Charles Darwin wrote that cross-fertilizing plants was usually helpful, while self-fertilizing them could sometimes be harmful.\nSexual reproduction also creates genetic differences among offspring. These differences can help species that practice outcrossing survive and adapt over long periods of time.\nGenetics.\nInheritance.\nGenetics is the science that studies how traits are passed from parents to their offspring. Mendelian inheritance explains how genes move from one generation to the next. Genes come in different forms, called alleles, and each parent gives one allele to its offspring. Some alleles are dominant and others are recessive. If an organism has at least one dominant allele, it will show the dominant trait. When gametes, such as sperm or eggs, are formed, the two alleles for a gene separate so that each gamete carries only one allele. If an organism has two different alleles for a gene, it will produce gametes that carry each allele in equal amounts. Another principle, called the law of independent assortment, says that alleles for different traits are usually passed on separately, meaning one trait does not normally affect how another is inherited. However, sex-linked traits can be exceptions to this. To figure out the hidden genetic makeup of an organism that shows a dominant trait, scientists can use a test cross, and a Punnett square can help predict the results. The chromosome theory of inheritance, which states that genes are found on chromosomes, was supported by Thomas Morgan\u2019s experiments with fruit flies, where he showed that eye color was linked to sex.\nGenes and DNA.\nGene expression is the process by which the information in an organism\u2019s DNA is used to create traits in its body. This happens through the production of proteins, which affect the organism\u2019s characteristics. The process follows the central dogma of molecular biology, proposed by Francis Crick in 1958, which states that genetic information flows from DNA to RNA and then to protein. Gene expression involves two main steps: transcription, where DNA is copied into RNA, and translation, where RNA is used to build proteins.\nGene expression.\nA gene is a unit of heredity and is a section of DNA that carries the instructions for an organism\u2019s form or function. DNA is made of two long chains of nucleotides that twist together to form a double helix. In eukaryotes, DNA is arranged in linear chromosomes, while in prokaryotes it is found in circular chromosomes. All of the chromosomes in a cell together make up its genome. In eukaryotic cells, most DNA is located in the nucleus, whereas in prokaryotic cells, it is found in a region called the nucleoid. The genetic information inside an organism is stored in its genes, and the complete set of this information is called the genotype. When DNA is copied, the process is called semiconservative replication, meaning each original strand is used as a template to make a new one. Mutations are changes in DNA that can be passed on to offspring. They can happen on their own during DNA replication if an error is not corrected, or they can be caused by environmental mutagens such as chemicals or radiation. Mutations can have different effects, such as causing a gene to lose its normal function, gain a new function, or work only under certain conditions. Some mutations are helpful because they create genetic variation that can drive evolution. Others are harmful if they interfere with genes that are needed for survival.\nGene regulation.\nGene expression can be controlled by environmental factors and by the stage of development, and this control can happen at different steps, such as transcription, RNA splicing, translation, and protein modification after translation. Gene expression is regulated by proteins called transcription factors, which can either increase or decrease activity depending on whether they activate or repress a gene. A group of genes that share the same promoter is called an operon, which is mostly found in prokaryotes and some simple eukaryotes. In positive regulation, an activator transcription factor binds to the promoter region to turn on transcription. In negative regulation, a repressor binds to a DNA sequence called an operator to block transcription. Repressors can be turned off by molecules called inducers, allowing transcription to occur. Genes that can be turned on by inducers are called inducible genes, while constitutive genes are almost always active. Structural genes produce proteins that do not control gene activity. In addition to these mechanisms, gene expression can also be regulated by epigenetic changes to chromatin, the combination of DNA and proteins in eukaryotic cells.\nGenes, development and evolution.\nDevelopment is the process by which a multicellular organism, such as a plant or animal, changes from a single cell into the many specialized cells and forms that make up its body during its life cycle. There are four main processes in development: determination, differentiation, morphogenesis, and growth. Determination sets the future role of a cell, which becomes more limited as development proceeds. Differentiation is when specialized cells form from less specialized cells, like stem cells. Stem cells are undifferentiated or partly specialized cells that can both make more stem cells and turn into different types of cells. Differentiation changes a cell\u2019s size, shape, activity, and how it responds to signals, mainly due to changes in gene expression and epigenetics, without altering the DNA sequence itself. This is why cells can look and act very differently even though they have the same genome. Morphogenesis is the process that shapes the body, guided by differences in gene expression. A small group of genes, called the developmental-genetic toolkit, controls the development of an organism. These toolkit genes are very old and similar across many animal groups. How these genes are used determines the body plan and the arrangement of body parts. Among these, Hox genes are especially important, as they tell the embryo where repeated parts, like the many vertebrae of a snake, should develop.\nEvolution.\nEvolutionary processes.\nEvolution is a key idea in biology. It is the change in inherited traits of populations over many generations. In artificial selection, humans breed animals or plants for specific traits. Darwin realized that, in nature, a similar process happens without human intervention. Because traits are inherited and populations have variation, individuals with traits that help them survive are more likely to live longer and have more offspring. Over many generations, these favorable traits become more common, making the population better suited to its environment.\nSpeciation.\nA species is a group of organisms that can mate with each other. Speciation is the process where one group splits into two separate groups that evolve independently. For speciation to happen, the groups must become reproductively isolated, meaning they can no longer successfully interbreed. This isolation can occur because of genetic incompatibilities, as explained by the Bateson\u2013Dobzhansky\u2013Muller model, and it usually increases as the groups become more genetically different. Speciation can also happen when physical barriers, like mountains or rivers, separate a population, a process called allopatric speciation.\nPhylogeny.\nPhylogeny is the evolutionary history of a group of organisms or their genes. It can be shown with a phylogenetic tree, a diagram that traces lines of descent. Each line represents a lineage of descendants from a species or population, and when a lineage splits into two, it appears as a fork in the tree. Phylogenetic trees help scientists compare and group different species. Species that share traits inherited from a common ancestor are said to have homologous features. Phylogeny also forms the basis of biological classification, which organizes living things into ranks: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. All organisms belong to one of three domains: Archaea, Bacteria, or Eukarya, which includes fungi, plants, and animals.\nHistory of life.\nThe history of life on Earth shows how living things have changed and evolved from the earliest forms to the present. Earth formed about 4.5 billion years ago, and all life, living and extinct, comes from a last universal common ancestor that lived around 3.5 billion years ago. Geologists divide Earth\u2019s history using a geologic time scale, which includes four eons: Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic. The first three eons, called the Precambrian, lasted about 4 billion years. The Phanerozoic eon, starting 539 million years ago, is divided into three eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic, which together include eleven periods, from the Cambrian to the Quaternary.\nAll living species today share similarities that show they evolved from a common ancestor. The universal genetic code is further evidence that bacteria, archaea, and eukaryotes all share this common descent. In the early Archean eon, microbial mats of bacteria and archaea were the dominant life forms, and many key steps in early evolution happened in this environment. The first eukaryotes appeared around 1.85 billion years ago, and their diversity increased when they began using oxygen in metabolism. Multicellular organisms appeared around 1.7 billion years ago, with specialized cells performing different functions.\nLand plants similar to algae date back about 1 billion years, though microorganisms may have formed the first terrestrial ecosystems at least 2.7 billion years ago, helping prepare the way for land plants in the Ordovician period. Land plants became so successful that they may have contributed to the Late Devonian extinction. Ediacara biota appeared during the Ediacaran period, and vertebrates along with most modern animal groups originated about 525 million years ago during the Cambrian explosion. During the Permian period, synapsids, including ancestors of mammals, dominated land but were mostly wiped out in the Permian\u2013Triassic extinction 252 million years ago. After this event, archosaurs became the most common land vertebrates, and one group, the dinosaurs, dominated the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods. When the non-avian dinosaurs went extinct 66 million years ago in the Cretaceous\u2013Paleogene extinction, mammals rapidly grew in size and diversity. These mass extinctions may have sped up evolution by creating opportunities for new groups of organisms to flourish.\nDiversity.\nBacteria and Archaea.\nBacteria are tiny single-celled organisms that belong to a large group of prokaryotes (cells without a nucleus). They are usually a few micrometers long and can have different shapes, like spheres, rods, or spirals. Bacteria were among the first forms of life on Earth and live in almost all environments, including soil, water, hot springs, radioactive waste, and deep underground. They can also live in or on plants and animals, sometimes helping them and sometimes harming them. Most bacteria are not well studied, and only about 27% of bacterial groups can be grown in a lab.\nArchaea are another group of prokaryotes. They were first thought to be bacteria and were called \u201carchaebacteria,\u201d but that name is no longer used. Archaea have special features that make them different from bacteria and eukaryotes (cells with a nucleus). They are similar in size and shape to bacteria, though some archaea, like \"Haloquadratum walsbyi\", have unusual shapes such as flat squares. Even though they look like bacteria, archaea have genes and ways of making proteins more like eukaryotes. They also have unique cell membranes made of special fats called ether lipids. Archaea can get energy from many sources, including sugars, ammonia, metals, hydrogen gas, and sunlight (for salt-loving species called Haloarchaea). Some archaea can take in carbon, but unlike plants, no archaea can do both photosynthesis and carbon fixation. Archaea reproduce asexually through binary fission, splitting, or budding. Unlike bacteria, they do not form spores.\nThe first archaea discovered were extremophiles, living in extreme places like hot springs and salty lakes where no other life could survive. Later, scientists found archaea in almost every habitat, including soil, oceans, and marshes. They are especially common in oceans, and some plankton archaea may be among the most abundant organisms on Earth.\nArchaea are an important part of life on Earth. They live in the microbiomes of humans and other organisms, including the gut, mouth, and skin. Because archaea have different shapes, metabolisms, and habitats, they play many ecological roles, such as fixing carbon, cycling nitrogen, breaking down organic matter, and supporting communities of other microbes.\nEukaryotes.\nEukaryotes (living things with complex cells) are thought to have evolved from archaea. Later, these early eukaryotes formed partnerships with bacteria. These bacteria eventually became mitochondria and chloroplasts, which are now permanent parts of eukaryotic cells.\nAbout 1.5 billion years ago, eukaryotes split into several major groups. Scientists group them into eight main clades:\nFive of these groups are often called protists. Protists are mostly tiny eukaryotic organisms that are not plants, animals, or fungi. Most protists are single-celled, and they are sometimes called microbial eukaryotes. The term \u201cprotist\u201d is used for convenience, not as an official scientific group, because some protists are more closely related to plants, animals, or fungi than to other protists.\nPlants.\nPlants are mostly multicellular and perform photosynthesis. They belong to the kingdom Plantae, which does not include fungi or some algae. Plant cells began when an early eukaryote absorbed a cyanobacterium about 1 billion years ago, leading to the formation of chloroplasts.\nEarly plant-like organisms were aquatic and are often called algae, though algae are not all closely related. Algae include groups like:\nFungi.\nFungi are eukaryotes that digest food outside their bodies. They release enzymes that break food down first, then absorb it. Many fungi feed on dead material and act as decomposers, helping recycle nutrients in ecosystems.\nAnimals.\nAnimals are multicellular eukaryotes. Most:\nScientists have identified over 1.5 million living animal species so far, including about 1 million insects. However, there may be more than 7 million animal species in total. Animals interact with each other and their surroundings, forming complex food webs.\nViruses.\nViruses are tiny germs that are too small to see with a regular microscope. They can only make copies of themselves when they are inside the cells of living things. Viruses can infect all kinds of life \u2014 animals, plants, bacteria, and even very simple organisms called archaea. Scientists have studied and described more than 6,000 kinds of viruses. Viruses exist almost everywhere on Earth and are the most common type of biological thing.\nScientists are not sure where viruses first came from. Some might have started as bits of DNA that can move between cells (called plasmids), while others may have come from simple bacteria. In evolution, viruses help move genes from one organism to another, which adds variety to life, similar to what happens in sexual reproduction.\nBecause viruses have some features of living things but not all, people sometimes call them \u201corganisms at the edge of life\u201d or \u201cself-replicators.\u201d\nEcology.\nEcology is the study of the distribution and abundance of life, the interaction between organisms and their environment.\nEcosystems.\nAn ecosystem is made up of living things (like plants, animals, and microbes) and nonliving things (like water, air, sunlight, temperature, soil, and acidity) that exist together in one place. The living and nonliving parts are connected through the flow of energy and the recycling of nutrients. Energy from the sun enters the ecosystem when plants use photosynthesis to make food. Animals eat plants and other animals, which moves energy and matter through the system. Animals also affect how much plant and microbe life there is. When living things die, decomposers break down their remains. This process releases carbon back into the air and changes the nutrients in dead material into forms that plants and microbes can use again.\nPopulations.\nA population is a group of living things of the same species that live in one area and reproduce over many generations. You can estimate how big a population is by multiplying how many organisms are in a certain space (population density) by the size of the area or volume. An environment\u2019s carrying capacity is the largest number of individuals of a species that the environment can support. This depends on things like food, water, space, and shelter. The carrying capacity can change if the environment changes\u2014for example, if resources become harder to find or more expensive to use. For humans, new technologies\u2014like those from the Green Revolution\u2014have helped increase how many people Earth can support. This growth has proved wrong some older predictions that human populations would soon decline, such as those made by Thomas Malthus in the 1700s.\nCommunites.\nA community is a group of different populations of species that live in the same place at the same time. A biological interaction is how two organisms in a community affect one another. These organisms can be from the same species (intraspecific) or from different species (interspecific). Some interactions are short-term, like pollination or hunting. Others are long-term and can strongly affect how species evolve.\nA long-term relationship between species is called a symbiosis. Symbiosis can be:\nEvery species in a community is either a consumer, a resource, or both. These roles form food chains and food webs.\nFood webs have different trophic levels (feeding levels):\nOnly about 10% of the energy from one trophic level is passed to the next. The remaining 90% is lost as heat or used by decomposers to break down waste and dead material.\nBiosphere.\nIn the world ecosystem (the biosphere), matter is found in different parts that interact with each other. These parts can be living (biotic) or nonliving (abiotic), and they can be easy to use (accessible) or hard to use (inaccessible) depending on where they are and what form they take.\nFor example:\nA biogeochemical cycle is the path that a specific element of matter takes as it moves through the living parts of Earth (the biosphere) and the nonliving parts (the lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere).\nThere are biogeochemical cycles for nitrogen, carbon, and water.\nConservation.\nConservation biology is the study of protecting Earth\u2019s biodiversity. Its goal is to save species, their habitats, and ecosystems from disappearing too quickly and to keep natural interactions between living things intact.\nIt looks at what causes biodiversity to be lost, what helps it survive, and how it can be restored. It also studies how evolution continues to create diversity in genes, populations, species, and ecosystems. Scientists are concerned because estimates suggest that up to half of all species on Earth could disappear in the next 50 years. Losing biodiversity can lead to problems like poverty, hunger, and big changes in how life evolves on Earth. Biodiversity is important because it keeps ecosystems working. Ecosystems provide many services that humans rely on. Conservation biologists study how biodiversity loss and species extinction affect our ability to live well. Governments, organizations, and citizens are taking action through conservation plans. These plans include research, monitoring, and education programs, helping protect biodiversity from local to global levels."}
+{"id": "102", "revid": "68157", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=102", "title": "Botany", "text": "Botany is the study of plants. It is a science. It is a branch of biology. \nIt is also called plant biology, and sometimes phytology. Scientists who study botany are called botanists. They study how plants work.\nBranches of botany.\nRecent trends.\nUniversity departments of botany are often now merged into a wider group of specialities, including cell biology, genetics, ecology, cytology, palaeontology and other topics. This gives students and research workers access to a wider education and a wider range of research techniques."}
+{"id": "103", "revid": "10489233", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=103", "title": "Belgium", "text": "Belgium (officially the Kingdom of Belgium; , , ) is a country in Western Europe. Its capital, Brussels, is the home of many organizations including the European Union and NATO. Belgium is bordered by The Netherlands in the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast and France to the south.\nBelgium has an area of . Around 11.6 million people live in Belgium. It is a founding member of the European Union and is home to its headquarters.\nRegions.\nThere are three regions in Belgium. The regions are mainly based on language and culture. Flanders and Wallonia are both split up into five provinces each.\nThe population is about 60% Dutch-speaking, 39% French-speaking, and 1% German-speaking (the so-called \"Deutschbelgier\"). To look after all these groups, Belgium has a complex system of government with highly autonomous regions.\nHistory.\nThe name 'Belgium' comes from \"Gallia Belgica\". This was a Roman province in the northernmost part of Gaul. Before Roman invasion in 100\u00a0BC, the \"Belgae\", a mix of Celtic and Germanic peoples, lived there. The Germanic Frankish tribes during the 5th century brought the area under the rule of the Merovingian kings. A slow shift of power during the 8th century led the kingdom of the Franks to change into the Carolingian Empire. The Treaty of Verdun in 843 divided the region into Middle and West Francia. They were vassals either of the King of France or of the Holy Roman Emperor.\nMany of these fiefdoms were united in the Burgundian Netherlands of the 14th and 15th centuries.\nThe Eighty Years' War (1568\u20131648) divided the Low Countries into the northern United Provinces and the Southern Netherlands. Southern Netherlands were ruled by the Spanish and the Austrian Habsburgs. This made up most of modern Belgium.\nAfter the , the Low Countries were added into the French First Republic. This ended Austrian rule in the area. Adding back the Low Countries formed the United Kingdom of the Netherlands. This happened at the end of the First French Empire in 1815.\nThe Belgian Revolution was in 1830. Leopold became king on 1831. This is now celebrated as Belgium's National Day.\nThe Berlin Conference of 1885 gave control of the Congo Free State to King Leopold\u00a0II. Millions of Congolese people were hurt or killed, mostly to make rubber, and Leopold became very wealthy. In 1908 the Belgian state took control of the colony after a scandal about the deaths.\nGermany invaded Belgium in 1914. This was part of World War I. The opening months of the war were very bad in Belgium. During the war Belgium took over Ruanda-Urundi (modern-day Rwanda and Burundi). After the War, the Prussian districts of Eupen and Malmedy were added into Belgium in 1925. The country was again invaded by Germany in 1940 and under German control until 1944. After World War II, the people made king Leopold III leave his throne in 1951. This is because they thought he helped the Germans. Belgium joined NATO as a founding member.\nIn 1960 the Belgian Congo stopped being under Belgian rule. Two years later Ruanda-Urundi also became free.\nGeography.\nBelgium is next to France, Germany, Luxembourg and the Netherlands. Its total area is 34,143\u00a0square kilometers (including sea area). The land area alone is 30,689\u00a0km\u00b2, of which 195\u00a0km\u00b2 or 0.64% are inland and coastal waters. Belgium has three main geographical regions. The coastal plain is in the north-west. The central plateau are part of the Anglo-Belgian Basin. The Ardennes uplands are in the south-east. The Paris Basin reaches a small fourth area at Belgium's southernmost tip, Belgian Lorraine.\nThe coastal plain is mostly sand dunes and polders. Further inland is a smooth, slowly rising landscape. There are fertile valleys. The hills have many forests. The plateaus of the Ardennes are more rough and rocky. They have caves and small, narrow valleys. Signal de Botrange is the country's highest point at 694 metres (2,277\u00a0ft).\nRegions.\nBelgium is divided into three regions: Flemish Region (Flanders), Walloon Region (Wallonia), and Brussels-Capital Region (Brussels Region or Brussels - also the name of the city):\n\u00b9 The city of Brussels does not lie in Flanders Region and therefore cannot be the largest city of this region.\n\u00b2 German name: Wallonie(n): the very eastern part of the Walloon Region is officially German-speaking, the so-called German-speaking Community of Belgium.\nProvinces.\nFlanders and Wallonia are divided into provinces. Brussels (Region) is not part of any province.\n\u00b9 German name: L\u00fcttich - the very eastern part of the province of Li\u00e8ge is officially German-speaking, the so-called German-speaking Community of Belgium.\nClimate.\nBelgium has a mostly oceanic climate, but the Belgian Ardennes has a continental climate. \nThe highest temperature ever recorded in Belgium was , on 25 July 2019 in Begijnendijk. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Belgium was , on 20 January 1940 in Lesse.\nPolitics.\nSince 1993, Belgium is a federal state, divided into three regions and three communities.\nRegions:\nCommunities:\nIt has a system of government known as a constitutional monarchy, meaning that it has a monarch, but that the monarch does not rule the country, and that a government is elected democratically.\nBelgium has had its own monarchy since 1831. King Albert II left the throne on July 21, 2013 and the current king is Philippe.\nIn Belgium, the government is elected. Between mid-2010 and late 2011, after no clear result in the election, Belgium had no official government, until Elio Di Rupo became Prime Minister. Flanders and Wallonia both also have their own regional governments, and there is a notable independence movement in Flanders. Alexander De Croo is currently the Prime Minister.\nMilitary.\nThe Belgian Armed Forces have about 46,000 active troops. In 2009 the yearly defence budget was $6 billion. There are four parts: Belgian Land Component, or the Army; Belgian Air Component, or the Air Force; Belgian Naval Component, or the Navy; Belgian Medical Component.\nScience and technology.\nAdding to science and technology has happened throughout the country's history. cartographer Gerardus Mercator, anatomist Andreas Vesalius, herbalist Rembert Dodoens and mathematician Simon Stevin are among the most influential scientists.\nChemist Ernest Solvay and engineer Zenobe Gramme gave their names to the Solvay process and the Gramme dynamo in the 1860s. Bakelite was formed in 1907\u20131909 by Leo Baekeland. A major addition to science was also due to a Belgian, Georges Lema\u00eetre. He is the one who made the Big Bang theory of the start of the universe in 1927.\nThree Nobel Prizes in Physiology or Medicine were awarded to Belgians: Jules Bordet in 1919, Corneille Heymans in 1938 and Albert Claude together with Christian De Duve in 1974. Ilya Prigogine was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1977. Two Belgian mathematicians have been awarded the Fields Medal: Pierre Deligne in 1978 and Jean Bourgain in 1994.\nIn February 2014, Belgium became the first country in the world to legalize euthanasia without any age limits.\nCulture.\nFine arts.\nThere have been many additions to painting and architecture. Several examples of major architectural places in Belgium belong to UNESCO's World Heritage List. In the 15th century the religious paintings of Jan van Eyck and Rogier van der Weyden were important. The 16th century had more styles such as Peter Breughel's landscape paintings and Lambert Lombard's showing of the antique. The style of Peter Paul Rubens and Anthony van Dyck was strong in the early 17th century in the Southern Netherlands.\nDuring the 19th and 20th centuries many original romantic, expressionist and surrealist Belgian painters started. These include James Ensor and other artists in the Les XX group, Constant Permeke, Paul Delvaux and Ren\u00e9 Magritte. The sculptor Panamarenko is still a remarkable figure in contemporary art. The artist Jan Fabre and the painter Luc Tuymans are other internationally known figures in contemporary art.\nBelgian contributions to architecture were also in the 19th and 20th centuries. Victor Horta and Henry van de Velde were major starters of the Art Nouveau style.\nIn the 19th and 20th centuries, there were major violinists, such as Henri Vieuxtemps, Eug\u00e8ne Ysa\u00ffe and Arthur Grumiaux. Adolphe Sax invented the saxophone in 1846. The composer C\u00e9sar Franck was born in Li\u00e8ge in 1822. Newer music in Belgium is also famous. Jazz musician Toots Thielemans and singer Jacques Brel have made global fame. In rock/pop music, Telex, Front 242, K's Choice, Hooverphonic, Zap Mama, Soulwax and dEUS are well known. In the heavy metal scene, bands like Machiavel, Channel Zero and Enthroned have a worldwide fan-base.\nBelgium has several well-known authors, including the poet Emile Verhaeren and novelists Hendrik Conscience, Georges Simenon, Suzanne Lilar and Am\u00e9lie Nothomb. The poet and playwright Maurice Maeterlinck won the Nobel Prize in literature in 1911. \"The Adventures of Tintin\" by Herg\u00e9 is the best known of Franco-Belgian comics. Many other major authors, including Peyo, Andr\u00e9 Franquin, Edgar P. Jacobs and Willy Vandersteen brought the Belgian cartoon strip industry a worldwide fame.\nBelgian cinema has brought a number of mainly Flemish novels to life on-screen. Belgian directors include Andr\u00e9 Delvaux, Stijn Coninx, Luc and Jean-Pierre Dardenne. Well-known actors include Jan Decleir and Marie Gillain. Successful films include \"Man Bites Dog\" and \"The Alzheimer Affair\".\nCuisine.\nBelgium is famous for beer, chocolate, waffles and french fries. French fries were first made in Belgium. The national dishes are \"steak and fries with salad\", and \"mussels with fries\".\nOther local fast food dishes include a Mitraillette. Brands of Belgian chocolate and pralines, like C\u00f4te d'Or, Guylian, Neuhaus, Leonidas, Corn\u00e9 and Galler are famous. Belgium makes over 1100 varieties of beer. The Trappist beer of the Abbey of Westvleteren has repeatedly been rated the world's best beer. The biggest brewer in the world by volume is Anheuser-Busch InBev, based in Leuven.\nSports.\nSince the 1970s, sports clubs are organised separately by each language community. Association football is one of the most popular sports in both parts of Belgium, together with cycling, tennis, swimming and judo. With five victories in the Tour de France and many other cycling records, Belgian Eddy Merckx is said to be one of the greatest cyclists of all time. Jean-Marie Pfaff, a former Belgian goalkeeper, is said to be one of the greatest in the history of football (soccer). Belgium and The Netherlands hosted the UEFA European Football Championship in 2000. Belgium hosted the 1972 European Football Championships.\nKim Clijsters and Justine Henin both were Player of the Year in the Women's Tennis Association. The Spa-Francorchamps motor-racing circuit hosts the Formula One World Championship Belgian Grand Prix. The Belgian driver, Jacky Ickx, won eight Grands Prix and six 24 Hours of Le Mans. Belgium also has a strong reputation in motocross. Sporting events held each year in Belgium include the Memorial Van Damme athletics competition, the Belgian Grand Prix Formula One, and a number of classic cycle races such as the Tour of Flanders and Li\u00e8ge\u2013Bastogne\u2013Li\u00e8ge. The 1920 Summer Olympics were held in Antwerp.\nOther websites.\nBelgium- -Citizendium"}
+{"id": "104", "revid": "1319811", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=104", "title": "Brazil", "text": "Brazil, officially the Federative Republic of Brazil, is a country in South America. It is the world's fifth largest country by area, and the seventh largest by population. The country has about 212 million people. The capital of Brazil is Bras\u00edlia. Brazil was named after brazilwood, which is a tree that once grew very well along the Brazilian coast. Brazil has the most Portuguese speakers in the world and is the only country in the Americas where Portuguese is an official language.\nHistory.\nThe first people to come to Brazil came around 9,000 B.C. That group of indigenous people is often called the South American Indians and probably came from North America. They practiced hunting, foraging, and farming. Over thousands of years, many different indigenous people were living there.\nPedro \u00c1lvares Cabral was the first European to see Brazil. He saw it in 1500. He was from Portugal and the Portuguese kingdom claimed Brazil. Soon, Portugal colonized Brazil and created colonies all along the coastline. They began to import black slaves from Africa and force them to work. Because of the violence of the slave masters, many of these slaves would run away into the forest and create their own communities called quilombos.\nIn the late 1500s and early 1600s, the Dutch and the French tried to take some land in Brazil. Dutch, French, and Portuguese started moving inland further than the Treaty of Tordesillas said they could. This caused some fights with the Spaniards (people from Spain) and indigenous people in the area.\nIn 1822, Brazil declared independence from Portugal. Soon there was civil war. Meanwhile, the quilombos survived and Brazil was bringing in more slaves than any other country in the Americas, even though many countries were beginning to legally abolish slavery. This led to an increase in slave revolts, especially in the 1860s and 1880s, which forced the government to change the system to keep the country stable. Slavery was legally abolished in 1888.\nIn 1889, there was a military coup, and Pedro II had to leave the country. In 1889, Brazil became a republic. The only people who could vote were people who owned land. There were some uprisings in the 1920s because some people thought the government was unfairly helping coffee growers. Brazil joined the Allies during World War II.\nDuring the 1960s, the military leader Castelo Branco overthrew the government and created a dictatorship that was supported by the United States. It was very anti-communist and they imprisoned, tortured, or killed many people on the left. Since then, the country has become more democratic, but some people feel that there are still big problems in health, education, crime, poverty and social inequality.\nIn August 2016, then-president Dilma Rousseff was removed from office because of impeachment.\nIn the 2018 elections, the controversial conservative candidate Jair Bolsonaro of the Social Liberal Party (PSL) was elected president, winning in the second round against Fernando Haddad, of the Workers Party (PT), with the support of 55.13% of the valid votes. In the early 2020s, Brazil became one of the hardest hit countries during the COVID-19 pandemic, receiving the second-highest death toll worldwide after the United States. In May 2021, Luiz In\u00e1cio Lula da Silva said that he would run for a third term in the 2022 Brazilian general election against Bolsonaro. In October 2022, Luladr\u00e3o (thief) was in first place in the first round, with 48.43% of the support from the electorate, and received 50.90% of the votes in the second round. On 8 January 2023, a week after Lula's inauguration, a mob of Bolsonaro's supporters attacked Brazil's federal government buildings in the capital, Bras\u00edlia, after several weeks of unrest.\nLula, after returning to the \"crime scene\" (as said by Vice President Geraldo Alckmin) and the scandals of Mensal\u00e3o, Petrol\u00e3o, Lava Jato, etc., in 2025 a billion-dollar theft from INSS retirees was discovered. Among the main people involved is President Lula's brother, named Jos\u00e9 Ferreira da Silva and known as Frei Chico.\nLanguages.\nThe official language of Brazil is Portuguese. Brazil is the only country in South America that speaks Portuguese but more people in South America speak Portuguese than Spanish because the population of Brazil is larger than the combined population of all the Spanish-speaking countries in South America.\nSome people in Brazil speak German dialects. That came from German immigrants. 2% of Brazilians speak German as their first language. Yiddish is spoken by the elders of the Jewish community.\nOther people in Brazil speak their ancestors' languages like Italian, Japanese, Polish, Ukrainian, French, Russian, Lithuanian, Chinese, Dutch and Korean. Spanish or \"Portunhol\", a mix of Portuguese and Castilian (Spanish) is spoken at some of the borders. Indigenous languages as Guarani and Aymar\u00e1 are the first languages of a small number of Brazilians.\nGeography.\nBrazil has the world's largest rainforest, the Amazon Rainforest. It makes up 40% of the country's land area. Brazil also has other types of land, including a type of savanna, called \"cerrado\", and a dry plant region named \"caatinga\".\nThe most important cities are Bras\u00edlia (the capital), Bel\u00e9m, Belo Horizonte, Curitiba, Florian\u00f3polis, Fortaleza, Goi\u00e2nia, Macei\u00f3, Manaus, Porto Alegre, Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, S\u00e3o Paulo (the biggest city) and Vit\u00f3ria. Other cities are at List of largest cities in Brazil.\nBrazil is divided into 26 states plus the Federal District in five regions (north, south, northeast, southeast and centre-west):\nThe country is the fifth-largest in the world by area. It is known for its many rainforests and jungles. It is next to every country in South America except Chile and Ecuador.\nThe name Brazil comes from a tree named brazilwood.\nCulture.\nBrazil is the largest country in South America and the fifth-largest in the world. Its people are called Brazilians or Brasileiros (In Portuguese). The people include citizens of Portuguese or other European descent who mainly live in the South and Southeast, Africans, Native Americans, Arabs, Gypsies, and people of mixed ancestry. Brazil also has the largest Japanese community outside Japan. Other East Asians follow the Japanese group. The Amazon River flows through Brazil, it is the 2nd longest river in the world (after the Nile). The current President of Brazil is Luiz In\u00e1cio Lula da Silva. Two major sporting events were held in Brazil recently: the 2014 FIFA World Cup and the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro.\nSport.\nIn 2016 Brazil became the first South America country to host the Summer Olympics."}
+{"id": "105", "revid": "10302222", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=105", "title": "Britain", "text": "Britain may mean:\nBritain may also refer to:"}
+{"id": "108", "revid": "212981", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=108", "title": "Chemistry", "text": "Chemistry is the science that studies what everything is made of and how it changes. It looks at matter, which is anything that takes up space. Chemistry tries to understand how matter is built, how it behaves, and how it can change. Chemistry explores how tiny particles called atoms and molecules come together, break apart, or rearrange to form new substances. People often call chemistry the \u201ccentral science\u201d because it connects other sciences like physics (which studies energy and forces) and biology (which studies living things). Chemistry helps explain things all around us, like why iron rusts, how food gives us energy, and how soap cleans our hands.\nThe history of chemistry is very long. Thousands of years ago, people in places like Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and China used early forms of chemistry in their daily lives. They practiced metalworking, made dyes for clothes, and learned to ferment food and drinks. These skills were based on watching and experimenting, even though people did not yet understand the science behind them. Later, a practice called alchemy became popular. Alchemists hoped to turn ordinary metals into gold and find a magic liquid that would give eternal life. Even though their ideas were not always scientific, alchemists invented tools and methods that helped future scientists. In the 1600s, chemistry began to change. Scientists like Robert Boyle said that experiments, not just ideas, should be used to understand the world. In the 1700s, Antoine Lavoisier carefully measured chemicals and discovered that matter cannot be created or destroyed, only changed. This became a key idea in modern chemistry. As time went on, scientists developed the atomic theory, created the periodic table, and learned how atoms bond together.\nChemistry is a type of physical science, which means it focuses on understanding matter and how it changes using careful measurements and natural laws. It is closely related to physics, especially in areas like heat and energy (thermodynamics), the behavior of tiny particles (quantum mechanics), and how fast reactions happen (kinetics). These help scientists understand how and why chemical reactions take place. While physics looks for broad, universal rules, chemistry often focuses on how specific molecules and materials behave. Chemists study how atoms come together to form molecules, how energy moves during reactions, and how things like temperature, pressure, and the amount of each substance can affect the speed of a reaction. Using tools and models, chemistry helps us explore both the tiny world of atoms and the larger world of solids, liquids, gases, and plasma. It plays a big role in helping us understand the materials that make up everything around us.\nChemistry is very important in both science and everyday life. It plays a big role in many areas, like medicine, farming, energy, and making new materials. You can find chemistry in everything from the food you eat to the soap you use and the medicine you take when you are sick. Thanks to chemistry, we have clean water, solar panels, plastic, and life-saving drugs. It helps explain everyday things, like why bread rises when you bake it, how soap gets rid of grease, and what happens when your body digests food. Chemists also study pollution, look for better ways to protect the environment, and create new materials that are safer and better for the planet. As the world faces problems like climate change, diseases, and limited resources, chemistry helps us find smart and useful solutions.\nChemistry is not a subject that stands alone. It is closely connected to many other sciences. Chemistry and physics are closely linked because the movement of atoms, energy, and tiny particles like electrons all follow the laws of physics. In biology, chemistry helps us understand how living things work. It explains how enzymes speed up reactions in the body, how DNA carries genetic information, and how cells turn food into energy. This area of science is called biochemistry. In geology, chemistry helps us learn what rocks and minerals are made of, how volcanoes work, and how elements move through Earth\u2019s surface, oceans, and air. Chemistry is also important in environmental science, astronomy, engineering, and making new materials. Because of these connections, chemistry is one of the most important and wide-reaching sciences.\nHistory.\nPrehistoric Chemistry.\nIn prehistoric times, chemistry was not a real science like it is today. Instead, it was more like a mix of practical skills and simple observations that helped people survive. Early humans learned how to use the materials around them by trying things out and watching what happened. Over time, they began to understand how some things changed. This hands-on experience helped them slowly build a basic understanding of chemical changes, even though they did not know the science behind it. One of the most important achievements of early humans was learning how to control fire. Cooking was one of the most important uses of fire. It made food taste better and easier to digest. Cooking also helped kill germs, which made food safer to eat, especially meat. Since early humans did not have refrigerators, cooking helped food last longer and reduced the chance of getting sick from spoiled or raw meat. Fire was also used for other important tasks. For example, early people discovered that heating the tips of wooden tools made them harder and stronger. They also learned to shape wet clay into pots and bowls, then bake them in fire to make them tough and long-lasting.\nBy around 5000 BCE, people began to discover a new use for fire, making metal from rocks. This early process was called smelting. It marked the beginning of metallurgy, the science of working with metals. Before this, people mostly used native metals, which are found in nature in pure form, like small lumps of gold or copper. But now, they learned how to get copper out of rocks called ores, such as malachite or azurite. To smelt copper, they had to heat the ore in a very hot fire, hot enough to melt the metal and separate it from the rock. This was not easy. It required skill in building and controlling fire. Sometimes they used tools like bellows to blow air and make the fire hotter. They also had to choose the right rocks and other materials to help the process work better. The result was soft copper, which could be shaped into tools, weapons, and jewelry.\nOne of the earliest examples of prehistoric chemistry was using natural pigments for cave paintings. People ground up minerals like ochre (which is made of iron oxide), charcoal (which is made of carbon), and manganese dioxide into powders. They mixed these powders with animal fat or water to make paint. People used these paints for rock art and decorating their bodies. Another important skill was tanning hides. This meant soaking animal skins in plants with tannins, like tree bark. This process made the leather last longer, stay flexible, and be useful for making clothes or tools. Fermentation also started during this time. At first, it probably happened by accident when fruit or grains went sour. As early as 7000 BCE, people in China were mixing rice, honey, and fruit to make a kind of early alcoholic drink. At the same time, people in Mesopotamia and Egypt were learning how to brew beer and make bread rise by fermenting dough. These processes used wild yeasts and bacteria to turn sugars into alcohol or carbon dioxide, which changed the taste and texture of the food. Even though they did not know about microorganisms, early humans figured out how to make fermentation work.\nMetals like gold, silver, and copper became very special. Gold was rare, shiny and beautiful, and also did not get dull or rust, so it was used for ceremonies and to show status. Silver was shiny and easy to shape, so it was used for jewelry and everyday items. Copper was valuable because it could be made into tools and weapons. People started mining these metals on purpose and trading them. One of the biggest discoveries was mixing copper with tin to make bronze. Bronze was first made about 3300 BCE, during the time between the late Stone Age and the early Bronze Age. The oldest proof of making bronze comes from Mesopotamia, an area that is now Iraq and parts of Syria and Turkey. People there started mixing copper with tin to make a metal that was stronger and lasted longer. This new way of making metal eventually spread to other places like the ancient Near East, Europe, and the Indus Valley. Bronze was stronger and harder than tin or copper alone. This was one of the first times people made a new material on purpose by combining substances. Bronze tools and weapons helped societies grow, build cities, and create professional armies.\nSalt was one of the most important chemical substances in early civilization. It was not just used to add flavor to food. It helped people keep meat and fish from spoiling, so they could store food for a long time. This made it possible to travel farther, plan for different seasons, and build towns away from places with fresh food. Because salt was so useful, it became very valuable and was traded over long distances. Some trade routes and even early cities grew around places where salt was found, and in some cultures, salt was even used as money.\nAncient Chemistry.\nIn ancient civilizations, chemistry started to become more organized and intentional. Unlike the earlier times when people learned mostly by guessing and trying things out, ancient cultures began to keep records and follow steps more carefully. Even though they did not know about atoms or molecules, they still learned how to change and use natural materials in useful ways. Civilizations like ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, China, and Greece all made important contributions. They used chemistry for everyday needs like making metal tools, preserving food, and creating medicines. They also used it for spiritual or religious reasons, such as preparing bodies for burial (embalming), making perfumes, or using special materials in ceremonies. These cultures wrote down their ideas and methods on things like clay tablets and scrolls. This helped them improve their techniques and pass knowledge down to future generations.\nIn ancient Egypt, chemistry was closely connected to religion, medicine, and daily life. The Egyptians were skilled at using natural materials like minerals, dyes, and plant resins, especially when it came to preserving bodies for the afterlife. They used a special salt mixture called natron, made of natural chemicals like baking soda and salt, to dry out dead bodies and prevent decay. They also added oils, herbs, and resins to stop bad smells and protect the body. Egyptians were also talented metalworkers. They knew how to melt down copper ores like malachite in hot furnaces using charcoal to get pure metal. They used metals like gold, copper, and lead to make tools, jewelry, and statues. They also made green eye paint from malachite and black eyeliner (kohl) from a mineral called galena (lead sulfide). These were not just for beauty. They were believed to help protect their eyes from infections and bright sunlight. Egyptians also made perfumes and scented oils by mixing plant parts, resins, and fats. They used early versions of extraction methods, like soaking flowers in oils or using heat. Some even think they may have used very simple distillation to collect scents. One of their greatest chemical achievements was glass-making. As early as 1500 BCE, they were making colorful glass beads and jars using a mix of sand (silica), soda (a type of salt), and lime, all melted together in hot ovens. By adding different metals, they could change the color. Copper made blue, iron made green, and manganese made purple. Chemistry also played a role in Egyptian medicine. Ancient texts like the Ebers Papyrus included hundreds of recipes for medicines made from minerals, herbs, and animal parts. Some treatments were based on beliefs and rituals, but many were surprisingly accurate and showed real knowledge of how the human body reacted to certain substances.\nIn Mesopotamia, especially in places like Sumer and Babylon, people made important early discoveries in chemistry, mostly through practical work. They wrote down their knowledge on clay tablets using a writing system called cuneiform. These records show in detail how they used different materials. One of their biggest contributions was in metalworking. The Sumerians and Babylonians learned how to get metals like copper, tin, lead, silver, and gold from rocks called ores. They built furnaces hot enough to melt these ores. By mixing copper and tin, they created bronze, a strong metal used for making tools, weapons, and art. This marked the start of the Bronze Age. Pottery and ceramics were also important. They used kilns (hot ovens) to bake clay and to make glazes, which gave pottery shiny, colorful finishes. These glazes were made by mixing minerals and metal powders like copper or iron, which changed color when heated. Pottery was used in homes, temples, and for special objects. Mesopotamians also made progress in perfume-making. Ancient clay tablets from cities like Mari and Babylon describe how they got scents from plants, spices, and tree resins. They may have used early versions of distillation, heating ingredients and collecting the vapor to concentrate smells. These perfumes were used in religious ceremonies, for personal grooming, and sometimes in medicine. In medicine, Mesopotamian healers called asu (practical doctors) and ashipu (spiritual healers) made remedies by mixing minerals, herbs, and animal parts. Some ingredients, like sulfur, salts, and alkalis, had real chemical effects. Their treatments, written on Assyrian tablets, included directions for curing fevers, wounds, and stomach problems, often with both practical steps and magical prayers. Another interesting substance they used was bitumen, a sticky, black natural material similar to modern asphalt. They used it for building, waterproofing, and even to preserve bodies like in mummification.\nIn ancient India, people had a deep and detailed knowledge of chemistry, especially in medicine and spiritual practices. This knowledge was recorded in early texts like the Vedas and Ayurvedic writings. One major area of chemical knowledge was Ayurveda, the traditional Indian system of medicine. Ayurvedic healers used herbs, minerals, and even animal products to make medicines that matched each person\u2019s body type, known as a dosha. These healers used careful steps like heating, grinding, and washing to prepare them. For example, they used mercury (called rasa) in special medicines called rasaushadhis, often mixing it with sulfur. Ancient Indian alchemy, called Rasayana Shastra, also played a big role. While it had mystical goals like living longer or turning base metals into gold, it led to real scientific progress. They used early chemical techniques like calcination (marana), distillation (patan), sublimation (sublimna), and fermentation (sandhana). They built and used tools such as yantras (distillers), musha (crucibles), and retorts (curved tubes), often made from clay or metal. Metallurgy, the science of working with metals, was another area where ancient India stood out. Indian blacksmiths were some of the first to smelt iron, and by the first millennium BCE, they had invented a special kind of strong steel called Wootz steel. This steel was famous for its strength and was traded all over the world. A great example of their skill is the Iron pillar of Delhi, built around the 4th century CE, which has not rusted much even after 1,600 years. India was also among the first cultures to extract and purify zinc. They worked with metals like gold, silver, copper, and lead. In daily life, Indian chemistry showed up in dyeing, cosmetics, and perfumery. Artisans made colorful dyes from plants and minerals for clothes and art. They made perfumes and incense by collecting scented oils from flowers and herbs using early forms of distillation. These recipes and tools were written down in books like the Brihat Samhita, which explained not just what to use, but how to prepare each substance step by step.\nIn ancient China, chemistry was closely connected to Taoist beliefs and natural ideas, especially the concepts of yin and yang and the Five Elements: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. These ideas helped guide how people thought substances changed and interacted with each other. One of the most important parts of Chinese chemistry was alchemy, \u201cthe way of the elixir\u201d. Alchemists tried to create special elixirs, magical mixtures that they believed could bring immortality or spiritual powers. They used materials like mercury, sulfur, arsenic, and other minerals and metals. While some of these elixirs were dangerous or poisonous, the work led to better knowledge of how different substances behaved and reacted. For example, Chinese alchemists learned how to heat cinnabar (a mercury mineral) to get liquid mercury. These experiments accidentally led to one of the greatest discoveries in chemistry: gunpowder. Around the time of the Tang Dynasty (7th\u201310th century CE), Taoist alchemists trying to make an elixir of life mixed sulfur, saltpeter, and charcoal, and instead discovered an explosive powder, gunpowder. This changed warfare forever and eventually spread around the world. The recipe was written down in military books like the Wujing Zongyao (written in 1044 CE). Besides alchemy and gunpowder, the Chinese were also masters of metallurgy. Long before Europe, they had created blast furnaces to make cast iron. They developed strong metal mixtures like bronze (copper and tin) and even steel. These metal tools and weapons helped China grow and succeed. Ancient China also developed medicine. Books like the Shennong Bencao Jing (written around the 1st century CE) listed hundreds of plants, minerals, and animal parts used to treat illness. Medicines were made using chemical techniques like grinding, boiling, fermenting, and roasting. Doctors noticed how different amounts, preparation styles, and combinations of ingredients affected the body, even though they explained it using traditional ideas like qi (life energy) and balance between organs. Finally, ancient Chinese people were experts in ceramics, dyeing, and glass-making. The art of making porcelain used special clay (kaolinite) and very high firing temperatures in kilns. They carefully controlled the heat and mixed minerals to make beautiful glazes. Chinese artists also used metal powders to make colorful finishes, like cobalt for blue, copper for green, and iron for brown or black.\nClassical Theories of Matter.\nIn the history of chemistry, classical theories of matter were the early ideas people had about what everything is made of and how it changes. These ideas came from ancient civilizations long before scientists understood atoms like we do today. Even though these early theories did not use experiments like modern chemistry, they helped people start thinking about the nature and structure of matter. These ideas set the stage for many important discoveries later in chemistry.\nIn ancient Greece, people had different ideas about what matter was made of. One early idea came from Empedocles in the 5th century BCE. He said all matter was made of four basic elements: earth, water, air, and fire. These elements could mix and change because of two forces: love (which brings things together) and strife (which pulls things apart). Later, Aristotle added a fifth element called aether, which he believed made up the sky and stars. He also linked the four elements to qualities like hot, cold, wet, and dry, which helped explain how matter could change. Another important idea came from Democritus and his teacher Leucippus. They said that everything was made of tiny, unbreakable particles called atoms. These atoms were different in shape and size, and how they combined created all the different materials around us. Even though they did not have experiments to prove it, this idea was very similar to what scientists believe today and was very different from Aristotle\u2019s ideas.\nIn ancient India, there was an idea similar to atoms in a school of thought called Vaisheshika, started by a thinker named Kanada around the 2nd century BCE. They believed that everything is made of tiny, unbreakable particles called \u201canu\u201d or \u201cparamanu.\u201d These particles combine in different ways to make all kinds of materials. They also created a way to group things based on qualities like taste, color, and how they feel. Even though their ideas were mixed with philosophy and spirituality, they were trying to explain how things change and why there are so many different materials. At the same time, in ancient China, people explained matter using the ideas of yin and yang and the Five Elements (called Wu Xing): wood, fire, earth, metal, and water. These were not elements like we think of them today but were seen as phases or processes that energy goes through. Each element had connections to different qualities, directions, body organs, and natural events. This system helped explain things like nature\u2019s cycles, health, and balance in society, and it influenced Chinese medicine, alchemy, and ideas about the universe for many centuries.\nMedieval Chemistry.\nDuring the medieval period (about the 5th to 15th century AD), chemistry was not yet a formal science like it is today. Instead, it was mixed with hands-on crafts, spiritual beliefs, and ideas passed down from ancient times. This period was like a bridge between ancient alchemy and the modern science of chemistry that would come later. People during this time used chemical knowledge in many parts of daily life. For example, medicine used herbal mixtures, metal-based compounds, and special liquids called elixirs to treat sickness. These were made through experiments and trial-and-error methods. Metalworking, or metallurgy, was also important. Craftsmen learned how to extract metals like iron, copper, tin, and lead from ores. They used fire and special tools to melt and combine metals, which involved real chemical changes like smelting and making alloys. Other industries like glassmaking and dyeing cloth also depended on chemistry. Workers learned how heat, minerals, and plants could change color or texture. Even though they did not fully understand why it worked, they gained skills and passed them on through guilds and workshops. This time in history helped keep old knowledge alive and slowly improved it, setting the stage for the science of chemistry to grow in the future.\nDuring the medieval period, the Islamic world became one of the most advanced places for chemical knowledge and learning. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Islamic Golden Age (from the 8th to the 14th century) saw a great effort to collect and build upon the science of earlier civilizations. Scholars in cities like Baghdad, Cairo, and Cordoba translated important books from Greek, Persian, and Indian languages into Arabic. But they did not just copy old ideas, they improved them. One famous scientist, Jabir ibn Hayyan (known in Europe as Geber), is often called the \u201cfather of Arab chemistry.\u201d He wrote hundreds of books describing different substances and how they reacted with each other. He also created new ways to study materials using experiments. Jabir worked with processes like distillation, crystallization, and calcination. He even helped design tools like alembics and retorts, which were used in early chemistry labs. Jabir tried to understand matter by observing its properties, like how easily it burns or changes. Even though his ideas were influenced by alchemy and religious beliefs, he took important steps toward using experiments to test ideas. His work also introduced many Arabic words for chemicals and tools that later became part of European chemistry. Other Islamic scholars, like Abu Bakr al-Razi (Rhazes) and Al-Tughra'i, continued to build on Jabir\u2019s work. Al-Razi was especially important in medicine. He made antiseptics, acids, and cures for different illnesses. He was also one of the first people to tell the difference between trying to turn metals into gold (a common alchemical goal) and doing useful science to understand how materials behave. These Islamic chemists helped create important tools and methods that were later shared with European scientists. Their books were translated into Latin in places like Sicily and Spain, allowing European scholars to learn from their experiments. This knowledge helped Europe begin its own journey toward modern chemistry.\nIn medieval Europe, alchemy was shaped by a mix of ancient ideas, Christian beliefs, and mystical thinking. European alchemists believed that changing metals was not just about science, it also had a spiritual meaning. For them, turning ordinary metals into gold was a symbol of purifying the soul and reaching a higher, more perfect state. One of their main goals was to create the Philosopher\u2019s stone, a magical substance they thought could change metals into gold and even give eternal life. Even though alchemy was full of spiritual ideas, it also led to real scientific progress. Important European alchemists like Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, and Raymond Lull helped connect mystical ideas with careful observation and early experiments. Roger Bacon, a monk, believed that learning through experiments was important and studied things like light and materials. Albertus Magnus wrote a lot about minerals and metals and helped organize what people knew about them. Raymond Lull used symbols to explain complex ideas, and some of his systems were later used to describe chemical reactions.\nDuring the Middle Ages, the translation of books played a big role in helping chemistry grow in Europe. As Europeans came into more contact with the Islamic world, through trade, the Crusades, and the reconquest of Spain, they discovered many scientific texts written in Arabic. These included both translations of ancient Greek writings and original works by Muslim scientists. Cities like Toledo in Spain and Palermo in Italy became important places where scholars translated Arabic texts into Latin. Thanks to this, the ideas of famous Islamic chemists like Jabir ibn Hayyan and Abu Bakr al-Razi became known across Europe. Their work helped inspire European scientists and planted the seeds for future experiments. At the same time, monasteries in Europe were important for keeping and sharing knowledge. Even though monks mainly focused on religion, they also worked on tasks that used chemical skills. For example, making fancy books called illuminated manuscripts required knowledge about how to make colorful inks from minerals and plants. Monks also brewed beer, made wine, preserved food, and prepared herbal medicines. These activities were based on chemical knowledge, even if the monks did not call it \u201cchemistry.\u201d Craft workers in cities also helped chemistry grow through hands-on work. People like blacksmiths, potters, glassmakers, tanners, dyers, and brewers learned how to change raw materials into useful things. They melted metals, made shiny glazes for pottery, created dyes from plants and bugs, and controlled how things fermented. These workers learned by doing, often as apprentices in guilds. Even though they were not scientists, they used chemistry in their everyday jobs and passed their knowledge down through generations.\nBy the late Middle Ages, as Europe moved into the early modern period, alchemy started to change. People were becoming less interested in trying to make gold or find ways to live forever, because those goals rarely worked. Instead, more people began to focus on real results. Things they could see, test, and use in everyday life. One important thinker during this time was Paracelsus, a doctor in the 1500s. He believed that alchemy should be used to help people, especially in medicine. He used minerals like mercury, arsenic, and antimony in treatments, substances that were usually feared. Paracelsus is famous for saying, \"The dose makes the poison,\" which means that even dangerous substances can be helpful if used in the right amount. This idea became an important rule in medicine and toxicology. Paracelsus also believed that people should learn about nature by observing and experimenting, not just by reading old books. He studied how chemicals reacted and how they affected the human body. This helped move chemistry away from mystical ideas and closer to real science. Another key figure was Andreas Libavius, a German doctor and chemist. He believed that knowledge should be shared clearly and openly. In 1597, he wrote Alchemia, one of the first chemistry textbooks. In it, he explained tools, techniques, and substances in a simple and organized way. This was very different from the secret codes and symbols used by older alchemists.\nThe Birth of Chemistry.\nThe birth of classical chemistry in the 1500s and 1600s was a big turning point. During this time, chemistry began to move away from the old mystical ideas of alchemy and become a more careful, scientific way of understanding the world. This change happened during the Scientific Revolution, a time when people started to focus more on observing nature, doing experiments, and thinking for themselves instead of just trusting old books and beliefs. Classical chemistry did not appear overnight. It grew slowly as scientists developed better ways to test ideas, improved their lab tools, and began to think differently about matter and how it changes. One important change was that scientists started to question the old idea that everything was made of four or five elements, like earth, water, fire, and air. Instead, they looked more closely at how substances were made and how they reacted in real-life experiments. This new way of thinking helped turn chemistry into a true science, based on facts, testing, and clear thinking.\nRobert Boyle was an important figure in the history of chemistry. His book The Sceptical Chymist, published in 1661, is often seen as the moment when chemistry started to move away from old alchemical ideas and become a true science. He challenged long-held beliefs about what matter is made of and how it changes. At the time, many people still believed in the old idea that everything was made of four elements: earth, air, fire, and water. Boyle disagreed. Instead, he suggested that all matter is made of tiny particles, which he called \"corpuscles.\" These particles could combine in different ways to form all the materials in the world. This idea was an early step toward what we now call atomic theory. One of Boyle\u2019s biggest contributions was his new definition of a chemical element. He said an element is a substance that cannot be broken down into anything simpler by chemical methods. Even though he did not know about all the elements we recognize today, his definition helped future scientists, like Antoine Lavoisier, build a better system for understanding them. Boyle was also a strong supporter of careful, repeatable experiments. He believed scientists should write down exactly what they did and what happened, so others could try the same experiments and check the results. This idea of clear, honest reporting is a key part of how science works today. Unlike many alchemists who kept their findings secret, Boyle wanted to share knowledge. He helped start the Royal Society of London, a group that encouraged scientists to share ideas and discoveries openly.\nDuring the 1500s and 1600s, as chemistry was changing, the tools and techniques used in the laboratory improved a lot. Old alchemical tools like retorts, alembics, crucibles, and furnaces were still used, but they were made better. A retort was often made of glass and metal. It was used to heat liquids and collect their vapors, and helped scientists separate parts of a mixture by heating it. An alembic was another tool that helped separate and cool down gases, turning them back into liquids. Over time, alembics were made with better seals and more consistent shapes so they worked better and gave more reliable results. Crucibles were small containers used to heat materials to very high temperatures. They were often made from strong ceramics that could handle the heat and be used many times, which was especially important when working with metals and minerals. Many chemical processes were also becoming clearer and more organized. For example, distillation was used to purify substances like alcohol or perfumes. Filtration was used to separate solid bits from liquids using cloth, paper, or fine mesh. Precipitation meant making a solid appear out of a liquid by mixing certain chemicals, useful for finding out how different substances react. Crystallization helped scientists purify salts and study the shapes of crystals. Glassmaking became very important too. In places like Venice and other parts of Europe, people learned to make clear, heat-resistant glass. This allowed scientists to see what was happening inside their experiments. Tools like flasks, beakers, funnels, test tubes, and condensers became more uniform, meaning they looked and worked the same in different labs. This made it easier for scientists to copy each other\u2019s work and learn together. New measuring tools also made a big difference. Scientists started using balances (scales) that were more sensitive, which helped them measure materials more accurately. This led to the early idea that the total amount of matter stays the same during a reaction, a key idea in modern chemistry. Thermometers, improved by people like Galileo, let scientists track temperature changes during experiments. With better tools and more exact methods, chemistry became less about guessing and more about testing, recording, and sharing results.\nIn the world of medicine, a new idea called iatrochemistry began to change how people thought about health and healing. Iatrochemistry combined chemistry with medicine and was based on the bold ideas of a scientist named Paracelsus. At the time, most doctors believed in humoral theory, which said sickness came from imbalances in body fluids. But Paracelsus disagreed. He believed that diseases came from outside the body or from chemical problems inside it, and that they should be treated with chemical medicines, not just herbs or bloodletting. Paracelsus introduced the idea of using minerals and man-made substances to treat illnesses. This opened the door to pharmacology, the science of making and testing medicines. By the 1600s, doctors and chemists started working together more closely. They tested materials like antimony, mercury, arsenic, and different salts and tinctures to see if they could cure diseases. Some of these early treatments were harmful or did not work well, but the process of testing, observing, and improving them helped medicine become more scientific. Apothecaries and early pharmacy labs became important places where these treatments were studied and made. At the same time, growing industries in Europe helped chemistry move forward in other ways. As people needed more metals, dyes, ceramics, textiles, and glass, workers had to learn more about how materials changed and reacted. For example, mining and metalwork required people to understand how to find and melt metal ores, how to mix metals into alloys, and how to deal with waste. These jobs needed a good understanding of heat and chemical reactions, so chemists began studying materials more carefully. In the textile and dye industries, creating bright, long-lasting colors for fabrics took a lot of experimenting. Workers used substances like alum, indigo, madder, and cochineal (a red dye made from insects) and had to figure out how to make the colors stick to the cloth. Glassmakers and potters also used chemistry to improve their crafts. They learned to mix silica, soda, and lime in just the right amounts to make clear or colorful glass. By adding small amounts of metals like cobalt for blue, copper for green, or gold for red, they could make beautiful glassware. In trying to copy Chinese porcelain, European makers studied how clays and glazes behaved when heated in kilns, leading to more discoveries in chemistry.\nOne of the most important changes in science during the 1600s was the creation of scientific societies. These were groups where scientists could meet, share their work, and learn from each other. One of the first and most famous of these groups was the Royal Society of London, founded in 1660. It brought together people like doctors, inventors, and scientists who were all interested in studying nature in a careful, organized way. The Royal Society had a special motto: \"Nullius in verba,\" which means \"take nobody\u2019s word for it.\" This meant they believed in evidence and experiments, not just trusting old books or famous people. Scientists had to prove their ideas through testing and clear results. This approach was a big step forward in turning chemistry into a serious science. Similar groups started in other countries too. In France, the Acad\u00e9mie des Sciences was created in 1666. These societies gave chemistry a new home in public places where experiments could be watched, repeated, and discussed by others. Scientists now had places to show their work, get feedback, and improve their ideas based on what others had done. Another big change was the rise of scientific journals. These were like magazines for scientists to publish their discoveries. The Royal Society started one of the first, called Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, in 1665. It helped chemists share their methods, tools, and results with other scientists across Europe. This helped science move faster because others could repeat experiments, test new ideas, or improve old ones. Books like Physica Subterranea by Johann Joachim Becher and writings by Georg Ernst Stahl (who supported the phlogiston theory) showed how print helped scientists share and debate their ideas, even when they did not agree. In addition to books and journals, letters were very important. Scientists like Robert Boyle, Antoine Lavoisier, Isaac Newton, and Robert Hooke often wrote to each other, sharing drawings, experiments, and new ideas. These letters helped build an international community of scientists, even before the internet or telephones existed. At first, chemistry was not seen as important as math or physics. Some people thought it was too close to the strange ideas of alchemy. But chemistry began to earn respect because it was useful and connected to the Age of Enlightenment, a time when people believed in reason, progress, and discovery. Slowly, universities began teaching chemistry, and students got to learn in real labs, not just from books. This helped turn chemistry into a respected professional science, just like it is today.\nThe Chemical Revolution.\nAt the start of the 18th century, chemistry still relied on old ideas from alchemy and natural philosophy. One of the most famous ideas was the phlogiston theory, first created by Johann Joachim Becher and later improved by Georg Ernst Stahl. This theory said that all things that could burn had a special substance called phlogiston inside them. Phlogiston was thought to be invisible and weightless, and was released when something burned. According to the phlogiston theory, when a material burned or when metal rusted, it was losing phlogiston into the air. For example, when wood turned into ash or iron became rust, people believed the phlogiston left the material, and what was left behind was called \u201cdephlogisticated.\u201d This idea also tried to explain other things, like how animals breathe, thinking that breathing was the slow release of phlogiston from the body. The phlogiston theory seemed to explain many observations about fire and burning, so it became very popular in European chemistry for many years. However, no one could ever find or measure phlogiston directly. Scientists could not isolate it or prove it was real. Sometimes they had to change the idea to fit what they saw. For example, when metals actually gained weight after burning, they said phlogiston had \"negative weight,\" which did not make sense.\nOne of the biggest changes in 18th-century chemistry was the rise of pneumatic chemistry, which is the study of gases and their properties. Chemists like Stephen Hales helped start pneumatic chemistry by inventing special tools to catch and measure gases. He used a method to collect gases over water, which let scientists isolate different kinds of \u201cairs\u201d (what people called gases back then). This was a big deal because it gave chemists a way to study gases carefully and learn how they acted. Building on this work, Joseph Black made an important discovery with a gas called carbon dioxide, which he called \u201cfixed air.\u201d Black showed that fixed air was different from normal air. He found that this gas could put out flames and that it reacted with limewater to make a solid. These tests proved that fixed air had its own special chemical properties. Black\u2019s discovery showed that air was not just one thing but a mix of different gases.\nThe study of gases led to many important discoveries. Henry Cavendish found hydrogen, which he called \u201cinflammable air\u201d because it burned easily with a pale blue flame. Cavendish also showed that when hydrogen burns, it combines with oxygen to make water. This was a big surprise because people used to think water was a basic element. Cavendish proved that water is actually made of two gases, which changed how scientists understood chemistry. At the same time, two chemists, Joseph Priestley and Carl Wilhelm Scheele, both discovered oxygen. They found this gas independently, but Priestley was the first to publish his results. He called it \u201cdephlogisticated air\u201d because he believed in the phlogiston theory, thinking oxygen was air that had lost something called phlogiston. Scheele probably found oxygen first but published later. He described oxygen\u2019s strong ability to help things burn and support breathing, though he also still believed in the old phlogiston ideas. Even though their ideas about phlogiston were wrong, these discoveries of oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide changed chemistry forever. These findings helped lead to the end of the phlogiston theory and the start of modern chemistry.\nEven though scientists had made big discoveries about gases and started to question the phlogiston theory, it was a French chemist named Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier who finally proved the theory wrong and helped create modern chemistry. Lavoisier showed that burning and breathing were not about releasing an invisible substance called phlogiston. Instead, these were chemical reactions where things combined with oxygen, which is a part of air. Lavoisier did careful experiments where he weighed things before and after chemical reactions. He found out that the total weight stayed the same, even though the substances changed. This idea is called the conservation of mass, meaning matter cannot be made or destroyed, only changed into something new. This was a brand-new way of thinking that went against the old phlogiston ideas.\nBesides his important experiments, Lavoisier knew it was necessary to have a clear and simple way to name chemicals. Before his work, chemical names were confusing because the same substance could have different names in different places. In 1787, Lavoisier and his helpers, like Berthollet and Guyton de Morveau, created a system to name chemicals based on what they were made of and their properties. This made it easier for scientists to talk and work together. In 1789, Lavoisier published a famous book called Trait\u00e9 \u00c9l\u00e9mentaire de Chimie. This book is considered the first modern chemistry textbook. In it, he clearly explained what chemical elements are, substances that cannot be broken down into simpler parts by chemical means. He also listed many elements known at the time, such as oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and some metals. This helped create the idea of elements that chemists still use today. Lavoisier\u2019s work also led to a new way of studying chemistry called stoichiometry. This means understanding the exact amounts of substances used and produced in chemical reactions. He introduced balanced chemical equations that showed these reactions in symbols and numbers. Because of this, chemistry became a science based on measurements and math, making it easier to predict and repeat experiments.\nThe Rise of Modern Chemistry.\nIn the 19th century, a big change in chemistry was the development of atomic theory by John Dalton, an English teacher and chemist. In 1803, Dalton said that everything is made of tiny, invisible particles called atoms. Each element is made of its own kind of atom, and each kind has a specific weight. Dalton\u2019s idea was based on careful observations and experiments. He also explained that atoms combine in simple, whole-number amounts to form compounds. This helped explain why compounds always have the same kinds of atoms in the same amounts. For example, carbon and oxygen make two different compounds: carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO\u2082). In these compounds, the amount of oxygen compared to carbon is always in simple ratios like 1 to 2. Dalton\u2019s work supported the idea that matter is made of small, separate particles. He even made one of the first lists of atomic weights, comparing everything to the weight of hydrogen atoms. Dalton also used special symbols to stand for atoms and molecules, which later became the chemical symbols we use today.\nIn the 19th century, there was a big change in how scientists understood organic chemistry. For a long time, people believed in something called vitalism. This was the idea that organic compounds, chemicals found in living things, could only be made by living organisms because of a special \"vital force.\" They thought these compounds could not be made in a lab. But in 1828, a German chemist named Friedrich W\u00f6hler did an important experiment that changed everything. He heated a simple chemical called ammonium cyanate, which is inorganic (not made by living things), and it turned into urea, a compound found in the urine of living organisms. This showed that organic compounds could be made in the lab without any living organism involved. W\u00f6hler\u2019s discovery opened the door for scientists to study and create many more organic compounds. Chemists started working with a wide range of carbon-based substances like alcohols, acids, dyes, and medicines. One important result of W\u00f6hler\u2019s work was a new focus on chemical structure. Scientists discovered that certain groups of atoms, called functional groups, determine how molecules behave. Chemists like Justus von Liebig and August Kekul\u00e9 helped develop ideas about how atoms bond together in molecules. Kekul\u00e9, for example, suggested the famous ring shape of the benzene molecule in 1865.\nIn the 1800s, one of the biggest breakthroughs in chemistry came from a Russian scientist named Dmitri Mendeleev. In 1869, Mendeleev created the periodic table which completely changed how scientists understood the building blocks of matter. At that time, about 63 elements were known, but they seemed like a random list with no clear pattern. Mendeleev had a smart idea. He arranged the elements in rows and columns based on their atomic weights and how they reacted chemically. When he did this, he noticed a repeating pattern in their properties. He called this the \u201cperiodic law\u201d. What made his table special was that he left blank spaces where he thought unknown elements would one day fit. He even predicted what these missing elements would be like, what their atomic weights would be and how they would behave. Later, scientists discovered elements like germanium, scandium, and gallium, and they turned out to be almost exactly as Mendeleev had predicted.\nIn the 1800s, chemistry made big leaps forward, especially in the areas of analysis and energy. One of the most exciting new tools was spectroscopy, which was developed in the 1850s by two scientists named Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff. They discovered that when elements are heated or excited, they give off light in unique patterns, like fingerprints. These patterns, called spectral lines, helped scientists identify which elements were present in a substance just by looking at the light it gave off. Using this new technique, Bunsen and Kirchhoff found two new elements, cesium in 1860 and rubidium in 1861, by their special spectral lines. Spectroscopy did not just help on Earth; it also helped scientists study stars. By looking at the light from stars, they could figure out what elements the stars were made of, even from millions of miles away. Spectroscopy started helping astronomers in the early 1800s. Scientists noticed that when sunlight passed through a special glass called a prism, it created a rainbow of colors, but with some dark lines missing. In 1802, W. H. Wollaston saw these dark lines, and in 1815, Joseph von Fraunhofer studied them more closely. These dark lines were called absorption lines, and they were very important. They showed that certain colors of light were being absorbed by gases in the Sun\u2019s outer layers. This gave scientists their first clues about what the Sun was made of. Later, the same method helped astronomers figure out the chemical makeup of other stars, too. At the same time, chemists were also learning more about how energy works in chemical reactions. A scientist named Germain Hess came up with Hess\u2019s Law, which says that the total energy change in a chemical reaction is the same, no matter how many steps it takes. Later, James Prescott Joule made another big discovery. He showed that heat and mechanical energy (like moving parts) are really just different forms of the same thing. His famous experiment with a paddle wheel helped prove this. These ideas became part of the first law of thermodynamics, which says that energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only change form.\nThe Industrial Revolution in the 1800s brought big changes to the world, and chemistry played a major role in making that happen. One of the biggest breakthroughs was in steelmaking. In the 1850s, Henry Bessemer invented a process to turn melted iron into strong steel by blowing air through it to remove unwanted materials. This Bessemer process made steel much cheaper and easier to produce. As a result, steel was used to build railroads, ships, bridges, and buildings all over the world. At the same time, chemistry helped create synthetic dyes. In 1856, a young chemist named William Henry Perkin was trying to make medicine but accidentally created a bright purple dye called mauveine. This dye was the first of its kind and made colorful clothing affordable for many people. Perkin\u2019s discovery started a new industry, and soon many companies were making different kinds of synthetic dyes for clothes and fabrics. Explosives were another area where chemistry made a big impact. Chemists like Ascanio Sobrero and Alfred Nobel developed powerful materials such as nitroglycerin and dynamite. These explosives were used in mining, building tunnels, and even in war. Nobel\u2019s inventions made blasting safer and more effective. He later created the Nobel Prizes to honor great achievements in science and other fields. Chemistry also helped farmers by improving fertilizers. Scientists like Justus von Liebig discovered that plants need certain minerals to grow well. This led to the creation of artificial fertilizers like superphosphates and ammonium salts, which helped crops grow faster and better. These fertilizers supported a growing population and helped feed more people. Finally, chemistry changed medicine. Scientists learned how to take useful chemicals from plants and make them in labs. Important medicines like aspirin, morphine, and quinine were produced in large amounts, making them more available to people around the world. This helped save lives and treat diseases more effectively.\nDuring the 1800s, chemistry became a more organized and respected science. One of the biggest changes was that chemistry started to be taught seriously at universities. Before this time, most science was done by individuals working on their own. But now, schools in Europe and North America began to understand that experimental science, like chemistry, could help improve society and make countries stronger. Chemistry got its own professors (called university chairs) and special laboratories where students could learn both ideas and hands-on experiments. One of the most famous schools for this was the University of Giessen in Germany, where Justus von Liebig started a chemistry lab in the 1820s. His lab became a model for others around the world. Liebig believed students should learn by doing research and experiments, not just by listening to lectures. Many important chemists were trained there, and the idea of the \"chemical laboratory\" became common in schools. Outside of schools, scientific societies also helped chemistry grow. In 1841, the Chemical Society of London was founded. It gave chemists a place to share their work, honor great discoveries, and influence government decisions. Similar groups formed in other countries, like the Deutsche Chemische Gesellschaft in Germany. These groups helped chemists stay connected and work together. Another important part of this time was the rise of science journals. Chemists needed a way to share their discoveries with others. In 1832, Liebig started a journal called Liebigs Annalen der Chemie, where chemists could publish their findings. It was carefully reviewed by other scientists, which helped make the information trustworthy. As more journals were created, new discoveries spread faster and helped science move forward. As chemistry became more organized, it also became more of a professional career. Chemists were no longer just curious hobbyists or workers in factories, they were seen as trained professionals with special skills. Companies started building their own industrial labs and hiring chemists to help make products like medicine, fabric dyes, and metals. This helped turn chemistry into an important part of both science and industry.\n20th Century Chemistry.\nIn the 20th century, chemistry changed a lot because scientists made important discoveries about atoms and even smaller parts inside them. Before, people thought atoms were the smallest pieces of matter and could not be broken down. But in 1897, J.J. Thomson discovered the electron, a tiny negatively charged particle inside the atom. This showed that atoms were made of smaller parts. Thomson created the \u201cplum pudding\u201d model, imagining electrons like little raisins stuck inside a positively charged pudding. Not long after, in 1911, Ernest Rutherford did the famous gold foil experiment. He found out that the atom is not like a pudding but has a tiny, dense, positively charged center called the nucleus, with electrons moving around it mostly through empty space. In 1913, Niels Bohr improved this idea. He said electrons move in specific paths or shells around the nucleus. They can jump between these shells by gaining or losing energy. This idea helped explain why atoms give off certain colors of light, called spectral lines. However, Bohr\u2019s model did not work well for bigger atoms, so scientists kept exploring. In the 1920s and 1930s, a new field called quantum mechanics was created. Erwin Schr\u00f6dinger suggested that electrons behave like waves, and their positions can only be described by probabilities, not exact locations. Werner Heisenberg added that we cannot know both an electron\u2019s exact position and speed at the same time. This is called the Uncertainty Principle. These ideas came together into the modern quantum mechanical model of the atom, which is the foundation of chemistry today. It helps explain not only how atoms look and behave but also why elements are arranged in the periodic table, how atoms stick together in chemical bonds, and the shapes of molecules.\nIn 1913, Henry Moseley used X-rays to study atoms and discovered that an element\u2019s place in the periodic table should be based on its atomic number (the number of protons in its nucleus), not its atomic weight. This helped fix problems in the old version of the table and made it more accurate. Moseley\u2019s work also helped scientists find missing elements by spotting gaps in the sequence of atomic numbers. At the same time, scientists were learning about radioactivity. In 1896, Henri Becquerel discovered that uranium could give off invisible rays without any outside energy. Later, Marie and Pierre Curie studied this further and discovered new radioactive elements like polonium and radium. These elements gave off energy because their atoms were unstable and could break down on their own. This showed that atoms were not unchangeable after all. These discoveries led to a new field called nuclear chemistry, which focuses on the reactions that happen in an atom\u2019s nucleus. In the 1930s, scientists like Otto Hahn, Fritz Strassmann, Lise Meitner, and Otto Frisch discovered nuclear fission, a process where atoms like uranium split into smaller parts and release a huge amount of energy. This discovery had a huge impact. During World War II, the U.S. used nuclear fission to build the atomic bomb in a secret project called the Manhattan Project. These bombs caused massive destruction and changed the world forever. After the war, people also began using nuclear fission to make electricity in nuclear power plants. Later, scientists studied nuclear fusion, the reaction that powers the sun. Fusion could give us cleaner and safer energy, but we are still working on how to control it on Earth.\nAnother important breakthrough in 20th-century chemistry was the rise of physical chemistry. Physical chemistry used the principles of physics to understand matter. In the United States, an early supporter of this field was Ira Remsen, who helped improve science education by promoting hands-on experiments in chemistry classes. This helped train a new generation of scientists who were both skilled and curious. One of the most important figures in physical chemistry was Gilbert N. Lewis. He came up with the idea that atoms bond by sharing pairs of electrons. He also created the Lewis dot structure, a simple way to show how atoms are connected. His work helped people understand things like covalent bonds (where atoms share electrons), acids and bases, and chemical energy. Later, in the 1930s, Linus Pauling took these ideas even further by using quantum mechanics to explain chemical bonds. He introduced the concept of hybridization, which helped explain the shapes of molecules, like the four-cornered tetrahedral shape of methane. Pauling also created the electronegativity scale, which shows how strongly atoms attract electrons when they bond. Pauling\u2019s impact went beyond theory. He was also a leader in using tools like X-ray crystallography and spectroscopy to figure out the exact 3D shapes of molecules. These tools became especially important in biochemistry. Pauling used them to study proteins and discovered their basic structures, such as the alpha helix and beta sheet. His work helped start the field of structural biology, which looks at how the shape of a molecule affects what it does in the body.\nIn the 20th century, organic chemistry, grew very quickly and made a huge impact on the world. One of the biggest changes was that chemists invented new ways to build complicated molecules with great care and precision. These new methods, like the Grignard reaction or Wittig reaction, gave scientists powerful tools to create all kinds of useful chemicals, including medicines and materials. One important part of this progress was the rise of polymer chemistry, which led to the invention of new materials called plastics. In 1935, a chemist named Wallace Carothers at DuPont created nylon, the first completely man-made fiber. This showed that large, chain-like molecules (called polymers) could be designed to have special properties, like strength or flexibility. After nylon, scientists quickly made other important materials, such as polyethylene, polystyrene, PVC (polyvinyl chloride), Teflon, and polyester. These plastics changed everyday life. They were used in packaging, clothing, cars, buildings, and much more. At the same time, pharmaceutical chemistry, the science of making medicines, grew rapidly. In the early 1900s, chemists had already made useful drugs like aspirin and barbiturates, but the discovery of penicillin in 1928 by Alexander Fleming changed medicine forever. Penicillin could fight deadly bacterial infections, and its mass production helped save countless lives, especially during World War II. After that came sulfa drugs, the first widely used antibiotics, which helped treat many infections even before penicillin was common. Later in the century, scientists made even more important medicines, including antiviral drugs for diseases like HIV/AIDS, chemotherapy drugs to treat cancer, and medications for mental health and brain disorders. New advancements in stereochemistry and chiral synthesis made medicines safer and more effective. In the final decades of the century, techniques like combinatorial chemistry, high-speed drug testing, and computer-aided drug design helped scientists discover new medicines much faster.\nIn the middle of the 20th century, chemistry began to focus more on understanding the molecules that make up living things. One of the most important discoveries during this time was the structure of DNA, made by James Watson and Francis Crick in 1953. They used X-ray images taken by Rosalind Franklin and base-pairing rules discovered by Erwin Chargaff to figure out that DNA is shaped like a double helix, two strands twisted around each other. These strands are held together by base pairs. Adenine pairs with thymine, and guanine pairs with cytosine. This discovery helped connect chemistry with biology and gave rise to a new field called biochemistry, which studies how chemicals work inside living things. Scientists began to study important molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids in more detail. They used special tools like X-ray crystallography, NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance), and mass spectrometry to see the shapes and structures of these molecules. Researchers also started to understand how enzymes speed up chemical reactions in the body, how cells communicate, and how metabolism works to give us energy. This new knowledge helped create another field called molecular biology, which focuses on how genes work and how cells use DNA to make proteins. In the 1970s, scientists developed ways to cut and paste DNA, creating a powerful technique called recombinant DNA technology. This let them move genes from one organism to another, helping launch the field of genetic engineering. Later, in the 21st century, scientists created an even more precise gene-editing tool called CRISPR-Cas9, which allows for direct changes to DNA. These discoveries changed many areas of life. In medicine, they led to new drugs, gene therapies, and personalized treatments based on a person\u2019s DNA. In farming, they helped create genetically modified organisms (GMOs) that grow better and resist pests. In science, they gave researchers powerful tools to explore how life works, including how we inherit traits and how species evolve.\nIn the 20th century, analytical chemistry changed a lot because of new and powerful tools that helped scientists study chemicals more carefully and accurately. Before this time, scientists mostly used older methods called \"wet chemistry,\" which involved mixing chemicals, making them change color, or forming solids to find out what was in a sample. These methods worked okay but were not precise enough for the harder problems chemists faced in fields like organic chemistry, biochemistry, and materials science. One big step forward was the invention of the mass spectrometer. This tool measures the mass and charge of tiny particles called ions. Scientists like Francis Aston and Arthur Jeffrey Dempster helped improve mass spectrometry, which became super useful for finding out the weights of molecules, discovering different forms of atoms (isotopes), and identifying unknown chemicals. Mass spectrometry is so sensitive it can detect even tiny amounts of substances, down to billionths or trillionths of a gram. Another important tool was nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, first shown in the 1940s and widely used by the 1950s and 1960s. NMR lets chemists study the magnetic properties of atoms like hydrogen and carbon in molecules. This helps them understand the exact structure of molecules, how atoms bond, and how molecules move around in liquids. Later, more advanced versions of NMR allowed even deeper study of complex molecules, especially in drug research and organic chemistry. X-ray crystallography also became very important during the 20th century. This technique uses X-rays to find the three-dimensional shapes of molecules with amazing detail. At first, it was used on simple crystals, but later scientists could use it to study big molecules like vitamins, hormones, and proteins. For example, Rosalind Franklin\u2019s X-ray images helped explain the famous double-helix structure of DNA. Over time, X-ray crystallography helped scientists learn about many complicated biological molecules, which is very important for understanding how our bodies work and for making new medicines. Other helpful tools include infrared spectroscopy, which helps identify parts of molecules by measuring vibrations, and ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectrophotometry, which helps chemists watch chemical reactions and study certain types of molecules. Together, these instruments made it possible for chemists to study chemicals in ways they never could before, speeding up discoveries and helping create new materials, medicines, and technologies.\nBy the late 20th century, the chemical industry got much bigger, including not only old areas like medicine and dyes but also new ones like petrochemicals (chemicals made from oil), agrochemicals (chemicals for farming), and advanced materials. One big change came from petrochemistry. Scientists learned how to turn crude oil into many useful chemicals. These chemicals were then used to make plastics, synthetic rubber, and solvents. These new materials changed everyday things like packaging, buildings, cars, and many other products. Another very important invention was the Haber process (also called the Haber-Bosch process). It was developed in the early 1900s by Fritz Haber and later made into a big industrial method by Carl Bosch. This process uses high pressure, high temperature, and a special iron catalyst to turn nitrogen gas from the air and hydrogen gas into ammonia (NH\u2083). Ammonia is a key ingredient in nitrogen fertilizers. The Haber process had a huge impact on farming. It allowed factories to make nitrogen fertilizers in large amounts, which helped farmers grow much more food. This helped feed the rapidly growing world population and played a big role in the Green Revolution, a time when farming became much more productive. Today, more than half of the people on Earth depend on food grown with fertilizers made using the Haber process. Without it, natural soil would not have enough nitrogen to grow enough food for everyone.\nIn the field of energy, chemists made big progress in creating new ways to produce cleaner and better power, so people would not have to rely so much on fossil fuels like oil and coal. One important invention was the fuel cell, which changes chemical energy directly into electricity using reactions between hydrogen and oxygen. Although the idea of fuel cells started way back in 1839 with Sir William Grove, it was not until the mid-1900s that fuel cells became practical. In the 1960s, companies like General Electric built hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells to power NASA\u2019s spacecraft because they were reliable and clean. Later, in the 1990s and 2000s, fuel cells became important for clean energy cars and power stations. Chemists worked on making better catalysts, materials like platinum, that helped fuel cells work faster and last longer. At the same time, batteries got much better thanks to advances in chemistry and materials science. Early batteries, such as the lead-acid battery invented in 1859, were heavy and did not store much energy. Nickel-cadmium batteries, made in the early 1900s, could be recharged but had problems like toxicity and losing capacity over time. A big breakthrough happened in the 1980s when John B. Goodenough and his team created the lithium cobalt oxide cathode, which led to the lithium-ion battery. Sony started selling these batteries in 1991. Lithium-ion batteries are lightweight and hold a lot of energy, which changed portable devices like laptops and smartphones. They also helped make electric cars better, allowing them to travel longer distances and pushing more people toward cleaner transportation. Chemists also played a big role in solar energy by improving solar panels that turn sunlight directly into electricity. The first practical silicon solar cell was made in 1954 by Bell Labs scientists Daryl Chapin, Calvin Fuller, and Gerald Pearson. This showed that solar energy could work well, although it was expensive at first. Over the years, chemists and materials scientists worked on making solar cells cheaper and more efficient by improving the materials inside them.\nBeyond energy, materials science helped create many important inventions in fields like electronics, space travel, and computers. One big discovery was semiconductors, like silicon and germanium. These materials made it possible to invent the transistor in 1947 at Bell Labs by scientists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley. Transistors replaced bulky vacuum tubes and made electronic devices smaller, faster, and more reliable. This invention became the building block for modern computers, phones, and other technology. In the 1980s, scientists Georg Bednorz and K. Alex M\u00fcller discovered high-temperature superconductors. These materials are used in powerful magnets for MRI machines and particle accelerators and could someday help build more efficient power systems. Chemists also worked on composite materials, which are made by combining two or more substances to make something stronger or better. For example, carbon fiber reinforced plastics and advanced ceramics are light but very strong and can resist heat and corrosion. These materials are used to build airplanes that use less fuel, safer and lighter cars, and even parts for rockets and spacecraft.\nEven though the 20th century brought amazing discoveries in chemistry, it also caused serious problems for people and the planet. One major wake-up call came in 1962, when scientist and writer Rachel Carson published a book called Silent Spring. In it, she warned about the dangers of using pesticides like DDT without understanding the harm they could do. These chemicals were killing birds, harming wildlife, and even making people sick. Her book helped spark the environmental movement, leading to the banning of DDT in many countries and the creation of environmental protection laws and agencies. But that was not the only concern. Chemistry was also used in ways that hurt people, especially during wars. In World War I, mustard gas was used as a weapon. In the Vietnam War, chemicals like Agent Orange were sprayed to destroy forests, but they also harmed soldiers and civilians. These tragedies led to international agreements like the Chemical Weapons Convention in 1993, which aimed to stop countries from using chemistry to make weapons. Factories also caused pollution by releasing toxic chemicals into the air, water, and soil. This included things like heavy metals, greenhouse gases, and chlorinated hydrocarbons. Problems like acid rain, holes in the ozone layer from CFCs, and huge amounts of plastic waste showed that chemical innovation could have long-term effects on the Earth. These issues taught scientists and leaders that chemistry should be used more responsibly to protect both people and the environment.\n21st Century Chemistry.\nChemistry in the 21st century has continued to grow and improve in exciting ways. One of the biggest changes is the use of computers to model and predict chemical reactions. This area is called computational chemistry. It lets scientists create virtual experiments and watch how atoms and molecules behave without needing to do everything in a real lab. This saves time, money, and materials. A special method called Density Functional Theory (DFT) helps chemists understand how molecules are built, how they react, and how much energy they need. In the past, these tools could only handle small, simple molecules, but now they can work with much larger and more realistic ones. This is very useful in designing new medicines, materials, and catalysts. In 2013, three scientists, Martin Karplus, Michael Levitt, and Arieh Warshel, won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work in combining different types of modeling. They found a way to blend quantum mechanics with classical physics to study big, complex systems like enzymes. Another exciting development is called ultrafast laser spectroscopy. This technique uses femtosecond laser pulses (that is one quadrillionth of a second) to take snapshots of chemical reactions as they happen. It is like watching atoms and molecules moving, bonding, and changing in real time. This helps scientists better understand what is happening during reactions, including how bonds break, electrons move, and energy flows.\nScientists now use amazing tools like atomic force microscopes (AFM), scanning tunneling microscopes (STM), and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) to look at atoms and molecules on surfaces. These tools are very important for creating things like better catalysts, tiny sensors, and nanomaterials that help clean up pollution. Scientists can also use special tools like optical tweezers to measure the forces on just one molecule at a time. Another field is nanochemistry. Chemists work with materials that are only a few nanometers wide. These materials, like quantum dots and nanoparticles, have special properties that can be used in solar panels, tiny computer chips, and targeted drug delivery that helps treat diseases more precisely. Scientists are designing better batteries, fuel cells, and machines that split water into hydrogen and oxygen, which could help us use clean energy. In biophysical chemistry, scientists combine chemistry with biology and computer science. They study how proteins fold, how enzymes work, and how cell membranes behave. Tools like cryogenic electron microscopes (cryo-EM) and NMR machines help them see the shapes of molecules, which is very helpful in fighting diseases and creating new medicines.\nIn the 21st century, analytical chemistry has become much more advanced and important in many areas of science and everyday life. One big improvement has been in mass spectrometry (MS), a tool that helps scientists figure out what different chemicals are and how much of each is present. In the past, MS was mostly used for small molecules. Today, it can study large molecules, complicated mixtures, and even single cells. Modern versions, like tandem mass spectrometry (MS/MS) and high-resolution machines such as time-of-flight (TOF) and orbitrap analyzers, are incredibly sensitive. They can detect tiny amounts of a substance, as little as one part in a trillion. These tools are used in areas like medicine, drug testing, studying proteins and cells, and checking for pollution in the environment. Another big part of analytical chemistry is chromatography, which helps separate mixtures. The most common types are gas chromatography (GC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), and the newer ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC). UPLC, developed in the early 2000s, works faster and gives clearer results than older methods. Often, chromatography is combined with mass spectrometry to make hyphenated techniques like LC-MS/MS or GC-MS. These powerful tools can separate and identify thousands of substances in just one experiment, which is very useful in things like medical testing, making new medicines, and checking food safety. A big trend in the 21st century is making scientific tools smaller and more portable. This is called miniaturization. One exciting result of this is the creation of lab-on-a-chip and microfluidic devices. These tiny tools can do complex chemical tests on a small chip, using only tiny drops of liquid. Because they are small and easy to carry, these devices can be used outside of a regular lab, like at a patient\u2019s bedside, in the field, or in places with few resources. They can give fast results, which is very helpful in emergencies or remote areas. These tools are used for many things, such as checking blood sugar for people with diabetes, testing for diseases, like COVID-19 or the flu, finding toxins in water or the environment, and analyzing drugs in crime investigations.\nToday, analytical chemistry works closely with data science. Modern science tools create huge amounts of data, and chemists need better computer programs to help understand it all. They use things like statistics, machine learning, and pattern recognition to find useful information in the data. This helps chemists in detecting pollution in the air, water, or soil, even at tiny amounts (less than one part per billion). It also helps them find illegal drugs or chemicals in crime scenes. It also helps in tracking new pollutants like microplastics and PFAS, which used to be hard to measure. Using special tools like ICP-MS, chemists can find heavy metals (like lead or mercury) in people or the environment In medicine, analytical chemistry helps create and test new medicines. Chemists make sure drugs are pure, safe, and work the way they should. They also check that medicines stay good over time. Groups like the FDA (Food and Drug Administration) and EMA (European Medicines Agency) use these tests to decide if a medicine can be sold.\nBiochemistry in the 21st century has grown really fast. One of the biggest achievements was the Human Genome Project, finished in 2003. Scientists were able to read the entire DNA sequence of humans for the first time. This helped researchers learn more about how genes work. How they are turned on and off, and how they make proteins. Scientists have also sequenced the DNA of many other living things, like tiny bacteria, helpful plants like Arabidopsis, and fruit flies. This helped them compare genes across species and better understand how life evolved and functions. One of the most powerful tools in today\u2019s biochemistry is called CRISPR-Cas9. Discovered in 2012 by Emmanuelle Charpentier and Jennifer Doudna, CRISPR lets scientists edit DNA quickly and accurately. It has changed the way we do genetic engineering. With CRISPR, we could fix genetic diseases, improve crops, and study what different genes do in living things Another important area is proteomics, the study of proteins. Using mass spectrometry, scientists can now identify thousands of proteins in a sample and study how they are changed or interact with each other. This helps us understand how cells work on a very detailed level. Tools like cryogenic electron microscopes (cryo-EM) allow scientists to actually see large molecules and protein machines in 3D, almost down to the atom. This technology was so important that it won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2017.\nOne important area is called metabolomics, which is the study of tiny molecules (called metabolites) in cells and tissues. These molecules help us see what's really happening inside living things. Scientists now combine information from genomics (DNA), transcriptomics (RNA), proteomics (proteins), and metabolomics to get a complete picture of how cells work. This big-picture approach is called systems biology. It helps scientists understand complex diseases like cancer, diabetes, and Alzheimer\u2019s by looking at how everything in a cell connects and works together. Biochemistry also helps in drug discovery and personalized medicine. Using computer modeling and new tools, scientists can design medicines that match a person\u2019s specific needs. A field called pharmacogenomics studies how people\u2019s genes affect the way they respond to medicine. This helps doctors choose the right drug and the right dose for each person. Another interesting area is synthetic biology. This is when scientists engineer living cells to do new jobs, like making biofuels, biodegradable plastics, or even new medicines. They do this by reprogramming cells with carefully chosen DNA instructions. In agriculture, biochemists are helping to create GMO (genetically modified organisms) and gene-edited crops that are healthier, more nutritious, and more resistant to pests, diseases, and climate change. By studying plant biochemistry, scientists are finding ways to help plants grow better and use water and nutrients more efficiently. Biochemistry is also key in solving global health problems. One example was the creation of mRNA vaccines for COVID-19. These vaccines use molecules that tell our cells to make a harmless part of the virus, helping the immune system learn how to fight it. Scientists are now working on similar vaccines for other diseases like flu, HIV, and even cancer.\nIn the 21st century, chemistry has also become very important in helping us create better and cleaner ways to store and use energy. One big area of progress is rechargeable batteries. Lithium-ion batteries, which first came out in the 1990s, have gotten much better over the years. Today, they are used in many things like smartphones, laptops, and electric cars. Chemists have made these batteries safer and more powerful by creating better materials for the battery parts. Some of these materials include lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO\u2084) and nickel manganese cobalt (NMC). Scientists are also working on new types of batteries, like lithium-sulfur, solid-state, and sodium-ion batteries. These may be cheaper, safer, and last longer, which could help even more people use clean energy. Another exciting technology is the fuel cell. Fuel cells make electricity by combining hydrogen and oxygen, and the only thing they give off is water, so they do not pollute the air. This makes them a great option for clean cars. One type, called a PEM fuel cell, is especially useful. Chemists are working on better and cheaper catalysts, which are materials that help the fuel cell work faster. One challenge with fuel cells is how to store hydrogen safely and easily. Scientists are exploring special materials, like metal\u2013organic frameworks (MOFs) and solid\u2013state hydrides, that can hold hydrogen in a compact and safe way.\nChemists are also leading the way in improving solar energy. The most common solar panels today are made from silicon, but scientists are working on new materials that could make solar power cheaper, lighter, and more flexible. One interesting material is called a perovskite. In 2009, perovskite solar cells could only turn about 4% of sunlight into electricity. By the early 2020s, that number had jumped to over 25%. Perovskites are cheap to make and can be used on bendable surfaces, but they have some problems. They do not last very long, and they contain lead, which can be harmful. Chemists are working to fix these issues. Other types of solar panels include dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs) and organic solar cells, which can be see-through or flexible. These new types of solar cells could be used in windows or on clothing. Another interesting area is called photocatalysis. This means using sunlight to make chemical reactions happen. Scientists are developing materials like titanium dioxide mixed with tiny amounts of certain metals, that can use sunlight to split water into hydrogen and oxygen or turn carbon dioxide into useful fuels like methanol or methane. This is similar to how plants do photosynthesis, and scientists call their version artificial photosynthesis. Chemists are also helping to make green hydrogen, a clean fuel, using a method called electrolysis. This process splits water using electricity, and it works even better when chemists add catalysts that help speed up the reaction. Chemists are also working on ways to capture carbon dioxide (CO\u2082) from the air or from factories. They are designing new materials like amine-based liquids, metal-organic frameworks (MOFs), and porous carbons that can trap CO\u2082. Once captured, the CO\u2082 can be turned into fuels, plastics, or even medicines, helping to reduce pollution and fight climate change.\nChemistry is also helping to create new materials. One example is nanomaterials. These are materials made at an incredibly small scale. Chemists can now make nanoparticles, nanotubes, and nanowires with exact shapes and sizes. This has led to discoveries like carbon nanotubes and graphene, which are super strong and great at conducting electricity and heat. These materials are now being used in batteries, tiny sensors, and advanced electronics. Another new type of material are called smart materials. These materials can change when something around them changes like temperature, light, or electric signals. For example, some materials can \u201cremember\u201d a shape and return to it after being bent. Others can heal themselves after getting damaged. Smart materials are used in things like robotics, medical devices, and spacecraft. In medicine, special smart gels can deliver medicine exactly when and where it is needed or help new tissue grow. Polymers, which are long chains of molecules, have also improved. Chemists can now make biodegradable polymers that break down safely or design polymers for 3D printing, medicine, and even to act like proteins or DNA. Chemists can now use machine learning and computer simulations to test and find the best materials faster than ever before. Programs like the Materials Genome Initiative help scientists go from new idea to real product more quickly. Chemists are also designing electronic and photonic materials for things like flexible phone screens, glowing displays (OLEDs), and even quantum computers. Tiny particles called quantum dots are used in colorful TVs and medical imaging. And in the race to build quantum computers, special materials are helping create more stable and powerful qubits.\nIn the 21st century, chemistry faces many big and complicated challenges. One of the most serious is climate change. To help stop global warming, chemists are working to create cleaner energy sources. These include better solar panels, fuel cells, and batteries that do not rely on fossil fuels. But making these technologies affordable, safe, and easy to use on a large scale is still a tough problem. Another goal is to find ways to capture carbon dioxide, a major greenhouse gas, and turn it into useful fuels or chemicals. Right now, that process uses a lot of energy and is not very efficient. Green chemistry is another important focus. Many chemical industries today use toxic substances and create a lot of waste. Chemists are now trying to design cleaner ways to make products using renewable resources, safer materials, and less energy. This shift is difficult, especially when it comes to changing how big factories operate, but it is necessary for a more sustainable future. Plastic pollution is also a major concern. Plastics are everywhere, from packaging to clothes, but they do not break down easily and often end up in oceans and soil. Chemists are working to invent biodegradable and recyclable plastics that still work well but do not harm the planet. They're also trying to find better ways to remove microplastics and other plastic waste from the environment. In the world of medicine, chemists are helping to fight antibiotic resistance and new diseases. Bacteria are becoming harder to kill. There have not been many new antibiotics in recent years. Chemists must design new drugs and ways to deliver them more effectively. There is also growing interest in personalized medicine, where treatments are made to match a person\u2019s genes. Water shortages and polluted water are big problems in many parts of the world. Chemists are developing new ways to clean water using less energy. They are also making better sensors to detect pollutants, like pesticides and heavy metals, in the water, soil, and air. Many high-tech devices, like smartphones and electric cars, need special materials such as lithium, cobalt, and rare earth elements. But mining these materials can harm the environment, and supplies are limited. Chemists are trying to find safer ways to extract these elements, reuse them, or even replace them with better alternatives.\nTypes of chemistry.\nThere are several types of chemistry. Analytical chemistry looks at which chemicals are in things. For example, looking at how much arsenic is in food. Organic chemistry looks at things that have carbon in them. For example, making acetylene. Inorganic chemistry looks at things that do not have carbon in them. One example is making an integrated circuit. Theoretical chemistry tries to explain chemical data with mathematics and computers.\nA large area of chemistry is polymer chemistry. This looks at plastics. One example is making nylon. Because plastics are made of carbon, polymer chemistry is part of organic chemistry. Another area is biochemistry. This looks at the chemistry of living things. An example would be seeing how arsenic poisons people. Biochemistry is also part of organic chemistry. There are many other small branches of chemistry.\nConcepts of chemistry.\nMatter.\nMatter is anything that has mass and takes up space. This means it fills up some amount of room, even if we cannot always see it. Everything around us, from tiny grains of sand to huge planets and stars, is made of matter. Even things like air or steam, which seem invisible or light, are still matter because they are made of tiny particles that have mass and take up space. We can notice matter in many ways. Some things, like a rock or a cup of water, are easy to see and touch. Other things, like the air in a room or the gas in a balloon, are harder to notice, but they are still there. You can feel them when the wind blows or when a balloon gets bigger. Matter is really important in science, especially in chemistry and physics, because it helps us understand what everything is made of and how it behaves. All matter is made up of atoms and molecules, which are tiny building blocks.\nMatter can exist in different states, or forms, depending on how its tiny particles are arranged and how much energy they have. The three most common states are solid, liquid, and gas. In a solid, the particles are packed closely together in a fixed pattern. They do not move around much, which is why solids have a definite shape and volume. For example, a rock or a pencil keeps its shape unless something forces it to change. In a liquid, the particles are still close, but they are not in a set pattern. They can slide past each other, which lets liquids flow and take the shape of their container. However, liquids still keep the same volume. A cup of water stays the same amount, whether it is in a glass or a bowl. In a gas, the particles are spread far apart and move very fast. Gases do not have a fixed shape or volume. They will spread out to fill any space they are in, like air in a balloon. Gases can also be compressed or squished into a smaller space. Besides these three, there are also other, more unusual states of matter. One is plasma, which is made of super-energized particles with electric charges. Plasma is found in things like stars and lightning. Another rare state is called a Bose\u2013Einstein condensate (BEC). It happens only at very, very cold temperatures close to absolute zero. In this state, particles move so slowly they start to act like one single particle instead of many.\nMatter can be grouped into two main types based on what it's made of: pure substances and mixtures. Pure substances are made of only one kind of material and have the same properties throughout. They always have the same makeup, no matter where you find them. Pure substances can be either elements or compounds. Elements are the simplest type of pure substance. They cannot be broken down into anything simpler using normal chemical methods. Each element is made of just one kind of atom. Examples include oxygen (O\u2082), hydrogen (H\u2082), and iron (Fe). There are over 100 known elements, and they are all listed in the periodic table. Compounds are also pure substances, but they are made of two or more different elements that are chemically bonded together in a fixed ratio. This means the elements combine in a specific way to form a new substance. Some examples are water (H\u2082O), carbon dioxide (CO\u2082), and salt (NaCl). In a compound, the elements lose their individual properties and form something completely new.\nMixtures are made when two or more substances are physically combined, not chemically joined. This means each part of the mixture keeps its own properties, and you can often separate them using simple methods like filtering, boiling, or picking them apart. Mixtures come in two main types: homogeneous and heterogeneous. A homogeneous mixture (also called a solution) looks the same all the way through. The different parts are evenly mixed, and you cannot see or easily separate them. For example, when salt dissolves in water, it becomes a solution. You cannot see the salt anymore, but it is still there. Another example is air, which is a mixture of gases. A heterogeneous mixture looks different in different parts. The substances are not evenly mixed, and you can often see and separate the different parts. Examples include a salad, sand and iron filings, or oil and water. In these mixtures, the parts stay separate and can be picked out or separated by hand or simple tools.\nThe properties of matter help us understand how different substances act, react, and change in various situations. These properties are usually divided into two main types: physical properties and chemical properties. Physical properties are things we can see, measure, or feel without changing what the substance is made of. These include things like color, smell, taste, melting point, boiling point, density, hardness, electrical conductivity, and solubility (how well something dissolves). For example, water boils at 100\u00b0C and freezes at 0\u00b0C. One special thing about physical properties is that they do not change the substance. You can measure them many times, and the substance stays the same. For instance, if you melt ice, it turns into liquid water, but it is still H\u2082O. That means it\u2019s a physical change, not a chemical one, and it can be reversed by freezing the water again. Some physical properties depend on how much of the substance you have. These are called extensive properties, like mass and volume. Others stay the same no matter how much you have. These are called intensive properties, like density and boiling point.\nChemical properties describe how a substance can change into something completely new. Unlike physical properties, which can be seen or measured without changing the substance, chemical properties can only be observed when a chemical reaction happens. These reactions change the substance's molecular or atomic structure, meaning it becomes a different substance. Some common chemical properties include flammability (how easily something burns), reactivity with acids or bases, rusting of iron, tarnishing of silver, and the ability to decompose or oxidize. For example, when wood burns, it reacts with oxygen in the air and turns into ash, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and heat. This is a chemical change, and the fact that wood can burn is a chemical property. Another example is iron rusting. When iron is exposed to air and moisture, it reacts to form rust, which is a new substance with different properties.\nAtoms.\nThe idea of atoms goes all the way back to around 400 BCE, when ancient Greek thinkers like Democritus and Leucippus came up with the idea that all matter is made of tiny, invisible particles. They called these particles \"atomos,\" which means \"uncuttable\" or \"indivisible.\" Democritus believed that atoms had different shapes and sizes and moved through empty space, combining in different ways to make everything we see. However, this idea was just a guess. It was not based on experiments or evidence. Another famous philosopher, Aristotle, had a different idea. He believed that everything was made of just four elements: earth, water, air, and fire. Because Aristotle was very popular and influential, people accepted his ideas for almost 2,000 years, and the atom theory was mostly forgotten. That changed in the early 1800s, when an English scientist named John Dalton brought the idea of atoms back. In 1803, Dalton proposed the first modern atomic theory. He said that all matter is made of atoms, and that atoms cannot be created or destroyed. He also said that all atoms of the same element are exactly the same, and that chemical reactions happen when atoms are rearranged. Dalton\u2019s ideas were based on experiments, especially from studying how elements combine in fixed amounts. But, Dalton thought atoms were just solid spheres like a ball with no parts inside.\nAs scientists built better tools and did more experiments, they began to learn much more about what was inside an atom. In 1897, a scientist named J.J. Thomson discovered the electron by using a special tube called a cathode ray tube. This showed that atoms are not solid and indivisible after all. Thomson came up with the \"plum pudding model,\" where he imagined the atom as a ball of positive charge with negative electrons scattered inside it, like raisins in a pudding. But in 1911, Ernest Rutherford did a famous experiment with gold foil that changed this idea. He found that most of the atom is empty space, and that the positive charge is packed into a tiny, dense center called the nucleus. This led to the nuclear model of the atom, where electrons orbit around a central nucleus. However, this model still did not explain why the electrons did not just crash into the nucleus. Then in 1913, Niels Bohr improved Rutherford\u2019s model by using ideas from quantum theory. Bohr said that electrons move in fixed energy levels or shells around the nucleus. He also said that electrons can jump from one level to another by gaining or losing energy. Bohr\u2019s model worked well for explaining the behavior of hydrogen, the simplest atom, but it did not work as well for bigger atoms. In the 1920s, scientists created an even better model using quantum mechanics. Scientists like Erwin Schr\u00f6dinger, Werner Heisenberg, and Max Born showed that electrons do not move in perfect orbits. Instead, they exist in areas called electron clouds or orbitals, which are regions where electrons are likely to be found. This modern model of the atom is the most accurate one we have today and helps explain how atoms behave in chemistry and physics.\nAn atom is the smallest unit of matter. It is the basic building block that makes up everything around us. At the center of every atom is the nucleus, a tiny, dense part that contains two types of particles: protons and neutrons. Protons have a positive charge, while neutrons have no charge, they are neutral. The number of protons in an atom\u2019s nucleus is called the atomic number, and it tells us what element the atom is. For example, all hydrogen atoms have one proton, and all oxygen atoms have eight protons. The mass number of an atom is the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. Because protons and neutrons are both heavy (compared to electrons), almost all of the atom\u2019s mass is in the nucleus, even though it is very small. Outside the nucleus is where the electrons are found. Electrons are much smaller and have a negative charge. In older models, scientists thought electrons moved in set paths around the nucleus, like planets orbiting the sun. But today, we know from quantum mechanics that electrons move in regions called orbitals or electron clouds. These are areas where electrons are most likely to be found, but their exact position cannot be known for sure. Electrons are also arranged in energy levels or shells around the nucleus. Each level can hold only a certain number of electrons. Atoms are electrically neutral when they have the same number of protons and electrons. But sometimes, atoms can gain or lose electrons, which changes their overall charge. When an atom loses electrons, it becomes a positively charged ion, called a cation. When an atom gains electrons, it becomes a negatively charged ion, called an anion. Also, atoms of the same element can have different numbers of neutrons. These are called isotopes. Even though isotopes have the same number of protons and act the same in chemical reactions, their different numbers of neutrons make them have slightly different masses. Some isotopes are stable, while others can break down over time, releasing energy.\nThe electron configuration of an atom is the way its electrons are arranged in different energy levels and areas around the nucleus. This arrangement is very important because it helps determine how the atom will react with other atoms and form chemical bonds. In today\u2019s model of the atom, called the quantum mechanical model, electrons do not travel in neat circles around the nucleus like planets around the sun. Instead, they move around in areas called orbitals, which are regions where there is a high chance of finding an electron. These orbitals are grouped into energy levels, also called shells, which are labeled with numbers like 1, 2, 3, and so on. Each energy level has one or more subshells, which are labeled as s, p, d, and f. The first energy level (1) has only an s subshell. The second level (2) has s and p subshells. The third level (3) has s, p, and d, and so on. Each orbital can hold up to two electrons. The Aufbau principle helps scientists understand how electrons fill the space around an atom\u2019s nucleus. According to this rule, electrons always fill the lowest energy orbitals first before moving to higher ones. The order in which electrons fill these orbitals goes like this: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, and so on. This order is based on the energy levels of the orbitals, and sometimes it can seem a bit out of order. For example, 4s fills before 3d because 4s has a lower energy level than 3d. There are also other important rules to remember when talking about electron configuration. Pauli exclusion principle says that only two electrons can fit into the same orbital, and they must spin in opposite directions. Hund\u2019s rules says that when electrons go into orbitals that have the same energy (like three 2p orbitals), they will first go in one at a time with the same spin. Only after each orbital has one electron will they start to pair up. This helps reduce repulsion between electrons. We use a special way to write electron configurations. For example, the configuration for a carbon atom, which has 6 electrons, is: 1s\u00b2 2s\u00b2 2p\u00b2. This means carbon has 2 electrons in the 1s orbital, 2 in the 2s, and 2 in the 2p. For bigger elements, we often use noble gas shorthand to save time. This means we start with the symbol of the nearest noble gas (like neon or argon) in brackets, and then continue from there. For example, sodium has 11 electrons. Instead of writing out everything, we can write: [Ne] 3s\u00b9. Here, [Ne] stands for the first 10 electrons (1s\u00b2 2s\u00b2 2p\u2076), and the 11th electron is in the 3s orbital. The valence electrons, or the electrons in the outermost shell, are very important. They decide how an atom behaves in chemical reactions, how it bonds with other atoms and what kind of compounds it can form.\nThe Periodic Table.\nA long time ago, people only knew about a few natural elements like gold, silver, copper, and iron. As science progressed, especially in the 1600s and 1700s, scientists started discovering more elements and learning about chemical reactions. In the late 1700s, a scientist named Antoine Lavoisier made one of the first lists of elements. He also suggested that elements were basic substances that could not be broken down into anything simpler. By the early 1800s, more elements had been discovered, and scientists began to see patterns in their properties. The big breakthrough came in 1869 when a Russian chemist named Dmitri Mendeleev created a version of the periodic table. He arranged the 63 known elements by increasing atomic mass and grouped elements with similar properties into columns. What was really amazing about Mendeleev\u2019s table was that he left spaces for elements that had not been discovered yet and predicted what their properties would be. When scientists later discovered elements like gallium, scandium, and germanium, their properties matched Mendeleev\u2019s predictions, which made his table even more accepted. Although there were some problems with his system, like elements that did not fit perfectly by mass, Mendeleev\u2019s table helped scientists understand the relationships between different elements. In the early 1900s, Henry Moseley improved the table by arranging elements by atomic number, which solved many of the problems. He showed that elements\u2019 properties depend on the number of protons in their nucleus. This led to the modern periodic law, which says that elements\u2019 properties change in a regular pattern based on their atomic number. Since then, the periodic table has grown to include over 100 elements, including many that are made in labs. It has also become more complex with the addition of new groups of elements like noble gases, transition metals, and lanthanides and actinides (the f-block elements).\nThe periodic table is a special chart that shows all the known chemical elements in a very organized way. It is arranged based on each element\u2019s atomic number (how many protons it has), how its electrons are set up, and how it behaves in chemical reactions. The table is built to match how atoms work, especially how electrons move around the nucleus. This setup helps scientists understand how each element will act during chemical changes. The table has rows called periods and columns called groups or families. Periods go from left to right and are numbered from 1 to 7. Each period shows how many energy levels, or electron shells, the atoms have. As you move across a period, each element gets one more proton and one more electron, and they go into the same energy level. This changes things like the size of the atom and how strongly it attracts electrons. Groups go up and down and are numbered from 1 to 18. Elements in the same group have the same number of valence electrons. These are the electrons in the outer shell of the atom. Because of this, elements in the same group act in similar ways. For example, Group 1 is called the alkali metals (like lithium and sodium). They all have one valence electron and are very reactive, especially with water. Group 17 is the halogens (like fluorine and chlorine). They have seven valence electrons and are also very reactive. Group 18 is the noble gases (like helium and neon). They have full outer shells of electrons and do not react much with other elements.\nThe periodic table is also split into four big sections called blocks. The s, p, d, and f blocks. These blocks are based on how electrons fill up different parts of an atom, called orbitals. The s-block includes Groups 1 and 2, plus hydrogen and helium. In these elements, the s orbitals are being filled with electrons. The p-block includes Groups 13 to 18. These elements are filling up their p orbitals. The s-block and p-blocks together make up most of the main group elements, which include both metals and nonmetals. The d-block is in the middle of the table and includes Groups 3 to 12. These are the transition metals. They are special because they can form different types of charged ions and complex compounds. The f-block is at the bottom of the table and includes the lanthanides and actinides. These elements are filling their f orbitals. Even though they are placed separately to keep the table neat, they actually belong in the 6th and 7th rows (periods). The periodic table also shows trends, or patterns, in the properties of elements. Atomic radius (the size of an atom) gets smaller across a period from left to right because the nucleus pulls electrons in tighter. But it gets larger going down a group because more electron shells are added. Electronegativity (how strongly an atom attracts electrons) usually increases across a period and decreases down a group. Ionization energy (the energy needed to remove an electron) follows a similar pattern. It increases across a period and decreases down a group.\nBasic concepts.\nThe basic unit of an element is called an atom. An atom is the smallest building block that you can cut an element into without the element breaking down (turning into a lighter element, for example through nuclear fission or radioactive decay). A chemical compound is a substance made up of two or more elements. In a compound, two or more atoms are joined to form a molecule. The tiniest speck of dust or drop of liquid, that one can see is made up of many millions or billions of these molecules. Mixtures are substances where chemicals are mixed but not reacted. An example would be mixing sand and salt. This can be undone again to produce salt and sand separately. Chemical compounds are changed by a chemical reaction. An example would be heating sodium bicarbonate, common baking soda. It will make water, carbon dioxide, and sodium carbonate. This reaction cannot be undone.\nOne very important concept in chemistry is that different atoms interact with one another in very specific proportions. For example, two hydrogen atoms interacting with one oxygen atom lead to the water molecule, H2O. This relationship is known as the \"Law of constant proportions\" and leads to the idea of \"stoichiometry\", a term that refers to the ratios of different atoms in chemical compounds. For example, in water, there are always exactly 2 hydrogen atoms to 1 oxygen atom. In carbon dioxide, there are exactly 2 oxygen atoms for 1 carbon atom. These relationships are described using chemical formulas such as H2O (two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom) and CO2 (one carbon atom and two oxygen atoms).\nMole.\nBecause atoms of different elements react with one another in very specific proportions but atoms of different elements have different weights, chemists often describe the number of different elements and compounds in terms of the number of \"moles\". A \"mole\" of any element contains the same number of atoms: 602,214,150,000,000,000,000,000 atoms. The atomic mass of an element can be used to see how much of the element makes a mole. For example, the atomic mass of copper is about 63.55. That means about 63.55 grams of copper metal has a mole of atoms. The atomic mass of chlorine is about 35.45. That means 35.45 grams of chlorine has a mole of atoms in it.\nMoles can be used to see how many molecules are in chemical compounds, too. Copper(II) chloride is an example. CuCl2 is its chemical formula. There is one copper atom (63.55) and two chlorine atoms (35.45 \u00b7 2 = 70.90). Add all the molar masses of the elements together to get the molar mass of the chemical compound (63.55 + 70.90 = 134.45). That means in 134.45 grams of copper(II) chloride, there is one mole of copper(II) chloride molecules. This concept is used to calculate how much chemicals are needed in a chemical reaction if no reactants (chemicals that are reacted) should be left. If too much reactant is used, there will be some reactants left in the chemical reaction.\nAcids and bases.\nAcids and bases are a common type of chemical. Using the simplest definitions, acids add ions when in water, and bases add ions when in water. Acids can react with bases: the takes the extra hydrogen from to make an extra water molecule, . The other parts of the acid and base make a salt.\nAn example would be reacting hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sodium hydroxide (NaOH). Hydrochloric acid releases H+ and Cl- ions in water. The base releases Na+ and OH- ions. The H+ and the OH- react to make water. There is a solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) left. Sodium chloride is a salt.\nThis definition of acids and bases, called the Arrhenius acid-base theory, is not used by modern chemists. It is too oversimplified for what really happens in water, and cannot describe anything dissolved in another solvent like ammonia. Instead, chemists use the Br\u00f8nsted\u2013Lowry acid\u2013base theory and Lewis acid-base theory, which are more complicated but more useful in chemistry. Instead of looking at reactions in water, these theories focus on hydrogen ions and pairs of electrons.\nUsefulness.\nChemistry is very useful in everyday life and makes up the foundation of many branches of science. Most objects are made by chemists (people who do chemistry). Chemists are constantly working to find new and useful substances. Chemists make new drugs and materials like paints that we use every day.\nSafety.\nMany chemicals are harmless, but there are some chemicals that are dangerous. For example, mercury(II) chloride is very toxic. Chromates can cause cancer. Tin(II) chloride pollutes water easily. Hydrochloric acid can cause bad burns. Some chemicals like hydrogen can explode or catch fire. To stay safe, chemists experiment with chemicals in a chemical lab. They use special equipment and clothing to do reactions and keep the chemicals contained. The chemicals used in drugs and in things like bleach have been tested to make sure they are safe if used correctly."}
+{"id": "109", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=109", "title": "Compound", "text": "Compound may refer to:"}
+{"id": "110", "revid": "1604578", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=110", "title": "Computer science", "text": " Computer science deals with the theoretical foundations of computation and practical techniques for their application.\nComputer science is the science of information. Computer scientists study different ways of reading, using, and encoding information.\nThere are many different areas within computer science. In some areas, scientists only work with ideas \"on paper\". In other areas, they use those ideas to make things like computers and computer programs.\nA person who works in computer science will often need to understand logic and mathematics.\nCommon tasks for a computer scientist.\nAsking questions.\nThis is so people can find new and easier ways to do things, and to use information to approach problems. \nWhile computers can do some things easily (like simple math, or sorting out a list of names from A-to-Z), computers cannot answer questions when there is not enough information, or when there is no real answer. Also, computers may take too much time to finish long tasks. For example, it may take too long to find the shortest way through all of the towns in the USA \u2014 so instead a computer will try to make a close guess. A computer will answer these simpler questions much faster.\nAnswering the question.\nAlgorithms are a specific set of instructions or steps on how to complete a task. For example, a computer scientist wants to sort playing cards. There are many ways to sort them \u2014 by suits (diamonds, clubs, hearts, and spades) or by numbers (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, Jack, Queen, King, and Ace). By deciding on a set of steps to sort the cards, the scientist has created an algorithm. The scientist then needs to test whether this algorithm works. This shows how well and how fast the algorithm sorts cards.\nA simple but slow algorithm is: from one end of the deck, take the first and second cards and check whether they are sorted in the correct order. If they are not, switch them so they are sorted. Do this again with the second and third cards. Repeat these steps with the third and fourth cards, and continue until you get to the end of the deck. Then, starting from the beginning of the deck again, repeat the same steps going though the deck over and over until the deck is sorted. This is called a bubble sort. This method will work, but it will take a very long time.\nA better algorithm is: find the first card with the smallest suit and smallest number (ace of spades, according to ), and place it at the start. After this, look for the second card, and so on. This algorithm is much faster than bubble sort. This algorithm is called a \"selection sort\".\nAda Lovelace wrote the first computer algorithm in 1843, for a computer that was never finished. Computer software began during World War II. Computer science separated from the other sciences during the 1960s and 1970s. Now, computer science has its own methods and technical terms. It is related to electrical engineering, mathematics, and language science.\nComputer science has two areas of study. They are known as theoretical computer science and applied computer science. Theoretical computer science looks at how computers do things so that computers can be faster. It also tries to figure out what the limits of computers are. Applied computer science looks at what computers can do to help people solve problems. \nComputer engineering looks at the physical parts of computers (hardware). Software engineering looks at the use of computer programs and how to make them."}
+{"id": "112", "revid": "1035196", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=112", "title": "Computer", "text": "A computer is a machine that uses electronics to input, process, store, and output data. Data is information such as numbers, words, and lists. Input of data means to read information from a keyboard, a storage device like a hard drive, or a sensor. The computer processes or changes the data by following the instructions in software programs. A computer program is a list of instructions the computer has to perform. Programs usually perform mathematical calculations, modify data, or move it around. The data is then saved on a storage device, shown on a display, or sent to another computer. Computers can be connected together to form a network such as the internet, allowing the computers to communicate with each other.\nThe processor of a computer is made from integrated circuits (chips) that contains many transistors. Most computers are digital, which means that they represent information using binary digits, or bits. Computers come in different shapes and sizes, depending on the brand, model, and purpose. They range from small computers, such as smartphones and laptops, to large computers, such as supercomputers.\nCharacteristics.\nTwo things that often define a computer are that it responds to a specific instruction set in a well-defined manner, and that it can execute a stored list of instructions called a program. There are four main actions in a computer: inputting, storing, outputting and processing.\nModern computers can do billions of calculations in a second. Being able to calculate many times per second allows modern computers to multi-task, which means they can do many different tasks at the same time. Computers do many different jobs where automation is useful. Some examples are controlling traffic lights, vehicles, security systems, washing machines and digital televisions.\nComputers can be designed to do almost anything with certain information. Computers are used to control large and small machines that, in the past, were controlled by humans. Billions of people have a personal computer at home or at work. They are used for things such as calculation, listening to music, reading, writing, or playing games.\nHardware.\nModern computers are electronic computer hardware. They do mathematical arithmetic very quickly, but computers do not really \"think.\" They only follow the instructions in their software programs. The software uses the hardware when the user gives it instructions and produces useful outputs.\nControls.\nComputers are controlled with user interfaces. Input devices which include keyboards, computer mice, buttons, and touch screens, etc.computer are electronic computer hardware.\nPrograms.\nComputer programs are designed or written by computer programmers. A few programmers write programs in the computer's own language, called machine code. Most programs are written using a programming language like C, C++, JavaScript. These programming languages are more like the language with which one talks and writes every day. The compiler converts the user's instructions into binary code (machine code) that the computer will understand and do what is needed.\nHistory of computers.\nFirst computer.\nIn 1837, Charles Babbage proposed the first general mechanical computer, the Analytical Engine. The Analytical Engine contained an Arithmetic Logic Unit, basic flow control, punched cards, and integrated memory. It is the first general-purpose computer concept that could be used for many things and not only one particular program. However, this computer was never built while Charles Babbage was alive, because he didn't have enough money. In 1910, Henry Babbage, Charles Babbage's youngest son, was able to finish a part of this machine and do basic calculations.\nBefore the computer era there were machines that could do the same thing over and over again, like a music box. People began to want to be able to tell their machine to do different things. For example, they wanted to tell the music box to play different music every time. This part of computer history is called the \"history of programmable machines\", which in simple words means \"the history of machines that I can order to do different things if I know how to speak their language.\"\nOne of the first examples of programmable machines was built by Hero of Alexandria (c. 10\u201370\u00a0AD). He built a mechanical theater which performed a play lasting 10\u00a0minutes and was operated by a complex system of ropes and drums. These ropes and drums were the language of the machine- they told what the machine did and when. Some people argue that this is the first programmable machine.\nSome people disagree on which early computer is programmable. Many say the \"castle clock\", an astronomical clock invented by Al-Jazari in 1206, is the first known programmable analog computer. The length of day and night could be adjusted every day in order to account for the changing lengths of day and night throughout the year. Some count this daily adjustment as computer programming.\nOthers say the first computer was made by Charles Babbage. Ada Lovelace is considered to be the first programmer.\nThe computing era.\nAt the end of the Middle Ages, people started thinking math and engineering were more important. In 1623, Wilhelm Schickard made a mechanical calculator. Other Europeans made more calculators after him. They were not modern computers because they could only add, subtract, and multiply- you could not change what they did to make them do something like play Tetris. Because of this, we say they were not programmable. Now engineers use computers to design and plan.\nIn 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard used punched paper cards to tell his textile loom what kind of pattern to weave. He could use punch cards to tell the loom what to do, and he could change the punch cards, which means he could program the loom to weave the pattern he wanted. This means the loom was programmable. At the end of the 1800s Herman Hollerith invented the recording of data on a medium that could then be read by a machine, developing punched card data processing technology for the 1890 U.S. census. His tabulating machines read and summarized data stored on punched cards and they began use for government and commercial data processing.\nCharles Babbage wanted to make a similar machine that could calculate. He called it \"The Analytical Engine\". Because Babbage did not have enough money and always changed his design when he had a better idea, he never built his Analytical Engine.\nAs time went on, computers were used more. People get bored easily doing the same thing over and over. Imagine spending your life writing things down on index cards, storing them, and then having to go find them again. The U.S. Census Bureau in 1890 had hundreds of people doing just that. It was expensive, and reports took a long time. Then an engineer worked out how to make machines do a lot of the work. Herman Hollerith invented a tabulating machine that would automatically add up information that the Census bureau collected. The Computing Tabulating Recording Corporation (which later became IBM) made his machines. They leased the machines instead of selling them. Makers of machines had long helped their users understand and repair them, and CTR's tech support was especially good.\nBecause of machines like this, new ways of talking to these machines were invented, and new types of machines were invented, and eventually the computer as we know it was born.\nAnalog and digital computers.\nIn the first half of the 20th century, scientists started using computers, mostly because scientists had a lot of math to figure out and wanted to spend more of their time thinking about science questions instead of spending hours adding numbers together. For example, if they had to launch a rocket ship, they needed to do a lot of math to make sure the rocket worked right. So they put together computers. These analog computers used analog circuits, which made them very hard to program. In the 1930s, they invented digital computers, and soon made them easier to program. However this is not the case as many consecutive attempts have been made to bring arithmetic logic to l3.Analog computers are mechanical or electronic devices which solve problems.Some are used to control machines as well.\nHigh-scale computers.\nScientists figured out how to make and use digital computers in the 1930s to 1940s. Scientists made a lot of digital computers, and as they did, they figured out how to ask them the right sorts of questions to get the most out of them. Here are a few of the computers they built:\nSeveral developers of ENIAC saw its problems. They invented a way to for a computer to remember what they had told it, and a way to change what it remembered. This is known as \"stored program architecture\" or von Neumann architecture. John von Neumann talked about this design in the paper \"First Draft of a Report on the EDVAC\", distributed in 1945. A number of projects to develop computers based on the stored-program architecture started around this time. The first of these was completed in Great Britain. The first to be demonstrated working was the Manchester Small-Scale Experimental Machine (SSEM or \"Baby\"), while the EDSAC, completed a year after SSEM, was the first really useful computer that used the stored program design. Shortly afterwards, the machine originally described by von Neumann's paper\u2014EDVAC\u2014was completed but was not ready for two years.\nNearly all modern computers use the stored-program architecture. It has become the main concept which defines a modern computer. The technologies used to build computers have changed since the 1940s, but many current computers still use the von-Neumann architecture.\nIn the 1950s computers were built out of mostly vacuum tubes. Transistors replaced vacuum tubes in the 1960s because they were smaller and cheaper. They also need less power and do not break down as much as vacuum tubes. In the 1970s, technologies were based on integrated circuits. Microprocessors, such as the Intel 4004 made computers smaller, cheaper, faster and more reliable. By the 1980s, microcontrollers became small and cheap enough to replace mechanical controls in things like washing machines. The 1980s also saw home computers and personal computers. With the evolution of the Internet, personal computers are becoming as common as the television and the telephone in the household.\nIn 2005 Nokia started to call some of its mobile phones (the N-series) \"multimedia computers\" and after the launch of the Apple iPhone in 2007, many are now starting to add the smartphone category among \"real\" computers. In 2008, if smartphones are included in the numbers of computers in the world, the biggest computer maker by units sold, was no longer Hewlett-Packard, but rather Nokia.\nKinds of computers.\nThere are many types of computers. Some include:\nA \"desktop computer\" is a small machine that has a screen (which is not part of the computer). Most people keep them on top of a desk, which is why they are called \"desktop computers.\" \"Laptop computers\" are computers small enough to fit on your lap. This makes them easy to carry around. Both laptops and desktops are called personal computers, because one person at a time uses them for things like playing music, surfing the web, or playing video games.\nThere are larger computers that can be used by multiple people at the same time. These are called \"mainframes,\" and these computers do all the things that make things like the internet work. You can think of a personal computer like this: the personal computer is like your skin: you can see it, other people can see it, and through your skin you feel wind, water, air, and the rest of the world. A mainframe is more like your internal organs: you never see them, and you barely even think about them, but if they suddenly went missing, you would have some very big problems.\nAn embedded computer, also called an embedded system is a computer that does one thing and one thing only, and usually does it very well. For example, an alarm clock is an embedded computer. It tells the time. Unlike your personal computer, you cannot use your clock to play Tetris. Because of this, we say that embedded computers cannot be programmed because you cannot install more programs on your clock. Some mobile phones, automatic teller machines, microwave ovens, CD players and cars are operated by embedded computers.\nAll-in-one PC.\nAll-in-one computers are desktop computers that have all of the computer's inner mechanisms in the same case as the monitor. Apple has made several popular examples of all-in-one computers, such as the original Macintosh of the mid-1980s and the iMac of the late 1990s and 2000s.\nWorking methods.\nComputers store data and the instructions as numbers, because computers can do things with numbers very quickly. These data are stored as binary symbols (1s and 0s). A 1 or a 0 symbol stored by a computer is called a bit, which comes from the words binary digit. Computers can use many bits together to represent instructions and the data that these instructions use. A list of instructions is called a program and is stored on the computer's hard disk. Computers work through the program by using a central processing unit, and they use fast memory called RAM (also known as Random Access Memory) as a space to store the instructions and data while they are doing this. When the computer wants to store the results of the program for later, it uses the hard disk because things stored on a hard disk can still be remembered after the computer is turned off.\nAn operating system tells the computer how to understand what jobs it has to do, how to do these jobs, and how to tell people the results. Millions of computers may be using the same operating system, while each computer can have its own application programs to do what its user needs. Using the same operating systems makes it easy to learn how to use computers for new things. A user who needs to use a computer for something different, can learn how to use a new application program. Some operating systems can have simple command lines or a fully user-friendly GUI.\nThe Internet.\nOne of the most important jobs that computers do for people is helping with communication. Communication is how people share information. Computers have helped people move forward in science, medicine, business, and learning, because they let experts from anywhere in the world work with each other and share information. They also let other people communicate with each other, do their jobs almost anywhere, learn about almost anything, or share their opinions with each other. The Internet is the thing that lets people communicate between their computers. The Internet also allows the computer user to play an Online game.\nComputers and waste.\nA computer is now almost always an electronic device. It usually contains materials that will become electronic waste when discarded. When a new computer is bought in some places, laws require that the cost of its waste management must also be paid for. This is called product stewardship.\nComputers can become obsolete quickly, depending on what programs the user runs. Very often, they are thrown away within two or three years, because some newer programs require a more powerful computer. This makes the problem worse, so computer recycling happens a lot. Many projects try to send working computers to developing nations so they can be re-used and will not become waste as quickly, as most people do not need to run new programs. Some computer parts, such as hard drives, can break easily. When these parts end up in the landfill, they can put poisonous chemicals like lead into the ground-water. Hard drives can also contain secret information like credit card numbers. If the hard drive is not erased before being thrown away, an identity thief can get the information from the hard drive, even if the drive doesn't work, and use it, for example, to steal money from the previous owner's bank account.\nMain hardware.\nComputers come in different forms, but most of them have a common design.\nA computer has several main parts. When comparing a computer to a human body, the CPU is like a brain. It does most of the thinking and tells the rest of the computer how to work. The CPU is on the Motherboard, which is like the skeleton. It provides the basis for where the other parts go, and carries the nerves that connect them to each other and the CPU. The motherboard is connected to a power supply, which provides electricity to the entire computer. The various drives (CD drive, floppy drive, and on many newer computers, USB flash drive) act like eyes, ears, and fingers, and allow the computer to read different types of storage, in the same way that a human can read different types of books. The hard drive is like a human's memory, and keeps track of all the data stored on the computer. Most computers have a sound card or another method of making sound, which is like vocal cords, or a voice box. Connected to the sound card are speakers, which are like a mouth, and are where the sound comes out. Computers might also have a graphics card, which helps the computer to create visual effects, such as 3D environments, or more realistic colors, and more powerful graphics cards can make more realistic or more advanced images, in the same way a well trained artist can."}
+{"id": "114", "revid": "966595", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=114", "title": "Chinese", "text": "Chinese might mean:"}
+{"id": "117", "revid": "10466298", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=117", "title": "Continent", "text": "A continent is a large area of the land on Earth that is joined. There are no strict rules for what land is considered a continent, but in general the Earth is known to have seven continents; these being, Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Europe, North America, South America and Oceania or Australia\nStatistics.\nThe most populous continent by population is Asia, followed by Africa. The third most populous continent is Europe. The fourth most populous is North America, and then South America. In sub-Saharan Africa, the largest age group are denarians (in their teens). In north Africa, the largest age group are vicenarian (in their twenties). In Europe, most people are tricenarian (in their thirties) or quadragenarian (in their forties).\nContinents.\nGeologists use the term \"continent\" to mean continental crust, a platform of metamorphic and igneous rock, largely of granitic composition. Continental crust is less dense and much thicker than oceanic crust, which is why it \"floats\" higher than oceanic crust on the underlying mantle. This explains why the continents form high platforms surrounded by deep ocean basins.\nAustralia.\nSome sources say that Australia is one of the seven continents. Others say that Australia is part of a larger continent, such as Australasia, or Oceania. Oceania is a region which includes Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. Australasia includes at least all countries on the Australian continental plate. This includes the islands of New Guinea, Tasmania, New Zealand and a number of smaller islands. It is on the south-eastern side of the Wallace Line, with distinct differences in its biology from the Asian side of the line.\nZealandia.\nZealandia is an almost entirely submerged land mass, and 93% of it still remains under water. Zealandia may have broken off the Australian plate between 85 and 130 million years ago.\nNorth and South America.\nNorth America and South America together are often described as one continent, \"the Americas\", or simply \"America\". This has the advantage of including Central America and the Caribbean islands. Otherwise, Central America is counted as part of North America.\nEurasia.\nEurasia is not really an alternative, rather it is a recognition that the landmasses of Europe and Asia are continuous, and some of its largest countries are in both regions. Russia extends from eastern Europe to the far east of Asia without a break. The Ural Mountains, which run roughly north\u2013south, are the traditional dividing-line between Europe and Asia. For many purposes it is convenient to consider the great landmass as a single continent, Eurasia.\nWhen British people talk about \"the Continent\" (or \"Continental\" things) they mean the European mainland. This meaning is not used as much as it used to be, but is still seen in phrases like \"Continental breakfast\" (rolls with cheese, jam etc. as distinct from an \"English breakfast\" which is a cooked breakfast).\nContinents not only move but also sometimes move against each other. The Indian subcontinent has been colliding with the Eurasian continent for a while now. As these continents push against each other, they buckle and bend. Because of this, the Himalaya Mountains, with Mount Everest, are still being built up today.\nAntarctica.\nAntarctica is Earth's fifth largest continent. Antarctica, the coldest place on Earth, covers Earth's South Pole. It has a surface area of ~13.6 \u201314 million km2: this is about 1.4 times the size of Europe, The continent only has two seasons, a brief summer and a long winter. Antarctica is a cold desert. It does not rain or snow much there. Ever since its discovery in 1812, Antarctica was a great challenge for explorers. Despite being nearly completely covered by a thick layer of ice, Antarctica has a range of aquatic and terrestrial environments.\nOrigin of continents.\nA craton is an old and stable part of the continental lithosphere. It is the Earth's two topmost layers, the crust and the uppermost mantle.\nThere are various hypotheses of how cratons have been formed.. Continents may have been formed by giant meteorite impacts in the first billion years of Earth's existence. The question is not yet settled. What is clear is that the cratons are very old, and are the basis for the continents we see today."}
+{"id": "118", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=118", "title": "Classical Elements", "text": ""}
+{"id": "119", "revid": "1691206", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=119", "title": "Classical element", "text": "The Greek classical elements are fire, air, water, and earth. In Greek philosophy, science and medicine, these make up a whole.\nThe image below has two squares on top of each other. The corners of one are the classical elements. The corners of the other are the properties.\nGalen said these elements were used by Hippocrates to describe the human body. The elements are linked to the four humours: phlegm (water), yellow bile (fire), black bile (earth), and blood (air).\nIn Chinese Taoism the elements are metal, wood, water, fire, earth ().\nAether.\nTraditionally, only four classical elements are thought to exist; however a fifth element, known as aether, also known as quintessence is the final element."}
+{"id": "120", "revid": "693482", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=120", "title": "China", "text": "China ( Pinyin: Zh\u014dnggu\u00f3) is a cultural region, an ancient civilization, and a nation in East Asia. The official name is People's Republic of China or PRC.\nThe latest Chinese Civil War (19271949) resulted from two different political powers today:\nChina is one of the world's oldest civilizations, having the oldest continuous civilization near the Yellow River region. There is archaeological evidence found that is over 5,000 years old. China also has one of the world's oldest writing systems (and the oldest in use today). China has been the source of making many major inventions. Geographically, China\u2019s longest river is the Yangtze River, which runs through mega cities and is home to many species. It is the world\u2019s third longest river.\nOrigins.\nThe first recorded use of the word \"China\" is dated to be 190. It is derived from \"ch\u012bn\u012b\", a Persian adjective meaning 'Chinese' which was popularized in Europe by Marco Polo.\nHistory.\nAncient (2100\u00a0B.C. 1500 A.D.).\nAncient China was one of the first civilizations, and was active since the 2nd millennium BC as a feudal society. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent writing, with the others being Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley civilization, the Maya civilization, the Minoan civilization of ancient Greece, and Ancient Egypt. Ancient China reached its golden age during the Tang Dynasty (c. A.D. 10th century). Home of Confucianism and Daoism.\nBefore the Qin Dynasty united China, there were many small feudal states, nominally loyal to the Zhou King, which typically fought each other for hundreds of years in battles for control of China. The majority of these states were ruled by relatives and clansmen of the Zhou royal house and carried the surname Ji (\u59ec), and were tied by family bonds to the Zhou king, to whom they were ritually subordinate, as members of collateral or lesser lineages. A minority of these states, such as the Qin and Chu, were ruled by non-Zhou clansmen, and were awarded their fiefs on account of some merit. Over time, these feudal states attained to power and wealth, that exceeded that of their Zhou nominal overlord, whose direct authority became confined to a very small territory near present-day Zhengzhou. These states also began to acquire some distinctive characteristics and identities of their own during the long centuries of loose control by the Zhou. Eventually, the Zhou kings were eclipsed in power by two especially problematic vassals - the Qin and Chu, and the functional independence of the Qin later led to its gradual conquest of all other vassal states and the formal supplantation of the Zhou to form a heavily centralised Empire.\nThe long decline of the Zhou, incidentally the longest ruling dynastic house of China, is known as the Warring States Period. Despite the bloodiness and strife of the period, this was the time when many great philosophies emerged - including Confucianism and Daoism as a response to disintegrating central authority of the Zhou kings and fluctuating power of the vassal states, and the general uncertainty of that era. Confucianism and Daoism have been the foundation of many social values seen in modern east Asian cultures today.\nOther notable dynasties include the Han (from which is derived the ethnonym the Han Chinese, which is synonymous with the older self-referential term - the Huaxia) as well as dynasties such as the Tang, Song, and Ming, which were characterised by periods of affluence, wealth, population growth, and the proliferation of literature.\nDuring the later years, China was often raided or invaded by northern nomadic people such as the Xiongnu, the Xianbei, the Jurchens and the Mongols (the latter led by Genghis Khan and Kublai Khan). One effect of regular nomadic invasion and the collapse of native dynasties was the massive migration of Han Chinese - especially the aristocratic elite and the literati, to sparsely populated frontier regions south of the Yangzi river such as Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian. Several notable waves of Han Chinese immigration to Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Guangdong and Fujian took place during the collapse of the Jin, the Tang, and the Song.\nSome nomadic groups succeeded in conquering the whole territory of China, establishing dynasties such as the Yuan (Mongol) and Qing (Manchu). Each time, they also brought new elements into Chinese culture - for instance, military uniform, the qipao and the pigtail, the latter of which was deeply resented by the Han Chinese.\nA new age (1500 A.D. - Present).\nWhile China achieved many things in the First millennium and early 2nd millennium, it became an isolationist country in the 15th century C.E. This was because Spain found enormous silver in the new continent, which was the main currency (money) in China and Europe at the time, and China did not want to be bought by the foreigners.\nBy the time of the Renaissance, European powers started to take over other countries in Asia. While China was never actually taken over, many European countries, such as Britain and France built spheres of influence in China. Since China had cut itself off from the world over the previous few centuries, by the Qing Dynasty, it had fallen behind other countries in technology, and was helpless to stop this from happening. This had become clear when it lost the Opium Wars to Britain in the 19th century.\nStill influenced by Western sources, China faced internal strife. The Taiping Rebellion or Taiping War occurred in China from 1851 through 1864. The Taiping Rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan from Guangdong. Hong Xiuquan was influenced by Christian missionaries and declared himself the brother of Jesus. Hong made his mission to bring down the Qing Dynasty. Gaining influence on the southern Chinese population, the Taiping Rebellion attracted tens of thousands of supporters. The Taiping regime successfully created a state within the Qing Empire with the capital at Nanjing. Hong called his new state the Taiping Tianguo or \"The Heavenly State of Great Peace\". Local armies eventually suppressed the rebellion at the final battle of Nanjing.\nIn 1911, the Republic of China was founded after the Xinhai revolution led by Sun Yat-sen, but its government was very weak. Warlords controlled many areas. Chiang Kai-shek led wars against them, and he became president and dictator.\nIn 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria, a place in the northeastern part of China. On July 7, 1937, the Japanese attacked the rest of the country, starting what was called the Second Sino-Japanese War.\nOn December 13 of that same year, The Japanese Army killed an estimated (guessed) 200,000 to 300,000 Chinese civilians (people) which is called Nanjing Massacre. The war later became part of World War II. The war was fought for eight years and millions of Chinese people were killed.\nHowever, the Chinese Civil War later started between the Kuomintang (Nationalists) of the Republic of China (ROC) and the Communists of the People's Republic of China (PRC). The Communists wanted to make China like the Soviet Union, whereas the other side wanted to keep China in its current state at the time. The Communists were led by Mao Zedong, Liu Shaoqi, Zhou Enlai and others. The Communists eventually won the war by uniting all the people from different positions. The Nationalists (led by Chiang Kai-shek) fled to the island of Taiwan and set up their new capital city in Taipei. After the Chinese Civil War, the Communist leader Mao Zedong declared a new country, the People's Republic of China (PRC), in Beijing on October 1, 1949.\nUnder Mao the country stayed poor while Taiwan became richer. His attempt at industrialization and collectivization with the Great Leap Forward led to the deaths of many people from famine. The Cultural Revolution caused great social upheaval. After 1976, China underwent market economy reforms under Deng Xiaoping, and experienced rapid economic growth, which made the former progress made by Taiwan became overshadowed. China is now one of the largest economies in the world, relying mainly on exports and manufacturing. China incorporates English, and (since the 2000s) the percentage of people who can speak English fluently is slowly increasing.\nGeography.\nChina's landscape is vast and diverse. It ranges from the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in the north to subtropical forests in the south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern coast. The Yangtze River is the third-longest river in the world while the Yellow River is the sixth-longest. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500\u00a0kilometers (9,000\u00a0mi) long. It is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China connects through the Kazakh border to the Eurasian Steppe. The Eurasian Steppe has been an artery of communication between East and West since the Neolithic through the Steppe route. The Steppe Route is the ancestor of the terrestrial Silk Road(s).\nScience and technology.\nChina was once a world leader in science and technology up until the Ming dynasty. There are many Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions. For example, papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder are known as the Four Great Inventions. They became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later to Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers. By the 17th century, Europe and the Western world became better than China in science and technology.\nDemographics.\nThe national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People's Republic of China to be about 1,370,536,875. About 16.60% of the population were 14 years old or younger, 70.14% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 13.26% were over 60 years old. The population growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0.46%.\nlanguage.\nBefore 1911, the language was written in \"classical Chinese\" (different grammar, et cetera). After the Qing dynasty, the revolutionists and scholars didn't like it, so written Chinese was changed quickly. By 1921, the language had been largely written in \"modern Chinese\" (based on the spoken language of north-eastern China). As for the romanization of Chinese, nowadays, mainland Chinese use pinyin. Taiwanese use the zhuyin (not in roman letters) and traditional Chinese characters instead. The common language is called Mandarin. The Min Nan mainland Chinese and the Taiwanese understand each other. Generally, the degree of mutual intelligibility between speakers of different dialects is low (only understand the other speaker a little bit). A dialect may or may not have a standard writing system.\nChinese dialects.\nThis page only states the six most popular dialects. 5. Xiang (\u6e58\u8bed) (36,000,000 speakers in 1990s); 6. Gan language; For example, Mao Zedong spoke the Xiang dialect as his mother tongue, whereas Chiang Kai-shek spoke Chinese with a strong Wu accent.\nCulture.\nChina is the origin of Eastern martial arts, called Kung Fu or its first name Wushu. China is also the home of the well-respected Spa Monastery and Wudang Mountains. Martial art started more for the purpose of survival, defense, and warfare than art. Over time some art forms have branched off, while others have retained their distinct Chinese flavor.\nChina has had renowned artists including Wong Fei Hung (Huang Fei Hung or Hwang Fei Hung) and many others. Art has also co-existed with a variety of paints including the more standard 18 colors. Legendary and controversial moves like Big Mak are also praised and talked about within the culture.\nChina has many traditional festivals, such as Spring Festival, Dragon Boat Festival, Mid-autumn Festival and so on. The most important is Chinese New Year. People in China will have holidays to celebrate these festivals.\nFestivals.\nSpring Festival is the Chinese New Year.\nDragon Boat Festival is celebrated to commemorate the death of Qu Yuan, a patriotic poet of the State of Chu during the Warring States period. He persuaded his emperor not to accept Qin's diplomats' offers several times but his emperor did not listen to him. He was very sad and ended up jumping into the river to end his life. The people loved him so much that they did not want the fish to eat his corpse. They made and threw rice dumplings into the river. They hope the fish eat these dumplings instead of the poet's corpse. They also rowed dragon boats in the river to get rid of the fish. Such practices, eating rice dumplings and holding dragon boat races, become what Chinese do in this festival nowadays.\nHeld on the fifteenth day of the eighth lunar month, Mid-Autumn Festival is a festival for families. Now when the festival sets in, people would sit together to eat moon cakes, appreciate the bright full moon cakes, appreciate the bright full moon, celebrate the bumper harvest and enjoy the family love and happiness. To the Chinese people, the full moon symbolizes family reunion, as does the \"moon cakes.\" Hence the Mid-Autumn Festival is also called the Family Reunion Festival.\nPolitics.\nChina's constitution states that The People's Republic of China \"is a socialist state under the people's democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants\". It also states the state organs \"apply the principle of democratic centralism.\" The PRC is one of the world's only socialist states openly being communist.\nChinese Communist Party.\nThe CCP is the founding and ruling political party of the People's Republic of China (PRC). Established in 1921, it rose to power in 1949 under the leadership of Mao Zedong after defeating the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang) in the Chinese Civil War. The CCP operates under a one-party system, maintaining strict control over the government, military, economy, and media. It follows a socialist ideology with Chinese characteristics, blending Marxist-Leninist principles with economic reforms introduced by Deng Xiaoping in the late 20th century. Under its leadership, China has grown into the world's second-largest economy while maintaining tight political control through censorship, surveillance, and a strong security apparatus. Today, the CCP continues to shape China's domestic and foreign policies, emphasizing national unity, economic development, and global influence."}
+{"id": "121", "revid": "1694236", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=121", "title": "Country", "text": "A country is a distinct territory with defined borders, boundaries, people and government. Most countries are sovereign states while others make up one part of a larger state. The people that live in a country are referred to as a nation. The government that runs the country is called the state. United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, France, Germany, Japan, Ireland, Italy, Mexico, Spain, Brazil, Portugal, India, China, and other countries. \nThe people who live in a country are referred to as a nation. The government that runs the country is called the state.\nNumber of countries.\nThere is no universally-accepted answer as to how many countries in the world there actually are. The minimum answer is 195, the number recognized by the United Nations, which has 193 members.\nThis can be developed on even further by adding the constituent countries of the United Kingdom, the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Kingdom of Denmark. which could add anywhere from three to eleven more countries.\nThere are multiple organisations, which have their own lists of countries. For example, the Travellers Century Club recognizes 330 countries as of January 2022.\nDisputed countries.\nPalestine is often classified as a country. However, there is an ongoing dispute over its independence with Israel.\nThere are a number of disputed areas that have declared independence from their parent state and receive limited recognition such as Kosovo, Transnistria, Abkhazia, South Ossetia, Northern Cyprus, Chechnya, Tibet, East Turkestan, and Somaliland. They are just some of the many examples of territories with limited to no recognition that are sometimes classed as countries.\nThere is a lot of controversy surrounding the above examples and quite often, any of those territories may be counted as countries based purely on opinion. If all of the above were added the list of United Nations members, there could be anything up to 211 countries.\nThere are, however, many more territories with unique political circumstances that could also be counted.\nDepending on how loosely the dictionary definition for the word country is used there could be many more than 193 countries in the world. The matter is purely subjective depending on varying opinions.\nConstituent country.\n\"Constituent country\" is a term sometimes used, usually by official institutions, in contexts in which a number of countries are part of a sovereign state. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has used the term referring to the former Yugoslavia, and European institutions like the Council of Europe often use it in reference to the European Union.\nTerritorial dispute.\nA disputed territory is a territory whose sovereignty is jealously desired by two or more countries. Usually, the administration of the territory is carried out by one of the countries that claims sovereignty, and the other country does not recognize the sovereignty over the territory of the other country. This does not usually happen in land or sea areas such as Antarctica on which no country has effective or total control.\nNation state.\nA nation state is a sovereign country in which most citizens are somewhat homogeneous in terms of culture, religion, language, ethnicity, etc."}
+{"id": "122", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=122", "title": "Colchester", "text": "Colchester is a city in the northern part of the English county of Essex. It has a population of 130,245 people. People believe that Colchester is the oldest Roman town in England.\nHistory.\nBefore Roman times, Colchester was \"Camulodunon\". This is a Celtic name that came from Camulos. Camulos was the Celtic god of war. The Romans called Colchester \"Camulodunum\" (written \"CAMVLODVNVM\") and made it the capital of Roman Britain. Colchester was attacked and burnt by Boudicca in 61 AD. The Romans moved their capital of Britannia to Londinium (now London), but Camulodunum remained an important city until the fifth century, when the Saxons conquered the region. \nThe Roman town of \"Camulodunum\", officially known as \"Colonia Victricensis\", reached its peak in the Second and Third centuries AD. It may have reached a population of 30,000 in those centuries, but when the Romans withdrew from Britannia in 410 AD it probably had fewer than 5,000 inhabitants. \nThe church at the Benedictine abbey of Saint John the Baptist was destroyed in 1539. This action was part of the dissolution of the monasteries by King Henry VIII. Only a gate remains, that people still go to visit.\nKing Cunobelinus (or \"Cunobelin\") was from Colchester.\nUntil 2022, Colchester was officially a town, not a city. On 5 September, Queen Elizabeth II signed letters patent to grant it city status. This was planned as part of her Platinum Jubilee celebrations. However, she died three days later. On 29 September, these letters were publicly released.\nTwin cities.\nColchester is twinned with the following cities:"}
+{"id": "127", "revid": "103847", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=127", "title": "Cartography", "text": "Cartography is making maps. It is part of geography. How people make maps is always changing. In the past, maps were drawn by hand, but today most printed maps are made using computers and people usually see maps on computer screens. Someone who makes maps is called a cartographer.\nMaking a map can be as simple as drawing a direction on a napkin, or as complicated as showing a whole country or world. Anyone can make a map, but cartographers spend their lives learning how to make better maps.\nFor many centuries maps were usually carefully drawn onto paper or parchment. Now they are made on a computer which makes them look neater with accurate images.\nMaps are of two main types:\nGeneral maps are produced in a series. Governments produce them in larger-scale and smaller-scale maps of great detail.\nThematic maps are now very common. They are necessary to show spatial, cultural and social data."}
+{"id": "129", "revid": "103847", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=129", "title": "Creator", "text": "A creator is a person who creates something.\nIn some religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam) God (or Allah meaning the God in Arabic) is the most important and original creator of the whole universe - including Man who is made \"in his image\" (see Genesis) to observe it and control it like God. The idea that anything that a person is creating, like an idea, can be owned as property comes from the ethical traditions and legal codes that came from these religions.\nIn other traditions (Buddhism, Native American mythology) anyone has this potential for creating, and can become part of the greater creating of the universe. Stewardship of home, land and all of Earth is a test for participating in this, or just good sense."}
+{"id": "131", "revid": "644977", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=131", "title": "Contact network", "text": "Contact network may mean:"}
+{"id": "133", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=133", "title": "Chorizo", "text": "Chorizo is a pork (pig-meat) sausage which people first made in the Iberian Peninsula. It is made with large pieces of fatty pork, chili pepper and paprika. The special taste of this sausage comes from the mild Spanish paprika in it. \nIn the western hemisphere, the Mexican and Caribbean types are better known. These types of chorizo are made with smaller pieces of pork and different seasonings and peppers are used.\nCured smoked chorizo is edible and can be eaten without cooking. Fresh chorizo must be cooked before eating. It can be eaten by its self, or as part of meal. It can also be used in place of ground beef or pork.\nChorizo can be fresh. Also it can be dried. It can be spicy or not spicy depending on the recipe. There are many ways to eat chorizo. It can be sliced and eaten as a snack, or cooked. Dishes like stews, soups and rice dishes also use Chorizo. In Spain, chorizo is served as a small plate of food with drinks. In Latin America, chorizo is served with beans and eggs for breakfast. To make chorizo, the pork is cut into small pieces. Then it is mixed with spices and other ingredients. The mixture is then put into a casing. Casing is a thin, tube-like skin. Casing is made from the intestine of a pig. The chorizo is then left to dry for a few weeks. By doing this chorizo gets its special flavor and texture. There are many kinds of chorizo. Recipe of chorizo also different in different countries. In Spain, there are two main kinds of chorizo: chorizo de verdeo, and chorizo de cantimpalo. Chorizo de verdeo made with white wine and chorizo de cantimpalomade with red wine. In Latin America, chorizo is made with a mixture of chili peppers and other spices. It makes chorizo spicy. There are a few different ways to cook with chorizo. One popular way is to slice the chorizo and fry it in a pan until it is crispy. It can then be added to dishes like soups, stews and rice dishes. Chorizo can also be grilled, which gives it a smoky flavor. It can be sliced and added to sandwiches or served as a topping on pizza. Chorizo is a tasty and versatile food that can be enjoyed in many different ways."}
+{"id": "134", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=134", "title": "Creativity", "text": "Creativity is the ability of a person or group to make something new and useful or valuable, or the process of making something new and useful or valuable. It happens in all areas of life - science, art, literature and music.\nAs a personal ability, it is difficult to measure. The reason is that we don't understand the mental processes that help some people be more creative than others. Judging who and what is creative is also controversial. Some people say only things that are historically new are creative, while other people say that if it is new for the creator and the people around them, then it is also creativity.\nSome think that creativity is an important thing that makes humans different from apes. Others recognize that even apes, other primates, other mammals, and some birds adapt to survive by being creative (for example - primates using tools). Liane Gabora believes that all culture comes from creativity, not imitation. Therefore, these people say, human science should focus on it (pay special attention to it): Ethics for example would focus on finding creative solutions to ethical dilemmas. Politics would focus on the political virtues that need some creativity. Imitation would not be the focus of education. Linguistics might be more interested in how new words are created by culture, rather than in how existing ones are used in grammar.\nIntellectual interests (recognized as intellectual rights or intellectual property in the law) are a way to reward creativity in law, but they do not always work very well. A good example is copyright which is supposed to pay writers and artists, but may only pay lawyers to make (imitative) arguments in court.\nCreativity is a central question in economics, where it is known as ingenuity (the ability to come up with new ideas) or individual capital - capacities that individuals have, that do not arise from simple imitation of what is known already. This is separate from the instructional capital that might try to capture some of that in a patent or training system that helps others do what the individual leader or founder of the system can do. In urban economics there are various ways to measure creativity - the Bohemian Index and Gay Index are two attempts to do this accurately and predict the economic growth of cities based on creativity."}
+{"id": "135", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=135", "title": "Catharism", "text": "The Cathar faith was a version of Christianity. They were usually considered Gnostics. The word 'Cathar' comes the Greek word \"katharos\" meaning 'unpolluted' (from Tobias Churton, \"The Gnostics\") or \"the pure ones\".\nThey used Bible translations in the language people spoke. Most other Western Christians used a Bible in Latin. Latin was spoken only by the priests.\nDoctrines.\nThe Cathars believed that the world had been made by a bad god. They believed that this bad god had taken them from the good god and put them in the world, but inside their bodies there was a spirit, and that spirit needed to return to the good god. They were famous for a belief in a form of reincarnation and believed that when someone died the bad god would put that person's spirit in a new body. They believed this cycle of coming back to life could be escaped by a ritual cleansing. They were opposed to the doctrine of sin. \nWomen were prominent in the faith. They were pacifists. They didn't eat anything that was made from other animals, including meat and cows milk. The only exception to this was fish. Fish was OK to eat because they believed fishes were not alive but just things that were sometimes produced from dirt and water.\nThey preached tolerance of other faiths. They rejected the usual Christian rules of marriage and only believed in the New Testament. An earlier 10th-century Bulgarian heresy, Bogomilism and also Manichaeism started some of these trends. \nProblems.\nIn 1145, open challenge to Catholic dominance began. In about 1165, the first Cathars said that the Church was \"full of ravening (starving) wolves and hypocrites\" and \"worshipping the wrong God\", right in front of the most powerful Catholics. In 1166, the Council of Oxford in England wiped out the English Cathars. They were also suppressed in Northern France. In 1167, Cathar bishops met to discuss organizing a counter Church - in the South of France, the Languedoc nobles protected it, and many noble women became \"Perfects\". Parish clergy had low morale, or confidence.\nThe Catholic Church was against Catharism, seeing it as a heresy. In the South of France there was tremendous religious fervor, and an economy that was starting to grow, and a social class of merchants and peasants was starting to grow. Peasants owned their own land. Meanwhile, in other parts of Europe, peasants were forced to give up their land to nobles and become serfs or slaves - the system of feudalism. There was a strong central absolute monarchy that did not exist in the South of France. The burghers and bankers had more power in this looser system. R. I. Moore is a historian who believes that it was desire to crush this system and take over the land that drove the attack. However, there was real cultural and religious difference to cause problems: Troubadors, who combined some of the traditions of the Bards of the Celts, and Jews were both part of the multicultural society in the South of France. Their influences were not appreciated by local or Roman Church figures. The 12th century Roman Catholic Monks were founding their monasteries outside the towns, drawing the best people there.\nThe Cathars had little competition. The Cathar \"Perfects\", the so-called Good Men or Good Women, lived restrained lives and spread their faith in towns - where the Catholics in general did not have their best people. Also, Cathars preached that only these Good leaders had to follow the regimens their whole lives - lay people could repent only on their deathbeds. Many 20th century Christian sects have similar beliefs.\nThe Albigensian Crusade.\nMethods.\nThe Pope ordered a crusade against the Cathars in southern France. He said any crusader who answered the call would be given the same rewards as a crusader who went to the Holy Land. This was an absolution of all sin.\nIn the Languedoc, on the 22nd of July 1209, a force of about 30,000 Crusaders arrived at the walls of Beziers bearing the cross pattee to mislead and create ease among the Cathars, thinking they were friends, not foe, and demanded that about 200 Cathars be surrendered. The people of the town who were mostly Catholic, said that rather than turn over their friends and family, \"we would rather be flayed alive.\" \nA mistake by the defenders of Beziers let thousands of attackers in. Arnauld Amaury made the famous quote \"Kill them all, God knows his own\" on being asked how to tell who were Cathars during the assault. Everyone in the town was killed, some while taking refuge in the church. It is guessed that 20,000 were killed, many of whom were Catholics and not Cathars at all. The crusade became known as the Albigensian crusade after the town of Albi. It was to wipe out the Cathars almost entirely over forty or so years. The Crusaders wanted to go home, but were ordered by the Pope to continue until the whole South of France was controlled and all Cathars were dead. In 1210, they attacked the fortress at Minerv and built \"the first great bonfire of heretics\" - beginning the practice of burning at the stake that would continue in the Inquisition of the Counter-Reformation. At the siege of Montsegur when the fires were lit the Cathars ran down the hill and threw themselves on, as their beliefs were very strong...\nCatharism disappeared from the northern Italian cities after the 1260s, pressured by the Inquisition. The last known Cathar perfectus in the Languedoc, Guillaume B\u00e9libaste, was killed in 1321."}
+{"id": "136", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=136", "title": "Cosmology", "text": "Cosmology is the branch of astronomy that deals with the universe. \nNASA defines cosmology as \"The study of the structure and changes in the present universe\". Another definition of cosmology is \"the study of the universe, and humanity's place in it\".\nModern cosmology is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which brings together observational astronomy and particle physics.\nThough the word \"cosmology\" is recent (first used in 1730 in Christian Wolff's \"Cosmologia Generalis\"), the study of the universe has a long history.\nHistory.\nUntil the Renaissance people thought the universe was only the planets up to Saturn, and stars. With the invention of the telescope, we could see more of the universe. Early in the 20th century, astronomers thought the Milky Way was the entire universe. Later, with astrophotography and spectroscopy, astronomers (for example Edwin Hubble) showed that the Milky Way was only one of many galaxies. \nModern cosmology is considered to have started in 1917 with the final paper of Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity. This made physicists realize that the universe changed. When a scientific discipline begins to change an idea that is believed by many people, it is known as a paradigm shift. Many scientists debated if there were other galaxies. The debate ended when Edwin Hubble found Cepheid Variables in the Andromeda Galaxy in 1926.\nThe Big Bang model was then proposed by Belgian priest, Georges Lema\u00eetre in 1927. This was supported by Edwin Hubble's discovery of the redshift in 1929. Later the discovery of cosmic microwave background radiation was made. This was found by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964. \nAll of these discoveries have been supported in the 21st century. Some more observations of the cosmic microwave background radiation were found by the COBE, WMAP, and Planck satellites. Some more observations of the redshift were found by the 2dfGRS and SDSS. An astronomical survey looks at a place in space. A redshift survey is a survey that looks for redshifts.\nOn 1 December 2014, at the \"Planck 2014\" meeting in Ferrara, Italy, astronomers reported that the universe is 13.8 billion years old and is composed of 4.9% regular matter, 26.6% dark matter and 68.5% dark energy.\nAccording to Dr Robert Massey, deputy director of the Royal Astronomical Society, the evidence for a rethink of what has been a central plank of astronomy is growing.\n\"This is the seventh large structure discovered in the universe that contradicts the idea that the cosmos is smooth on the largest scales. If these structures are real, then it's definitely food for thought for cosmologists and the accepted thinking on how the universe has evolved over time,\" he said."}
+{"id": "142", "revid": "10335933", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=142", "title": "Church (building)", "text": "A church is a building that was constructed to allow people to meet to worship together. These people are usually Christians, or influenced by Christianity. Some other non-Christian religious groups also call their religious buildings churches, most notably Scientology.\nThe following description is about Roman Catholic churches, although some parts are the same in Episcopalian and Lutheran churches. Depending on the number of people that are in a community, the churches come in different sizes. Small churches are called chapels. The churches in a particular geographical area form a group called the diocese. Each diocese has a cathedral. In most cases, the cathedral is a very big church. Cathedrals are the seat of bishops.\nHistory of church buildings.\nIn the early days of Christianity people met in private buildings. Church buildings are mentioned for the first time around A.D. 260 when the Emperor Galienus ordered an end of a persecution and to return the places of worship. In the third century we hear of large church buildings. We do not know, how these early buildings looked. Only in Dura-Europos (Syria) a building was discovered, which had been a private house modified for Christian services.\nAfter the death of the Roman emperor Constantine in A.D. 337, Christians were allowed to have buildings to worship in. These first churches were built on a similar plan to Roman basilicas. This plan was later used for the fine Gothic cathedrals and churches that were built at the end of the Middle Ages.\nThe parts of a church.\nThere are several parts in the architecture of a church. Not all churches will have all these parts:\nIn Roman Catholic churches there is always a stoup (bowl) of holy water near the entrance of the church. This tradition comes from the fact that Roman basilicas had a fountain for washing in front of the entrance. The font is a bowl where people (often babies) are baptized. This is also near the entrance of the church. This is a symbol of the fact that it is welcoming the people into the Christian church.\nTraditionally the nave has long benches for the congregation to sit on. These are called pews. Some churches may now have replaced their pews with chairs so that they can be moved about for different occasions. At the front of the nave is the pulpit where the priest preaches (these talks are called \u201csermons\u201d). There is also a lectern (like a large music stand) from where the lessons (the Bible readings) are read.\nIf there are aisles along the side of the nave there will be pillars which hold up the roof. In large churches or cathedrals there may be a row of little arches along the top of these pillars. This is called the triforium. Over the triforium is the clerestory which is a row of windows high up in the church wall.\nThe chancel is the most holy part of the church, and this is why it is often separated from the nave by a screen which can be made of wood or stone, or occasionally iron. The congregation can see through the screen. On the top of the screen there may be a cross. This is called a rood (pronounce like \u201crude\u201d) screen. Priests used to climb up a staircase to the top of the rood screen to read the epistle and the gospel. Sometimes people sang from there.\nInside the chancel are the benches where the choir sit. These are called choir stalls. They are on both sides. The two sides of the choir sit facing one another. The choir members who sit on the left (north side) are called \u201ccantoris\u201d (the side where the \u201ccantor\u201d sits) and those on the right (south side) are called \u201cdecani\u201d (the side where the deacon sits). In some large churches or cathedrals the seats for the priests tip up. The top of these seats, when they are tipped up, are called misericords (from the Latin word for \u201cmercy\u201d). This is because the priests or monks were able to lean against them when they got tired if they had to stand up for a long time.\nSometimes there are holes in the walls of the screen so that the congregation can see through. These are called squints. If there is a recess in the wall it is called an aumbry. It is a cupboard for communion wine and bread that have been consecrated by a priest.\nThe altar may be right at the east end of the church, but in larger churches or cathedrals it is often much farther forward. In that case the very east end is called an apse. Sometimes it is a separate chapel called the \u201cLady Chapel\u201d.\nChurches through the ages.\nThe design of churches changed a lot during the course of history. Often churches were made bigger. When this happened there may be a mixture of architectural styles. These styles vary a lot in different countries.\nEnglish churches.\nIn English churches there were several different periods of architecture:\nIn the 1600s, churches were built in a variety of styles. Often they copied some of the older styles. After the Great Fire of London many new churches were built by the architect Sir Christopher Wren. They were built in the classical style. Churches continued to be built in later centuries like this, but also the Gothic style continued to be used.\nModern churches often do not have the traditional cross-shape. It is difficult for the congregation to see and hear what is happening in the chancel. Modern churches bring the congregation, choir and priests in closer touch. An example is the round design for the Church of Christ the Cornerstone in Milton Keynes. Modern churches are often simpler but with a warmer character than the Gothic churches. Many have beautiful mosaic glass windows. Coventry Cathedral is a famous example of a modern church building."}
+{"id": "143", "revid": "1222750", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=143", "title": "Cities", "text": ""}
+{"id": "144", "revid": "10471756", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=144", "title": "City", "text": "A city is a place where many people live close together.\nA city has many buildings and streets. It has houses, hotels, condominiums, and apartments for many people to live in, shops where they may buy things, places for people to work, and a government to run the city and keep law and order in the city. People live in cities because it is easy for them to find and do everything they want there. A city usually has a \"city center\" where government and business occur and suburbs where people live outside the center.\nDefinition.\nNo rule is used worldwide to decide why some places are called \"city,\" and other places are called \"town.\"\nSome things that make a city are :\nIn American English, people often call all places where many people live cities. (See below: Size of cities )\nSize of cities.\nThe sizes of cities can be very different. This depends on the type of city. Cities built hundreds of years ago and which have not changed much are much smaller than modern cities. There are two main reasons. One reason is that old cities often have a city wall, and most of the city is inside it. Another important reason is that the streets in old cities are often narrow. If the city got too big, it was hard for a cart carrying food to get to the marketplace. People in cities need food, and the food always has to come from outside the city.\nCities that were on a river like London could grow much bigger than cities that were on a mountain like Siena in Italy, because the river made a transport route for carrying food and other goods, as well as for transporting people. London has been changing continually for hundreds of years, while Siena, a significant city in the 1300s, has changed very little in 700 years.\nModern cities with modern transport systems can grow very large, because the streets are wide enough for cars, buses, and trucks, and there are often railway lines.\nU.S.A. usage.\nIn the US, the word \"city\" is often used for towns that are not very big. When the first European people went to America, they named \"city\" to new places. They hoped the places would be great cities in the future. For example, Salt Lake City was the name given to a village of 148 people. When they started building the town, they made street plans and called it Great Salt Lake City (for the nearby Great Salt Lake). Now, 150 years later, it really is a big city.\nLos Angeles, which sounds like a single city, is really made of a number of cities which over the years have become amalgamated. It now covers a huge area which goes by the name of Los Angeles. The city is governed by a Common Council only since 1948.\nGrowth of cities.\nIn modern times many cities have grown bigger and bigger. The whole area is often called a \"metropolis\" and usually includes several ancient small towns and villages. The metropolis of London includes London, Westminster, and many old villages such as Notting Hill, Southwark, Richmond, Greenwich, etc. The part that is officially known as the \"City of London\" only takes up one square mile. The rest is known as \"Greater London\". Many other cities have grown in the same way. In general speech, it is all a city. But, confusingly, that includes the City of London.\nModern cities have many problems. Not everyone has jobs in the cities and they often get money by begging or by crime. Automobiles, factories, and waste create a lot of pollution that makes people sick. Roads are crowded and traffic is slow. The cause of all this is population growth.\nHistorically, a big problem with cities was the water supply, which periodically got contaminated. That was fixed by an extraordinary man, Joseph Bazalgette. He was the first man to solve this problem, which had plagued mankind since at least Roman times. There are parts of the world where his ideas are still not understood.\nUrban history.\nUrban history is history of civilization. The first cities were made in ancient times, as soon as people began to create civilizations. The oldest city on Earth is probably Catal Huyuk, which existed from 7500 to 6500BC. Famous ancient cities which fell to ruins included Babylon, Troy, Mycenae and Mohenjo-daro.\nBenares in northern India is one among the ancient cities which has a history of more than 3000 years. Other cities that have existed since ancient times are Athens in Greece, Rome and Volterra in Italy, Alexandria in Egypt. \nIn Europe in the Middle Ages, being a city was a special privilege, granted by nobility. Cities that fall into this category, usually had (or still have) city walls. This shows that security was one pf the problems of a city. The people who lived in the city were privileged over those who did not. Medieval cities that still have walls include Carcassonne in France, Tehran in Iran, Toledo in Spain, and York and Canterbury in England.\nFeatures.\nInfrastructure.\nPeople in a city live close together, so they cannot grow all their own food or gather their own water or energy. People also create waste and need a place to put it. Modern cities have infrastructure to solve these problems. Pipes carry running water, and power lines carry electricity. Sewers take away the dirty water and human waste (see Bazelguette). Most cities collect garbage to take it to a landfill, burn it, or recycle it.\nTransport is any way of getting from one place to another. Cities have roads which are used by automobiles (including trucks), buses, motorcycles, bicycles, and pedestrians (people walking). Some cities have trains and larger cities have airports. Many people in cities travel to work each day, which is called commuting.\nBuildings and design.\nHouses and apartments are common places to live in cities. Great numbers of people in developing countries (and developed countries, in the past) live in slums. A slum is poorly built housing, without clean water, where people live very close together. Buildings are usually taller in the city center, and some cities have skyscrapers.\nCity streets can be shaped like a grid, or as a \"wheel and spokes\": a set of rings and lines coming out from the center. Streets in some older cities like London are arranged at random, without a pattern. The design of cities is a subject called urban planning. One area of the city might have only shops, and another area might have only factories. Cities have parks, and other public areas like city squares.\nUnited States politics.\nCities in the US are usually very-left leaning. The best examples of these would be New York, New York, and Washington, D.C. For example, in Louisiana, the only Democratic delegate in US Congress who is a Democrat was elected from a district comprising in New Orleans. Below is a list of states and the major city/cities that provide much of the liberal support in them :\nWorld's largest cities.\nThese cities have more than 10 million people and can be called megacities:"}
+{"id": "146", "revid": "1427107", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=146", "title": "Cooking", "text": "Cooking is a process to make food ready to eat by heating it.\nMethods.\nCooking is often done in a kitchen using a stove or an oven. It can also be done over a fire (for example, over a campfire or on a barbecue).\nThe heat for cooking can be made in different ways. It can be from an open fire that burns wood or charcoal. It can be on a stove or in an oven that uses propane, natural gas, or electricity.\nThere are several different ways to cook food. Boiling cooks food in hot water. Frying (deep or shallow) cooks food in hot butter, fat or oil. Baking and roasting cook food by surrounding it with hot air. Grilling means cooking food on a metal grill that has heat under it.\nPeople often cook meat by boiling, roasting, frying, or grilling it. Some foods such as bread or pastries are usually baked.\nUsually food is cooked in some kind of pot or pan. Sometimes people cook food by putting it directly into the fire, or by wrapping the food in leaves before they put it into the fire.\nCooks.\nA person whose job it is to cook food may be called a \"cook\" or a \"chef\". The word \"cooker\" means a machine or tool that a cook might use to cook food. Rice cookers and pressure cookers are examples."}
+{"id": "148", "revid": "966595", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=148", "title": "Chat", "text": "To chat is to talk about ordinary things that are not usually very important. However, important issues can also classify as \u201cchat\u201d, for instance when organising gatherings, meetings or events, such as air show attendance. A person can chat with another person, or to many people. People also use this word now for parts of the Internet where we can talk with many different people at the same time. Usually, people chat on the Internet in a chat room or messaging service like AOL Instant Messenger (AIM), Yahoo Messenger Windows Live Messenger or Tencent QQ. There are also programs which let people use different messaging services from one program, such as Pidgin.\nOnline Chat is real time, text-based, digital communication between two or more parties."}
+{"id": "149", "revid": "6139832", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=149", "title": "Cup", "text": "A cup is any kind of container used for holding liquid and drinking. These include:\nCup may also mean:"}
+{"id": "151", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=151", "title": "Crime", "text": "A crime (or misdemeanor or felony) is an act done by a person which is against the laws of a country or region. A person who does this is called a criminal.\nThe basic idea of what things are called \"crimes\" is that they are thought to be things that might cause a problem for another person. Things like killing another person, injuring another person, or stealing from another person are crimes in most countries. Also, it can be a crime to have or sell contraband such as guns or illegal drugs. The latter two often fall under the category of victimless crime\nWhen some criminals make money from crime, they try to stop the police finding out where the money came from by money laundering. Men and boys commit many more crimes than women and girls.\nEtymology.\nThe word \"crime\" is derived from the Latin root \"cern\u014d\", meaning \"I decide, I give judgment\". Originally the Latin word \"cr\u012bmen\" meant \"charge\" or \"cry of distress.\" The Ancient Greek word \u03ba\u03c1\u03af\u03bc\u03b1, \"krima\", from which the Latin cognate derives, typically referred to an intellectual mistake or an offense against the community, rather than a private or moral wrong.\nIn 13th century English \"crime\" meant \"sinfulness\", according to the Online Etymology Dictionary. It was probably brought to England as Old French \"crimne\" (12th century form of Modern French \"crime\"), from Latin \"crimen\" (in the genitive case: \"criminis\"). In Latin, \"crimen\" could have signified any one of the following: \"charge, indictment, accusation; crime, fault, offense\".\nDefinition.\nEngland and Wales.\nWhether a given act or omission constitutes a crime does not depend on the nature of that act or omission; it depends on the nature of the legal consequences that may follow it. An act or omission is a crime if it is capable of being followed by what are called criminal proceedings.\nScotland.\nFor the purpose of section 243 of the Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act 1992, a crime means an offence punishable on indictment, or an offence punishable on summary conviction, and for the commission of which the offender is liable under the statute making the offence punishable to be imprisoned either absolutely or at the discretion of the court as an alternative for some other punishment.\nSociology.\nA normative definition views crime as deviant behavior that violates prevailing norms \u2013 cultural standards prescribing how humans ought to behave normally. \nLevels of crime.\nThere are various levels of crimes. In some jurisdictions they are:\nDifferent countries have different ideas of what things are crimes, and which ones are the worst. Some things that are crimes in one country are not crimes in other countries. Many countries get their ideas of what things are crimes from religions or controversial events which cause a law to be quickly created. For example, a religious Taboo might say eating a particular food is a crime. When automobiles became numerous, they killed or hurt many people in road accidents, so new laws were made for them.\nIn many countries, if people say they made or wrote a book, movie, song, or Web page that they did not really make or write, it is a crime against copyright laws. In many countries, helping to grow, make, move, or sell illegal drugs is a crime.\nIn most countries, police try to stop crimes and to find criminals. When the police find someone who they think might be a criminal, they usually hold the person in a jail. Then, usually, a court or a judge decides if the person really did a crime. If the court or judge decides that the person really did it, then he or she might have to pay a fine or go to prison. Sometimes the judge might decide that the criminal should be executed (killed). This is called Capital punishment (or the \"Death Penalty\"). There are countries in the world that execute criminals, and others that do not.\nIn many countries, two conditions must exist for an act to be thought of as a crime:\nBoth must be present for the act to be thought of as a crime."}
+{"id": "152", "revid": "1011873", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=152", "title": "Countries", "text": ""}
+{"id": "153", "revid": "314538", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=153", "title": "Time Cube", "text": "Time Cube was a personal website created in 1997 by Otis Eugene Ray. On that website, Ray explained his theory of everything, known as \"Time Cube\". It described the planet Earth as having a cubic symmetry, and time as rotating four \"corners\". He also said that all of modern physics is wrong. Scientists reject these ideas, saying that they make no sense and cannot be tested.\nOn his site, Ray said that not believing in Time Cube would be \"stupid and evil\". Some of his comments were racist and discriminatory towards black people, Jews, and gay people. Many people found the site to be difficult to understand.\nRay spoke about Time Cube at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in January 2002. At MIT, a professor tried to cancel the lecture before it happened. Ray believed this was proof of a conspiracy to keep information about Time Cube hidden. Ray also spoke about Time Cube at the Georgia Institute of Technology in April 2005.\nRay died on March 18, 2015. He was 87 years old. His website went down in August 2015. It was last archived by the Wayback Machine on January 12, 2016."}
+{"id": "156", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=156", "title": "Census of Marine Life", "text": "The Census of Marine Life was a ten-year survey of life in the oceans, starting in 2000. Its head was Ron O'Dor of Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. It used data from researchers all over the world. More than 70 nations were involved and over a billion US dollars were spent on it.\nIt was a major work of marine ecology. It was founded by J. Frederick Grassle.\nThe purpose of the Census of Marine Life was to say what is alive in our seas and oceans."}
+{"id": "158", "revid": "1570152", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=158", "title": "Maize", "text": "Maize or Indian corn (called corn in some countries) is \"Zea mays\", a member of the grass family \"Poaceae\". It is a cereal grain which was first grown by people in ancient Central America. Approximately 1 billion tonnes are harvested every year. However, little of this maize is eaten directly by humans. Most is used to make corn ethanol, animal feed and other maize products, such as corn starch and corn syrup.\nMaize is a leafy stalk whose kernels have seeds inside. It is an angiosperm, which means that its seeds are enclosed inside a fruit or shell. It is has long been a staple food by many people in Mexico, Central and South America and parts of Africa. In Europe and the rest of North America, maize is grown mostly for use as animal feed. In Canada and the United States, maize is commonly referred to as \"corn\". \nCenturies of cross breeding have produced larger plants, and specialized varieties. Corn has become an important ingredient in American foods through the use of corn starch. People have long eaten sweet corn and popcorn with little processing, and other kinds after processing into flour for making cornbread, tortillas, and other artificial foods.\nMaize has been a fruitful model organism for research in genetics for many years: see Barbara McClintock. Research has shown that artificial selection developed maize from a Mexican plant called Teosinte.\nThe genus \"Zea\".\nThere are five species and many subspecies in the genus. They are all plants similar to the cultivated maize, with less developed cobs. The wild ones are sometimes called teosintes, and they are all native to Mesoamerica."}
+{"id": "159", "revid": "844779", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=159", "title": "Civics", "text": "Civics is the study of government. It most often refers to studying government in high school to prepare to be a good citizen. In college, civics is usually called political science. Since a city has the most unsimple government problems, the word for this study is like that for city.\nTheories of civics can be grouped as:\nIt contains the rule and regulations of the citizen to make the country democratic"}
+{"id": "161", "revid": "863768", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=161", "title": "Calculus", "text": "Calculus is a branch of mathematics that describes continuous change.\nThere are two different types of calculus. Differential calculus divides (\"differentiates\") things into small (\"different\") pieces, and tells us how they change from one moment to the next, while integral calculus joins (\"integrates\") the small pieces together, and tells us how much of something is made, overall, by a series of changes. Calculus is used in many different sciences such as physics, astronomy, biology, engineering, economics, medicine and sociology.\nHistory.\nIn the 1670s and 1680s, Sir Isaac Newton in England and Gottfried Leibniz in Germany figured out calculus at the same time, working separately from each other. Newton wanted to have a new way to predict where to see planets in the sky, because astronomy had always been a popular and useful form of science, and knowing more about the motions of the objects in the night sky was important for navigation of ships. Leibniz wanted to measure the space (area) under a curve (a line that is not straight). Many years later, the two men argued over who discovered it first. Scientists from England supported Newton, but scientists from the rest of Europe supported Leibniz. Most mathematicians today agree that both men share the credit equally. Some parts of modern calculus come from Newton, such as its uses in physics. Other parts come from Leibniz, such as the symbols used to write it.\nThey were not the first people to use mathematics to describe the physical world \u2014 Aristotle and Pythagoras came earlier, and so did Galileo Galilei, who said that mathematics was the language of science. But both Newton and Leibniz were the first to design a system that describes how things change over time, and can predict how they will change in the future.\nThe name \"calculus\" was the Latin word for a small stone the ancient Romans used in counting and gambling. The English word \"calculate\" comes from the same Latin word.\nDifferential calculus.\nDifferential calculus is used to find the rate of change of a variable\u2014compared to another variable. \nVariables can change their value. This is different from numbers because numbers are always the same. For example, the number 1 is always equal to 1, and the number 200 is always equal to 200. One often writes variables as letters such as the letter x: \"x\" can be equal to 1 at one point and 200 at another. \nSome examples of variables are distance and time, because they can change. The speed of an object is how far it travels in a particular time. So if a town is 80 kilometres (50 miles) away and a person in a car gets there in one hour, they have traveled at an average speed of 80 kilometres (50 miles) per hour. But this is only an average: they travelled faster at some times (say on a highway), and slower at other times (say at a traffic light or on a small street where people live). Certainly it is more difficult for a driver to figure out a car's speed using only its odometer (distance meter) and clock\u2014without a speedometer.\nUntil calculus was invented, the only way to work this out was to cut the time into smaller and smaller pieces, so the average speed over the smaller time would get closer and closer to the actual speed at a point in time. This was a very long and hard process, and had to be done each time people wanted to work something out.\nDifferential calculus is also useful for graphing. A very similar problem is to find the slope (how steep it is) at any point on a curve. The slope of a \"straight\" line is easy to work out \u2014 it is simply how much it goes up or down (\"y\" or vertical) divided by how much it goes across (\"x\" or horizontal). On a \"curve\", however, the slope is a variable (has different values at different points) because the line bends. But if the curve was to be cut into very, very small pieces, the curve at the point would look almost like a very short straight line. So to work out its slope, a straight line can be drawn through the point with the same slope as the curve at that point. If this is done exactly right, the straight line will have the same slope as the curve, and is called a tangent. But there is no way to know (without complex mathematics) whether the tangent is exactly right, and our eyes are not accurate enough to be certain whether it is exact or simply very close.\nWhat Newton and Leibniz found was a way to work out the slope (or the speed in the distance example) exactly, using simple and logical rules. They divided the curve into an infinite number of very small pieces. They then chose points on either side of the range they were interested in and worked out tangents at each. As the points moved closer together towards the point they were interested in, the slope \"approached\" a particular value as the tangents approached the real slope of the curve. The particular value it approached was the actual slope.\nGiven a function formula_1. \"f\" is short for function, so this equation means \"y is a function of x\". This tells us that how high y is on the vertical axis depends on what x (the horizontal axis) is at that time. For example, with the equation formula_2, we know that if formula_3 is 1, then formula_4 will be 1; if formula_3 is 3, then formula_4 will be 9; if \"formula_3\" is 20, then \"formula_4\" will be 400. The slope of the tangent line produced using this method here is formula_9, or 2 multiplied by \"formula_3\". So we know without having to draw any tangent line at any point on the curve formula_11 that the derivative, often written as formula_12 (marked with the prime symbol), will be formula_9 at any point. This process of working out a slope using limits is called differentiation, or finding the derivative.\nThe way to write the derivative in mathematics is\nformula_14\nLeibniz came to the same result, but called h \"formula_15\", which means \"with respect to x\". He called the resulting change in formula_16 \"formula_17\", which means \"a tiny amount of y\". Leibniz's notation is used by more books, because it is easy to understand when the equations become more complicated. In Leibniz notation:\nformula_18.\nMathematicians have grown this basic theory to make simple algebra rules\u2014which can be used to find the derivative of almost any function.\nIn the real world, calculus can be used to find the speed of a moving object, or to understand how electricity and magnetism work. It is very important for understanding physics\u2014and many other areas of science.\nIntegral calculus.\nIntegral calculus is the process of calculating the area underneath a graph of a function. An example is calculating the distance a car travels: if one knows the speed of the car at different points in time and draw a graph of this speed, then the distance the car travels will be the area under the graph.\nThe way to do this is to divide the graph into many very small pieces, and then draw very thin rectangles under each piece. As the rectangles become thinner and thinner, the rectangles cover the area underneath the graph better and better. The area of a rectangle is easy to calculate, so we can calculate the total area of all the rectangles. For thinner rectangles, this total area value \"approaches\" the area underneath the graph. The final value of the area is called the \"integral\" of the function.\nIn mathematics, the integral of the function \"f(x)\" from \"a\"\u00a0 to \"b\", is written as\nformula_19.\nMain idea of calculus.\nThe main idea in calculus is called the fundamental theorem of calculus. This main idea says that the two calculus processes, differentiation and integration, are inverses of each other. That is, a person can use differentiation to undo an integration process. Also, a person can use integration to undo a differentiation. This is just like using division to \"undo\" multiplication, or addition to \"undo\" subtraction.\nIn a single sentence, the fundamental theorem runs something like this: \"The derivative of the integral of a function \"f\" is the function itself\".\nApplications of calculus.\nCalculus is used to describe things that change, like things in nature. It can be used for showing and learning all of these:"}
+{"id": "162", "revid": "10239574", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=162", "title": "Coin", "text": "A coin is a piece of metal that is used as currency, or money. The earliest coins were in Lydia, in what is Turkey today, in 7th Century BC. They were made from electrum, an alloy found in riverbeds. \nMost people use coins as currency. They usually have lower value than banknotes. Most are made in government mints.\nAppearance.\nMany coins have unique or complicated decorations; one side often has the picture of a king or ither important person's head on it. \nThe different decorations on each side of a coin might be used to decide things randomly. This is called \"tossing a coin\". A person can throw the coin into the air and catch it. You then look at which side is facing up. If the head is facing up it is called \"heads\", if the other side is facing up it is called \"tails\". Before tossing the coin someone has to decide what each side means. Tossing a coin can be a type of gambling, which is illegal (against the law) in some countries.\nCollecting.\nBecause coins have been made for a very long time, some people collect old coins. They can be much cheaper than other old things, especially if they are made of cheap metals like copper. Older coins normally cost more than newer ones, but rarity matters more-some coins from the 1920s cost vast sums, while some Roman coins cost very little."}
+{"id": "164", "revid": "664627", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=164", "title": "Conceptual metaphor", "text": "A conceptual metaphor or cognitive metaphor is a metaphor which refers to one domain (group of ideas) in terms of another. For example, treating quantity in terms of direction:\nThe idea of a conceptual metaphor came from a book by George Lakoff and Mark Johnson in 1980: \"Metaphors we live by\".\nA convention is to write conceptual metaphors in small capital letters, e.g. , with the target domain (idea being referred to) first, here \"money,\" and the source domain (terms used to refer to it) second.\nPolitical metaphors.\nThere are many more, enough to prove the importance of the metaphor in our lives."}
+{"id": "166", "revid": "937699", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=166", "title": "Crust", "text": "Crust is a piece of bread where the edge where it is harder and darker.\nCrust can also mean:"}
+{"id": "167", "revid": "196884", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=167", "title": "Comedy", "text": "Comedy (from ), in modern times, is an entertainment with generally funny content. It is able to make people laugh. This definition was used for theatre plays, and was first used in Ancient Greece. Aristotle defined this as \u201cComedy is, as we have said, an imitation of characters of a lower type- not, however, in the full sense of the word bad, the ludicrous being merely a subdivision of the ugly. It consists in some defect or ugliness which is not painful or destructive. To take an obvious example, the comic mask is ugly and distorted, but does not imply pain.\u201d To him, the lampooners became writers of Comedy and the truly artistic ones became writers of Tragedy.\nComedy is also a media genre that is for television shows or movies that are either funny or silly. People who are known for acting in comedies are termed as comedians or comedic actors.\nHistory.\nSatire.\nThe ancient Greeks had comedies, which were presented in competitions at the festival of Dionysia. \nOne of the best-known comedy authors of the time was Aristophanes (about 446386 BC). One of his works, \"The Clouds\" was performed 425 BC. The work did not survive completely, but a later version did survive. It is a satire against Socrates, and pictures the great philosopher as a swaggering con artist. Some of the accusations were re-used at Socrates' trial, twenty years later. \nTypical for satire are that the author criticizes society, and living people.\nSatyr plays.\nAnother type of Ancient Greek theatre was the satyr play. This was mock drunkenness, brazen sexuality (including phallic props), pranks, sight gags, and general merriment. The modern equivalent would be knock-about comedy.\nHumour.\nHumour, or 'New Comedy' is not about criticizing people or ideas, but rather about showing characters in funny situations. The most important Greek playwright of this type was probably Menander. The best known Roman comedy writer was Plautus. He often used Greek comedies for his plays.\nMany comedy plays were written in the 1500s by the British writer William Shakespeare.\nShakespeare's comedy plays include:\" All\u2019s Well That Ends Well, The Comedy of Errors, A Midsummer Nights Dream\", and \"Twelfth Night\". In Shakespeare's day a comedy did not mean a play that would make people laugh or that had a lot of jokes. Instead it was a play in which all the problems work out all right in the end. This was unlike a tragedy, where the problems do not work out, usually resulting in someone's death.\nThe two masks, one was smiling, the other crying, often associated with theatre represent comedy and tragedy.\nTypes.\nSlapstick.\nThere are different types of comedy. One type of comedy is called \"slap stick comedy.\" In \"slap stick comedy,\" people do silly things such as tripping, falling over or embarrassing themselves just to make people laugh. Slap stick comedy can be used in comedy movies or comedy television shows.\nSlap stick comedy was used a lot in silent (no sound) movies from the 1920s. A comedian who acted in the silent movies who used a lot of slapstick comedy was Charlie Chaplin. In the 1950s and 1960s, comedian Jerry Lewis also used silly slap stick comedy in his comedy movies.\nComedy movies.\nA comedy is a very popular type of movie. Some comedy movies have \"slapstick comedy,\" in which people just do silly things such as tripping, falling over or embarrassing themselves just to make people laugh. Other comedy movies show funny stories or situations in which people are behaving in a silly manner. Some comedies make the audience laugh by showing strange or unusual images or situations that do not make sense.\nOffensive Comedy.\na genre of comedy that existed before the rise of \"political correctness\" generally racist and discriminatory against minorities but can be used as a way to offend those who offend others this is known as \"Reverse Racism\". an example of this is calling a white person a \"honky\" or \"white trash\" these terms are offensive to white people which is racist but if used against a person who calls someone another terminology, as a way of keeping ones honour.\nParody/Spoof.\nA parody or spoof movie imitates or exaggerates another person or movie to make them seem silly, dumb, or just plain out of it. \nDifferent types of comedy movies.\nSome types of comedy movies mix comedy with other types of movies. \nComedy television shows.\nComedy shows are very popular on television. Comedy shows on television are often called \"sitcoms.\" The word \"sitcom\" is a shortened way of saying \"situational comedy.\" Television situational comedies usually show characters who do silly or funny things which make the audience laugh."}
+{"id": "168", "revid": "863768", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=168", "title": "Comet", "text": "A comet is a ball of mostly ice that moves around in outer space. Comets are often described as \"dirty snowballs\". They are very different from asteroids. \nThe orbital inclinations of comets are usually high and not near the ecliptic where most solar system objects are found. Most of them are long-period comets and come from the Kuiper belt. That is very far away from the Sun, but some of them also come near enough to Earth for us to see at night. \nThey have long \"tails\", because the Sun melts the ice. A comet's tail does not trail behind it, but points directly away from the Sun, because it is blown by the solar wind.\nThe hard centre of the comet is the \"nucleus\". It is one of the blackest things (lowest albedo) in the solar system. When light shone on the nucleus of Halley's Comet, the comet reflected only 4% of the light back to us.\n\"Periodic\" comets visit again and again. \"Non-periodic\" or \"single-apparition\" comets visit only once.\nComets sometimes break up, as Comet Biela did in the 19th century. Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 broke up, and the pieces hit Jupiter in 1994. Some comets orbit (go around) together in groups. Astronomers think these comets are broken pieces that used to be one object.\nHistory of comets.\nFor thousands of years, people feared comets. They did not know what they were, or where they came from. Some thought that they were fireballs sent from demons or gods to destroy the earth. They said that each time a comet appeared, it would bring bad luck with it. Whenever a comet appeared, a king would die. For example, the Bayeux Tapestry shows the return of Halley's Comet and the death of a king. Comets were also known to end wars and thought to bring famine. During the Renaissance, astronomers started to look at comets with less superstition and to base their science on observations. Tycho Brahe reasoned that comets did not come from the earth, and his measurements and calculations showed that comets must be six times farther than the earth is from the moon.\nEdmond Halley reasoned that some comets are periodic, that is, they appear again after a certain number of years, and again and again. This led to the first prediction of a comet's return, Halley's Comet, named after him.\nIsaac Newton also studied comets. He realised that comets make U-turns around the sun. He asked his friend Edmond Halley to publish this in his book \"Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica\". Before Newton said this, people believed that comets go in to the sun, then another comes out from behind the sun. \nIn later years, some astronomers thought comets were spit out by planets, especially Jupiter.\nAll this new information and research gave people confidence, but some still thought that comets were messengers from the gods. One 18th century vision said that comets were the places that hell was, where souls would ride, being burned up by the heat of the sun and frozen by the cold of space.\nIn modern times, space probes have visited comets to learn more about them."}
+{"id": "169", "revid": "863768", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=169", "title": "Cytology", "text": "Cytology is the study of the cells, especially their appearance and structure. Cells are the small parts that make up all living things, and their effects on each other and their environment.\nThere are two types of cells. Prokaryotic cells do not have a clear and easy-to-see nucleus, and do not have a membrane, or wall, around them. Eukaryotic cells have an easy-to-see nucleus where all of the cell's functions take place, and a membrane around them. The main organelles of a cell and their uses are: "}
+{"id": "170", "revid": "10454887", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=170", "title": "Christian", "text": "A Christian () is a person who believes in Christianity, an Abrahamic monotheistic religion. Christianity is mostly about the life and teachings of Jesus Christ, in the Bible's New Testament and interpreted or prophesied in the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament. Christianity is the world's largest religion, with 2.1 billion followers around the world.\nViews of the Bible.\nChristians consider the Holy Bible to be a sacred book, inspired by God. The Holy Bible is a combination of the Hebrew Bible, or Torah, and a collection of writings called the New Testament. Views on the importance of these writings vary. Some Christian groups prefer to favor the New Testament. Others believe the entire Bible is equally important. Also, while many Christians prefer to consider the Bible as fully true, not all Christian groups believe that it is completely accurate.\nWho is a Christian?\nThe question of \"Who is a Christian?\" can be very difficult. Christians often disagree over this due to their differences in opinion on spiritual matters. In countries where most persons were baptized in the state church or the majority Christian church, the term \"Christian\" is a default label for citizenship or for \"people like us\".\nIn this context, religious or ethnic minorities can use \"Christians\" or \"you Christians\" as a term for majority members of society who do not belong to their group - even in a very secular (though formally Christian) society.\nPersons who are more devoted to their Christian faith prefer not to use the word so broadly. They only use it to refer to those who are active in their Christian religion and really believe the teachings of Jesus and their church. In some Christian movements (especially Fundamentalism and Evangelicalism), to be a born-again Christian is to undergo a \"spiritual rebirth\" by believing in the Bible's teachings about Jesus and choosing to follow him.\nChurch life.\nMany Christians choose to go to church. Most Christians believe this to be a sign of their religious devotion to God and an act of worship. However, some Christian groups think that one can be a Christian without ever going to a church. Though there are many different viewpoints on the issue, most Protestants believe all Christians are part of the spiritual church of Christ, whether or not those Christians go to an actual church each week. On the other hand, Catholics in the past have believed that their Roman Catholic Church is the only true church."}
+{"id": "171", "revid": "1688366", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=171", "title": "Cheese", "text": "Cheese is a dairy product that is made from milk from many different animals' milk. There are many types of cheese, such as cheddar, Swiss, and provolone. \nMany things affect the form, texture, color and flavor of a cheese. These include the milk (cow or goat), if the milk has been pasteurized, the amount of butterfat, bacteria and mold in the cheese, how the cheese is made, how much fat is in the cheese, and how old the cheese is.\nOrigin.\nPeople have been making cheese since before history was written down. It is not known when cheese was first made, but is known that cheese was eaten by the Sumerians in about 4000 BC. \nClassification.\nThere are many different ways to classify cheeses. Some ways include:\nThere are also man-made foods that some people use instead of cheese. These are called Cheese analogues.\nDifferent types of cheese include:"}
+{"id": "173", "revid": "1184188", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=173", "title": "Constitution", "text": "The constitution of a country (or a state) is a special type of law document that tells how its government is supposed to work. Every country have its own constitution, it tells how the country's leaders are to be chosen and how long they get to stay in office, how new laws are made and old laws are to be changed or removed based on law, what kind of people are allowed to vote and what other rights they are guaranteed, and how the constitution can be changed.\nLimits are put on the Government in how much power they have within the Constitution \"(see Rule of Law )\". On the other hand, countries with repressive or corrupt governments frequently do not stick to their constitutions, or have bad constitutions without giving freedom to citizens and others. This can be known as dictatorship or simply \"bending the rules\". A Constitution is often a way of uniting within a Federation.\nThe UK's constitution is not written in one single document like many other countries' are. In fact, the UK's constitution is not completely written down at all. Some of it can be found in writing, starting with Magna Carta of 1215 and the Bill of Rights Act 1689 and including more modern Acts of Parliament. Other parts of it are considered common law and are made up of the decisions of judges over many hundreds of years in a system called legal or judicial precedence. Because of this, some people say that the United Kingdom has a \"de facto\" or \"unwritten\" constitution.\nThe United States in 1787 began a trend in the writing of constitutions. The United States Constitution is also the shortest that people are still using, and it has been changed (amended) many times over the years. It was made after the colonists won their independence from Britain. At first they had the Articles of Confederation but the Articles were replaced with today's Constitution.\nThe Indian constitution of 1950 is the longest ever written constitution in the world. It originally consisted of 395 Articles arranged under 22 Parts and 8 Schedules. As of 2021, it has 470 Articles, 12 schedules, and 25 Parts with 5 appendices and 98 amendments."}
+{"id": "175", "revid": "1681068", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=175", "title": "Circle", "text": "A circle is a round, two-dimensional shape. All points on the edge of the circle are at the same distance from the center.\nThe point on the side. Mathematicians use the letter formula_1 for the length of a circle's radius. The center of a circle is the point in the very middle. It is often written as formula_2.\nThe diameter (meaning \"all the way across\") of a circle is a straight line that goes from one side to the opposite and right through the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter formula_3 for the length of this line. The diameter of a circle is equal to twice its radius (formula_3 equals formula_5 times formula_1):\nThe circumference (meaning \"all the way around\") of a circle is the line that goes around the center of the circle. Mathematicians use the letter formula_8 for the length of this line.\nThe number formula_9 (written as the Greek letter \"pi\") is a very useful number. It is the length of the circumference divided by the length of the diameter (formula_9 equals formula_8 divided by formula_3). As a fraction the number formula_9 is equal to about formula_14 or formula_15 (which is closer) and as a number it is about formula_16.\nThe area, formula_17, inside a circle is equal to the radius multiplied by itself, then multiplied by formula_9 (formula_17 equals formula_9 times formula_1 times formula_1).\nCalculating \u03c0.\nformula_9 can be measured by drawing a circle, then measuring its diameter (formula_3) and circumference (formula_8). This is because the circumference of a circle is always equal to formula_9 times its diameter.\nformula_9 can also be calculated by only using mathematical methods. Most methods used for calculating the value of formula_9 have desirable mathematical properties. However, they are hard to understand without knowing trigonometry and calculus. However, some methods are quite simple, such as this form of the Gregory-Leibniz series:\nWhile that series is easy to write and calculate, it is not easy to see why it equals formula_9. A much easier way to approach is to draw an imaginary circle of radius formula_1 centered at the origin. Then any point formula_34 whose distance formula_3 from the origin is less than formula_1, calculated by the Pythagorean theorem, will be inside the circle:\nFinding a set of points inside the circle allows the circle's area formula_17 to be estimated, for example, by using integer coordinates for a big formula_1. Since the area formula_17 of a circle is formula_9 times the radius squared, formula_9 can be approximated by using the following formula:\nCalculating measures of a circle.\nArea.\nUsing the radius: formula_44\nUsing the diameter: formula_45\nUsing the circumference: formula_46\nCircumference.\nUsing the radius: formula_47\nUsing the diameter: formula_48\nUsing the area: formula_49\nDiameter.\nUsing the radius: formula_7\nUsing the circumference: formula_51\nUsing the area: formula_52\nRadius.\nUsing the diameter: formula_53\nUsing the circumference: formula_54\nUsing the area: formula_55"}
+{"id": "176", "revid": "844779", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=176", "title": "Capitalization", "text": "Capitalization (North American spelling), or capitalisation (British spelling), is a process to make one letter or more uppercase. The first letter of a sentence is capitalised in many languages, as are the first letters of proper nouns such as names of people and places. In German, however, all nouns are capitalized.\nIn the Latin alphabet, which is used in English, these are the uppercase or capital letters or majuscules:\nA, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R, S, T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z\nThese are the lowercase or small letters or minuscules:\na, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z\nThe homonym \"(to) capitalize\" is a different word and it means \"to fully fund as an investment\".\nNames of capitalization styles.\nThere are many ways to use capitalization and they have names.\nSentence case.\n\"The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.\"\nSentence case is the standard case used in English prose and in many other languages. Only the first word is capitalized, except for proper nouns and other words which are generally capitalized by a more specific rule.\nTitle case.\nWhen something is written in title case (also known as capital case or headline style), all words are capitalized, except for certain minor words, such as \"the\", \"of\" or \"and\".\nAll caps.\nWhen something is written in all caps (or all-caps), every single letter is uppercase, with no exceptions.\nCamel case.\nCamel case (or CamelCase) is the practice of writing compound words or phrases so that each next word or abbreviation is capitalized. It can either start with a lowercase or uppercase letter. Common examples are PowerPoint or iPhone."}
+{"id": "177", "revid": "1719", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=177", "title": "Capitalize", "text": ""}
+{"id": "178", "revid": "10445784", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=178", "title": "Cuba", "text": "Cuba is an island country in the Caribbean Sea. The country is made up of the big island of Cuba, the Isla de la Juventud island (\"Isle of Youth\"), and many smaller islands. Havana is the capital city of Cuba. It is the largest city. The second largest city is Santiago de Cuba. In Spanish, the capital is called \"La Habana\". Cuba is near the United States, Mexico, Haiti, Jamaica and the Bahamas. People from Cuba are called Cubans (\"cubanos\" in Spanish). The official language is Spanish. It is the largest island of the West Indies and the second most populous island (after Hispaniola) of the West Indies. Cuba is warm all year.\nIn 1492, Christopher Columbus landed on the island of Cuba. He claimed it for the Kingdom of Spain. Cuba became a Spanish colony until the Spanish\u2013American War of 1898. In 1812 Jose Aponte led the First Cuban rebellion against the Spanish monarchy. After the Spanish-American war, it was a protectorate of the United States. It gained independence in 1902.\nIn 1959, guerrilla fighters led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara overthrew Cuba's dictator, Fulgencio Batista, in what became the Cuban Revolution. The United States had supported Castro in 1958 by stopping the sale of weapons to the Batista government, At first, relations were friendly between Castro and the United States government under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. However, Castro began making relations with the Soviet Union. Castro tried to take over American businesses and land owned by Americans without paying the owners; the United States did not like this. In 1961 Castro officially announced that his government was communist. The new United States President, John F. Kennedy, ordered an attack to invade Cuba. The plan was to take control of the country and overthrow its communist government. The attack failed. The Communist Party of Cuba was created in 1965 and has ruled the island ever since. Today, Cuba is the only communist state outside of Asia, in the Caribbean, and in the western hemisphere.\nCulture.\nCuba is famous for many types of music, especially dance music such as the Salsa and Mambo. Because Cubans have ancestors from Spain, Africa, South America and North America, Cuban music is special and different.\nReading is very popular in Cuba. Many people especially enjoy reading books or things that come from outside the country, even though the government does not approve of this. They also love music and sports. Cuban music is very lively. This is because a lot of it comes from African and Spanish rhythms. Baseball, basketball, and athletics events are loved by many Cuban people. The Chiefs football-team took at one Football-World-Cup part. In 1938, they reached the quarter-final and lost against Sweden 0:8.\nHistory.\nEarly history.\nBefore Cuba was conquered by the Spaniards, three tribes lived on the island. They were the Ta\u00ednos, the Ciboneys, and the Guanajatabeyes. The Ta\u00ednos were the largest and most common of the three tribes. They farmed crops such as beans, corn, squash, and yams. The Ta\u00ednos also slept in hammocks, which the Spaniards would introduce to the rest of the world. Then, in 1492, Christopher Columbus arrived in Cuba on his first trip to the Americas. Three years later, he claimed the islands for the Spanish. The Spanish began to rule Cuba afterwards. The Spanish brought thousands of slaves from Africa to Cuba to work for them. Most of the native Cubans died because of the new diseases brought by the Spanish and Africans. The Spanish also treated the native Cubans very cruelly and killed many of them.\nThe Spanish ruled for many years. Cuba became the most important producer of sugar. In the early 1800s, Cubans rebelled against the Spanish rulers, but failed until 1898, when the United States went to war with the Spanish and defeated them. This was the Spanish\u2013American War. Cuba became American for four years afterwards, before it became an independent republic in 1902. Even though Cuba was independent, the Americans still controlled the island by a law called the Platt Amendment. In 1933 the Cubans stopped the Platt Amendment, but the Americans still had a big say in Cuban politics. Americans owned most of Cuba\u2019s businesses. The Americans supported the leader Fulgencio Batista, who was seen by many Cubans as corrupt.\nAs well as controlling Cuban politics, the United States also had a lot of control over the Cuban economy. At the time, Cuba was a monoculture economy. They produced coffee, tobacco, and rice, but mostly they produced sugar. So Cuba was known by other countries as the \"sugar bowl of the world.\" The United States bought sugar from the Republic of Cuba at a price higher than everyone else in the world so that Cuba favoured the United States and its industries. Cuba depended on the United States and their investments. Cuba was not industrialized and needed the money for goods and oil. Cuba also needed US money for gas, electricity, communications, railways, and banks. Although Cuban workers had better conditions than other countries in Latin America, they still faced inequality, lack of infrastructure, high illiteracy rates, and a lack of full-time work (the sugar industry was not the same all year round).\nCuban Revolution.\nIn 1959, Fidel Castro led a revolution against Fulgencio Batista. Castro took power in Cuba with Che Guevara from Argentina, his brother Raul, and others who fought against Batista. Castro made many changes to Cuba. He ended American ownership of Cuban businesses. This made Castro unpopular in America and the United States banned all contact with Cuba. Many Cubans went to America because of this. In 1961, the Americans helped some of these Cubans to attack Cuba and try to remove Castro, but they failed. Castro then asked the Soviet Union to help defend them from the Americans, which they did. The Soviet Union put nuclear weapons in Cuba and aimed them at the United States. American President Kennedy demanded that they be removed or a new war would begin. This was known as the \"Cuban Missile Crisis\". The Soviet Union removed the missiles when the United States agreed to not continue attacking Cuba and to remove missiles from Turkey.\nCuba became a communist-led country like the Soviet Union after this. The Soviet Union bought most of Cuba\u2019s sugar at high prices. Cuba spent this money on health, education and the army. This made Cuba\u2019s schools and hospitals some of the best in the world. The army fought in Africa to support black Africans against the white South African army. Cuba also supported groups in South America fighting against the dictators of those countries.\nHowever, the Cuban government began to control most of life in Cuba under the communist system. Disagreeing with the Cuban government and Fidel Castro in public was not allowed. Some Cubans did not like this and tried to leave Cuba. Most Cubans who left went to the United States. Some Cubans who did not like the government and stayed were put in jail. Many groups from around the world protested against Cuba because of this, and demanded that Fidel Castro give up power.\nIn 1991, the Soviet Union collapsed. This meant that Cuba, which had sold most of its products to the Soviet Union, had no money coming into the country. The Americans made the restrictions against contact with Cuba tighter. America said the restrictions on contact would continue unless Fidel Castro gave up power. Cuba became very poor in the 1990s. This became known in Cuba as \u201cThe Special Period\u201d. Because of the disaster, Cuba changed to allow less control by the government, more discussion amongst the people, and private shops and businesses. Cuba also tried to get tourists to visit the island.\nIn the 2000s, tourism to Cuba began to make money for the island again. Though Fidel Castro had remained in power, he had passed all duties to his brother Raul after an illness. Fidel Castro was one of the longest-serving heads of state. In 2018, Miguel D\u00edaz-Canel became the official President of Cuba.\nIn April 2015, historic talks took place with US president Barack Obama and Cuban first secretary Ra\u00fal Castro about improving relations between the two nations.\nThe trade embargo issued by President Kennedy in the 1960s was considerably loosened under Obama's administration. US citizens can now travel directly to Cuba at certain times of the year. Before, Americans had to go via Mexico if they wanted to go to Cuba. Americans are still not allowed to purchase or smoke Cuban cigars. The cigars are smuggled over the US-Canadian border since they are legal in Canada.\nFor military service, men from the age of 17 to 28 years old must go into the army for two years. It is optional for women.\nIn July 2021, there were demonstrations against the government.\nAdministrative divisions.\nThe country is divided into 15 provinces and one special municipality (Isla de la Juventud). The provinces are divided into municipalities.\nDemographics.\nThe population of Cuba is close to 13 million. The people of Cuba come from three different groups. The largest group is the descendants of the Spanish settlers who came to Cuba. The smallest group is the descendants of the black African slaves who were brought in to do the work and birth children (in the barracoon) as New World slaves who could be legally sold into life time bondage in the United States. The middle-sized group is a mix of African and Spanish. The government succeeded in seeing that the three different groups were treated the same. According to a DNA Caribbean Studies Institute, the racial-makeup of the population of Cuba is:\nChristianity is the most widespread religion in Cuba, with Catholicism being its largest denomination, which is practiced by more than 53% of the Cuban population. Protestantism is practiced by less than 3% of the Cuban population. A large part of the Cuban population is either non-religious or practices folk religions such as Santeria. Hinduism is practiced by 0.2% of the population and Islam is practiced by less than 0.1% of the population.\nHealth and education.\nCuba is a developing country, and, by economic measures, is a very poor country. In some aspects however, like education, health care and life expectancy it ranks much better than most countries in Latin America. Its infant death rate is lower than some developed countries. The average life expectancy is 78 years, about the same as in the United States.\nAll the children are required to go to school from six to twelve years old, and nearly everybody is able to read and write at least. There is free education at every level. Because of this, Cuba has a 99.8% literacy rate.\nIn 2006, the World Food Programme certified Cuba to be the only country in this region without undernourished children. In the same year, the United Nations said that Cuba was the only nation in the world that met the World Wide Fund for Nature's definition of sustainable development.\nGeography.\nCuba is the largest island in the West Indies. It has many resources. Only about one-fourth of the land is mountains or hills. Much of the land is gentle hills or plains which are good for farming or raising cattle. Cuba has fertile soil and a mostly warm and humid climate that makes it a great place for growing crops.\nSugar is the most important crop of Cuba, which is made from sugar cane. Sugar cane is the largest cash crop grown in Cuba, and it brings in most of the money. After that, the second is tobacco. Tobacco is made into cigars by hand. A hand-made cigar is considered by many people to be the finest in the world. Other important crops are rice, coffee, and fruit. Cuba also has many minerals. Cobalt, nickel, iron, copper, and manganese are all on the island. Salt, petroleum, and natural gas are there too. The coast of Cuba has many bays and a few good harbors. Havana, which is the capital, is also a port. Other harbors have port cities. Nuevitas is a port city on the north coast. Cienfuegos, Guant\u00e1namo, and Santiago de Cuba are some of the port cities on the south coast.\nCuba has a semi-tropical climate. That means that the cool ocean winds keep it from becoming hot, despite it being in the tropical zone. Cuba has a wet season and a dry season. The dry season is from November to April, and the wet season is from May to October. August to October is also the hurricane season in the Atlantic Ocean. Because of this, most of Cuba's port cities can be flooded along the coast.\nEconomy.\nCuba has a planned economy. That means the government decides what things should be made and what services should be provided. In recent years, the government has allowed people to sell fruits and vegetables or things they have made. People are allowed to build houses for themselves if they have money. Most people work for the government. People who work for the government do not get paid much money. Salaries in Cuba are the lowest in the world, but some things are free that people in other countries have to pay for. The government owns most of the houses. People do not have to pay rent to live in them. School is free. Health care is free. People do not have to pay to go to a doctor or hospital.\nRelatives living in other countries often send some money to their parents, brothers or sisters still living in Cuba. Money from other countries is very valuable in Cuba."}
+{"id": "180", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=180", "title": "Cube", "text": "A cube is a type of polyhedron with all right angles and whose height, width and depth are all the same. It is a type of rectangular prism, which is itself a type of hexahedron.\nA cube is one of the simplest mathematical shapes in space. Something that is shaped like a cube can be called \"cubic\".\nSurface area of cube=6l^2\nLateral Surface area of cube=4l^2\nVolume of cube=l^3\nRelative 2-dimensional shape.\nThe basic difference between a cube and a square is, a cube is a 3D figure (having 3 dimensions) i.e. length, breadth and height while a square has only 2 dimensions i.e. length and breadth.\nThe 2-dimensional (2D) shape (like a circle, square, triangle, etc.) that a cube is made of is squares. The sides (faces) of a cube are squares. The edges are straight lines. The corners (vertices) are at right angles. A cube has 8 corners, 12 edges and 6 faces, as in the most usual kind of dice. A tesseract carries this idea into the fourth dimension (4D) and is made of 8 cubes."}
+{"id": "182", "revid": "1316807", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=182", "title": "Cost of living", "text": "Cost of living is the amount of money it costs just to live in a certain place. It is measured using a list of things people need, like food and housing. Governments measure cost of living to give welfare (money or benefits for poor people) and to set minimum wage.\nWhen the cost of living is higher than people can pay, a cost of living crisis happens. Causes for a cost of living crisis can be poverty, people making less money due to inflation, increased cost of needed items, and problems with the economy. This crisis can cause health effects right away and in the future."}
+{"id": "185", "revid": "10066256", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=185", "title": "December", "text": "December (Dec.) is the twelfth and last month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between November (of the current year) and January (of the following year). It has 31 days. With the name of the month coming from the Latin \"decem\" for \"ten\", it was the tenth month of the year before January and February were added to the Roman calendar.\nDecember always begins on the same day of the week as September, and ends on the same day of the week as April.\nDecember's flower is the Narcissus. Its birthstone is the turquoise.\nSome of the holidays celebrated in December are Christmas, New Year's Eve, Kwanzaa, and Hanukkah.\nThe Month.\nDecember is the twelfth and last month of every calendar year in the Gregorian calendar, and is one of seven months of the year to have 31 days. December 31 is followed by January 1 of the following year.\nDecember begins on the same day of the week as September every year, as each other's first days are exactly 13 weeks (91 days) apart. December ends on the same day of the week as April every year, as each other's last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.\nIn common years, December starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the previous year, and in leap years, October of the previous year. In common years, December finishes on the same day of the week as July of the previous year, and in leap years, February and October of the previous year. In leap years and years immediately after that, December both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year.\nIn years immediately before common years, December starts on the same day of the week as June of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and November of the following year. In years immediately before common years, December finishes on the same day of the week as September of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, March and June of the following year.\nDecember is one of two months to have a solstice (the other is June, its seasonal equivalent in both hemispheres), and in this month the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere is turned towards the Sun, meaning that December 21 or December 22 is the Northern Winter Solstice and the Southern Summer Solstice. This means that this date would have the least daylight of any day in the Northern Hemisphere, and the most in the Southern Hemisphere. There are 24 hours of darkness at the North Pole and 24 hours of daylight at the South Pole.\nIn mainly Christian countries, December is dominated by Christmas, which is celebrated on December 25 in most of those countries, though Eastern Orthodox Christians celebrate it on January 7. It marks the birth of Jesus Christ. Epiphany, January 6, is also important in relation to Christmas. Advent starts on the Sunday on, or closest to, November 30, and some countries have their own related celebration before the 25th. Sinterklaas is celebrated on December 5 in the Netherlands and Belgium, and St. Nicholas Day on December 6 is also celebrated in some countries. The Scandinavian countries, mainly Sweden, celebrate St. Lucia Day on December 13, while Iceland celebrates Thorlaksmessa on December 23. The week after Christmas is spent preparing for New Year.\nJudaism's festival of light, Hanukkah, is also celebrated over eight days in this month."}
+{"id": "186", "revid": "10422174", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=186", "title": "Dublin", "text": "Dublin () is the capital city of the Republic of Ireland, and the biggest city on the island of Ireland. In 2022, there were over 2.13 million people living in the Greater Dublin Area.\nDublin was built by the Vikings upon the river Liffey. The river divides the city into two parts, North Dublin and South Dublin.\nMany famous writers lived in Dublin. Oscar Wilde and George Bernard Shaw were born in Dublin. James Joyce is probably Dublin's best known and most international writer.\nDublin is home to Ireland's largest stadium for all sports, Croke Park. It can hold up to 85,000 people. Croke Park is the usual venue for all Ireland hurling and football finals. The Aviva Stadium hosts rugby and soccer."}
+{"id": "187", "revid": "1386969", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=187", "title": "Dance", "text": "Dance is a performing art. It is described in many ways. It is when people move to a musical rhythm. They may be alone, or in a group. The dance may be an informal play, a part of a ritual, or a part of a professional performance. There are many kinds of dances, and every human society has its own dances.\nDancing is not a sport, though it does have some athletic aspects. Dance is an art. Some people dance to express their feelings and emotions, or to feel better. Dance can be used to tell a story. In some societies, dance goes with song as well as music. Dancing is sometimes done as sport and has similar athletic aspects. People who want to learn to dance can go to dance schools. It may take years of practice to become an experienced and capable dancer. Dancing is a good form of exercise because it is more fun than most other forms. It is a good way to lose weight. \nTo plan a dance is called \"choreography\", done by a choreographer. Often this goes with music, and fits into a certain style. Dances may be planned in detail, or they may be whatever dancers feel like doing. However, most dancing does follow some general style or pattern. One style is the couple dance, where (usually) a man and a woman dance together. Other dances need an ensemble, a group of people together to make it work. Some styles of dance are lyrical, ballet, ballroom, tap, acrobatics, jazz, musical theater, contemporary, modern, hip hop, and western. \nHistory.\nPeople have always danced. Many cultures have their own dances. There are pictures, on pottery and stone, which show dances from several thousand years ago, in Egypt and Greece.\nSachs divides early dances into 'Imageless dances' and 'Image dances'. By 'imageless dances' he meant dances which have no set form but aim at getting the dancers into a state of ecstasy. In this state the dancer(s) seem changed, in a trance, and are often thought of (by their society) as being 'possessed by spirits'. These dances are done on certain occasions: marriage, war, famine, illness or death, and so on. They are found in all early ('primitive') societies.p49; 62\nThe 'image dances', according to Sachs, are to do with the world outside the dancer. By imitating an animal or object, the dancer believes he can capture a power and make it useful. To dance in imitation of the animal which is going to be hunted is to become one with them. To imitate the act of sex is to achieve fertility. This is the kind of thinking behind an image dance. Sachs points out that societies of this kind do not really understand the connection between cause and effect. They really believe the image dances work. The dance type which is used in image dances is mime.p49; 77\nThe two styles of dance may be joined. Fertility dances may involve both ecstatic states and mime. The great dancer Nijinsky used some of these ideas in his choreography for the ballet \"Le Sacre du Printemps\" (The Rite of Spring), a ballet about the sacrifice of a girl during a primitive celebration of Spring.\nIn more recent times, the first dance school we know about was opened in 1661 in Paris. Only men were accepted until 1681. After 1681, women were accepted too. Ballroom dances are forms of modern dance. Ballroom dances such as the waltz are done by couples.\nUntil the 20th century, most ballroom dances were sequence dances. The way people moved was planned in set formation. These formations were usually lines or squares. Everyone moved at the same time and finished at the same time. The music played for a set time, and then stopped. After the invention of the waltz, around 1800, another style of dancing developed. In the waltz, and later dances, people danced in couples, but they did so separately. They did not dance in formation but moved round the room as they pleased (but anticlockwise). Often, new dance styles arrive. Some dance as individuals, separately, as they please. Street dance is like that. All these types of dances have music.\nAt the same time, round the world there are many traditional dances. Some of them have been going for hundreds of years. We call them folkloric dances.\nThe coming of popular music videos and DVDs led to a kind of dancer previously seen in some stage shows. A backup dancer (or background dancer) is a performer who dances with or behind the lead performers in a live musical act or in a music video.\nStyles.\nThere are many different styles of dance, which fall into these general types:"}
+{"id": "188", "revid": "640235", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=188", "title": "Dissolution of the monasteries", "text": "The dissolution of the monasteries was an event that happened from 1536 to 1540, when English King Henry VIII took away the land and money that the nuns and monks of the Roman Catholic church owned. Henry VIII then gave this land and money to people that supported him.\nThis was also when Henry VIII made himself the new head of the Church of England (which is a type of Christianity). Parliament made the Act of Supremacy to give him the right to do both these things. It was part of the Protestant Reformation in England."}
+{"id": "189", "revid": "0", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=189", "title": "Data Device", "text": ""}
+{"id": "190", "revid": "1011873", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=190", "title": "Deadline", "text": "A deadline is a time by which some task must be completed.\nVery often, it means a time limit that is set in place by an authority - for example, a teacher tells students that they must turn in their homework in by a certain time. This is so the teacher is able to report fairly to his or her principal that every student had the same chance to do the work.\nDeadlines may also be set by a time horizon that comes from something that is not a human authority, but part of nature. For example, by sunset one must do those tasks requiring daylight. However, a human must watch the sun and decide what light is strong enough to still be daylight, so time limits will still be involved even if one observes a horizon and sets a deadline oneself.\nA way to remember this is that a time horizon is like the physical horizon where sunset happens and a time limit is a thing people set up to deal with this. A deadline is a thing powerful people set up to ensure less powerful people comply with their way of doing things."}
+{"id": "191", "revid": "1011913", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=191", "title": "Dutton's Speedwords", "text": "Dutton Speedwords is a made-up language written by Reginald John Garfield Dutton. The idea of Dutton Speedwords is to make frequent words short, and very frequent words very short. Dutton Speedwords can be used as a second language for international communications. Dutton Speedwords is also a shorthand writing system \u2013 this means you can use it to write quickly. \nThe method was made up by Reginald John Garfield Dutton (1886-1970) in 1922. It was first published in 1935. It was called \"International Symbolic Script\". A year later, it was called \"Speedwords\". It was changed in 1946 and 1951.\nIt has two uses; to be a language and to be used for writing quickly. Dutton hoped that this would mean more people would learn it because they could use it for two reasons.\nThe books that Dutton wrote about Speedwords are not printed anymore. But Speedwords is now being used by more people because they find it is good for working online. For example, it makes it faster to type an email.\nAnother way of writing quickly is Pitman's shorthand. This uses special symbols instead of letters. Speedwords uses Roman letters. This makes it easier to learn. It also means it can be typed using a normal keyboard. Each word means only one thing. This means you do not need to use different forms of the same word.\nThe words used in Speedwords are the same as the words used in many other languages. The words are like short versions of the writer's own language."}
+{"id": "195", "revid": "224035", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=195", "title": "Devil", "text": "In some religions and mythology, the Devil (also called the God of Darkness or Dark God) is an evil spirit, deity, demon, or other supernatural being that tries to create problems for people and distance them from God. In some cultures, the Devil is seen as the embodiment of evil. He is often depicted with red skin, horns, and a tail.\nSome people also use the word \"Satan\" for the most powerful devil. \nEtymology.\nThe word \"devil\" comes from the Greek word \"diabolos\", which means \"someone who tells lies to hurt you\". (\"Diabolos\" is translated to the English word \"slanderer.\") The New Testament uses \"diabolos\" as a title for Satan, so \"the Devil\" became another name for Satan in English.\nThe Old Testament talks about the Serpent and Satan the Evil One, who may be two different characters. \"Satan\" in Hebrew means \"adversary\", which is a word for an enemy or opponent. Shaitan is also a word used for the Devil in the Koran, who often appears as an animal and tries to get people to do the wrong thing.\nAppearances in religions.\nChristianity.\nAccording to the Christian Bible, the Devil wanted to be a deity who was independent from God. Therefore, a war in heaven started and the angels battled. The Devil lost the battle and was thrown out of heaven. Then he started doing bad things on Earth, and wanted people to worship him instead of God. Sometimes he tries to trick people by giving them false promises.\nThe other angels who were thrown out of heaven became evil spirits called demons. They obey the Devil and help him do evil things.\nThe Book of Revelation says that God will someday punish the Devil and his demons by throwing them into a Lake of Fire that burns in Hell.\nSome Christians understand the Devil as the embodiment of chaos and death. They think that the Devil is the farthest someone can get away from God. God, as the opposite of the Devil, stands for life and the Devil for death. The closer someone gets to the Devil the closer people come to death and will not be resurrected.\nIslam.\nIn Islam there are several devils, who support Satan. The devils are invisible and tempt humans and djinns into sin. Humans and djinns who obey the devil are called devils too.\nOther cultures and religions.\nNot all religions believe in the Devil. For example, some forms of Buddhism do not believe in the Devil. Satan exists inJudaism, but Jews believe Satan is just an angel, not the Devil. \nWicca rejects the concept of the Devil and demons, because in Wiccan tradition, the creative energy is neither positive nor negative. According to Wiccans: \"We are the ones who use this energy for good or evil. Therefore, the consequence of this action is our entire responsibility, not of an evil supernatural being.\" \nThe god \"Cernunnos\" in Wicca has been confused with the Christian Devil because it has horns. In antiquity, because the horns were phallic, they were associated with virility (fertility). Soon they were symbols of ancient European religions. He was already worshipped by pagan religions before Christianity arrived in Europe and the British Isles. \nMany satanists believe in the Devil or Satan only as a metaphor, not an actual being or person. \nIn the Bah\u00e1'\u00ed Faith, the Devil as a malevolent, supernatural entity is not believed to exist. These terms do, however, appear in the Bah\u00e1'\u00ed writings, where they are instead used as metaphors for the lower nature of man.\nArts.\nArtists draw pictures of the Devil that show him as ugly and evil. However, in the Bible, no description of Satan is ever given. \nBelievers in the Devil say he is usually a spirit that nobody can see, though he can make himself look like a human in order to trick people. Many modern depictions of the Devil portray him as a red human-like being with horns and a pointed tail, carrying a red pitchfork or trident."}
+{"id": "196", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=196", "title": "Diarrhea", "text": "Diarrhea (DIE-uh-REE-uh), also spelled diarrhoea, happens when the body makes more watery feces than normal. Diarrhea can occur in humans as well as most other mammals.\nCauses.\nDiarrhea is not a disease. But it may be a symptom of a disease. The most common causes of diarrhea are:\nChild death.\nIn developing nations, diarrheal diseases are the second most common cause of death in children under age 5. Every year in the world, diarrhea kills around 760,000 children under age 5.\nIn developing countries, diarrhea is also one of the most common causes of malnutrition in children under age 5.\nWhen children die from diarrhea, the cause is often dehydration (losing too much water from the body). Because diarrhea is watery, it takes away a lot of the water. It also takes away electrolytes\u2014important salts that the body needs to survive. Dehydration is extra dangerous for small children because they have less water in their bodies to begin with. This means they cannot lose as much water as adults before they start to have serious health problems.\nCauses.\nIn developing countries, diarrhea is usually caused by an infection in the intestines. These infections can be caused by bacteria, viruses, or parasites. These infections spread easily in some developing countries because of the following reasons:\nPreventing child deaths.\nChild deaths from diarrhea can be prevented in different ways.\nRe-hydration.\nWhen a child is sick with diarrhea, the best way to keep them from dying is to rehydrate them (give them the water and electrolytes (salts) they are losing by having diarrhea). If the child can go to a clinic or hospital, this can be done by giving water and salts intravenously (through a needle placed into a vein).\nIf the child cannot go to a clinic or hospital, oral rehydration solution can be used. (\"Oral\" means \"given by mouth\"; a \"solution\" is a mixture.) Oral rehydration solution is a mixture of the most important things the body loses when it is dehydrated. These things are clean water, salt, and sugar. Some oral rehydration solutions have extra electrolytes, like potassium, in them also.\nSome oral rehydration solutions come in packets and just need to be mixed with clean water. Oral rehydration solution can also be made at home. If the water in the area is not safe, it can be boiled to make it safe. (Boiling the water will kill any bacteria, viruses, or parasites in the water.) Salt and sugar are then mixed into the water. Drinking this mixture, after the water cools, will re-hydrate the child, if he drinks enough. Adding a banana or orange juice can add potassium to the mixture.\nBreast milk will also re-hydrate a child with diarrhea.\nPreventing diarrhea.\nThere are some ways to prevent diarrhea, or the spread of diseases that cause diarrhea. However, some of these ways are expensive and difficult to do. These include:"}
+{"id": "199", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=199", "title": "Dimension", "text": "Dimensions are the way we see, measure and experience our world, by using up and down, right to left, back to front, hot and cold, how heavy and how long, as well as more advanced concepts from mathematics and physics. One way to define a dimension is to look at the degrees of freedom, or the way an object can move in a specific space. There are different concepts or ways where the term dimension is used, and there are also different definitions. There is no definition that can satisfy all concepts. \nIn a vector space formula_1 (with vectors being \"arrows\" with directions), the dimension of formula_1, also written as formula_3, is equal to the cardinality (or number of vectors) of a basis of formula_1 (a set which indicates how many unique directions formula_1 actually has). It is also equal to the number of the largest group of straight line directions of that space. \"Normal\" objects in everyday life are specified by three dimensions, which are usually called length, width and depth. Mathematicians call this concept Euclidean space.\nDimensions can be used to measure position too. The distance to a position from a starting place can be measured in the length, width and height directions. These distances are a measure of the position.\nIn some occasions, a fourth (4D) dimension, time, is used to show the position of an event in time and space.\nOther Dimensions.\nIn modern science, people use other dimensions. Dimensions like temperature and weight can be used to show the position of something in less simple spaces. Scientist study those dimensions with dimensional analysis.\nMathematicians also use dimensions. In mathematics, dimensions are more general. Dimensions in mathematics might not measure things in the world. The rules for doing arithmetic with dimensions in mathematics might be different than usual arithmetic rules.\nDimensions and vectors.\nVectors are used to show distances and directions. Vectors are often used in engineering and science, and sometimes in mathematics.\nA vector is a list of numbers. There is one number for each dimension. There are arithmetic rules for vectors.\nFor example, if Jane wants to know the position of Sally, Sally can give Jane a vector to show the position. If Jane and Sally are in the world, there are three dimensions. Therefore, Sally gives Jane a list of three numbers to show her position. The three numbers in the vector Sally gives Jane might be:"}
+{"id": "201", "revid": "20", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=201", "title": "Dimensions", "text": ""}
+{"id": "203", "revid": "36199", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=203", "title": "Distance", "text": "Distance is how far one thing is from another thing. It is also a measure of the space between two things. It can be measured along any path. Thus, someone who goes around in a circle has traveled a distance, even though his position has not changed.\nIn geometry, the distance between two points \"A\" and \"B\" is sometimes written as formula_1. Pythagorean theorem is often used in the calculation of distance. Distance is a scalar, and thus is different from displacement. Displacement is a vector that measures distance with a straight line (and in only one path). Displacement is the shortest way to travel the distance."}
+{"id": "204", "revid": "1513493", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=204", "title": "Depth", "text": "In math, the distance between the nearest end and the farthest end of an object is its depth.\nFor example, the depth of a box can be measured. When the distance between one end of the box and another end of the box is found, the box's depth was measured.\nDepth in Liquids.\nFor liquids, the distance between the top or surface of the liquid and the bottom of the liquid is the liquid's depth.\nFor example, water is a liquid. If a container is filled with water, the distance between the top of the water and the bottom of the container is the water's depth. If the depth is big, the water is deep. "}
+{"id": "206", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=206", "title": "Dictionary", "text": "A dictionary is a type of book which explains the meanings of words or, more precisely, lexemes. The words are arranged in alphabetical order so that they can be found quickly. The word \"dictionary\" comes from the Latin \"dictio\" (\"saying\").\nThere are several types of dictionaries: dictionaries which explain words and how they are used, dictionaries which translate words from one language to another, dictionaries of biography which tell about famous people, technical dictionaries which explain the meanings of technical words or words connected to a particular subject (sometimes called a thesaurus). Some of these come close to being an encyclopedia, but an encyclopedia gives a lot of extra information about things (knowledge) and does not explain the use of the language. An encyclopedic dictionary gives less information about the topic than a real encyclopedia does, but more than a simple dictionary.\nDictionaries which explain the meaning of words.\nOnline dictionaries.\nDictionaries which explain what words mean will give a clear \"definition\" of the word (e.g. hippopotamus : a hoofed mammal with thick skin, large mouth and short legs that lives in rivers and lakes of Africa.)\nA big dictionary will also give more information about the word. It will explain how it is pronounced. Usually the International Phonetic Alphabet is used for this. It will explain how the word is used. This is not a problem for a word like \"hippopotamus\", but a word like \"put\" has so many different meanings that a large dictionary may have a whole page or more to explain how it can be used. It will also explain the origin of the word (e.g. Greek \"hippos\" horse and \"potamus\" river).\nA dictionary may also give the form of the word in different tenses, plural form etc.\nDictionaries which translate into foreign languages.\nThere are also dictionaries which translate words into foreign languages. Often one volume (one book) will translate both ways; for example, half the book might be translating from English to Dutch and the other half from Dutch to English.\nWhen using a dictionary to find out how to say something in another language one has to be careful to choose the right word. A word like \"right\" has two basic meanings in English: 1) \"correct\", and 2) the opposite of \"left\". Other languages have different words for these different meanings, but they have homonyms of their own. A word like \"put\" has many meanings. A good dictionary will have a large list of these meanings to help people find the word they want. In many languages, for example, the word \u201cput\u201d will be different according to whether something is being put onto something (e.g. a table) or into something (e.g. a cupboard).\nUpdating dictionaries.\nDictionaries need to be updated frequently because of the way language changes. New words are often brought into a language (e.g. lots of computer terms) or words change their meanings (e.g. \"gay\" or \"cool\"). In this sense, the most famous English Dictionary is the Oxford English Dictionary (or OED). Words are always being added to the OED. They are never taken out even if they are obsolete (not used any more). The OED can be accessed online (with a subscription)."}
+{"id": "207", "revid": "116449", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=207", "title": "Definition", "text": "A definition in language explains what a word or phrase means. \"Defining\" means giving a definition. \nOther words with this meaning are \"description\" and \"explanation\". They describe what a word means and explains to the person when and where it can be used.\nIn mathematics, a definition is an exact way of saying what a mathematical concept is. It might not be the easiest way to say what it is, but it is used because it is exact. It can be used in a mathematical proof."}
+{"id": "208", "revid": "1011873", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=208", "title": "Denmark", "text": "Denmark (), officially named the Kingdom of Denmark, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It is the furthest south of the Scandinavian countries, to the northeast of North America, to the south of Norway and south-west of Sweden (which it is connected to by a bridge). It has a south border with Germany and a northeast border with Canada. It borders the Arctic Ocean, to the north-northwest, the Atlantic Ocean to the northeast, North Sea to the west and the Baltic Sea to the east. Denmark is a developed country with a large welfare state; In 2006 and 2007, surveys ranked Denmark as \"the happiest place in the world,\" based on standards of health, welfare, and education.\nThe origin of the name Denmark () is uncertain. In Old Norse, the country was called Danm\u01ebrk, referring to the Danish March (the marches of the Danes).\nThe capital city of Denmark is Copenhagen, on the island of Zealand. Denmark is a constitutional monarchy (meaning the head of state is a monarch who has few established powers) with a King, Frederik X. Denmark is a parliamentary state, meaning the people appoint a parliament to make decisions for them, and it has a democratic government headed by an elected Prime Minister, who currently is Mette Frederiksen since 2019.\nHistory.\nDenmark was first united in the 10th century, during the Viking period, by king Harald Bluetooth (), who first converted Denmark to Christianity. The Vikings are well known for invading countries. In the 11th century, the Danish Vikings controlled England (the Danelaw) for a while. In 1397 Denmark, Sweden and Norway became a single country with one queen (this country was called the \"Kalmar Union\") Sweden became a separate country again in 1523. Denmark and Norway (called \"Denmark-Norway)\" stayed united, until 1814. Denmark-Norway controlled many islands in the Atlantic Ocean, including the Faroe Islands, Iceland and Greenland. Iceland became independent from Denmark in 1944.\nDenmark became a constitutional monarchy on June 5, 1849 when it adopted a constitution which took away powers from the King and gave rights to ordinary Danish people. June 5 is now a holiday in Denmark, called \"Constitution Day\".\nOver the years Denmark lost many of the lands that it controlled in battle. Denmark's biggest war defeat was the \"Second Schleswig War\" (in 1864) when the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein were conquered by the Kingdom Prussia (now a part of Germany). This was a big loss for Denmark and, consequently, it began a policy of neutrality after the loss, meaning it would no longer take part in any wars or support other countries. Denmark did not take part in the First World War.\nOn April 9, 1940, Denmark was invaded by Nazi Germany and the Nazis stayed in Denmark throughout World War II. During the war, in 1943, Danes helped over 8,000 Jews to escape from Denmark into Sweden after the Nazis tried to arrest them.\nAfter the liberation of Denmark, one part of the country was not. That was the island of Bornholm. The German Commandant \"von Kamptz\" who was stationed there, refused to surrender to the Soviets as the German were fleeing to Bornholm and further to Sweden. The Soviets then bombed the two biggest towns R\u00f8nne and Nex\u00f8. After the Germans were captured on May 9, 1945, the Soviet Army occupied the island until April 6, 1946.\nAfter World War Two, Denmark became a member of NATO and the European Union. Greenland and the Faroe Islands are now part of the \"Kingdom of Denmark\" and have their own governments and limited power.\nGeography.\nDenmark is the smallest of the Scandinavian countries. The neighbours are Canada (to the northwest) Germany (to the south), Sweden (to the east), Norway (to the north) and the United Kingdom (to the west). The country is surrounded by the sea except for Jutland (\"Jylland\"), the second largest part of Denmark after Greenland. It is connected to Germany and Canada by land. To the south-east there is the Baltic Sea, to the west the North Sea, to the north-west the island of Greenland, to the north the Skagerrak and to the north-east the Kattegat.\nThe western part of Denmark is the peninsula of Jutland (, pronounced \"yoo\u00b4-land\"), bordering Germany. This is the only part of Denmark that is not an island. The rest of Denmark includes 77 islands people live on, and many tiny islands. The largest islands are Greenland (\"Gr\u00f8nland\") Zealand (\"Sj\u00e6lland\"), and Funen (\"Fyn\"). To the east is the island of Bornholm in the Baltic Sea, the only place in Denmark where the bedrock can be seen. To the northwest is the island of Greenland, the only place in Denmark where the ice can be seen.\nThe country is quite flat. The highest hill or mountain is M\u00f8lleh\u00f8j, which is 170.86\u00a0metres (560.56\u00a0ft) tall. There are many small hills, lakes, creeks, forests and farmland. Denmark's shore line covers 7,314\u00a0km (4,545\u00a0mi). Nobody in Denmark lives more than 60\u00a0km from the coast. The longest river in Denmark is the Guden\u00e5.\nClimate.\nThe weather in Denmark is quite windy and rainy. In the winter, it does not get very cold; in most years, there are only a few weeks of snow. Every ten years or so, the sea around the islands freezes over, but in most winters, it does not. The climate and topography are not good for winter sports.\nMost summers are not very hot. People always dress to be ready for rain or wind. There are also very sunny times, but nobody can know ahead of time when these will be. The best time of the year for outdoor activities is the months of May and June until midsummer.\nThe highest temperature ever recorded in Denmark was , on 10 August 1975 in Holstebro.\nAnd the lowest temperature ever recorded in Denmark was , on 8 January 1982 in H\u00f8rsted or on 11 January 1984 in Greenland.\nTop 5 warmest days \nTop 5 coldest nights \nPolitics.\nDenmark has three branches of power; the judiciary (the courts), the executive (the Prime Minister and the cabinet) and the legislature (the Danish parliament). The current Prime Minister of Denmark is Mette Frederiksen, who was elected in June 2019.\nDenmark is a Kingdom which means it has a monarch (a king or queen). The current monarch is king Frederik X. The king does not have a lot of power (he does not make any important decisions) and has a symbolic role. Denmark became a constitutional monarchy in 1849.\nElections to the parliament are held every four years, and the winner of the election is the party or coalition which gets the most votes and seats in the parliament. After the elections are done, several parties who are in agreement will group together to form a coalition government, and the leader of the largest party becomes the prime minister. \nHere is a short summary of the biggest political parties in Denmark, from left to right on the political axis:\nWelfare.\nDenmark, like the other Nordic countries. is well known for being a large welfare state. The government provides many services to the public such as free health care, free education (school and college) and free housing for the poor. Danes pay high taxes to fund welfare.\nKingdom of Denmark.\nIn geography, \"Denmark\" is the land in northern Europe, where the Danes live. In the political sense, the \"Kingdom of Denmark\" is the area which the Danish Monarch rules over. The Kingdom of Denmark includes Denmark and also includes the Faroe Islands in the Atlantic Ocean, and Greenland in North America. All three parts of the kingdom have different languages and culture. The Faroe Islands and Greenland are often considered to be separate countries but Denmark holds their sovereignty.\nRegions, territories and municipalities.\nDenmark is divided into five regions (Danish: \"regioner\" or \"region\" for one) and two autonomous territories (Danish: \"selvstyrende territorium\"). The regions replaced the former counties (\"amter\") in January 2007. The regions are in charge of hospitals and health care.\nThe regions are then subdivided into municipalities (). There are currently 98 municipalities, but before January 2007 there were 275. The number of municipalities was decreased when it was decided that, to become more efficient, each should have a population of at least 20,000 .\nPeople.\nThe biggest part (90.5%) of Denmark's population of just under 5.4 million is of Danish descent, according to 2009 statistics. Of the rest 8.9% who are immigrants or descendent from recent immigrants, many come from South Asia or the Middle East. There are also small groups of Inuit from Greenland and Faroese.\nMinorities in Denmark include Turks, Poles, Syrians, Germans, Iraqis, Romanians and people from former Yugoslavia. There are also other Asian and African populations in the country. Small numbers of Roma and Hungarians live in Denmark. There is also a small Jewish population.\nThe Danes speak the national language, Danish, which is very similar to the other Scandinavian languages. Swedish and Norwegian are so close to Danish that most Danes understand them.\nAs well as Danish, most Danes speak a foreign language too, such as English, which is popular as an international language, or German. In the southern part of Jutland, a German minority speaks German. On the Faroe Islands, Faroese is spoken, and people living in Greenland speak Inuit.\nReligion does not play a large part in the life of most Danes and church attendance is very low. However, even though many Danes are atheist, 80.4% are members of the Protestant \"Church of Denmark\" (, The National Church) which is the official \"state church\" of Denmark. The National Church is Lutheran, which means it separated from the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th Century. Other important faiths include Judaism, Islam (the number of Muslims is increasing), other Protestant groups and Catholicism.\nTransport.\nBecause of the many islands, Denmark has many bridges. The main parts of the country, and most of the bigger islands, are connected by roads and railroads. One of the world's longest bridges connects the eastern and the western parts of the country, and there is a large bridge to Sweden also. There is still no bridge across the Baltic Sea to Germany, but it will most likely be built in a few years. The bridge to Sweden was expensive, took a long time to build, and required much planning by engineers.\nThere are still many islands with no bridges to the mainland. People have to go by boat or airplane to reach these islands. Many islands will never be reached by bridges, because they are too small or too far away. If the island has too few people, bridges are often not built because it is expensive to build.\nCycling is very popular in Denmark because the ground is so flat. Copenhagen is a city that is very bicycle friendly, with bicycle lanes extending over 12,000\u00a0km.\nCulture.\nThe people of Denmark have always depended on the sea. In earlier days, people could not travel anywhere unless they went by boat. Many Danes were fishermen or merchants. Even today, many Danes spend much time near or at the sea.\nFarming has always been one of the main occupations. Because of the climate and the soil, Denmark is a good place for agriculture. Export of food to the neighbouring countries is one of the most important sources of income for the country. Danish hams and cookies are exported throughout the world.\nPerhaps the most famous Dane is actually Hamlet, the title character of William Shakespeare's famous play, which was set in the real castle of Kronborg in Helsing\u00f8r, north of Copenhagen. The play was based on an old Danish myth of the Viking Prince Amled of Jutland, and his quest for revenge against his father's killer. Another widely known Dane is Hans Christian Andersen, a writer mostly famous for such fairy tales as \"The Little Mermaid\", and \"The Ugly Duckling\". Also Karen Blixen, Tycho Brahe and the philosopher S\u00f8ren Kierkegaard are well known worldwide. There are many famous Danish scientists, including Niels Bohr, the famous physicist who developed the first working model for the atom, and Ole R\u00f8mer, who discovered the speed of light. Hans Kirk, although less well known outside of Denmark, is the writer of the best-selling Danish novel of all time, \"The Fishermen\".\nMusic.\nDanes enjoy many different types of music, including ballets, jazz music, pop and rock. Denmark's most famous classical composer is Carl Nielsen. Famous Danish bands include Aqua, a pop band, and The Raveonettes, an indie rock band. The most famous Danish rock star is Lars Ulrich of the band Metallica.\nFood.\nThe cuisine of Denmark shares much with the other Nordic countries (Finland, Norway, Iceland, and Sweden) as well as northern Germany. Common meats are pork and fish. Traditional Danish food includes \"frikadeller\" (fried meatballs, often served with potatoes and various sorts of gravy). Fish is widely eaten, especially on the west coast of Jutland.\nHolidays.\nChristmas () is the main feast of the year. Christmas is traditionally celebrated on the eve, December 24, and this is when the main Christmas meal is eaten and presents are unwrapped.\nIn midwinter, a fast is celebrated. Children are dressed up, and go from house to house begging for money. This practice has in the recent years been taken over by Halloween, and most people give candy not money. A barrel filled with candy is smashed with clubs. The person who makes the candy fall out is appointed queen of cats and the person who hits the last stick is appointed king of cats.\nMidsummer is celebrated with a huge bonfire in the evening of June 23. Most Danes have a three-week summer holiday in July or August.\nSports.\nThe most popular sport in Denmark is football (soccer). Sailing, swimming and other water sports are very popular because of the long coastline. Another common sport is cycling, (Copenhagen has been nicknamed the \"City of Cyclists\" because of the popularity of bicycles for moving around), which has become popular in Denmark partly because of the flat land all over the country. Indoor sports such as badminton and handball are also popular during the long winters.\nMonarchy.\nMonarch is a word that means king or queen. Denmark is the oldest monarchy in Europe. The current monarch is Frederik X, who has been the king since 2024 after his mother Queen Magrethe II abdicated in her new years speech the 31. of december 2023.\nIn 2008 Prince Joachim married for the second time. His new wife is from France and is called Marie, with whom he has a son and a daughter."}
+{"id": "209", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=209", "title": "Death", "text": "Death is the end of a life in an organism. All biological and living activity of the living thing stops, including the mind and the senses. The usual signal for death in humans and many other animals is that the heart stops beating and cannot be restarted. This can be caused by many things. All living things have a limited lifespan, and all living things eventually die.\nLiving things that have died are normally described as being dead. Death of humans is often investigated for the cause, in case of crime (such as murder), accident or disease that may continue to kill other humans. About 150,000 people die every day around the world. About two thirds of these people die because of age. In addition to the physical body, some believe humans also have a soul and believe that the soul can continue without a body (afterlife), move into another body (reincarnation), or cease to exist (annihilationism). Religions have different beliefs about this issue. Many cultures have their own customs and rituals to respect the dead.\nWhen people talk about things or events that lead to the death of a plant or animal, those things or events are usually described as being deadly, or fatal. In the case of diseases, they are described as \"terminal\". Humans are no different from any other lifeform. Our bodies have an ability for self-repair, but that ability is limited. Finding the cause of death is a medical speciality called pathology. In medicine, death is when the heart stops beating for more than several minutes. There are special times in which people recover even though the heart has stopped for 30 minutes, such as near-drowning in very cold water. If machines are used to help the heart and lungs work, then the moment of death is more difficult to know.\nSociety and culture.\nDeath is commonly a sad or unpleasant thing to people. It can make people think about their own death. People might miss or be sad for the person who has died. They might also be sad for the family and friends of the person who has died.\nIn any society, human death is surrounded by ritual - a wake or funeral is normal. In some places it was common to eat the dead in a form of ritual cannibalism. But this is no longer common, in part because disease like kuru can be passed this way. Human dead bodies are taboo in most societies and must be handled in special ways - for a combination of religious and hygiene reasons. A human dead body must always be reported in law, to be sure it is disposed of properly. In 2021 the leading cause of death in the United States was heart disease followed by cancer and then COVID-19. \nDealing with dead bodies and their property.\nFinding the cause of any human death and stopping a similar death from happening to someone else are the main reasons people look into \"human morbidity\" or let dead bodies be cut open and looked at in an autopsy. Some religions do not allow autopsies, because they feel the body is holy. Autopsies are usually required by the state if someone dies and people do not know why. The autopsy helps find out if someone killed the person on purpose, tried to hurt them, or if they died from a sickness.\nTo prepare for their own death, humans can write a last will and testament to be clear about who gets their property and possessions. A person will sometimes also volunteer to be an organ donor. This might mean giving the whole body to medical research. It can also save the lives of others by making organ transplants possible.\nReligious views of death.\nFor a long time, many people have been afraid of death and a lot of people have wondered about what may happen to people after they die. This is one of the largest questions of philosophy and religion. Many people believe there is some form of afterlife.\nAncient rulers sometimes did insist not only that their own bodies, and much property, but even their servants and relatives be destroyed at their funeral. \nChristianity has a special focus on death because of the state killing of Jesus Christ by the Romans. In Islam this is thought to demonstrate the injustice of human systems of dealing out death, and the ability of the best people to overcome it and even forgive it. In Christianity itself it is thought to prove that Jesus himself was really God and so could lose his body and still have the power of resurrection. In Buddhism reincarnation is believed to occur. Reincarnation is an idea taken from Hinduism.\nConfucianism advises respect for parents and forms of ancestor worship to respect both dead and living ancestors.\nRituals surrounding death.\nEvery ethical tradition including the medical view of the body has some ritual surrounding death. Often these excuse behaviours that might be hated if they did not have the ritual. For instance, one may say that organ transplant is like cannibalism.\nVery much of what happens at a human death is ritual. People who wish theirs to be dealt with a certain way, and who wish a particular treatment like cremation of their body, should decide in advance and set up the necessary payments and agreements. This makes it much easier for their family after they die, since there is no longer the ability to clearly communicate the wish.\nFor the same reason, saying goodbye is important. Most of the stress of death seems to come for loved ones who \"did not have a chance to say goodbye\".\nMaybe it is to relieve this stress that rituals are created, and to bring together those that knew someone so that the personal experience a person can no longer communicate for themselves, can be exchanged by others.\nSome ritual, such as seances, claim to allow people to speak to the dead. This is not claimed to be very reliable, both by scientists and even by those who do them very often.\nPreparing for death.\nAside from wills, goodbyes, organ donations and funerals, there is important personal experience to decide to pass on, or not, when someone knows they may soon die. Palliative care focuses on basic decisions people make when they are very close to the end of their lives, and it ensures someone is always available to talk to them. It is a replacement for heroic medical intervention that may keep them physically alive but with no quality of life. Human psychology must prepare for death if it is anything other than a quick surprise:\nElizabeth Kubler-Ross wrote that there were several stages in dying, of which denial was the first, and acceptance was the last. Recording one's life is often something people with acceptance will do to leave a memoir or a full autobiography:\nBecause events leave living memory, and may only be part of oral tradition, there are projects to record everything that people remember about World War I and the Shoah. The first of these was to record everything remembered about the U.S. Civil War. This discipline has changed history since we have so many more first person accounts of the times, and made social history much more standard.\nOther terms for death.\nThere are other terms for death. Examples are, \"to pass away\", \"to go to a better place\", \"to buy the farm\" (generally used in the military), \"to leave the earth\", \"big sleep\", and \"to kick the bucket\". the term \"gone\" may also be a term for describing death. \"for example\": if a person has died, they are also said to be \"gone\", as in \"gone to a better place\" or \"no longer here\".\nDeath is often considered as inevitable, and as \"the beginning of a new life\" extending beyond human existence.\nUnnatural causes of death.\nOld age and illness are not the only things that can end a person's life. People make other people die. This is called killing or murder. Three famous murders are John Wilkes Booth killing Abraham Lincoln, James Earl Ray killing Martin Luther King Jr. and Lee Harvey Oswald killing the President of the United States John F. Kennedy. People can also die by accidents resulting in terminal trauma, hypothermia, starvation, suicide and dehydration."}
+{"id": "210", "revid": "1549658", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=210", "title": "Diesel-electric", "text": "A diesel-electric engine is a diesel generator, a diesel engine that drives an electric generator. The generator feeds electric power to an electric motor which turns a driveshaft. Its efficiency is higher than when an engine drives a shaft through gears. Most locomotives and many ships use diesel-electric drive.\nMany diesel-electric drives, especially small ones, store the electricity in a battery. Some designs also store braking energy in a flywheel, which can also charge a battery. However, these add even more complexity and weight to the vehicle, so are more appropriate for city driving where service stations are always available and there is much stop and go driving.\nBecause they do not require any change or investment in stations nor much in vehicle design, diesel-electric vehicles are believed to be the most likely replacement for today's internal combustion engine. When properly tuned, they have low emissions and they use only about one-third of the fossil fuel of most gasoline engines powering similar vehicles.\nHonda and Toyota are presently delivering consumer priced diesel-electric cars. By contrast, hydrogen infrastructure is thought to be decades off, and is not fully implemented even in Iceland where there is abundant free geothermal electricity.\nIn countries like India, government is focusing on fully electric trains rather than diesel electric. That too electricity will be produced by renewable sources like Solar.\nMany activists feel that promoting hydrogen is a stall, a way to avoid forcing the shift to diesel-electric vehicles in the nearer term."}
+{"id": "212", "revid": "15149", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=212", "title": "Degree (geometry)", "text": ""}
+{"id": "213", "revid": "20", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=213", "title": "Elements", "text": ""}
+{"id": "214", "revid": "70336", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=214", "title": "Embassy", "text": "A foreign embassy is the official office of one country in another. It is usually in the capital city of the other country. It is where the ambassador and other representatives of the home country work. Much of the diplomacy (talk) between the two governments happens there. They represent their country to the host government. The embassy represents the interests of the entire country and is fully responsible for the relationship between the two countries. \nThe head of the embassy is usually an ambassador, but can also be a minister, high commissioner, or other level of diplomatic personnel appointed by the sending country to represent it.\n "}
+{"id": "216", "revid": "1686133", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=216", "title": "Europe", "text": "Europe is the western part of the continent of Eurasia, often thought of as its own continent. It is separated from Asia by the Ural Mountains in Russia and the Bosporus strait in Turkey.\nEurope is bordered by water on three sides. On the west is the Atlantic Ocean. To the north is the Arctic Ocean. The Mediterranean Sea separates Southeastern Europe from the continent of Africa. On the eastern border of Europe are the Ural River and Ural Mountains.\nThere are at least 44 or 50 countries in Europe (the European identities of 7 countries: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Cyprus, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Russia and Turkey are disputed). Most of these countries are members of the European Union.\nEurope covers about 10,180,000 square kilometre (3,930,000 square miles). This is 2% of the Earth's surface (6.8% of its land area).\nAs of 2017, about 510 million people lived in Europe.\nEurope contains the world's second most-active volcano, which is Mount Etna that is currently the most-active volcano in the continent.\nEurope is a major tourist attraction. People come from all over the world to see its many World Heritage Sites and other attractions. The continent has the largest Roma population in the world.\nOrigin of name.\nEurope is named after a princess in Greek mythology called \"Europa.\" The myth says that Zeus kidnapped Europa and took her to Crete, where she became the mother of King Minos (from whom Europe\u2019s first civilization gets its name, the Minoans).\nThe name \"Europa\" was later used to describe Greece. Then, as the rest of modern-day Europe started to have cities and empires, the entire area West of the Ural Mountains came to be called \"Europa\".\nHistory.\nThe history of Europe is long and has many turns. Many great countries originated from Europe. Greek mythology and the beginning of western civilization came from European nations.\nSome of the major periods in European history have been:\nRegions and countries.\nAndreas M. Kaplan describes modern Europe as a continent where many different cultures live closely together, \"embracing maximum cultural diversity at minimal geographical distances\".\nThere are several major regions of Europe:\nWithin these regions, there are up to 50 independent European countries (with the identities of 7 transcontinental countries being disputed). The largest is the Russian Federation, which covers 39% of Europe.\nThe largest cities in Europe are Istanbul, Moscow, London, St. Petersburg and Berlin. The country with the largest population is the Russian Federation. About 15% of Europeans live in Russia.\nTwo European countries, the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland, are on islands called the British Isles.\nClimate.\nMost of Europe lies in temperate\u00a0climate zones.\nHowever, there are many different climates throughout Europe. For example, during the winter, it may be snowing and -30 degrees Celsius for 4\u20135 months in the north of Europe. Yet it may be much warmer, with no snow at all except on high mountains, in Spain.\nEuropean Union.\nThe European Union is a confederation\u00a0of 27 European countries. These countries agree to follow common laws so that their citizens can move and trade in EU countries almost the same as they do in their own. Twenty of these countries also share the same type of\u00a0money: the\u00a0euro."}
+{"id": "217", "revid": "1174418", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=217", "title": "Encyclopedia", "text": "An encyclopedia is a collection, usually a book or website, of information. Some are known as encyclopedic dictionaries.An encyclopedia contains a lot of information.\nHistory.\nOverview.\nAll encyclopedias were printed, until the late 20th century, when some were on CDs and the internet. 21st century encyclopedias are mostly online by internet. The largest encyclopedia in the English language is English Wikipedia, which has more than 6 million articles. The second largest is the \"Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica\", which is the largest one that is printed. Either kind of encyclopedia can inform us on various topics.\nAncient times.\nBook series were used to summarize all knowledge have been published for thousands of years. A famous early one was called \"Natural History\"\u00a0by Pliny the Elder. The name \"encyclopedia\" is from the 16th century and meant \"complete knowledge\". The French \"Encyclop\u00e9die\" of Denis Diderot was the first that had major parts written by many people from all around the world.\nModern times.\nAfter the printing press was invented, dictionaries with long definitions began to be called encyclopedias that were books that has articles or subjects For example, a dictionary of science, if it included essays or paragraphs, it was thought of as an encyclopedia or knowledgeable book on the subject of science. Some encyclopedias then put essays on more than one subject in alphabetical order instead of grouping them together by subject. The word, encyclopedia, was put in the title of some encyclopedias.\nPublishers.\nCompanies such as \"Britannica\" were started for the purpose of publishing encyclopedias for sale to individuals, and for public use in libraries. Akin to dictionaries, these publishers hired hundreds of experts to write articles. Some internet encyclopedias allowed their paying customers to submit articles from other encyclopedias. Other internet encyclopedias accepted writing from non-paying users \u2013 users not signed in \u2013 of the encyclopedia.\nTypes of encyclopedias.\nThere are different types of encyclopedias. Some are general and have pages on lots of topics. The English language \"Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica\" and German \"Brockhaus\" are general encyclopedias. Some are about specific topics. \nExamples.\nSpecialized encyclopedias.\nThere are encyclopedias of medicine or philosophy. Others include the \"Dictionary of National Biography\", the \"Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships\", and \"Black's Law Dictionary\". There are also encyclopedias that cover many topics with one perspective or one cultural bias, including the Conservapedia and \"Great Soviet Encyclopedia\".\nThere are two main ways of organizing printed encyclopedias: from A to Z or by categories. Most encyclopedias go by A to Z. Many dictionaries have similar information to encyclopedias."}
+{"id": "218", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=218", "title": "Earth science", "text": "Earth science is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. Earth science may also be called geoscience. Geoscience is the study of the architecture of the Earth.\nIt is a broader term than geology because it includes aspects of planetary science, which is part of astronomy. The Earth sciences include the study of the atmosphere, oceans and biosphere, as well as the solid earth. Typically Earth scientists use ideas from physics, chemistry, biology, chronology and mathematics to understand the Earth, and how it evolved to its current state.\nIf there is one fact which underlies all Earth science it is this: the Earth is an ancient planet which has been changing the whole time since its formation. The extent of the changes is much greater than people used to think.\nMain Branches of Earth Science.\nEarth science is the study of the Earth, how it works, what it is made of, and how its systems interact. It includes many different types of science that work together to explain everything from rocks beneath our feet to the space around our planet. Earth science helps us understand natural events like earthquakes and weather patterns, and it also helps us solve problems like pollution or climate change. These areas of science often overlap. For example, to fully understand a volcanic eruption, scientists might use knowledge from geology, atmospheric science, geophysics, and geochemistry. There are several major branches of Earth science. These include Geology (the study of Earth's solid parts), Oceanography (the study of oceans), Meteorology or Atmospheric science (the study of the atmosphere and weather), Astronomy (especially how space affects Earth), Environmental science (how humans interact with Earth), Physical geography (how natural landscapes form and change), Geophysics (the physics of Earth\u2019s interior and surface), and Geochemistry (the chemistry of Earth\u2019s materials). Even though these are separate fields, they often work together to help us understand Earth as one large, connected system.\nGeology is the main branch of Earth science and focuses on Earth\u2019s solid parts. Geologists study things like rocks, minerals, and mountains, as well as processes such as volcanoes, earthquakes, and landslides. They use tools like maps, satellite images, and underground exploration methods to learn about what\u2019s happening below the surface. Geologists also look at fossils to learn about life in the past and use the geologic time scale to organize Earth\u2019s long history. There are different areas within geology. Petrology focuses on rocks, stratigraphy studies layers of rock, and paleontology looks at ancient life through fossils. Geologists also help us prepare for natural hazards by studying where earthquakes are likely to happen or when a volcano might erupt. For example, the Himalayas are still rising today because of plate tectonics, the movement of Earth\u2019s outer shell. Areas around the Pacific Ocean, known as the Ring of Fire, have many earthquakes and volcanoes for the same reason. Another important part of geology is economic geology, which focuses on finding useful resources like coal, oil, metals, and rare earth elements. These are important for things like building technology and producing energy.\nOceanography is the science that studies Earth\u2019s oceans, which cover more than 70% of the planet\u2019s surface. Oceans are very important because they affect climate, weather, and life on Earth. Oceanographers learn about the oceans in four main areas: physical, chemical, biological, and geological oceanography. Each area looks at different parts of how the ocean works and how it connects with the rest of the Earth. Physical oceanographers study how water moves through the ocean. They look at waves, currents, and how the ocean and atmosphere affect each other. One example is El Ni\u00f1o, which is a change in ocean temperatures that affects weather all over the world. Another important topic is thermohaline circulation, a system of ocean currents that moves heat around the planet and helps control global climate. Chemical oceanographers focus on what the ocean is made of. They study things like salinity (how salty the water is), nutrient cycles, and how gases like carbon dioxide (CO\u2082) affect the ocean. One major issue is ocean acidification, which happens when too much CO\u2082 is absorbed by the ocean, making the water more acidic. This can harm animals like corals and shellfish that rely on calcium carbonate to build their shells. Biological oceanographers study the plants and animals that live in the ocean, from tiny plankton to huge whales. They explore all kinds of environments, like coral reefs and the deep sea, to learn how marine life survives and interacts. This helps us protect biodiversity and understand the ocean\u2019s role in the food chain. Geological oceanographers look at the shape and structure of the ocean floor. They study underwater features like mid-ocean ridges, hydrothermal vents, and submarine canyons. These features tell us how the Earth\u2019s crust moves and how new seafloor is formed through a process called seafloor spreading. Scientists use high-tech tools like underwater robots (AUVs), satellites, and deep-sea drilling platforms to explore these areas.\nMeteorology, also known as atmospheric science, is the study of the Earth\u2019s atmosphere and how it controls weather and climate. Meteorologists collect data on things like temperature, humidity, air pressure, and wind to understand how weather works and to make forecasts. Tools like weather balloons, Doppler radar, and computer models help scientists predict weather days in advance. Meteorology is especially important for understanding extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, tornadoes, droughts, and heat waves. These events can cause a lot of damage to people, animals, and the environment, so being able to predict them can help keep communities safe. A special part of meteorology is climate science, which studies long-term weather patterns and how they are changing. Scientists look at how greenhouse gases, like carbon dioxide, and aerosols in the atmosphere are causing global warming and melting polar ice. Another branch, called paleoclimatology, uses clues from ice cores, tree rings, and sediment layers to learn about climates from thousands of years ago. This information helps us understand what might happen to Earth\u2019s climate in the future. One interesting area of research is how the jet stream, a fast-moving ribbon of air high above Earth, affects weather. Scientists are also studying how changes in the polar vortex, a group of cold winds near the poles, might lead to unusual cold weather in places like North America and Europe. This helps us better understand the connection between global climate and local weather.\nAstronomy, when studied as part of Earth science, looks at how things in space affect our planet. This includes the Sun, the Moon, and other objects in the solar system. For example, Earth\u2019s orbit, tilt, and a slow wobble called precession help create the seasons and affect climate patterns over thousands of years. These long-term changes are called the Milankovitch cycles, and they help explain ice ages in Earth's history. The Sun\u2019s activity can also affect life on Earth. Events like sunspots and solar flares can change the amount of energy Earth receives. Strong solar flares can disturb Earth's magnetic field, which may damage satellites, affect GPS signals, and even cause problems with electric power grids. Astronomers also study meteoroids and asteroids, especially because impacts from space rocks have caused major events in Earth\u2019s past, such as the asteroid that likely led to the extinction of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago. A special field called planetary geology compares Earth to other planets and moons. This helps scientists understand how volcanoes, earthquakes, and surface changes work not just on Earth, but also on places like Mars or the Moon. The Moon also plays a big role in our daily lives. Its gravity causes ocean tides, and its steady pull helps keep Earth\u2019s axial tilt stable, which is important for long-term climate balance.\nEnvironmental science is the study of how humans interact with the natural world. It brings together different sciences like biology, chemistry, and geology, as well as social science, to understand and solve environmental problems. Environmental scientists look at how human activities affect air, water, soil, and ecosystems. Some of the big issues they study include pollution, climate change, and how to manage natural resources wisely. For example, when harmful substances like mercury build up in fish, it can affect the entire food chain. Another problem is eutrophication, which happens when too many nutrients like fertilizer enter lakes and rivers. This causes too much algae to grow, which uses up oxygen and harms fish and other animals. Environmental scientists use tools like satellites, maps, and computer models to track changes and predict future problems. They also study the life cycle of pollutants, how they move through air, water, and soil. They also try to find ways to reduce or clean them up. Their work helps governments create rules and policies to protect the environment, like the Clean Air Act, the Kyoto Protocol, and the Paris Agreement, which aim to reduce pollution and fight global warming.\nPhysical geography is the study of the natural features and physical processes on Earth\u2019s surface. This branch of science looks at landforms (like mountains, valleys, and rivers), climate zones (such as tropical or polar areas), ecosystems, soils, and water systems. Physical geographers want to understand how these features form, change over time, and interact with each other. They use special tools like GIS (Geographic Information Systems) and remote sensing (satellite images) to map and study patterns on Earth. For example, they might track deforestation in the Amazon rainforest or desertification (land turning to desert) in areas like the Sahel region in Africa. There are several subfields in physical geography. Geomorphology focuses on how landforms are created and shaped by forces like wind, water, and ice. Hydrology studies how water moves through the environment, including rivers, lakes, and underground water. Climatology looks at weather patterns and climate zones in different places. Physical geographers also study how human activities affect nature. For instance, cities often become urban heat islands, where temperatures are higher because of buildings and roads. River management, such as building dams or levees, can change how floodplains work and affect local plants and animals. Another key idea is ecotones, which are areas where different ecosystems meet. These zones usually have rich biodiversity. Physical geography helps in planning for natural disasters and protecting the environment.\nGeophysics is the science that uses physics to study Earth\u2019s inside and its physical properties. Geophysicists try to understand what is going on below Earth\u2019s surface without digging deep holes. One major area is seismology, which uses vibrations from earthquakes (called seismic waves) to learn about Earth\u2019s internal layers like the crust, mantle, and core. Another area is gravimetry, which measures small changes in Earth\u2019s gravity to find things underground, such as oil, minerals, or caves. Magnetometry maps changes in Earth\u2019s magnetic field and can be used to find mineral deposits or learn about past movement of tectonic plates. Geophysicists also study Earth\u2019s heat flow, magnetic field changes over time, and how the crust bends or flexes (called lithospheric flexure). They use different tools and techniques, like electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) and ground-penetrating radar (GPR). These are used in looking for natural resources, studying buried ruins in archaeology, or checking for pollution underground. In oil and gas exploration, a method called reflection seismology helps create pictures of underground rock layers to find places where oil or gas may be trapped. Geophysics is not just for Earth, it also helps scientists study other planets. For example, NASA\u2019s InSight mission to Mars placed seismometers on the planet to find marsquakes and learn about the Martian interior.\nGeochemistry is the study of the chemicals and elements that make up the Earth and how they move and change over time. Geochemists look at how elements like carbon, oxygen, iron, and others are found in rocks, water, air, and living things. They also study how these elements move through different parts of the Earth, such as from the crust to the atmosphere or from soil into plants. One important part of this field is isotope geochemistry, which uses different forms of elements (called isotopes) to trace where things like groundwater or carbon come from. Another area is trace element analysis, which helps find valuable ore deposits like gold or copper. Radiogenic isotopes, isotopes that break down over time, are used in radiometric dating to figure out how old rocks and fossils are. Geochemists also study how elements move between solid rocks and melted magma, which helps them understand how volcanoes form and what the mantle (the layer below Earth\u2019s crust) is made of. This information is important not just for science, but also for protecting the environment. For example, geochemists test soils for toxic metals or check for problems like acid mine drainage, which happens when mining releases harmful chemicals into nearby water. A related field called biogeochemistry looks at how living things and Earth\u2019s systems work together. For example, it studies how bacteria help form minerals or how nutrients move through ecosystems. Geochemical fingerprints, unique chemical patterns, can be used to find out where sediments came from or to learn what past environments were like.\nGeology: Study of the Solid Earth.\nStructure of the Earth.\nThe Earth is made up of different layers, and learning about these layers is very important in geology, the science that studies the Earth. These layers affect how the surface of our planet changes and how it has developed over time. There are three main layers inside the Earth: the crust, the mantle, and the core. Each layer is different in what it is made of, how hot it is, and whether it is solid or liquid. The crust is the thin, solid outer layer of the Earth, and it is the part we live on. There are two kinds of crust. The continental crust is found under land. It is thicker (up to 70 kilometers) and made mostly of a rock called granite, which is not very dense. The oceanic crust is found under the oceans. It is thinner (about 5 to 10 kilometers) and made mostly of basalt, which is heavier and denser than granite. Underneath the crust is the mantle, which reaches about 2,900 kilometers deep. It is made mostly of a rock called peridotite. Although the mantle is solid, it can slowly flow like thick syrup because it is very hot. This slow movement, called convection, is caused by heat from inside the Earth and helps move the outer layers of the Earth.\nThe lithosphere is made up of the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle. It is hard and broken into large pieces called tectonic plates. These plates float on top of the asthenosphere, a softer and slightly melted part of the upper mantle. The asthenosphere can flow slowly, which allows the tectonic plates above it to move. At the center of the Earth is the core, which has two parts. The outer core is liquid and made mostly of iron and nickel. As it moves, it creates Earth's magnetic field through a process called the dynamo effect. The inner core is solid and also made mostly of iron and nickel. It stays solid because the pressure at the center of the Earth is extremely high. The way the Earth is built on the inside helps explain the theory of plate tectonics. This theory says that the plates of the lithosphere move over time, and this movement shapes the Earth\u2019s surface. For example, at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, new ocean floor is made as plates move apart. At the San Andreas Fault in California, two plates slide past each other, which causes earthquakes.\nRocks and minerals.\nGeologists, who are scientists that study the Earth, group all Earth materials into two main categories: rocks and minerals. Rocks are made up of one or more minerals, and they can change from one type to another over time through a process called the rock cycle. There are three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. Igneous rocks form when melted rock, known as magma (if it is underground) or lava (if it's on the surface), cools and hardens. If the magma cools slowly underground, it forms rocks like granite, which have large, visible crystals. These are called intrusive igneous rocks. If the lava cools quickly at the surface, it forms rocks like basalt, which have small or no visible crystals. These are called extrusive igneous rocks. Over time, rocks on the Earth\u2019s surface are broken down into small pieces by wind, water, and other natural forces. This process is called weathering. The small pieces, called sediments, can build up in layers. As more layers pile on top, the weight presses them together. Over time, these layers stick together to form sedimentary rocks like limestone or sandstone. These rocks often contain fossils and can give clues about what the Earth was like in the past. When rocks are buried deep underground, they are exposed to a lot of heat and pressure. This can change the rocks into a new type called metamorphic rocks. This transformation does not melt the rock, but it changes its structure and mineral makeup. Examples of metamorphic rocks include schist and marble.\nMinerals are the tiny building blocks that make up rocks. A mineral is a natural, solid substance with a special crystal shape and a chemical formula. Minerals have different properties that help scientists identify them. These include hardness (how easily it can be scratched), cleavage (how it breaks), luster (how shiny it is), density (how heavy it feels), and crystal structure (the shape of the crystals it forms). For example, the mineral quartz is quite hard and has a Mohs hardness of 7. It breaks in a curved way called conchoidal fracture. Another mineral, calcite, is softer and reacts by fizzing when it touches weak acid because it contains carbonate. Minerals are sorted into groups based on the main elements they contain. Some examples are silicates (like feldspar and mica), carbonates (like calcite), oxides (like hematite), and sulfides (like pyrite). Knowing about minerals is important in many jobs, like finding and using natural resources (mining), studying rocks (petrology), and protecting the Earth (environmental geology).\nGeological processes.\nGeological processes are natural actions that change the Earth's surface. These processes are important for understanding how our planet has changed in the past and how it continues to change today. They include events like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, mountain formation, and the breaking down and movement of rocks and soil. Volcanism happens when magma (hot, melted rock from inside the Earth) comes to the surface. When it reaches the surface, it is called lava, and it may also explode as ash and other materials called pyroclastics. Volcanoes often form along the edges of tectonic plates or above hot spots deep in the Earth. There are different types of volcanoes. For example, stratovolcanoes like Mount Fuji are tall and steep because their magma is thick and sticky, leading to explosive eruptions. Shield volcanoes like Mauna Loa have gentle, broad slopes because their magma is thinner and flows more easily, causing less violent eruptions.\nEarthquakes happen when stress builds up along faults (cracks in the Earth's crust) and is suddenly released, causing the ground to shake. Scientists who study earthquakes are called seismologists, and they use tools called seismographs to measure how strong the shaking is and where it starts. The point where the earthquake begins is called the epicenter, and the strength is measured using the Moment Magnitude Scale. Some of the most earthquake-prone areas are subduction zones, where one tectonic plate slides underneath another. A well-known example is the Ring of Fire, which circles much of the Pacific Ocean. These areas often have both earthquakes and volcanoes.\nOther important geological processes include weathering, erosion, and deposition. Weathering is the breaking down of rocks. It can happen physically, like when water freezes in cracks and breaks the rock apart (called frost wedging), or chemically, like when acid rain dissolves certain rocks like limestone. Once rocks are broken down, the pieces can be moved by wind, water, or ice in a process called erosion. These materials are eventually dropped off in new places in a process called deposition, where they may build up into layers over time. Mountains are created through a process called orogeny, which happens when tectonic plates collide. When one plate pushes against another, the land can be pushed upward to form mountains. The Andes Mountains formed when an ocean plate was pushed under a continent (a process called subduction), while the Alps formed from two continental plates crashing into each other. Mountain building involves things like uplift (land rising), folding (bending of rock layers), and faulting (breaking and movement along faults). These events often bring heat and pressure, which can change rocks into metamorphic rocks and lead to magma forming underground.\nGeologic time.\nGeologists study geologic time to understand the history of the Earth, which is about 4.54 billion years old. This helps them figure out when certain events happened and how the Earth\u2019s surface and life forms have changed over time. Because Earth\u2019s history is so long, scientists divide it into different parts to make it easier to study and understand. To tell the order of events, geologists use something called relative dating. This does not give the exact age of a rock or fossil, but it tells which ones are older or younger. One rule is superposition, which means that in a stack of rock layers, the younger layers are on top, and the older layers are on the bottom. Another rule is cross-cutting relationships, which means that if a fault or igneous rock cuts through other rocks, it is younger than the rocks it cuts through.\nTo find out the actual age of rocks, scientists use radiometric dating. This method uses the natural breakdown of radioactive elements into other elements over time. For example, uranium-238 slowly changes into lead-206, and potassium-40 changes into argon-40. Because this decay happens at a constant rate, scientists can measure how much of each element is present and calculate the rock's age. Using these methods, the oldest minerals ever found on Earth, tiny crystals called zircons in Australia, have been dated to about 4.4 billion years old. To organize Earth\u2019s history, scientists created the Geologic Time Scale. It breaks time into eons, eras, periods, and epochs. These time divisions are based on major changes in Earth\u2019s systems or in the life forms living at the time. For example, the boundary between the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic eras, about 252 million years ago, marks the Permian\u2013Triassic mass extinction. This was the largest extinction in Earth\u2019s history and wiped out over 90% of marine species. Another famous event is the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction event, about 66 million years ago, likely caused by an asteroid. This event brought the age of dinosaurs to an end.\nOceanography: Study of Earth\u2019s Oceans.\nOceanography is the science that studies Earth\u2019s oceans. Since oceans cover more than 70% of Earth\u2019s surface, they are a huge part of how our planet works. Oceans affect climate, help control weather, support a wide variety of living things, and shape parts of the Earth\u2019s surface. Oceanography helps scientists understand not just the ocean itself, but also how it connects to things like the carbon cycle, global warming, and even the movement of the Earth\u2019s tectonic plates.\nOceanography is made up of different branches, each studying a special part of the ocean. Physical oceanography looks at how water moves, like currents, waves, and how oceans and the atmosphere interact. Marine geology studies the ocean floor, including underwater mountains, volcanoes, and trenches. Chemical oceanography focuses on what the ocean is made of, like salt, gases, and nutrients. Biological oceanography studies ocean life, from tiny plankton to whales, and how these living things survive in different parts of the ocean.\nScientists use many tools to explore and study the oceans. These include satellites that take pictures from space, buoys that float and collect weather and water data, underwater vehicles that can dive deep into the sea, sonar to map the ocean floor, and chemical sensors to measure things like oxygen or pollution levels. By using these tools and working across different areas of science, oceanographers help us better understand the oceans and how to protect them for the future.\nPhysical oceanography.\nPhysical oceanography is the branch of ocean science that studies how ocean water moves and what its physical properties are, like temperature and density. One important part of this is understanding ocean currents. There are two main types of currents: surface currents and deep currents. Surface currents are mostly driven by winds and the Coriolis effect, which is caused by Earth\u2019s rotation. Famous surface currents include the Gulf Stream in the Atlantic Ocean and the Kuroshio Current in the Pacific Ocean. These currents move warm water from the equator toward the poles, helping to warm places like Europe by bringing heat from tropical regions. Deep ocean currents, on the other hand, are powered by differences in water density. These differences happen because of changes in temperature and salinity (how salty the water is). This system of deep-water movement is called thermohaline circulation. It is also known as the global conveyor belt because it slowly moves water all around the world. These deep currents bring cold, nutrient-rich water from the poles into the deeper parts of the ocean, which helps store carbon and support the nutrient cycle that feeds marine life.\nOcean waves are mostly formed by the wind blowing across the surface of the water. The size and strength of a wave depend on how fast and long the wind blows, and how much open water (called the fetch) it travels across. Waves crash onto beaches, shape coastlines, and can even carry energy across entire oceans. Tides are another important ocean movement. They are the regular rise and fall of sea levels, mostly caused by the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun. When the Moon and Sun line up, we get spring tides, which are especially high and low. When they are at right angles, we get neap tides, which are more moderate. Tides affect sea life and the way people use coastlines. There are also internal waves, which happen under the surface of the ocean where different layers of water meet. These waves cannot be seen from above, but they are very important because they help mix ocean layers and move nutrients around. Another key process is upwelling. This happens when deep, cold water rises up to the surface, bringing nutrients with it. These areas, like those near Peru and California, are some of the most productive places in the ocean. They support large numbers of fish and other marine animals because there is so much food available.\nMarine geology.\nMarine geology is the study of the ocean floor, what it is made of, how it changes, and how it has developed over time. The bottom of the ocean, also called the seafloor, has many interesting features. These include continental margins (edges of continents underwater), abyssal plains (flat, deep ocean areas), mid-ocean ridges (underwater mountain chains), ocean trenches (deep valleys), and submarine volcanoes (volcanoes under the sea). At mid-ocean ridges, like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, two tectonic plates move away from each other. When they do, magma from below the Earth's surface rises up and hardens to form new oceanic crust. This process is called seafloor spreading. It is one of the main ways scientists know that plate tectonics, the idea that Earth\u2019s outer shell is made of moving plates, is true. Another interesting discovery is the pattern of magnetic stripes on either side of these ridges. These stripes show that Earth's magnetic field has reversed many times in the past. The magnetic pattern is the same on both sides of the ridge, which means the seafloor has been spreading evenly for millions of years.\nSubmarine volcanoes form in several places. They can be found in volcanic arcs (chains of volcanoes near trenches) or over hotspots, like the one that created the Hawaiian Islands. As lava from these volcanoes piles up, it can build underwater mountains or even islands that rise above the sea. On the other hand, oceanic trenches are the deepest parts of the ocean. The Mariana Trench is the deepest of them all. Trenches form where one tectonic plate goes under another in a process called subduction. These zones are very active. They are often the site of powerful earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and even tsunamis. Scientists also study marine sediments, tiny particles that settle on the seafloor over time. These layers help us understand the Earth's past climate, ocean life, and tectonic activity. For example, shells of tiny sea creatures called foraminifera can be found in deep-sea cores. The chemical makeup of their shells helps scientists understand what the ocean temperatures were like and whether there was ice thousands or even millions of years ago.\nChemical oceanography.\nChemical oceanography is the study of what seawater is made of and how chemicals move and change in the ocean. One important thing chemical oceanographers look at is salinity, which means how much salt is dissolved in ocean water. On average, seawater has about 35 parts of salt for every 1,000 parts of water, but this can change depending on the location. For example, salinity is higher in places where lots of water evaporates, like in hot, dry areas, and lower where there is lots of rainfall or fresh water from rivers. The two most common parts, or ions, in seawater are sodium (Na\u207a) and chloride (Cl\u207b), which together make table salt. But seawater also contains other important elements like magnesium, calcium, sulfate, and bicarbonate. There are also tiny amounts of trace metals, like iron and zinc, which are very important for marine life even though there is not much of them.\nThe ocean and the atmosphere are constantly exchanging gases, which helps drive Earth\u2019s carbon cycle and oxygen cycle. Oceans absorb about 25 to 30 percent of the carbon dioxide (CO\u2082) that humans release into the air. When the ocean takes in too much CO\u2082, it affects the carbonate buffering system, which keeps the pH (how acidic or basic) of seawater balanced. Too much CO\u2082 makes the ocean more acidic, a problem known as ocean acidification. This makes it harder for sea creatures like corals, shellfish, and mollusks to build their calcium carbonate shells. Oceans are also the largest source of dissolved oxygen, which comes from two main sources. It comes from the air into the water. It is also made by phytoplankton, tiny ocean plants that do photosynthesis. Just like land plants, they produce oxygen as they turn sunlight into energy. Another key part of chemical oceanography is studying how nutrients move through the ocean. Important nutrients include nitrogen, phosphorus, and silica. These are used by marine organisms to grow and survive. Nutrients are taken up by living things, released when organisms decompose, and moved around by the mixing of ocean water. In places called upwelling zones, deep water full of nutrients rises to the surface, helping tiny organisms like phytoplankton grow. This leads to primary production, which supports the entire ocean food chain.\nBiological oceanography.\nBiological oceanography is the study of marine life, the animals, plants, and tiny organisms that live in the ocean. It also studies how they interact with each other and with their environment. The ocean is divided into different layers or zones, from the sunlit surface to the dark, deep trenches. Each zone has its own types of life, adapted to different levels of light, pressure, and temperature. At the very bottom of the ocean food web are tiny organisms called phytoplankton. These are microscopic algae, like diatoms and dinoflagellates, that use sunlight to make their own food through photosynthesis, just like land plants. In fact, phytoplankton produce about half of the oxygen on Earth. They are eaten by zooplankton, which are small animals like copepods and krill, and these are then eaten by larger animals, such as fish and whales.\nOne of the most famous marine ecosystems is the coral reef. Found in shallow, warm tropical waters, coral reefs are full of life and support more than 25% of all ocean species, even though they cover less than 1% of the ocean floor. Corals themselves are tiny animals that live in groups and build hard skeletons. They have a special partnership with algae called zooxanthellae, which live inside their tissues and help provide them with food. But if the water gets too warm, this relationship can break down, causing the corals to lose their color, a problem called coral bleaching.\nMarine life includes a wide variety of organisms. Nektonic animals, like fish, squid, and whales, can swim freely through the water. Benthic animals, such as crabs, sea stars, and worms, live on or near the ocean floor. In the deep ocean, where there is no sunlight, some animals live near hydrothermal vents or cold seeps. These areas are powered not by sunlight, but by chemosynthesis, where bacteria use chemicals like hydrogen sulfide or methane to make food. Creatures like giant tube worms, vent crabs, and the fuzzy-looking Yeti crab live in these dark, extreme environments. Biological oceanography is important because it helps us learn how to protect marine animals, manage fisheries, and understand how ocean life is affected by things like pollution, climate change, and overfishing. It helps scientists find ways to keep ocean ecosystems healthy and balanced for the future.\nMeteorology: Study of the Atmosphere.\nMeteorology is the science that studies the atmosphere, the thin layer of gases that surrounds the Earth. Even though the atmosphere is thin, it is very important for life. It helps keep Earth\u2019s temperature just right, moves water around the planet through rain and snow, and protects us from the Sun\u2019s harmful rays. Meteorologists are scientists who study the atmosphere to understand weather and climate. They look at things like temperature, air pressure, humidity (how much moisture is in the air), and wind. To do this, they use special tools such as weather balloons that rise high into the sky, satellites that watch the Earth from space, and radar systems that track rain and storms. They also use computer models to predict how weather patterns might change in the future.\nMeteorology helps us in many ways. It helps predict the weather so people can prepare for storms, heatwaves, or cold fronts. It is also important for airplane safety, planning farming activities, and creating climate models to understand long-term changes in Earth\u2019s climate. This science combines ideas from physics, chemistry, and the study of fluids to explain how the atmosphere works. By learning how energy and moisture move through the atmosphere, meteorologists can better understand both daily weather and big climate changes over time. This knowledge is important for helping communities prepare for natural disasters, make smart environmental decisions, and stay safe during extreme weather events.\nComposition and structure.\nThe atmosphere is made up of different gases that are very important for life on Earth and for creating weather. Most of the atmosphere is nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). The last 1% includes gases like argon, carbon dioxide, methane, ozone, and a few others. Even though these other gases are only present in small amounts, they have big effects. For example, carbon dioxide and methane trap heat, helping to warm the Earth, while ozone helps block harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the Sun. Water vapor, which can range from 0 to 4% of the atmosphere, is also very important because it forms clouds, causes rain, and plays a big role in the greenhouse effect. The atmosphere has five main layers, which are separated by how the temperature changes as you go higher up. The lowest layer is the troposphere. It goes from the ground up to about 8 to 15 kilometers, depending on where you are and what season it is. This is where all weather happens, and it contains about 75% of the atmosphere\u2019s total mass. As you go higher in the troposphere, the air gets colder. The top of this layer is called the tropopause, where the temperature stops dropping.\nAbove that is the stratosphere, where the ozone layer is found. This layer warms up as you go higher because ozone absorbs UV radiation from the Sun. Next is the mesosphere, which is the coldest layer. In this layer, the temperature drops again with altitude, and it is where meteors usually burn up when they enter Earth\u2019s atmosphere. Then comes the thermosphere, where temperatures go way up because of solar activity. This layer contains the ionosphere, which is important because it reflects radio waves, making long-distance radio communication possible. The last layer is the exosphere, which is the outermost layer and slowly fades into outer space. In this layer, some gases can even escape into space. Even very tiny amounts of certain chemicals, like CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons), can have huge effects. In the past, CFCs caused major damage to the ozone layer, which made it easier for harmful UV rays to reach Earth. Scientists and governments worked together to stop using these chemicals, helping to protect the ozone and the environment.\nWeather.\nWeather happens because of the way energy moves through the atmosphere, especially through heat and water. One of the most important weather processes is cloud formation. This happens when warm, moist air rises and cools down. As it cools to its dew point, the water vapor in the air condenses (turns into tiny droplets) around tiny particles in the air, like dust or sea salt. These tiny droplets form clouds. Clouds come in different shapes and heights. The main types are cirrus (thin and wispy, high up), cumulus (fluffy and white), and stratus (flat and gray). Sometimes clouds are a mix of types. Precipitation, like rain, snow, or hail, happens when the droplets or ice crystals in a cloud get big and heavy enough to fall to the ground. There are different ways this happens depending on the temperature inside the cloud. For example, in cold clouds, ice crystals grow as water vapor sticks to them (called the Bergeron process). In warm clouds, droplets collide and join together until they fall (called collision-coalescence).\nLarge bodies of air called air masses can also affect the weather. These air masses have the same temperature and humidity throughout and form over large areas like oceans or continents. When two air masses meet, they form a front, which is the boundary between them. Fronts are where we get most of our active weather. A cold front pushes under warm air and can cause thunderstorms. A warm front brings lighter rain and gentle warming. Occluded fronts and stationary fronts can lead to long-lasting or complicated weather patterns with lots of rain or clouds.\nSome weather systems are very powerful. One type is called an extratropical cyclone, which forms along fronts in mid-latitudes. These storms are shaped by the jet stream (fast-moving air high in the sky) and changes in air temperature. Another type is a thunderstorm, which starts when warm, moist air rises and releases energy as it cools. Some thunderstorms become supercells, which are strong enough to produce hail, strong winds, and even tornadoes. A tornado is a spinning column of air that reaches from a thunderstorm down to the ground. Tornadoes are measured using the Enhanced Fujita (EF) Scale, from EF0 (weakest) to EF5 (most destructive). Another major type of storm is a tropical cyclone, also called a hurricane or typhoon depending on where it forms. These storms get their energy from warm ocean water and have a calm center called the eye, surrounded by spiral bands of rain and wind. The strength of a hurricane is measured using the Saffir\u2013Simpson Scale, which ranks them by their wind speed. Their path depends on things like ocean temperatures, the Coriolis effect (caused by Earth\u2019s rotation), and winds high in the atmosphere.\nClimate science.\nClimate science is the study of long-term weather patterns and what causes them. Unlike weather, which can change daily, climate looks at how temperature and rainfall behave over many years. Scientists use systems like the K\u00f6ppen classification to group different parts of the world into climate zones. These include tropical, dry (arid), temperate, continental, and polar climates. Each zone has its own average temperatures and types of precipitation, like rain or snow. Climate zones are shaped by how air moves around the Earth. These air movements are called global circulation patterns, and they are driven by the Sun's heat and the Earth's spinning motion. There are three main circulation cells in each hemisphere: the Hadley, Ferrel, and Polar cells. These help move warm air from the equator toward the poles. Winds like the trade winds, westerlies, and polar easterlies form because of these air movements and affect weather in different regions. Jet streams, which are strong winds high in the sky, also influence how storms move.\nScientists use computer models, called Global Circulation Models (GCMs), to predict how the climate might change in the future. These models include information about the atmosphere, oceans, land, and ice. They also use satellite data, historical records, and data about how the Earth reacts to sunlight and greenhouse gases. These tools help scientists understand how human actions and natural changes affect the climate. One of the biggest topics in climate science is climate change caused by human activity. Since the Industrial Revolution, people have burned more fossil fuels (like coal, oil, and gas), cut down forests, and used farming methods that release gases like carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide. These gases trap heat in the atmosphere, a process called the greenhouse effect, which is causing global warming.\nThe Earth's average temperature has gone up by more than 1.1\u00b0C since the late 1800s. This warming has led to melting ice, rising sea levels, and stronger storms and heatwaves. Scientists also worry about feedback loops, changes that make warming even worse. For example, when ice melts, it reflects less sunlight, causing the Earth to heat up faster (this is called the ice\u2013albedo feedback). Also, frozen ground (permafrost) can release methane as it thaws, adding more greenhouse gases to the air. Climate change affects different places in different ways. In Africa, droughts may get worse. In the Atlantic Ocean, hurricanes may become stronger. Changing rainfall patterns may harm farming and water supplies. Scientists study past climates, using ice cores, tree rings, and ocean sediments to learn how Earth\u2019s climate has changed before. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) brings together scientists from all over the world to study climate change and give advice to governments. Understanding how Earth\u2019s atmosphere works helps us find solutions, such as cutting greenhouse gas emissions, planting more trees to absorb carbon, or using new technologies to cool the planet.\nAstronomy: Earth in Space.\nAstronomy, when connected to Earth science, helps us understand how Earth fits into the larger universe. It looks at how objects in space, like the Sun, the Moon, and the planets, affect life on Earth. These celestial events play a big role in shaping things like our climate, seasons, tides, and even some geological processes such as how the Earth\u2019s crust behaves over time. For example, Earth\u2019s orbit around the Sun and its tilted axis are what cause the seasons. The Moon\u2019s gravity pulls on Earth\u2019s oceans and creates tides, which rise and fall regularly. Even biological rhythms, like how animals migrate or plants grow, are often linked to daylight cycles caused by Earth\u2019s rotation. Events like solar flares and geomagnetic storms from the Sun can also affect Earth\u2019s magnetic field and even interfere with satellites and communication systems.\nOver the centuries, people have watched the skies to learn more about these effects. Today, scientists use powerful tools like space telescopes, radio antennas, and satellites to observe the universe in much more detail. These instruments help track the movement of planets, predict eclipses, monitor solar activity, and study asteroids that might come close to Earth.\nThe Earth-Sun-Moon System.\nThe tilt of Earth\u2019s axis, which is about 23.5 degrees, and its oval-shaped (elliptical) orbit around the Sun are what cause the seasons. When Earth tilts toward the Sun, that part of the world gets more sunlight and experiences summer. When it tilts away, it is winter. A solstice happens when the tilt is most extreme. Around June 21, the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere brings the longest day of the year. Around December 21, the winter solstice brings the shortest. The equinoxes, which happen around March 21 and September 23, are times when day and night are nearly equal all over the world. That\u2019s because the Sun is shining directly on the equator.\nThe Moon\u2019s phases, like the new moon, half moon, and full moon, happen because of how the Moon orbits Earth and how sunlight shines on it from different angles. A new moon occurs when the Moon is between Earth and the Sun, so we cannot see the lit side. A full moon happens when Earth is between the Sun and the Moon, so we see the entire lit side. Sometimes, the Sun, Earth, and Moon line up perfectly, causing an eclipse. In a solar eclipse, the Moon blocks the Sun\u2019s light and casts a shadow on Earth. In a lunar eclipse, Earth\u2019s shadow falls on the Moon, making it look dark or red. Eclipses do not happen every month because the Moon\u2019s orbit is tilted, and it only crosses Earth\u2019s orbital path at certain times called eclipse seasons.\nThe Moon\u2019s gravity also pulls on Earth\u2019s oceans and causes tides. When the Sun and Moon line up, during new and full moons, they create spring tides, which have higher high tides and lower low tides. During quarter moons, the Sun and Moon are at right angles, and they create neap tides, which are not as strong. In some places, like the Bay of Fundy in Canada, the shape of the coastline can make tides even more extreme due to a special effect called tidal resonance.\nInfluence of the Sun.\nThe Sun affects Earth in many important ways, not just by giving us light and heat, but also by sending out energy and particles. Most of the energy we get from the Sun comes as visible light, ultraviolet (UV) radiation, and infrared (IR) energy. This energy powers Earth\u2019s climate and helps plants perform photosynthesis, which is how they make food. The amount of sunlight, also called insolation, depends on how Earth is tilted and how far it is from the Sun. Even small changes in the Sun\u2019s energy output, such as those during the 11-year sunspot cycle, can slightly affect Earth\u2019s weather and climate.\nBesides light, the Sun also sends out a steady flow of tiny charged particles called the solar wind. These particles, mostly protons and electrons, travel very fast through space and reach Earth all the time. Earth is protected by a powerful magnetic field, called the magnetosphere, which is created by movement in Earth\u2019s liquid outer core. This magnetic shield stops most of the solar wind. But during strong solar events like solar storms or coronal mass ejections (CMEs), the flow of particles becomes much stronger and can compress the magnetosphere. When this happens, it can disturb satellites, GPS signals, and even electrical power grids on Earth.\nWhen the solar wind hits the upper part of Earth\u2019s atmosphere near the North and South Poles, it creates beautiful displays called auroras. In the Northern Hemisphere, it's called the aurora borealis (Northern Lights), and in the Southern Hemisphere, it is called the aurora australis (Southern Lights). These colorful lights appear when solar particles excite atoms like oxygen and nitrogen in the thermosphere, causing them to glow. Different gases and heights produce different colors: green light comes from oxygen around 100 kilometers high, red from oxygen even higher up, and blue or purple from nitrogen. Auroras are most visible during times of high solar activity and are often seen in places like Scandinavia, Alaska, and Antarctica.\nEarth\u2019s Place in the Universe.\nEarth travels around the Sun in a slightly oval-shaped path called an elliptical orbit. It takes about 365.25 days to complete one full trip around the Sun, which is why we have a leap day every four years to keep our calendar in sync. Earth also spins on its axis once every 23 hours and 56 minutes, which is called a sidereal day. However, because Earth is also moving around the Sun, our normal solar day, from one noon to the next, is exactly 24 hours. Earth\u2019s orbit follows rules discovered by the scientist Johannes Kepler. According to Kepler\u2019s laws, Earth moves faster in its orbit when it is closer to the Sun (called perihelion) and slower when it is farther away (called aphelion). Over thousands of years, the gravity from the Sun, Moon, and other planets can slightly change Earth\u2019s orbit. These slow changes, called Milankovitch cycles, include shifts in Earth\u2019s shape of orbit (eccentricity), its tilt (axial tilt), and the wobble of its axis (precession). These cycles are connected to long-term climate patterns like ice ages.\nEarth formed about 4.54 billion years ago from a cloud of gas and dust called the solar nebula, which was left over from exploded stars. Small pieces called planetesimals stuck together through accretion, slowly building up into planets. As Earth grew, its heavier materials sank to the center, forming a metal core, while lighter rocks rose to become the mantle and crust. A big event called the giant impact hypothesis suggests that a Mars-sized object named Theia hit Earth early on. The debris from this crash likely formed the Moon, and the impact also tilted Earth\u2019s axis, giving us seasons. Earth is located in a special part of the solar system called the habitable zone, where temperatures allow liquid water, a key ingredient for life, to exist. Our planet moves through the Milky Way galaxy in a spiral region known as the Orion Arm, taking about 225 to 250 million years to orbit the galaxy\u2019s center once.\nFields of study.\nThe following disciplines are generally recognised as being within the geosciences:"}
+{"id": "219", "revid": "1691206", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=219", "title": "Earth", "text": "Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only place we know of where life exists. One big reason life can exist here is that Earth is an \u201cocean world.\u201d This means it has a lot of water on its surface, and it is the only planet in our Solar System with liquid water that life can use. Most of Earth\u2019s water is in the oceans, which cover about 71% of the planet\u2019s surface. The rest, about 29%, is land. Most of this land is grouped into large continents, like North America, Africa, and Asia, which are mostly humid and covered with plants. Even the icy parts at the North and South Poles hold more water in their ice sheets than all of the lakes, rivers, and underground water combined.\nEarth\u2019s outer layer, called the crust, is made of big pieces called tectonic plates that slowly move around. When these plates push against each other, they can create mountains, volcanoes, and earthquakes. You can think of it like giant puzzle pieces slowly sliding and bumping into each other. Deep inside Earth, there is a liquid outer core. This spinning liquid creates a magnetic field around the planet, called a magnetosphere. The magnetosphere works like a protective shield, keeping most of the dangerous solar winds and cosmic radiation from reaching the surface, which helps life survive.\nEarth has an atmosphere, which is a layer of gases that surrounds the planet. This atmosphere is very important because it keeps Earth\u2019s surface conditions just right for life. It also protects us from most meteoroids that hit Earth and from harmful ultraviolet (UV) light from the Sun. Most of the atmosphere is made of nitrogen and oxygen, the gases we breathe. There is also water vapor in the air, which forms clouds that cover much of the planet. The water vapor and other gases, like carbon dioxide (CO2), help trap energy from the Sun. This is called the greenhouse effect. You can think of it like a blanket around Earth: it keeps the planet warm enough for liquid water to exist on the surface. Because of this, the average temperature on Earth is about 15 \u00b0C (59 \u00b0F), which is perfect for water to stay liquid instead of freezing or evaporating too quickly. Different parts of Earth get different amounts of sunlight. For example, the equator gets more sunlight than the poles. This difference causes winds in the atmosphere and currents in the oceans, moving heat and water around the planet. These movements create the global climate system, which includes different climate zones, like deserts, rainforests, and polar regions. They also cause weather events like rain and snow, and help important elements like carbon and nitrogen move through the environment, which is essential for life.\nEarth is shaped like a slightly squashed ball, called an ellipsoid. If you could travel all the way around it at the equator, you would cover about 40,000 kilometers (about 25,000 miles). Earth is the densest planet in our Solar System, which means it has more mass packed into its size than any other planet. Among the four rocky planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars, Earth is the largest and heaviest. Earth is about 150 million kilometers (93 million miles) from the Sun, which is also called 1 astronomical unit, or 1 AU. Light from the Sun takes about eight minutes to reach us. Earth travels around the Sun in an orbit, taking one year, about 365.25 days, to complete a full circle. At the same time, Earth spins around its own axis once every day, which actually takes about 23 hours and 56 minutes. The axis is tilted, which is why we have seasons: when one side leans toward the Sun, it is summer there, and when it leans away, it is winter. Earth has one natural satellite, the Moon. The Moon orbits Earth at about 384,400 kilometers (238,855 miles), which is 1.28 light seconds away. The Moon is about one-quarter the size of Earth. Its gravity affects Earth in important ways. It helps keep Earth\u2019s tilt stable, creates tides in the oceans, and slowly makes Earth spin a little slower over time. At the same time, Earth\u2019s gravity has locked the Moon so that the same side always faces us.\nEarth formed about 4.5 billion years ago from clouds of gas and dust in the early Solar System. You can imagine it like tiny pieces of dust sticking together to slowly build a planet. During the first billion years, oceans formed on Earth, and soon after, life began in these waters. Over time, life spread all over the planet and started changing the air and the surface of Earth. About two billion years ago, this led to the Great Oxidation Event, when oxygen became common in the atmosphere for the first time. Humans appeared much later, around 300,000 years ago, starting in Africa. Since then, humans have spread to every continent. People rely on Earth\u2019s plants, animals, water, and other natural resources to survive. But as human populations have grown and technology has advanced, we have started to change the environment in big ways. Today, human activities are affecting Earth\u2019s climate and ecosystems in ways that are not sustainable. This means that if things continue as they are, it could make it harder for humans and many other living things to survive. Our impact is causing problems like climate change, loss of habitats, and extinction of species, which shows how important it is to take care of the planet.\nEtymology.\nThe English word \"Earth\" comes from the Old English word ', which was used hundreds of years ago. Similar words exist in many Germanic languages, and scientists think they all come from an even older word called Proto-Germanic \"er\u00fe\u014d\". In the past, the word ' was used to mean many things, just like the Latin word \"\" or the Greek word \"g\u0113\". It could mean the ground, the soil, dry land, the human world, the surface of the planet (including the seas), or even the planet as a whole. Basically, it was a word for almost anything we associate with the world we live on. Long ago, like in Roman and Greek stories, people sometimes imagined Earth as a goddess. In Norse mythology, for example, there was J\u00f6r\u00f0, a giantess who represented the Earth and was said to be the mother of Thor, the god of thunder.\nIn the past, the word \u201cearth\u201d was usually written with a lowercase \u201ce.\u201d During the Early Middle English period, people started using the phrase \u201cthe earth\u201d to mean the whole planet, or the globe. Later, in the Early Modern English period, people began capitalizing nouns more often, so you also started seeing \u201cthe Earth\u201d, especially when talking about it along with the Sun, Moon, or other planets. Today, people sometimes just write \u201cEarth\u201d with a capital letter, like the names of other planets, but the lowercase form \u201cearth\u201d is still very common. Different books and style guides have different rules. For example, the Oxford style says lowercase is more common, but capitalized \u201cEarth\u201d is also okay. A common rule is to use a capital \u201cE\u201d when Earth is a proper name, like in \u201cEarth\u2019s atmosphere\u201d, but use lowercase when it is part of a description, like \u201cthe atmosphere of the earth.\u201d In everyday expressions, we almost always use lowercase, like in the saying \u201cWhat on earth are you doing?\u201d\nThe planet Earth has had many names throughout history. \"Terra\" is one of these names. Scientists sometimes use it in writing, and science fiction writers use it to make it clear they are talking about our planet and not another one. In poetry, the name \"Tellus\" has been used to imagine Earth as a person, like giving the planet human qualities. Some languages, called Romance languages because they come from Latin, use \"Terra\" or similar words as the name for Earth. For example, Italian and Portuguese still call it \"Terra\". In Spanish, it became \"Tierra\", and in French, it became Terre. You can think of it like how a single family recipe can change a little in different countries. The Greek name for Earth was \"Gaia\", or sometimes spelled \"Gaea\" in English. This name is used less often, but it became more popular with the Gaia hypothesis, which is a scientific idea that Earth works like a living system. With this, people usually say it as \"GYE-uh\" instead of the older English pronunciation \"GAY-uh\".\nThere are many words that come from the names of the planet Earth. For example, the word earthly comes directly from the word Earth. People use it to describe things that belong to or come from our planet. Other words come from the Latin name \"Terra\". From this, we get terran, terrestrial, and terrene. These words all mean \u201crelated to Earth\u201d or \u201cliving on Earth.\u201d For example, scientists might call animals that live on land \u201cterrestrial animals,\u201d like lions, elephants, and humans. Some words come from the Latin name \"Tellus\", like tellurian and telluric. These words also mean \u201crelated to Earth.\u201d\nNatural history.\nFormation.\nThe oldest solid stuff in the Solar System is made of tiny pieces called CAIs, which stands for calcium\u2013aluminium-rich inclusions. These pieces are found in some very old meteorites. Scientists have measured them and found that they are about 4.568 billion years old. These were the very first solid materials that formed from a big cloud of gas and dust in space, called the solar nebula, which later made the Sun and planets. Earth formed a little later, around 4.54 billion years ago.\nA long time ago, there was a huge cloud of gas and dust in space called a molecular cloud. Gravity pulled part of this cloud together, which made it shrink, spin, and flatten into a disk around the forming Sun. This disk is called the solar nebula. It had gas, ice, dust, and even radioactive materials like uranium and thorium, which gave off heat as they broke down. Tiny dust particles in the disk bumped into each other and stuck together. Over time, these clumps grew into larger rocks called planetesimals, which were the building blocks of planets. Earth grew by slowly collecting these pieces, a process called accretion, which took about 70 to 100 million years. As smaller bodies crashed into the growing Earth, they created a lot of heat, melting parts of the planet. When Earth first formed, it was very hot and mostly molten, like a giant ball of lava. Over time, it cooled and separated into layers. The heaviest metals sank to make the core, lighter rocks formed the mantle, and the outer layer became a basic crust.\nScientists are still studying how the Moon formed. They think it is about 4.5 billion years old, but it might be a little younger depending on how it is measured. The most accepted idea is called the Giant Impact Hypothesis. According to this idea, a planet-sized object called Theia, about one-tenth the size of Earth, collided with early Earth. The collision was not straight-on but more like a glancing blow. Pieces of Theia and Earth\u2019s outer layer broke off, forming a ring of debris around Earth. This debris later came together to make the Moon. The collision also changed Earth\u2019s spin and tilted its axis.\nAfter the Moon formed, the inner Solar System went through a time called the Late Heavy Bombardment, about 4.0 to 3.8 billion years ago. During this time, many asteroids and comets crashed into the Moon and Earth, making large craters on the Moon, like Imbrium, Serenitatis, and Crisium. Some impacts may have melted parts of the Moon\u2019s crust and caused volcanic activity. On Earth, these impacts affected the surface and atmosphere and might have helped life start by bringing water and organic molecules, or by creating hot underwater areas called hydrothermal vents, which can support life. Scientists think the movements of giant planets, like Jupiter and Saturn, may have disturbed the orbits of asteroids and comets, sending them toward the inner planets and causing this heavy bombardment.\nAfter formation.\nMost of Earth\u2019s air and water came from volcanoes. When volcanoes erupted, they released gases trapped inside the planet. This process is called outgassing. These gases included water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, and small amounts of other gases. The water vapor cooled down and formed the first oceans. Some water also came from space, brought by asteroids, icy protoplanets, and comets. These space objects added more water from different parts of the Solar System. Scientists think there might have been enough water to fill today\u2019s oceans very soon after Earth formed, so our planet was basically \u201cwet\u201d from the start.\nBack then, the young Sun was only about 70% as bright as it is now. Normally, this would have made Earth very cold. But greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide and methane trapped heat, keeping the oceans from freezing. This made Earth warm enough for liquid water, which is important for life. Around 3.5 billion years ago, Earth also developed a magnetic field, created by the movement of molten iron in the core. This magnetic field acted like a shield, protecting the atmosphere from being blown away by the solar wind, which helped Earth keep its water and stay stable for life.\nAs Earth cooled, the molten outer layer hardened to form the first crust, mostly made of mafic rocks that are rich in iron and magnesium but low in silica. Later, the first pieces of continental crust appeared. These rocks were more felsic, meaning they had more silica, aluminum, potassium, and sodium. Scientists think these formed when parts of the mafic crust melted at very high temperatures, helped by early tectonic activity or mantle plumes.\nThe oldest continental crust is known from tiny minerals called zircons, some of which date back to 4.4 billion years ago, only about 140 million years after Earth formed. Scientists are still figuring out how these small pieces of crust grew into the large continents we have today. Some think growth was slow and steady over billions of years. Others think most continents formed quickly during the Archean eon. Both ideas could be true because the crust was constantly recycled, subducted, eroded, and melted, changing early continents over time.\nNew continental crust still forms today thanks to plate tectonics, which is the movement of large pieces of Earth\u2019s crust. Heat from inside Earth causes mantle convection, where hot rock slowly rises and sinks. This drives processes like subduction (one plate sliding under another) and volcanoes. Over millions of years, these movements cause continents to come together into supercontinents and then break apart. For example:\nThe movement and collision of continents affect Earth\u2019s surface, climate, oceans, and life. When continents collide, they form mountains. When they pull apart, they create valleys and basins where sediments collect. These changes have influenced the evolution of plants, animals, and humans over millions of years.\nEarth\u2019s climate has gone through many ice ages, when large parts of the planet were covered in ice. These started around 40 million years ago and became very strong during the Pleistocene epoch (~3 million years ago). Areas far from the equator went through repeated cycles of glaciation (ice sheets growing) and thawing (ice melting). These cycles happen because of small changes in Earth\u2019s orbit and tilt, called Milankovitch cycles, which change how sunlight hits Earth roughly every 21,000, 41,000, and 100,000 years. The most recent ice age, called the Last Glacial Period, covered large parts of continents with thick ice sheets. It ended about 11,700 years ago, marking the start of the Holocene epoch. Since then, Earth\u2019s climate has been relatively stable, which allowed humans to build civilizations and thrive.\nOrigin of life and evolution.\nScientists think life on Earth began about 4 billion years ago. It likely started with simple chemical reactions that made the first molecules able to copy themselves. These molecules were probably short pieces of RNA, which is similar to DNA. RNA is important because it can both store instructions (like a recipe book) and speed up chemical reactions. The fact that these molecules could copy and change over time was the very beginning of evolution. Around 3.5 billion years ago, something very important appeared: the Last Universal Common Ancestor (LUCA). LUCA was not the very first life, but it was the ancestor of all living things we know today, from bacteria and archaea to plants and animals. LUCA already had the basic tools of life that every organism still uses. It could copy DNA, read it into RNA, and build proteins from those instructions. It also had ways to get energy, either from chemical reactions or from sunlight. In other words, LUCA was like the great-grandparent of all life on Earth, passing down the same core tools that living things still use billions of years later.\nA huge change in Earth\u2019s history happened when some bacteria learned how to do photosynthesis, the process of using sunlight to make energy. Plants do this today, but the first organisms to do it were tiny bacteria called cyanobacteria. When they made energy from sunlight, they released oxygen as waste. At first, Earth\u2019s air had almost no oxygen. But over hundreds of millions of years, oxygen built up in the atmosphere. About 2.4 billion years ago, during the Great Oxidation Event, oxygen became much more common. Some of this oxygen turned into the ozone layer, a shield high above Earth that blocks dangerous UV rays from the Sun. Thanks to this protection, life could eventually move from the oceans onto land. Oxygen also changed the way life got energy. Before oxygen, organisms used less efficient methods that did not give them much power. But with oxygen, they could do aerobic respiration, which makes much more energy from food like glucose. This extra energy allowed larger and more complex life to evolve.\nAnother big step was when life went from simple cells to complex cells. This happened through a process called endosymbiosis, which means \u201cliving together inside.\u201d Long ago, some small cells started living inside bigger ones. Instead of being eaten, the smaller cells became permanent helpers. Over time, they turned into organelles, special parts of complex cells. For example, mitochondria make energy, and chloroplasts (in plants) do photosynthesis. These new complex cells are called eukaryotic cells, and they have a nucleus (a control center). Eventually, they started living in groups. At first, they formed loose colonies, but later they became multicellular organisms, where cells had different jobs, like protecting, gathering food, or reproducing. This teamwork made life much more advanced. Meanwhile, the ozone layer kept protecting Earth, allowing living things to slowly spread from oceans to land.\nScientists have found fossils that prove life is very old. For example, tiny structures made by microorganisms have been found in rocks 3.45\u20133.7 billion years old. Even some rocks from 4.1 billion years ago show signs of life. These fossils include microbial mats (thin layers of bacteria), tiny cell-like shapes, and special carbon (graphite) that likely came from living things. Much later, between 1,000 and 539 million years ago, Earth may have gone through a frozen period called Snowball Earth, when ice covered nearly the whole planet, even near the equator. After this icy time came the Cambrian explosion about 535 million years ago. Life suddenly became much more diverse. Many major groups of animals we know today first appeared then, including animals with shells, backbones, and specialized body parts.\nOver Earth\u2019s history, there have been at least five major mass extinctions. A mass extinction is when a huge number of species die in a short time. Each one reshaped ecosystems and forced life to evolve in new ways. The most famous mass extinction happened about 66 million years ago when a giant asteroid hit near today\u2019s Yucat\u00e1n Peninsula in Mexico. This caused massive climate changes and wiped out the dinosaurs that could not fly (non-avian dinosaurs) along with many other reptiles. But smaller animals, like mammals, birds, lizards, and insects, survived. Because of this, mammals had the chance to grow and spread, eventually becoming the dominant animals on Earth.\nAfter the dinosaurs died out, mammals quickly evolved to fill many different roles. Some stayed small and fast, while others grew large. A few million years ago, one type of ape in Africa changed in an important way. It started walking on two legs. This freed up its hands to carry things and make tools. Tool use encouraged more complex communication and the growth of larger brains. This path eventually led to the first humans. Humans changed the world in powerful ways. They learned farming, tamed animals like dogs and cows, and built civilizations. These advances let humans shape the land, grow in numbers, and change entire ecosystems. Today, human activity is causing many plants and animals to go extinct much faster than normal. Cutting down forests, polluting air and water, hunting too much, and causing climate change are all big factors. Many scientists believe we may now be living through a new mass extinction, called the Holocene extinction, caused mostly by humans.\nFuture.\nEarth\u2019s future is closely tied to the Sun, because the Sun\u2019s energy controls our climate, atmosphere, and even our orbit. As the Sun changes over time, Earth will change too. In the next 1.1 billion years, the Sun will shine about 10% brighter than today. That might not sound like much, but it will make Earth much hotter. In about 3.5 billion years, the Sun could be 40% brighter, making Earth almost impossible for life to survive. This happens because inside the Sun, hydrogen is fused into helium. As the core changes, the Sun slowly shines more strongly. Even small changes in sunlight can upset Earth\u2019s climate system and make the planet hotter.\nOne of the first big problems will be the loss of carbon dioxide from the air. Plants need CO\u2082 for photosynthesis, which makes food and releases oxygen. But as Earth gets hotter, rock weathering (rain and heat breaking down rocks) will speed up. This process traps carbon in rocks instead of leaving it in the air. Today, CO\u2082 levels are over 400 ppm. In 100 to 900 million years, CO\u2082 levels may drop so low, below 10 parts per million (ppm), that even the toughest plants would not survive. Without plants, there will be no photosynthesis, so oxygen will slowly disappear. Without oxygen, animals, including humans cannot survive. This means Earth will eventually become uninhabitable for all oxygen-breathing life.\nAs the Sun keeps brightening, Earth will get even hotter. In about 1.5 billion years, the average temperature could reach 100 \u00b0C (212 \u00b0F), the boiling point of water. The oceans would start to boil away. As water evaporates, huge amounts of water vapor (a strong greenhouse gas) would fill the air. This would trigger a runaway greenhouse effect, where Earth heats up uncontrollably, just like Venus, which is now over 460 \u00b0C (860 \u00b0F). Scientists think this would happen in about 1.6 to 3 billion years. By then, all oceans would be gone, and Earth\u2019s water would escape into space. Even if the Sun stayed stable, Earth would still slowly lose water. Some ocean water sinks into the mantle at tectonic plate edges. Normally, volcanoes return some water, but as Earth\u2019s interior cools and volcanic activity slows, less water comes back. Over billions of years, Earth would still dry out.\nIn about 5 billion years, the Sun will run out of hydrogen in its core. Fusion will shift to outer layers, and the Sun will swell into a red giant, about 250 times wider than today. Its size could reach 1 astronomical unit (AU), which is Earth\u2019s current distance from the Sun. Mercury and Venus will be swallowed. Earth\u2019s fate is uncertain. The Sun will lose about 30% of its mass as strong stellar winds blow gas into space. With less mass, the Sun\u2019s gravity will weaken, and Earth could drift outward to about 1.7 AU, possibly safe. But other forces, like tidal pulls and drag from the Sun\u2019s outer gases, might slow Earth down. If that happens, Earth could spiral inward and be swallowed, burning up inside the Sun. After its red giant phase, the Sun will shed its outer layers, creating a glowing planetary nebula. Its core will shrink into a white dwarf, a small, dense star made mostly of carbon and oxygen. Whether Earth survives in a distant orbit or is destroyed inside the Sun is still a mystery.\nPhysical characteristics.\nSize and shape.\nEarth is shaped like a round ball, but it is not a perfect sphere. Its shape is kept by a balance between two main forces. Gravity pulls everything toward Earth\u2019s center, while pressure inside the planet and Earth\u2019s spinning motion push outward. Together, these forces make Earth mostly round. Earth\u2019s average diameter is about 12,742 kilometers (7,918 miles), making it the fifth largest planet in the Solar System. Only the giant planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune, are bigger. Earth is the largest rocky planet, bigger than Mercury, Venus, and Mars. Being this big gives Earth enough gravity to hold onto a thick atmosphere, which helps life survive. Smaller planets, like Mars, lost much of their air over time because they don\u2019t have enough gravity to keep it.\nBecause Earth spins once every 24 hours, it is not perfectly round. It bulges slightly at the equator and is a bit flattened at the poles. Scientists call this shape an oblate spheroid. The equator is about 43 kilometers (27 miles) wider than the distance from pole to pole. This happens because of centrifugal force, a pushing-out effect caused by spinning. Earth spins fastest at the equator, about 1,670 km/h (1,040 mph), while the poles do not spin at all. The equatorial radius (distance from the center to the equator) is about 6,378 km (3,963 miles). The polar radius is slightly smaller at 6,357 km (3,950 miles).\nEarth\u2019s surface is not smooth. Tectonic activity, erosion, volcanoes, and the movement of rocks create mountains, valleys, and trenches. The deepest place is the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean, about 10,925 meters (35,843 feet) below sea level. The tallest mountain on land is Mount Everest, rising 8,848 meters (29,029 feet) above sea level. But the place farthest from Earth\u2019s center is not Everest, it is Chimborazo, a volcano in Ecuador. It is only 6,263 meters (20,548 feet) tall, but because it sits near the equator, where Earth bulges, its peak is 2 kilometers farther from the center than Everest.\nJust like land has mountains and valleys, the oceans have their own shapes, but they are not solid. Ocean surfaces are always moving because of winds, tides, currents, gravity, and Earth\u2019s spin. Some parts of the ocean are slightly higher because strong gravity pulls water toward denser rocks under the seafloor. Ocean currents are affected by the Coriolis effect, caused by Earth\u2019s spin, creating big circular patterns called gyres. For example, in the Pacific Ocean, the surface in the western Pacific is about 60 centimeters (2 feet) higher than in the eastern Pacific because of trade winds and ocean circulation.\nScientists study Earth\u2019s real shape in a field called geodesy. Instead of looking at uneven land and moving oceans, they use a model called the geoid. The geoid shows what Earth would look like if it were covered with perfectly still water, no waves, tides, or winds. The geoid is not a perfect sphere or simple oval. It is slightly bumpy, because some parts of Earth\u2019s crust and mantle are denser, creating stronger gravity in those spots. The geoid is very useful because it acts as a baseline for measuring heights and depths, like how tall mountains are or how deep the oceans go. Today, satellites like GRACE and GOCE have mapped the geoid in incredible detail. They help scientists track important changes on Earth, like rising sea levels, melting ice sheets, and shrinking groundwater, with accuracy down to just a few centimeters.\nSurface.\nThe surface of Earth is where land, oceans, and the atmosphere all meet. It is the part of the planet where life happens, plants grow, animals live, humans build cities, and water moves in rivers, lakes, and the ocean. Earth\u2019s surface is very large, covering about 510 million square kilometers (197 million square miles), giving plenty of space for ecosystems, farms, and people. We can divide Earth\u2019s surface in two main ways. First is by latitude, which are lines that go east to west. This splits Earth into the Northern Hemisphere (above the equator) and the Southern Hemisphere (below the equator). Second is by longitude, which are lines that go north to south. This divides Earth into the Eastern Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere, using the Prime Meridian and the 180th meridian as rough dividing lines. These divisions help scientists and people understand climate, ocean currents, where plants and animals live, and also help with navigation and maps.\nMost of Earth\u2019s surface, about 70.8% or 361 million square kilometers (139 million square miles), is covered by oceans. This huge, connected body of water is called the world ocean, making Earth a true ocean world. The oceans are always moving, with currents, tides, and waves that help control climate and move nutrients that living things need. Long ago, oceans may have covered almost the entire planet, hiding the first land. Today, the world ocean is divided into five major oceans, from largest to smallest: Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, and Arctic Oceans. Under the oceans is oceanic crust, which forms deep basins and has many interesting features, like abyssal plains (flat areas), seamounts (underwater mountains), submarine volcanoes, ocean trenches, oceanic plateaus, mid-ocean ridges, where new crust forms from volcanic activity. In the polar regions, the ocean is covered by sea ice during part of the year. The ice, along with polar land and ice sheets, forms the polar ice caps, which affect how much sunlight Earth reflects back into space and also influence ocean currents.\nThe remaining 29.2% of Earth\u2019s surface, about 149 million square kilometers (58 million square miles), is land. This includes continents and islands. The four biggest landmasses are Afro-Eurasia, America, Antarctica, and Australia. Land is divided into continents to make it easier to study geography and human cultures. Earth\u2019s land is very diverse, with mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, and other landforms. The lowest exposed point is the Dead Sea, 418 meters (1,371 feet) below sea level. The highest point is Mount Everest, which rises 8,848 meters (29,029 feet) above sea level. On average, land sits about 797 meters (2,615 feet) above sea level, showing that most land is much lower than the tallest mountains but far above the ocean floors.\nEarth\u2019s land is made up of a mix of plants, water, snow, ice, and human buildings, which creates very different environments. Most land has vegetation, like forests and grasslands, which help hold soil in place and provide homes for animals. Some areas are much harsher: about 10% of land is covered by ice sheets, and about 33% is desert, where it is hard for most plants and animals to survive. The top layer of land is called the pedosphere, or soil. Soil forms from weathered rocks, decomposed plants and animals, and the cycling of minerals. Soil is very important because it supports ecosystems and growing food. Only about 10.7% of land can be used for farming crops (arable land), and about 1.3% is permanent cropland that grows food for people. Worldwide, there are around 16.7 million square kilometers (6.4 million square miles) of cropland and 33.5 million square kilometers (12.9 million square miles) of pastureland, which is used for grazing animals. These lands are essential for life on Earth.\nBeneath the land and oceans is the Earth\u2019s crust, the planet\u2019s outer layer. Together with part of the upper mantle, it forms the lithosphere, which is the solid, rigid shell of Earth. The crust comes in two main types. The oceanic crust is thinner, heavier, and made mostly of basalt, a dark dense rock. It forms the ocean floors. The continental crust is thicker, lighter, and made of granite, as well as sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. It supports mountains and continents. Most of the continents are covered by sedimentary rocks, formed from material worn down from other rocks and deposited over time. These rocks cover about 75% of continental surfaces, but they only make up 5% of the crust\u2019s total mass, showing that the surface does not fully represent what the crust is made of.\nOrbit and turning.\nEarth is one of the eight planets in the Solar System. There are also thousands of small bodies which move around the Sun. The Solar System is moving through the Orion Arm of the Milky Way galaxy, and will be for about the next 10,000 years.\nEarth is about away from the Sun (this distance is called an \"astronomical unit\" or au. It moves on its orbit at an average speed of about . Earth turns around about 365 times in the time it takes for Earth to go all the way around the Sun. To make up this extra bit of a day every year, an additional day is added to the calendar every four years (29 February). A year that has this extra day is called a \"leap year\".\nThe Moon goes around Earth at an average distance of . It is locked to Earth, so that it always has the same half facing Earth; the other half is called the \"dark side of the moon\". It takes about 27 days for the Moon to go all the way around Earth, but because Earth is moving around the Sun at the same time, it takes about 29 days for the Moon to go from dark to bright to dark again. This is where the word \"month\" came from, even though most months now have 30 or 31 days.\nGeology of Earth.\nEarth is rocky. It is the largest of the rocky planets moving around the Sun by mass and by size. It is much smaller than the gas giants such as Jupiter.\nChemical make-up.\nOverall, Earth is made of iron (32.1%), oxygen (30.1%), silicon (15.1%), magnesium (13.9%), sulfur (2.9%), nickel (1.8%), calcium (1.5%), and aluminium (1.4%). The 1.2% left over is made of many different kinds of other chemicals. Some rare metals (not just gold and platinum) are very valuable. Rare earth metals are often used in electronic phones and computers.\nThe structure of Earth changes from the inside to the outside. The center of Earth (Earth's core) is mostly iron (88.8%), nickel (5.8%), sulfur (4.5%), and less than 1% other elements. The [[Earth's crust] is largely [[oxygen]] (47%). Oxygen is normally a gas but it can [[oxide|join]] with other [[chemicals]] to make [[chemical compound|compounds]] like [[water]] and rocks. 99.22[[percent|%]] of rocks have [[oxygen]] in them. The most common rocks with oxygen are [[silica]] (made with [[silicon]]), [[alumina]] (made with [[aluminum|aluminium]]), [[rust]] (made with [[iron]]), [[lime (chemical)|lime]] (made with [[calcium]]), [[magnesia]] (made with [[magnesium]]), [[potash]] (made with [[potassium]]), and [[sodium]] oxide.\nBeing rich in [[metal]]s such as [[iron]], the Earth is the [[density|densest]] of all the planets. [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] and [[Venus]] are slightly less dense.\nShape.\n[[Geoid|Earth's shape]] is a [[spheroid]]: not quite a [[sphere]] because it is slightly [[oblate|squashed]] on the top and bottom. The shape is called an [[oblate spheroid]]. As Earth spins around itself, [[centrifugal force]] forces the [[equator]] out a little and pulls the [[geographical pole|poles]] in a little. The equator, around the middle of Earth's surface, is about long. The reason the Earth is roughly a [[sphere]] (and so are all planets and stars) is [[gravity]]. Meteorites, on the other hand may be any shape because, in their case, the force of gravity is too weak to change their shape.\nThe highest mountain above [[sea level]]\u2014the well-known [[Mount Everest]] (which is [[elevation|above sea level]])\u2014is \"not\" actually the one that is the farthest away from the center of the Earth. Instead, the sleeping [[volcano]] [[Mount Chimborazo]] in [[Ecuador]] is; it is only [[elevation|above sea level]] but it is almost at the [[equator]]. Because of this, Mount Chimborazo is from the center of the Earth, while [[Mount Everest]] is closer to it (). Similarly, the lowest point below sea level that we are conscious of is the [[Challenger Deep]] in the [[Mariana Trench]] in the [[Pacific Ocean]]. It is about [[depth|below sea level]], but, again, there are probably places at the bottom of the [[Arctic Ocean]] that are nearer to the center of the Earth.\nEarth\u2019s core.\n[[File:Earth-crust-cutaway-english.svg|thumb|right|220px|A picture of the inside of the Earth, showing the different levels. In fact, the air and the outside levels are much thinner than shown here]]\nThe [[Kola superdeep borehole|deepest hole ever dug]] is only about . We know something about the inside of the Earth, because we learn things from [[earthquake]]s and [[volcanic eruptions]]. We can detect how quickly [[shock wave]]s move through the Earth.\nThe inside of Earth is very different from the outside. Almost all of Earth's liquid water is in the [[ocean|sea]]s or close to the surface. The surface also has a lot of [[oxygen]], which comes from plants. Small and simple kinds of life can live far under the surface, but animals and plants only live on the surface or in the seas. The rocks on the surface of Earth ([[Earth's crust]]) are well known. They are thicker where there is land, between thick. Under the [[ocean|sea]]s they are sometimes only thick. \nThere are three groups of rocks that make up most of the Earth's crust. Some rock is made when the hot liquid rock comes from inside the earth ([[igneous rock]]s); another type of rock is made when [[sediment]] is laid down, usually under the sea ([[sedimentary rock]]s); and a third kind of rock is made when the other two are changed by very high [[temperature]] or [[pressure]] ([[metamorphic rock]]s).\nBelow the crust is hot and almost-[[liquid]] rock which is always moving around (the [[Earth's mantle]]). Then, there is a thin liquid layer of heated rock (the [[outer core]]). This is very hot: . The middle of the inside of the Earth would be liquid as well but all the pressure of the rock above it makes it a solid. This solid middle part (the [[inner core]]) is almost all [[iron]]. It is what makes the Earth [[magnetic field|magnetic]].\nPieces of the crust form plates.\n[[File:Plates tect2 en.svg|thumb|right|A [[map|picture]] showing the Earth's largest and most important plates.]]\nThe [[Earth's crust]] is solid but made of [[plate tectonics|parts]] which move very slowly. The thin skin of hard rock on the outside of the Earth rests on hot liquid material below it in the deeper [[mantle (geology)|mantle]]. This liquid material moves because it gets heat from the hot center of the Earth. The slow movement of the plates is a factor in [[earthquake]]s, [[volcano]]es and large groups of mountains on the Earth.\nThere are three ways plates can come together. Two plates can move towards each other (\"convergent\" plate edges). This can form [[island]]s, [[volcanoes]], and high [[mountain range]]s (such as the [[Andes]] and [[Himalayas]]). Two plates can move away from each other (\"divergent\" plate edges). This gives the [[magma|warm liquid rock inside the earth]] a place to come out. This makes [[mid-ocean ridge|special mountain range]]s below the sea or large low lands like [[Africa]]'s [[Great Rift Valley]]. Plates are able to move beside each other as well (\"transform\" plate edges, such as the [[San Andreas Fault]]). This makes their edges crush against each other and makes many [[earthquakes|shocks as they move]].\nSurface.\nThe outside of the Earth is not even. There are high places called [[mountain]]s, and high flat places called [[plateau]]s or plateaux. There are low places called [[valley]]s and [[canyon]]s. For the most part, moving [[wind|air]] and [[rain|water from the sky]] and [[tide|sea]]s [[erosion|eats away at rocks in high places and breaks them into small pieces]]. The air and water then move these pieces to lower places. The fundamental cause of the differences in the Earth's surface is [[plate tectonics]]. The shape of the entire planet itself is not an exactly a ball. Because of its spin, Earth has a slight [[bulge]] at the [[Equator]].\nAll places on Earth are made of, or are on top of, rocks. The outside of the Earth is usually not uncovered rock. Over 70[[percent|%]] of the Earth is covered by [[ocean|sea]]s full of [[salt]]y water. This salty water makes up about 97[[percent|%]] of all Earth's water. The drinkable [[fresh water]] is mostly in the form of [[ice]]. There is only a small amount (less than 3%) of fresh water in [[river]]s and under the ground for people to drink. Gravity stops the water from going away into [[outer space]]. Also, much of the land on Earth is covered with plants, or with what is left from earlier living things. Places with very little rain are dry wastes called [[desert]]s. Deserts usually have few living things, but life is able to grow very quickly when these wastes have rainfall. Places with large amounts of rain may be [[rain forests]]. Lately, people have changed the [[environment]] of the Earth a great deal. As population has increased, so has farming. Farming is done on what were once natural forests and grassland.\nAir.\nAll around the Earth is the of air (the [[atmosphere]]). The mass of the Earth holds the [[gas]]ses in the air down and does not let them go into outer space. The air is mostly made of [[nitrogen]] (about 78[[percent|%]]) and [[oxygen]] (about 21[[percent|%]]) and there are a few other gasses as well. Living things need both the air and water.\nThe air, which animals and plants use to live, is only the first level of the air around the Earth (the [[troposphere]]). The day to day changes in this level of air are called [[weather]]; the larger differences between distant places, and from year to year, are called the [[climate]]. [[Rain]] and [[storm]]s come about because this part of the air gets colder as it goes up. [[convection|Cold air becomes thicker and falls, and warm air becomes thinner and goes up]]. The turning Earth also moves the air as well and air moves north and south because the middle of the Earth generally gets more power from the Sun and is warmer than the north and south points. Air over warm water [[evaporation|evaporates]] but, because cold air is not able to take in as much water, it starts to make [[cloud]]s and [[rain]] as it gets colder. The way water moves around in a circle like this is called the [[water cycle]].\nAbove this first level, there are four other levels. The air gets colder as it goes up in the first level; in the second level (the [[stratosphere]]), the air gets warmer as it goes up. This level has a special kind of [[oxygen]] called [[ozone]]. The [[ozone]] in this air keeps living things safe from [[ultraviolet radiation|damaging rays from the Sun]]. The power from these rays is what makes this level warmer and warmer. The middle level (the [[mesosphere]]) gets colder and colder with height; the fourth level (the [[thermosphere]]) gets warmer and warmer; and the last level (the [[exosphere]]) is almost outer space and has very little air at all. It reaches about half the way to the Moon. The three outer levels have a lot of [[electricity|electric power]] moving through them; this is called the [[ionosphere]] and is important for [[radio]] and other electric waves in the air.\nEven though air seems very light, the weight of all of the air above the outside of the Earth ([[air pressure]]) is important. Generally, from [[sea level]] to the top of [[exosphere|the outer level of the air]], a space of air one [[square centimeter|cm2]] across has a mass of about 1.03 [[kilogram|kg]] and a space of air one [[square inch|sq in]] across has a weight of about 14.7 [[Pound (mass)|lb]]. Because of friction in the air, small meteorites generally burn up long before they get to the Earth.\nThe air also keeps the Earth warm, specially the half turned away from the Sun. Some gasses \u2013 especially [[methane]] and [[carbon dioxide]] \u2013 [[greenhouse effect|work like a blanket to keep things warm]]. [[#History of Earth|In the past]], the Earth has been much warmer and much colder than it is now. Since people have adapted to the heat we have now, we do not want the Earth to be too much warmer or colder. Most of the ways people create [[electricity|electric power]] use burning kinds of [[carbon]] \u2013 especially [[coal]], [[oil]], and [[natural gas]]. Burning these fuels creates more [[carbon dioxide]] which causes more warming. A [[climate change|discussion]] is going on now about what people should do about [[global warming|the Earth's latest warming]], which has gone on for about 150 years. So far, this warming has been acceptable: plants have grown better. The weather has generally been better than [[Little Ice Age|when it was colder]].\nPeople.\nAbout eight [[1,000,000,000|billion]] people live on Earth. They live in about 200 different lands called [[countries]]. Some, for example, [[Russia]], are large with many large cities. Others, for example, [[Vatican City]], are small. The seven countries with the most people are [[India]], [[China]], the [[United States]], [[Indonesia]], [[Pakistan]], [[Brazil]] and [[Nigeria]]. About 90% of people live in the [[northern hemisphere]] of the world, which has most of the land. Human beings originally came from [[Africa]]. Now, 70% of all people do not live in Africa but in [[Europe]] and [[Asia]].\n[[File:Population_density.png|link=https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Population_density.png|alt=|thumb|center|350px|The distribution of human [[world population]] in 2018]]\nPeople change the Earth in many ways. They have been able to grow plants for food and clothes for about ten thousand years. When there was enough food, they were able to build towns and cities. Near these places, men and women were able to change rivers, [[irrigation|bring water to farms]], and stop [[flood]]s (rising water) from coming over their land. People found useful animals and [[domestication|bred]] them so they were easier to keep.\nFuture.\nThere is wide agreement that the long-term future of Earth is tied to the future of the [[Sun]]. As time passes, the Sun will get hotter, and that will eventually make the Earth a planet without life.\nOther websites.\n[[Category:Basic English 850 words]]\n[[Category:Earth| ]]"}
+{"id": "220", "revid": "2", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=220", "title": "Etc.", "text": ""}
+{"id": "221", "revid": "1652218", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=221", "title": "Et cetera", "text": "Et cetera means \"and the rest\" in Latin. It is typically used in English to continue a list longer than what can be written. The word \"et cetera\" is often written as etc.. It is also rarely written as \"&c\", or \"&\". It is the same as \"et\" \u2012 formed by the joining of \"e\" and \"t\" into a single letter."}
+{"id": "223", "revid": "581219", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=223", "title": "Experiments", "text": ""}
+{"id": "224", "revid": "1161309", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=224", "title": "Experiment", "text": "An experiment is a test of an idea or a method. It is often used by scientists and engineers. An experiment is used to see how well the idea matches the real world. Experiments have been used for many years to help people understand the world around them. Experiments are part of scientific method. Many experiments are controlled experiments or even blind experiments. Many are done in a laboratory. But thought experiments are done in mind.\nExperiments can tell us if a theory is false, or if something does not work. They cannot tell us if a theory is true. When Einstein said that gravity could affect light, it took a few years before astronomers could test it. General relativity predicts that the path of light is bent in a gravitational field; light passing a massive body is deflected towards that body. This effect has been confirmed by observing the light of stars or distant quasars being deflected as it passes the Sun.\nNow, a hundred years or so after Einstein published his ideas, there have been many tests, all of which have been consistent with Einstein's predictions. But, one day, we might find the theory has some limits beyond which it does not work. What we test are implications of the theory, because the theory itself is too large and complicated to test all at once.\nControlled experiments.\nA controlled experiment is a kind of comparison. It often compares the results from experimental samples against control samples. Control samples are the same as the experimental sample, except for one difference. This difference is the one thing whose effect is being tested (the independent variable). A good example would be a drug trial. The sample or group receiving the drug would be the experimental group (treatment group); and the one receiving the placebo or an older treatment would be the control group.\nDifference with observational study.\nAn observational study is used when an experiment would be difficult, unethical, or expensive. Observational studies are not experiments. Experiments can control for other variables, and it allows the researchers to change something. Observational studies often do not have random samples, and they often have many variables."}
+{"id": "225", "revid": "1011873", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=225", "title": "Etc", "text": ""}
+{"id": "226", "revid": "103847", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=226", "title": "Ethics", "text": "Ethics is the study of good and bad behavior. It is one of the main parts of philosophy. Ethics tries to answer questions like:\nIdeas about ethics.\nWhen discussing ethics, the philosophy is generally separated into:\n\"Morality\" is what someone thinks or feels is good or bad. There are many different moralities, but they share some things. For example, most people think that murder (killing somebody) is wrong. (compare Exodus 20:13) Some philosophers hope to find more things that moralities share. They think that ethics should use the scientific method to study things that people think are good or bad. Their work can be used to test the fairness of a situation, such as how people should treat each other. An example of this kind of thinking is the categorical imperative. Many countries have laws based on this idea of fairness.\nWhat is ethics used for?\nUnderstanding ethics can help people decide what to do when they have choices. Many think that doing anything or making any choice is a part of ethics.\nEthics is part of other fields of study in many ways. Here are some ways:\nAlong with aesthetics ethics forms part of axiology, the philosophy of what people like."}
+{"id": "227", "revid": "1526569", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=227", "title": "E Prime", "text": "E Prime (it means English Prime) defines a way of speaking English without using the verb \"to be\" in any way (\"be, is, am, are, was, were, been, and being\"). Instead, an E Prime speaker or writer uses different verbs like \"to become,\" \"to remain,\" and \"to equal\" or they might choose to rearrange the sentence to show that the \"thing\" does not actually \"act\". For example, in E Prime, a writer would change the statement \"Mistakes were made\" to \"Joe made mistakes.\" This change in wording reveals an actor (Joe) where the previous form concealed the actor. Users of E Prime would consider the changed sentence more accurate.\nWhat E Prime is.\nD. David Bourland, Jr. first suggested E Prime in 1965. Bourland had studied the discipline (way of thinking) of General Semantics. The main idea of General Semantics is that people can only know what they observe and experience when they see, hear, touch, taste, smell, think, and feel, and furthermore, that what they observe and experience can affect how they observe and experience in the future. Because each person has different experiences throughout their lives, they interpret their experiences differently. \nStudents of General Semantics and users of E Prime contend that to say \"This cat is soft\" leaves out many other attributes, and implies that the outside \"object\" of the cat is the \"same as\" the inside experience of \"softness\". Instead, E Prime users say \"This cat feels soft TO ME\" to remind themselves of the following:\nWhat E Prime is not.\nAlthough languages like Russian, Arabic, Turkish, and Cantonese do not always use a separate verb for \"to be,\" they do have the idea of \"being.\" For example, an English speaker might say \"This apple is red.\" An Arabic speaker might say \"This apple red.\" Most languages can be used to express the idea of a red apple. An E Prime user chooses to say \"This apple looks red to me\" to remind themselves that \"seeing red\" involves both the apple and the eye and brain of the person looking at the apple.\nMany teachers of English encourage students to use verbs other than \"to be.\" To them, using more active verbs makes writing clearer and more interesting. These teachers want to improve their students' writing and may not agree with the ideas of General Semantics or E Prime.\nDifferent functions of 'to be'.\nIn English, 'to be' can have different functions:"}
+{"id": "228", "revid": "45220", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=228", "title": "English As A Second Language", "text": ""}
+{"id": "230", "revid": "693482", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=230", "title": "Einstein on the Beach", "text": "Einstein on the Beach is an opera written by the minimalist composer Philip Glass and theater director and designer Robert Wilson. It was first acted for an audience in Avignon, France in 1976. \nIt is a single act opera, about five hours long with no intermission. Because of the length and the minimalist (repetitive) nature of the music, audience members are free to enter and leave the opera as they wish. Glass's music tends to cycle round, but does not exactly repeat itself. Admittedly, he has described himself as a composer of \"music with repetitive structures\". Though his earlier music fits what is normally called \"minimalist\", he has since evolved stylistically."}
+{"id": "231", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=231", "title": "English", "text": "The word English can mean:"}
+{"id": "234", "revid": "1477024", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=234", "title": "Ethnic group", "text": "An ethnic group is a group of people who are considered to be the same in some or multiple ways. They may all have the same ancestors, speak the same language, or have the same culture, which could sometimes include religion. They often live in the same or surrounding area.\nSometimes almost all of the people in one country are of the same ethnic group, but not always. Often one country may have several different ethnic groups, or the people of one ethnic group may live in several different countries.\nThe International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights ensures the rights of ethnic groups in Article 27 and also gives them the right to use their own language.\nAn example of an ethnic group is the Slavic peoples and Roma people."}
+{"id": "235", "revid": "45220", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=235", "title": "ESL", "text": ""}
+{"id": "236", "revid": "183741", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=236", "title": "Ewe", "text": "Ewe might mean:"}
+{"id": "238", "revid": "45220", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=238", "title": "EAL", "text": ""}
+{"id": "242", "revid": "1657104", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=242", "title": "Ebola virus", "text": "Ebola virus or Ebola virus disease (EVD), often shortened to Ebola, is a very dangerous virus. It belongs to the family \"Filoviridae.\" Four different types of Ebola virus can cause a severe disease which is often fatal. Ebola infection causes hemorrhagic fever which starts suddenly. \"Hemorrhagic\" means that the victim will bleed a lot, inside and outside of their body. The virus attacks almost every organ and tissue of the human body, causing multiple organs to fail at once. Out of every 100 people who get Ebola, on average 25 to 90 die.\nThe virus was first found in Sudan. It is mostly found in Africa, with very few cases in Europe and the United States.\nTransmission.\nThe Ebola virus that makes people sick lives in the blood and other liquids and organs in some kinds of non-human animals without killing them. Scientists think the animals it lives in are mainly some kinds of monkeys or fruit bats. When people touch animals that have the virus, or secretions that came out of those animals, they can get sick.\nEbola cannot be caught through the air, or by being near sick people. The virus can only go from liquids into people's bodies. This means Ebola can be caught by touching a sick person's blood, saliva, mucus, semen, diarrhea, vomit, or other fluids that come out of a sick person's body.\nIf a person does not die from the disease, he can still give other people the infection by having sex for nearly another two months after they stop being sick. This is because the virus can still be in the man's semen after a long time.\n1. Once the virus enters the human body via mucosal surfaces, abrasions or injuries in the skin or by direct parental transmission, it fuses with the cells lining the respiratory tract, eyes, or body cavities.\n2. It invades the macrophages and dendritic immune cells and releases its genetic content. The cell explosion triggers the secretion of proinflammatory cytokines initiating a \u2018cytokine storm\u2019. The genetic material takes over the cell machinery to replicate itself; new copies of the virus are formed and released into the system.\n3. The virus then, goes on to attack spleen, kidneys and even the brain. The blood vessels leak blood and fluid into the surrounding tissues. This atypical clotting and bleeding at the same time manifests externally in the form of rashes.\n4. The virus causes the shutdown of other vital organs such as liver and lungs too. In fact, it is able to invade almost all human cells through different attachment mechanisms for each cell type (except for lymphocytes). The very cells that are meant to fight infection are used as carriers to spread infection to other body parts\n5. It has been found that the ebola-infected cells do not undergo normal apoptosis, but exhibit vacuolization and signs of necrosis.\nSymptoms.\nThe symptoms of Ebola disease can develop between 2 to 21 days after a person is infected with the virus. When people get Ebola, the first symptoms may look like other diseases. People may develop \"dry\" symptoms such as fever, fatigue, weakness, sore throat, joint pain and headache. Sometimes, people think they may have malaria or typhoid fever.\nEventually, individuals get much sicker and experience \"wet\" symptoms of nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and belly pain. They may also start to have unexplained bleeding inside and outside the body which can include having blood in the stool, blood in vomit.As the disease progresses, people can go into shock from excess fluid loss, which means low blood pressure, fast pulse (heart rate), and low blood circulation to the body leading to organ failure.\nTreatment.\nCurrently there are two medications approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to treat Ebola Disease: Inmazeb and Ebanga. These medications are made up of monoclonal antibodies. Monoclonal antibodies are a type of protein that are made in the lab. When these medications are used to treat Ebola, they help the body's natural defense system to stop the virus from multiplying in the body. \nPeople with Ebola also need supportive care to relieve symptoms. Lots of fluid and electrolytes are given to replace the fluids lost from diarrhea, vomiting, and bleeding. Fluid can be given by mouth or through an IV which is a special tube that goes into veins the arm. This process of giving fluid back into the body is called fluid replacement therapy. It is also important to give blood transfusions and medicine in the case of low blood pressure which is a complication of fluid loss. Medicines can also be given to stop vomiting and diarrhea and to help reduce fever and pain.\nPrevention.\nTo prevent the spread of the Ebola virus during ongoing outbreaks, it is important to practice hand washing and avoid coming into close contact with the body fluids of infected individuals.This includes blood, tears, saliva, semen, sweat, vomit, urine, feces, breast milk and fluid from infected women during labor. In addition, people should avoid contact with items that may have been contaminated with body fluids such as, utensils, clothes, bedding, needles, and medical tools. Individuals with the virus can be separated from those without the virus to reduce the spread of the disease. When in close contact with a person infected with the virus, it is recommended to wear special protective clothing known as personal protective equipment (PPE). The personal protective equipment requires wearing gloves, gowns, protective eye wear, masks and closed-toe shoes. \nMany Ebola vaccine candidates had been developed in the decade prior to the West African Ebola epidemic in 2014, but none had yet been approved for use in humans. The Ebola Zaire vaccine also known by its brand name ERVEBO was the first vaccine approved by the FDA in December 2019.The vaccine helps to protect against the Zaire Ebola virus, one of the virus types that causes deadly Ebola Disease. ERVEBO is a single dose vaccine and is safe for individuals aged 12 months and older who at risk of infection. Although the vaccine has been given to pregnant and breastfeeding women in past outbreaks, the vaccine has not been approved for these specific groups. Several countries in Africa have successfully used the vaccine since it was approved including Zambia, Burundi, Ghana, and the Democratic Republic of Congo. \nAnother approved vaccine is Zabdeno / Mvabea. This vaccine is a combination vaccine also used against the Zaire Ebola virus.\nResearch.\nWorld Community Grid is a computing project that is seeking possible drug treatments. People donate the spare time on their computers to the project."}
+{"id": "243", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=243", "title": "Ecology", "text": "Ecology is the branch or aspect of biology that studies the biota (living things), the environment, and their interactions. It comes from the Greek \"oikos\" = house; \"logos\" = study. \nEcology is the study of ecosystems. Ecosystems describe the web or network of relations among organisms at different scales of organization. Since ecology refers to any form of biodiversity, ecologists research everything from tiny bacteria in nutrient recycling to the effects of tropical rain forests on the Earth's atmosphere. Scientists who study these interactions are called \"ecologists\". \nTerrestrial ecoregion and climate change research are two areas where ecologists now focus.\nThere are many practical applications of ecology in conservation biology, wetland management, natural resource management (agriculture, forestry, fisheries), city planning (urban ecology), community health, economics, and applied science. It provides a framework for understanding and researching human social interaction.\nPopulation ecology.\nPopulation ecology measures the size of a population: all the living things from one species that live in an place. A population gets bigger because of birth and movement into a place, and it gets smaller because of death and movement out of a place. Growth rate is the change in population size divided by the current population size. When a population is small, growth rate does not change, so the population shows exponential growth. Rate of exponential growth depends on how a living thing reproduces. If it has only a few offspring (children) which grow slowly, like a human, the rate will be low. If it has a lot of offspring which grow quickly, like a fruit fly, the rate will be high. Any environment only has enough natural resources, such as food, water, or space, for a certain size of population. This size is called the carrying capacity. When population size is near the carrying capacity, growth rate will become less. The graph of population growth will be an S-shape, called logistic growth.\nCommunity and ecosystem ecology.\nA community is all populations of different species that live in the same place. An ecosystem is a community and its environment. Ecosystem ecology studies how energy and nutrients move through an ecosystem. All living things need energy to survive, move, grow, and reproduce. A trophic level is the number of times energy moves from one living thing to another, before reaching a particular living thing. The first trophic level, called producers or autotrophs, gets energy from the environment. They use the energy to make organic compounds. Most producers, such as plants, take in energy from sunlight, but some take it from inorganic compounds. Other trophic levels, called consumers or heterotrophs, get their energy by eating other living things. All animals are consumers, and there are three kinds: herbivores, carnivores, and omnivores. Herbivores eat only plants, carnivores eat only other animals, and omnivores eat both. Decomposers are living things which break down dead things. A food web shows the movement of energy in an ecosystem.\nHumans and ecology.\nEcology in politics.\nEcology starts many powerful philosophical and political movements - including the conservation movement, wellness movement, environmental movement, and ecology movement we know today. When these are combined with peace movements and the Six Principles, they are called green movements. In general, these put ecosystem health first on a list of human moral and political priorities, as the way to achieve better human health and social harmony, and better economics. \nPeople with these beliefs are called political ecologists. Some have organized into the Green Parties, but there are actually political ecologists in most political parties. They very often use arguments from ecology to advance policy, especially forest policy and energy policy.\nAlso, ecology means that it is the branch of biology dealing with the relations and interactions between organisms and their environment, including other organisms.\nEcology includes economics.\nMany ecologists also deal with human economics:\nEcological economics and human development theory try to separate the economic questions from others, but it is difficult. Many people think economics is just part of ecology now, and that economics that ignores it is wrong. \"Natural capital\" is an example of one theory combining both.\nEcology and anthropology.\nSometimes ecology is compared to anthropology. Anthropology includes how our bodies and minds are affected by our environment, while ecology includes how our environment is affected by our bodies and minds. There is even a type of anthropology called ecological anthropology, which studies how people interact with the environment. \nAntoine de Saint-Exupery stated: \"The earth teaches us more about ourselves than all the books. Because it resists us. Man discovers himself when he measures himself against the obstacle\"."}
+{"id": "246", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=246", "title": "Economics", "text": "Economics is the social science which studies economic activity: how people make choices to get what they want. It has been defined as \"the study of scarcity and choice\" and is basically about the choices people make. It also studies what affects the production, distribution and consumption of goods and services in an economy.\nInvestment and income relate to economics. The word comes from Ancient Greek, and relates to \"\u03bf\u1f36\u03ba\u03bf\u03c2\" \"o\u00edkos\" \"house\" and \"\u03bd\u03cc\u03bc\u03bf\u03c2\" \"nomos\" \"custom\" or \"law\". The models used in economics today were mostly started in the 19th century. People took ideas from political economy and added to them because they wanted to use an empirical approach similar to the one used in the natural sciences.\nSubjects and objects in economics.\nThe subjects (actors) in economic study are households, business companies, the government (the state), and foreign countries. Households offer their \"factors of production\" to companies. This includes labor, land, capital (things like machines and buildings) and information. In exchange for their factors of production, households get income which they use to consume (buy) goods from firms representing consumption expenditure. \nBusiness companies produce and sell goods and services and buy factors of production from households and from other companies. \nThe state or public sector includes institutions and organisations. The state takes some of the earnings from the business companies and households, and uses it to pay for \"public goods\" like street lights or defense systems, to be available for everyone. The last subject is foreign countries. This includes all households, business companies and state institutions, which are not based in one's own country. They demand and supply goods from abroad.\nThe objects (things acted upon) in economic study are consumer goods, capital goods, and factors of production. Consumer goods are classified as \"usage goods\" (for example, gasoline or toilet paper), as \"purpose goods\" (for example, a house or bicycle), and as \"services\" (for example, the work of a doctor or cleaning lady). Capital goods are goods which are necessary for producing other goods. Examples of these are buildings, equipment, and machines. Factors of production are work, ground, capital, information, and environment.\nHistory.\nThe ideas that economists have depend a lot on the times they live in. For example, Karl Marx lived in a time when workers' conditions were very poor, and John Maynard Keynes lived through the Great Depression of the 1930s. Today's economists can look back and understand why they made their judgments, and try to make better ones.\nBranches of economics.\nThe two main branches of economics are microeconomics and macroeconomics. \nMacroeconomics is about the economy in general. For example, macroeconomists study things that make a country's wealth go up and things that make millions of people lose their jobs. Microeconomics is about smaller and more specific things such as how families and households spend their money and how businesses operate.\nThere are a number of other branches of economics:\nFamous economists.\nFamous economists in history include:\nFamous economists of the 19th and 20th century include Friedrich August von Hayek, Wassily Leontief, Carl Menger, and L\u00e9on Walras."}
+{"id": "247", "revid": "1521690", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=247", "title": "Chemical element", "text": "A chemical element is a substance that is made up of only one type of atom. Atoms are made up of protons, neutrons, and electrons.\nThe number of protons in an atom is called the atomic number. For example, all atoms with 6 protons are atoms of the chemical element carbon, and all atoms with 92 protons are atoms of the element uranium. The number of neutrons in the nucleus does not have to be the same in every atom of an element. Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. Saying that a substance \"contains only one type of atom\" really means that it contains only atoms that all have the same number of protons.\nThe number of protons in the nucleus causes its electric charge. This fixes the number of electrons in its normal (un-ionized) state. The electrons in their atomic orbitals determine the element's various chemical properties.\nElements are the basic building blocks for all types of substances. If a substance contains more than one type of atom, it is a compound or a mixture. The smallest particle of a compound is a molecule.\n118 different chemical elements are known to modern chemistry. 92 of these elements can be found in nature, and the others can only be made in laboratories. The human body is made up of 26 elements. The last natural element discovered was uranium, in 1789. The first man-made element was technetium, in 1937.\nChemical elements are commonly arranged in the periodic table. Where the elements are in the table tells us about their properties relative to the other elements.\nChemical symbols.\nChemical elements are given a unique \"chemical symbol\". Chemical symbols are used all over the world. This means that, no matter which language is spoken, there is no confusion about what the symbol means. Chemical symbols of elements almost always come from their English or Latin names. For example, carbon has the chemical symbol 'C', and sodium has chemical symbol 'Na', after the Latin \"natrium\". Tungsten is called 'W' after its German name, \"wolfram\". 'Au' is the symbol for gold and it comes from the Latin word for gold, \"aurum\". Another symbol which comes from Latin is 'Ag'. This is the element silver and it comes from the Latin \"argentum\". Lead's symbol, 'Pb', comes from the Latin \"plumbum\" and the English word plumber derives from this as pipes used to be made out of lead. Some more recently discovered elements were named after famous people, like einsteinium, which was named after Albert Einstein.\nCompounds.\nElements can join (react) to form pure compounds (such as water, salts, oxides, and organic compounds). In many cases, these compounds have a fixed composition and their own structure and properties. The properties of the compound may be very different from the elements it is made from. Sodium is a metal that burns when put into water and chlorine is a poisonous gas. When they react together they make \"sodium chloride\" (salt) which is generally harmless in small quantities and edible.\nMixtures.\nSome elements mix together in any proportion to form new structures. Such new structures are not compounds. They are called mixtures or, when the elements are metals, alloys.\nIsotopes.\nMost elements in nature consist of atoms with different numbers of neutrons. An isotope is a form of an element with a certain number of neutrons. For example, carbon has two stable, naturally occurring isotopes: carbon-12 (6 neutrons) and carbon-13 (7 neutrons). Carbon-14 (8 neutrons) is a naturally occurring radioactive isotope of carbon. At least two isotopes of each element are known (except for Oganesson, of which only a few atoms have been made).\nClassification.\nElements can be classified based on physical states. At room temperature and pressure, most elements are solids, only 11 are gases and 2 are liquids.\nElements can also be classified into metals and non-metals. There are many more metals than non-metals.\nHowever, a few elements have properties in between those of metals and non-metals. These elements are called semimetals (or metalloids)."}
+{"id": "248", "revid": "1260226", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=248", "title": "Egypt", "text": "Egypt, officially the Arab Republic of Egypt is a country in the Middle East and the Eastern Mediterranean, located in North Africa and Western Asia.\nIt is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Southern Levant compromising the Gaza Strip of Palestine and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west; the Gulf of Aqaba in the northeast separates Egypt from Jordan and Saudi Arabia. \nCairo is the capital, largest city, and leading cultural center, while Alexandria is the second-largest city and an important hub of industry and tourism. Egypt is famous for its ancient monuments, such as the Pyramids and the Sphinx\nHistory.\nAncient Egypt has one of the longest histories of any country in the world as it used to be ruled by pharaohs. As a province of the Roman Empire, it became Christian and some Copts remained despite over a thousand years of Muslim rule. The Fatimid Caliphate ruled Egypt in the tenth through twelfth centuries. Mamlukes ruled it until 1798 when Napoleon defeated them. Muhammad Ali Pasha soon took over and started a dynasty of Khedives under the Ottoman Empire. The Empire fell apart after World War I. Egypt became an independent country in 1922 and the khedive became a king. Egypt is a member of the United Nations and the Arab League. It became a republic after the Army's revolution of 1952.\nGeography.\nEgypt is a large country, but a large portion of it is desert. Most people (95% of Egypt's total people) live in areas around the coast of the Mediterranean Sea and along the Nile River. This includes the cities of Cairo, Alexandria, Aswan, and Port Said. Not many people live in the desert. Today, Egypt has about 90 million people.\nEgypt is divided into 29 areas, called Governorates of Egypt.\nPolitics.\nEgypt is a country that has had many different rulers and many political systems. After World War II, Egypt was still ruled by a king, Farouk of Egypt (11 February 1920 \u2013 18 March 1965). He was the last ruler of the Muhammad Ali dynasty.\nFarouk was overthrown on 23 July 1952 by a military coup. The coup was led by Muhammad Naguib, and Gamal Abdel Nasser. From then on, Egypt had military rulers or rulers who had the backing of the army and many citizens.\nNasser became president, from 1956 to 1970. Later rulers were Anwar Sadat, and Hosni Mubarak.\nAbdel Fattah el-Sisi became president in 2014.\nRevolution of 2011.\nIn January 2011, thousands of protesters gathered in Cairo. They wanted Hosni Mubarak to leave office. He had been the President for almost 30 years. On February 11, 2011, Vice President Omar Suleiman made an announcement. He said that Mubarak agreed to leave office. In 2012, Egypt had a democratic election for the post of President. The winner was the Muslim Brotherhood candidate, Mohamed Morsi.\nThe events which followed are still controversial, but one aspect stands out. Morsi issued a declaration that in effect gave him unlimited powers. He had the power to legislate (make laws) without legal overview by the courts. This caused widespread protests. On 3 July 2013, he was unseated by a military coup council (a coup d'\u00e9tat). After an election in June 2014, Abdel Fattah el-Sisi became President of Egypt. Islamist movements, such as the Muslim Brotherhood, rejected the change of regime as a military coup, and not democratic.\nDemographics.\nReligion.\nToday, the people of Egypt are mostly Sunni Muslims. There are many Christians in Egypt today. Many of these belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria.\nLanguages.\nThe official language in Egypt is Arabic. The majority speak Egyptian Arabic but many speak other dialects. Some Egyptians still speak Coptic and English. They also speak French and German in Egypt. These are taught in Egypt as additional languages.\nFamous people.\nMany famous people are from Egypt. Some of these include Omar Sharif, who was an international actor, Boutros Boutros-Ghali, who was the first person from Africa to lead the United Nations, and four Nobel Prize winners: Anwar Sadat, who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1978, Naguib Mahfouz, who won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1988, Ahmed Zewail, who won the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1999, and Mohamed ElBaradei, who won the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. Mohamed Salah is a famous footballer who plays for Liverpool in England. A famous Egyptian singer is called Amr Diab.\nGovernorates.\nEgypt is divided into 27 governorates. The governorates are divided into regions. The regions have towns and villages. Each governorate has a capital. Sometimes capital has the same name as the governorate.\nCulture.\nEgypt is a country with an immense cultural mix. Life in the countryside differs from life in large cities. There are differences between the families which are Muslim, and the smaller number which are Coptic Christians. There are noticeable differences in the standards of education.\nTourism.\nTourism is one of the most important national incomes in Egypt. In 2008, about 12 million tourists visited Egypt providing nearly $12 billion of national income to Egypt. Tourism affects the economy of the country as a whole.\nGiza Necropolis is one of Egypt's iconic sites. It is a popular destination for tourists to visit. It includes the Great Pyramid of Giza, one of the Seven Wonders of the World.\nTransport.\nThere are methods of transport in Egypt. The Suez Canal carries ships of many countries.\nCairo Metro is one of the most important projects in Egypt. It consists of 3 lines. Metro is the most preferable transport in Egypt due to persistent major traffic jams in the streets of Cairo. Metro line 4 is being developed to reach the New Cairo District.\nEgypt established EgyptAir in 1932. The airline is based in Cairo International Airport and is owned by the Egyptian government\nEgyptian Armed Forces.\nThe Egyptian Armed Forces are the defense forces of the Republic of Egypt. They consist of the Egyptian Air Force, Egyptian Navy, Egyptian Army, and the Egyptian Air Defense Forces. It is ranked 8th in the world. It is the strongest military force in the Arab world and Africa."}
+{"id": "249", "revid": "640235", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=249", "title": "Everything2", "text": "Everything2 or E2 is a website. It lets people make pages about many different things, and some people use it as a diary.\nE2 users create pages called \"nodes\" and add stuff in \"writeups\". Only logged-in users can create writeups. Only the person who created the writeup or someone who the website owners (called \"gods\") choose can edit the writeup. On the other hand, on Wikipedia, anyone can edit pages, but on Everything2 only those who can edit the writeup can edit pages.\nEverything2 does not require a like Wikipedia does. So, it is possible to have more than one article (writeups) under the same title (node), each by different authors, and presenting different points of view."}
+{"id": "253", "revid": "1629609", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=253", "title": "Editor", "text": "An Editor is a person who makes \"edits\" (changes) to documents.\nMore specifically the word \"editor\" can mean:"}
+{"id": "255", "revid": "68157", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=255", "title": "Ecological yield", "text": "Ecological yield is the harvestable growth of an ecosystem. It is most commonly measured in forestry - in fact sustainable forestry is defined as that which does not harvest more wood in a year than has grown in that year, within a given patch of forest.\nHowever, the concept is also applicable to water, and soil, and any other aspect of an ecosystem which can be both harvested and renewed - the so-called renewable resources. The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is reduced over time if more than the amount which is \"renewed\" (refreshed or regrown or rebuilt)."}
+{"id": "256", "revid": "640235", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=256", "title": "Experience economy", "text": "The experience economy is the intangible service economy that customers experience directly. In moral purchasing, Natural Capitalism and other theories of how consumers make choices, they are actually choosing experiences or comprehensive outcomes of their choices. For instance to buy local is to choose a whole experience of local suppliers, such as in a farmers market or Slow Food, that is quite different than the experience associated with factory food or fast food."}
+{"id": "257", "revid": "966595", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=257", "title": "Execution", "text": "Execution is where state authorities kill someone for having committed an extremely serious crime, usually treason or especially terrible murders. In most countries where the death penalty is still provided for by law, using it is an option available to the sentencing judge: even if the jury or judicial panel recommends the death penalty, the presiding judge still has the option to lock the convicted person in a prison for the rest of their life. A person whose job is to execute others is an executioner.\nBeheading.\nBeheading means cutting the person's head off. It is one of the oldest execution methods and mentioned in the Bible. Beheading used to be the standard method of execution in Scandinavia and Germany. Commoners were usually beheaded with an axe and noblemen with a sword. A special device, like the guillotine, may be used, as in France. Nazi Germany used the guillotine to execute criminal convicts, such as murderers.\nMany countries formerly used beheading as an execution for important people, including England. In England, many noblemen and even some kings and queens have been beheaded. There, the prisoner would be led up the scaffold and might be allowed a last speech. Then, he/she would be blindfolded and put his/her neck onto a block. Then, the executioner would lift up his axe and swing it down onto the victim's neck. If the executioner was skilled and the axe was sharp, then the axe would usually cut through the bone and organs of the victim in one stroke. But if the executioner was inexperienced, then it might take several strokes before the head was cut off.\nOther ways of execution.\nMany countries do not allow executions as punishment any more, because it is too violent or immoral. However, many states of the United States and some other countries use it. In the United States, less violent ways of execution are used than in the past. Here are some ways of executing people:"}
+{"id": "258", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=258", "title": "Flesch Reading Ease", "text": "The Flesch Reading Ease (FRES) score says how easy something is to read. J. Peter Kincaid and others made this formula for the U.S. Navy in 1975.\nHow it works.\nThe FRES test works by counting the number of words, syllables, and sentences in the text. It then calculates the average number of words per sentence and the average number of syllables per word. The idea is that shorter words and shorter sentences are easier to read. The higher the score, the easier the text is to understand. The formula is:\nSome points of reference for the score are:\nThe highest score possible is 121.22. It is gained if every sentence only has a one-syllable word.\n\"The cat sat on the mat\" scores 116. There is no lower limit to this score. Some very complicated\nsentences can have negative scores.\nThe Flesch score is usually lower for technical documentation because the topic itself is complicated.\nSomeone who uses the test regularly will develop a sense of a reasonable score for this type of writing.\nThey can then aim to align with this score.\nThe Flesch score for this subsection is 74.\nTools.\nTools to calculate the Flesch Reading Ease include:"}
+{"id": "259", "revid": "183510", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=259", "title": "Flesch-Kincaid Reading Level", "text": ""}
+{"id": "261", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=261", "title": "Fog Index", "text": ""}
+{"id": "262", "revid": "1467751", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=262", "title": "February", "text": "February (Feb.) is the second month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between January and March. It has 28 days in common years, and 29 days in leap years. This was to make the calendar match to the rest of the world. In 1930 and 1931, February had 30 days in the Soviet Union because the government changed all the months to be 30 days long. The name comes either from the Roman god Februus or else from \"februa\", the festivals of purification celebrated in Rome every fifteenth of this month.\nFebruary begins on the same day of the week as March and November in common years, and August in leap years. February always ends on the same day of the week as October, and additionally, January in common years.\nThe Month.\nFebruary is one of the last two months to be added to the calendar at the beginning of the year (the other is January). This is because in the original Roman calendar, the two months of winter, when not much would happen in agriculture, did not have names.\nFebruary is the second month of the year, coming between January and March, and is also the shortest month, with 28 days in a common year, and 29 days in a leap year. \nFebruary begins on the same day of the week as March and November in common years and on the same day of the week as August in leap years. February ends on the same day of the week as January in common years and October every year, as each other's last days are exactly 4 weeks (28 days) and 35 weeks (245 days) apart respectively. In a leap year, February is the only month to both begin and end on the same day of the week.\nEvery year, February starts on the same day of the week as June of the previous year, as each other's first days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In common years, February finishes on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, and in leap years, August and November of the previous year.\nIn common years immediately before other common years, February starts on the same day of the week as August of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, May of the following year. In years immediately before common years, February finishes on the same day of the week as July of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, April and December of the following year.\nFebruary is also the only month of the calendar that, once every six years and twice every 11 years consecutively, either back into the past or forward into the future, will have four full 7-day weeks. In countries that start their week on a Monday, it occurs as part of a common year starting on Friday, in which February 1st is a Monday and the 28th is a Sunday, this was observed in 2021 and can be traced back 11 years to 2010, 11 years back to 1999, 6 years back to 1993, 11 years back to 1982, 11 years back to 1971 and 6 years back to 1965, and will be observed again in 2027 In countries that start their week on a Sunday, it occurs in a common year starting on Thursday, with the next occurrence in 2026, and previous occurrences in 2015 (11 years earlier than 2026), 2009 (6 years earlier than 2015), 1998 (11 years earlier than 2009) and 1987 (11 years earlier than 1998). This works unless the pattern is broken by a skipped leap year, but no leap year has been skipped since 1900 and no others will be skipped until 2100.\nFrom circa 700\u00a0BC, when Numa Pompilius, the second king of Rome, added it to the calendar, February had 23 days and 24 days on some of every second year, until 46\u00a0BC when Julius Caesar assigned it 29 days on every fourth year and 28 days otherwise. Leap year Day, February 29, is added in every year that can be divided equally by four, such as 2012 and 2016, but this does not apply when the year ending in \"00\" at the turn of the century does not divide equally into 400. This means that 1600 and 2000 were leap years in the Gregorian calendar, but 1700, 1800, and 1900 were rather common years. This is where the Julian calendar calculated dates differently, as it always repeated February 29 every four years.\nFebruary is a winter month in the Northern Hemisphere and a summer month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of August in the other. In weather lore, Groundhog Day, in the United States, is set to decide what the weather will be like for the rest of the winter.\nFebruary's flower is the violet and its birthstone is the amethyst. The meaning of the amethyst is sincerity. The zodiac signs for February are Aquarius (January 21 to February 19), and Pisces (February 20 to March 20)."}
+{"id": "269", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=269", "title": "FAQ", "text": "FAQ is an abbreviation for \"Frequently Asked Question(s)\". The term is used for a list of questions and answers. All of the questions are supposed to be asked often and they all are about the same thing. Since the acronym was first used in written form, there are different ways it is said; both \"fak\" and \"F.A.Q.\" are commonly used. "}
+{"id": "270", "revid": "7167", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=270", "title": "Flaming", "text": ""}
+{"id": "271", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=271", "title": "Flame (disambiguation)", "text": "A flame is the part of a fire that can be seen. Flame might also mean:"}
+{"id": "273", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=273", "title": "Freedom", "text": ""}
+{"id": "276", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=276", "title": "Financial capital", "text": "Financial capital is a form of capital. It is things that have value, but do not do anything by themselves. They are only valuable because people value (want) them. For example, money is a form of financial capital. You cannot do anything with money but it still has value.\nFinancial capital is used to pay for things, this is because there is always more of it and people always want it. This means that financial capital has a stable value and can be traded in most places and with most people.\nSome forms of financial capital, such as stocks, gold or bonds are not wanted by everybody. However they can be traded with people for money or another type of financial capital. Because of this, these forms of financial capital do not have a stable price. This means that some people try to make a profit by buying and selling these types of financial capital in a market.\nSome things are treated as financial capital, even though they do have a use. For example, some people buy and sell land but are not interested in doing anything with it. Some people think this sort of trade is bad because the land should be used and not just treated like money. Other types of capital, such as social capital and human capital are rarely treated like financial capital. This may be because they involve people. Treating useful capital like financial capital is called comodification.\nIn politics, a common question is how often the government should use financial capital. In particular, should the government use financial capital to make a profit? Traditionally, liberal politicians do not mind this kind of trading for profit, but socialist or conservative politicians are against it."}
+{"id": "278", "revid": "1604351", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=278", "title": "Fecund universes", "text": "Fecund universes is a multiverse theory of Lee Smolin. It relies on models of our universe and statistics from astrophysics but is more correctly a theory of cosmology.\nIn this theory, collapsing stars, or black holes, are always creating new universes with slightly different laws of physics. Because these laws are only slightly different, each is assumed to be like a mutation of the original universe, as if each universe was a kind of single-celled organism. It would reproduce by \"splitting\" in some sense.\nThis theory relies on many models of our universe to model these \"mutated\" alternative universes, the ones that Smolin supposes are generated or \"spun off\" by black holes. \nNo human can ever be part of any of these \"other\" universes. Observations from astrophysics can only say if the black holes exist or are common, and give some idea of how much the laws of physics can vary and still let the new universes produce new black holes. \nSmolin predicts that there would be many black holes in the universe humans can see, since they are likely in a very late born universe, by simple probability. If there are many black holes, that is evidence for his theory, \nAs this shows, cosmology has a very different standard of evidence and burden of proof than is required for models of our universe only, which humans (using mathematics) can observe and exchange knowledge on.\nIt is hard to separate science from religion on such questions. It may be a simple matter of preference whether one wants to see one's universe as part of a system like biology or like mechanics - clockwork. Smolin's theory is important mostly because it challenges the mechanistic paradigm. \nEven if it is wrong, it raises the idea that living beings might have to see their universe as also living to be able to understand or care about it at all. Some compare Smolin's theory to Gaia philosophy which combines biology, geology and ecology to explain the Earth, our planet, as a living thing. If both are right, humans are on a living planet in a living universe. This idea is very appealing - which does not mean it is really \"right\"."}
+{"id": "280", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=280", "title": "Food", "text": "Food is what people, plants and animals eat to live. Every organism needs energy to carry on with the process of living which comes from food. Food usually comes from animals and plants. It is eaten by living things to provide energy and nutrition. Food contains the nutrition that people and animals need to be healthy. The consumption of food is normally enjoyable to humans.\nIt contains protein, fat, carbohydrates, vitamins, water and minerals. Liquids used for energy and nutrition are often called \"drinks\". If someone cannot afford food they go hungry and could die.\nFood for humans is mostly made through farming or gardening. It includes animal and vegetable sources. Some people refuse to eat food from animal origin, like meat, eggs, and products with milk in them. Not eating meat is called vegetarianism. Not eating or using any animal products is called veganism.\nFood produced by farmers or gardeners can be changed by industrial processes (the food industry). Processed food usually contains several natural ingredients and food additives (such as preservatives, antioxidants, emulsifiers, flavor enhancers). For example, bread is processed food.\nFood processing at home is done in the kitchen, by the cook. The cook sometimes uses a cookbook. Examples of cooking utensils are pressure cookers, pots, and frying pans.\nFood can also be prepared and served in restaurants or refectory (in particular for children in school).\nThe utensils used may be a plate, knife, fork, chopsticks, spoon, bowl, or spork.\nMany people do not grow their own food. They have to buy food that was grown by someone else. People buy most of their food in shops or markets. But some people still grow most or all of their own food.\nPeople may buy food and take it home to cook it. They may buy food that is ready to eat from a street vendor or a restaurant.\nOther countries have their own way of eating food. An example of an ethnic food is Mexican food.\nProduction of food.\nOriginally, people got food as hunter-gatherers. The agricultural revolution changed that. Farmers grew crops including those invented and improved by selective breeding. These improvements, for example the invention of maize, allowed feeding more people, and further improvements gave it a better taste.\nFood shortage has been a big problem throughout history. Many people do not have enough money to buy the food that they need. Bad weather or other problems sometimes destroy the growing food in one part of the world. When people do not have enough food, we say that they are hungry. If they do not eat enough food for a long time, they will become sick and die from starvation. In areas where many people do not have enough food, we say that there is famine there.\nFood and water can make people sick if it is contaminated by microorganisms, bad metals, or chemicals.\nIf people do not eat the right foods, they can become sick.\nPeople may often have a variety of eating disorders that cause them to either eat too much, or not be able to eat certain things or amounts. Common diseases like Coeliac disease or food allergies cause people to experience ill effects from consuming certain foods that are normally safe. If people eat too much food, they can become overweight or obese. This causes numerous health problems. On the other hand, eating too little food, from lack of access or anorexia could cause malnutrition. Therefore, people have to balance the amount, the nutrition, and the type of food to be healthy.\nFood in religions.\nMany cultures or religions have food taboos. That means they have rules what people should not eat, or how the food has to be prepared. Examples of religious food rules are the \"Kashrut\" of Judaism and the \"Halal\" of Islam, that say that pig meat cannot be eaten. In Hinduism, eating beef is not allowed. Some Christians are \"vegetarian\" (someone who does not eat meat) because of their religious beliefs. For example, Seventh-day Adventist Church recommends vegetarianism.\nIn addition, sometime beliefs do not relate to the religion but belong to the culture. For example, some people pay respect to \"Gu\u0101n Y\u012bn\" mothergod and those followers will not consume \"beef\" as they believe that her father has a shape of the cow."}
+{"id": "283", "revid": "15149", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=283", "title": "Fine", "text": "If someone is found guilty of a crime, their punishment may be to pay a fine, a certain amount of money. In many countries, fines can be ordered by police, court judges and some government officers.\nWhen agreeing to a contract with a business, a customer may agree to certain rules. If the customer breaks the rules, then they agree to pay a fine for doing so. For example, when somebody hires a car and agrees to return it by Friday, they agree that if they do not return the car by Friday, they must pay a $50 fine to the business."}
+{"id": "284", "revid": "9163705", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=284", "title": "Frying", "text": "Frying is cooking food in hot butter or vegetable oil or other fat. We can fry food in a small amount of fat in a pan or in a lot of oil in a pot. Some restaurants use deep frying to fry a large amount of food."}
+{"id": "285", "revid": "1609553", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=285", "title": "Fish", "text": "Fish (plural: fish or fishes) are a group of animals which live in water and respire (get oxygen) from their gills. As a group, they are much older than other vertebrates. The first fish developed about 500 million years ago.\nFish used to be a class of vertebrates. Now the term covers five classes of animals that live in the water:\nThere are more fish than four-limbed animals: there are over 33,000 described species of fish. Fish are usually covered with scales. They have two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins. Most fish are cold-blooded (poikilotherm). \nThere are many different kinds of fish. The thing to remember is that they all have adaptations, which are the features which let them live in the way they do. Yes, they do all live in water. But living in a fast-flowing river is different from living in a slow-moving river. In the sea, it matters the depth they live at. They live in fresh water in lakes and rivers (freshwater fish), and in salt water (marine fish) in the oceans. Some fish are less than one centimeter long. The largest fish is the whale shark, which can be almost 15 meters long and weigh 15 tons. Almost all fish live in the water. A group of fish called the lungfish have developed lungs because they live in rivers and pools which dry up in certain parts of the year. They burrow into mud and aestivate until the water returns.\nThe English word \"fish\" is not just one phylum. Some fish are more closely related to land animals than they are to other fish. For example, lobe-finned fish were the first animals with bones to come live on land, and all land animals are their descendants. Lobe-finned fish are more closely related to humans than to ray-finned fish.\nTypes of fish.\n\"Fish\" is not a formal taxonomic grouping in systematic biology. Amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals all descended from lobe-finned fish. But the use of the term \"fish\" is so convenient that we go on using it.\nFish are the oldest vertebrate group. The term includes a huge range of types, from the Middle Ordovician, about 490 million years ago, to the present day. These are the main groups:\nCertain animals that have the word \"fish\" in their name are not really fish: crayfish are Crustacea, and jellyfish are Cnidaria. Some animals look like fish, but are not. Whales and dolphins are mammals, for example.\nAnatomy.\nBony and cartilaginous fish.\nMost kinds of fish have bones. Some kinds of fish, such as sharks and rays, do not have real bones. Their skeletons are made of cartilage, and so they are known as cartilaginous fish.\nFish scales.\nAll fish are covered with overlapping scales, and each major group of fish has its own special type of scale. Teleosts ('modern' fish) have what are called \"leptoid\" scales. These grow in concentric circles and overlap in a head to tail direction like roof tiles. Sharks and other chondrichthyes have \"placoid\" scales made of denticles, like small versions of their teeth. These also overlap in a head to tail direction, producing a tough outer layer. Shark skin is available for purchase as shagreen, a leather which as original is smooth in one direction, and rough in the other direction. It may be polished for use, but is always rough in texture and resistant to slipping.\nThe scales are usually covered with a layer of slime which improves passage through the water, and makes the fish more slippery to a predator.\nThere are various types of eel: most are in the Anguilliformes. Their life-style has evolved many times. Eels have scales with smooth edges or are absent.\nFreshwater fish.\n41% of all fish live in freshwater. There are also some important fish which breed in rivers, and spend the rest of their life in the seas. Examples are salmon, trout, the sea lamprey, and three-spined stickleback. Some fish are born in salt water, but live most of their mature lives in fresh water: for example the eels.\nSpecies like these change their physiology to cope with the amount of salt in the water.\nSaltwater fish.\n59% of fish live in saltwater and are known as marine fish. Some of the common marine fish are from the family Pomacentridae and sub-family Pomacentrinae. Many of the smaller, colourful marine fish are used in aquariums.\nSwimming.\nFish swim by exerting force against the surrounding water. There are exceptions, but this is usually done by the fish contracting muscles on either side of its body. This starts waves of flexion which travel the length of the body from nose to tail, generally getting larger as they go along. \nMost fishes generate thrust using lateral movements of their body & tail fin (caudal fin). However, there are also species which move mainly using their median and paired fins. The latter group profits from the gained manoeuvrability. This is needed, for example, when living in coral reefs. Such fish cannot swim as fast as fish using their bodies & caudal fins.\nMuscle.\nFish can swim slowly for many hours using red muscle fibres. They also make short, fast bursts using white muscle. The two types of muscle have a fundamentally different physiology. The red fibres are continued in the middle of the body along the spine and usually alongside a much greater number of white fibres.\nThe white fibres get their energy by converting the carbohydrate glycogen to lactate (lactic acid). This is anaerobic metabolism, that is, it does not need oxygen. They are used for fast, short bursts. Once the lactic acid builds up in the muscles, they stop working, and it takes time for the lactate to be removed, and the glycogen replaced. Using their white fibres, fish can reach speeds of 10 lengths per second for short bursts.\nSwimming for long periods needs oxygen for the red fibres. The oxygen supply has to be constant because these fibres only operate aerobically. They are red because they have a rich blood supply, and they contain myoglobin. Myoglobin transports the oxygen to the oxidising systems. Red muscle gets its energy by oxidising fat, which weight for weight has twice as much energy as carbohydrate or protein. Using their red fibres, fish can keep up a speed of 35 lengths per second for long periods.\nSwimming in groups.\nMany fish swim in groups. Schools of fish can swim together for long distances, and may be chased by predators which also swim in schools. Casual groups are called 'shoals'.\nBody shape.\nThe shape of the body of a fish is important to its swimming. This is because streamlined body shapes makes the water drag less. Here are some common fish shapes:-\nThe picture on the right shows a shark. This shark's shape is called \"fusiform\", and it is an ovoid shape where both ends of the fish are pointy. This is the best shape for going through water quickly. Fishes with fusiform shapes can chase prey and escape predators quickly. Many live in the open ocean and swim constantly, like marlins, swordfish, and tuna. Land animals which change to living in the sea may develop (evolve) shapes similar to fishes. Ichthyosaurs, porpoises, dolphins, killer whales all have similar shapes. This is an example of convergent evolution.\nEel-like.\nThe long, ribbon-like shape of an eel's body shows another shape. This enables them to hide in cracks, springing out quickly to capture prey, then returning quickly to their hiding spot.\nFlatfish.\nFlatfish live on the bottom of the ocean or lake. Most use camouflage: they change colours to match the ocean floor. During their early lives, their eyes move to the upper side of their flat body.\nReef fish also have flat bodies, and their body is often highly coloured. Flat bodies can slip in and out among the corals, sponges, and rocks, avoiding predators. Angelfish, surgeonfish, and butterflyfish are examples.\nFish as food.\nPeople eat many different kinds of fish. These include carp, cod, herring, perch, sardines, sturgeon, tilapia, trout, tuna, and many others. A person who buys and sells fish for eating is called a fishmonger.\nThe word \"to fish\" is also used for the activity of catching fishes. People catch fish with small nets from the side of the water or from small boats, or with big nets from big boats. People can also catch fish with fishing poles and fishhooks with bait. This is often called angling. Anglers also different types of fishing lures.\nBecause people are catching too many fish for food or other uses such as for sport, there are less and less fish in the sea. This is a problem known as overfishing.\nFish as pets.\nSelective breeding of carp made them into the domesticated koi in Japan, and goldfish in China. This breeding began over 2,000 years ago. The Chinese brought their goldfish indoors during the Song Dynasty. They kept them in large ceramic vessels. That we now do in glass fish tanks."}
+{"id": "286", "revid": "36199", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=286", "title": "Foot (human)", "text": "A foot (one \"foot\", two or more feet) is a body part on the end of a leg. It is used when walking. It is also important for balance: it helps people stand straight. People also use it to kick, in both fighting and sports, football being an example.\nPeople's hands and feet have the same shape: they both have five \"digits\" (the fingers and toes). Many other animals with backbones also have five digits. The part of the foot which joins it to the leg is called the \"heel\". The bottom of the foot is called the \"sole\". \nMost land vertebrates have feet, and there are many different sorts of foot. The feet of monkeys are much like the hands. The hard foot of an ungulate is a hoof. When an animal has soft feet, or feet with soft parts on the underside, it is called a \"paw\". Many invertebrates also have feet.\nMany use footwear to protect themselves from weather and dirt. There are multiple kinds of footwear, for example \"sandals\", \"shoes\", and \"boots\". When people do not remove footwear, especially in hot places or when they are very active, their feet can smell badly (\"foot odour)\". Wearing footwear that is too big or small can be bad for the feet, causing blisters. People who have foot, leg, and back problems can also get help from special shoes. \nPeople have different traditions in different parts of the world for when to wear footwear. For example, in many countries, usually do not wear their shoes or boots in a home. In the United States people often wear shoes inside a home. In Japan, people do not wear shoes in homes, and floors are often made of very soft materials. In Japan it is also important to keep the floors clean. In cultures where people always wear shoes, people sometimes think it is bad not to wear them. Not wearing shoes can be good for the feet, especially if they are damaged.\nConditions like Athlete's foot affect the feet, causing the feet to feel dry and cracked. Doctors who work with people's feet are \"podiatrists\" or \"chiropodists\".\nBones.\nHalf the bones in a human body are in the foot. There are 26 bones there. They are 14 phalanges (toes), 5 metatarsals (arch of the foot), and 7 tarsals (ankle bones)."}
+{"id": "291", "revid": "1681633", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=291", "title": "France", "text": "France ( or ; ), officially the French Republic (, ), is a country in Western Europe. It also includes various departments and territories of France overseas. \nMainland France extends from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea, and from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean. It is sometimes referred to as \"L\u2019Hexagone\" (\"The Hexagon\") because of the shape of its territory. \nFrance is a unitary semi-presidential republic. The head of state is the President, who is also a politician. The Prime Minister is secondary to the President. \nMetropolitan France is bordered (clockwise from the North) by Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Monaco, Andorra, and Spain. The overseas departments and collectives of France share land borders with Brazil and Suriname (bordering French Guiana), and the Netherlands Antilles (bordering Saint Martin). France is linked to the United Kingdom by the Channel Tunnel, which passes under the English Channel.\nFrance is the largest country in the European Union and the second largest in Europe. It has been a major global power for centuries. During the 17th and 18th centuries, France colonized much of North America. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, France built one of the largest colonial empires of the time. This included large parts of North, West and Central Africa, Southeast Asia, and many Pacific Islands. France is a developed country and has a large economy. \nIt is the most visited country in the world, with 82 million foreign visitors every year. \nFrance was one of the first members of the European Union, and has the largest land area of all members. It is also a founding member of the United Nations, and a member of the Francophonie, the G8, NATO, and the Latin Union. It is one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. France has the largest number of nuclear weapons with active warheads, and the largest number of nuclear power plants, in the European Union.\nFrance's official language is French, which is also official in 29 other countries.\nGeography and climate.\nFrance is in Western Europe. France shares its borders with Belgium, Luxembourg, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Monaco, Andorra, and Spain. France has two mountain ranges near its borders: the Alps in the east and the Pyrenees in the south. France has a Mediterranean climate. The climate of southern France is similar to that of Greece. There are many rivers in France, including the Seine and the Loire. In the north and the west of France, there are low hills and river valleys.\nIn France there are many different climates. The Atlantic has a major effect on the weather in the north and west. This means the temperature is about the same most of the year. It is in the marine west coast climate region. In the east, winters are cold and the weather is good. Summers are hot and stormy. In the south, winters are cool and wet. Summers are hot and dry. The north has a temperate climate similar to that of the United Kingdom and other Northern European countries.\nFrance has the second-largest exclusive economic zone (EEZ) in the world. It covers 11,035,000 km2 (4,260,637 sq mi). Only the United States has a larger one.\nHistory.\nName.\nThe name \"France\" comes from the Latin word Francia, which means \"land of the Franks\".\nRoman Gaul.\nThe borders of modern France are about the same as those of ancient Gaulin which Celtic Gauls inhabited. Julius Caesar conquered Gaul for Rome in the 1st century BC. Eventually, the Gauls adopted the Romans' language,Latin, from which French evolved, and culture. Christianity first appeared in the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD and became firmly established by the 4th and 5th centuries.\nFranks.\nIn the 4th century AD, the Germanic tribes, principally the Franks, invaded the Gauls, when the name \"Francie\" appeared. The modern name \"France\" comes from the name of the Capetian Kings of France around Paris. The Franks were the first tribe of Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire to convert to the pope's Christianity, rather than Arianism. The French called themselves \"the most Christian Kingdom of France\".\nThe Treaty of Verdun (843), divided Charlemagne's Empire into three parts. The largest area was Western Francia and had borders that were similar to those of modern France.\nKingdom.\nMiddle Ages.\nThe Carolingian dynasty ruled France until 987, when Hugh Capet became King of France. His descendants, the Direct Capetians, the House of Valois and the House of Bourbon, unified the country with many wars and dynastic inheritance.\nOne of the most famous kings, Louis XIV, ruled from 1643 to 1715, the longest in French history.\nEnlightenment.\nThe monarchy was the most powerful during the 17th century and the reign of Louis XIV. At the time, France had the largest population in Europe. The country had a large influence over European politics, economy, and culture. French became the common language of diplomacy in international affairs. Much of the Age of Enlightenment happened in France. French scientists made big scientific discoveries in the 18th century. France also conquered many overseas possessions in the Americas and Asia.\nRepublic.\nNapoleonic Wars.\nFrance had a monarchy until the French Revolution caused King Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, to be executed in 1793. Maximilien Robespierre was a dictator until he was executed himself in 1794. Thousands of other French citizens were killed. Napoleon Bonaparte took control of the republic in 1799. He later made himself Emperor of the First Empire (1804\u20131814). His armies conquered most of continental Europe. The metric system was invented by French scientists during the French revolution. That time 3 estates were developed.\nAfter Napoleon's final defeat in 1815 at the Battle of Waterloo, the monarchy was restortd. An interesting fact is that the French King Louis XIX was king for only 20 minutes from the time his father Charles X abdicated, to the time the July Monarchy started in 1830. Louis-Napol\u00e9on Bonaparte, Napoleon's nephew, came to power in 1848 and startd the Second Empire in 1852. He was removed after the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War in 1870. The Third Republic replaced his regime.\nColonialism.\nThe large French colonial empire in the 19th century included parts of West Africa and Southeast Asia. The culture and the politics of those regions were influenced by France. Many countries that were French colonies stil have French as their official language.\nWorld Wars.\nThe country actively took part in both the World War I and World War II, with many battles against Germany taking place on its soil. During World War I, millions were killed in the trenches, including over a million at the Battle of the Somme. The conditions were extremely difficult for the soldiers on the front. The last surviving veteran was Pierre Picault, who died on 20 November 2008 at the age of 109.\nDuring the World War II, Germany occupied France. The Allies landed in Normandy on 6 June 1944 and began the Battle of Normandy. The German forces lost France in just a few months.\nDivisions.\nThe 13 regions and 96 departments of metropolitan France include Corsica. France is divided into (administrative) regions:\nCorsica has a different status than the other 12 metropolitan regions. It is called \"collectivit\u00e9 territoriale\".\nFrance also has five overseas regions:\nThese five overseas regions have the same status as the metropolitan ones. They are like the overseas American states of Alaska and Hawaii.\nThen France is divided into 101 departments. The departments are divided into 342 arrondissements. The \"arrondissements\" are re-divided into 4,032 cantons. The smallest subdivision is the commune (there are 36,699 communes). On 1 January 2008, INSEE counted 36,781 communes in France. 36,569 of them are in metropolitan France and 212 of them are in overseas France.\nGovernment.\nThe government of France is a semi-presidential system determined by the constitution of the French Fifth Republic. It provides for a separation of powers.\nThe main ideals are expressed in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The constitution declares the nation to be \"an indivisible, secular, democratic, and social Republic\". With a Prime Minister subordinate to the President, this slightly strange system was chosen by General Charles de Gaulle in 1958.\nMilitary.\nThe French armed forces has four branches:\nFrance has about 359,000 military personnel. France spends 2.6% of its gross domestic product (GDP) on defense. This is the highest in the European Union. France and the UK spend 40% of the EU defence budget. About 10% of France's defence budget is for its nuclear weapons force.\nEconomy.\nFrance is a member of the G8 group of leading industrialized countries. France has the eighth-largest economy in the world by Gross domestic product (GDP) (which takes into account how much it costs to live in different countries and inflation rates). France and 11 other European Union members jointly launched the euro on 1 January 1999 and started using it in 2002.\nFrance's economy has nearly 2.9\u00a0million registered companies. The government has a considerable influence over railway, electricity, aircraft, and telecommunications firms (as it owns big companies like SNCF and EDF (French electricity)). France has an important aerospace (design of aircraft and spacecraft) industry led by Airbus. It can also launch rockets from French Guiana.\nFrance has invested a lot in nuclear power. This made France the smallest producer of carbon dioxide among the seven most industrialized countries in the world. As a result, 59 nuclear power plants generate most of the electricity produced in the country (78% in 2006, up from only 8% in 1973, 24% in 1980, and 75% in 1990).\nFrance is the leading agricultural producer and exporter in Europe. France exports wheat, poultry, dairy products, beef, and pork. It is also famous for its wine industry. France received 10\u00a0billion euros in 2006 from the European Community as subsidies to its farmers.\nAt one time, the Factory Act of 1833 limited the workday for women and children to 11\u00a0hours a day.\nDemographics.\nOn 1 January 2008, it was estimated that 63.8\u00a0million people live in France, including in the Overseas Regions of France. 61,875,000 of these live in metropolitan France, the part of the country that is within Europe.\nEthnic groups.\nThe major ethnic groups living in France today are descended from Celtic people and Roman people. The significant minority groups living in France are:\nRacism.\nRacism takes various forms: discrimination, violence, prejudice, segregation, etc., some on the rise, others on the decline. Moreover, it only takes one attack to succeed, or fail, for the figures for racist violence to skyrocket or, on the contrary, stagnate in France.\nCulture.\nLanguage.\nFrench is the official language of France. It belongs to the Romance language group, which includes Italian and Spanish. Many regional dialects are also used in France. Alsatian, a German dialect, is spoken in Alsace and in parts of Lorraine in eastern France. French was the language of diplomacy and culture in Europe between the 17th and 19th century and is still widely used.\nSome people in France also speak Basque, Breton, Catalan, Corsican, German, Flemish, and Occitan.\nThere is around 200,000 Romani speakers in France, 950,000 speakers of different Arabic dialects (plus 220,000 occasional speakers) and 1.5 \u2013 2 million speakers of different Berber dialects.\nReligion.\nFrance is a secular country and the constitution guarantees freedom of religion. The population is about 51% Roman Catholic, and 31% of people are agnostics or atheists. 5% are Muslim, 3% say they are Protestant and 1% say they are Jewish. 10% are from other religions or do not have an opinion about religion. There are also Zoroastrian, Unitarian Universalist, Jain and Wiccan communities. Religions founded in France include Raelism.\nAccording to a Poll in 2007:\nLiterature.\nFrench literature began in the Middle Ages. French was divided into several dialects at the time. Some authors spelled words differently from one other.\nDuring the 17th century, Pierre Corneille, Jean Racine, Moli\u00e8re, Blaise Pascal and Ren\u00e9 Descartes were the main authors.\nIn the 18th and 19th centuries, French literature and poetry reached its best. The 18th century saw writings of authors, essayists and moralists as Voltaire and Jean-Jacques Rousseau.\nAs for French children's literature in those times, Charles Perrault wrote stories such as \"Little Red Riding Hood\", \"Beauty and the Beast\", \"Sleeping Beauty\" and \"Puss in Boots\".\nMany famous French novels were written in the 19th century by authors such as Victor Hugo, Alexandre Dumas and Jules Verne. They wrote popular novels like The Three Musketeers, The Count of Monte-Cristo, Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea, The Hunchback of Notre-Dame and Les Mis\u00e9rables. Other 19th century fiction writers include Emile Zola, Guy de Maupassant, Th\u00e9ophile Gautier and Stendhal.\nFamous novels were written during the 20th century by Marcel Proust, Antoine de Saint-Exup\u00e9ry, Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre and Michel Houellebecq.\nSports.\nThe Tour de France cycling race in July is one of the best-known sporting events. It is a three-week race of around 3,500\u00a0km that covers most of France and ends in the center of Paris, on the \"Avenue des Champs-Elys\u00e9es\". Football is another popular sport in France. The French team won the FIFA World Cup in 1998 and 2018. They also won the UEFA European Football Championship in 1984 and 2000. France also hosts the 24 Hours of Le Mans car race. France also hosted the Rugby World Cup in 2007 and finished fourth.\nFrance is closely associated with the Modern Olympic Games. At the end of the 19th century, the Baron Pierre de Coubertin suggested having the Olympic Games again. France hosted the Summer Olympics twice, in 1900 and 1924, in Paris. France will host the Summer Olympics in 2024, in Paris. France also hosted the Winter Games three times: in 1924 in Chamonix, in 1968 in Grenoble, and in 1992 in Albertville.\nCuisine.\nFrench cuisine has influenced the style of cooking throughout Europe, and its chefs work in restaurants throughout the world.\nThe roots of modern \"haute cuisine\" lie in chefs like La Varenne (1615\u20131678) and the notable chef of Napoleon, Marie-Antoine Car\u00eame (1784\u20131833). These chefs developed a lighter style of food compared to the food of the Middle Ages. They used fewer spices, and more herbs and creamy ingredients.\nTypical ingredients like roux and fish stock, and techniques such as marinading, and dishes such as ragout, were invented. Car\u00eame was an expert p\u00e2tissier (pastry-maker), and this is still a mark of French cooking. He developed basic sauces, his 'mother sauces'; he had over a hundred sauces in his repertoire, based on the half-dozen mother sauces.\nFrench cuisine was introduced in the 20th century by Georges Auguste Escoffier (1846\u20131935). He was a genius at organization. He worked out how to run large restaurants, as in a big hotel or a palace; how the staff should be organized; how the menu was prepared. He had methods for everything. Escoffier's largest contribution was the publication of \"Le Guide Culinaire\" in 1903, which established the fundamentals of French cookery. Escoffier managed the restaurants and cuisine at the Savoy Hotel and Carlton Hotel in London, the H\u00f4tel Ritz Paris, and some of the greatest cruise ships.\nEscoffier, however, left out much of the culinary character to be found in the regions of France.\nGastro-tourism and the \"Guide Michelin\" helped to make people familiar with the rich bourgeois and peasant cuisine of the French countryside in the 20th century. Gascon cuisine has also had great influence over the cuisine in the southwest of France. Many dishes that were once regional have become common all over the country. Cheese and wine are a major part of the cuisine, playing different roles regionally and nationally. In the north of France, people often prefer to use butter to cook. In the south, they prefer olive oil and garlic. In France, each region has its own special dish; choucroute in Alsace, quiche in Lorraine, cassoulet in the Languedoc-Roussillon, and tapenade in Provence-Alpes-C\u00f4te d'Azur.\nIn November 2010, French gastronomy was added by UNESCO to its lists of the world's 'intangible cultural heritage'.\nTourism.\nFrance is the number one tourist destination in the world. In 2007, 81.9\u00a0million foreign tourists visited France. Spain comes second (58.5\u00a0million in 2006) and the United States comes third (51.1\u00a0million in 2006).\nSome of the most famous attractions in Paris, are the Eiffel Tower and the Arc de Triomphe. Another one is Mont Saint Michel, in Normandy.\nA European Disneyland is located in a suburb east of Paris. The resort opened in 1992 and is also a popular tourist destination in Europe.\nForeign relations.\nFrance is a member of the United Nations. It is a permanent member of the United Nations Security Council and has veto rights. It is also a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO). It hosts the headquarters of the OECD, UNESCO and Interpol. In 1953, the United Nations asked France to choose a coat of arms to represent them internationally. The French emblem is now on their passports.\nFrance was a founding member of the European Union. In the 1960s, France wanted to exclude the United Kingdom from the organization. It wanted to build its own economic power in continental Europe. France and Germany became closer after World War II. This was to try to become the most influential country in the EU. It limited the influence of the new Eastern European members. France is a member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). However, under President de Gaulle, it left the joint military command. In the early 1990s, France received criticism for its underground nuclear tests in French Polynesia. France vigorously opposed the 2003 invasion of Iraq. France retains strong political and economic influence in its former African colonies. For instance it has supplied economic aid and troops for peace-keeping missions in the Ivory Coast and Chad.\nFrance\u2013Russia relations. The French president was not on the phone with Russian president, for the three first 3 years of the Russian invasion of Ukraine; In July 2025 they spoke by phone."}
+{"id": "292", "revid": "1260226", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=292", "title": "Finland", "text": "Finland (Finnish: \"Suomi\") is a country in Northern Europe and is a member state of the European Union. Finland is one of the Nordic countries and is also part of Fennoscandia. Finland is located between the 60th and 70th latitudes North. Its neighbours are Sweden to the west, Norway to the north, Russia to the east and Estonia to the south, beyond the sea called Gulf of Finland. Most of the western and southern coast is on the shore of the Baltic Sea.\nThe capital of Finland is Helsinki; the second largest city is Tampere. The official currency of the country is the euro (EUR); before 2002 it was the markka, the Finnish mark (FIM). The president of Finland is Alexander Stubb. 5.5 million people live in Finland. Finnish and Swedish both are the official languages of Finland; the most spoken languages is Finnish, mother tongue of about 90% of the population. Swedish is spoken by the Swedish speaking minority of Finland, called the Finnish Swedes, who make up 5% of the total population. Finland became independent of Russia on 6 December 1917.\nThe most important cities and towns in Finland are Helsinki, Espoo, Tampere, Vantaa, Turku, Oulu, Lahti, Kuopio, Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4 and Pori.\nFinland is a highly industrialised First World country. The most important Finnish industrial products are paper, and steel products such as machines and electronics. Nokia (the mobile company) is originally a company of Finland, named after a small town called Nokia.\nFinland has been top of the list of least corrupt countries on the Corruption Perceptions Index more times than any other country.\nPeople and culture.\nThe people of Finland are called Finns. Most Finns speak Finnish as their mother tongue. About six percent of Finns have the Swedish language as their mother tongue. They live mostly in the western part of Finland and on \u00c5land (Finnish Ahvenanmaa).\nFinns also study mandatory English and Swedish in school. Most Finns work either in services (that is: shops, banks, offices or businesses) or in factories. Finns often like saunas and nature. Many Finnish families have summer cottages, small houses where they go to relax on their summer holidays. The most important festivals that Finnish people celebrate are Midsummer and Christmas.\nThe most popular sports in Finland are ice hockey, skiing, track and field and association football (soccer). Finns have also won events in swimming, motor sports and gymnastics.\nThere is a group of a few thousand S\u00e1mis (also called Lapps) in the most northern part of Finland, called Lapland. Most of the Samis live in Norway and Sweden. Many Sami people farm reindeers. Originally, Samis were hunter-gatherers. In the past the Sami were nomads, but nowadays they live in regular houses.\nMinority groups in Finland include Swedish\u2013speakers (5.3 per cent), Russian-speakers (1.4 per cent), Estonians (0.9 per cent), Roma (0.2 per cent), and S\u00e1mi (0.1 per cent). There is a also small number of Jews.\nVery few people in Finland are from other countries. In 2016 about 4% of residents were born in another country.\nNature and weather.\nMost of Finland is covered by pine forest. It is estimated that up to one-third of all wood resources of the European Union are in Finland. Wood is the most important natural resource of Finland.\nThe national animal of Finland is the brown bear. The swan, which was considered holy long ago, is the national bird of Finland. The largest animal is the elk, a type of moose, which is a member of the deer family. Other large animals (in the wild) are wolves.\nThere are hundreds of rivers and thousands of fresh water lakes. Fishing is a popular sport. It is estimated there are almost 180,000 lakes in Finland.\nMany islands in the Baltic Sea belong to Finland. Thousands of islands are part of the \u00c5land archipelago. Tourists from all over the world come to see the fells and the northern lights in Lapland.\nThe highest mountain of Finland is Halti, which is 1328 meters high. The largest lake is Saimaa, 4,400 square kilometres. The longest river of Finland is Tornionjoki. The largest river (by watershed) is Kemijoki, 552 kilometres long.\nThe weather in Finland varies widely by season. Summer usually lasts from May to early September, and temperatures can reach up to +30\u00a0\u00b0C. Autumns are dark and rainy. Winter snow usually begins to fall in Helsinki in early December (in Lapland it can fall as early as October) and in the winter the temperature can drop to -40\u00a0\u00b0C. Highest temperature recorded in Finland is +37,2\u00a0\u00b0C and lowest temperature is -51,5\u00a0\u00b0C. Winter usually lasts to mid-March, when the snow melts in Helsinki (in Lapland the snow usually doesn't melt until early May), and Spring lasts till late May. Spring can be erratic, and the weather can change from frost to sunshine within a matter of days. The famed Northern Lights are common in Lapland.\nHistory.\nPeople first came to Finland 10,000 years ago. That was just after an ice age, after a glacier that covered the ground had receded.\nSome think the first people in Finland already spoke a language similar to the Finnish language that is spoken today. It is known that an early form of the Finnish language was spoken in Finland in the Iron Age. (The Iron Age in Finland was 2,500\u2013800 years ago).\nThe first residents in Finland hunted animals, as \"hunter-gatherers\". Some people started to farm crops about 5,200 years ago. Farming slowly became more and more popular and became the major way of life until the modern age.\nThe ancient Finns were pagans. The most important god of the Finnish pantheon was Ukko. He was a god of sky and thunder, much like Odin, another Scandinavian god-king. These powers were common among the pagan god kings in pantheons ranging from the Finnish Ukko, to the Scandinavian/Germanic/Saxon Odin, all the way east to Zeus of the Greeks and Jupiter of the Romans.\nAround a thousand years ago, when most of Europe was adopting Christianity, Finland also began following Christianity. During the Reformation of Christianity in the 16th century, most Finns became Protestants. Some pagan practices still remain amongst the now Christian Finns, such as bear worship.\nFrom the Middle Ages Finland was a part of Sweden. Then, in the year 1809, Russia took Finland from Sweden. Finland was a part of Russia, but after a short period of time it became autonomous. The Finns essentially controlled Finland, though the Tsar was in control officially. Finns could create their own laws and had their own currency, (called the \"markka\"), their own stamps and own customs. However, Finland did not have its own army.\nDuring the 1905 Russian Revolution, in the Grand Duchy of Finland:\nthe Social Democrats organised the general strike of 1905 (). The Red Guards were formed. On , Russian artillerymen and military engineers rose to rebellion in the fortress of Sveaborg (later called Suomenlinna), Helsinki. The Finnish Red Guards supported the Sveaborg Rebellion with a general strike, but the mutiny was quelled by loyal troops and ships of the Baltic Fleet within 60 hours.\nAfter independence.\nOn 6 December 1917, Finland became independent, which meant that it no longer was a part of Russia. There was a communist revolution in Russia and after 1922 Russia was a part of the Soviet Union. There were communists in Finland too, who tried to create a revolution in Finland\nThis attempt at revolution caused the Finnish civil war. The communists lost the civil war, and Finland did not change its old capitalist system\nStalin, who was the leader of the Soviet Union, did not like having a capitalist country as its neighbour. Stalin wanted Finland to become a communist state and be a part of the Soviet Union. The leaders of Finland refused: they wanted to stay independent. The Soviet Union sent many troops across the eastern border of Finland to try to make Finland join them, which resulted in the Winter War. The Soviet Union eventually won, and took most of Karelia and other parts of Finland.\nAdolf Hitler was the dictator of Germany, and he wanted to invade the Soviet Union. Finland wanted to retrieve the areas that it had lost, so they joined the German invasion, which started with Operation Barbarossa in 1941. The Finnish part of the Second World War is called the Continuation War in Finland. However, Finland was not a fascist or an antisemitic country. Finns were interested in freedom rather than dictatorship.\nWhile Germany was losing the war, Finland had already progressed into the Soviet Union in order to regain the areas lost in the previous peace. Finland wanted to end the war with the Soviet Union, which resulted in peace. Once again Finland had to give up the areas they had conquered. This time, the peace with the Soviet Union made Finland and Germany enemies. Finns fought the Germans, and Germans retreated to Norway, burning down all of Lapland behind them. This is called the Lapland War. Finland remained independent.\nAfter the war, many factories were built in Finland. Many people moved from farms to cities. At that time, big factories manufactured products like paper and steel. More and more people worked in more advanced jobs, like high technology. Also, many people went to universities to get a good education. Finland was one of the first countries where most people had Internet connections and mobile phones. A well-known company that makes mobile phones, Nokia, is from Finland.\nFinland joined the European Union in 1995. The Finnish currency was changed to the euro in 2002.\nFinland joined NATO in 2023, after the Russian invasion of Ukraine.\nEconomy.\nFinland has a mixed economy. Free market controls most of production and sales of goods, but public sector is involved in services. In 2013, taxes were 44% of gross national product. This is 4th largest in Europe, after Denmark, France and Belgium.\nIn 2014 services were 70% of the gross national product.\nThe largest company in 2014 was oil refinery Neste Oil. The second largest was Nokia. Two forest industries Stora Enso and UPM-Kymmene, were numbers three and four. Number five was Kesko which sells everyday goods in K-supermarkets.\nElections.\nElections are organized to select 200 members to the Parliament of Finland. Also selected are the president of Finland, members of town and city councils and Finnish members to the European Parliament. The elections are secret and direct. People vote directly for the person they want to be elected. In presidential elections votes are only cast for a person, not for a political party. All the other elections are proportional. The system is a combination of voting for individuals and parties. The right to vote is universal and equal. In general elections everybody has one vote."}
+{"id": "293", "revid": "10301210", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=293", "title": "Fruit", "text": "In botany, a fruit is a plant structure that contains the plant's seeds. \nTo a botanist, the word \"fruit\" is used only if it comes from the part of the flower which was an ovary. It is an extra layer round the seeds, which may or may not be fleshy. However, even in the field of botany, there is no general agreement on how fruits should be classified. Many do have extra layers from other parts of the flower.\nIn general speech, and especially in cooking, some fruits are a sweet product, but not all fruits are sweet, most fruits are fruity & edible, and many botanical fruits are known as vegetables. This is how ordinary people use the words. On this page, we describe what botanists call a fruit.\nThe fleshy part of a fruit is called the mesocarp. It is between the fruit's skin (exocarp) and the seeds. The white part of an apple, for example, is the \"fleshy\" part of the apple. Usually, when we eat a fruit, we eat the \"fleshy\" part.\nTypes of fruits.\nBerry.\nIf the entire fruit is fleshy, except for maybe a thin skin, the fruit is called a berry. A berry might contain one seed or many. Grapes, avocados, and blueberries are berries. They all have a thin skin, but most of the fruit is fleshy. Don't get confused by the name of fruits like strawberries, because actually they are \"not\" berries. The seeds are on the outside: on a real berry, the seed or seeds are \"inside\" the fruit.\nPepo.\nA pepo (pronounced \"pee' po\") is a modified berry. Its skin is hard and thick and is usually called a \"rind\". Pumpkins and watermelons, for instance, are pepos.\nHesperidium.\nA hesperidium is another modified berry. It has a leathery skin that is not as hard as the skin of a pepo. All citrus fruit like oranges and lemon are hesperidiums.\nPome.\nA pome (pohm) is a fruit that has a core surrounded by fleshy tissue that one can eat. The core is usually not eaten. Berries are different - the seeds are \"inside\" the fleshy part, not separated from it by a core. Apples and pears are pomes.\nDrupe.\nDrupes are also called stone fruit. A drupe is a fleshy fruit with a hard stone around the seed. We usually call this 'stone' the 'pit' of the fruit. Peaches and olives are drupes. Actually, the almond fruit is a drupe, too, though we eat the seed that is inside the 'pit' of the almond fruit.\nBotanical fruits.\nSince fruits are produced from fertilised ovaries in flowers, only flowering plants produce fruits. Fruits are an evolutionary 'invention' which help seeds get dispersed by animals.\nThe botanical term includes many that are not 'fruits' in the common sense of the term. such as the vegetables squash, pumpkins, cucumbers, tomato, peas, beans, corn, eggplant, and bell pepper and some spices, such as allspice and chili\nAccessory fruits.\nAn accessory fruit or false fruit (pseudocarp) is a fruit in which some of the flesh is derived not from the ovary but from some adjacent tissue.\nA fig is a type of accessory fruit called a syconium. Pomes, such as apples and pears, are also accessory fruits: the core is the true fruit.\nNon-botanical fruits.\nStrictly speaking, these are not botanical fruits: \nArea of agreement.\nThese are fruits which you can buy in shops, and which are also acceptable as botanical fruits:\nMany fruits come from trees or bushes. For plants, fruits are a means of dispersal, usually by animals. When the fruit is eaten, the seed(s) are not digested, and get excreted. Where fruits have big stones, just the soft parts are eaten. \nMost fruits we eat contain a lot of water and natural sugars, and many are high in Vitamin C. They have a large amount of dietary fibre. Fruits are usually low in protein and fat content, but avocados and some nuts are exceptions to this. Not only humans, but our closest living relatives (primates) are keen fruit-eaters. So are many other groups of herbivorous mammals and many birds.\nSeedless fruits.\nSeedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial bananas, pineapple, and watermelons are examples of seedless fruits. Some citrus fruits, especially oranges, satsumas, mandarin oranges, and grapefruit are valued for their seedlessness.\nSeedless bananas and grapes are triploids, and seedlessness results from the abortion of the embryonic plant which is produced by fertilisation. The method requires normal pollination and fertilisation."}
+{"id": "294", "revid": "1415958", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=294", "title": "Farm", "text": "A farm is a piece of land used to grow crops and/or raise animals.\nPeople who grow these plants or raise these animals are called farmers. This work is called farming.\nLand that is used to grow plants is called farmland. Land that is used to feed animals with its grass is called pasture. Land that can be used to grow plants for food is called arable land.\nMany farms are very large and can cause damage. In some places farms are many and small, and can also cause damage. Farms provides most of the food for people. Some people farm to eat the food they produce (subsistence agriculture). Other farms, including large ones, sell their produced crops or animals, like horses, to markets far away in urban areas (commercial or industrial farming). Most subsistence farms are in poorer countries, while industrial farms are in richer countries."}
+{"id": "296", "revid": "5295", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=296", "title": "Geography", "text": "Geography (from Greek: , \"geographia\", literally \"earth description\") is the study of earth and its people and one of social sciences. Its features are things like continents, seas, rivers and mountains. Its inhabitants are all the people and animals that live on it. Its phenomena are the things that happen like tides, hurricanes, tornadoes, earthquakes and more.\nA person who is an expert in geography is a geographer. A geographer tries to understand the world and the things that are in it, how they started and how they have changed.\nGeography is divided into two main parts, which are: Physical geography and human geography. Physical geography studies the natural environment and human geography studies the human environment. The human environmental studies would include things such as the population in a country, how a country's economy is doing, and more. There is also environmental geography.\nMaps are a main tool of geography, so geographers spend much time making and studying them. Making maps is called cartography, and people who specialize in making maps are cartographers.\nBranches.\nPhysical geography.\nPhysical geography (or physiography) focuses on geography as an Earth science. It aims to understand the physical problems and the issues of lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere, and global flora and fauna patterns (biosphere).\nPhysical geography can be divided into many broad categories, including:\nHuman geography.\nHuman geography is the social science that covers the study of people and their communities, cultures, economies, and their interaction with the environment. Geographers studying the human environment may look at:\nHistory.\nThe oldest known world map dates back to ancient Babylon from the 9th century BC. The best known Babylonian world map is the \"Imago Mundi\" of 600 BC. Star charts (maps of the sky) are of similar age.\nDuring the Middle Ages, people in Europe made fewer maps. People in the eastern countries made more. Ab\u016b Zayd al-Balkh\u012b created the \"Balkh\u012b school\" of mapping in Baghdad.\nWestern Europe became known as the leader of geographic thought during the European Renaissance and The Age of Exploration (1400\u20131600). The printing press made maps and information about the world available to everyone. In 1650, the first edition of \"Geographia Generalis\" was published.\nIn the 1700s and 1800s, scientists started to study the relationship between the environment and its people\nRelated pages"}
+{"id": "298", "revid": "1043615", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=298", "title": "Goodness", "text": ""}
+{"id": "299", "revid": "1260226", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=299", "title": "Grammar", "text": "Grammar is the study of words, how they are used in sentences, and how they change in different situations. The Ancient Greeks used to call it \"grammatik\u0113 t\u00e9khn\u0113\", the craft of letters. It can have any of these meanings:\nWhen we speak, we use the native person's grammar, or as near as we can. When we write, we try to write with correct grammar. So, speaking and writing a language each have their own style. \nLanguages.\nAll languages have their own grammar. Most European languages are rather similar.\nIndo-European languages.\nEnglish makes few changes to its word endings ('suffixes'). In Romance languages (such as French, Italian, and Spanish), word endings carry a lot of meaning. In English we have just a few: plurals and possessives (\"John's\") are the most common. In our verbs we have dropped most endings except one: I love, you love, but \"she loves\". That final 's' comes from the Anglo-Saxon, which had more suffixes. Verbs do have endings which show changes in tense: walked, walking.\nWord order.\nWord order is the other big difference. Romance languages normally put adjectives after the nouns to which they refer. For example, in English, a person may say \"I like fast cars\", but in Spanish, it is \"Me gustan los coches r\u00e1pidos\". The order of the words has changed: if just the words, without the grammar, are translated into English, it would mean 'to me they please the cars fast'. This is because Spanish and English have different rules about word order. In German, verbs often come near the end of sentences (as: \"Die Katze hat das Futter gegessen\"), whereas in English we usually put them between subject and object, as: \"the cat has eaten the food\".\nLanguage fluidity.\nWritten grammar changes slowly but spoken grammar is more fluid. Sentences which English speakers find normal today, might have seemed strange 100 years ago. And they might not, because many of our favourite sayings come from the Authorized King James Version of the Bible, and from Shakespeare.\nDifferent people speak with grammar that differs from that of other people. For example, people who use the dialects called General American English and BBC English might say, \"I didn't do anything\", while someone who speaks what is called African American Vernacular English or AAVE might say, \"I didn't do nothing\". London working class version: \"I ain't done nuffink!\" These are called \"double negatives\", and are found almost entirely in spoken English, and seldom written.\nThese differences are called dialects. The dialect a person uses is usually decided by where they live. Even though the dialects of English use different words or word order, they still have grammar rules. However, when writing in American English, grammar uses the rules of General American English. When people talk about using 'proper English', they usually mean using the grammar of general British English, as described in standard reference works. The models for \"spoken\" English in Britain are often called Received Pronunciation or BBC English.\nParts of speech.\nGrammar studies nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, sentences, phrases, clauses and interjections.\nNouns.\nNouns are 'thing' words like 'table and 'chair'. They are objects, things you see in everyday life. Proper nouns are names of specific places, people, or other things like days of the week. The name 'James' is a proper noun, as is 'Wednesday' and 'London'. Nouns can also be abstract things, such as 'suffering' or 'happiness'.\nVerbs.\nVerbs are words that describe actions: \"Ryan threw the ball\". State: \"I am worried\". The basic verb form is called the infinitive. The infinitive for existence is \"to be\". A famous example is the speech of Hamlet: \"To be or not to be, that is the question\".\nVariations of the infinitive create verb tenses. \nAdjectives.\nAdjectives describe nouns. For example, the pretty in \"pretty bicycle\" says that the bicycle is pretty. In other words, the \"pretty\" is describing the bicycle. This can also happen with a place. For example, the tall in \"that's a tall building\" is describing the building.\nSyntax.\nGrammar studies syntax which is how the \"parts of speech\" fit together and create sentences."}
+{"id": "300", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=300", "title": "Great Lakes", "text": "The Great Lakes are five large lakes in east-central North America. They hold 21% of the world's surface fresh water. \nThe five lakes are: Lake Superior, Lake Michigan, Lake Huron, Lake Erie, and Lake Ontario.\nGeography.\nFour of the Great Lakes are on the border between Canada and the United States of America. The other, Lake Michigan, is completely inside the United States.\nAll together, by volume, they are the largest group of fresh water lakes in the world. No one of the Lakes is larger than Lake Baikal (Russia) or Lake Tanganyika (East Africa).\nThe cities of Chicago, Illinois (9.8 million people, on Lake Michigan), Toronto, Ontario (5.5 million, on Lake Ontario); Detroit, Michigan (5.3 million, on the Detroit river); Montreal, Quebec (3.9 million, on the St. Lawrence River), Cleveland, Ohio (2.9 million, on Lake Erie), Buffalo, and Ottawa (1.2 million, Ontario, on the Ottawa River) are on the shores of the Great Lakes or their rivers.\nThough the five lakes have separate basins, they form a single, connected body of freshwater. The lakes connect the east-central interior of North America to the Atlantic Ocean. Lakes Michigan, Huron and Erie are approximately equally high and ships can easily pass from one to the next. Water flows from Lake Superior and Lake Michigan into Lake Huron; then through the Detroit River into Lake Erie; then through Niagara Falls into Lake Ontario; and then through the Saint Lawrence River to the Atlantic Ocean. Water also drains from the Chicago River on the south.\nMany rivers flow through a large watershed into the lakes. The lakes have about 35,000 islands. The Great Lakes region includes the five lakes and many thousands of smaller lakes, often called \"inland lakes\".\nLake Michigan and Lake Huron hit all-time record low levels in 2013.\nThe unusual shape of the Great Lakes has created the possibility of large waves called seiche. If a storm causes a fast, strong increase in air pressure on one side of a lake, the water level on that side of the lake will drop and suddenly push up the water level on the opposite side of the lake. A 10 foot tall wave in Chicago caused several deaths in 1954.\nEcological threats.\nThe Great Lakes are home to a variety of species of fish and other organisms. In recent years, overfishing caused a decline in lake trout. The drop in lake trout increased the alewife population. In response, the government introduced salmon as a predator to decrease the alewife population. This program was so successful that the salmon population rose rapidly, and the states surrounding Lake Michigan promoted 'salmon snagging'. This has been made illegal in all of the Great Lakes states except for a limited season in Illinois. Lake Michigan is now being stocked with several species of fish. However, several invader species such as lampreys, round goby, and zebra mussels threaten the native fish populations.\nInvasive species.\nAccidentally introduced species are a big problem. Since the 19th century about 160 species have invaded the Great Lakes ecosystem, causing severe economic and ecological impacts. According to the Inland Seas Education Association, they deprive fish of food, cause blooms of toxic algae, and foul boats, spawning areas and drinking water intakes. On average a new invasive species enters the Great Lakes every eight months.\nTwo important infestations in the Great Lakes are the zebra mussel, first discovered in 1988, and the quagga mussel in 1989. These molluscs are efficient filter feeders. They compete with native mussels, and also reduce available food and spawning grounds for fish. \nAlso, the mussels hurt utility and manufacturing industries by clogging or blocking pipes. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimates that the economic impact of the zebra mussel will be about $5\u00a0billion over the next decade. Because the quagga mussel is good at filtering plankton from the lake water, sunlight reaches deeper into the lake. This increases the growth of algae.\nPollution.\nChemicals from industrial plants run off the land into rivers and arrive in the lakes. Some of these chemicals are highly toxic, such as mercury. Contaminated water from sewer overflows also reaches the lakes, and beaches get closed because of the threat of pathogenic bacteria."}
+{"id": "302", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=302", "title": "GNU Free Documentation License", "text": "The GNU Free Documentation License (GNU FDL or simply GFDL) is a copyleft license for open content such as software. It was made by the Free Software Foundation (FSF) for the GNU project. It was initially created for use with software documentation, but can be applied to other types of works as well, such as Wikipedia. \nAs a copyright license, the GFDL is a type of contract between the creator of a copyrightable work (such as a book, an encyclopedia article, a painting, or a piece of music) and anyone else who might want to use it. The GFDL is considered \"copyleft\" because the license is meant to make it easier to use and re-use the copyrighted work, not to restrict its use. \nIf a copyrightable work is released under the GFDL, the creator of the work is saying that anyone else may reproduce, distribute, or modify the work, as long as they follow a set of requirements specified in the GFDL. Among the requirements of the GFDL are that any new work created from the original work is also licensed under the GFDL\u2014that is, once something is licensed as GFDL, it will always stay licensed as GFDL, and anything which uses it also is licensed as GFDL.\nThe GFDL also says that in order to distribute or modify a work licensed with the GFDL, the re-user must give credit to any previous authors of the work, and include a list of changes they made to the work. \nFinally, any work licensed with the GFDL must contain, somewhere, the entire text of the license. This provision has been criticized, because it is not always easy to include an entire, long license with a copyrighted work. In a book, for example, it is easy to include one extra page with the license, but if the work is something like a song, or a photograph, it is not easy. \nThe GFDL has other requirements that are more complicated. For example, if part of the work is labeled as an \"invariant section,\" it cannot ever be removed or changed by someone using the work (\"invariant\" means \"does not change\"). \nWorks licensed under the GFDL may be included in with non-GFDL-licensed works only if it is clear which parts of the work are licensed as the GFDL. For example, in a book of poetry it would be easy to label some poems as licensed under the GFDL and some not licensed under it. But it would not be easy to label if part of a song was licensed as GFDL and the rest was not, so this would not be allowed. \nAny use of GFDL material which violates the terms of the GFDL is potentially copyright infringement. Infringement issues are managed through a community based approach with the approval and assistance of the Free Software Foundation.\nA number of online projects use the GFDL. An online project to license its content under the GFDL is Wikipedia.\nThe GFDL has been criticized by many people who wish that it made it even easier for content to be re-used. Among the criticisms are that it is very hard to combine GFDL material with other copyleft licenses, that it is not always clear and easy to understand, and that some of its requirements, such as the \"invariant sections\", are not free at all.\nHistory.\nThe GFDL was released in draft form for feedback in September 1999. After revisions, version 1.1 was issued in March 2000, version 1.2 in November 2002, and version 1.3 in November 2008. The current state of the license is version 1.3.\nConditions.\nMaterial licensed under the current version of the license can be used for any purpose, as long as the use meets certain conditions."}
+{"id": "303", "revid": "87890", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=303", "title": "GFDL", "text": ""}
+{"id": "304", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=304", "title": "Glass", "text": "Glass is a hard material that can be made in many shapes. It is usually transparent, but it can also be made in colours. Glass is mainly made of silica; glass made of silica only is called silica glass.\nGlass used to make windows and bottles is a specific type called soda-lime glass, composed of about 75% silicon dioxide (SiO2), sodium oxide (Na2O) from sodium carbonate (Na2CO3), calcium oxide, also called lime (CaO), and several minor additives.\nBy changing the proportions, and adding different ingredients, many kinds of glass can be made. Coloured glass is made by adding small amounts of metal oxides. For example, a blue colour is given by tiny amounts of cobalt oxide.\nCrystal glass is made by adding lead and zinc oxides. It is not actually a crystal because all glass is a non-crystalline solid. Crystal glass is called cut glass if it has been cut by hand:\nBecause glass is used to make lenses, the word \"glasses\" often means eyeglasses.\nThe myth that glass is actually a liquid comes from the fact that old windows in houses and churches (200\u2013300 years old) are sometimes a little out of shape: thicker at the bottom than the top. This is actually due to the process of glass making in the past which led to the glass pane being thicker at one edge than the other. It was sensible to install the windows with the thick edge at the bottom. Sometimes a window can be found with the thick edge at the top of the window.\nGlass can be recycled over and over. Glass bottles and jars can easily be recycled to make new glass bottles and jars or used in industry as aggregate (building material) or sand."}
+{"id": "305", "revid": "1174418", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=305", "title": "God", "text": " \nGod is a being or spirit worshipped as a deity. God is considered to be the creator of the universe in some religions. Theists believe that God created everything that exists and has ever existed. Some theists think God is immortal (cannot die) and has power without limits. Deism is the belief that God exists, but God does not very often change or never changes things in the universe. Pantheism is the belief that the universe \"is\" God, while atheism is the belief that there are no deities. Agnostics think we cannot know for sure whether God or gods exist, but still might (or might not) believe at least one deity exists. People who believe that the word \"God\" should be defined before taking a theological position are ignostic.\nIn some religions, there is only one deity, God. This is called monotheism. Some monotheistic religions are the Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam), the Bah\u00e1'\u00ed Faith, and Sikhism. In other religions there are many gods. This is polytheism. Some polytheistic religions are Hinduism, Shinto, Taoism, paganism, Wicca and some variants of Buddhism. Some say that there is one God who can come in many forms, or that there is one God that is more powerful than the other gods. \nIn philosophy and theology, people normally write about a God that has a personality but no body and is everywhere at once; that God made the world and time and is separate from the world; that no-one made God; that God knows everything and has all power; that God is both free and good; and that God is perfect and the start of all morality.\nThere are different names for God in different religions. Some examples are Yahweh, Elohim in Judaism and Christianity, Allah in Islam, Baha in Bah\u00e1'\u00ed Faith, and Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism.\nIn English, people may write the words \"god\" and \"gods\" in lowercase letters. People that believe in only one god (monotheists) like to write \"God\" with a capital letter. Some people that believe in more than one god (polytheists) also like to use capital letters when writing about their gods. Most people that believe in God or gods do not believe in the gods of other religions.\nDoes God exist?\nMany people have asked themselves if God exists. Philosophers, theologians, and others have tried to prove that it exists. Others have tried to disprove the hypothesis. In philosophical terminology, such arguments are about the epistemology of the ontology of God. The debate exists mainly in philosophy, because science does not address whether or not supernatural things exist.\nThere are many philosophical issues with the existence of God. Some definitions of God are not specific. Arguments for the existence of God typically include metaphysical, empirical, inductive, and subjective types. Some theories try to explain order and complexity in the world without evolution or scientific method. Arguments against the existence of God typically include empirical, deductive, and inductive arguments. Conclusions sometimes include: \"God does not exist\" (strong atheism); \"God almost certainly does not exist\" (\"de facto\" atheism); \"no one knows whether God exists\" (agnosticism); \"God exists, but this cannot be proven or disproven\" (deism or theism); and \"God exists and this can be proven\" (theism). There are many variations on these positions, and sometimes different names for some of them. For example, the position \"God exists and this can be proven\" is sometimes called \"gnostic theism\" or \"strong theism\".\nBelieving in God.\nBy the year 2000, approximately 53% of the world's population were part of one of the three main Abrahamic religions (33% Christian, 20% Islam, less than 1% Judaism), 6% with Buddhism, 13% with Hinduism, 6% with traditional Chinese religion, 7% with various other religions, and less than 15% as non-religious. Most of these religious beliefs involve God or gods. Some religions do not believe in a god or do not include the concept of gods.\nGod in the Abrahamic religions.\nAbrahamic religions are very popular monotheistic ones. Well-known Abrahamic religions include Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Monotheistic means the people in these religions believe there is only one God. The name of God is usually not allowed to be said in Judaism, but some Jews today call him YHWH (Yahweh) or Jehovah. Muslims say the word Allah, which is the Arabic word for \"God\".\nBelievers in the Abrahamic religions (except Islamic believers) believe that God has created human beings in his image, but this idea is not easily understood by humankind. One artistic idea is that of an wise elder man in use since the Renaissance.\nGod in Christianity.\nThe Christian Bible talks about God in different ways. Within Christian canon the Old Testament talks about \"God the Father\", whilst the Gospels in the New Testament are about Jesus, or \"God the Son\". Many Christians believe that Jesus was God's incarnation on Earth. Christians consider the Holy Spirit to be God as well, the third person of God.\nIn the New Testament, there are three beings who are said to be God in different forms: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit (also known as the Holy Ghost). This is called the Trinity. Although the word \"Trinity\" is not in the Bible, the word used for God in chapter one of Genesis is actually plural, and the phrase \"in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit' is used in the New Testament, (e.g. Matthew 28:19). Another word that Christians believe has exactly the same meaning as \"Trinity\" is the word \"Godhead\", which \"is\" in the Bible.\nChristians believe that God incarnated in a human body, through the normal birth process, normally growing up into a man named Jesus or (Yeshua), coming to Earth specifically to give every person an opportunity of salvation from their own evil, called sin. The effect of personal evil far transcends the repercussions humans cause to one another in the world, but affects one's relationship with God the Father, and that aspect of the self cannot be addressed through one's own self-improvement efforts, but requires God to intervene in order to set one right. When Jesus prayed and talked to God, he called him \"Father,\" and taught others to do the same.\nJesus also taught that one must be born again in order to receive God's Spirit, otherwise one remains separated from God, acting merely from their own mind, thus being vulnerable to deception by human philosophies or the many spiritual philosophies which do not come from God but from fallen angels, which are within various false religions. After a person consciously accepts the free gift of eternal life, which Jesus's sacrifice offers, God comes to live in the individual, as God lived in humankind before the Fall.\nGod in Eastern religions.\nIn Hinduism, there is only one God, named Brahman, but Brahman is said to have taken on many different incarnations. Some of these are Rama, Krishna, Buddha, Shiva, Kali, Parvati, and Durga. To many outsiders, the worship of God's different incarnations is considered to be the worship of many gods. However, it is really only the worship of one God in different ways.\nSome Hindus also believe that the spirit of God lives in everyone. This idea is called Advaita Vedanta, which is the Hindu term for Monism.\nReligions like Buddhism and Confucianism involve the worship of many gods, or sometimes no gods at all.\nIn Shinto, there is not a single specific God, as is in most religions, but instead, a wide variety of deities called \"kami\", they are the spirit and essence of all nature things, both animate and inanimate, even including rocks, trees and poetry, for example. As Shinto is a polytheistic religion, it is usually believed that there are \"eight-million Kami\" (\u516b\u767e\u4e07\u306e\u795e yaoyorozu-no-kami), in the Japanese language, the number \"eight-million\" is normally used to mean infinity.\nGod in Western philosophy.\nPhilosophers can talk about God or god; sometimes they talk about a specific god, but other times they are just talking about the idea of god.\nOne of the earliest Western philosophers to write about God in a monotheistic way was the Greek Aristotle, who describes god as the Supreme Cause. Aristotle saw God as a being that makes everything happen, but is not influenced by anything else.\nThe idea of an \"all powerful\" God raises some interesting questions. One of them is called the God paradox. It asks whether God can make a mountain (or rock) that is so heavy he cannot lift it. The question considers if a god \"who can do anything\" could do two things that are mutually contradictory.\nThere have been several attempts to prove the existence of God with logic. Blaise Pascal said that it is better to believe there is a god, than to believe there isn't. This argument is known as Pascal's wager today. Note that Blaise Pascal was a mathematician, and he used this argument to illustrate the concept of expected value in statistics. Other attempts known as the ontological argument, the cosmological argument, and teleological argument today. Kurt G\u00f6del formulated an argument for the existence of God using modal logic in the 1970s."}
+{"id": "306", "revid": "1272202", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=306", "title": "Ghost", "text": " \nIn folklore a ghost, phantom, or spirit, is thought to be the soul of a dead person, usually one who tries to scare alive people. Scientists say that there is no proof that ghosts are real, but many people believe that they are. There are a lot of stories about ghosts in books and movies. Sometimes the ghost is the spirit of a person who was killed by someone or who was already dead. \nThe ghost may stay on Earth because he or she has unfinished problems or is still trying to say goodbye to people who they missed. Sometimes ghosts are said to live in a particular place, for example an abandoned house or a place that existed hundreds of years ago.\nSometimes the ghosts in these stories exist because of some problem the person had that was not solved before he or she died. The ghost stays on Earth trying to fix the problem. If the problem is fixed, the ghost can leave. Many people say they have seen or heard ghosts. People who try to talk to ghosts as their job are called mediums.\nThere can be bad ghosts and there can also be good ones. There have never been any ghosts that have actually hurt or killed people, although people tell stories about it.\nMany people believe they have seen ghosts. Others believe they have felt ghosts near them. Often the ghost is said to appear as a feeling of cold and a light or a misty cloud, but sometimes people say they have seen ghosts that look more like people. Sometimes ghosts are said to come in human form. Some ghosts might cause fear in the person who sees them, by being seen suddenly. Some ghosts are said to be friendly and help people who have problems. People or animals that can sense ghosts cannot feel them touching them as they are the spirit of a person, or a personified force.\nGhosts are said to form right after people die, or even centuries later. Many people make up stories or urban legends. Many try to prove the existence of these paranormal creatures with special technology such as heat sensors. They also make TV shows dedicated to proving the existence of ghosts. They often investigate cases where a person has seen one or visit a place of sighting.\nStories of ghosts can be found all over the world. Chinese philosopher Confucius said \"Respect ghosts and gods, but keep away from them.\"\nThe most feared spirit in Thailand is Phi Tai Hong, the ghost of a person who has died suddenly of a violent death. The Koran discusses spirits known as \"jinn\". In Europe there is the recurring fear of \"returning\" or \"revenant\" deceased who may harm the living. This includes the Scandinavian , the Romanian , the Serbian \"vampir\", the Greek \"vrykolakas\" among others.\nThe Bible.\nThere\u2019s a story in the Second Book of Samuel where Samuel appears to Saul after Samuel is dead. \nModern times.\nIn modern days, ghosts have become common features in horror and fantasy stories. Their appearance can take the form of the person they once were or sometimes they are depicted wearing white cloaks over their body and face.\nAt Halloween, many people dress up as ghosts."}
+{"id": "308", "revid": "1675012", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=308", "title": "Green", "text": "Green is a color between the yellow and blue colors in the rainbow. Green is a primary color (a color that can be mixed with another color) of light. The others are red and blue. \nGreen and blue are next to each other on the spectrum, and there are languages which do not distinguish between them. Examples are old Chinese, Thai, old Japanese, and Vietnamese. \nGreen paint can be made by mixing yellow paint and blue tempera paint together. \nGreen light, like all light, is quanta\u2014composed of photons. The wavelength of green light is about 550 nanometers (one-billionth of a meter).\nMost leaves of growing plants, such as trees and bushes, are green. This is because there is a chemical in leaves, called chlorophyll, which is colored green.\nSee color vision for more on the significance of green. \nTones of green color comparison chart.\nGreen is a color, the perception of which is evoked by light having a spectrum dominated by range with a wavelength of roughly 570-520 nm."}
+{"id": "309", "revid": "1649621", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=309", "title": "God's eye view", "text": "God's eye view is a name for a point of view where the speaker or writer assumes they have knowledge only God would have. It appears several ways:\nA special case of the last is in a wiki with a GodKing. Often this person can get others to believe what they say about what is right, without making any special effort to be fair to other views.\nMany people think Ren\u00e9 Descartes took a God's eye view when he said cogito ergo sum. George Berkeley argued that optics from Isaac Newton and Johannes Kepler also had this problem."}
+{"id": "310", "revid": "1694979", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=310", "title": "Google", "text": "\"This is about the company Google. For the search engine called Google, see Google Search.\"\nGoogle is an American multinational corporation from the United States. Known for creating and running one of the largest search engines on the World Wide Web, also known as the (WWW). Every day more than a billion people use it. Google's headquarters (known as the \"Googleplex\") is in Mountain View, California, part of Silicon Valley. The motto of Google is \"Do the right thing\".\nOverview.\nGoogle's American website has an Alexa rank of 1, meaning it is the most widely visited website in the world. It is so widely known that people sometimes use the word \"google\" as a verb that means \"to search for something on Google\". By June 2004, Google had 4.28 billion web pages on its database, 880 million pictures and 845 million Usenet messages\u2014six billion things. Because more than half of people on the web use it, \"google\" has also been used to mean \"to search the web\". Most importantly, Google created the Google Gnome Game in June of 2018.\nGoogle Chrome and Google Search.\nGoogle has a search engine called Google Search, and a browser called Google Chrome (or Chrome for short). Google Search can find pictures, videos, news, Usenet newsgroups, and things to buy online. Google Search is the default search engine for Chrome. Google also has an open-source browser called Chromium, which Chrome is based on.\nHistory.\nLarry Page and Sergey Brin, two students at Stanford University, USA, started BackRub in early 1996. They made it into a company, Google Inc., on September 7, 1998, at a friend's garage in Menlo Park, California. In February 1999, the company moved to 165 University Ave., Palo Alto, California, and then later moved to Googleplex.\nIn September 2001, Google's rating system (PageRank, for saying which information is more helpful) got a U.S. Patent. The patent was to Stanford University, with Lawrence (Larry) Page as the inventor (the person who first had the idea). Google makes a percentage of its money through America Online and InterActiveCorp. It has a special group known as the Partner Solutions Organization (PSO) which helps make contracts, helps to make accounts better and gives engineering help.\nSince June 1, 2016, Google has been owned by a holding company called Alphabet Inc.. That company has taken over some of Google's other projects, such as its driverless cars. It is a public company that trades on the NASDAQ under the ticker symbols GOOG and GOOGL.\nAdvertising.\nGoogle makes money by advertising. People or companies who want people to buy their product, service, or ideas give Google money, and Google shows an advertisement to people Google thinks will click on the advertisement. \nGoogle only gets money when people click on the link, so it tries to know as much about people as possible to only show the advertisement to the \"right people\". It does this with Google Analytics, which sends data back to Google whenever someone visits a website. From this and other data, Google makes a profile about the person and then uses this profile to figure out which advertisements to show.\nBranding.\nThe name \"Google\" is a play of the word \"googol\". Milton Sirotta, nephew of U.S. mathematician Edward Kasner, made this word in 1937, for the number 1 followed by one hundred zeroes (10100). \nGoogle uses this word because the company wants to make lots of stuff on the Web easy to find and use. Andy Bechtolsheim thought of the name. The name for Google's main office, the \"Googleplex,\" is a play on a different, even bigger number, the \"googolplex\", which is 1 followed by one googol of zeroes 1010100.\nReferences.\nNotes"}
+{"id": "311", "revid": "1618275", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=311", "title": "Gallon", "text": "A gallon is a volumetric unit of measurement. People have used many different gallons throughout history. Only two gallons are still commonly used, which are the imperial and U.S. liquid gallon. 1 imperial gallon is 4.5 litres and 1 U.S. liquid gallon is 4.4 litres \nSale of petrol.\nPetrol, also known as gasoline, is sold by the imperial gallon in four British Overseas Territories (Anguilla, the British Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, and Montserrat) and six countries (Antigua and Barbuda, Dominica, Grenada, Saint Christopher and Nevis, Saint Lucia, and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines). All of the countries and territories just mentioned also use miles per hour for speed limits and drive on the left side of the road.\nGasoline is sold by the U.S. gallon in Belize, Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Liberia, Nicaragua, and Peru, as well as in the Marshall Islands, Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau."}
+{"id": "312", "revid": "16695", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=312", "title": "Government", "text": "A government is a group of people that have the power to rule in a territory, according to the administrative law. This territory may be a country, a state or province within a country, or a region. There are many types of government, such as democratic, parliamentary, presidential, federal or unitary. \nTypes of governments.\nPlato listed five kinds of government in \"The Republic:\"\nDemocracy.\nThe most common type of government in the Western world is called democracy. In democracies, people in a country can vote during elections for representatives or political parties that they prefer. The people in democracies can elect representatives who will sit on legislatures such as the Parliament or Congress. Political parties are organizations of people with similar ideas about how a country or region should be governed. Different political parties have different ideas about how the government should handle different problems. Democracy is the government of the people, by the people and for the people. \nHowever, many countries have forms of democracy which limit freedom of choice by the voters. One of the most common ways is to limit which parties can stand for parliament, or limit the parties' access to mass media such as television. Another way is to rig (unfairly manipulate or interfere with) the voting system by removing votes from opposition voters and substituting votes for the party in power. Few countries are textbook (classic, paradigmatic) democracies, and the differences between them has been much studied.\nMonarchy.\nA monarchy is a government ruled by a king, queen, emperor or empress who inherits their position from their family, which is often called the \"royal family.\" There are two types of monarchies: absolute monarchies and constitutional monarchies. In an absolute monarchy, the ruler has no limits on their wishes or powers. In a constitutional monarchy a ruler's powers are limited by a document called a constitution. \nIn modern times, monarchies still exist in Great Britain and the Commonwealth of Nations, the Netherlands, Spain, Japan, Saudi Arabia, and Thailand, along with several other countries. A monarch may have one of several titles: King or Queen, Empress or Empress, or Emir.\nAristocracy.\nAn aristocracy is a government run by the people of a ruling class, usually people who come from wealthy families with a particular set of values, or people who come from a particular place. A person who rules in an aristocracy is an aristocrat. Aristocracy is different from nobility, in that nobility means that one bloodline would rule, whereas an aristocracy would mean that a few or many bloodlines would rule, or that rulers be chosen in a different manner.\nDictatorship.\nUnder a dictatorship, the government is run by one person who has all the power over the people in a country. A dictatorship may also be called one-man rule or autocracy. Plato called it tyranny. \nOriginally, the Roman Republic made dictators to lead during time of war. The Roman dictators (and Greek tyrants) were not always cruel or unkind, but they did hold power all by themselves, rather than sharing power with the people. Roman dictators only held power for a short period of time.\nIn modern times, a dictator's rule is not stopped by any laws, constitutions, or other social and political institutions, and can last many years or even decades. After leaving the Spanish Empire, many countries in Latin America were dictatorships. World War II was partly a war between dictators, and later new countries in Asia and Africa also were ruled by dictators.\nOligarchy.\nAn oligarchy is a government ruled by a small group of powerful people. These people may spread power equally or not equally. More so a different version of a monarchy, where everyone makes decisions together instead of one person making them all or telling people what to do, such as in a Dictatorship. An oligarchy is different from a true democracy because very few people are given the chance to change things. An oligarchy does not have to be hereditary or passed down from father to son. \nAn oligarchy does not have one clear ruler, but several powerful people. Some past examples of oligarchy are the former Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and Apartheid South Africa. A fictional example is the dystopian society of \"Oceania\" in the book Nineteen Eighty-Four. Some critics of representative democracy think of the United States as an oligarchy. Robert Michel's Iron Law of Oligarchy says all democratic organizations become oligarchies. This view is shared by anarchists and some libertarians. An oligarchy may have a leader in the ruling group.\nThe history and the theory of government.\nThe simplest idea of government is those who rule over people and land. This may be as small as a community or village or as big as a continent (like Australia). \nThe people who rule can allow others to own land. It is a deed by government that gives this right in the way that laws describe. Some think they have the right to hold land without government permission. This view is called libertarianism. Others think they can do without government. This view is called anarchism. \nAlmost every place on Earth is connected to one and only one government. Places without government are where people follow traditions instead of government rules, small border disputed areas and the continent of Antarctica, because almost no people live there. For every other place on Earth there is a government that claims 'sovereign control' over it. The word \"sovereign\" is old and means \"control by a King\" (sovereign). Governments of villages, cities, counties and other communities are subordinate to the government of the state or province where they exist, and then to that of the country.\nIt is from Kings and feudalism that modern governments and nation states came. The capital of a country, for instance, is where the King kept his assets. From this we get the modern idea of capital in economics. A government may regulate trade as well as to rule over land.\nGovernments also control people and decide things about what morality to accept or punish. In many countries, there are strict rules about sexual intercourse and drugs which are part of law and offenders are punished for disobeying them.\nTax is how government is paid for in most countries. People who buy, sell, import, invest, own a house or land, or earn money are made to pay some of the money to a government.\nThere are many theories of how to organize government better. These are called theories of civics. Many people think leaders must be elected by some kind of democracy. That way, they can be replaced at election. Many governments are not a democracy but other forms in which only a few people have power.\nThere are many theories of how to run a government better, and keep people from hurting each other. These theories are part of politics."}
+{"id": "314", "revid": "1674917", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=314", "title": "Galaxy", "text": "A galaxy is a group of many stars, with gas, dust, and dark matter. The name 'galaxy' is taken from the Greek word \"galaxia\" meaning milky, a reference to our own galaxy, the Milky Way.\nGravity holds galaxies together against the general expansion of the universe. In effect, the expansion of the universe takes place between groups of galaxies, not inside those groups. Gravity holds the galaxy together. The same applies to groups and clusters of galaxies, such as our Local Group where the Milky Way is, and the Virgo Cluster, a collection of more than 1,000 (might even be 2,000) galaxies. The gravitation is produced by the matter and energy in a galaxy or group of galaxies. Everything in a galaxy moves around a centre of mass, which is also an effect of gravity. \nThere are various types of galaxies: elliptical, spiral and lenticular galaxies, which can all be with or without bars. There are also irregular galaxies. \nAll galaxies exist inside the universe. The observable Universe contains more than 2 trillion (1012) galaxies and, overall, as many as an estimated stars (more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth).\nDescription.\nThere are galaxies of different sizes and type. Typical galaxies range from dwarfs with as few as ten million (107) stars up to giants with a hundred trillion (1014) stars, all orbiting the galaxy's center of mass. Galaxies may contain many multiple star systems, star clusters, and various interstellar clouds. The Sun is one of the stars in the Milky Way galaxy; the Solar System includes the Earth and all the other objects that orbit the Sun.\nStar clusters are not galaxies, they are inside galaxies. Globular clusters are spherical-shaped star clusters which are part of the outer halo of the Milky Way. One of the largest (and oldest) known star clusters, Messier 15, has several million stars, packed closely together, with a black hole at its centre. The stars are too closely packed to get an accurate count, but it certainly has more stars than some of the smaller galaxies. \nWithin galaxy clusters, galaxies move relative to other galaxies. They can and do collide. When this happens, the stars generally move past each other, but gas clouds and dust interact, and can form a burst of new stars. Gravity pulls both galaxies into somewhat new shapes, forming bars, rings or tail-like structures.\nMany galaxies continue to form new generations of stars. The Milky Way, and all spiral shaped galaxies like it (see right side image of NGC 2997), produce new stars at a rate of one or two stars per year. This star formation happens in the vast interstellar clouds that account for about 1% to 10% of the mass of these galaxies. Globular star clusters, on the other hand, are not currently forming stars because this activity happened billions of years ago and then stopped once all of the gas and dust clouds were used up. \nIn the astronomical literature, the word 'Galaxy' with a capital \"G\" is used for our galaxy, the Milky Way. The billions of other galaxies are written as 'galaxy' with a lowercase \"g\". The term \"Milky Way\" first came out in the English language in a poem by Chaucer.\nWhen William Herschel wrote his catalogue of deep sky objects, he used the name \"spiral nebula\" for objects like the Andromeda Galaxy. 200 years later astronomers discovered that they are made of stars as the Milky Way is, so the term 'nebula' is now only used for diffuse structures in a galaxy.\nTypes.\nThere are two main kinds of galaxies, spiral galaxy and elliptical galaxy. They are classified according to the Hubble Sequence. \nSpiral galaxy.\nA spiral galaxy is a galaxy that has a spiral shape. Most of the galaxies in the universe observed by astronomers are spiral galaxies (about 77%). \nThey are divided into two :\nNGC 1300 and NGC 1672 are examples of barred spiral galaxies. The Whirlpool galaxy and Messier 81 are examples of unbarred spiral galaxies.\nThe identifying characteristics of a spiral galaxy are disk-shaped rotating, spiral arms, and a bulge in the galactic core. The spiral arms are where new hot stars are born. \"Bulge\" in the galactic core has old stars. This feature is common to the most spiral galaxies.\nElliptical galaxy.\nAn elliptical galaxy is a galaxy that has a ellipsoid (3D of ellipse) shape. This type of galaxy are dominant in universe, especially in galaxy clusters. The shape ranges from circle, ellipse, and cigar-shaped. In Hubble Sequence, this shape can be represented as class :\nElliptical galaxies have a large range in size. The giant elliptical galaxy can be over a more 1 million light years and the smallest (know as \"dwarf elliptical galaxy\") are less than one-tenth the size of Milky Way The effective radius defines the area from which half its light comes. The mass of elliptical galaxy is also large. A giant elliptical galaxy can have mass of 1013 (many trillions) of solar masses.\nOther kinds of galaxies.\nA lenticular galaxy is a galaxy seen as a disc shape. The shape of a lenticular galaxy is between spiral galaxy and elliptical galaxy. The shape can be known by looking at the bulge of the galactic center. If the bulge is very bright, it is a spiral galaxy."}
+{"id": "315", "revid": "1629455", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=315", "title": "Geometry", "text": "Geometry (from Ancient Greek: \u0393\u03b5\u03c9\u03bc\u03b5\u03c4\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 (romanized: \"Geometria\" (English: \"Land measurement\") derived from \u0393\u03b7 (romanized: Ge; English: \"Earth\" or \"land\") and also derived from \u039c\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd) (romanized: \"M\u00e9tron\"; English: \"A measure\")) is a branch of mathematics that studies the size, shapes, positions and dimensions of things. We can only see shapes that are flat (2D) or solid (3D), but mathematicians (people who study math) are able to study shapes that are 4D, 5D, 6D, and so on.\nSquares, circles and triangles are some of the simplest shapes in flat geometry. Cubes, cylinders, cones and spheres are simple shapes in solid geometry.\nUses.\nPlane geometry can be used to measure the area and perimeter of a flat shape. Solid geometry can measure a solid shape's volume and surface area.\nGeometry can be used to calculate the size and shape of many things. For example, geometry can help people find:\nOrigins.\nGeometry is one of the oldest branches of mathematics. Geometry began as the art of surveying of land so that it could be shared fairly between people. The word \"geometry\" is from a Greek word that means \"to measure the land\". It has grown from this to become one of the most important parts of mathematics. The Greek mathematician Euclid wrote the first book about geometry, a book called \"The Elements\".\nNon-Euclidean geometry.\nPlane and solid geometry, as described by Euclid in his textbook Elements, is called \"Euclidean Geometry\". This was simply called \"geometry\" for centuries. In the 19th century, mathematicians created several new kinds of geometry that changed the rules of Euclidean geometry. These and earlier kinds were called \"non-Euclidean\" (not created by Euclid). For example, hyperbolic geometry and elliptic geometry come from changing Euclid's parallel postulate.\nNon-Euclidean geometry is more complicated than Euclidean geometry but has many uses. Spherical geometry for example is used in astronomy and cartography.\nExamples.\nGeometry starts with a few simple ideas that are thought to be true, called axioms. Such as:"}
+{"id": "316", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=316", "title": "Graph theory", "text": "Graph theory is a field of mathematics about graphs. A graph is an abstract representation of: a number of points that are connected by lines. Each point is usually called a \"vertex\" (more than one are called \"vertices\"), and the lines are called \"edges\". Graphs are a tool for modelling relationships. They are used to find answers to a number of problems.\nSome of these questions are:\nHistory.\n \u2192\nA visualization of the Seven Bridges of K\u00f6nigberg. Leonhard Euler solved this problem in 1736, which led to the development of topology, and modern graph theory.\nA graph is an abstract data structure. It holds nodes that are usually related to each other. A node is a dataset, typically in the form of ordered pairs. Nodes are either connected or not connected to another node. The relation between nodes is usually defined as an Edge. Graphs are useful for their ability to associate nodes with other nodes.\nThere are a few representations of Graphs in practice.\nLeonhard Euler used to live in a town called \"K\u00f6nigsberg.\" (Its name changed to Kaliningrad in 1946). The town is on the river Pregel. There is an island in the river. There are some bridges across the river. Euler wanted to walk around and use each of the bridges once. He asked if he could do this. In 1736, he published a scientific article where he showed that this was not possible. Today, this problem is known as the Seven Bridges of K\u00f6nigsberg. The article is seen as the first paper in the history of graph theory.\nThis article, as well as the one written by Vandermonde on the \"knight problem,\" carried on with the \"analysis situs\" initiated by Leibniz. Euler's formula was about the number of edges, vertices, and faces of a convex polyhedron was studied and generalized by Cauchy and L'Huillier, and is at the origin of topology.\nThe fusion of the ideas coming from mathematics with those coming from chemistry is at the origin of a part of the standard terminology of graph theory. In particular, the term \"graph\" was introduced by Sylvester in an article published in 1878 in \"Nature\".\nOne of the most famous and productive problems of graph theory is the four color problem: \"Is it true that any map drawn in the plane may have its regions colored with four colors, in such a way that any two regions having a common border have different colors?\"\nGraph theory in perspective.\nGraph theory is an important part of mathematics and computer science. To many such problems, exact solutions do exist. Many times however, they are very hard to calculate. Therefore, very often, approximations are used. There are two kinds of such approximations, Monte-Carlo algorithms and Las-Vegas algorithms."}
+{"id": "318", "revid": "1508758", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=318", "title": "Goatee", "text": "A goatee is a beard formed by a tuft of hair under the chin, resembling that of a billy goat. "}
+{"id": "323", "revid": "373511", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=323", "title": "Herm", "text": "Herm is the smallest of the Channel Islands that is open to the public.\nHerm is only 1 miles long. Cars are banned from the small island just like its Channel Island neighbour, Sark. Unlike Sark, bicycles are banned too. The sandy white beaches make Herm a walker's paradise.\nPopulation: 60 (2002)."}
+{"id": "324", "revid": "1681633", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=324", "title": "History", "text": "History is the study of past events. People know what happened in the past by looking at things \"from\" the past including sources (like books, newspapers, scripts and letters), buildings and different types of artifacts (like pottery, tools, coins and human or animal remains.) Libraries, archives, and museums collect and keep these things for people to study history. A person who studies history is called a historian. A person who studies pre-history and history through things left behind by ancient cultures is called an archaeologist. A person who studies mankind and society is called an anthropologist. The study of the sources and methods \"used to study and write\" history is called historiography.\nPeople can learn about the past by talking to people who remember things that happened at some point in the past. This is called oral history. For example, when people who had been slaves and American Civil War survivors got old, some historians recorded them talking about their lives, so that history would not be lost. \nIn old times people in different parts of the world kept separate histories because they did not meet each other very often. Some groups of people never met each other. The rulers of Medieval Europe, Ancient Greece, Ancient Rome and Ancient China each thought that they ruled the only important parts of the world and that other parts were \"barbarian\". But they were still connected, even if they didn't realize it.\nThe term \"historically\" is used to say that something has been a certain way during most of its history. For example, a historically female university is a university which has had a student body that was mostly or entirely female for most of its history.\nTimeline of human history.\nCurrent events, modern economic history, modern social history and modern intellectual history take very different views of the way history has affected the way that we think today."}
+{"id": "325", "revid": "966595", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=325", "title": "Health", "text": "Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease according to the World Health Organization (WHO). \"Physical\" health is about the body. \"Mental\" health is about how people think and feel. \"Social\" health talks about how people live with other people. It is about family, work, school, and friends.\nAspects of health.\nPhysical health.\nPhysical fitness refers to good body health. It is dependent on genetic determinators and also on social, economic and ecological factors. That means, one's genes are partly responsible for one's physical health, but also other circumstances: where you live, how clean or polluted your water and the air around you is and also how good your social and medical system is. It is also the result of regular exercise, proper diet and nutrition, and proper rest for physical recovery. A person who is physically fit will be able to walk or run without getting breathless and they will be able to carry out the activities of everyday living and not need help. How much each person can do will depend on their age and whether they are a man or woman. \nA physically fit person usually has a normal weight for their height. The relation between their height and weight is called their Body Mass Index. A taller person can be heavier and still be fit. If a person is too heavy or too thin for their height it may affect their health. Better health is central to human happiness and well-being. It also makes an important contribution to economic progress, as healthy populations live longer, are more productive, and save more. Many factors influence health status and a country's ability to provide quality health services for its people.\nMental health.\nMental health refers to a person's emotional and psychological well-being. \"A state of emotional and psychological well-being in which an individual is able to use his or her thinking and emotional (feeling) abilities, function in society, and meet the ordinary demands of everyday life.\"\nOne way to think about mental health is by looking at how well a person functions. Feeling capable and efficient; being able to handle normal levels of stress, have good friends and family, and lead an independent life; and being able to \"bounce back,\" or recover from hardships, are all signs of mental health. It\u2019s normal for all of us to feel worried, sad, upset, or have difficult emotions from time to time. For most people though, these feelings are only temporary and are resolved without causing any long-term problems. However, for some people, these negative feelings can become worse over time and lead to a mental health problem such as depression, anxiety, stress or obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD).\nPublic health.\nPublic health refers to trying to stop a disease that is unhealthy to the community, and does not help in living a long life or promote your health. This is fixed by organized efforts and choices of society, public and private clubs, communities and individuals.\nIt is about the health of many people, or everybody, rather than one person. Public health stops instead of encouraging a disease through surveillance of cases. To prevent being sick, it is good to act according to some simple advice: Hand washing, regular check-ups, vaccination programmes, drinking clean water, and using condoms. When infectious diseases break out, washing hands for about 30 seconds may be especially important. Sometimes it is necessary to avoid masses of people or wear a surgical mask to protect yourself and to stop the spreading of the disease. Teaching people how to live healthily and educate them, especially about sex and childbirth, is also very important."}
+{"id": "326", "revid": "1570152", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=326", "title": "Harbor", "text": "A harbor (American English) or harbour (British English) is a place where ships may shelter. Some harbors are used as ports to load and unload ships. The port will have quays or piers where the ships may be tied up and a transport system for taking goods inland. Often railway and road transport will be used. Goods also move by pipeline transport and by smaller ships on rivers.\nHarbor means to shelter or keep safe. Harbors can be natural as in San Francisco or artificial as in ancient Carthage or a mix of both. During the D-Day operations of 1944, two artificial harbors (named mulberry) were built just off the beaches where the invasion was happening."}
+{"id": "332", "revid": "5295", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=332", "title": "Hawaii", "text": "Hawaii (sometimes spelled Hawai'i) is a U.S. state and the only U.S. State that is in Oceania. It is the most recent state to join the United States, becoming a state on August 21, 1959. It is the only state made only of islands. Hawaii is also the name of the largest island. The capital and largest city of Hawaii is Honolulu on the island named Oahu.\nName.\nHawaii is known as the \"Aloha State\". \"Aloha\" is a Hawaiian word that has many meanings like welcome, hello and goodbye. Aloha also means love and care. The different meanings are brought together in the term \"Aloha Spirit\" to describe the friendly people of Hawaii.\nGeography.\nHawaii is an archipelago, a long chain of islands. There are eight main islands and many small islands and atolls. They are the tops of underwater volcanos. The main islands are Niihau, Kauai, Oahu, Molokai, Lanai, Kahoolawe, Maui and Hawaii.\nHistory.\nThe first people of Hawaii were Polynesians. They came to the islands sometime between 200 and 600 AD. Captain James Cook discovered the islands in 1778. Others may have been there before him. Captain Cook named the islands the Sandwich Islands for the fourth Earl of Sandwich, John Montague.\nKamehameha I was the first king of Hawaii. He united the separate small Hawaiian kingdoms into one large kingdom in 1795. In 1893, American soldiers stopped Queen Liliuokalani from leading Hawaii when American business people took over the government and made their own laws. She was the last monarch of Hawaii. She also wrote the original words of the song called \"Aloha Oe\".\nThe Americans made Hawaii into a republic for a short time. The new leader, Sanford Dole was called the President of Hawaii. In 1898, the United States of America took over the government and made Hawaii into a territory.In 1907, University of Hawai\u02bbi is established. In 1959, Hawaii became the fiftieth American state. In other words, it was taken (\"annexed\") against the wishes of its native people. Their queen, Lili\u2019uokalani, wrote that \u201cit had not entered into our hearts to believe that these friends and allies from the United States... would ever go so far as to absolutely overthrow our form of government, seize our nation by the throat, and pass it over to an alien power\u201d.\nReason for statehood.\nEarly in World War II the U.S. Pacific Fleet was based on the Philippines. Perceiving that this was not safe, the navy moved its base to the Hawaiian islands, namely Oahu (the main island in the chain). It was there that the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor. That was significant in the later discussions about the future of the islands.\nEconomy.\nThe biggest industry of Hawaii is tourism. Almost seven million people visited in 2000. Important exports are sugar, pineapple, macadamia nuts, and coffee.\nPopular tourist sites include Waikiki Beach, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, Polynesian Cultural Center, and the USS Arizona Memorial at Pearl Harbor.\nState symbols.\nThe state flower is the yellow hibiscus (\"Hibiscus brackenridgei\" or ). The state bird is the Hawaiian goose (nene). The state fish is the reef triggerfish, also called the '. The state tree is the candlenut, also called \"kukui\". The state song is Hawaii Ponoi. The state motto is '. In English it says, \"The life of the land is perpetuated in righteousness\".\nReferences.\nNotes"}
+{"id": "333", "revid": "352031", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=333", "title": "Honolulu", "text": "Honolulu is the capital city of the U.S. state of Hawaii. It is also the largest city in Hawaii and it has the most important harbor. It is on the south-east shore of the island of Oahu.\nEtymology.\nHonolulu means \"sheltered harbor\" in the Hawaiian language. No one knows for sure when Honolulu was first settled or when the name was first used.\nHistory.\nHonolulu harbor was called Kulolia before foreigners came. The first foreigner was Captain William Brown of the English ship Butterworth, in 1794. He named the harbor Fair Haven. Other foreign captains started calling it Brown's Harbor. The name Honolulu was used some time after that.\nHonolulu quickly became the most important harbor of Hawaii. At that time, sandalwood was a big export. Honolulu was also an important supply point for whalers.\nKamehameha III made Honolulu the capital city of the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1850. It was also the capital of the Republic of Hawaii and the Territory of Hawaii. It stayed the capital when Hawaii became a state in 1959."}
+{"id": "335", "revid": "7808530", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=335", "title": "Hawaii (island)", "text": "The Island of Hawai\u02bbi is the largest U.S. Hawaiian Island, and it is the farthest south. It is also called the \"Big Island.\" Its area is 4,038 sq. miles (10,458 km2). The widest part of the island is 93 miles (150 km) across.\nThe Big Island has more than half (~62%) of the total land area of State of Hawaii. It is part of County of Hawaii.\nThe island is seven separate shield volcanos that erupted more or less one at a time, one partly covering the other. These are (from oldest to youngest): Kohala (extinct), Mauna Kea (dormant), Hualalai (dormant), Mauna Loa (active), Kulani (extinct, mostly buried), and Kilauea (very active). The volcanos were caused by the Pacific oceanic tectonic plate moving over a hotspot. There lava from the Earth's lower mantle or upper core is close to the surface.\nThe largest city on the island is Hilo. Hilo has many historic buildings, interesting shops, parks, many performances, festivals and events. It is on the rainy, east side of the island. The city of Kailua-Kona is on the dry, west side of Hawaii, and is popular with tourists."}
+{"id": "337", "revid": "5295", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=337", "title": "Hawaii Ponoi", "text": "\"Hawai\u02bbi Pono\u02bb\u012b\" (; \"Hawai's Sons\") is the state song of Hawaii. The words were written by King David Kalakaua, the music by Prof. Henry Berger, the Royal Bandmaster. \"Hawai`i Ponoi\" was also the anthem of the Kingdom of Hawai`i and the Territory of Hawai`i."}
+{"id": "338", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=338", "title": "Healing", "text": "Healing is a process that happens in the body. Through healing, cells are able to repair damaged tissue.\nThere are two different ways healing can happen:\nMost healing processes combine both ways of healing."}
+{"id": "341", "revid": "36647", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=341", "title": "Hard Science", "text": ""}
+{"id": "342", "revid": "17988", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=342", "title": "History of Australia", "text": "People have lived in Australia for over 65,000 years. The first people who arrived in Australia were the Aboriginals and the Torres Strait Islanders. They lived in all parts of Australia. They lived by hunting, fishing and gathering.\nAboriginals invented tools like the boomerang, spear, and there is evidence that they used farming methods. Tradition was very important in their lives. Their religion is called the Dreamtime, which has lots of stories about the creation of the world by spirits. Aboriginal art started at least 30,000 years ago and there are lots of Dreaming stories painted on walls and cut in rocks all around Australia. Aboriginal music has songs about the Dreamtime, sometimes with special instruments like the didgeridoo.\nIn 1606 the first European, Dutch explorer Willem Janszoon, visited the west. Lu\u00eds Vaz de Torres sailed through the water between Australia and New Guinea later that year. Only after Dirk Hartog chanced upon the west coast in 1616 did other European vessels visit and map the coast. After sixty more ships visited the coast, enough was known for a map to be published in 1811. The land was dry because of not much rain; some was a desert. The explorers thought no crops could be grown and so it would be difficult for people to live there. They decided there would be no economic reasons to stay.\nIn 1642, Dutchman Abel Tasman, working for the Dutch East India Company reached Tasmania, which he called Antony van Diemenslandt. He then called the continent he charted the north coast of on his second visit in 1644 New Holland. In 1688, William Dampier became the first Englishman to reach Australia. But in 1770 a British sailor, Captain James Cook, found the fertile east coast of Australia. He called it New South Wales, and claimed it for Britain. Englishman Matthew Flinders published his map of the coast in 1814, calling it Australia for the first time, a name later formally adopted by the authorities.\nColonial Australia.\nThe British decided to use the land visited by James Cook as a prison colony. Britain needed a place to send its convicts (people who had been sent to jail for theft and other crimes) because its gaols were full and it had just lost its American colonies in the American Revolutionary War. In 1788 the British First Fleet of 11 ships, carrying about 1500 people arrived at Botany Bay. Arthur Phillip led them as the first Governor of New South Wales. About 160 000 convicts were brought to Australia from 1788 until 1868. Free immigrants began arriving in the 1790s.\nFor the first few years they did not have much food, and life was very hard. But soon they began to farm, and more people came. Sydney grew, and new towns were started. Wool brought good money. By 1822, many towns had been set up and people from the towns often visited Sydney for additional economic resources.\nSoon people from Sydney found other parts of Australia. George Bass and Matthew Flinders sailed south to Tasmania and a colony was started at Hobart in 1803. Hamilton Hume and William Hovell went south from Sydney by land. They found the Murray River, and good land in Victoria. Thomas Mitchell went inland, and found more rivers. In 1826, the first British military outpost was set up at King George Sound in Western Australia. The Swan River Colony was started in 1829, with townsites at Fremantle and Perth. In 1836, a free-settler colony was started in South Australia, where no convicts were ever sent. Queensland became a separate colony in 1859. As the towns and farms spread across Australia, the Aboriginal people were pushed off their land. Some were killed, and many died from illness and hunger. Soon, Australia's Aborigines were outnumbered by Europeans, and many were made to live on reserves.\nThe goldrushes of New South Wales and Victoria started in 1851 leading to large numbers of people arriving to search for gold. The population grew across south east Australia and made great wealth and industry. By 1853 the goldrushes had made some poor people very rich.\nConvict transportation ended in the 1840s and 1850s and more changes came. The people in Australia wanted to run their own country, and self-govern. The first governments in the colonies were run by Governors chosen by London. Soon the settlers wanted local government and more democracy. The New South Wales Legislative Council, was created in 1825 to advise the Governor of New South Wales, but it was not chosen by voters. William Wentworth established the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia's first political party) in 1835 to demand democratic government for New South Wales. In 1840, the Adelaide City Council and the Sydney City Council were started and some people could vote for them (but only men with a certain amount of money). Then, Australia's first parliamentary elections were held for the New South Wales Legislative Council in 1843, again with some limits on who could vote. \"The Australian Colonies Government Act\" [1850] allowed constitutions for New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. In 1850 elections for legislative councils were also held in the colonies of Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania.\nIn 1855, limited self-government was granted by London to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. A new secret ballot was introduced in Victoria, Tasmania and South Australia in 1856, allowing people to vote in private. This system was copied around the world. In 1855, the right to vote was given to all men over 21 in South Australia. The other colonies soon followed. Women were given the vote in the Parliament of South Australia in 1895 and they became the first women in the world allowed to stand in elections. In 1897, Catherine Spence became the first female political candidate.\nAustralians had started parliamentary democracies all across the continent. But voices were getting louder for all of them to come together as one country with a national parliament. So in January 1901, the Constitution of Australia came into effect.\nIn the 21st century, Julia Gillard became Australia\u2019s first female Deputy Prime Minister in 2007, and the first unmarried female Prime Minister of Australia in 2010."}
+{"id": "346", "revid": "1556211", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=346", "title": "History of Spain", "text": "Spain is a country in Europe.\nEarly History.\nPeople have lived on the Iberian Peninsula for about 500,000 years. Neanderthal man came about 200,000 years ago. Modern humans first came about 40,000 years. Thousands of years ago Iberians and Celts lived there, and the Phoenicians made a few cities there to get tin and silver to trade.\nThe Roman Empire controlled Spain for three hundred years; then people from Eastern Europe called Visigoths fought for Spain, won it from the Romans, and controlled Spain for over two hundred years.\nMedieval times.\nThe Visigoths converted from Arian Christianity to Roman Catholics. Muslims who were Arab and Berber invaded in 711 and conquered Spain in 718. They called it Al-Andalus. Roman Catholics eventually decided to fight to take Spain back from the Muslims. They fought wars called the reconquista for more than seven hundred years. They also fought Crusades against other Christians like the Cathars. The Moors also fought each other for control of Al-Andalus. \nIn the year 1492, they took the last part of Spain that had belonged to the Moors. Boabdil, the last Moorish Leader of Granada, gave the city to King Ferdinand of Aragon on 2 January 1492, and Christians now ruled all of Spain.\nBefore this, several different kings had ruled different countries in what is now called Spain. Two of these countries, Castile and Aragon, came together when the king of Aragon, Ferdinand II, married the queen of Castile, Isabella.\nIn the same year, 1492, they decided to send Christopher Columbus to explore the Atlantic Ocean. Columbus found a land there that the people of Europe did not yet know. These were the islands of the Caribbean Sea.\nLate 15th century.\nColumbus and other sailors explored more and found that there were two continents there - North America and South America. Spain sent many soldiers and businessmen to North and South America, and they took over very large parts of those two continents. Owning this empire made Spain very rich. But when they conquered that empire, they killed millions of the Native Americans who had lived there before. Spain owned this empire for more than three hundred years.\nMeanwhile, at home, the Muslim manuscripts had been either burnt or spread to other countries. Jews had been expelled from Spain. The multicultural society was destroyed, and so was the learning. Among the few things kept and respected in Spain were in music: harmony and stringed instruments, and of course the buildings, many of which became churches, by adding crosses.\n16th and 17th centuries.\nThe Spanish Empire was the strongest in the world through most of the next two centuries, thanks to gold from the Americas. This new gold made rulers and colonial governors rich. Meanwhile, others' savings became worth less due to inflation. Spain became a society of very rich and very poor. Some of the poorest went to the new colonies in the Caribbean, Central America and South America, mostly to find gold.\nNative American peoples were killed by diseases brought by the Spaniards, but most Spaniards did not know this. They found damaged and dying societies with people who had lost some of their most important leaders and thinkers. The Spaniards thought this meant they were inferior, and used this as an excuse to enslave the natives. Millions of natives died mining gold for the Spanish.\nThe Spanish Empire also at this time funded the Spanish Inquisition which tortured and killed anyone who disagreed with the Roman Catholic Church. The Reformation which created Protestant sects in Europe was not allowed into Spain, it was kept out and, as with Jews or Muslims, its believers were killed.\nThe nobles of Spain no longer had to fight anyone since the internal feuds were over. No one could challenge their power. In many ways it was held together as a reign of terror. People who challenged them were often called heretics, so that the Inquisition could torture them, and then nobles take the property.\nFor ordinary people on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, life got worse. A few rulers got rich. Today we would say that these people were guilty of war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity. Many Church people who had the power to speak out at that time, did so, and they said many of the same things as we would say today. But none of this mattered much to the rulers.\nThe great satire Don Quixote was written about this time.\n18th and 19th centuries.\nIn the 18th century, there was doubt over who should become king of Spain; this doubt led many of the kings of Europe to fight to become king of Spain. This was called the War of the Spanish Succession.\nFrance occupied Spain for a long time. This made Spain very weak. It also made Spain lose its empire in North and South America; all of the parts of that empire became their own countries, or were taken over by other countries such as the United States of America.\n20th century.\nThere was not much peace in Spain during the first part of the 20th century. Some Spaniards tried to set up a government chosen by the people (a democracy), and they made the King of Spain leave the country. However, in 1936, two different groups of Spaniards went to war over whether the government should be a democracy, or take orders from one person. In 1939, those who wanted democracy were defeated, and a dictator named Francisco Franco took over the government.\nFranco died in 1975. He had decided that Spain should have a king again, and he chose Juan Carlos, the grandson of the king who had been forced to leave the country, to be king. But the king did not rule as a dictator; instead, he chose to set up a democracy. Also since Franco's death, Spain appointed Adolfo Su\u00e1rez to became Spain's first democratically elected prime minister. Now Spain is a modern democratic country, and does business with many countries around the world. It is a part of the European Union."}
+{"id": "348", "revid": "1069165", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=348", "title": "Height", "text": "Height is the distance between the lowest end and highest end of an object.\nFor example, it is said the bottom of the foot is a person's lowest end, and the top of the head is a person's highest end. If the distance between the bottom of a person's foot and the top of that person's head is 64 inches, then that person's height is 64 inches.\nHeight is measured in 3D objects. 2D objects do not have height; they only have length and width."}
+{"id": "349", "revid": "1316807", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=349", "title": "Historian", "text": "A historian is someone who studies history. Historians use written sources to understand past events and societies.\nEducation.\nProfessional historians often get a Master's degree or PhD. A Master's degree student spends most of their time in the classroom. A PhD student needs to write a long research paper known as a thesis to graduate. Classes focus on learning about history, not teaching history. However, most historians do need to teach history.\nAs a job.\nProfessional historians are often professors of history and teach it at colleges and universities. They share their ideas about history by writing books and articles. \nOther historians work in public history. They may work in museums or at landmarks where important historic events happened."}
+{"id": "351", "revid": "209999", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=351", "title": "Human death", "text": ""}
+{"id": "353", "revid": "314522", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=353", "title": "Human body", "text": "The human body is the body of a person. It is the physical structure of a person.\nThe body is a thing that can be hurt or killed. Its functions are stopped by death. You need your muscles and your joints to move.\nStudy of the human body.\nSome people study the human body. They look at where it is different from, or the same as, other animals' bodies. These animals can be alive today. Or they can be extinct animals like other hominids. (Hominids are primates that are close to humans. Neanderthals and \"Homo erectus\" were hominids.) Some people study how the human body works and lives in its environment. Some people study what people think about their body. Artists study how to draw or paint the human body.\nFields of study.\nMany different fields of study look at the human:\nOrgan system.\nVarious organ systems give the body the ability to live and do things.\nThe human body and other animals.\nThe human body is like other animals. The skeleton, muscles and other parts are very much like those of other primates. Our body is also like other mammals, and somewhat like other vertebrates. DNA differences follow a similar pattern. The human genome is closer to that of other primates than to other vertebrates, and closest to chimpanzee."}
+{"id": "355", "revid": "1477024", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=355", "title": "Hydrogen", "text": "Hydrogen is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe. It is the simplest element and the first in the periodic table. It has the chemical symbol H and atomic number 1, which means it has just one proton in its nucleus. Hydrogen also has a standard atomic weight of 1.008. Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas at room temperature. It is also highly flammable. When hydrogen burns in oxygen, it creates water and releases a lot of energy.\nHydrogen can be found as H\u2082 molecules. This means two hydrogen atoms join together to make a stable gas. It has a very low boiling and melting point, so it becomes a liquid or solid only at extremely cold temperatures. There are also different forms, or isotopes of hydrogen. The most common is protium, which has just one proton. There is also deuterium, which has one proton and one neutron, and tritium, which has one proton and two neutrons and is radioactive. Hydrogen is very reactive, especially with oxygen and other nonmetals. It often forms compounds like water (H\u2082O), methane (CH\u2084), and ammonia (NH\u2083).\nHydrogen is the most common element in the universe. It makes up 75% of all normal matter by mass. Most of the hydrogen is found in stars, including the Sun. It fuels the process of nuclear fusion, giving off light and heat. On Earth, hydrogen is not usually found as a pure gas because it is so light and reactive. Instead, it is most commonly found in compounds. It can be found especially in water (H\u2082O), which covers about 70% of Earth\u2019s surface. Hydrogen is also found in living things, because it is part of many organic compounds, such as sugars, fats, and proteins. Hydrogen can be found in fossil fuels and in some minerals. It can also be found in volcanic gases and the upper atmosphere, where it slowly escapes into space because of its lightness.\nHydrogen is very reactive, especially because it has only one electron. This makes it easy for hydrogen to form bonds with other elements. It usually forms molecules like H\u2082, where two hydrogen atoms share their electrons to become more stable. Hydrogen reacts easily with oxygen to form water (H\u2082O). This reaction releases a lot of energy and is why hydrogen is used as a fuel in rockets and fuel cells. It also reacts with many nonmetals, such as chlorine, to form compounds like hydrogen chloride (HCl). Hydrogen can act as both a reducer (it gives electrons) and, in some cases, as an oxidizer (it takes electrons). Hydrogen can also form acids when combined with certain elements. For example, when it bonds with chlorine, it creates hydrochloric acid when dissolved in water. It can also form hydrides when it reacts with metals, where hydrogen behaves like a negatively charged ion.\nThe history of hydrogen goes back to the 1700s, when scientists first began studying gases. In 1766, the British scientist Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen as a separate gas. He called it \u201cinflammable air\u201d because it burned easily and produced water when it reacted with air. Later, in 1783, the famous French scientist Antoine Lavoisier gave the gas its modern name: hydrogen, which means \u201cwater-former\u201d in Greek. He realized that water is not an element but a compound made from hydrogen and oxygen. In the 1800s and 1900s, scientists learned more about hydrogen\u2019s properties and uses. It became important in chemical industries, like making ammonia for fertilizer. It was also used in airships, although this was dangerous because hydrogen can catch fire easily. One tragic example was the Hindenburg disaster in 1937, when a hydrogen-filled airship caught fire. In the 20th and 21st centuries, liquid hydrogen was used as rocket fuel. It has also gained attention as a clean energy source.\nHydrogen does not exist freely in large amounts on Earth, so it must be produced by us. The two main ways to make hydrogen are steam reforming and electrolysis. Steam reforming is the most common method. It involves heating natural gas (mostly methane) with steam to release hydrogen. This process is widely used in industries. Electrolysis is another method that uses electricity to split water into hydrogen and oxygen. However, electrolysis is more expensive than steam reforming. Hydrogen can also be produced using other methods, such as biological processes (using bacteria or algae) and thermochemical reactions that use heat from nuclear or solar energy. Once produced, hydrogen is usually stored as a gas under pressure, or as a liquid at very low temperatures, so it can be used in industries, fuel cells, and rockets.\nHydrogen has many important uses in industry, science, and energy. One of its biggest uses is in making ammonia (NH\u2083) through the Haber process. Ammonia is used to produce fertilizers, which help grow food for people around the world. Hydrogen is also used in oil refineries to help remove sulfur from fuels. It is used in making methanol, which is a basic chemical for making plastics and other products. In energy, hydrogen is used as a clean fuel. It can power fuel cells, which produce electricity without pollution. The only byproduct is water. Fuel cells are used in some cars, buses, and even spacecrafts. Hydrogen is also important in space exploration. It is used as a rocket fuel because it burns with a lot of energy and produces only water vapor. Liquid hydrogen, combined with liquid oxygen, has been used to launch many rockets.\nProperties.\nHydrogen is grouped as a reactive nonmetal. This is different from the other elements found in the first group of the periodic table, which are called alkali metals. Only the solid form of hydrogen should behave like a metal, though.\nWhen hydrogen is by itself, it will normally bind with itself to make dihydrogen (H2). Dihydrogen is very stable because of its high bond-dissociation energy of 435.7 kJ/mol.\nAt normal temperature and pressure, hydrogen gas (H2) has no color, smell, or taste. It is also not poisonous. This is because it is a nonmetal and burns very easily. Hydrogen gas at this state also has low density and is not corrosive.\nCombustion.\nMolecular hydrogen is flammable and reacts with oxygen:\n2 H2(g) + O2(g) \u2192 2 H2O(l) + 572 kJ (286 kJ/mol)\nHydrogen gas can be very dangerous. It can explode when mixed with air or certain gases. If hydrogen gas makes up between 4% and 74% of the air, it can catch fire and explode. It can also explode when mixed with chlorine gas. This happens if the mixture has between 5% and 95% hydrogen.\nHydrogen can catch fire by itself if it gets hot enough. This happens at a temperature of about 500\u00b0C (932\u00b0F). In some cases, if hydrogen leaks out under high pressure, the force of the leak can heat the air around it to that temperature. This can cause the gas to burst into flames or even explode.\nHydrogen flames are hard to see. They burn with a faint blue color and give off ultraviolet light. The human eye cannot see ultraviolet light. In daylight, it is almost impossible to see a hydrogen fire. That is why special flame detectors are used to find hydrogen fires and keep people safe.\nCompounds.\nWhile hydrogen gas in its natural form is not reactive, it does form compounds with many elements, especially halogens, which are very electronegative, meaning they want an electron very badly. Hydrogen also forms massive arrays with carbon atoms, forming hydrocarbons. The study of the properties of hydrocarbons is known as organic chemistry.\nThe H- anion (negatively charged atom) is named a hydride, though the word is not commonly used. An example of a hydride is lithium hydride (LiH), which is used as a \"spark plug\" in nuclear weapons.\nAcids.\nAcids dissolved in water normally contain high levels of hydrogen ions, in other words, free protons. Their level is generally used to determine its pH, that is, the content of hydrogen ions in a volume. For example, hydrochloric acid, found in people's stomachs, can dissociate into a chloride anion and a free proton, and the property of the free proton is how it can digest food by corroding it.\nThough uncommon on Earth, the H3+ cation is one of the most common ions in the universe.\nIsotopes.\nHydrogen has 7 known isotopes, two of which are stable (1H and 2H), which are commonly named protium and deuterium. The isotope 3H is known as tritium, has a half-life of 12.33 years, and is produced in small amounts by cosmic rays. The 4 isotopes left have half-lives on the scale of yoctoseconds.\nHydrogen in nature.\nIn its natural form on Earth, hydrogen is generally a gas. Hydrogen is also one of the parts that make up a water molecule. Hydrogen is important because it is the fuel that powers the Sun and other stars.\nHydrogen makes up about 74% of the complete universe. \nNatural hydrogen is normally made of two hydrogen atoms connected together. Scientists name these diatomic molecules. Hydrogen will have a chemical reaction when mixed with most other elements, though it has no color or smell.\nNatural hydrogen is very uncommon in the Earth's atmosphere, because nearly all primordial hydrogen would have escaped into space because of its weight. In nature, it is generally in water. Hydrogen is also in all living things, as a part of the organic compounds that living things are made of. In addition, hydrogen atoms can join with carbon atoms to form hydrocarbons. Petroleum and other fossil fuels are made of these hydrocarbons and commonly used to make energy.\nSome other facts about hydrogen:\nHistory of Hydrogen.\nBig Bang (or the creation of our universe).\nHydrogen is the simplest element in the universe, made of just one proton and one electron. It is also the most common element, and most of it was formed very early in the history of the universe. Scientists believe that hydrogen was created about three minutes after the Big Bang, when the universe had expanded and cooled enough for protons and neutrons to stick together without being torn apart by high-energy radiation. This moment is known as Big Bang nucleosynthesis.\nIn the first few seconds after the Big Bang, the universe was so hot that particles like quarks and gluons were free. As things cooled, these particles combined to form protons and neutrons. Because neutrons are less stable, there were fewer of them compared to protons, about one neutron for every six protons. When the universe cooled even more, protons and neutrons could join together to make heavier particles. The first step was forming deuterium, which is one proton plus one neutron. Before this, deuterium could not survive because the universe was still too hot. This stage is called the \u201cdeuterium bottleneck.\u201d\nOnce deuterium could survive, it allowed more nuclear reactions to happen. Most of the neutrons quickly got locked inside helium-4, a stable form of helium. Small amounts of helium-3, lithium-7, and beryllium-7 were also made. However, the majority of matter remained as hydrogen, mostly in the form of single protons. This meant that about 75% of the ordinary matter in the universe was hydrogen. At first, this hydrogen existed as plasma, with free protons and electrons spread everywhere.\nIt was not until about 380,000 years later that the universe cooled enough for electrons to join protons and form neutral hydrogen atoms. This event is called recombination. Once hydrogen atoms formed, light was able to travel freely through space, making the universe transparent. The leftover glow from this moment is called the cosmic microwave background, and scientists can still detect it today. Almost all hydrogen in the universe comes from this process, and its presence, along with small amounts of deuterium and helium, provides strong evidence that the Big Bang really happened.\nProduction of Hydrogen.\nStorage of hydrogen.\nHydrogen is being studied as a possible fuel of the future, but one of the hardest parts is figuring out how to store it safely and efficiently. Unlike gasoline or diesel, which are dense liquids, hydrogen is the lightest element in the universe. It exists as a gas made of two atoms (H\u2082). Because it is so light and has a very low density, storing enough hydrogen in a small space is very hard. It does not dissolve well in liquids either, which means you cannot just \u201cmix\u201d it into something like water or other solvents to store it. For example, at normal room temperature and pressure, only a tiny amount of hydrogen can dissolve in a liquid like diethyl ether. This is why scientists focus on other methods of storage, such as gas, liquid, or solid storage.\nOne common way to store hydrogen is by compressing it into high-pressure tanks. These tanks can hold hydrogen gas at pressures hundreds of times higher than normal air pressure. Cars that run on hydrogen often use this method. But there are problems. It takes a lot of energy to squeeze hydrogen into these tanks, the tanks themselves are heavy and expensive, and hydrogen is so tiny that it can leak out through materials. Another way is to cool hydrogen down until it becomes a liquid. This makes it much denser and easier to store, but hydrogen only becomes liquid at extremely cold temperatures, almost minus 240 \u00b0C. Keeping it that cold requires a lot of energy and special equipment, and liquid hydrogen tends to evaporate (called boil-off), wasting fuel.\nBecause of these problems, researchers have looked at \u201chydrogen carriers.\u201d These are substances that can absorb hydrogen, hold onto it, and then release it later when needed. One example is metal hydrides, where hydrogen atoms fit into the tiny spaces inside a metal\u2019s structure. This is useful in some ways, but most metals can only hold a small amount of hydrogen by weight, often just around 1%. Hydrogen can also damage metals, making them weaker in a process called embrittlement, which is a problem for pipes and storage containers.\nOther chemical carriers can hold more hydrogen. Ammonia borane, for instance, contains about 20% hydrogen by weight, which is much better. However, once it releases hydrogen, the leftovers can\u2019t easily take hydrogen back in, so the process is one-way and not very practical for long-term use. A more promising idea is using liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHCs). These are special liquids that can absorb hydrogen and then release it when needed, over and over again. The advantage is that they can be stored and transported using the same systems we already use for liquid fuels like gasoline, which makes them easier to fit into today\u2019s infrastructure.\nIn the end, storing hydrogen is still a big challenge. Compressing and cooling it works but costs a lot of energy. Metals can hold it safely but do not store much. Some chemicals can carry a lot of hydrogen but cannot be reused easily. LOHCs look like one of the better solutions, but they are still being developed. Until scientists find the best balance of safety, efficiency, and cost, hydrogen storage will remain one of the key obstacles in making hydrogen a major energy source for the world.\nUses of Hydrogen.\nThe most common uses are in the petroleum industry and in making ammonia by the Haber process. Some is used in other places in the chemical industry. A little of it is used as fuel, for example in rockets for spacecraft. Most of the hydrogen that people use comes from a chemical reaction between natural gas and steam.\nNuclear fusion.\nNuclear fusion is a very powerful source of energy. It depends on forcing atoms together to make helium and energy, as in a star like the Sun, or in a hydrogen bomb. This needs a large amount of energy to get started, and is not easy to do currently. A big advantage over nuclear fission, which is used in today's nuclear power stations, is that it makes less nuclear waste and does not use a poisonous and uncommon fuel like uranium. More than 600 million tons of hydrogen undergo fusion every second on the Sun.\nUsing hydrogen.\nHydrogen is mostly used in the petroleum industry, to change heavy petroleum parts into lighter, more useful ones. It is also used to make ammonia. Smaller amounts are burned as fuel. Most hydrogen is made by a reaction between natural gas and steam.\nThe electrolysis of water breaks water into hydrogen and oxygen, using electricity. Burning hydrogen joins with oxygen molecules to make steam (natural water vapor). A fuel cell joins hydrogen with an oxygen molecule, releasing an electron as electricity. For these reasons, many people believe hydrogen power will replace other synthetic fuels in the future.\nHydrogen can also be burned to make heat for steam turbines or internal combustion engines. Like other synthetic fuels, hydrogen can be made from natural fuels such as coal or natural gas, or from electricity, and therefore represents a valuable addition to the power grid; in the same role as natural gas. Such a grid and infrastructure with fuel cell vehicles is now planned by a number of countries, such as Japan, Korea and many European countries. This lets these countries buy less petroleum, which is an economic advantage. The other advantage is that, used in a fuel cell or burned in a combustion engine as in a hydrogen car, the engine does not make pollution. Only water, and a small amount of nitrogen oxides, forms."}
+{"id": "357", "revid": "1604578", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=357", "title": "Helium", "text": "Helium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol He, atomic number 2, and atomic weight of about 4.002602. There are 9 isotopes of helium, only two of which are stable. These are 3He and 4He. 4He is by far the most common isotope.\nHelium is called a noble gas, because it does not regularly mix with other chemicals and form new compounds. It has the lowest boiling point of all the elements. It is the second most common element in the universe, after hydrogen, and has no color or smell. However, helium has a red-orange glow when placed in an electric field. Helium does not usually react with anything else. Astronomers detected the presence of helium in 1868, when its spectrum was identified in light from the Sun. This was before its discovery on Earth.\nHelium is used to fill balloons and airships because its density is lighter than air. It does not burn, so is safe for that kind of use. It is also used in some kinds of light bulbs. People can breathe in helium: It makes their voices sound higher than it normally does. This may seem silly, but it can actually be quite dangerous as if they breathe in too much, hypoxia can injure or kill them as they are not breathing normal air. Breathing too much helium can also cause long-term effects to vocal cords.\nHelium is created through the process of nuclear fusion in the Sun, and in similar stars. During this process, four hydrogen atoms are fused together to form one helium atom. On Earth it is made by the natural radioactive decay of heavy radioactive elements like thorium and uranium, although there are other examples. The alpha particles emitted by such decays consist of helium-4 nuclei.\nHistory.\nHelium was discovered by the French astronomer Pierre Janssen on August 18, 1868, as a bright yellow line in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun. The line was thought to be sodium. On the same year, English astronomer, Norman Lockyer, also observed it and found that it was caused by a new element. Lockyer and English chemist Edward Frankland named the element helium, from the Greek word for the Sun, \u1f25\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2 (\"helios\").\nCharacteristics.\nHelium is the second least reactive noble gas after neon. It is the second least reactive of all elements. It is chemically inert and monatomic in all standard conditions. Helium is the least water-soluble monatomic gas.\nUses.\nHelium is used as a shielding gas in growing silicon and germanium crystals, in making titanium and zirconium, and in gas chromatography, because it is inert. Helium is used as a shielding gas in arc welding.\nHelium is mixed with oxygen and other gases for deep underwater diving because it does not cause nitrogen narcosis.\nHelium is also used to condense hydrogen and oxygen to make rocket fuel. It is used to remove the fuel and oxidizer from ground support equipment before the rocket launches. It is used to cool liquid hydrogen in space vehicles before the rocket launches.\nHelium is used as a heat-transfer medium in some nuclear reactors that are cooled down by gas. Helium is also used in some hard disk drives. Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics.\nSupply.\nHelium has become rare on Earth. If it gets free into the air it leaves the planet. Unlike hydrogen, which reacts with oxygen to form water, helium is not reactive. It stays as a gas. For many years after the 1925 Helium Act, the USA collected helium in a National Helium Reserve. American helium comes from wells in the Great Plains area. At present, more helium is supplied by Qatar than by the USA.\nSeveral research organisations have released statements on the scarcity and conservation of helium. These organisations released policy recommendations as early as 1995 and as late as 2016 urging the United States government to store and conserve helium because of the natural limits to the helium supply and the unique nature of the element. For researchers, helium is irreplaceable because it is essential for producing very low temperatures. Helium at low temperatures is used in cryogenics, and in certain cryogenics applications. Liquid helium is used to cool certain metals to the extremely low temperatures required for superconductivity, such as in superconducting magnets for magnetic resonance imaging."}
+{"id": "358", "revid": "863768", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=358", "title": "Home page", "text": "The home page of a website is the document that a web server sends to another computer's web browser application when it has been contacted without a request for specific information. That is, when one enters only a domain name in the Address box without specifying a directory or a file, the \"home page\" is usually the first part of the website one would be taken to. The Home Page is also called the Main Page. \nA properly written home page will tell a user about the information available on the website, and how to view different parts of the website.\nThe home page of \"simple.wikipedia.org\" can be found at this link.\nHome Page was a popular computer application used for composing web pages.\nIn Linux servers.\nIn Linux-based servers, the homepage is default.html, default.php, etc. This is a problem for website administrators to install website applications like MediaWiki. Mainly because most website applications are created with the homepage as index.php for PHP applications.\nIn Windows servers.\nSimilarly, in Windows-based servers, the homepage is default.html, default.php, etc."}
+{"id": "359", "revid": "487619", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=359", "title": "Hair", "text": " Hair is something that grows from the skin of mammals. Hair is made of keratins, which are proteins.\nAnimal hair is usually called fur. Sheep and goats have curly hair, called wool. Wool is used to make many products, like clothing and blankets. \nHumans and some other animals have lost much of their hair through evolution, and some other mammals, such as the elephant and the whale, have almost none at all.\nFunctions of hair.\nHair has different functions:\nFalse hair.\nSome animals, for example certain insects and spiders also have \"hairs\". However, these are not hair in the biological sense, but are actually bristles. The \"hairs\" found on certain plants are also not true hair, but trichomes.\nHuman hair.\nIn humans, hair grows mostly on the head, and the amount of body hair is different from person to person.\nDuring puberty, both men and women experience hair growth, all over their body, especially armpit and pubic hair. However, men develop thicker and more abundant body hair, and develop beards and mustaches, with hairier arms and legs, and they generally grow hair on their chest, abdomen (belly) and back. Women in comparison, have much finer hair with a less abundant distribution. \nHair color.\nHair color is passed down by parents only. Natural hair color can be given only by genes. Natural hair color is passed down genetically by both mother and father. This relies on dominant and recessive genes carried by a parent. These genes may not be the color of their hair, however, many people carry genes that are recessive and do not show in their traits or features.\nDyeing hair is to change the color of hair. It consists of a chemical mixture which can change the color of hair by a chemical reaction. Many people dye their hair to hide gray or white hairs. This is because most people gain white or gray hairs as they grow older.\nGenetics and chemistry.\nTwo types of melanin pigment give hair its color: \"eumelanin\" and \"pheomelanin\". Pheomelanin colors hair red. Eumelanin determines the darkness of the hair color. A low concentration of brown eumelanin results in blond hair, but more brown eumelanin will color the hair brown. High amounts of black eumelanin result in black hair, while low concentrations give gray hair. All humans have some pheomelanin in their hair.\nThe genetics of hair colors are not yet firmly established. According to one theory, at least two gene pairs control human hair color.\nOne phenotype (brown/blond) has a dominant brown allele and a recessive blond allele. A person with a brown allele will have brown hair; a person with no brown alleles will be blond. This explains why two brown-haired parents can produce a blond-haired child.\nThe other gene pair is a non-red/red pair, where the not-red allele is dominant and the allele for red hair is recessive. A person with two copies of the red-haired allele will have red hair, but it will be either auburn or bright reddish orange depending on whether the first gene pair gives brown or blond hair, respectively.\nThe two-gene model does not account for all possible shades of brown, blond, or red (for example, platinum blond versus dark blonde/light brown), nor does it explain why hair color sometimes darkens as a person ages. Several other gene pairs control the light versus dark hair color in a cumulative effect (quantitative genetics).\nHair texture.\nHair texture is also inherited genetically. The thickness of hair, its color and its tendency to curl are all inherited. There are also genetic differences between men and women.\nHair loss.\nPeople have in between 90,000 to 130,000 hairs on their head. About 100-150 fall out each day (depending on thickness of hair), but they usually grow back. Some men are bald but girls and women may become bald if they lose their hair from a disease called alopecia.\nMen often lose some of their hair as they grow older. This is known as \"baldness\". Doctors call it \"male pattern baldness\" because hairs often fall out in similar places. It often begins by hair falling out first from the front of the head, and then from the top of the head. After a while, all that may be left is a some hair running above the ears and around the lower back of the head. Even though it is unusual for women to go bald, many women suffer from thinning hair over the top of their head as they grow old.\nPeople have tried to find cures for hair loss for thousands of years. In an effort to get their hair back, men have tried \"cures\" like applying strange lotions or even having their heads packed in chicken manure. Many unproven \"cures\" are still marketed today. It is only in the last decade or so that treatments have been developed which do sometimes work. Some doctors do hair transplants, where they take tiny plugs of hair from areas like the back of the neck and plant them in the bald spots on the head. Some drugs have been tested and approved for sale as hair loss treatments. They encourage hair regrowth and thickening, but work better if applied before hair loss turns to baldness.\nHistory and culture.\n People have been interested in hair on their heads for hundreds of thousands of years. For both men and women, styling and coloring hair have been ways to look good, and get attention. Sometimes society makes rules about hair, for example by not allowing people to cut their hair or beards, like in Sikhism, Judaism and Islam "}
+{"id": "361", "revid": "1350832", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=361", "title": "Ireland", "text": "Ireland (; ; Ulster-Scots: ) is an island in the North Atlantic Ocean. It is about 486\u00a0kilometres (302\u00a0miles) long and about 288\u00a0kilometres (179\u00a0miles) wide. \nThe island is made up of two countries: the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland. Over 5 million people lived on the island in 2023.\nCountries.\nRepublic of Ireland.\nThe Republic of Ireland, a sovereign state, occupies 84% of the island. Its capital and largest city is Dublin. \nThe official languages of the Republic are Irish and English. However, only a small part of the population is fluent in Irish or speaks it as their native language. While the Irish language (also called Gaelic) is taught in most schools, most people speak English in their day-to-day lives.\nNorthern Ireland.\nNorthern Ireland makes up the remaining 17% of the island. It is located in the northeast, and is one of the four countries of the United Kingdom. Its capital and largest city is Belfast.\nDivision.\nFrom 1801 to 1921, the entire island of Ireland was one country, called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1919 the Irish War of Independence began, and on December 6, 1921, the Irish Free State became independent. \nAfter a new constitution came into effect in 1937, the state became a republic. Northern Ireland remained with the United KIngdom. This would lead to The Troubles, which began in the 1960s and ended with the Good Friday Agreement signed in 1998.\nProvinces and counties.\nIreland is traditionally divided into four provinces and thirty-two counties. Twenty-six counties are in the Republic, and six are in Northern Ireland. Three of the provinces are entirely within the Republic (Connacht, Leicester and Munster). One province (Ulster) has counties in both the Republic and in Northern Ireland.\nThe provinces and their counties are:\nMain cities.\nRepublic of Ireland.\nDublin is the largest city in the Republic. It was established as a Viking settlement in the 9th century. The population is 525,383 in Dublin City, and 1,270,603 in County Dublin.\nCork is the largest city in Munster. Corkonians often refer to it as 'the Real Capital'. Following a 2019 Cork boundary extension in 2019, the population increased to around 210,000.\nNorthern Ireland.\nBelfast is the capital of Northern Ireland. There are 483,000 people in the Greater Belfast urban area, and 267,000 in the city itself. Shipbuilding used to be a major industry here. The \"Titanic\" was built in Belfast at the Harland and Wolff shipyard.\nDerry (also called Londonderry) is the second largest city in Northern Ireland. Its population is 83,652. Derry is notable for the medieval city walls which still stand there. Because the walls have never been breached, the city is nicknamed \"The Maiden City\". In 2013 Derry was the UK Capital of Culture, and many cultural events took place throughout the year.\nThe city of Armagh is often called the 'Ecclesiastic Capital of Ireland' because it is the seat of both the Catholic Church and the (Protestant) Church of Ireland. The population is 14,590.\nHistory.\nPrehistory.\nDuring the last glacial period (the \"ice age\"), most of Ireland was covered with ice. After the glaciers melted, Ireland became covered with trees, and some trees started becoming bogs -- specifically, raised bogs. \nThe first people came to Ireland over 12,500 years ago, in the Palaeolithic period. They were semi-nomadic. If food ran out in the place they lived, they would move to another settlement. The first discovered settlement dates from at least 12,500 years ago.\nAbout 4000\u00a0BC, in the New Stone Age within the Neolithic period, the first farmers arrived in Ireland. These people cleared openings in the forest and built permanent settlements with houses and farmland. The clearing of these trees started creating another type of bog, called blanket bogs. \nWhen people in this age died, they were buried in tombs called megaliths. Many megaliths are still standing today, such as portal dolmens and passage tombs. The most famous megalith is Newgrange passage tomb in County Meath.\nBronze & Copper Ages.\nNew settlers came around 2000BC, marking the start of the Bronze Age. Copper was mined mainly in Mount Gabriel within County Cork, while tin was imported from Cornwall. The settlers used bronze to make weapons (like swords) and early forms of jewellery (like sun discs and torcs). They buried their dead in court tombs or wedge tombs, and burial places have been found with stone circles.\nCelts & the Iron Age.\nIt is unknown when the Celts came to Ireland, but it is likely they brought the use of iron with them. The use of iron marks the start of the Iron Age. \nBy about 300BC, the use of iron and Celtic culture was widespread in Ireland. The Celts lived in ring forts, hill forts, promontory forts and crann\u00f3gs. Historians think that only the richer families and settlements lived in crann\u00f3gs. These were man-made islands in the middle of lakes with houses on them.\nCeltic Ireland was split into around 150 kingdoms called tuath. The king was elected from the royal family. Below the king were the Nobles, and the Aos D\u00e1na, who were people with special skills, such as poets, Druids (priests), judges and craftsmen.\nChristianity.\nBy the early 6th century, Saint Patrick and other missionaries had converted most of Ireland to Christianity. Priests and monks replaced Druids. Monasteries soon were built, like Glendalough in County Wicklow. Glendalough and other monasteries built round towers to protect them when Vikings attacked. Small monasteries were also built in remote places, the most famous being Skellig Michael, off the coast of County Kerry.\nAt this time, many hand-written manuscripts were created by monks in monasteries. Surviving manuscripts include the Cathach, the Book of Durrow, and the Book of Kells. Monks also produced fine silver chalices, crosiers and brooches, and carved high crosses.\nAnglo-Normans.\nIn 1169, Anglo-Norman lords invaded Ireland. They were led by Strongbow, who landed at Passage East in County Waterford. The Anglo-Normans conquered many parts of Ireland in the following 60 years. They introduced their way of life to the Irish people. \nCastles were built to defend the land, like Trim Castle in County Meath. During the Middle Ages, Ireland's first proper towns were built.\nThe feudal system was soon introduced in Ireland as a means of organising land. By the 1550s and the 1650s, four plantations had taken place in Ireland.\nPartition.\nFrom 1801 until 1921, all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. In 1921 Northern Ireland was created and 'partitioned' from the south. Northern Ireland has stayed within the United Kingdom since then.\nIn 1921 the south became the Irish Free State. In 1937 the Irish Free State adopted a new constitution, which named the state 'Ireland'. In 1948 the State passed the Republic of Ireland Act, declaring itself a republic.\nMigration.\nMany Irish people have left Ireland and moved to the United States, Canada, Australia, and South America. The Great Famine (which lasted from 1845 to 1849) killed up to a million Irish people by starvation and forced a million more to emigrate in order to survive.\nFrom a maximum of over 8 million in 1841, the total Irish population dropped to just over 4 million in the 1940s. Since then, it has increased to over 6 million. This population increase has been supported by the economic growth of the \"Celtic Tiger\" and (since 2004) immigration from countries in Eastern Europe like Poland.\nToday almost 80 million people around the world are descended from Irish immigants.\nClimate.\nIreland has an oceanic climate. \nThe highest temperature ever recorded in Ireland was , on 16 July 1876 in Dublin.\nSports.\nIreland's main sports are soccer and Gaelic Games (mainly Gaelic football, hurling, and camogie). Other sports that are \nplayed and followed in Ireland include horse racing, show jumping, greyhound racing, basketball, fishing, handball, motorsport, mixed martial arts, boxing, target shooting, and tennis. \nHockey, golf, rowing, cricket, rugby union, and Olympic target shooting are organised on an all-island basis, with a single team representing the whole of Ireland in international competitions. Other sports, such as soccer and netball, have separate organizing bodies in Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland.\nAs Northern Ireland is a constituent nation of the United Kingdom it also sends a Northern Ireland Team to the Commonwealth Games. At the Olympic Games, a person from Northern Ireland can choose to represent either Ireland or Great Britain.\nSoccer is the most popular team sport in terms of participation. According to the Irish Sports Monitor 2015 annual report, 4.8% of adults over 15 participate in Soccer. Gaelic football 2%, camogie 1.2, rugby 1.1%. Individual exercise pursuits are most popular with 43% of all sport participated by individuals on their own. Personal exercise 13.7%, running 8.2%, swimming 8%, cycling 5.5%, dancing 3%, golf 2.7%, weights 2.3%, yoga 1.5% and pilates 1.4%.\nSoccer is by far the most popular team pursuit for males at 8.8% with Gaelic football attracting 3.4%. Personal exercise 13.4% and running 8.9% are the most popular male activities. Team sports do not figure highly amongst females with dancing at 4.6% and yoga 2.4% are two of the highest shared activities.\nGiven the variety of sports in Ireland, it is of interest to note how the government's Capital Sports programme 2017 allocated it's \u20ac56 million funds. \u20ac23.5 million went to the GAA which highlights the strength of the GAA lobby. \u20ac7.25 million to soccer, Rugby \u20ac3.1 million, tennis \u20ac2.64 million, golf \u20ac1.97 million, sailing \u20ac1.21 million, athletics just under \u20ac1 million, diving \u20ac451,000 while other sports did not fare so well.\nGaelic Football is one of the most popular sports in Ireland in terms of match attendance, and in 2003 had 34% of total sports attendances at events in the Republic of Ireland, followed by hurling at 23%, soccer at 16% and rugby at 8%. Initiative's ViewerTrack study, which measured 2005 sports audiences, showed the sport's highest-profile match, the All-Ireland Football Final, to be the most watched event of the nation's sporting year. Soccer is the most played team sport in Ireland."}
+{"id": "362", "revid": "1662512", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=362", "title": "Internet", "text": "The Internet is the world\u2019s largest global communication network for computers and other devices.\nIt connects many smaller networks from homes, schools, businesses, and governments. These networks share different kinds of information. The short form of the Internet is \u201cthe Net.\u201d One of its most popular services is the World Wide Web, which is used by billions of people every day.\nThe Internet was developed in the United States by the Department of Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA). The Internet was first connected in October 1969 and was called ARPANET. The World Wide Web was created at CERN in Switzerland in 1990 by a British (UK) scientist named Tim Berners-Lee.\nToday, people use Internet services by paying Internet service providers (ISPs).\nSome websites and tools are free, while others may show ads to earn money. There are also ongoing debates about censorship and freedom of speech on the Internet.\nServices.\nThe Internet is used for many things, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer and other documents of the World Wide Web.\nThe most used service on the Internet is the World Wide Web (which is also called the \"Web\" or \u201cwww\u201d). The web contains websites, including social media, blogs, and wikis like Wikipedia. Webpages on the Internet can be seen and read by anyone (unless the page needs a password, or it is blocked).\nThe second biggest use of the Internet is to send and receive e-mail. E-mail is private and goes from one user to another. Instant messaging is similar to email, but allows two or more people to chat to each other faster.\nSome governments think the internet is a bad thing, and block all or part of it. For example, the Chinese government thinks that Wikipedia is bad, so often no one in China can read it or add to it. Another example of the internet being blocked is in North Korea. Some parents and schools block parts of the Internet they think are bad for children to see.\nDangers.\nThe Internet makes communication easy. Yet, communication can be dangerous, too. People often send secret information, and sometimes other people can steal that information. They can use the Internet to spread lies, steal secrets, or give dangerously bad advice. For example, Facebook has had some problems with privacy settings.\nOutline and overview.\nThe Internet is a worldwide network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It is a \"network of networks\" that has millions of interconnected smaller domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer, and the interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web. The general public are allowed to use the internet, in almost all countries.\nInternet has these features,\nInternet communication technology:\nInternet infrastructure:\nInternet communication protocols:\nInternet protocol suite \u2013\nLink layer \u2013\nInternet layer \u2013\nTransport layer \u2013\nApplication layer \u2013"}
+{"id": "363", "revid": "1692097", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=363", "title": "Italy", "text": "Italy ( ]) is a country in Southern Europe with small island territories in North Africa. It is a founding member of the European Union and a member of the G7, as it has the eighth largest gross domestic product in the world. Italy's official name is the Italian Republic (). The Italian flag is green, white and red. Italy is a democratic republic. In 2025 Italy's president is Sergio Mattarella. Its prime minister is Giorgia Meloni. \nItaly has become famous for Italian food and wine. Some foods are different between regions. Famous dishes include various types of pasta, pizza, and grapes. Olives are also often used.\nBefore Italian unification in 1861, Italy was made up of smaller kingdoms and city-states.\nThe country's capital, Rome, is one of the most famous cities in the world. It was the capital of the Roman Empire. Other famous cities in Italy include Venice, Naples, Turin, Genoa, Florence, Palermo, and Milan.\nGeography.\nItaly is a peninsula. It is surrounded by the sea on all of its sides except its north side. Northern Italy is separated from France, Switzerland, and Austria by the Alps, a chain of mountains. Mont Blanc (\"Monte Bianco\" in Italian or \"white mountain\" in English), the highest mountain in Western Europe, is in this chain. The second important chain of mountains in Italy is the Apennines (), which are in central and southern Italy.\nThe Po River is the longest river in Italy. It flows through 5 cities: Turin, Piacenza, Cremona, and Ferrara. The Tiber River runs through the city of Rome.\nNorthern Italy has some of the biggest lakes in the country, such as Lake Garda, Lake Como, Lake Maggiore and Lake Iseo. Because it is surrounded by the sea, Italy has a very long coast, which brings tourists from all over the world. Tourists also come to see Italy's historical places.\nThe country has a number of islands, the biggest of which are Sicily and Sardinia, which can be reached by ship or aircraft. Italy has a border at sea with Libya to the south.\nPolitical geography.\nThe capital of Italy is Rome. This is where the Roman Empire started. Other large cities in Italy include Milan, Naples, Turin, Florence, Palermo, and Venice.\nTwo enclaves (separate countries) are located within Italy. They are San Marino, which is surrounded by Northern Italy, and the Vatican City, which is surrounded by the city of Rome. Vatican City is also the only enclave in the world to also be surrounded by a city.\nClimate.\nItaly has both an oceanic climate and continental climate. \nThe highest temperature ever recorded in Italy was on 25 June 2007 in Foggia. \nThe lowest temperature ever recorded in Italy was on 10 February 2013 at Pale di San Martino \nPeople and culture.\nPeople from Italy are called Italians. Even if an Italian were to leave Italy, it is possible that their descendants could also claim Italian citizenship. This is because of Italian nationality law relying mostly on \"ius sanguinis,\" or \"right of blood\" in Latin. Almost all Italians are Christians. Most of these are Roman Catholics. Roman Catholicism is based in the Vatican City, which is home to its leader, the Pope.\nThe population of Italy is about 60 million people. Almost 3 million of them live in Rome, and 1.5 million in Milan. As of December 2015, over 5 million foreigners were living in Italy, which is 8.3% of the total population.\nThe official language of Italy is Italian. German, Slovenian, French, and a few others are also recognized. People also speak dialects of Italian such as Sicilian and Sardinian. There are many different dialects spoken in Italy. They vary between regions and sometimes between provinces.\nThe people of Italy are mostly descendant from the ancient Romans.\nItaly is home to more World Heritage Sites than any other country in the world. These sites are culturally important and valued according to UNESCO. About 60% of the works of art of the world are in Italy. Italy is also a big wine producer. In 2005, it made over 5 million tonnes of wine.\nLinguistic minorities in Italy include Sardu-speakers 1 million, Tyrolese German-speakers 350,000, Albanians 70,000 \u2013 100,000, Slovenes 60,000, Franco-Proven\u00e7al-speakers 50,000 \u2013 70,000, Occitans 20,000 \u2013 40,000, Ladins 30,000, Catalans 15,000, Greek-speakers 12,000 and Croatians 3,000, as well as Friulians 600,000. The Roma community in Italy is one of the largest ethnic minorities in the country. Italy has a growing immigrant population. This foreign population includes Romanians 1,190,100, Albanians 440,500, Moroccans 416,500, Ukrainians 237,000, Chinese 290,700, Filipinos 167,900 and Indians 151,800.\nFood.\nA partial list of famous Italian foods include pasta, pizza, risotto, polenta, gelato and gnocchi. \nArt.\nMany notable artists were from Italy. They include:\nEconomy.\nItaly has a modern social welfare system. The labor market is very strong. Many foreigners, especially from Romania, work in Italy where the wages are much higher.\nItaly's modern society has been built up through loans. Now the country has a very high debt of 1.9 trillion euros or 120% of the country's total GDP. \nReligion.\nMost people in Italy are Roman Catholics, but the Catholic Church is no longer officially the state religion. Around 50% of the people said they were Roman Catholic.\nOnly about a third said they were active members (40%). There are also other Christian groups in Italy, with more than 700,000 Eastern Orthodox Christians. 180,000 of them belong to the Greek Orthodox Church.\n550,000 are Pentecostals and Evangelicals (0.8%). 235,685 Jehovah's Witnesses (0.4%), 30,000 Waldensians, 25,000 Seventh-day Adventists, 22,000 Mormons, 20,000 Baptists, 7,000 Lutherans, 4,000 Methodists.\nThe country's oldest religious minority is the Jewish community. It has about 45,000 people. It is no longer the largest non-Christian group. There are also about 50,000 Buddhists 70,000 Muslims and 70,000 Hindus in Italy.\nRegions.\nItaly has 20 regions (). Every region is divided into provinces.\nThere are 20 regions. Five of them have a special status, called \"autonomous\". This means that they can make certain local laws more easily. These regions are marked with an asterisk (*) below. \nPolitics.\nThe head of state is Sergio Mattarella. He became President of the Italian Republic in February 2015. The first president was Enrico De Nicola.\nThe head of government is Giorgia Meloni. She became Prime Minister on October 22, 2022, the first woman in that role. She succeeded Mario Draghi. Draghi's cabinet, fell after support for his coalition fell.\nItaly was one of the first members of the European Union. In 2002 along with 11 other European countries, it changed to using the euro as its official currency. Before this, the Italian lira had been used since 1861.\nAnyone who wants to be President of Italy must have Italian citizenship, be at least 50 years old, and must be able to uphold political and civil rights.\nHistory.\nThe capital of Italy is Rome, a city that was founded in 753 BC. The Roman Kingdom, Roman Republic and Roman Empire in a series of wars conquered various neighbors, including the Etruscan civilization in the north and the states in the south known as Magna Graecia.\nBefore 1861, Italy was not a state. The area included a group of separate states that were ruled by other countries (such as Austria, France, and Spain). In the 1850s, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour was the head of government of the \"State of Sardinia.\" He told the Austrians in Lombardy and Veneto that they should fight to create a state in Northern Italy. This happened, but other Central and Southern Italian states also joined Piedmont to create a bigger state.\nKingdom of Italy.\nIn 1860, Giuseppe Garibaldi took control of Sicily, creating the Kingdom of Italy in 1861. Victor Emmanuel II was made the king. In 1861, Latium and Veneto were still not part of Italy, because they were ruled by the Pope and Austrian Empire.\nVeneto was made part of Italy in 1866 after a war with Austria. Italian soldiers won Latium in 1870 and they took away the Pope's power. The Pope, who was angry, said that he was a prisoner to keep Catholic people from being active in politics. That year, Italian unification was mostly complete.\nItaly participated in World War I as an ally of the United Kingdom, France, and Russia against the Central Powers. Almost all of Italy's fighting was on the eastern border, near Austria. After the defeat at the Battle of Caporetto, Italy could have lost the war to Austria-Hungary, but in 1918, the Central Powers surrendered. Italy gained the Trentino and South Tyrol, which had been part of Austria.\nFascist Italy.\nIn 1922, a new Italian government started that was ruled by Benito Mussolini, the leader of fascism in Italy. He became head of government and dictator, calling himself \"Il Duce\" (which means \"leader\" in Italian). He became friends with the German dictator, Adolf Hitler. Germany, Japan, and Italy entered the Axis powers. In 1940, they entered World War II together against France, the United Kingdom, and later the Soviet Union. During the war, Italy controlled most of the Mediterranean Sea.\nOn July 25, 1943, Mussolini was removed by the Great Council of Fascism. On September 8, 1943, Badoglio said that the war as an ally of Germany was ended. Italy started fighting as an ally of France and the United Kingdom, but Italian soldiers did not know whom to shoot. In Northern Italy, The Italian resistance movement started to fight against the German invaders. On April 25, 1945, much of Italy had become free, while Mussolini ruled a small Northern Italian fascist state that was a German puppet state, called the Republic of Sal\u00f2. The fascist state failed, and Mussolini tried to flee to Switzerland and escape to Francoist Spain, but he was captured by Italian partisans. On 28 April 1945, Mussolini was executed by a partisan.\nPostwar.\nThe state became a on June 2, 1946. For the first time, women were allowed to vote. The Italian people ended the monarchy and adopted a republican form of government.\nIn February of 1947, Italy signed a peace treaty with the Allies. Italy lost all of its colonies and some territorial areas (Istria and parts of Dalmatia).\nItaly joined NATO and the European Economic Community, both as a founding member. The country has one of the seven largest industrial economies in the world.\nTransportation.\nThe railway network in Italy totals , the 17th longest in the world. High speed trains include -class trains, which travel at speeds of up to ."}
+{"id": "364", "revid": "1678721", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=364", "title": "If", "text": "If is a word to describe a statement where one thing depends on something else. \nFor example:\nIf is also a poem written by Rudyard Kipling. It appeared in the \"Brother Square Toes\" chapter of Kipling's book \"Rewards and Fairies\". In a 1995 BBC opinion poll, it was voted Britain's favourite poem. It is arguably Kipling's most famous poem."}
+{"id": "366", "revid": "183510", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=366", "title": "Immigrants", "text": ""}
+{"id": "367", "revid": "10232320", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=367", "title": "Island", "text": "An island is a piece of land that is surrounded by a body of water such as a lake, river, sea or ocean. Islands are smaller than continents. Although there are many Islands that are surrounded by fresh water, the vast majority of them are surrounded by oceans.\nGreenland and Australia are huge islands, but they are built of continental rock, and the latter is generally considered a continent. The most ancient part of continental rock is far older and chemically more complex than the rock of the sea floor. \nThe heart of continents is their cratons, which are the most ancient and stable parts of the Earth's crust. In the cratons are all the rare elements needed for electronic equipment. They were swept up as the Sun moved through areas where supernovae had exploded. The rare elements we need were all got indirectly from supernovae explosions. The Sun's energy comes from turning hydrogen into helium.\nThere are some islands which do have rare elements, and that is a sign that they were once part of a large supercontinent. So Great Britain was once part of a supercontinent. The oldest rocks are 2,700 million years old, and include many rare elements only found in cratons. Britain is a snapped-off piece of the \"Old Red Sandstone continent\", now known as Laurasia.\nOther islands that were formed from the ocean floor, as Japan, and Hawaii were, lack most of the rare elements. Japan has for many years since WWII imported iron ore from Australia. Its seizing of Manchukuo (~Manchuria) and the infamous attack on Pearl Harbour no doubt had many reasons. Lack of raw materials was one of these Now it looks for potential in its nearby deep-sea muds."}
+{"id": "368", "revid": "145452", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=368", "title": "Immigrant", "text": ""}
+{"id": "370", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=370", "title": "Interim", "text": "An interim is a period of temporary pause or change in a sequence of events, or a temporary state, and is often applied to transitional political entities.\nInterim may also refer to:"}
+{"id": "371", "revid": "196884", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=371", "title": "Idiom", "text": "An idiom is a common phrase which means something different from its literal meaning but can be understood because of their popular use.\nIdioms are difficult for someone not good at speaking the language. Some idioms are only used by some groups of people or at certain times. The idiom \"shape up or ship out\", which is like saying \"improve your behavior or leave if you don't\", might be said by an employer or supervisor to an employee, but not to other people.\nIdioms are not the same thing as slang. Idioms are made of normal words that have a special meaning known to almost everyone. Slang is usually special words, or special meanings of normal words that are known only to a particular group of people.\nTo learn a language a person needs to learn the words in that language, and how and when to use them. But people also need to learn idioms separately because certain words together or at certain times can have different meanings. In order to understand an idiom, one sometimes needs to know the culture from which the idiom comes.\nTo know the history of an idiom can be useful and interesting. For example, most native British English speakers know that \"No room to swing a cat\" means \"there was not much space\" and can use the idiom properly. However, few know this is because 200 years ago sailors were punished by being whipped with a \"cat o' nine tails\". A big space was cleared on the ship so that the person doing the whipping had room to \"swing the cat\".\nAn idiom is a phrase whose meaning cannot be understood from the dictionary definitions of each word taken separately. The linguist's term for the real meaning of an idiom is the subtext.\nDefinition.\nIdioms are phrases or expressions that have a figurative meaning different from their literal interpretation. They are commonly used in everyday language to convey a specific idea, often with cultural or historical significance. Idioms are not meant to be taken literally, and their meaning can be understood only by familiarizing oneself with their usage and context.\nSome common idioms.\nLess common idioms include:\nIdioms which have unclear meaning.\nArticles by Oxfam and the BBC have said that many idioms in English are unclear, or ambiguous. Many are understood differently in different countries. Many of the examples are taken from face-to-face talk, but may also apply in written reports.\nExamples.\nVocables are sounds that are not proper words, but mean something, and are often ambiguous. One is a long drawn-out sound \"hmmmmmm\".\nOne suggestion is that these idioms are used to smooth over difficult areas in social interaction. They cover passive-aggressive statements which might cause more conflict if openly expressed."}
+{"id": "373", "revid": "1044401", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=373", "title": "IELTS", "text": "The International English Language Testing System (IELTS) tests how fluent you are in the English language. People who take the test take the Academic Module or the General Training Module. The academic one is for people who want to go to university. The general one is for people who want to do other training or want to get work experience. People who want to emigrate to a country that uses English also take the general one.\nMost universities in Australia, Britain, Canada, New Zealand and the United States accept the IELTS. Many professional companies do as well."}
+{"id": "374", "revid": "11132", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=374", "title": "International English Language Testing System", "text": ""}
+{"id": "378", "revid": "1276104", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=378", "title": "Ink", "text": "Ink is a liquid that is used to write, draw, print, or make marks. The word ink is from Latin and means \"colored water\". Ink is used in pens, in some computer printers, and in printing presses. In some countries, people write by using ink and brushes. People usually write or print using black ink, but ink can be any color. The first ink was used in Egypt about 2600 BC.\nThe first inks were carbon inks, made from soot, which is 80% carbon, water and gum arabic. Red ink would need iron oxide (such as haematite) from ground rocks instead of soot. Later, in Europe, people used iron gall ink. This is the kind of ink Johann Sebastian Bach and Leonardo da Vinci used. Now ink colours are produced by man-made dyes.\nA disadvantage of many kinds of ink is that they may smudge when wet, spoiling the picture or writing. If water-based ink is used, the writing situation needs to be stable, with the writer seated at a table. Ink in a ballpoint pen (biro) is a kind of gel. It is held in a thin long cylinder (tube) inside the pen. The ink does not fall out of the cylinder as it sticks to the sides of the tube. Therefore, ballpoint pens can be used in a wider range of circumstances compared to water-based inks."}
+{"id": "381", "revid": "1692044", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=381", "title": "Inch", "text": "The inch is a unit of length in the Imperial system and the United States customary system. The abbreviation for inches is in or \". There are 12\u00a0inches in a foot. One inch is equal to 2.54\u00a0centimetres.\nThe word \"inch\" came from Middle English \"unche\", which came from Old English \"ynce\", from Latin \"uncia\" meaning \"a twelfth part\".\nAn inch (symbol: in or \u2033) is a fundamental unit of length in the imperial and United States customary measurement systems. While most of the world has adopted the metric system, inches remain the standard for many applications in the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom.\nHistory.\nThe inch was originally defined as 3 barleycorns. The inch was finally standardised in the International Yard and Pound Treaty in 1959 between the United States, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. The international yard was made equal to 0.9144 metres. From this, subdivisions and multiples of the yard were specifically defined.\nUsage.\nIn Britain and the United States, people use inches more than they use millimetres or centimetres. In the rest of the world, international units are almost always used. The inch is not used by scientists.\nIn the United Kingdom, road signs that show how high a vehicle can be in order to pass through a tunnel are required to be in feet and inches. Theme parks and drive thru signs usually show it in metres. People regularly measure their height in feet and inches. Official medical records, however, are required to record people's height in metric measurements only.\nIn Canada, a mix of centimetres and inches are used in height. Older generations, especially, use Imperial units. A lot of exposure to Americanized phrases leads to younger generations often having a good understanding of both the Imperial and metric systems.\nIn the United States, height is always in feet and inches. Science is the only field to use metric measurements.\nOther Commonwealth countries, including Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and Jamaica use inches to varying degrees. From every day use to exclusively the older community."}
+{"id": "382", "revid": "4619", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=382", "title": "Imperial Gallon", "text": ""}
+{"id": "383", "revid": "114482", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=383", "title": "Imperial Cup", "text": ""}
+{"id": "384", "revid": "373511", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=384", "title": "Pint", "text": "The pint (abbreviated pt) is a unit of volume in imperial units and United States customary units. There are three types of pints used in different countries. An imperial pint and US pint both equal of a quart and of a gallon.\nAn imperial fluid ounce is approximately 4% smaller than a US fluid ounce although an imperial pint has 4 more fluid ounces than a US pint, making an imperial pint approximately 20% larger than a US pint.\nImperial Pint.\nThe imperial pint is the pint used in England, Canada, Ireland, and Burma. The unit may appear in other Commonwealth. Confusion in Canada often arises as liquids are occasionally sold in U.S. pints, near the border, although the official and only pint that is legal in Canada is the imperial pint. The imperial system has no dry pint and volume in dry units, since solid objects are measured by mass. 1 imperial pint equals 568,261.25\u00a0mm3.\nAn imperial fluid ounce is approximately 4% smaller than a US fluid ounce although an imperial pint has 4 more fluid ounces than a US pint, making an imperial pint approximately 20% larger than a US pint.\nUS Wet Pint.\nThe US wet pint, or more commonly 'pint', is the unit used to measure volume in the United States. It is more common than the dry pint which is used for non-liquid volume measurements. 1 US pint is exactly equal to 473,176.473\u00a0mm3, defined by the international yard and pound agreement.\nUS Dry Pint.\nThe US dry pint was a unit used for measuring the volume of solid objects instead of mass or quantity."}
+{"id": "385", "revid": "1719", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=385", "title": "Ingenuity", "text": ""}
+{"id": "387", "revid": "966595", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=387", "title": "Italian", "text": "The word Italian may mean:"}
+{"id": "388", "revid": "1495229", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=388", "title": "Italians", "text": "Italians ( ) are a Romance ethnic group native to the Italian peninsula. Italians have a common culture, history, ancestry and language."}
+{"id": "390", "revid": "40117", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=390", "title": "ISO 19011", "text": "ISO 19011 is the new global accounting standard, replacing accounting standards that were part of ISO 14001 and ISO 9001. It is the most likely basis for accounting reform which could put an end to accounting scandals.\nThe standard offers four resources to organizations to \"save time, effort and money\":"}
+{"id": "391", "revid": "1688167", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=391", "title": "India", "text": " \nIndia ( ) officially the Republic of India, also known as Hindust\u0101n, is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area. It is also the most populated country in the world. It has been the world's largest democracy by number of people since 1947.\nIndia is a peninsular country. It has the Indian Ocean to the west, the Arabian Sea in the southwest, the Bay of Bengal in the southeast, and the Himalayas up north. It has six neighbours: Pakistan in the northwest; China, Nepal and Bhutan in the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar in the east. Sri Lanka and the Maldives are nearby to the south. Its Andaman and Nicobar Islands share water borders with Indonesia, Myanmar and Thailand.\nHumans came to the Indian subcontinent from Africa more than 55,000 years ago. They have lived there for long time. At first, they had lived in the subcontinent as hunter-gatherers. The Indian subcontinent is the second most diverse region after Africa. Humans began to create settlements in the subcontinent 9,000 years ago, on the western banks of the Indus River. The settlements became parts of the Indus Valley Civilisation in the third millennium BCE. By 1200 BCE, Sanskrit, an Indo-European language, spread to India from the northwest. The first presence of Sanskrit is found in the hymns (songs of worship) of the \"Rigveda\". The hymns were spread from one person to another orally, not by any book. They show the early forms of Hinduism. The Indo-Aryan languages replaced the Dravidian languages in the northern and western regions of India. By 400 BCE, the caste system was developed within Hinduism. Buddhism and Jainism were also developed in India at the same time.\nIndia has been a federal republic since 1950. Its government is a democratic parliamentary system. It is a multilingual (multiple languages) and multicultural (multiple cultures) society. The capital city of India is New Delhi. India has the second largest military force in the world and is also a nuclear weapon state. India's economy became the world's fastest growing in the G20 developing nations during 2014, replacing the People's Republic of China. India's literacy and wealth are also rising.\nIndia has the fourth largest economy by nominal GDP, the third largest by GDP (PPP) and is one of the fastest growing major economy. According to New World Wealth, India is the fifth richest country in the world with a total individual wealth of $12.6\u00a0trillion. However, it still has many social and economic issues, for example poverty, pollution, social equality, religious extremism, terrorism and corruption. India has reduced its rate of poverty but its economic inequality has increased. \nIndia is a founding member of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), and has signed the Kyoto Protocol. It is also a member of the G20 developing nations. India has its own space agency (ISRO). It has done much research throughout the Solar System. It has sent spacecraft to the Moon and Mars. Indian movies, music and spiritual teachings are becoming more important in global culture. Sources describe it as a potential superpower, because of its rising economy and increase in global influence. India is a country with nuclear weapons. It also has a high rank in military expenditure. It has disputes over Kashmir with its neighbours, Pakistan and China, since the middle of the 20th century. \nIndia has the fourth largest number of spoken languages per country in the world, only behind Papua New Guinea, Indonesia, and Nigeria. Most of Indians follow Hinduism at 80%, but people of different religions such as Buddhism, Sikhism and Islam also live there.\nOrigin of the name.\nThe \"Oxford English Dictionary\" (third edition - 2009) says that the name \"India\" comes from the Classical Latin name \"India\". It was originally used for the Indian subcontinent and the areas to its east. Latin took the name from Hellenistic Greek \"India\" (\"\u1f38\u03bd\u03b4\u03af\u03b1\"), from ancient Greek \"Indos\" (\"\u1f38\u03bd\u03b4\u03cc\u03c2\") and then from Old Persian \"Hindu\u0161\". The Old Persian name was used for the eastern province of the Achaemenid Empire. The name has a relation with the Sanskrit word \"sindhu\". It means \"river\", especially the Indus River. The ancient Greeks called Indians as \"Indoi\" (\"\"), which means \"the people of the Indus\".\nThe name \"Bh\u0101rat\" (; ) is found in both Indian epic poetry and the Constitution of India. It is used in different Indian languages in different forms. \"Bh\u0101rat\" is a modern form of the older name \"Bhar\u0101tavar\u1e63a\" (). It original meaning was the northern part of India. It has become a very popular name for India since the middle of the 19th century.\n\"Hindust\u0101n\" () is a Middle Persian name for India. It became popular by the 13th century. It is used widely since the Mughal Empire.\nHistory.\nAncient India.\nIn 300 BCE, a king named Chandragupt Maurya built the Maurya Empire and under Ashoka united most of the Indian subcontinent under a centralized state.\nOne of the oldest languages in the world, Tamil, developed in South India more than 3000 years ago. \nIndian Empires & dynasties.\nThe Gupta Empire managed to unify large parts of the Indian subcontinent.The Gupta period is traditionally considered India's Golden age as there were great developments in culture, religion and Mathematics. \nThere were also many other Indian dynasties (empires) such as the Chalukyas, Cholas, Pallavas, and Pandyas. Southern India at that time was famous for its science, art, and writing. \nThe Cholas of Thanjavur were pioneers at war in the seas and influenced Malaya, Borneo, Cambodia. The influence of Cholas are still noticeable in Southeast Asia.\nThe Vijayanagara empire was another significant Indian empire. \nIn the 16th century India came under Mughal rule. The Taj Mahal was built during the Mughal period. \nAs Mughal rule weakened other empires like the Maratha empire and Sikh empire replaced it. \nBritish Raj.\nIn the 1600s, India came under European colonization, and by 1856 the British controlled most of India.\nBritish Colonial exploitation resulted in the deaths of millions of Indians due to starvation and famine. The British also introduced railways and banned Widow burning.\nIn the early 1900s, millions of people peacefully started to protest against British rule. One of the people who led the freedom movement was Mahatma Gandhi, who only used peaceful tactics, including a way called \"ahimsa\", which means \"non-violence\". \nOn 15 August 1947, India peacefully became free and independent from the British Empire. India's constitution was founded on 26 January 1950. Every year, on this day, Indians celebrate Republic Day. The first official leader (Prime Minister) of India was Jawaharlal Nehru.\nAfter independence.\nAfter 1947, India had a socialist planned economy. It is one of the founding members of the Non-Aligned Movement and the United Nations. It has fought many wars since independence from Britain, including wars in 1947-48, 1965, 1971, and 1999 with Pakistan and in 1962 with China. India also fought a war to capture Goa, a Portuguese-built port and a city that was not a part of India until 1961. The Portuguese refused to give it to India, so India used force and defeated the Portuguese. \nIndia\u2019s early general elections saw the Congress Party, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, dominate until his death in 1964. Lal Bahadur Shastri briefly took over, followed by Indira Gandhi, who won elections in 1967 and 1971. After declaring a state of emergency in 1975, public dissatisfaction led to the Congress losing power in 1977, with the Janata Party taking over. However, this government lasted only about two years, with Morarji Desai and Charan Singh serving as prime ministers. \nCongress returned to power in 1980, and after Indira Gandhi\u2019s assassination in 1984, her son Rajiv Gandhi won a landslide election. The party lost again in 1989, with a short-lived National Front coalition government under V.P. Singh and Chandra Shekhar. By 1991, no party secured a majority, but Congress formed a minority government led by P.V. Narasimha Rao.\nIndia performed nuclear tests in 1974 and 1998. It is one of the few countries that have nuclear bombs. \nSince 1991, India has been one of the fastest-growing economies in the world.\nGeography.\nIndia is the seventh biggest country in the world by land. It is the main part of the Indian subcontinent. The countries next to India are Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, China, Bhutan and Nepal. It is also near Sri Lanka and the Maldives, two island countries. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands, a union territory of India, is near Thailand, Indonesia and Myanmar.\nTerrain.\nThere are many mountains in the northern part of India. The most famous mountain range there is the Himalayas, which have some of the tallest mountains in the world. \nThere are many rivers in India. The main rivers are the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, the Yamuna, the Godavari, the Kaveri, the Narmada, and the Krishna.\nCoastline.\nIndia is a peninsula, which means that it is surrounded on three sides by water. In the west is the Arabian Sea, in the south is the Indian Ocean, and in the east is the Bay of Bengal.\nIndia's total coastline is long. The mainland's coastline is long. The Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep islands have long coastlines in total. \nBased on Indian naval hydrographic charts, 43% of the mainland coast are sandy beaches, 11% are rocky shores and cliffs, and 46% are mudflats or marshy shores.\nClimates.\nIndia has different climates. In South India, the climate is mainly tropical, which means it can get very hot in summer and cool in winter. The northern part, though, has a cooler climate, called subtropical. The mountainous regions can be alpine. The Himalayas, in the alpine climate region, can get extremely cold. \nThe Himalayas block cold Central Asian winds from blowing into the Indian subcontinent. It keeps the most of the subcontinent warmer than most places at same latitudes. \nThere is very heavy rainfall along the west coast and in the Eastern Himalayan foothills. The west, though, is drier. \nMonsoon.\nBecause of some of India's deserts, the entire country gets rain for four months of the year. That time (usually around June to September) is called the monsoon. It happens because the deserts attract water-filled winds from the Indian Ocean, which give rain when they come into India. \nWhen the monsoon rains come late or not so heavily, droughts (when the land dries out because there is less rain) are possible.\nPolitics.\nIndia is a parliamentary republic with a multi-party system. It is the largest democracy in the world by the number of people. It has sixnational parties, for example the Indian National Congress (INC) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). It also has more than 50regional parties. The Congress is known as centre in Indian political culture, while the BJP is known as right-wing. The Congress was the majority in the Parliament from 1950 to the end of the 1980s. From the end of the 1980s, the BJP and the powerful regional parties are getting more seats in the Parliament over time. This forced the national parties to create coalition governments.\nGovernment.\nIndia is ruled under the Constitution of India. It is the country's highest document of law. It came into effect on 26 January 1950. Its original form said that India would be a \"sovereign, democratic republic\". In 1971, the statement was changed to \"sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic\". \nIndia has been said to be a \"quasi-federal\" form of government. That means a strong federal government with weak state governments. The federal government is often called the \"union government\" or the \"central government\" but after political, economic and social changes at the end of the 1990s, the government became federal.\nBranches of government.\nThe union government is divided into three parts: the legislature (the one that make laws), the executive (the one that applies laws), and the judiciary (the one that makes sure that the laws are obeyed). All three parts are in New Delhi, the capital city of India.\nThe legislature of India is called the Parliament ( ). It is divided into two houses: the upper house Rajya Sabha (Council of States); and the lower house Lok Sabha (House of the People). The Rajya Sabha has 245 members. They remain members for six years. Most members are elected indirectly by the legislatures of state and union territories. The Lok Sabha has 545 members. They remain members for five years. They are elected directly by the people's vote.\nThe executive is made up of the President, the Vice President, the Prime Minister and the Union Council of Ministers. The President is the head of state of India. The presidents are elected by an electoral college for a period of five years. The electoral college is made up of members of central and state legislatures. The Prime Minister is the head of government of India. The President can choose the Prime Minister, who has most of the power. The President has less power than the Prime Minister. The Union Council of Ministers helps the Prime Minister. It is similar to a cabinet in many countries.\nThe judicial branch is made up of three types of courts of law: the Supreme Court, the 24 High Courts and a number of trial courts. The Chief Justice of India is the head of the Supreme Court. The members of the court have the power to stop a law being passed by Parliament if they think that the law contradicts (opposes) the Constitution. They can make any government action invalid if it contradicts the Constitution.\nDivisions.\nFor administration purposes, India has been divided into smaller pieces. Most of these pieces are called states; others are called union territories. In total, there are twenty-eight states and eight union territories.\nStates and union territories differ in the way they are represented. Most union territories are ruled by administrators (called Lieutenant Governors) sent by the central government. All the states (and the territories of Delhi and Puducherry) elect their local government themselves. \nStates:\nUnion territories:\nMilitary.\nThe Indian Armed Forces is the country's military. It is made up of an Army, Navy and Air Force. There are other parts like Paramilitary and Strategic Nuclear Command. Its Commander-in-Chief is the President of India, but the Ministry of Defence manages the military. \nIn 2010, the Indian Armed Forces had 1.32\u00a0million active personnel, making it one of the largest militaries in the world.\nThe Indian Army is becoming more modern by buying and making new weapons. It is also building defenses against missiles of other countries. In the years 2018-2022, India imported more arms than any other nation in the world. Since its independence in 1947, India fought four wars with Pakistan and a war with China.\nNational symbols.\nEmblem.\nThe national emblem of India shows four lions standing back-to-back. The lions symbolize power, pride, confidence, and courage. Only the government can use this emblem, according to the State Emblem of India (Prohibition of Improper Use) Act, 2005.\nName.\nThe name \"India\" comes from the Greek word \"Indus\". This came from the word \"sindhu\", which, over time, turned into Hind, Hindi, or Hindu. \nThe preferred endonym (the name given to the country by its own people) is \"Bh\u0101rat\" in Hindi and other Indian languages. This differs with names that outsiders use for the country.\nSymbols.\nSome of the national symbols are:\nBorder disputes.\nDifferent countries disagree about where India's borders lie. For example, India claims Jammu and Kashmir as an Indian state. However, Pakistan and China do not recognise this area as part of India. Similarly, the Republic of India does not recognise the Pakistani and Chinese parts of Kashmir.\nIn 1914, British India and Tibet agreed on the McMahon Line, as part of the Simla Accord. Indians and Tibetans see this line as the official border. However, in July 1914, China withdrew from the agreement. Neither mainland China nor Taiwan recognize that Arunachal Pradesh belongs to India. According to them, it is a part of South Tibet, which belongs to China.\nEconomy.\nGrowth.\nIndia's economy is among the world's fastest growing. It is the 7th largest in the world with a nominal GDP of $2,250\u00a0billion (USD). In terms of PPP, the economy is 3rd largest (worth US$8.720\u00a0trillion). The growth rate is 8.25% for fiscal year 2010. However, that is still $3678 (considering PPP) per person per year. \nSectors.\nIndia's economy is based on:\nIndia's economy is diverse. Major industries include automobiles, cement, chemicals, consumer electronics, food processing, machinery, mining, petroleum, pharmaceuticals, steel, transportation equipment, and textiles.\nPoverty.\nDespite its economic growth, India continues to suffer from poverty. Over one quarter of the population (27.5%) was living in poverty in 2004\u20132005. In 2007-2008, 80.4% of the population lived on less than US $2 a day. By 2009, this number had decreased to 68%.\nPeople.\nThere are 1.4\u00a0billion people living in India. In 2023, India passed China to become the world's most populous country. About 65% of Indians live in rural areas, or land set aside for farming. The largest cities in India are Mumbai, Kolkata, Delhi, Chennai, Bangalore, Hyderabad, and Ahmedabad. Hindi and English are Official languages of India. India has 23 officially recognised languages. Altogether, 1,625 languages are spoken in India.\nLanguages.\nLanguage families.\nThere are many different languages and cultures in India. There are two main language families in India, the Indo-Aryan and the Dravidian languages. About 69% of Indians speak an Indo-Arayan language, and about 26% speak a Dravidian language. Other languages spoken in India come from the Austro-Asiatic group. Around 5% of the people speak a Tibeto-Burman language.\nHindi & English.\nHindi is the official language in India with the largest number of speakers. It is the official language of the union. Native speakers of Hindi represented about 41% of the Indian population in the 2001 Indian census. \nEnglish is also used, mostly for business and in administration. It has the status of a 'subsidiary official language'. \nOther languages.\nThe constitution also recognises 21 other languages - either because many people speak them, or because they are very important for Indian culture. There may be as many as 1,652 different dialects in India.\nIn the south of India, many people speak Kannada, Telugu, Tamil and Malayalam. In the north, many people speak Punjabi, Bengali, Gujarati, and Marathi, Odia, and Maithili.\nIndia has 23 official languages. Its constitution lists the name of the country in each of the languages. Hindi and English (listed in boldface) are the \"official languages of the union\" (Union meaning the Federal Government in Delhi); Tamil, Sanskrit, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and Odia are officially the \"classical languages of India.\"\nCulture.\nCave paintings from the Stone Age are found across India. They show dances and rituals and suggest there was a prehistoric religion. During the Epic and Puranic periods, the earliest versions of the epic poems \"Ramayana\" and \"Mahabharata\" were written from about 500\u2013100 BCE, although these were orally transmitted for centuries before this period. Other Indian Stone Age sites apart from Pakistan are in modern India, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art showing religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music.\nSeveral modern religions are linked to India, namely modern Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. All of these religions have different \"schools\" (ways of thinking) and traditions that are related. As a group they are called the Eastern religions. The Indian religions are similar to one another in many ways: The basic beliefs, the way worship is done and several religious practices are very similar. These similarities mainly come from the fact that these religions have a common history and common origins. They also influenced each other.\nThe religion of Hinduism is the main faith followed by 79.80% of people in the Republic of India; Islam \u2013 14.23%; Christianity \u2013 2.30%; Sikhism \u2013 1.72%; Buddhism \u2013 0.70% and Jainism \u2013 0.37%.\nTechnology.\nIndia sent a spacecraft to Mars for the first time in 2014. That made it the fourth country and first Asian country to do so, successfully. It was called the Mars Orbiter Mission.\nISRO launched 104 satellites in a single mission to create a world record. India became the first nation in the world to have launched over a hundred satellites in one mission. That was more than the 2014 Russian record of 37 satellites in a single launch.\nThis historic event of Chandrayaan-III successfully landed on the South Pole of the moon, being the first one to do so.\nPop culture.\nIndia has the largest movie industry in the world. The Hindi film industry is known as Bollywood, and is mainly based in Bombay, now known as Mumbai. Other industries include Tollywood, Kollywood, Sandalwood, Mollywood, Jollywood, Dhollywood, etc. It makes 1,000 movies a year, about twice as many as Hollywood.\nSports.\nCricket.\nCricket is the most popular sport in India. The Indian cricket team won the 1983 and 2011 Cricket World Cup and the 2007 ICC World Twenty20. They shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka and won the 2013 ICC Champions Trophy and 2025 ICC Champions Trophy. \nCricket in India is controlled by the Board of Control for Cricket in India or BCCI. Domestic tournaments are the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy, and the Challenger Series. There is also the Indian cricket league and Indian premier league Twenty20 competitions.\nOther sports.\nIndians have excelled in hockey. They have also won eight gold, one silver, and two bronze medals at the Olympic Games. \nTennis has become popular due to the victories of the India Davis Cup team. \nAssociation football is also a popular sport in northeast India, West Bengal, Goa and Kerala. The Indian national football team has won the South Asian Football Federation Cup many times. \nChess, which originated in India, is also becoming popular. The number of Indian Grandmasters has increased recently.\nTraditional sports include kabaddi, kho kho, and gilli-danda, which are played throughout India."}
+{"id": "393", "revid": "7753373", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=393", "title": "Insult", "text": "An insult is a description of someone that will offend them. It may or may not be true. It is called \"derogatory\" language. Terms like foolish, stupid, idiot and moron are insults, because they say that a person's mind is not quick or smart.\nInsulting someone's mother directly is a serious insult in many cultures.\nRitual insults are part of many cultures. For example, they can be found in sports and military training. They are also very common in jargons. For example, the word \"newbie\" is a part of net jargon. Calling someone a newbie is usually insulting.\nOne should be very careful when using new words to describe others.\nReason.\nUsually, someone insults others because they want to feel like they are better or have more power (influence) than the people they insult. They may want this because they are actually afraid that they are worse or less powerful than the people they are insulting.\nEffects.\nWhen someone is insulted, their pride is hurt. They may want to fight back by insulting the person who insulted them, or by telling someone who is older."}
+{"id": "394", "revid": "693482", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=394", "title": "Immunology", "text": "Immunology is the study of the immune system. The immune system is the parts of the body which work against infection and parasitism by other living things. Immunology deals with the working of the immune system in health and diseases, and with malfunctions of the immune system.\nAn immune system is present in all plants and animals. We know this because biologists have found genes coding for toll-like receptors in many different metazoans. These toll-like receptors can recognise bacteria as 'foreign', and are the starting-point for immune reactions. The type of immunity which is triggered by the toll-like receptors is called innate immunity. This is because it is entirely inherited in our genome, and is fully working as soon as our tissues and organs are properly developed.\nVertebrates, \"and only vertebrates\", have a second type of immunity. This is called adaptive immunity, because it 'remembers' previous infections. Then, if the same infection occurs again, the reaction is much stronger and faster. This immunological memory \"confers a tremendous survival advantage\" and with it vertebrates \"can survive over a long lifetime in a pathogen-filled environment\".\nTypes of immunity in vertebrates.\nInnate immune response.\nThe innate immune system is usually means all of the cells and systems that does not have to be exposed to a particular pathogen before they can work.\nInnate immunity starts with the skin, which is an excellent barrier to infection.\nAdaptive immune response.\nThe adaptive immune system includes cells and systems that do require previous exposure to a pathogen. It explains the unique ability of the mammalian immune system to remember previous infections and mount a rapid and robust reaction to secondary infections. This immunological memory is due to the biology of T-cells and B-cells.\nOther aspects of immunity.\nVaccines boost the acquired immune system by offering weak forms of infection that the body can fight off. The system remembers how to do it again when a stronger infection happens. If the vaccine works, the body can then fight off a serious infection.\nThe distribution of vaccines and other immune system affecting cures can be considered another level of acquired immune system, one governed by access to vaccination and medicine in general. The intersection of this with the spread of disease (as studied in epidemiology) is part of the field of public health.\nErrors and weaknesses.\nErrors of the immune system may cause damage. In autoimmune diseases, the body attacks parts of itself because the system mistakes some parts of the body as 'foreign'. Some kinds of arthritis are caused this way.\nSometimes serious pathogens slip in because their surface is disguised as something the host cell walls can accept. That is how viruses work. Once inside a cell, their genetic material controls the cell. Infections like HIV get in this way, and then attack cells which are the basis of the immune system. Artificial means are often used to restore immune system function in an HIV-challenged body, and prevent the onset of AIDS. This is one of the most complex issues in immunology as it involves every level of that system. This research during the 1980s and 1990s radically changed the view of the human immune system and its functions and integration in the human body.\nHistory of immunology.\nImmunology is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. It originates from medicine and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease. The earliest known mention of immunity was during the plague of Athens in 430 BC. Thucydides (460\u2013395 BC) noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of some diseases could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time.\nIn the 18th century, Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis made experiments with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom. This and other observations of acquired immunity led to Louis Pasteur (1822\u20131895) developing vaccination and the germ theory of disease. Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the miasma theory. It was not until the proofs Robert Koch (1843\u20131910) published in 1891 (for which he was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1905) that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of infectious disease. Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, when the yellow fever virus was discovered by Walter Reed (1851\u20131902).\nImmunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments, in the study of humoral immunity and cellular immunity. Particularly important was the work of Paul Ehrlich (1854\u20131915), who proposed the side-chain theory to explain the specificity of the antigen-antibody reaction. The Nobel Prize for 1908 was jointly awarded to Ehrlich and the founder of cellular immunology, Ilya Mechnikov (1845\u20131916).\nThe simplest form of immunity is the DNA restriction system in bacteria that prevents infection by bacteriophages."}
+{"id": "395", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=395", "title": "Infinity", "text": "Infinity (formula_1) is a mathematical concept which is about things that never end. It is written in a single digit. Infinity means many different things, depending on when it is used. The word is from Latin origin, meaning \"without end\". Infinity goes on forever, so sometimes space, numbers, and other things are said to be 'infinite', because they never come to a stop.\nInfinity is usually not an actual number, but it is sometimes used as one. Infinity often says how \"many\" there is of something, instead of how \"big\" something is. For example, there are infinitely many whole numbers (called integers), but there is no integer which is infinitely big. But different kinds of math have different kinds of infinity. So its meaning often changes.\nThere are two kinds of infinity: potential infinity and actual infinity. Potential infinity is a process that never stops. For example, adding 10 to a number. No matter how many times 10 is added, 10 more can still be added. Actual infinity, on the other hand, refers to objects that are accepted as infinite entities (such as transfinite numbers).\nInfinity in Mathematics.\nMathematicians have different sizes of infinity and three different kinds of infinity.\nCounting infinity.\nThe number of things, beginning with 0, 1, 2, 3, ..., to include infinite cardinal numbers. There are many different cardinal numbers. Infinity can be defined in one of two ways: Infinity is a number so big that a part of it can be of the same size; Infinity is larger than all of the natural numbers. There is a smallest infinite number, \"countable infinity\". It is the counting number for all of the whole numbers. It is also the counting number of the rational numbers. The mathematical notation is the Hebrew letter aleph with a subscript zero; formula_2. It is spoken \"aleph null\".\nIt was a surprise to learn that there are larger infinite numbers. The number of real numbers, that is, all numbers with decimals, is larger than the number of rational numbers, the number of fractions. This shows that there are real numbers which are not fractions. The smallest infinite number greater than formula_2 is formula_4 (aleph one). The number of mathematical functions is the next infinite cardinal number, formula_5.\nAnd these numbers, called aleph numbers, go on without end.\nOrdering infinity.\nA different \"type\" of infinity are the ordinal numbers, beginning \"first, second, third, ...\". The order \"first, second, third, ...\" and so on to infinity is \"different\" from the order \"ending\" \"..., third, second, first\". The difference is important for mathematical induction. The simple \"first, second, third, ... \" has the mathematical name: the Greek letter omega with subscript zero: formula_6. (Or simply omega formula_7.) The infinite series ending \"... third, second, first\" is formula_8.\nThe real line and complex plane.\nThe third \"type\" of infinity has the symbol formula_1. This is treated as addition to the real numbers or the complex numbers. It is the result of division by zero, or to indicate that a series is increasing (or decreasing) without bound. The series 1, 2, 3, ... increases without upper bound. This is written: the limit is formula_10. In calculus, the integral over all real numbers is written: formula_11\nThe arithmetic of infinity.\nEach kind of infinity has different rules.\nAddition, multiplication, exponentiation.\nformula_12 Addition with \"alephs\" is commutative.\nformula_13 Multiplication with \"alephs\" is commutative.\nformula_14\nformula_15.\nformula_16. Addition with \"omegas\" is not commutative.\nformula_17. Multiplication with \"omegas\" is not commutative.\nformula_18\nformula_19\nformula_20\nSubtraction, division.\nDivision by infinity (for example, with omegas or alephs) is not meaningful. Subtraction with infinity is not meaningful."}
+{"id": "396", "revid": "0", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=396", "title": "Immune System", "text": ""}
+{"id": "400", "revid": "1659580", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=400", "title": "January", "text": "January (Jan.) is the first month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between December (of the previous year) and February (of the current year). It has 31 days.\nJanuary begins on the same day of the week as October in common years, and April and July in leap years. January ends on the same day of the week as February and October in common years, and July in leap years.\nThe Month.\nJanuary is named for Janus, the Roman god of doors and gates.\nJanuary and February were put on the calendar after all the other months. This is because in the original Roman calendar, winter did not have months. Although March was originally the first month, January became the new first month because that was when people chose the new consuls (Roman leaders). The month has 31 days.\nJanuary is a winter month in the Northern Hemisphere and a summer month in the Southern Hemisphere. In each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of July in the other. Perihelion, the point in its orbit where the Earth is closest to the Sun, also occurs in this month, between January 2 and January 5. January is the only month of the year that always has a \"twin\" - a month that both begins and ends on the same day of the week as it does. In a common year, this is October, and in a leap year, July.\nJanuary begins on the same day of the week as October in common years and on the same day of the week as April and July in leap years. January ends on the same day of the week as February and October in common years and on the same day of the week as July in leap years.\nEvery year, January both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as May of the previous year, as each other's first and last days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart.\nIn common years immediately before other common years, January starts on the same day of the week as April and July of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, September and December of the following year. In common years immediately before other common years, January finishes on the same day of the week as July of the following year, and in leap years and years immediately before that, April and December of the following year.\nJanuary's flower is the carnation with its birthstone being the garnet. \nThe first day of January is called New Year's Day. It is said that it became this date when Roman consuls took office on this day in 153 BC. Different calendars across Europe made this the start of the New Year at different times, as some observed it on March 25.\nReaching over from December, the Christmas season in Christianity also extends into this month. Eastern churches celebrate Christmas on January 6 or January 7, and Epiphany on January 18 or January 19. In Western Christianity this occurs on January 6, with Christmas occurring on December 25.\nJanuary 1 is celebrated the Solemnity of Mary, the Mother of God, that is a feast day of precept of the Blessed Virgin Mary."}
+{"id": "401", "revid": "10378818", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=401", "title": "June", "text": "June (Jun.) is the sixth month of the year in the Julian and Gregorian calendars, coming between May and July. It has 30 days. June is named for the Roman goddess Juno, the wife of Jupiter.\nJune never begins on the same day of the week as any other month, but always ends on the same day of the week as March.\nThe Month.\nJune comes between May and July and is the sixth month of the year in the Gregorian calendar. It is one of four months to have 30 days.\nNo other month of any year begins on the same day of the week as June: this month and May are the only two months with this property. June ends on the same day of the week as March every year, as each other's last days are 13 weeks (91 days) apart.In common years, June starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the previous year, and in leap years, April and July of the previous year. In common years, June finishes on the same day of the week as September of the previous year, and in leap years, April and December of the previous year.\nEvery year, June starts on the same day of the week as February of the following year, as each other's first days are exactly 35 weeks (245 days) apart. In years immediately before common years, June starts on the same day of the week as March and November of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, August of the following year. In years immediately before common years, June finishes on the same day of the week as August and November of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, May of the following year.\nJune is one of two months to have a solstice (the other is December, its seasonal equivalent in both hemispheres), and in this month the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere is turned towards the Sun, meaning that June 20 or June 21 is the Northern Summer Solstice and the Southern Winter Solstice. This means that this date would have the most daylight of any day in the Northern hemisphere, and the least in the Southern Hemisphere. There are 24 hours of daylight at the North Pole and 24 hours of darkness at the South Pole.\nSelection of Historical Events.\nJune 1, 1794: French Revolutionary Wars: The battle of the Glorious First of June is fought, the first naval engagement between Britain and France.\nJune 2, 1953: Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom.\nJune 3, 1965: The launch of \"Gemini 4\", the first multi-day space mission by a NASA crew. June 4, 1783: The Montgolfier brothers publicly demonstrate their \"montgolfi\u00e8re\" (hot air balloon).\nJune 5, 1837: Houston is incorporated by the Republic of Texas.\nJune 6, 1844: The Young Men's Christian Association is founded in London.\nJune 7, 1942: World War II: The Battle of Midway ends in American victory.\nJune 8, 1949: George Orwell's \"Nineteen Eighty-Four\" is published.\nJune 9, 1944: World War II: Tulle massacre\nJune 10, 2003: The \"Spirit\" rover is launched for NASA's Mars Exploration mission\nJune 11, 2010: 2010 FIFA World Cup (first African FIFA)\nJune 12, 2018: 2018 North Korea-United States Summit\nJune 13, 1983: \"Pioneer 10\" becomes the first man-made object to leave the central Solar System\nJune 25, 1950: Korean War starts.\nJune 30, 1908: Tunguska event."}
+{"id": "402", "revid": "22027", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=402", "title": "July", "text": "July (Jul.) is the seventh month of the year in the Gregorian calendar, coming between June and August. It has 31 days. July was named after Julius Caesar. The halfway point of the year is either on July 2 or in the night of July 1-2.\nJuly always begins on the same day of the week as April, and additionally, January in leap years. July does not end on the same day of the week as any other month in common years, but ends on the same day of the week as January in leap years.\nThe Month.\nIn each hemisphere, it is the seasonal equivalent of January in the other hemisphere. In the North, it is summer and in the South it is winter.\nIn the Northern Hemisphere, July is often the warmest month of the year, and major sporting events and music festivals are held around this time. In the Southern Hemisphere, it is a winter month, with the coldest-recorded temperature having been measured in Antarctica in this month.\nJuly begins on the same day of the week as April every year and on the same day of the week as January in leap years. No other month in common years ends on the same day of the week as July, but July ends on the same day of the week as January in leap years.\nIn common years, July starts on the same day of the week as October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years, July finishes on the same day of the week as February and October of the previous year, and in leap years, May of the previous year. In common years immediately after other common years, July both starts and finishes on the same day of the week as January of the previous year.\nIn years immediately before common years, July starts on the same day of the week as September and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, June of the following year. In years immediately before common years, July finishes on the same day of the week as April and December of the following year, and in years immediately before leap years, September of the following year.\nJuly's flower is a variety of the water lily. Its birthstone is the ruby. The meaning for the birthstone ruby is contented mind. Astrological signs for July are Cancer (June 21 - July 21) and Leo (July 22 - August 21).\nIn the old Roman calendar, July was called \"Quintilis\", meaning \"Fifth Month\", because, in the old calendar, the year began in March. Augustus later renamed it July in honor of Julius Caesar, whose birthday was in this month. Augustus later also named the following month, August, after himself.\nIn Catholic tradition, July is the Month of the Most Precious Blood of Jesus."}
+{"id": "403", "revid": "1694882", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=403", "title": "Japan", "text": "Japan (; Romanized as \"Nihon\" or \"Nippon\") is a country in East Asia. It is a group of islands close to the east coast of Korea, China and Russia. The Pacific Ocean is to the east of Japan and the Sea of Japan is to the west. Most people in Japan live on one of the four islands. The biggest of these islands, Honshu, has the most people. Honshu is the 7th largest island in the world. Tokyo is the capital of Japan and its biggest city. \nThe Japanese people call their country \"Nihon\" or \"Nippon\", which means \"the origin of the Sun\" in Japanese. Japan is a monarchy whose head of state is called the Emperor. Japan is the oldest monarchy in the world, lasting more than 2,000 years.\nHistory.\nThe first people in Japan were the Ainu people and other J\u014dmon people. They were closely related to Europeans or Mongols. They were later conquered and replaced by the Yayoi people (early Japanese and Ryukyuans). The Yayoi were an ancient ethnic group that migrated to the Japanese archipelago mainly from southeastern China during the Yayoi period (300 CE\u2013300 AD). Modern Japanese people have primarily Yayoi ancestry at an average of 97%. The indigenous Ryukyuan and Ainu peoples have more J\u014dmon ancestry on the other hand.\nThe earliest records on Japan are from Chinese documents. One of those records said there were many small countries (in Japan) which had wars between them and later a country, ruled by a queen, became the strongest, unified others, and brought peace.\nThe Japanese began to write their own history after the 5th and 6th century, when people from Korea and China taught Japan about the Chinese writing system. Japan's neighbors also taught them Buddhism. The Japanese changed Buddhism in many ways. For example, Japanese Buddhists used ideas such as Zen more than other Buddhists.\nJapan had some contact with the Europeans in the 16th century. The Portuguese were the first Europeans to visit Japan. Later, the Spanish and Dutch came to Japan to trade. Also, they brought Christianity. Japan's leaders welcomed them at first, but because Europeans had conquered many places in the world, the Japanese were scared that they would conquer Japan too. That made the Japanese not let the Europeans come into Japan anymore, except in a small area in Nagasaki. Many Christians were killed. Only the Chinese, Korean, and Dutch people were allowed to visit Japan, in the end, and they were under careful control of the Japanese government. Japan was opened for visitors again in 1854 by Commodore Matthew Perry, when the Americans wanted to use Japanese ports for American whale boats. Perry brought steamships with guns, which scared the Japanese into making an agreement with him.\nThis new contact with Europeans and Americans changed the Japanese culture. The Meiji Restoration of 1868 stopped some old ways and added many new ones. The Empire of Japan was created, and it became a very powerful nation and tried to invade the countries next to it. \nIt invaded and annexed Ryukyu Kingdom, Taiwan, and Korea. It had wars with China and Russia: the First Sino-Japanese War, the Boxer Rebellion, the Russo-Japanese War, World War I and the Siberian intervention.\nIn 1918, World War I allowed Japan, which joined the side of the victorious Allies, to capture German possessions in the Pacific and in China. \nThe Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) grew to become a part of World War II when Japan became allies with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.\nIn 1941, Japan attacked Pearl Harbor, in Hawaii and destroyed or damaged many ships and airplanes of the United States. That started the Americans' involvement in World War II. American and Japanese forces fought each other in the Pacific. The Americans captured most of the islands in the Pacific, started dropping bombs on Japanese cities, and prepared to invad Japane. \nTo make Japan surrender, the United States dropped two atomic bombs on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, killing 150,000 Japanese citizens. Soon, the Soviet Union began to fight against Japan, and the Japanese army in Manchuria lost. Japan surrendered all places that it had taken from other countries. It also accepted the Potsdam Proclamation. The United States occupied Japan from September 1945 to April 1952 and forced it to write a new constitution in which it promised to never go to war again.\nJapan was granted membership in the United Nations in 1956. A period of record growth propelled Japan to become the second-largest economy in the world. On 11 March 2011, Japan suffered one of the largest earthquakes in its recorded history, triggering the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster. On 1 May 2019, after the historic abdication of Emperor Akihito, his son Naruhito became emperor and started the Reiwa era. On 8 July 2022, former Prime Minister Shinzo Abe was assassinated while he was giving a campaign speech in Nara.\nOn 21 October 2025, Sanae Takaichi was confirmed as the country's first female prime minister.\nGeography.\nJapan is a group of islands in the Western Pacific, off the coast of China. The four biggest islands are Honshu, Hokkaido, Shikoku, and Kyushu, and there are about 6,000 smaller islands there. Japan is separated from the Asian continent by the Sea of Japan and the East China Sea. Honshu, which means 'Mainland' in the Japanese language, is the biggest island. Hokkaido is the island north of Honshu. Kyushu is the island west of Honshu. Shikoku is the island to the south-west of Honshu.\nIn the middle of Japan there are mountains. They cover the middle of the islands and leave a very narrow strip of flat land on most coasts. Many of the mountains are extinct volcanoes, but some are still active. The highest of these mountains is the beautiful, volcano-shaped Mt Fuji (3,776\u00a0metres or 12,389\u00a0feet high). Japan has many earthquakes, in fact there are about 1500 of these every year. The biggest earthquake recorded in Japan was in 2011 - called '2011 Tohoku Earthquake'. It caused great damage to several power plants forcing Japan to shut down all its nuclear plants. There was nuclear core meltdown which caused a serious health risk to nearby villages and cities.\n90% of the people living in Japan live in just 10% of the land, near the coast. The other 10% of the people in Japan live away from the coast.\nOver 10 cities have more than a million people in them. The biggest city in Japan is Tokyo, which is the capital.\nScience and technology.\nJapan has made many contributions to science and technology.\nThe QR code, the camera phone, the CD player, and the VHS were invented in Japan.\nJapan is a leader in the robotics industry: It is the world's largest maker of industrial robots. It has the 2nd most industrial robots behind China.\nEconomy.\nJapan has one of the strongest economies of any country. Its nominal gross domestic product (GDP) is the 3rd highest in the world. It has a very low unemployment rate and was the 4th-largest exporter and 4th-largest importer in 2021.\nJapan is known for its automotive industry: It is home to Toyota, the world's largest car company. Honda, Nissan, Suzuki and Mazda are other popular car makers from Japan.\nTokyo is the most populous city in the world. It also has one of the largest economies of any city. It is an important financial center: It has the Tokyo Stock Exchange, one of the largest stock exchanges in Asia.\nSociety and culture.\nMany things in Japanese culture originated in China, like Go and bonsai.\nCherry blossom also known as Japanese cherry and Sakura is thought to be the national flower of Japan.\nJapan's traditional food is seafood, rice, miso soup, and vegetables. Noodles and tofu are also common. Sushi, a Japanese food made of cooked rice with vinegar with other ingredients such as raw fish, and sometimes fried shrimp, is popular around the world.\nThe religion in Japan is mostly Shinto and Buddhist. Due to the tolerant nature of the two main Japanese religions, and the resulting intermixing of the two, many Japanese identify as both Shinto and Buddhist at the same time. There are small numbers of Christians and Hindus, and a few Jews.\nWhen it comes to popular culture, Japan is famous for making video games. Many of the biggest companies that make games, like Nintendo, Namco, and Sega, are Japanese. Other well-known parts of Japanese arts are its comics, called manga, and its digital animation, known as anime. Many people get to know Japanese or how life in Japan is like by reading manga or watching anime on television.\nThe Ryukyuans and the Ainu both have their own separate cultures, languages and religion.\nCities, regions and territories.\nThe biggest cities in Japan are:\nIn Japan there are seven traditional regions:\nTerritorial problem.\nSince Japan is an island nation, Japan has several problems over territory because maritime boundaries can be hard to protect. These days, Japan is competing for at least 4 different territories. It cannot agree with some neighboring countries on whether the land belongs to Japan or the other country.\nPublic transportation.\nThere are several important international airports in Japan. Narita is the major international airport in the Tokyo area. Kansai International Airport serves as the main airport for Osaka, Kobe, and Kyoto. Ch\u016bbu Centrair International Airport near Nagoya is the newest of the three. Haneda Airport is close to central Tokyo and is the largest domestic airport in the country.\nThe Shinkansen is one of the fastest trains in the world and connects cities in Honshu and Kyushu. Networks of public and private railways are over almost all the country. People mostly travel between cities in buses.\nSubdivisions.\nModern Japan is divided into 47 prefectures. Before the Meiji period (1868-1912), the nation was divided into provinces which were consolidated in the prefectural system.\nSports.\nJapan has many traditional sports such as sumo, judo, karate, kyudo, aikido, iaido and kendo. Also, there are sports which were imported from the West such as baseball, soccer, rugby, golf and skiing. Baseball is the most popular sport.\nJapan has taken part in the Olympic Games since 1912. It hosted the Olympic Games in 1964, 1972, 1998 and 2020. From 1912 until now, Japanese sportspeople have won 398 medals in total.\nProfessional sports are also popular and many sports such as baseball (see Pacific League and Central League), soccer (see List of Japanese football teams), sumo, American football, basketball and volleyball, are played professionally."}
+{"id": "404", "revid": "640235", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=404", "title": "Jargon", "text": "Jargon is a special way to use words that are shared only by a certain group of people. They may not mean what the dictionary says they mean. They have different meanings to the people using them than their everyday meaning.\nFor example, the ordinary words \"boot\", \"net\", and \"web\" also have special meanings for users of computers, the Internet, and the World Wide Web. These, and to flame, to ping and many acronyms are part of net jargon.\nAn \"acronym\" means that only some of the letters in the word or phrase are used. Often this is the first letter of each word. Other acronyms found online are simply common shorthand.\nUsually, more jargon is created over time.\nJargon is common in the military and other complex organisations. It includes phrases like SNAFU.\nJargon can be used by a clique to prevent others from joining or understanding, but it also is often just used because it is shorter."}
+{"id": "408", "revid": "532461", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=408", "title": "Jupiter", "text": "Jupiter is the largest planet in the Solar System. It is the fifth planet from the Sun. Jupiter is a gas giant because it is large and made mostly of gas. Gas giants are a subtype of giant planets. The other gas giant planets in the Solar System are Saturn, Uranus and Neptune.\nJupiter was discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610 with a small telescope. The planet has a Great Red Spot which is located at 22 degrees south of Jupiter's equator. The great red spot produces wind-speeds up to 432 km/h (268 mph). \nBy mass, Jupiter's atmosphere is around 76% hydrogen and 24% helium. However, since helium atoms are larger than hydrogen molecules, Jupiter's upper atmosphere is about 90% hydrogen and 10% helium by volume. The atmosphere also contains small amounts of methane, water vapour, ammonia, and silicon-based compounds as well as trace amounts of carbon, ethane, hydrogen sulfide, neon, oxygen, phosphine, and sulfur. The outermost layer of the atmosphere contains crystals of frozen ammonia. Through infrared and ultraviolet measurements, small amounts of benzene and other hydrocarbons have also been found. The interior of Jupiter contains denser materials\u2014by mass it is roughly 71% hydrogen, 24% helium, and 5% other elements.\nJupiter was the first planet to form. It moved towards the center during the early times of the Solar System. This affected how other planets were formed. Hydrogen makes up most of Jupiter (90% by volume). Helium is the second and makes up a quarter of the mass and a tenth of the volume. Jupiter's interior is getting smaller. This process makes more heat than the planet receives from the Sun. It is believed that there is an outer mantle and a diffuse inner core of denser material inside Jupiter. Liquid metallic hydrogen would make up the outer mantle. Jupiter rotates very fast at 1 rotation per 10 hours. This creates a slight but noticeable bulge around the equator, therefore Jupiter's shape is an oblate spheroid. The outer atmosphere has many bands across the latitude. Interactions between the bands create turbulence and storms. The Great Red Spot is the most obvious example. It is a giant storm which has been seen since 1831, and possibly earlier.\nName and symbol.\nJupiter was named for the king of the gods. The Greeks called him Zeus. The Romans called him Jupiter. The symbol for Jupiter, , is from the Greek zeta. It has a horizontal stroke . This stands as an abbreviation for \"Zeus\".\nStructure.\nJupiter is the biggest planet in the Solar System. Its diameter is 142,984\u00a0km (88846 mi), eleven times larger than the diameter of Earth. Jupiter is twice as massive as all the other planets in the Solar System combined. Jupiter is 318 times as massive as Earth. The volume of Jupiter is 1,317 times the volume of Earth. In other words, 1,317 Earth-sized objects could fit inside it. The planet gives off more heat than it gets from the Sun.\nAtmosphere.\nThe atmosphere near the surface of Jupiter is about 90% hydrogen, 10% helium, and less than 1% other gases.\nThe lower atmosphere is so heated and the pressure so high that helium changes to liquid, which then rains down onto the planet. Based on spectroscopy, Jupiter seems to be made up of the same gases as Saturn. It is different from Neptune or Uranus. Those two planets have much less hydrogen and helium gas.\nCore.\nIt is not possible to say exactly what metals are in the core of Jupiter. However, by measuring the gravity around Jupiter, one can estimate its size. The inner core is dense. It has a lot of heavy elements, likely in the form of rock and ice. The heavy elements in the core have a total mass of 7\u201325 times that of Earth.\nRound the unknown inner core is an outer core. The outer core of Jupiter is thick, liquid hydrogen. \nJupiter is mainly made of the same elements (hydrogen and helium) as the Sun, but it is not large enough to have the internal pressure and temperature necessary to cause hydrogen to fuse to helium, the energy source that powers the Sun and most other stars. If Jupiter had 75 times its mass, it could fuse hydrogen to helium.\nCloud layers.\nJupiter has many bands of clouds going horizontally across its surface. The lighter areas are zones and the darker ones are belts. The zones and belts often interact with each other. This causes huge storms. Wind speeds of 360\u00a0kilometres per hour (km/h) are common on Jupiter. To show the difference, the strongest tropical storms on Earth are about 100\u00a0km/h.\nMost of the clouds on Jupiter are made of ammonia. There may also be clouds of water vapor, like the clouds on Earth. Multiple spacecraft such as Voyager\u00a01 have seen lightning on the surface of the planet. Scientists think it was water vapor because lightning needs water vapor. These lightning bolts have been measured as up to 1,000 times as powerful as those on Earth.\nGreat Red Spot.\nOne of the biggest features in Jupiter's atmosphere is the Great Red Spot. It is a huge storm that is bigger than the entire Earth. It is on record since at least 1831, and as early as 1665. Images by the Hubble Space Telescope have shown as many as two smaller \"red spots\" next to the Great Red Spot. Storms can last for hours or as long as hundreds of years, as in the case of the Great Red Spot.\nMagnetic field.\nJupiter has a magnetic field like Earth's but 10 times stronger. It also has a \"magnetosphere\" much bigger and stronger than Earth's. The field traps radiation belts much stronger than Earth's Van Allen radiation belts, strong enough to endanger any spacecraft travelling near. The magnetic field is probably caused by the large amounts of liquid metallic hydrogen in the core of Jupiter. The four largest moons of Jupiter and many of the smaller ones orbit or go around the planet within the magnetic field. This protects them from the solar wind. Jupiter's magnetic field is so large, it reaches the orbit of Saturn 7.7\u00a0million\u00a0miles (12\u00a0million\u00a0km) away. The Earth's magnetosphere does not even cover its moon, less than a quarter of a million miles (400,000\u00a0km) away. Jupiter also experiences large aurorae, which happen when charged particles from the volcanic moon Io land in its atmosphere.\nRing system.\nJupiter also has a thin planetary ring system. These rings are difficult to see and were not discovered until 1979 by NASA's Voyager\u00a01 probe. There are four parts to Jupiter's rings. The closest ring to Jupiter is called the Halo Ring. The next ring is called the Main Ring. It is about wide and only thick. The Main and Halo rings of Jupiter are made of small, dark particles. The third and fourth rings, called the \"Gossamer\" rings, are transparent and are made from microscopic debris and dust. This dust probably comes from small meteors striking the surface of Jupiter's moons. The third ring is called the Amalthea Gossamer Ring, named after the moon Amalthea. The outer ring, the Thebe Gossamer Ring, is named after the moon Thebe. The outer edge of this ring is about from Jupiter.\nFormation.\nJupiter and other gas giants probably started as rocky planets, similar to Earth. This theory is called the \"core accretion model\". The rocky core would have formed in the early Solar System, within a disk of gases around the Sun. When the planet reached a critical mass, its gravity started to quickly capture lots of gas. In this way, Jupiter became a giant planet. In order for Jupiter to reach this critical mass before the gas disk disappeared, there must have been lots of ice in the area. Jupiter must have formed outside the snow line, the area that is cold enough for water to freeze.\nThe \"disk instability model\" is another theory. It says that Jupiter was formed by gas clumping together in the disk around the Sun. In this case, a rocky core would not need to form. However, this process would probably create planets that are bigger than Jupiter, so most scientists think Jupiter was formed by core accretion.\nOrbit.\nThe orbit of a planet is the time and path it takes to go around the Sun. In the time it takes for Jupiter to orbit the Sun once, the Earth orbits the Sun 11.86 times. One year on Jupiter is equal to 11.86 years on Earth. \nThe average distance between Jupiter and the Sun is 778 million kilometres. This is five times the distance between Earth and the Sun. Jupiter is not tilted on its axis as much as Earth or Mars. This causes it to have no seasons, for example summer or winter. Jupiter rotates, or spins around very quickly. This causes the planet to bulge in the middle. Jupiter is the fastest spinning planet in the Solar System. It completes one rotation or spin in 10 hours. Because of the bulge, the length of the equator of Jupiter is longer than the length from pole to pole.\nJupiter in the Solar System.\nGrand tack hypothesis.\nThe orbit of Jupiter is unusual compared to planets in other star systems. It is usual for giant planets to be much nearer to their stars. Because Jupiter is not, this suggests an unusual explanation is needed for the arrangement of the planets in the Solar System. Astronomers have an idea on why this happened. It is called the grand tack hypothesis.\nIt is suggested that Jupiter formed about 3.5 astronomical units from the Sun. It started migrating inward and scattered the rocky planet-forming materials out beyond its orbit. Saturn formed later than Jupiter and started its own inward migration. When Jupiter reached 1.5 astronomical units, it became locked into an orbital resonance with Saturn. Both planets turned around and moved outward until Jupiter arrived at its current position, 5.2 astronomical units from the Sun. Saturn arrived at about 7 astronomical units.\nThe grand tack hypothesis explains another mystery of the Solar System. Mars should have been larger than Earth but is instead only of this size. On Jupiter's grand tack, it cleared the area where Mars orbits today. After it left, the material remaining was only enough to form a small planet and a low-mass asteroid belt. Although the hypothesis has not been absolutely proven, there is no other competing explanation why the Solar System's giant should be so far from its star, and Mars so small.\nAsteroids and comets.\nJupiter's large gravity has had an effect on the Solar System. Jupiter protects the inner planets from comets by pulling them towards itself. Because of this, Jupiter has the most comet impacts in the Solar System. Jupiter has 95 known natural satellites.\nTwo groups of asteroids, called Trojan asteroids, have settled into Jupiter's orbit around the Sun. One group is called the \"Trojans\" and the other group is called the \"Greeks\". They go around the Sun at the same time as Jupiter.\nResearch and exploration.\nFrom Earth.\nJupiter is the third brightest object in the night sky, after the Moon and Venus. The first person known to really study the planet was Galileo Galilei in 1610. He was the first person to see Jupiter's moons Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. This was because he used a telescope, unlike anyone before him.\nNo new moons were discovered for more than two hundred years. In 1892, astronomer E.E. Barnard found a new moon using his observatory in California. He called the moon Amalthea. It was the last of Jupiter's 67 moons to be discovered by human observation through a telescope.\nIn 1994, bits of the comet Shoemaker Levy-9 hit Jupiter. It was the first time a collision between two Solar System objects was seen.\nFrom spacecraft.\nSeven spacecrafts have flown past Jupiter since 1973. These were Pioneer 10 (1973), Pioneer 11 (1974), Voyagers 1 and 2 (1979), Ulysses (1992 and 2004), Cassini (2000) and New Horizons (2007). Two spacecraft have been brought into orbit around Jupiter. These were Galileo (1995) and Juno (2011).\nThe Pioneer missions were the first spacecraft to take close-up pictures of Jupiter and its moons. Five years later, the two Voyager spacecraft discovered three new moons. They captured photo evidence of lightning on the night side of Jupiter.\nThe Ulysses probe was sent to study the Sun. It only went to Jupiter after it had finished its main mission. Ulysses had no cameras so it took no photographs.\nIn 2006, the Cassini spacecraft, on its way to Saturn, took some very good, very clear pictures of the planet. Cassini also found a moon and took a picture of it but it was too far away to show the details.\nThe Galileo mission in 1995 was the first spacecraft to go into orbit around Jupiter. It flew around the planet for seven years and studied the four biggest moons. It launched a probe into the planet to get information about Jupiter's atmosphere. The probe travelled to a depth of about 150\u00a0km before it was crushed by the pressure of all the gas above it. The Galileo spacecraft was also crushed in 2003 when NASA steered the craft into the planet. They did this so that the craft could not crash into Europa, a moon that scientists think might have life.\nNASA has sent another spacecraft to Jupiter called Juno. It was launched on August 5, 2011 and arrived at Jupiter on July 4, 2016. NASA published some results from the Juno mission in March 2018.\nSeveral other missions have been planned to send spacecraft to Jupiter's moons, Europa, Callisto, and Ganymede. One called JIMO (Jupiter Icy Moons Orbiter) was cancelled in 2006 because it cost too much money. The European Space Agency launched JUICE (Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer) on April 14, 2023. It will enter orbit around Jupiter in July 2031.\nMoons.\nJupiter has 95 known moons, as of February 23, 2023. The four largest were seen by Galileo with his primitive telescope, and thus are known as the Galilean moons, and nine more can be seen with modern telescopes. Three moons were identified by the Voyager spacecraft. All other moons were first seen on Earth, using modern telescopes and advanced photography methods. The smallest moon (S/2003 J 12) is only one kilometre across. The largest, Ganymede, has a diameter of 5,262 kilometres. It is bigger than the planet Mercury. The other three Galilean moons are Io, Europa and Callisto. Due to the way they orbit Jupiter, gravity affects three of these moons greatly. The friction caused by the gravity of Europa and Ganymede pulling on Io makes it the most volcanic object in the Solar System. It has over 400 volcanoes, more than three times as many as Earth.\nReferences.\nNotes"}
+{"id": "410", "revid": "1693811", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=410", "title": "King", "text": "A king is usually a male monarch who rules a country or territory which is a monarchy. The person usually inherits the title and position. A king comes to power when the previous monarch dies, who is usually a family member of his, most likely a parent. Sometimes a person may become king due to the previous monarch's abdication, for example George VI (who became King of Britain after his brother decided to abdicate). \nIf a country has a king or a queen, that means it is a monarchy. A country which a king or queen rules is called a kingdom. \nFor most of history, most countries were ruled in this way, especially in Europe. However, most countries, such as France, decided to become republics. Some, such as the United Kingdom, still have a royal family. In some countries, people chose a new king from other people to decide from. \nThe wife of a king is called a queen. A woman who becomes a ruler because of inheritance is also called a queen. \nIf there is a queen without a husband she might be inducted as the king in certain monarchies in Africa and Europe. Her Royal Majesty Queen Diambi is the current female king of the Bakwa Luntu People of Central Kasa\u00ef, in the Democratic Republic of Congo. \nIn historic Ireland there were clans and dynasties. Niall of the nine hostages was a famous king of Ireland.\nShah (Persian: \u0634\u0627\u0647) is a Persian word which means the king or ruler of a country. The term \"Shah\" often means Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran from 1949 to 1979. \nSome modern kings today include Charles III of the United Kingdom and Felipe VI of Spain."}
+{"id": "411", "revid": "1604578", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=411", "title": "Knowledge", "text": "Knowledge is the collection of facts, skills, and understanding that people gain through learning, experience, thinking, or discovery. It can come from things we are taught, things we figure out ourselves, or things we observe in the world. Some knowledge is easy to explain, like facts in textbooks or math formulas, this is called explicit knowledge. Other knowledge is harder to put into words, like how to ride a bike or perform surgery, this is called tacit knowledge. It lives in our actions, habits, and personal experiences. In philosophy, knowledge has often been defined as \u201cjustified true belief.\u201d This means that for someone to know something, they must believe it, have good reasons for believing it, and it must actually be true. However, some problems, like the \u201cGettier cases\u201d, show that this definition might not always work. These cases suggest someone can have a belief that is true and has reasons behind it, but still not really have knowledge. Because of this, other ideas like reliabilism (trusting reliable ways of knowing) and virtue epistemology (focusing on intellectual character) were developed to better explain what knowledge really is.\nThere are different kinds of knowledge. Propositional knowledge is \u201cknowing that\u201d something is true, like knowing that water boils at 100\u00b0C. Procedural knowledge is \u201cknowing how\u201d to do something, like solving a puzzle or coding. Experiential knowledge is \u201cknowing by experience,\u201d like recognizing a friend\u2019s voice or knowing how a certain food tastes. Each of these kinds uses different parts of the brain and different types of thinking. The study of knowledge is called epistemology. It looks at questions like \u201cWhere does knowledge come from?\u201d and \u201cWhat can we really know?\u201d Different thinkers have different ideas. Empiricists believe knowledge comes from what we see, hear, and touch. Rationalists believe we are born with some ideas and use reason to gain knowledge. Constructivists think we build knowledge ourselves through experience, culture, and learning from others.\nKnowledge grows and improves through careful research methods like the scientific method. This includes testing ideas, sharing results with other scientists (peer review), and checking if experiments can be repeated. These steps help make sure knowledge is reliable. But in areas like art or ethics, people may have different opinions or values, so knowledge can be more personal or open to interpretation. Societies keep and share knowledge in many ways. Universities, libraries, and the internet store a huge amount of information. Other ways, like storytelling, traditions, or learning from elders, are especially important in cultures that do not rely as much on writing. These methods help pass down useful knowledge from one generation to the next.\nIn information science, there\u2019s a difference between data, information, and knowledge. Data is raw facts with no meaning, like numbers on a screen. Information is when that data is organized to make sense. Knowledge is when the information is put into context so that it can help someone make a decision or take action. For example, knowing it\u2019s 35\u00b0C outside is information; understanding that it is too hot to play outside for long without water is knowledge. Neuroscience has found that knowledge is stored in networks of neurons. The cortex and hippocampus are two key areas that help us remember things. Sleep, emotions, and how we learn something can all affect how well we remember and use knowledge later. For example, if something is exciting or emotional, you are more likely to remember it. In artificial intelligence (AI), teaching computers to \u201cknow\u201d things is a big challenge. Old systems used strict rules to solve problems, like expert systems. Newer models, like neural networks, try to imitate how human brains work by learning patterns and relationships in data. However, even the best AI today does not really understand things like people do. It cannot think about its own thoughts or reflect on what it knows.\nKnowledge can belong to individuals or groups. In companies or teams, knowledge management is used to organize what people know and help everyone share and use that knowledge well. Techniques like knowledge audits and communities of practice help keep useful skills from being lost when people leave or retire. Knowledge is not always neutral or free. In history, powerful groups have tried to control what others are allowed to know. For example, the Catholic Church once banned books that said the Earth moves around the Sun. Today, algorithms on social media can create \u201cecho chambers\u201d where people only see information they agree with. This shows that knowledge can be used for power, control, or influence.\nReligion and knowledge.\nKnowledge in religion is different in that it depends on faith, belief and the authority of religious leaders, not on evidence of a scientific or legal kind. There are differing views on whether religious statements should be regarded as knowledge. \nIn many expressions of Christianity, such as Catholicism and Anglicanism, knowledge is one of the seven gifts of the Holy Spirit.\nIn the Garden of Eden knowledge is the factor that made humans greedy and treacherous. But in the Book of Proverbs it states: 'to be wise you must first obey the LORD' (9:10). \nIn Islam, knowledge has great significance. \"The All-Knowing\" (\"al-\u02bfAl\u012bm\") is one of the Names of God, reflecting distinct properties of God in Islam. The Qur'an asserts that knowledge comes from God and various \"hadith\" encourage getting knowledge. Muhammad is reported to have said \"Seek knowledge from the cradle to the grave\" and \"Verily the men of knowledge are the inheritors of the prophets\". Islamic scholars, theologians and jurists are often given the title \"alim\", meaning 'knowledgeable'."}
+{"id": "412", "revid": "1338660", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=412", "title": "Kauai", "text": "Kauai (Kaua'i in Hawaiian) is the second oldest (after Ni'ihau) and fourth largest of the main Hawaiian Islands, in the United States. Known also as the \"Garden Isle\", Kaua'i lies 73 miles (117 kilometers) across the Kauai Channel, northwest of Honolulu on Oahu. It is of volcanic origin. The highest point on the island is Kawaikini. It is located above sea level. The wettest spot on Earth, with average rainfall of a year, is just east of Mount Waialeale. The high yearly rainfall has eroded deep valleys and canyons in the central mountain. The waterfalls that have been created by erosion in canyons are now popular tourist spots.\nThe city of Lihue, on the island's southeast side, is the seat of Kauai County. It has a population of around 6,500, and is the main city on the island. Waimea, which is located on the island's southwest side and the first capital of Kauai, was the first place visited by Englishexplorer Captain James Cook in 1778. It was also the first capital of Kauai. The city is at the head of one of the most beautiful canyons in the world, Waimea Canyon, whose gorge is 900 meters (3,000 feet) deep.\nThe island of Kauai was featured in Disney's 2002 animated movie \"Lilo & Stitch\".\n is the only commercial airport on the island. There are two other general aviation airports on the island: , and ."}
+{"id": "413", "revid": "1338660", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=413", "title": "Kaho\u02bbolawe", "text": "Kahoolawe is the smallest of the eight main volcanic islands of Hawaii. It is west of Maui and south of Lanai. It is roughly 11 miles long by across (). The highest point, Lua Makika, is above sea level. The island is dry because its low elevation does not cause much rain to fall from the northeastern trade winds.\nKahoolawe was used as a gunfire and bombing target by the United States military during World War II. It was a defense training area for the United States Navy from around 1941 until May 1994. Popular opinion in the state against this practice brought the end to this use. The Navy has since been trying to cleanup unexploded bombs and explosive shells from the island. Explosives are still buried or lying on the ground. Other items have washed down gullies and still other unexploded ordnance is underwater offshore. In 1981, the entire island was included on the National Register of Historic Places.\nThe island is planned to be given back to the Hawaiian people. In 1993, the U.S. Congress passed a law that \"recognized the cultural importance of the island, required the Navy to return the island to the State, and directed the Navy to do an unexploded ordnance cleanup and environmental restoration\" The turnover officially occurred on November 11, 2003, but the cleanup has not yet been completed. The U.S. Navy was given $400 million and 10 years to complete the large cleanup task, but this work has gone much slower than planned.\nAfter the cleanup is finished, the restoration of Kahoolawe will need ways to control erosion, restore the plant life, recharge the water table, and slowly replace alien plants with native ones. Plans will include methods for damming gullies and reducing rainwater runoff. Non-natives will temporarily stabilize some areas before the permanent planting of native plants."}
+{"id": "414", "revid": "1570152", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=414", "title": "Killing", "text": "Killing a living thing is when someone or something ends that life and makes the living thing die. It means causing a death. When a human being kills another human being, it is called murder or homicide, such as manslaughter. \nPesticides and herbicides are poisons for killing bad wild small animals or plants, respectively.\nWhen a soldier kills another in war, it is called \"combat\". When the state kills a convict sentenced to capital punishment, it is called execution. When someone kills a powerful person it is called assassination. When a person who wants to die kills themself it is suicide, or euthanasia if killed by another. When people kill other people to eat them, it is called cannibalism."}
+{"id": "417", "revid": "1467751", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=417", "title": "Kilometre", "text": "The kilometre is a common unit used for longer distances on Earth. The international unit for measuring distances is the metre and a kilometre is 1000 metres. It is used in most countries for measuring road and sea distances. In the UK and the USA, the statute mile is used more than kilometres for road distances and the nautical mile for sea distances.\nIt is often used to measure the speed of cars, planes and boats by saying how many kilometres it can travel in an hour. This is shown as km/h.\nIt is also spelled kilometer. This spelling is used in American English.\nOne kilometre is 0.6214 miles (1093 yards or 3280.84 feet). This means that one mile is 1.6093 kilometres.\nOne kilometre is the approximate distance a healthy adult human being can walk in ten minute\nA kilometer is sometimes called a klick"}
+{"id": "418", "revid": "581219", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=418", "title": "Kilometer", "text": ""}
+{"id": "419", "revid": "160652", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=419", "title": "Language", "text": "Language is the normal way humans communicate. Only humans use language, though other animals communicate through other means. The study of language is called linguistics. \nHuman language has syntax, a set of rules for connecting words together to make statements and questions. Language can also be changed, by adding new words, for example, to describe new things. Other animals may inherit a set of calls which have preset functions.\nLanguage may be done by speech or by writing or by moving the hands to make signs. It follows that language is \"not\" just any way of communicating. Even some human communication is not language: see non-verbal communication. Humans also use language for thinking.\nWhen people use the word \"language\", they can also mean:\nUNESCO says that 2,500 languages are at risk of becoming extinct.\nUniversals of language.\nAll languages share certain things which separate them from all other kinds of communication.\nThere are many more things in common between languages.\nInheritance.\nThe capacity to learn and use language is inherited. Normally, all humans are born with this capability. \"Which\" language is learned by a child depends on which language is spoken by the child's community. The \"capacity\" is inherited, but the particular language is learned.\nChildren have a special period, from about 18 months to about four years, which is critical for learning the language. If this is seriously disrupted, then their language skills will be damaged. Older people learn differently, so they seldom learn a second language as well as they learn their native language.\nTypes of language.\nMathematics and computer science use created languages called formal languages (like computer programming languages), but these may or may not be 'true' languages. Mathematics itself is seen as a language by many. Some people consider musical notation to be a way of writing the musical language.\nChinese is the language with the most native speakers in the world, but it is not really a language. It is a close family of dialects, some of which are as different as Romance languages are from one another.\nThe Russian language is one of the largest Slavic languages ever spoken.\nEnglish is often called \"the international language\", or lingua franca. It is the main second language of the world and the international language of science, travel, technology, business, diplomacy, and entertainment. French had a similar status until the 20th century, and other languages had it at other times.\nSome languages are spoken only by closed ethnic groups such as Romani, which is an Indo-Aryan language spoken only by Roma.\nConstructed languages (or made-up languages).\nSome languages are made up so that a lot of people around the world can learn them, without the new languages being tied to any specific country or place. These are called constructed languages, or conlangs. One of the most popular of these languages is Esperanto, which is sometimes called \"La Internacia Lingvo,\" or \"The International Language.\" Another of these languages is called Volap\u00fck, which was popular about a hundred years ago but is much less popular now. It has mostly been replaced by languages like Esperanto, Interlingua, and Ido. Dialects are basically other versions of a language. For example, Hoffish is a dialect of Swedish.\nPart of the reason that Volap\u00fck became unpopular is that some sounds are difficult for people who speak Spanish or English, two of the most widely spoken languages in the world.\nOther information.\nHumans started using language, at the latest, 135 000 years ago, according to research (published in 2025)."}
+{"id": "420", "revid": "515", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=420", "title": "Life science", "text": ""}
+{"id": "423", "revid": "1676270", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=423", "title": "Leisure", "text": "Leisure (or free time) is when a person can choose what to do. During a person's leisure time, they do not have an obligation to be at school or work at a job. During leisure time, people can do fun activities, family activities, or other non-work activities, such as hobbies. \nCommon forms of recreation or leisure are:\nA vacation or holiday is one example of a setting that is specifically for leisure. During vacation, some people travel to a different region or country and stay at a hotel so that they can do things they could not do near home. Other people prefer to spend their vacation time at home in their own community.\nIn rich industrialized countries such as the US and Canada as well as in most European countries, workers are allowed to stay home on the weekend (usually Saturday and Sunday) and use it as leisure time. People in underdeveloped countries usually have less leisure time, as they have to work longer hours and more days per year."}
+{"id": "424", "revid": "8897056", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=424", "title": "Live", "text": "Live can be a verb. It rhymes with \"give\". \"To live\" means \"to be alive\" (and it is not dead). If you live, then you have life.\nIt can be used in a general way: \nLive can be an adjective. It rhymes with \"five\"."}
+{"id": "425", "revid": "1104831", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=425", "title": "Life", "text": "Life is a concept in biology. It is about what separates a living thing from dead matter.\nMost life on Earth is powered by solar energy: the only known exceptions are the chemo-synthetic bacteria living around the hydrothermal vents on the ocean floor. All life on Earth is based on the chemistry of carbon compounds, involving long-chain molecules such as proteins and nucleic acid. With water, which all life needs, the long molecules are wrapped inside membranes as cells. This may or may not be true of all possible forms of life in the Universe: it is true of all life on Earth today.\nSummary.\nLiving things, or organisms, can be explained as open systems. They are always changing, because they exchange materials and information with their environment. They undergo metabolism, maintain homeostasis, possess a capacity to grow, respond to stimuli and reproduce.\nThrough natural selection, they adapt to their environment in successive generations. More complex living organisms can communicate by various means. Many life forms can be found on Earth. The properties common to these organisms\u2014plants, animals, fungi, protists, archaea, and bacteria\u2014are a carbon and water-based cellular form with complex organization and heritable genetic information.\nThe systems that make up life have many levels of organization. From smallest to biggest, they are: molecule, cell, tissue (group of cells with a common purpose), organ (part of the body with a purpose), organ system (group of organs that work together), organism, population (group of organisms of the same species), community (all of the organisms that interact in an area), ecosystem (all of the organisms in an area and the non-living surroundings), and biosphere (all parts of the Earth that have life).\nAt present, the Earth is the only planet humans have detailed information about. The question of whether life exists elsewhere in the Universe is open. There have been a number of claims of life elsewhere in the Universe. None of these have been confirmed so far. The best evidence of life outside of Earth is are nucleic acids that have been found in certain types of meteorites.\nDefinitions.\nOne explanation of life is called the cell theory. The cell theory has three basic points: all living things are made up of cells. The cell is the smallest living thing that can do all the things needed for life. All cells must come from pre-existing cells.\nSomething is often said to be alive if it:\nHowever, not all living things fit every point on this list.\nThey do, however, fit the biochemical definitions: they are made of the same kind of chemicals.\nThe thermodynamic definition of life is any system which can keep its entropy levels below maximum (usually through adaptation and mutations).\nA modern approach.\nA modern definition was given by Humberto Maturana and Francisco Varela in 1980, to which they gave the name \"autopoiesis\":\nRoth commented that \"In short, organisms are self-reproducing and self-maintaining, or 'autopoietic', systems\". This approach makes use of molecular biology ideas and systems science ideas.\nWhat life needs.\nChemistry.\nLife on Earth is made from organic compounds\u2014molecules that contain carbon. Four types of long-chain molecules (macromolecules) are important: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.\nAlmost all living things need the chemical elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus, to build these macromolecules. Living things also need small amounts of other elements, called \"trace elements\". Water is a very important part of all living things. For example, humans are about two-thirds water. Water is a solvent that lets molecules mix and react with other molecules.\nEnergy sources.\nAll living things need energy to survive, move, grow, and reproduce. Some can get energy from the environment without help from other living things: these are called producers, or autotrophs. Plants, algae, and some bacteria, a group of producers called photoautotrophs, use the sun's light for energy. When producers use light to make and store organic compounds, this is called photosynthesis. Some other producers, called chemoautotrophs, get energy from chemicals that come out of the ocean floor in hydrothermal vents. Other living things get their energy from organic compounds: these are called consumers, or heterotrophs. Animals, fungi, most bacteria, and most protists are consumers. Consumers can eat other living things or dead material.\nBoth producers and consumers need to break down organic compounds to free energy. The best way to do this is aerobic respiration, which frees the most energy, but living things can only do aerobic respiration if they have oxygen (O2). They can also break down these compounds without oxygen, using anaerobic respiration or fermentation.\nCells.\nAll living things have cells. Every cell has a cell membrane on the outside, and a jelly-like material that fills the inside, called cytoplasm. The membrane is important because it separates the chemicals inside and outside. Some molecules can pass through the membrane, but others cannot. Living cells have genes, made of DNA. Genes say to the cell what to do, like a language. One DNA molecule, with many genes, is called a chromosome. Cells can copy themselves to make two new cells.\nThere are two main kinds of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic. Prokaryotic cells have only a few parts. Their DNA is the shape of a circle, inside the cytoplasm, and they have no membranes inside the cell. Eukaryotic cells are more complex, and they have a cell nucleus. The DNA is inside the nucleus, and a membrane is around the nucleus. Eukaryotic cells also have other parts, called organelles. Some of these other organelles also have membranes.\nTypes of life.\nTaxonomy is how lifeforms are put into groups. The smaller groups are more closely related, but the larger classes are more distantly related. The levels, or ranks, of taxonomy are domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. There are many ideas for the meaning of species. One idea, called the biological species concept, is as follows. A species is a group of living things that can mate with each other, and whose children can make their own children.\nTaxonomy aims to group together living things with a common ancestor. This can now be done by comparing their DNA. Originally, it was done by comparing their anatomy.\nThe three domains of life are Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Bacteria and archaea are prokaryotic and have only one cell. Bacteria range in size from 0.15 cubic micrometres (\"Mycoplasma\") to 200,000,000 cubic micrometres (\"Thiomargarita namibiensis\"). Bacteria have shapes which are useful in classification, such as round, long and thin, and spiral. Some bacteria cause diseases. Bacteria in our intestines are part of our gut flora. They break down some of our food. Both bacteria and archaea may live where larger forms of life cannot. Bacteria have a molecule called peptidoglycan in their cell wall, but archaea do not. Archaea have a molecule called isoprene in their cell membrane, but bacteria do not.\nEukarya are living things with eukaryotic cells, and they can have one cell or many cells. Most eukaryotes use sexual reproduction to make new copies of themselves. In sexual reproduction, two sex cells, one from each parent, join to make a new living thing.\nPlants are eukaryotes that use the Sun's light for energy. They include algae, which live in water, and land plants. All land plants have two forms during their life cycle, called alternation of generations. One form is diploid, where the cells have two copies of their chromosomes, and the other form is haploid, where the cells have one copy of their chromosomes. In land plants, both diploid and haploid forms have many cells. Two kinds of land plants are vascular plants and bryophytes. Vascular plants have long tissues that stretch from end to end of the plant. These tissues carry water and food. Most plants have roots and leaves.\nAnimals are eukaryotes with many cells, which have no rigid cell walls. All animals are consumers: they survive by eating other organic material. Almost all animals have neurons, a signalling system. They usually have muscles, which make the body move. Many animals have a head and legs. Most animals are either male or female. They need a mate of the opposite sex to make offspring. Sex cells from the male and female can meet inside or outside the body.\nFungi are eukaryotes which may have one cell, like yeasts, or many cells, like mushrooms. They are saprophytes. Fungi break down living or dead material, so they are decomposers. Only fungi, and a few bacteria, can break down lignin and cellulose, two parts of wood. Some fungi are mycorrhiza. They live under ground and give nutrients to plants, like nitrogen and phosphorus. Eukaryotes that are not plants, animals, or fungi are called protists. Most protists live in water.\nEvolution.\nOver thousands or millions of years, living things can change, through the process of evolution. One kind of evolution is when a species changes over time, such as giraffes growing longer necks. Most of the time, the species becomes better suited to its environment, a process called adaptation. Evolution can also cause one group of living things to split into two groups. This is called speciation if it makes a new species. An example is mockingbirds on the Galapagos Islands\u2014one species of mockingbird lives on each island, but all the species split from a shared ancestor species. Groups that are bigger than species can also split from a shared ancestor\u2014for example, reptiles and mammals. A group of living things and their shared ancestor is called a clade.\nLiving things can evolve to be quite different from their ancestors. As a result, parts of the body can also change. The same bone structure became the hands of humans, the hooves of horses, and the wings of birds. Different body parts that evolved from the same thing are called homologous.\nExtinction is when all members of a species die. About 99.9% of all species that have ever lived are extinct. Extinction can happen at any time, but it is more common in certain time periods called extinction events. The most recent was 65 million years ago, when the dinosaurs went extinct.\nOrigin of life.\nBy comparing fossils and DNA, we know that all life on Earth today had a shared ancestor, called the last universal common ancestor (LUCA). Other living things may have been alive at the same time as the LUCA, but they died out. A study from 2018 suggests that the LUCA is about 4.5 billion (4,500,000,000) years old, nearly as old as the Earth. The oldest fossil evidence of life is about 3.5 billion years old.\nHow did non-living material become alive? This is a difficult question. The first step must have been the creation of organic compounds. In 1953, the Miller\u2013Urey experiment made inorganic compounds into organic compounds, such as amino acids, using heat and energy.\nLife needs a source of energy for chemical reactions. On the early Earth, the atmosphere did not have oxygen. Oxidation using the Krebs cycle, which is common today, was not possible. The Krebs cycle may have acted backwards, doing reduction instead of oxidation, and the cycle may have made larger molecules. To make life, molecules needed to make copies of themselves. DNA and RNA make copies of themselves, but only if there is a catalyst\u2014a compound which speeds up the chemical reaction. One guess is that RNA itself served as a catalyst. At some time, the molecules were surrounded by membranes, which made cells."}
+{"id": "426", "revid": "863768", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=426", "title": "Law", "text": "Law is a set of rules decided by a particular place or authority meant for the purpose of keeping the peace and security of society. \nCourts or police may enforce this system of rules and punish people who break the laws, such as by paying a fine, or other penalty including jail. In ancient societies, laws were written by leaders, to set out rules on how people can live, work and do business with each other. In most countries today, laws are written and voted on by groups of politicians in a legislature, such as a parliament or congress, elected (chosen) by the governed peoples. Countries today have a constitution for the overall framework of society and make further laws as needed for matters of detail. Members of society generally have enough freedom within all the \"legal\" things they can choose to do. An activity is \"illegal\" if it breaks a law or does not follow the laws.\nA legal code is a written code of laws that are enforced. This may deal with things like police, courts, or punishments. A lawyer, jurist or attorney is a professional who studies and argues the rules of law. In the United States, there are two kinds of attorneys - \"transactional\" attorneys who write contracts and \"litigators\" who go to court. In the United Kingdom, these professionals are called solicitors and barristers respectively.\nThe \"Rule of Law\" is the law which says that government can only legally use its power in a way the government and the people agree on. It limits the powers a government has, as agreed in a country's constitution. The \"Rule of Law\" prevents dictatorship and protects the rights of the people. When leaders enforce the legal code honestly, even on themselves and their friends, this is an example of the rule of law being followed. \"The rule of law\", wrote the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle in 350 BC, \"is better than the rule of any individual.\"\nCulture is usually a major source of the principles behind many laws, and people also tend to trust the ideas based on family and social habits. In many countries throughout history, religion and religious books like the Vedas, Bible or the Koran have been a major source of law.\nCivil law and common law.\nCivil law is the legal system used in most countries around the world today. Civil law is based on legislation that is found in constitutions or statutes passed by government. The secondary part of civil law is the legal approaches that are part of custom. In civil law governments, judges do not generally have much power, and most of the laws and legal precedent are created by Members of Parliament.\nCommon law is based on the decisions made by judges in past court cases. It comes from England and it became part of almost every country that once belonged to the British Empire, except Malta, Scotland, the U.S. state of Louisiana, and the Canadian province of Quebec. It is also the predominant form of law in the United States, where many laws called statutes are written by Congress, but many more legal rules exist from the decisions of the courts. Common law had its beginnings in the Middle Ages, when King John was forced by his barons to sign a document called Magna Carta.\nReligious law.\nReligious law is law based on religious beliefs or books. Examples include the Jewish Halakha, Islamic Sharia, and Christian Canon law.\nUntil the 1700s, Sharia law was the main legal system throughout the Muslim world. In some Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia and Iran, the whole legal systems still base their law on Sharia law. Islamic law is often criticised because it has harsh penalties for crimes. A serious criticism is the judgement of the European Court that \"sharia is incompatible with the fundamental principles of democracy\".\nThe Turkish Refah Party's sharia-based \"plurality of legal systems, grounded on religion\" was ruled to contravene the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. The Court decided Refah's plan would \"do away with the State's role as the guarantor of individual rights and freedoms\" and \"infringe the principle of non-discrimination between individuals as regards their enjoyment of public freedoms, which is one of the fundamental principles of democracy\".\nHistory of law.\nThe history of law is closely connected to the development of human civilizations. Ancient Egyptian law developed in 3000 BC. In 1760 BC King Hammurabi, took ancient Babylonian law and organized it, and had it chiselled in stone for the public to see in the marketplace. These laws became known as the Code of Hammurabi.\nThe Torah from the Old Testament is an old body of law. It was written around 1280 BC. It has moral rules such as the Ten Commandments, which tell people what things are not permitted. Sometimes people try to change the law. For example, if prostitution is illegal, they try to make it legal.\nLegislature.\nIn democracies, the people in a country usually choose people called politicians to represent them in a legislature. Examples of legislatures include the Houses of Parliament in London, the Congress in Washington, D.C., the Bundestag in Berlin, the Duma in Moscow and the Assembl\u00e9e nationale in Paris. Many legislatures have two chambers or houses, a 'lower house' and an 'upper house'. To pass legislation, a majority of Members of Parliament must vote for a bill in each house. The legislature is the branch of government that writes laws, and votes on whether they will be approved.\nJudiciary.\nThe judiciary is a group of judges who resolve people's disputes and determine whether people who are charged with crimes are guilty. In some places the judge does not find guilt or innocence but instead directs a jury, how to interpret facts from a legal perspective, but the jury determines the facts based on evidence presented to them and finds the guilt or innocence of the charged person. Most countries of common law and civil law systems have a system of appeals courts, up to a supreme authority such as the Supreme Court. The highest courts usually have the power to remove laws that are unconstitutional (which go against the constitution).\nExecutive (government) and Head of State.\nThe executive is the governing center of political authority. In most democratic countries, the executive is elected from people who are in the legislature. This group of elected people is called the cabinet. There may be a President which exists separately from the legislature.\nThe executive suggests new laws and deals with other countries. The executive usually controls the military, the police, and the bureaucracy. The executive selects ministers, or secretaries of state to control departments such as the health department or the department of justice.\nIn many jurisdictions the Head of State takes a largely ceremonial role. This is the case in many Commonwealth nations where the Head of State, usually a Governor almost exclusively acts \"on the advice\" of the head of the Executive (e.g. the Prime Minister, First Minister or Premier). The primary legal role of the Head of State in these jurisdictions is to act as a check or balance against the Executive, as the Head of State has the rarely exercised power to dissolve the legislature, call elections and dismiss ministers.\nOther parts of the legal system.\nThe police enforce the criminal laws by arresting people suspected of breaking the law. Bureaucrats are the government workers and government organizations that do work for the government. Bureaucrats work within a system of rules, and they make their decisions in writing.\nLawyers are people who have learned about laws. Lawyers give people advice about their legal rights and duties and represent people in court. To become a lawyer, a person has to complete a two- or three-year university program at a law school and pass an entrance examination. Lawyers work in law firms, for the government, for companies, or by themselves.\nCivil society is the people and groups that are not part of government that try to protect people against human rights abuses and try to protect freedom of speech and other individual rights. Organizations that are part of civil society include political parties, debating clubs, trade unions, human rights organizations, newspapers and charities.\n\"Corporations are among the organizations that use the legal system to further their goals. Like the others, they use means such as campaign donations and advertising to persuade people that they are right. Corporations also engage in commerce and make new things such as automobiles, vaporisers/e-cigarettes, and Unmanned aerial vehicles (i.e. \"drones\") that the old laws are not well equipped to deal with. Corporations also makes use of a set of rules and regulations to ensure their employees remain loyal to them (usually presented in a legal contract), and that any disobedience towards these rules are considered uncivilized and therefore given grounds for immediate dismissal."}
+{"id": "427", "revid": "40158", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=427", "title": "Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof", "text": ""}
+{"id": "428", "revid": "1375466", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=428", "title": "L. L. Zamenhof", "text": "Ludwik Lejzer Zamenhof (; , ; \u2013 ), credited as L. L. Zamenhof and sometimes as the pseudonymous Dr. Esperanto, was an eye doctor, linguist (who creates a language), and scholar who created the international language Esperanto.\nBiography.\nZamenhof was born in 1859 in the town of Bia\u0142ystok, Poland. At the time, Poland was a part of the Russian Empire. Bialystok contained three major groups: Poles, Belorussians, and Yiddish-speaking Jews. Zamenhof thought that one common language would join these groups and stop fights between them.\nHis first language was said to be Polish. His parents spoke Russian and Yiddish at home. His father was a German teacher, so Zamenhof learned that language from an early age and spoke the language fluently. Later he learned French, Latin, Greek, Hebrew and English. He also had an interest in Italian, Spanish and Lithuanian.\nZamenhof decided that the international language must have a simple grammar and be easier to learn than Volap\u00fck, an earlier international language. He attempted to create the international language with a grammar that was rich, and complex. The basics of Esperanto were published in 1887. He translated the Hebrew Bible into Esperanto.\nHis grandson, Louis-Christophe Zaleski-Zamenhof, was an engineer.\nHe was 14 times nominated for the Nobel Peace Prize between 1907 and 1917."}
+{"id": "429", "revid": "209999", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=429", "title": "Latin Language", "text": ""}
+{"id": "430", "revid": "1398040", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=430", "title": "List of countries", "text": "This is a list of sovereign states. Disputed countries are listed at the bottom."}
+{"id": "431", "revid": "1533973", "url": "https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki?curid=431", "title": "Provinces and territories of Canada", "text": "Canada is a country and sovereign state in the northern area of North America. It is made up of thirteen administrative divisions: ten provinces and three territories. \nThe different levels of government in Canada are based on the principles of a federation: the governments of each province and territory share power with the federal government. The territories' governments have a more limited set of powers than the federal government.\nThe provinces are in the south of Canada, near the border with the United States. They go from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west. The territories are to the north, where fewer people live, close to the Arctic Circle and Arctic Ocean.\nHere is a list of the provinces and territories, and their standard abbreviations, with their capitals (the cities where their governments are based) and largest cities. Canada's national capital, where the federal government meets, is Ottawa."}